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ENCYCLOR^DIA BRITANNICA
DICTIONARY
AETS, SCIENCES, MD GENERAL LITERATURE
lUntb Edition— l^opulat Kepctnt
rOLUXE XXI
UEW TOBK
HEITBT G. ALLEN ASTD OOMPAST
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ARGVUE PRESS,
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Encyclopaedia Britaimica.^Vol. XXL
SOnmu. ho£ a. Q. Bomn.
RODHANU. QiOBaxG. CsuBOUf ud
AxTXvm J. Kvui.
R0DS3KAU. GiOKOi SAnriBniBT.
KOWING. Emm D. BuoKwoOD.
ROTAL EOUaKHOLD. 7. DHUKMiutD.
ROTAL SOCIETY. B«BU»T BiK.
KDBKRS. Hum HTiujn.
RUBSirguiS. CoL HuoiYnu, CB.
SDBT. F. W. Bddlu.
EDDESTONBUOHUUEiniS. BonH
Muxao, K.D.
tnrf. Frot AiJBiD NiWnnr.
KUHITKEIT. J. S. Buo, Rlitt
BUS3KLL, EABL. W. P. CodbtMIT.
BiraSBU^ LOBD. Outnm A»T.
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BUTH. V. RoiEETBon SuiTB, LL,D.
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SABBATH. V. B. Bkith, LL.D.
SACBIFICE V. & Smttb, LLD., Mid
Bbt. Kdwik Hatch, D.D.
BA'Dt Plot H. Stat, Pb.D.
BATES. Jum Patov.
mwAHA H. A. Wm*m.
sah^ e. JiwiLL.
aAIirrE'BSUTE. Uxnaxw Autold,
D.aii.
UINTE-CLAIBE DETILLE. Prat: A.
Citnf Bkqwit.
Sr JOHN, XHIGHT8 07. A. IL Bboii>.
STLAWBEHCE. Bir Cublh A. EuT-
3t hoxns. a b. h'asim.
ST PBTBBSBT7BQ- F, A. Kbofoteihs.
aADTT-SlHON, COUTE DE TaoMAS
SAIHT • SIUOH, DUO D£ Otaua
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St TITUS'S DAHCl. J. O. AtTLUK,
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SALE. Juos WlLUAiu.
SaUC law. J. H. Hxsaiu.
aALHASIUS. SiCBABDCUnxR,LLO.
PRIMCIPAI. COHTBNTS.
SAUCONIDA. J. T. OmnmroKAM.
SALT. r. Uazwsll Lrrs.
SALUTATIOWa E B. Ttloi, D.CL.
SAHABITAHa. W. B. Hiotb, LL.D.
HAMARKAWD. P. A. EBoromn.
BAUNITEa Sir Edwabs H. Bdhbobt,
But.
BAN FKANCISCOl T. a BABTLin,
LLD.
BANSEKTT. Prof. J. Koonnro.
BAPFHO. J. A. Platt.
BABDIMIA. G. G. Chukouc
BATIRE B. Oabvbtt, LL.D.
SATURN. J. a. rum.
SAyiGNY. JoDK UaodokeU.
SATINOS BANKS. E V. Bubwmk.
8AVONABOLA. MadBSM Tiu^uu.
SAWS. O. W. BOTOBEIM.
8AZOKT. riHDLAT UimHBAD.
SCALIGBB. RicaABV a Cmmi.
8CANDINAT1AH LANGUAGES. Dr
Adolf HoBivr,
8CABLET FETER J. a AmMK, ILD.
SCBPTICISU. Pki£ Andbbw Sith.
aCHEELB. Fiot Jomr Fbbouboh.
SOHBLLTNG. Prat B. Adahmh, LL D.
SCHILLEB. JAXMSna.
BCHIZOUTCETES. H.ICaui:aU.Wa>i>.
SCHLKIEBHACHEB. Bar. J. F. SiirTH.
BGHLBaWIG-HOLSTEIB. J. F. Hdib-
8CHOLASTICI3U. ProC A. Bbtb.
BCHOOLB OP PAINTIHa Fro£ J.
HlHBX HlDDLZIOII.
aCHOPEKHAUEB. Pn£ V. VaIUCB.
8CI0. ProC V. IL Baioat.
8CIFI0. B«T. V. J. Bbosbibb.
SCOTLAND-
HuMBi. Acbab J. G. ICaoxat, mx
Gboloot. Abob. Gbuub, LLD.
BtATUTIGB, T. F. HBNDBBSOir.
Cbubob. Bi*. Axum Hbhiub.
Eabli LinBATCBB. J. Smau, LLD.
SCOTT, BIB WALTBB. FroC W. Unrro.
SCBBV. Prot Hunr A. Sawhuia.
80ULPTDBE. FnC J. H. HissuroiL
80YTHIA. FroC A, v<nr ~
FwHBBiM. Bar,
L TiawiOfLL-b.
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. mTHajiti
SSA-LATB. Sir Tutcu Twn^ Q.C.
SEAI& Prof. J. H. UiDDUTOH.
SKAHAK3HIF. Capt U. A. UobIABIT,
B.N., CB.
BEA-SEBPKNT. W. E HonB.
SEA WATEB Pnl V. DiitHAK.
SECRBTABY-BIBD. Prot A. NiWTor.
SBISMOUETEB. PioT. J. A. Bwina.
SEUUKS. Prot U. To. EoimiiA.
SBUITIO LANOUAQEa Prot Twno-
BXKAAB. PnC A. H. Ebakb.
SENECA. B. D. Bicu.
SENEGAMBLA. IX KAlTWnniEk.
SENIOB. J. E. IKOBAM, LLD.
8EPTUAGINT. Prat J. 'Wtu.HAnsB'.
SKFULCHB^ BOLY. A. B. U'Gbimb,
LLD.
SEQUOIA. 0. FlKBPOUra JOSMBOK.
BEBIEa. Fnit A, Catiji.
SBBVJTI'US. BsT. Auk. Oobimb.
BBBTIA. O. G. Cmraoui ud T. B.
SBTEBUS. J. E Bbid, D.IitL
SKTIOHft. QaoBOB BAnmBUBT.
BEWERAQE Pnt 1. A. Stnva.
SEWING HACBINES. Jambb Fatok.
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8BBBP. W. H. FL(i«BBru..D.
BHBLLE7. W. U. Bonm.
SHEBIDAN. PnC W. Mam.
SHIP. Bn. Edvomd Waub, D.D.
8B1PBUILDING. Sli Hateambl BaX-
XABT, K.C.B.
SHIPPING. R«T. W. CmnmiaHAM.
SHOBUAEINO. Jambi Fatoh.
SHOCTINO. J. D. DoDoAU.
SHORTHAND. Tl» Hon. lux Q. N.
Eiub-Faumiibb.
SHREW. Dt Q. E Oottos.
BUM. OnrrnTBOTTBB.
,yGooglc
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ENCYCLOPEDIA BBITANNICA.
BOTHB
ROTHE, SicuxD (179»-18B7), UimIo^b, m bora
t PoMD, Jmuatjt 2S, 1T99, of pweiito in a good
poubon. AfUr pauing fliroo^ die giunmar tehooU d
Stottin and BtmUii, he itndied theology in the tuuTwaitiM
of Heidelberg and BerUa (lSlT-30) imdar DaQ^ BOMrn'
macber,' aod Neander, the philoM^hen aod hittotiMia
H^l, Cretuer, and Sehloism, exercUiog a eoiuidanUa
iofltienee in aheping bu tbougbt From 1830 to 1823 he
waa in the derieal uminiSj at Wittenberg and qient the
next Tcar in private Aaiy onder bii bther'a roof at
Bnalan. In tiie aatomn of 1623 he wai appointed
chaplain to the Pnusian embaaij in Bame, ij whiok
Baton Bonaen wu the . Lead, lliii peat he azchanged
in 1S38 for a profeaeonfaip in the Wittoibeig aeliunarj,
and heoee in 1837 be tenured to Heidelberg at {mteaaoT
and ditector of a new clerical aenunaiy; in 1849 he
acoepted an Invitation to Bonn aa pnilawcr and nniveniqr
pntuiher, but in 1854 be retntned to Heidalberff at pro-
leaaor of tfaecJogy and member of the Obedir^Muatb,
a poeiljon ha lield nutil hit death, Angnat 30, 18(17.
Botbe^ menial and religioua devdopmant waa one ct
continDDui progreeg. Aa a jtrnth be waa tbe tnbjaet of
deep religioiu feeling with a daoldBd beat townnk ■
aopematural mytticiem ; hit iiTii«»i anthon were thoee
<rf the roDiantio acbool, and Novalit remained hi* life
through a upecial favourite. In BeiUn aitd WitlMibag
he came nodet the inflneneo ot J^etiam aa repteaontad l^
BBch men aa Btier and Thalncfc, thon^ the latter pR>-
tHMinoed him a " very modern Chriatiaa.'' He aftatwarda
himadf eonfeNad that, thoof^ be bad baui a anoet^ be
WM never » happj IHetiaL In Rcsne, wliere ba eoi^vd
tlw intimate frwidahip of Bnnaen, and atodied enud
faiatot^ nndec the btoadening inflnenee «f clateical and
eocleaiflttieal art, hia mind broke looM from the atraitiad
life and narrow viewa of Fiedam and he learned to look
•t Chriatiaiut; in iU bninao and onivifMliatio atpaotai
Vnm that tima be becan to dairalop and work oat Ub
tfraat ide^ the nMq>aMle relatka of raligLoB and morale
Sndingin the kttwthe necaaMry ^en and the leaUM-
lioo of the idea of tbe formw. He began then, and
pMtMolarlr afta* tbe revofaitian ot Jnly 1830; likmiaa
'0 pve a moroidtfiiule form to bia pecnliar ' -•'<--
enlargetMBt of bia ideM of llu worid, rfligiaii, nMil^
Chnatawi^, the dmidi and the atate, Bothe gradnaUy
foDDd himaelf odI of harmooj witb the Pietittie
thoofbt and life of Witteoberft and hia ranovnl to
HeicUnmg in 1857 and the pvUieatinn of hit fliat
Jnportant wotfc (Am^Smft dtr dtritUidkn Xirdu) in
that year ooiMide with the attainment of the principal
^^nfllni^^^*al pomticsi with which hia i^me ie anoeiate<L
Dnrii« the middle period of hit oatw (.l837-«]) ba led
the fib «f a edulaatio nehue^ taking no active pvUie
part in eoeledaatifal abiia in any w». Daring tb Inat
lis yean of Ua life (1M1-*7X V^ owing to hie
Ubetattm froai*peat doBwatia eatea awi V"^ *o ^
mdal nlinimitawriia of the ohoreh in Baden, na eama
ferwd publicly aad aelivelj aa the advooata of a fraa
thaology and of the FMfMZAVnxwxot (g.K). Tbla
important ehange- i> Botha^ praetios wae preceded by
the publication of a vahwble ewiea «f theolooieal laaya
Tm the AxiMi awi JTttfiea for 1 SeOX •Avwarti pnblidied
iQ a aaMrate voloma (Ar Dagmetik, OotU, \A ad.
1S6S, Sd ad. I8WX «" lOT^two wd inniiatiai mon
partinlariy. Here eaaaya w«» a wty acarAing aiaminn-
tkn d tbe relatioa of matatioii to Soriptnr^ and pro-
voked modi boitile oitidMn in qnarteia pravioaaly
ftindly to Botha, edtm the rdation wae neoafiy tnated
aa «lmn^ one of ideality. In miie<»|imiiw cf thia pnfalie^
tioo, and bia advoeaqy of the programme cf the fn-
lialtiilMiiiiein. he waa rjaeted at the end of hit life
amoowt ae nwre decided Aeolngieal libenla rather than
with flwodtralecrthodca party, anxwgrtwlyimeo many
<rf hia penODttl Mend* were to ba found. -
Bothe waa <na cf th* moat if m* the moat profoond
and Inftoe&tial of wtrAtmn Qerman theologiana next to
- ■ ■ ' like the httw be oomlaned with die
faculty an intenaely reU^loOi ipirit, while
J tandwiriee were rntW u lympatby with
..r. i._ ._... ^ihio myitimim waa
ncra ooDfienial to him than the al
to whoa Pi'hW'rTTHH'hfr owed ao mncL Ha cdaiaed him-
aelf amongit the tbeoaophiri^ ai^ anerinticany claimed
to be a eoBvineed and livpy ■i[Wiiiatiiiillat in a Bcientifie
age. A paonliaiity of Ina thoo^ wae ita eyatemabt
eomplata— » Md oondttenry; qdHriatie, xintyatema^
KO T — EO T
tinudly Wtiog •pecnktum waa to him intoleitible.
Though his own iystom maj seem to eoutaia Bztremelj
doubtful or even fantastic elements, it is allowed by oU
Out it is in its general outlines a noble msatdve whole,
oonstnicted by a ptofoond, eoraprebeniivE^ fearless, and
lo^pcal mind. Another pecnliari^ of hie thought was
the realistio nature of hi« ■piritoaliem : his abetcactiona
are all real eziitenoea ; hia epiritaal entities are real and
oorptveal ; his tmth is actool being. Hence Rothe, on-
like BdJeiermacher, laya great BtrGa^ for instance, on the
peraonali^ of Ood, on the reality of the worlds of good
and «*il spirits, lind on the visible second coming of
Christ. Hence his reli^ous feeling and theolo^cal speca-
latioD demanded their realization in a kingd«ii of Ood
coextenn*» with maa^ natnr^ teiTeetriid faiitacy, and
hnman aoeiety ; and Hob hia UMok^ed i^atem beraine ft
TkeoloyMk Xlhik. It is on the work pabUelied under
this tilla ttat Bothe^ permanent reputation as a theo-
lo^an and ofiiiea] writer will rest The firet editirai, in
three Totnme^ waa paUislied in 164S-48, and remaned
twetre Team out of print beftne the second (1867-71, in
fin voramea) meared. It was the author's pnrpoee to
tewrita Hm -m&Si^ but he had oompJeted the first two
Tolnmea oofy ^ the new edition when death overtook him.
nta remaiudtr waa r^uinted from the first edition by
Pnt EtdbBmuin, with Vbt addition of aome notes and
amendationa left bf tha anth<w.
nil i^ik IhIiis with a gsiutil dnUi of tte uOor'e ^pctna
of apeaolatln uxdasr In ill Iva diTWoiK fluologr vooa sod
eenokgy. Oe Ulw tUUu into ths two MbdirUdM or J-tutt
(Asmdaarnrtan)anlJUA,tli*<nidlcf9irit). Itisthalmct
■ohdhrMcn wlUt iriiidi tlM bodv of tha work is occapkd. A(t«r
an aoslylli of tba idkiinia oraudoasDNS wbicili yislds tha doetrlo*
afmnaliaalotspsaniilandqifritoil Ood, Botbe pncMd* to dadnei
U* Idta olOod Dm pfoeoN and hklen of onaUra dardt^Bunt,
h is rtwnsDr nvcMdiiv and b(tii|cbiK forth, sa U> nnaadlaf
pnipoML worid* af^spblbb partiaDy sau-ccaatiT* and sharing tbo
abiSnta pacaonaUto' of tha Creator. Aaaf^-— '-' '-
tlonist Rvllla teguds flta natoial man as tha
davalnBant of phyikal natan^ aod obtidM nMt aa — , .
nftilnwint. ailh ifltlan linlp. nf thnan lintnp ii whmr thn fnitlmr
onattie pnoeas if aonl danlopaiaiit Is cairitd on. Hia thaory
bana Oia natonl man, wltkoat leaitationfto ba danloped bv tha
natual «eeiwu of animu anflntion. IIm attainmant of tl
U^erriageof dvralaiOMitb themotal andraligiaiiBTocatlon __
man ; IU« hUua al^a ta aalf-datamiDattoa, tba pnfonnaice of
arKyhmsanSiaetiNiaaavalnntaiyaikd intdUgnt ann^ oraaa
[ataoD, harlng as ila ooamical affact tha anltfaetloiior lUnutariBl
,, lUa pwaonal procaaa of spfrituliiation fl Uia
HiiihII if iliiiitisnalrllriiinitnrlrnfniMHwi noathaBDnl
lifc aad Os nUgiaB lib eaixU^ tad when nonnal an idaotlcal 1
' 1 with tb« suoe talk,
"Hstr.
MSbmat, as the only eopewto element in which the Uaa of
(Ulowddp wta God b laalised ; monlity. that it may flud ita
psriM a>laldii«i«qiiitaaaaaldof pia^, Inthaljghtot which
akaa it can oompcahand Its own idea in all ila bnadth aid depth."
BoOa Mlowa BohMonwtlier in diridiiijt hia athleal ^tem
into tha thne paila of tha doetrins of Duma enda {OVaiiAn), vr
tha nodaot* of mond aotioa, tha doctrine of Tirtoa ( nvndMn),
or «( Ike powsc pndwdag noia] good, and tba deotrlna of do^
liyUM»iilAn), ot the spedlio Smu and manner in which that
WW obMna lb nanlts. The ptocaa of hmnin daralopment
Botha rmida as n«Bc—rt^ bUnr an alaioitiul fom and naeaing
Ihroviifc tba plvas ot rin. ^us atoomal oonditioa neceasUataa a
tnth onativa aot, that of aalntiiMi, which was, however, bom the
Ant put of tta divine plan of daTelopmcDt Ai a prDpantion
fir thia aalntkni enpernatunil revelatioa wu nqnind lor tha
pnri^iiilt and nvivificatian of the reliRioot coDadaumco, anil the
Savlovr Hlmielt bad to atipear in human hiatory ai a fnah
mIrsenlaaBonatlaD, bomol a wemanbotnot twgotten bjaman.
In ooaaaananca ot Hia npematiiml blith the Satioat, or the
aeeond Adam, waa tna trtm orioiul aln. By Hii own noml and
nllirioiti AenIoniD«nt Ha made pnadhle a telatlD* of perfect
lUIoaahin batwaan Ood aad mao, which waa tha now and highcat
itiWottbedivlDeaaationotmBnliiDd. TUaetaaaofdenlonBaiit
laaaniiatad by the Savioar b attained by mcana 1^ H ii kingdoto or
11m oommnnity at aalvation, wUch b both moral and rallgioiu, and
In the that iutanoe and tanpotaifly only reUgioaa— that iJ^ a
church. Aa man reaeh tha foil devalapmont of thdr natnro, aad
■niinnniati the porTtctian of tha Saviour, tha lepantloa between
tha niliglona and the moral Ufa will vanish, and the Chrbtlui itatr,
aa the highnt iphen of bamin life npieaendiig all bninsu
ftanctioni, will diiijlic* tha ohnich. < ' la nronortioa u the Sivianr
Chrlatisnisa* tbe atala by neana of the ctiarch mnit tba progree-
Biva cemplelioD rf the stnictan of tbe cbareh prove the caiue of
ita aboUtten." The decline ot tha Dbnrch ii tfaenfon not to be
daplond, hot recosaiied as tha eoneeqiunce of the independence
and compIotanMa m tba rliri«H«i. life. It ig ita third acotion ot
hiaworfc— thejytttoaMra whiehbaanaiallyrooethtohlyvalned,
and wlwre Us foil itrangth aa an .e&kal thinker k dJqdayad,
withoDt any mlitnra of tBHaopUo naenlatlon.
-__ ~_.i... ._... ■ „i^^^ alfciiiHMBa mtitUt liUam (oa
mau ttmtm (WHMUiarf!?^ ban tea
..-_ike« lST>-j«)ijatMtii, "iv munaic aa nt a. lalH.-'ii tk*
BOTHKKHAM, a market-town and mnnicipal bonni^
in the West Biding of Toritihir^ is ritnated at the junc-
tion ot the Boiber with the Don nangatimi, on aemti
lailwar Hne^ S milea Dtnlli'^ast of Sheffield. The parish
chnrch id All Bainta, oooniTing the i^ of a building
dating fron AngbySuon time^ was erected in the rugn
of Edward IV., and ia a good qwotBMn of Peipendiealar.
Among tbe other pioc^al poUio bnildings are tbe m
market-hall, ' - *■ ■• - • - ■
aaeebaU,8
potation oA
and literary instibitinis, iyhdifig tbe nomiaar ae
founded in 1483, tlie people's cbaritf leboot, the Inde-
pendent eoDege, die nteehaiiicsf institntt^ the free h'brar}',
and the titnarj and schntifie aode^. There ia a laiga
boaiuta^ besidea almshomwa and fanoni other eltarittee.
The town posasMea extraaiwa iron, steel, and bran work^
potteries glass works, breweries, saw milli^ andnmyard^
The population of the monidpal borongh (area 0990 anea)
In 1881 was 31,783.
ig the other piompal pobbo bnildings are tb^ new
It-ball, the poet <^o«k die oomi'haas^ the tonper
lull, St GeoM^a Hall, the connril h^l, and the oor-
oo ofBoka. 'mn ai« a large nomber of educational
Tbe town b of Boman origin, and was cf some impgrtsnea In
Aogi»4aon tlma. In the tlma of Edward tha Omtimor it
poauaaad a maAat aad a ahorflb. tUrj qnaoi of Beoti stayed a
tba Paribment It WM taksn paaaaarion of by the Boyalieta ii
IMS, bnt after tbe vloloiy of Xantoo Hoor was yielded np to i
detadimantofdMhrfiaBAtaiyfaToea. natownaUpaof Boasp-
in Angot 1871, tha adtaeeataabubTung inohided inUTi^
The eorpofatirai act as tha MaUan anthoil^, and own the watei-
apohUe paAaadaftaa
, MaUary anthoil^, a
irks, gaiwoifc% and msrktta Tbn hav- "-
naln dntn^^ and have also (tondsd a
library.
BOTEESAT, a ro|^ borrii, and Q» priiteipal town of
Sie eonnty ot Btite^ Seotland, is aitnated in the {shod of
Bate, at the band of a wsU-ahalteced and apadoos bay in
the iMh cf Ctrda, 40 Bdka W. of CMaagow and 18 aw. e€
Oreanock^ with wUd there is beqnent commnniration bj
"Dm ta^ aflorda gsod aaeborage in ai^ wind,
m also a good hamor and j|»er. He town is
the headqnarteiB id an exteaaive pahmg diitriot^ and is
much frequMitad aa a wateting place. BeaideB two
hydropadiie eatabUshiMat*, it hai aevaial hotels and
honaas. Facing the b^ there is an
. ._^ I. In die centra of the town are the
mins of tbe ancient castle, aqiposed by some to have been
erected in lOtIS by Hagnoa Barefoot, and by othen at
the same date bj the Soots to defend thamaelvea against
the Norwegians. Hie village which grew Dp roncd the
oastle was nude a rt^al bn^ l:^ Bobert HI, who crcAted
his eldeat son David dnke of Rothsay. Dnring the
Commonwealth the castle was garrisonsd by Cromwell's
troops. It was bomed by the followers of Argyll in
168Gs and remained neglected till the mUash waa oleaitd
away by the marquii of Bate in 1816. Tbe principal
R O T — B O T
ooDB^ boiUingm (be pnblis ImIIi, the Msdem;, Mid
tha lloBMm mtttnto. tiiA oorfonHim ocoiriBta of «
pronNt, l&rM huliH, a dean cf guild, ft tiMMimr, end
twelvB ooandUon. The popiilktioii oi die npd bo^ in
1871 wu S0S7 ud in 1881 it m* 8391.
ROTHSCHILD, the wuDe <A a Jewiih tunil; iriiieK
baa Mqaind an nnaikin[ded position from the nwgnitnde
oF iti ^^■^****^ tnnnctioiUi Tha Miginal nvna wu
Bmut, the fonnder of th« Iukub being Uatzb Asnui
(ITU-lSiaX the nn of Anselm Uomia Bamr, a vmOl
Jewiih Buttjiuit of Fnakforion-thfr-JbiD. 1^ Etthcr
wi^ed Um to become a nbbi, bat he prefcned bnainoM,
Bod nltimitftlr nt np ■■ a monej leooer at the MgQ of
the "BmI Shield' <AiaicUU) in tb« Fiukfort Jnden-
^oa. He had alrMtdjr acquired tome atanding aa a
banker when hii ngmiiimatic toatta obtaioad rat him
the friendahip ot William, ninth landgra*e and after-
wanb elactM of HflM»CaMel, who in 1601 made him
bis agent In tha following jaac Bothiduld negotiated
his first gnat QovenimeBt loan, tm millioft thalen for the
Daaiih OGrenunent When the tandgiave waa compelled
to Asa bom bii oqiital on the enti? ct ^ CVenA, he
pbeed hia HlveT and other bolkj treaanna in the hands
of BotlMchild, who, not witboat oonaidenible risk, iodk
dwrgB <f tham and tmried them, it is aaid In a comer of
his jfMi1«in, whence be dog them np as opportnnit; arose
for £qMaing of them. lUa be did to Rich advantage aa
to ba abb alterwarda to retnrn their nine to the elector
at S per cent intenat He died at FHuikfort IBtb
Saptcaiber 1813, laanng ten chOdren, Stb lona and a*e
dtugfatan. BnoohsB of the bnuntaa wen catabtiihed at
ViewM, London, Baris, and Na{Jes, each being io charge
of one ol the aooa, the chief of the firm alway* redding at
Fmakioit, wheiet in accordance with the wiih al the
fonndar, all impertant eonaiiltations are heU. Bj a
mtam ot eoopaiation and joint connaels, aided by the
Ailfnl employmnt of nboMinate agents, thej obtained
nnexamplad o^artniiities ot Mqniring an aeeuiata know-
ledge of the cwtdition of die Bim™*! market, and
praetieallj enbraeed Ota whole cf Europe irithin their
finaoaal Mtvwfc. The tmitj of the intsnats o( the
sevanl memben of the firm baa been pttaerred by
intermarriiges whidi baa beea tM
f the descendants of the fire taofhan,
' B grown in aoliditj and infloenca
geneiaitioa. Eadi of the brotheia
leeciTed in 1815 from Anatiia the pririlMe of hereditary
laodownan, and in 1823 the; were created baroos bj the
same econtrr. Hie charge of the Frankfort house 4»-
TCtnd on tha ehka^ Axblk Matkb <177S-ie5B), bom
13Ui Jnne 1773, who was choaen a member of tha rojal
PriMBBn priTy eoaneil of oommercs^ and, in 18S(^ BavBrian
ctmanl and eomt banker. Hie Vienna branch waa under-
taken trSoLOMtor ^774-1836), bom 9th Deeamber 1774,
who entered into intiiDate relirtions with Prince Hetter-
nidi, whidi eontribnted in no small degree to Ining about
tha eouoBzioa of the firm with the ^ied powers. Ttm
third hrother, Naibax H*nB (1777-1636), bom 16th
Scf>teaber 1777, has, howenr, generally been n^arded aa
the H«Bi"''»l genius at the lanuly, and the chief originator
of the teaaaactiona which hsTe created fat the house ita
nnernipled powtion in the financial world. He came to
Msinibastw about 1800 to act as a purchaser U>t his
father of mannfaetDied goods i bat at the end of five
y«ar« he reoMred to London, where he found full scope
for hit Bnom-Ul genina The boldnen and skill erf his
tnwactitnia, idi^ caused him at first to be regarded
aa rash and unsafe bj the lading tignlnng firms and
So&ncial merchant^ latterly awakraed their admirfttion
tha mtam of int
genenJ practice ot tl
mnA the noose has tl
and envy. By die emiiloynrent of carrier jiigeans and of
faat-Bsiling boats of his own for tha transmission of news
he was able to ntUuee to the best advantage his special
soorcee of Information, while no one was a greater
adept in the art of promoting the riaa and fall of the
stot^s. The ooloBsal influence of the hooae datea from
ion of his in 1810. In that year WslLington
made some drafts which the EnRlish Qovernmeut could
not meet ; theee were porcbssed by Bothscluld at a
liberal diseoont, and renewed to the Oovemment, which
flnally redeemed at par. From this tims the house
beeaiDe assodatsd with the allied powers in the struggle
against N^oleon, it being chiefly through it that they
were able to n^nrtiate loans to carry on the war.
Bothschild never lost faith in the ultimate overthrow
ot Napoleon, bis all being virtually staked on the vane
of the conteat. He is said to have been present at the
balUe of Waterloo, and to have watchea the varying
fortniHe of the day with feverish eagerness. Being able
to tnuismit to Londim private inforuiation of the allied
aucw aevanl hours before it reached the public, he
efbetad an immeue profit by the purchase of stock, which
had been greatly depieaed on aceomit of the news ot
Blneher^ defeat two days pwioasly. Rothschild was
the first to popnkriM fweign leans in Britain by fiziag
the rate in steriing money aod making the dividends pay-
able in London tM Dot in formgn capitals. Latterly he
became the financial agent of neariy every civiUced Oovem-
ment, although peiaiBtently decU^ng coutracts for ^pain
or the Amerkan Blatea. He did not confine himself to
oparatioaa on a large scale, but on the contrary made ft a
prineipla to desiHN or uegleet no feasible 'tHnortunity of
transacting bwineBS, iriiile at the same time his <fiorationt
sraduaUy saieodad to areiy qoarter of tha globe. He
died SStb July 1836, and was sncceeded in the manage-
mentof Aa London hoosa I7 his ton Liomk. (1808-1879),
bom 3Sd November 1608, whose name will always be
awoelated wiA the removal of the dvil dieabilitiet of the
Jew*. He waa elected a member lot the CSty of London
in 1847, aad again in 1649 and ISOS, but it was not till
1858 that the joint operation of an Act of I^liament
and a iMcdutioa of the House of Commons, allowing the
omtttion bom tbe oath of the words to which at a Jew he
cotttoleBtioat^ (Mected, reoderad it poMible for him to
take hit ttat. He continued to lepretent the dty of
Lcmdon tiU 1874. Jacob (1793-1868), the youngest of
tha ori^nd Irotben^ WM intmtted with the important
miiNOD of atutti^; Oe boainesB in Paris after the restora-
tion ot tha Boarbona, for whom he negotiated Urge loam.
At the Bavohition of 1848 he was a heavy loser, and had
aho to ba ptuteded for a time by a special guard. It
waa by his capital that tbe earliest railroads were con-
structed in Franoe; tbe ptofita be obtained from the
specnlatioD were very large. He died ISth November
1868. Hie Naplet bnodi was Hmerintended by an-
other ot tha bratber^ KasL (1780-lBSC). It was ahvaya
the least important of the fiv^ and after the aunexation of
N^lea to Italy iu I860 it waa diacontinned.
Binary, 1B7B; Pnuid% Ohnmicla and Ckaraeltn if Ju Blade
£sphHiew, ISES; TMlu>W,J<«nvMiA<JV<iMnfli«-A'aM«jr<iia-
SoUuiam luW mhum TtHammL 18ST ; Konnsplsn, U Bann
Jamu it AoOkMU, 18<8.
BOTHWELL, an uibaa taaitaiT dittrict in the Wett
Riding of Yoiki^iiu^ aitualad in a pleasant vaUicy (onr
miiea south of Laada, It ia of peat anliqni^, aaA aoon
afttr tha Conqnaat waa granted ta a dtpmdeoey lA the
castla of Pontafract to the I^^s, who erected at it a
baronial reaidenoe of whidi Ibm are ttill tomeremaint.
The church of tha Hofy IMni^ ia an oid atnwtare ia
R O T — R O T
tbe Lftter Eo^luh stjle with emlnttled pwapet There
KTe a mechaoUi' iiutitutc and a working mea'B club.
Coal and stone are obtained in the neighbourhood, and
the town possesses match works and rope and twine
fachniea. The population of the nrbao sanitary district
(area 3302 acres) in 18T1 was 3733, and in 1881 it was
6106.
ROTIFERA. The Rotifcra (or Katatoria) form a small,
in many . espects wsU-defined, but somewhat isolated class
of the aninuil kingdom. They ore here treated of sepa-
rately, partly OD account of the ^difficulty of placing them
in one of the large phyla, partly on account of their
special interest to microscopists.
Now familiarly known as " wheel animalcules " from
the wheel-like motion prodaced by the rings of cilia which
generally occur in the head region, the so-called lotatotjr
orgAu, they ware first discorerad by Leenwenboek (I),' to
whom WB also owe the diacoTery of Bacteria and aliate
Itifutoria. Laeawenhoek described the Er^'ifer milgarit in
1702, and he subsequently described Mdiaria ruigent and
other species. A great varied of forms were deseribed
hj otlur obMTTers, but they were not separated as a class
from the Hni«iiTilar organisms (Protoioa) yiitb which
tlMy tunaUy occur until the appearance of Ebrenberg's
gnat taanognpb (2), which coDtained a mass of detail
regatdiog their stmctnre. The classification there put
ft^rard by Ehrenber^ is still widely adopted, but nmner-
otis obacrrcn hsTe nnce added to oar knowledge of dte
aiuttoaiy of the group (8). At the present day few gronp*
of Um ammal kingdom are so well known to the micro-
aeoida^ few gmipa |«aent more interesting affinities to
the motpliolwist, and few mnlticellnlar »iwT>ml. mch a
low phynolopcal oondition.
tfaiimf Anatcmg. — The Soti/erv are mnlticellolar
size which present a ctnlom. Th^
Leal and present no tme metamerio
are tnlatentUy symmetrical and present
BCgmentation. A head r^on is generally well marked,
and meet forms present a definite tail region. This tail
region boa been termed the " peeudopodinm." It miea
Tery modi in the exteot to which it is developed. It
attains its hi^iest develofnnent in fwms like Phiiodata,
iriiich afiect a leech-like method of progreaaitm and.nse it
aa a means of attachment. We may pass from this throng
a seriss of forms where it becomes less and leas hi^j
developed. In «ucb forms as BraeAictuu it Mrre* aa a
directive organ in swimming^ while in ■ large number of
other forms it is only represented by a pair o( terminal
etylei or flaps. In the sessile forms it beconus a ccn-
tractile pedicle with a suctorial extremity. A pSMido-
podiom is entirely absent in Atpianckua, Tnariira,
Polyartkra, and a few other genera. The paendop)diiu%
when well developed, is a very mnscnlar orffui, and h hmw
contain a pair of glands (fig. 2, a, ^ which secrete an ait-
heaive material
Thesurfacettf the body is covered by a firm homogeneooa
structureless cnticle. This cuticle may become hardened
by a further develt^ment of chitin, bnt no eakaieoua
depoaita ever take place in it. The enticle remains softtat
in those forms which live in tubes. Among the frcfr-living'
forms the degree of hardening varies considerably. In
some cases contraction of the body merely throws the
cnticls into wrinkles (NotommaiOf Aiplanehna) ; in others
definite riog-like joints are produced which telescope into
one another during contraction ; while in others again it
becomes quite firm and rigid and resemblea the cantjjace
of one of the Entomoitraea ; it is then termed a "lorica."
The lorica may be prolonged at various points into spinea,
which may attain a considenble leugtb.- The surface may
be variously modified, being in eome cases smooth, in othoa
' ThtH niunbn tiftr to tb* blUlefrmphr it p. 8.
marked, dotted, ridged, or sctdptored in varioos ways (fi^
1, K). The curved spines of PMUodima aaUeata (fig. 1, o]
and the long rigid spines of Triarthratm further develop-
ments in this direction. The ao-called setn of PUyatihra on
the other hand an more complex in nature, and are moved
by muscles, and thus approach the " limbs " of Ptdalim.
nrm tUilunill! ^gT—J™ D, JHnote fto>^ wM Itn (•»■
-■:*^^
Several genera present an .external casing oi
tube which is termed an " nrceolns." In Floteviaria and
StepAanoctrot the nrceolns is gelatinous and perfecUy
hyaline ; in Conoehiltu numerous individuals live in such a
hyaline urceolus arranged in a radiating manner. The
uroeolos, which is secreted t? tbe animal itself, may
become covered with foreign putictes, and in one species,
the well-known Mdienia nngau, the animal bnilds np its
nrceolns with pelleta which it mannfactnrw from foreign
BOTIFERA
pntidcai, and dfpodta ia » Ngnl^r otiiM* or *I^
e,uu« uumal cuibj
utdwliicb are oiawtei1 tegttlwr b
tnetiDg it« atalk withdnw itMU ntinlj within Uw tabe.
Lneamotor Otvox.— Wlulo, W mntioDed above, (erenl
genH> cr individiul speciM pnMnt long ipiiiea, theie
beecnm monbte, and nwj be ipolnQ of u appendagca, in
two gouectt imly. la i>i>fjiartAr« (fig. 1, ■, i) there an
foor giou{» cJ prace«M <» plnnwe placed at the ndea of
Tenbo-lateml pair ilao jmeiiiliini minrta wfaid f«tm a
giidb in the hind region <rf the bodj'. Taiknu other
miuclea are pieieiit ; thsie are two complete giidlea in tha
neck region unmediatelj beliind the month; there an alia
mniclea which move the hinder region of tlie body. In
addition to Iheae tiie bod; pieaenta variona proMMea
which are perbspe aome of Uiem nntepreaentad in other
Botilera. In the median dornl Une immediately bebw
thattochal diak there is a ahort conical proceaa preaenting
ft pair of mnadea which render it capable of aliafat more^
ment. From a receea at the extremity of thL proeeaa
■pring a group of long aetoae baira the baaea of which are
connected with a filament pnbably nerroni ia nature.
Thia donbtleea repcwenti a abuetnre foond in many
Botjfsra, and varioadj known aa the "caloar," "aiplion,
" tentacnlum," or "antenna." niia ealcar ia double i&
TMctiana and Meliarta. It ia very well develoMd in
tiie genera Boti/er, PMlodma, and othert, and ia, lAm bo
daruoped, (lightly retractile. It appears to be repre-
nnted in nuuiy forma by a pit or dspreaaion let with haira.
nte ealcar haa been conatderad both aa an intromittent
organ and a respiratory tnbe for lite adutiadon of water.
It ia DOW, however, nniversally oonaidered to be aeoaocy
in nattm^ Variont tonni present jHOceaaea in othir parta
tha body, each of which gronps can be aeparatehr mnrad
up and down by nuana of mnacnlai fibre* attached to thar
faMM, lAich picject into the body. The prooaaaas ttiMn-
aehw an niyoioted and rigid. In Ptdatiom (fig. 8), •
nmaibble form diaoovered by Dr C J. Eadaon in ISTl
(IS, ti, 14, and 10), and foond in nnmbeia aevenl timea
me», tlMM i^peadagee have acquired a neir and quite
apAdaldndapBant ntq^anaixinnninber. Thela^cat
ia pkoad nnbally at aome dirtuoa Mow the monA. Ita
free eottmni^ ia a r^nnuiiM bn4ike «apaiuioB ^ig. S,
A, ^ and b). It ia (m oommon with the othera) a hollow
proena into wiidt nm two paita o( Ixoad, ooaiaely tiana-
Tflcaely (fariated nmadaa. Each pair baa a aingle inaertion
DO the inner wall— the one pair near the free extremity of
tba limb, the other near ita attaehment ; the landa mn
np, one of eaob pair on each nde and mn ri^t round
tbn body Eonnin^ an iaeomplele mnaenlar girdle, the anda
fcpprnfimating in tha median dotMl Uucl Below tliia
pcrint qvingi tka large median donal lin^, wbiiA termin-
ktea in grotina of iMg aeba. It preaenla a nngle pair of
axvelm attaAed along Ita inner wall whidk ran ap and
form a ""■•ilftf i^tSit round the bocfy in ita poaterior
tbbd. On eac& aide la attached a npcrior doiK>-latenJ
and an inferior Tentro4ataral aflpendag^ each with a fon-
Uka plnmoae 1 ni iiiiiMtinw rmnniting of oompound baira,
found daewheie only
akuTBl ftnot u> iHdkB TMid miBlia^ <an mw BoAMk)
o( the body which have donbtlen a nmikr fnoctioo, «-;.,
Micn«>d<m (fig. 1, D, .) with ita pair of latetal organs.
PedaliM preaenta a pair of dliatod prooanea m the
porterior ropon of the body (fig. 3, «, (^ and n, «), which
it can apparently nae aa a means-of attachment; Dr
Endaon atatea that he haa aeen it andiored by theae and
awimming roond and round in a drde. TbBj pcaob^ re-
ROTIFERA
present the fl»pi foond on the tul of ether forms. PidaiioH
Blao boa & itaaH ciliated ma«cabu' procesa (Gg. 3, a, 7) placed
immediately below the mouth, and termed a "chin," which
appears to be merely a greater development of a lort of
lower lip which occotb in many Rotifers.
UuKiilar S!/ileM.—Ai\ ths Botifira prrsent 1 miUcnIu- irttsm
which ugsnenllyverr Tell JaTelopsd. Tnomru itriiitioii oocars
aniDog tho Gbtst to a vaning eitsnt, baiog veil mirkad in cues
whtts tlie luucls ii niDoh ui«L The mnscl« vhich moTs ths
hodj u ■ whole ura irranged la circulsr and lonjpladinil MriM,
but they iro arringod in «p«iftl aroups and do not form 1 com-
gete layer o[ the body-wall u in the Ttriooi worme. Bojaa of the
DRiCudtual muscle* an ipccially developed in oonnaxion with the
tail or pedicle. Othei miwclw are dereloped in connexion with
Bpodal •yitemi of organa, — the trochal diike, the jaw apparatna,
and the renrodnctJTa ayitein. The mowlea in conneiion with the
trochal disk lerTS to protrude or withdrawlt, and to moTsitabont,
~~' n extmded, In Tahoui directlona Tha pratmnon ia probably.
n of lbs body wall. The t
^ :phitrta ia protruded in the
nctnn ia the psaalinr ah
by _ „...._.
apparatus of Poljpoa
Tne/ial Otit.— Tl r - -
the clua It ia homologone with the oilialed banda of tbe lirrc
of Echinodanni, Chetopodi, Holliuo, Ac, and with the tenta-
culirerom apparatua ot Polytoa and OepJiyrmt, and baa been tarmcd
in common with these a "vetDtii.'' Thii Telom presents itaelf in
various atnge* of complexity. It li found aa a single circnnnjral
Tin^ lpilidiiim\ as a single pra sial ring [Ch>topad lann), or ar
a Bingls prre-oial TiDC coeiiating witli one or more post-oral rings
(Chetorod lame, Holcthorian larrB). Wa may heis assnme that
the ancestral condition was a aiogls circnm-oral ring associated
with a terminal mouth and the absence of an anna, and that the exist-
ence of other rings posterior to this ia an expreadon of metamerio
segmentation, !*,<., a repetition of aimilar parCa. With the dsTslop-
ment of a proatoniiats condition a certain change nsceasarily takes
tilsce in ths position of this bsnd: a portion of it comea to lie
ongitndinally ; but it may atill remain a aingle band, as in the
larra of many Echinodsrnis. Hon have the other above-mentioned
conditiona of the volum come about I How has the pne-oral band
bosn developed T Two views have been held with regard to this
question. According to the one view, the bet whslher ths sin^e
band is a prfc-oral or a post-oral one dependa upon ths podticm in.
which the anua is about (o davslop. If the anas develops in such
a poaitiDn that month and anus lie on one and the same nde of the
baud, the latter becomes prai-oral ; if, howevsr, tho anus dsvelopa
K that the month and anas lie upon oppoaite aidea of the band,
ths bsnd becomes poat-oraL If we hold this view we must consider
any second band, whether pris- or post-oral, to aii» aa a new
developmsnt. The other view premissa tbst lbs anus always forms
so as to leave the pnmitiTe nng ot "architroch" post-oral, <,a,
between mouth and anna Concurrently with the derslopment of
a prostomlam this architroch somewhat changes Its poation and
the two lateral portiona come to lie longitudinally ; these may be
sapposed to have met in ths median doraal line and to have
coafeaced so as to leave two rinsa — the one pne-oial (a "cephalo-
troch"), the other poet-oral (a "branchiotrooh"); thia latter may
aCropby. Icavlogtbe single pns-oni ring, or it may beoome farther
developed and thrown into mora or less elaborate iolda. The exist,
log condition of the trochal diak or valam iu the Rolifera seema to
the writer of tbla article to bear out the latter view as to the way
in which modiScationa of the velum may have come abonL
In its aiiapteet condition it rorms a single circum-oral ring, a* in
UiCTOcodm (£g. 1, d). The stmctum at the sides ot ths mouth
in this form are stated to be bristles, and have therefore nothing
to do with the velum (Se. 4, k, p). This alrapls ring may bacome
thrown into folds, so ferming a aorlea ot pncesssi standing ap
troand the mouth; this is the DonditioD in AnuWxiiMerM (Sg. 4, B, ji).
There are, however, bat tew lorma preaentinB this aimpls ooudl-
tion ; and it mnat ha remembered that the evidenoe ten the assump-
tion here made, that thia ia a peniatent architroch and not a bnin-
oUotroeh peralaUng where a osphalotroch has vaniihed, ia not at
prsssnt conclusive. This hand, may. while remaking single and
perfectly continuons, heoome wolougad around a lobe overhanging
.t ..i .._, — \ia» condition oocars In miiSiiui
Sfig- 4. E, t, p); the two sides of the post-oral ri_^ _ . _
otsslly, but are carried op and are oontinnons with thi
cilia lining ths''wheela" There is thus one conannous idliatod
band, a portion of wbich-iims ap in front of the month. This
condition oorreapaods to that of the Auriculaiian larva. The fold-
ing of the band has become already aomBivhat complicated ; a
hypothetical intermediate condition Is ebown in Bg. 4. c, n. The
next atops in the advancing compleaity is that ths proatomial por-
tion of the band (fig. 4, 0, H, f/) becomaa separated as a dlaCinst
ling, a cephalotroch j we find inch a itage ia.Ide<a<il(>ri> (fig. 4.
G, b), wb«e both nphalottoek and bnuMhlotrooh ranaia fairly
simple in shape. In Jfelieerta (Sg. 4, i, 1) both capbalatroch and
bnnchlotrocb are thrown into folda. lutly, we find that in such
forms aa Bradliimia the cephalotrooh becomes first ranvolatad and
[fig. 4, E, L, c], and hrtbar it m ,
reduced aa to be represented only by a few iaolated tufte, aa in
Atplajuhna (fig. 1, i, x and nO; in snch a fonn as Lindia (fig, 0, c)
the branchiolroch has vaniahed and the cephalotivch has beconM
Toduoed to the two email pati^hes at ths sides of the bead.
The trochal apinratua aervea the Soti/era aa a locomotive organ
and to bring the food particles to the moatb ; the cilia work so a*
Pigative Syslta This consists of the foUowine regions : — (1)
the oral cavity ; (S) tho pharyni ; [3) ths ooophagus ; (4) the
Btomach ; (5] lbs Intestine, which tstminatss in an anns. Tlie
anna is absent in one group.
The pharynx contains the ouulax with Ita teeth ; these ara
calcareous atructures, and are known as the Irophi, In a typical
mastsx (8. fl) (S™- ,
dojmm, fig. 6, i) "v
(rf). which often
like structure. Fig.
6 ahows some of
the moat important p^,
modifications which DVBii'Mi>r^; cViijpiiiwtanT
the apparJ-tuB may rii1crnm,tDdtf,<,njn1,fonnlnRUiebiCii>,^uiBbuuiiiMi>,
exhibit The parts soj 4 m™. lomlo* .»,-. ™Tlnn (AiiwHndm.)
may become very slender, aa in Digltna foreifola (fif. 6, B) ; the
mallei may be absent, as in Afiartetma (fig. C, c), the rami being
highly developed into curved forceps and movable one on ths other ;
or. tbs manubria being absent and the tulcmm rudimentary, the
rami may become massive and subqusdiatic. aa in PhUadina (fig.
G, D). All the true Kotifers posseaa a maatax. Ehrsnberg's group
of the Agimphia cooaisted ot a beterogeneons collection o! forma,
—IchlAyiium and Chmtauttu being QaMrttTitha, and Cy^unuttOa
BOTIFEBA
1 Palnoaa lam, vbils EnUnplat in nntabty ■ milo SoUbr, ant,
lilu thf other diiiIh, Id i ralocBd conilitioD. Than In na mwD tnr
~^ob'lmalagtlgaf vitbartbo pitricmiUor
on the otfa.
ituiiicd a
hinil or tho tootb in ths Chutopodii' phuvn
r; itismenlf hsmurliuticwith then itnis tan*, bntlii
■pednliisl dr/mo m doTolopnictiL Doth til* pharrai
h follow* it *ro liBod wi^ ohitiB. Tlu
uaii[ihaeiu tuie* in longth *ii<l in tame gonora fa abHnt {Plulii-
tliHadjt), tlio atomach Follaviug immoiliatclj npoD tlui pharynx.
Tha itoniach is iicrneratlj lai;^ ! Ita wall cauaiita ot t lajir of Turj
larfCD dliaicU nils, •hich orii^n contain bt globalaa anil ^oUoiriah-
gtoen or brown particln, and oataiils thoaa a auiiiaotan tiinia
cenatautl; a pair of gUnda opaa into tha itomaob, aiid prabablj
tipronnt ths heitto-pnnrniatic ^anda ot othoi InTtrlebntcc
Falloitinc upon tbs itomacli there iaa1aEfnr(R>hoit«rint«*tln*,
which enila in the cloaca, Tha iutcaCiiis ii Unecl bf dliated nib.
In (omu li-nng in an nraolni tha btcntina tnnu raond aad ran*
Corward, ^a cloaen boing placed ao a* to dabooek onr th* mugin
of Ui« urogoliia. Tho cloacii is often toit la^ ; th* Btphridia uid
otiilncta miy open into it, and tbo aggi lodga then on th*tr way
ontwanls ; they ara thrown out, *a are Iha fecal nuuae*, by *n
erendon of the dcoca. A^piandina, NaiowKnata widialdiiy uid Oct-
tain apcciea of AKommyha aA aaid tO b* dsroid of inteatiDa or
anna, aienmentitiona nutten bainj( q'ectod threngh tha moath (11).
Iftpliridia. — The mlou containa a fluid in whioh ■nrj minnte
corpnadoB bare boen datactad. Than ia do tnoa of a ttua taacular
tjatom.- Tha nephridia (lig. !, B, «) preaent a toit istmtating
itnga of doTalopmenL They conalat of a pair of tnbnlca with an
intracaltnlar loBMn ranning np the lidta of tbe bodr, at tiinaa
menlj UDiioaa, at othaia eonaidenbly ooatolntad. from theae
an givsn oS at invgular interrali thort lataial bnndiea. each of
which tenoinatfa in a aame-cell preciBely aimilar in >tnictunj to
the Oamo-celli fonnd in Planariana, Trenutodea, and Ceatade* ;
hen aa there the qnotion whether thar an open to the ccelom or
not muat nraaln at pnoant nndedded. At tha haae thaaa tnba*
oma oithar into a pennantnt bladder vhleh oonunnnintaa with the
cloaca or into a atrnctan paaaenting apparantl^ no adTanoe in Ita
dTalopmant npon tha contraotila Tacuola of a ciliat* Infoaohan.
NervHu Sy^n awi^Apnw-Org/aiu.'— Yariona Btmctnna bare bean
■pokan of *i nerrotu which an bow acknowledged to hara been
arronaonal; ao deacrihed (IB). Then is a •apra-ceaophageal gang-
lion which oftsn attatoa conaidaiable dimenaioDs, and nraaenta a
lobed appouanoa [Gg. SI, i. and B, g). Connected with this an the
eje-apotL which an aeldom abaent Whera theae an most hiahlj
daveleped a lena-like itmctnn ia preaent, prodncad by a thicken-
ing of the eutlela. In the geniia BaliftT and other forma theae an
pUoed npon tha probiuibl* nortioa of ths head, and ao appear to
nara dilleraBt poaitioiH atdiKsnnt momenta. The nnmber of eye-
pots aariaa bom on* to twalre or mora. Tbay an nnally red, ral-
fiah-bnwn, nolet, or black in ooloar. Other aOnctures an toond
which donbtlsH act aa asnaa-orgina. Tha oalcar aboTe-men tinned
generally bean at its aitnmitr stiff hoin which have been demon-
itnted to ba in oonnsiion with a nerrs flbriL On tha Tsntnl anr-
tace of the body jnat below Che month a somewhat dmilar itmctim
ii ofton doTaloped— the chin. Then an beaideB at tinea apsoial
organa, like tha two lateral ocgana in JTisrasMlMt (flg. 1, D, i), whidi
no donht in commoD with the ealear and chin have a ttctila function.
R^ndudite Orgamt and DndmuM.—'rht BMftra wen
fonaerly conaideTad to be hannaphrodlta, bat, while the onry wa*
always clear and diatlnct, then vaa alway* aonw diOenlty abont
the toitia, and Tarioos straotnns wan put lorwanl aa npnsenting
tliat orean. One by one, howerer, email orfpniuna liaTe been ilis-
niTerc<r aad described aa the males of eertaiu apeciea of Rotifera,
outil at tbe fnsent time degenerated malea an known to occur in
sll the bmilie* neopt that of the miaduiadm. The mala Rottfen
an proridad with a single diclst of dlia (a nerltroeh), a nerrs
lIviglioB, aye-^ota, mosclea, and nspluidlal tabulea all in s some-
what raduood couditian, bat tlisn is nsnally do trace of mouth or
itomach, the main porbon of the body being occupied by the testi-
cnlar sac Then ia an aportore corTesponding with the cloaca of tha
rmiale, when the test!* apens into the baae of aa erenibla neuia
Tlxr malta of Flmeatarla an ahown in flg. 1. Th* mala of Pidatim
Bii'/n poaaeBea ndimantary appcudagss. Tha orary ia nioaUy a
\ATee 3land lying bsaiila the itomaob connected with a short oridncC
which opens into the cloaca. Tha ora often present a nddiab biio
{rUladiiM ra—ola, BnidUm«4 rubmt), due donbtleiB, like the nd
coliinr of many Cruatiuoan ore, to the presenK of tatronrrythrin.
l'|i to tlie prsacnt onr anhryolagicaf knowledge of the group la
Tcry incomjilstn. Uany Kotifen an known to lay winter and
iniiinter cfna of dilTarcnt chanctar. Tbe wintor eggs an prorided
with a tluek sbell and probably reqnin fartiliiatioo. Two or three
of them are often carri«I abont attached to tlie parent {Braehioina,
Xi^mmnla), but ther anflsnally laid aad (all into the mud, then
to rauiain till (he following spring. The snmmer em an ot two
kiada, tfao ao-cdleil male and fumals on, both of which an stalad
to daralop jiwtliniDdiDatieaUy. Thoy ma; ba ourUd aboot in
did
indiridnala. Uale indiTidnBla an only fonnod In Uio
autamn in time to feitUiia tha winter o**.
Unbitat and Ifodt of £t/e.— The Soti/era are diotri-
but«d 411 over the earth's surface, inhabiting both freah
and salt water. The gnftter number of ipeciaa inhabit
freab water, occurring in pools, ditche«, and ■treamo, A
few ipeciea will appear in countlesa QDmben in infutions
of IwTea, Ac., bat their appeaiance ia geueratlj delayed
until the putrefaction ia nearly over. Species of Seti/rr
and PiUtodtiKi 'appear in this way. A few marine form*
onlj have been described'— i^raeAsoawt muUtn, S. AipCo-
limmt, Sftteimta baltiea, and otheis.
A lew forms are parasitic Albertia Uteb in the intestine
of the earthworm ; K form has been described as occnrring
in the body-cantj of SjmapUt ; a small form was also
oboerred to constantly occnr in the Teiar and radial canals
of the freshwater jollj-fiib, Lintnoeodtitnt. J'ToUmanaia
parcaitiea leads a parasitio existence within the hollow
qtherea of Volvox gl<Aaior, sufficient oxygen being giren
off by the V<ilvo» for iU reepiration.
Many Rotifers exhibit an extraordinary power of (Mist-
ing drought. Varioiu obaerrers hsTS dried certain speeiea
upon the slide, kept them dr; for a certain length of time^
and then' watched them come to life TCr; shoruj after the
addition of a drop of water. The animal diaws itself to-
gether, BO that the cnticle completely protects all the softer
parte and prevents tbe animal itself from being thoroughly
dried, liiis process is not without parallel in higher
groups ; «.;., many land snails will draw themaelvee far into
Uie diell, and secrete a complete opsrenlnm, and can remain
in this condition for an almost indefinite amotmt of time.
The eggs are also able to withstand dryings and are pro-
bably blown about from place to plaoe. The Scti/rra can
bear great variations of temperature without iitjiirj.
Since their removal from among the rniotoa variona
attempts have been made to associate the Ruifera with
one or other large phylum of the animal kingdom.
Huxley, insisting npon the importance of tha trochal disk,
put forward the view that they were "permanent EchinO'
derm larve," and formed the connecting link between
the Nema-tida and tha Nematoid worms. Bay Lankeeter
proposed to associate them with the Chtctopoda and
Arikropoda in a group AppendicMiaia, the pecnlisritlee in
the structure of PtdalioK forming the chief reason for
snch a classification. There is, however, no proof that ws
thus express any genetic relationship. Ihe well-developed
ccelom, absence of metameric segmentation, penistenoe of
the trochal disk in varying stages of development, and the
Btmcture of the nephridia are all characters which point to
the Soti/cm as very near representatirea of the common
ancestors of at any Tat« the Molluiea, Arlkropoda, and
Chaiopoda. But the ' high development of the mastax,
the apeciaUzed character of the lorica in many forma, the
movable spines of Polgarthra, the limbs of Ptdalioit, and
the lateral appendages of Atpianckna, the existence of a
diminutive male, the formation of two varisUes of ova, all
jioint to a specialization in the direction of one or other of
the above mentioned groups. Such specialiiation is at
most a slight one, and does not justify the definite associa-
tion of the Jtoii/era in a single phylnm irith any of them.
CltuM^Ua^ion. — The following clasaillcation has befn
recently put forward by Dr C. T. Hudson (19),
Cusa BOTIFERi.
Orderl.— Bhisol*.
Tuad forms ; footattachad, tttDavaiaalywrlnkleJ, noB-ntnctila.
tnmesta.
Fam. 1. Flobodi^MADX. FlMCularia, St^Aanoanit.
f am. 2, ' ItiLiCERTiDC lltiiteria, UfpAajon^loii, Ifegalo-
fmcAa, Linmiat, jBctiiit, ladnMlana, Conodiiiut.
8
R O T — R O T
. OrdflT II.
Fomu vbleh nirn anil creep liko
iaifitoil, talneopie, lenniutuni farcate.
Fun. fl. PniLODINiDK. rhilaliiui, lUifrr, Callldira.
Order III.— FIoibM.
Fornn vUeh (wim onlj ■
Or«ll* A. iLLOKIUJtTA.
FUD. 4. HTSATiHAiia. BgdaliHo, JUdw/K
I'lin. E. Bthosmtaiim. Sipulimta, Palt/arlATa.
Fun. A. NOTOMUATADA AotonMoCo, Diglmn, Fvrtvlaria,
ScarijiuiH, Fltuntnelvi, DiMtmma.
Fun. T. TniAamitAiim IViartAm.
Am. 8. AflFLAXCBHADA Aaplanekna.
Gnds & LoBiCATA.
Fun. t. BiiAcnioitid Andtimiiw jVbfaKJ, Atuirma, Bae^
ttyta, Voturut, JUcnitfa, JMopadio, Sttphani^M, Monoeana,
Mailigearta, Dauxiiarit.
Ordor iy.-8oi]^ap>dk.
FnniH which iwlm with thair ciliuj wrsatb, ud ikip by meaiia
of hollow limbi with intenul locomotor miuclca.
FMn. 19. Pedauohiu Pcdalitm.
Ths aboTS liit isclndga onlj the prindpi] gnioR. Them ire,
V>waTU', a DmnbcT of foimi which conld not be placed in v>i oi
PhUippine laluida, cloadjr
AAvl^Blto^I^ alnU lemale via opud^jr^gidt : a, pcaUlsa of
Bik a Awt^aKwaTHMrfarJ^l^lbnpv): asBoolLift laBiliagi
lirn while ponanlngnailonbtodlf Rotirenl chanctsn. Uscxnlkow
hu dncribed ■ remaikabU form, JptiliiM lati/ormii (% fi, r, E,
and r), the adult female of cbiiJi u antinily derold ordlia tnt
pitweie a lort of ntrmctile hood ; the joung foiuuie uid the malea
ua not thiu modified. Clapnrids diKOvered fixed to the bodiei of
maU OliRDcbatai a cDrioni non-ciliated tarro, Balaln calvtu (As.
e, iV wOcb baa a ironq-Iike xeiy contractile body and tt iceC
danlopKl miatai. A* mentioned abore, the ciliition la reduod to
■mininom in tho cniiooi worra-Iike form Lindia (fig. 0, c), Stixm
mtbaUm (fig. a, nV liring on the curface of SebttliM, vblcb ma
denibed Diieiiully by Qrabe, ii the aam* fonn u the BaaMella
mtbalim, which me eappoaed bj Tan Beseden and Heae to be a
leecb. 1 1 hai been ebown b; Clini to b> merely an absrraDt Rotifor.
Of the cnrioos aonalic feme IcA^im, dmlonclut, THrtmutta,
AujRftfu, Cn^alidium, CJiBtum, and Bmtidiayi, nhieh Meeznikow
and OlaparUe lodnded nnder the name Oattn/rida, no fnrthBr
acoomtouihaginufaen. They an poaeibly alljed to the £c«i^fni,
batar- ■* — " -' ' -■ -—-'--■ '">-
kX and trocbal diik.
Tin foDevlB* en m» at Uii iDon hnporUBt
mL—wiBlill, Wg, ft»u.,lTM-Ue<, A) Ell
aby^OltUHmOrytmltmi^ ife. (I) H. f7 Dal
K£«-,*<
F. DtiJirdUi,fM.nf.4aSHr>Wii;
On JMnarf* nnHiu.'' Owl. Jairr.
re r(w/Qi^.W.«^.
^ueHrasa Bia naaaiantfeinailiAiBMlBDCderRUHIHir^''
i-.IUt. <l)ni.n. Oaae.n(l. fVwi;, UM. <iOF. Oo)lll,M.
AUlflcTt. BsAveT'OalMiMM.- OmrL Jtimr. Mlcr.
lAMWdMr.yw-Una^Un. (U| E.B«Laiikjiir, "Oa
f.^^v^jnr.M.,l*n. (mB.ltKaIkci*r^OaJrtIhiiIMt-
BOTROn, Jun DR (1 609-1 6S0), the gra&leat m^c
poet of Franoe before Coroeille, wm bora km Angiut 31,
160B at Dninx in NonuaDiIy, and died of the plagae at
the Huae pUc« on the 28tli Jane 16M. HU family una
of small means but of not inconuderable station, end
seems to have had a kind of hereditary connexion -with
^ magiBtnc; of the town of Drenz. He htmtelf «m
"lienteaant particnlier et dvil, ' a post DM ea«f to trtm-
late, but apporenUy poeaeedng some affinity to a Scotch
sheriffship substitute. Botron, however, went Tery ewly
to Paris, and, though three yeois younger than Corneille,
with whom he was intimately acquainted, began play-writing
before him. With few exoeptioiu the uUy events recorded
of his life are the sncceasive appeoraneea of his plays and
hia enrolment In the band of five poets who had the not
very honourable or congenial daty of turning Bichelieu's
dramatic ideas into sliape. Botron's own fint {nece^
L' Hypoamdnaque, appeared when he was only eereateen.
His second, La Soffne dt FOvlbli, on adaptation in part
from Lope de Vega, was much better, much more engges-
tive, and mnch more chaiactenstic. It is the first of
■averal plays in which Botron, following ai striking ont
for himself a way which did not lead to much for the time
but which wag again entered at the Bomantic teviraJ,
endeavoored to naturalize in France the romantic comedy
which had nourished in Spain and England instead of the
classical tragedy of Seneca and the classical comedy of
Terence. C^msille, as is known to reader* of his early
work, had considerable leanings ic the some direction,
and yielded bnt slowly and unwillingly to the preasure of
oitical opinion and the pnblio taste. Botrou's brilliant
bnt hasty and nneqoal work showed throoghont rae^B of
a stronger adhesion to the Spanish (it is ueedlen to say
that neither writer is likely to have known the English)
model Cleaghu/r ti JhruUt, Diant, La Oecatiom Per-
daet, L'Heartiue Coiulanet, pieces which sncoeeded each
Other very rapidly, were all in the Bpanish s^le. Then
the authOT changed his school, and, in 163S, imitated veiy
doeely the Metiaehmi of Plautus and the Henula (Eima
of Seneca. A crowd of comedica and tiagi-comedies
followed, and by the time he was twenty-ei^t (when
documents exist showing the sale of two baches of them
to the bookseller Qninet for the sum of 220 livres tonr-
nois) Botron had written nearly a score of plays. He
was married in 1640, and had Uiree children, a son and
two daughtora (none of whom, however, oaotinued the
name), and it seems that be went to live at Drenx. Fre-
vionsfy, vague afid onecdotie tradition deecribea him aa
having led rather a wild life in Faiis, and especiaUy as
having been mnch addicted to gambling. Among his
pieces written before his marriage were a translation of
the Amj^titryem under the title A Let Dtttx Sotia, which
was not ueelesa to Moliire, Anlifftm*, which was not nselen
to Bacme, and Laure Faianiiie (in the oppoeite s^le to
these clasucol pieces), which has mnch merit. These were
followed by othsis until, in 1646 and 164T, Botrou pto-
doeed bis three masterpieces, Saiia Gentit, a story of
Christian martyrdom containing some amnsing by-play,
one noble speech, and a good deal of dignified action ;
Doit Bertrand de Cahrire, a comedy of merit ; and Fen-
eedai, which is considered in Fi«nce his masterpiece, and
which in a manner kept the stage till ooi own times. The
mlQect (in whidi a father, bong constrained to dwoee
between his dnty as king and his panntal afiection,
pardons his son for a murder he has committed, but
immediately abdicates as foeling hinueU tmworthy to
reign) was tafceiD from Frandgco de Bqjas; Uia ezecntioo,
R O T — R O T
thon^ tmaqnU, ia ia porta tvj tat. Boboa'a daath
ftud iti ciienmrtincMr on known to m«nj \riio nenr iwd
> lina of hi* ^^S*- H« wm in Pma whu tha phgoe
brokB oat at Dnox; the tmjix fled, ud all ma ooo-
tiuion. Bobon, nrtning ths ooodoct of Montaigne in
Bomeidtat amikr njiramttamyi^ at ono* mot to hi* poet,
ean^ tbe diaea*^ and died in a f aw hitm.
Botron'a gnat fertiUtf (he Iwe ktt thii^n coUeetod
plaTt beeideB ochen Loot, atrajed, or niwolleotcd), and
peiiiape the nncertajiLtj of dnunatie plan ihown Irf hia
heaitation almost to the kit between the clawinaf and
the Tomantie atjLs, have izynred tua work. He haa
thoiongfalj good p)a;, bardiy one tbona^j good act.
" bia aitoalionaai
ic poet pn^ierlj
rften patbetie and :
eallea be ia at hia
puj good act.
loUav and oaa
a» aooth bank of tbe rirer) into thuae of DeUahaTen,
"ingen, and Hilleganberg. A huge d;ka on whiah
la Hdog 8lnat or High Stiaet dividea the triangolar
portion into nearlj equal parte — the inner and the ooter
town ; and the laHer la cat np into a aeriea of peninaolaa
and ialanda bj the •dminUe aystem of harbonn to which
Botterdan owea so mncb of ite pran)eriW. The ceutial
part of tbe liver frontage is lined hj a broad qnaj called the
iioompjea from the treea with which it is planted. From
the ^lex-of the triangle the town ia bisected hj a peat
railwaj Tiadnct (erected aboat 1870, and mainly oon-
ctncted of iron), which ia conlinaed aeniea the rtm to
Fijenoord and the south bank bj a bridge on a atmilarl^
gntnd aealc^ tbe line being the Great Bonthem Bailwa;
which oonnecta Belginm and HoUand and cnaMa tbe
Hollandaob Diep by tbe Moerdqk Uidge. . Itadlel witb
force not to be fonnd in f^nncb drama between Cocneille
and HngOL
A eomnlcU sdition «f Bottin mm edited In Bn nhmiM br
ViollM 1* Diu In ISia In 1681 M. da Bauhuul pablklMd a
hudsuu editioQ ot lii nUr*— jUiil 0(iu< KMUMlWiItoii Arttnit
de CWrtn, AnligiMU, lirraitt JtoiatBit, and Ccum*,— tba latter
Oatnn'i lut plaj and ■ ramaikUita on*. FmmiIu and SaM
Ottiat an also to b* loiml In tlia Cli^Jmuri Tragtqum vl tb*
CoIlBctiaa Didot.
BOTTESDAH, a city of tbe Netherlanda m the pro>
Tiace of South HoUand, sitnated in 51' 00'. Id" H. bt
and 4* SO* 7" E. long.., on tbe right bank of the ITienwe
Haas at tbe point wliore it ia joined b; the Botle, a anall
atream riahig near Hoeil»pelle. Bj rail it ia 14} inilea
aonUt^aat <a Hm Hague and U} aouth of Aauterdom.
Aa dsSned bj ita ITtb-centnry fortificatioos tbe town was
an iaoeeelea triangle with a base of 1} miles along the
rirer, hot in modern tinua it has spread ont in all diieo-
tiona bqrtmd the bmita of ite own commune (which was
inoeaaad ia 1B69 t^ the iaiud of Fijenoord and part of
tbe railway bridge the mnnicipaUtj, in 1673, built a road-
bridge) and apart from their ordinary function tbeae oon-
atrnctdons have proved a sufBcient barrier to prevent tbe
ioe-bkicks of tbe npper part of the river from deacending
ao aa to interiere with the seaward navigation. Tram-
wayi, introduced in 1880, are being gra<toally extended
to Tariona Buburbe. While some nine or ten Proteet&nt
aeda, &» Boman CatboLcs, tbe Old Boman Catholics,
and the Jews an all repreeented in Botterdam, none of
tbe eccleBiaatical bnildings ate of primary architectuial
interest. The Oroote Eerk or Lanrensberk ia a Qothio
brick etmctnie of the fifteenth century witb a tower 297
feet high ; it baa a fine rood ecreen and an excellent
organ, and contains the monuments of Lambert Hendiika-
loOD, Egbert UeeuweaiooD Kortenaar, 'Witt« Comeliazoon
de Witt, Joban van Brakel, Johan -ran Liefde, and other
Dutch naval heroes. Among the more conspicuous secnlar
bnildinga are tbe Boymaua Uuseum, the town-house
(restored in 1823-1827), the exchange (1723X ^^ ^*^^^
Gate (1766), the eourt-honse, the post and telegraph office
(1670), the com exchange, the seamen's home (18AS), the
hoapital (1846), and tbe theatres. Tbe BoymanaMDaeum
is mainly a pit^nre gallery, which became tbe property cd
tbe town in 1847. When the building originally erected
in 1662-63 as die assembly house of gchieUnd, was
bnmed down in 1664, moat of the pictures perished, but
the museum waa rectwed by 1867 and the collection,
eteadUy recnuted, ia again rich in tbe works of Dntch
artista. The gronod Soor also contains the city archives
and the <itj library. The maritime museum, eetablished
in 1674 by the Yacht a<i, is a remarkable collection of
abip modela, and the Society of SxperimenttJ Fbiloeopby
bae a considerable collectioa of instruDents, books, and
apedmeoa. At the nnth-west c<Hner of the town an area
of sevenl acres is occupied by the loolc^ieal garden, which
dataa koai 16S7. Beeidea the Erasmus Oymnaaiam tbfl
XXI — a
10
E O U — R O U
•doMtlaua iaititotinia eompriw an teadtaij of art Mtd
tedmieftl aaenoe, * nanl aehocd, «a indoMikl Mlkm^ m,
deal KiA dumb aartnm, Aa In th« Qrooto IfsAt (to
tbe Math of Om Hook Stnat) atuds tha broue atatne of
EmMiKu (Oenit QemtaX eraeted bjr bis fellow-dtiiena ia
1662 ] and bin twttiJioiue, now a t&vem in Wijde Eerk-
ttnaJt, ia diatiogtuabed by a Latin, iniciiptioD. Tbe
atatna bjr Qrefa of Qijsbeit Ear«l van Hogendorp (1763-
1834), a great Dntcb stateeman, gives tua oame to the
Hogendorpapletn, formed^ Boymansplein, behiod the
unuenm; in the "Park," which extends west along the
bank of the Maaa, is a marble atatoo bj Strackfe of Hen-
drik ToUens, the Dutch poet; and the NieQwmarkt ia
adorned with a foontain in memory of the jubilee (1863)
of the leetoration of Datch independenee (1813). Erten-
aive works for enpplying tbe town with filtared water were
coDBtTDcted between 1870 and 1875, the water in tbe
rirer and caoala being rendered nnwholesome by the
aewerage, the treatment ot which natntally presents great
difficulties in a city lying in great part below high-water
leveL Tbe moat important indostrial establlEbmeut is
that of the Netherlanib Steamboat Company, who are ahip-
owners, ahipboildera, and ongiaeers ; there are also eiten-
«re BOgar-refineries and a great variety of amoller factories
for tbe productioQ of lead, iron, and copper waree, white
lead, vamiahes, tobacco and cigara, beer and vinegar,
chocolate and confectionery, itc Botterdam ia, however,
not ao mash a manufectnring as a commercial city, and
its commercial pn^^as has been very striking since tbe
middle of the century. While in 1846 it bad only
321,764 tons out of tha total of 1,024,705 tons which
then represented the export trade of the Netherlands, in
1883 it had 1,940,026 tons oat of a total of 3,953,009
tons. In leSO it had only 27-9 per cent, of tha outgoing
Teeaela, and 36-77 per cent, of the tonnage ; by 1870
it had 35'60 per cent, of the Tessels and 50-37 of the
tonnage, and by 1883 13-75 per cent of the vessel^
and 49-08 of the tonnai^. Botterdam haa thus become
what Amsterdam formerly waa — the principal port in
the country. For steamers it is now, since the opening
of the new waterway through the Hoek Tan Holland in
187 2, only two honia distant from the sea, and the channel
ia deep enough for Teeeels drawing 23 feet of water.'
From 4471 veesela with a register tonnage of 1,668,700
tons ih 1873, the ahipping clearing from the Netherlands
by the new waterway had increased by 1884 to 8177
Vdsaels with register tonnage of 4,383,100 tons. n|>-
warda of 18,000 emigrants left Europe by Kotterdam in
1881. Besides its maritime trade Botterdam commandH
a most extensive river ttatSc, not ouly with the towns
of the Netherlands, but with thoaa of Belgium and Qer-
many. With Qermsny alone ita Rhine traffic amounted
iu 1883 to 1,706,687 tons, against 3,021,644 for all the
other porta of the Netherlands, On Jannary 1, 1885,
Rotterdam owned 43 sailing vessels and 50 steam-ships
with a united aggregate harden of 99,018 tona. Owing
' FnTioul; th« oiU; dlnct nj to tbs ■« vu by tbe Biiells
(Brill) Chunal, where In 18M tha fnimj hod gndnillf diminiihed
In daiith to S t«et it low wots and II or 12 feet it high watv. In
ISSd tlw mrfc* (or tb* mw wntflm; wm eonanmud, sad by
Nonaibn ISM tha auul from the Schaor (or lotbarn arm o{ U»
Hue) KTOM th* Bodt h«d bwn dug, Tbe eaiwwil pien ware oom-
Eikted to tba origlullj propoKd Isngtb of (tof[*th*r) 3800 matiea,
bat In 1874 tluqr van pniloDged to a totnl of UOO matm, thin
jotting «t Into n* m^ tor man thu ■ md*. OoDtn[7 ^ nrKtm-
tiona Uia Koor waa not tliDBg anongh to widen the fairway; and
weiki for tlill pnrpaie wan oamiBenoed In IS77, and at a Utei parind
th* width of 900 malcaa betwaan tha plen waa ndnced to TOO nietia
hj conatnioting an Innai pier north of tlia aoath plar. The whala
wDik baa ooat npwinla of 38,000,000 gnllden (£I,7$0,000)— isi
ariDiDw (spfBdadnp to ISTS, and 7tb«t«Mn 1881 sad 1884. Witb
Oh aiaeptlaD of ■ aaatribntbiB of not nion tban 1,000,004 tna Uw
d^sf BMt«td«ai, thantlnnmlusbatD paid by Oa itita
to the gnat monaae el MtipitiaD utd eonrnMoe the
berthing aecommodalioD of the port fraquotiy piotaatoA
small, Uwn^ by the woAa at i^enootd the langt& d the
qoaya haa of late years been extended by aboot 8000
metres. This island, two-thirds of wbidi waa pniehaaed
by the town in 1591 and the nmainiiig third io 165B,
waa dyked in 1795, and became the seat of a bOilding
which has been in anccesuMi a peat-honaa, a military
hospital, a navat college, and a private iodnstrial achooL
The Netherlands Bteamboat Company eatabliahe^, its woA-
ahopB there in 1825 ; and in 1873 the Botletdam Trading
Company began to constract the harbonra aikl wanhooaea
which have been purchased by the city. The popnlatkm
of the commune of Botterdam, which did not much exceed
30,000 in 1633, waa 63,212 in 1796, 72,294 in 163(^
88,813 in 1860, 105,868 in 1660, 133,064 in 1876, and
148,102 in 1879-60. In 1870 the uty contained
111,266 inhabitanta, the snbnrbs 3341, and the ahips
2478, and in 1884 the total, eiclnaivs of the ahi[i[iiD(^
■9,477.
1 to tha caallas of Wens and
I hid in mina by the fioek
I. gnotedtlie "good paoplo
■-— ■- ' Bererwijt, and
I.U.). ft
■bieh the former ■
party in U26. In 1ZSS Connt John I.
orRoCterdam" thesac
frBedom ftom toll In al _-
town'i ana took place, and 1 ieventb followed in 1009.
of Bredeiodawiied tha place in liSS, but bad to ai
amparor Uaiimilian in 1139, TLa Spaniuda were ii
from April SCh to July Sltt 157^ having gained entnni
treachery and p«tlj by foree (bm Motlay, DutA Jifpuft , ,
waa at a DieeUnff of the etatn bald at RotteMua in Jaiw 1674
that the ndief oE LeydaD waa detatmioed on, thonsh it waa ant
till 1680 that the towa obtained a vote in the laambly.
BOUBAIX, a manufacturing town of Fi^oe, tbe
second in population in the department of Nord, liea to the
north-east of Lille on the Ghent Bailway and on tlie
canal connecting the lower Deoje with Scheldt by' the
Marq and £spierre. Sevraal tramway lines traverse tbe
town and connect it with various mannfactnriag cenlna in
the neighbourhood. The population of Boubjiit, which in
1881 was 79,700 (the commune 91,767), if. almost entirely
manufacturing, and the trading frma of the town gava
employment besides to an equally large number of handa
in the vicinity. The weaving establi^ments number 300
(260 for woollen or woollen and cotton goods), the leading
products being fancy and figured atufb for waistcoata,
ttousera, overcoats, and dresses, velvet, barige, Orleans,
furniture coverings, and the like. The- yearly [unducttOD
is estimated at £6,000,000, bnt the annual tomover ex-
ceeds £8,000,000, if all the indnttriea of the place ara
taken into account. These include 70 wool-spinning mill^
13 cotton mills, silk-works, wool-combing eatablishmentB)
carpet manutactotiea, dye-housee, soap-works, machine'
works, and foundries. Boubaii poaseseea several interest-
ing churches, a library and art moseum, a most intereetinf;
museum of local industries, commnnal schools ol art and
mnaic, ao iDdnstrial school for weaving founded in 1867,
a chunber of commerce dating from 1871, a chamber of
arts and manufactures, a board of pnidliDmniee, and an
agricultnrsl and horticnltnral society.
The promarlty of Eonbui baa Its ori^ In tbo fliat fiictory
fnnohiaa, granted in USB by Chailea tha Bald to Fat« of K<ra-
baix, a deaoendant of tbe royal hooge of Britanay ; bnt tbe gnat
dev^opnient of the mannfacturlng indnitriea of uia town and ths
growth of Ita popijation data ttom tba French BevolatiaD. Tko
popnlation, which in 180* waa only 8700, had tiaan in 1881 to
40,271, in 1888 to 86,091, and in 1870 to 88,000.
BOUBILIAC, Louis Faingois (169B-1762X an aUe
French sculptor. Bom at Lyons in 1696, he became .a
pupil of Balthaear of Dresden and of N. Couatou. About
' yMr 1720 he aettled in London, and aoon became tha
It popnlar acnlptorof tbe time in England, ^te super-
Lug Qm eatablisbed mcceM of the Flemish ByabtMok..
RO U — R O U
11
Eb £ed M Juwn II, 176^ tnd «•• baiiad in thadnueh
of St l[utiiHa4&»-n(Ui. BobbiliM wm tmj ^ugdj
empk^ed tor portrait itetaM and bnita, ud tqwciaUj fw
MHdehnl moanineati in WMtmimtea Abfao^ 4Dd elw-
witn. Hii dief worka in the abbey uo die naaninwta
of Hudal, Adminl Wuren, IfwtW Wadc^ Hcb HigM-
in^la^ ud tLs dnke of AigyU, tiw laat-of tbsM betiw llie
finil irnffr irhifh fwitahliihnf Rmihiliir^ hmn m ■ ■riiftitfrr
Tbe ttitnea of QwHge L, Sir Inae Newton, and the dnke
(rf SotDHMt at Cambridge^ and of Cham H. la Ooldn
Sqguc^ Loodo^ wan also hia mwk, aa wdl ai maorotliat
ii^ortant pieoea of poAait KDlptara. ^ini^ CMlege^
CanbridgB, poaaeMea m awiea ot '
mwiben «f tbe eolleee t^ him.
Bonbitiao paw wad nracb akill in portnitan, and waa
tedmicaltr^ nal maatsr of his art, bat nnhapinlj be lind
at a liiDe whra it had rMelied a my low ebU Hia
ligana an aneasy, devoid of digni^ ud aonlptnnaqna
brawltli, and hia di^wriaa an tnated in amanMi mon
■nitad to r*"'*''"^ tun aoalptnn. Hia wawriTe atriviiiK
after dramatie vBeot lakaa away firam that npoaa of attt-
tude wfauA fa ao neeeMaiy for a portiait in marble Hia
moat oeM»ated woil, die m^^itingale monnment, in tbe
north tranaept id Weatmiaater Abbey, a marrel of
technical ikilli.iB only aaved frmn being Indieioaa byita
^lastJyhidaoiuMHi. On thiatho dying wife ianpreaeqted
u linkiiig in the anna of hei i™«Hi^, who in Tun atrivea
to mid oS a dart iriiich Death if aiming at her. lite
lower part of the moDtunent, on which tha two portiait
figiuea etaod. Is shaped like a lomli, out of the opening
door of which Death, aa a haif-roled ikeleton, ii banting
forth. Wooderfol patience and anafaMinlfttl tealiam are
lavished on the marble bonea ol t^'* hideona figure, and
the whole of the grim cooceptioD ia carded out with much
•kUl, bat in the wont poaiifala taata. The atatne of
Handel in the aooth tranaept i« well modelled, but the
attitnde ia afieeted and the fan void of ai^ real ezprea-
aion. ItisaatrikiDgproDt<rf the degraded taated the af|a
that theae palsfol works when £nt aat ud ware entbnn-
artjcally admired,
ROuGHEB, 7*AX Anom (1746-1794), a French
poe^ to wltom a melanohalT fate and aome deaeriptiTO
verae eqaal to aoytidiw written dming at least Uireo-
qnartoa of a centory Ey any of his ooootiynien ezce[rt
AsdrA Chdnier, gave some repntatloii, waa bom on
February 17, 174S at HontpelGer, and perished by the
t Aria on July 2B, 1794. He wrot* an
n Lonis XTL and Maris Antoinette, nined
the favour of Turgor and obtained a nlt4az ooUector-
ah^ His main poem waa entitled Let Moit ; it ^^)eared
in 1779, waspraiaed in US., damned in print, and restored
to a jnst apptedation by tha stndenla of literatore of tbe
SreKat centary. It has the drawbacks of mccely didaotdc-
aacriptiro poetry on the neat acal^ but mnch graoe
and spirit In parts. Boomer waa by no means anti-
revtdotioDary, iMit ill-luck and periiaps his nnpopnlar em-
nlojinent nude him a victim of tbe Bevolobion. He lay
m iviaon for nearly a year befon hia death, and went to
it OB tha same tambrit with CUoier. Tbb malicious wit
of Bivarri'a mot on tbe iUsooceaa of Ltt Mou, " Ceat le
piiia bean nantiage dn slide,'' is not intelligible onlen it
isaaid thatonaolthei - " - • "
shipwrBcfc.
BOtTEN, ft dty of Fnnoe, the andent ea^tal of
Iformttiidy, uid now the adminiabatdve oentn * '*
le moat elabocate paangea dsacribea i
department of Bdoe ^drieore, the seat of an arch-
tauu^rie and a oonrt ot appeal, and the haadqnarten of
the iJiird ooipa d'armte, atanda on a level site on Qie
ri^ bank of the Beine in 49* 36' N. lat. and 1* 6' K
kog. at Hit point wh«re it ia joined by tbe Aabetto and
the smaU Biviire da Bobeo ; it baa alae enpt suae dis-
tance np the hills iriiich encloas the valley on the righ^
and has an extnudoo on the plain on tha left bank. The
fanboorp by which it ia suTTonnded are, reckoning from
the east, Uartainville (on the left bank of the Bobee), St
Hilain^ Beanvcdaine, Bouvrenil, and Cauchoise ; and the
portion which Use on the left bank of the Seine is known
as the Fanbomg St Sever. Between the old town snd
the tanbonrgt runs a line of bonlevarda. Commnnication
between the two bankaof the riwis maintuned byferry-
boata and by two bridgee; the nppw bridge^ a stone attno-
ton^ ia divided into two parte by the Lactoiz island and
deotnated by a statne of Comeille ; tbe lower is an iron
soqieasion bridge wiiich opens in tbe middle to let matted
vessels pass. The railway from Havre to Fsris ccoisea
the Seine a little above Boaen^ and having passed by a
and 6S from HaviSb Another station at Uartainville is tha
*— ■"'■™' d the line bom Booen to Amiena) and at St
Sever are thoae (rf the lines to Paris and to Orleans by
ElbeiiL Since about 1860 wide ttreeta have been driven
■irangh the old town, and tramway linaa now traverse the
whole city and ita environa. Bouen. which is 78 miles
from the sea, stands fourth in the list of French port^
ec»ning next to Uaiaeille^ Havre, and Bordeanx. Em.
hankmenta constrocted ahmg the lower Seine have forced
tha river to deepen its own channel, and the land thna
reclaimed has more than repaid the expenses Incurred, ^le
fori is now aceeembto to veasela drawW SI feet of water,
and by msana of easy dred^ngs Uiia will be inereaaed to fn^
30 feet to 38 aoo(»ding to tha 'tid^ Thaaipanaion of the
bftffio.aa the improvements have advanced is ahown by the
following returns : whereas in 18A4 the number of vesaels
entered ind cleared was 6320^ with an aggregate burden
of 570,314 tons, the e(»ren>oading figures were 4S11 and
748,076 in 1676, and 0189 and 1,438,006 in 188a Vhat
ta now wanted la an Increased amount of quay aocoro-
modation, the old line of onays scarcely exceeding 1 mile
in length. The building of newqnaya and repairing-docka
for lane veesela la in active progreaa ; the port is being
dredged and deqiened; and schemes are under considera-
tion for a alip^ a petroleum dock, and com eUvaton.^
Bouen ha« i^pilar steamboat commnnication with fior.
den^ Spun, Algeria, London, Hull, Qcolot Plymouth,
Bristol, and Canada. A sunken chain allows boats to b|
towed Qp to Parisandheyond.
The popnlatioa of the six cantons of Boom in 1881
was 106,906, but if the snbnrba are included the figoia
may be stated at about 160^.
The imptnie landed at Booen incfaule cottons, wheat,
msls^ and petroleum from AmBrit-a ; coal snd iron from
TJnglfcnH J marble, oils, wines, and dried fmits frcm Italy;
winea, wools. Ores, ud metals from Spain; grain and
wool from the Black Bea ; grapes from the Levant ; rice
frc«n India ; coffee from the French colonies ; oil seed^
timber, dyewoods, foreign textile fabrics, Datoh dieet^
Ac Tbe articles of export oomprise grain, table fruits,
oil-seeds and oilcake, sugar, olive oil, jnlm oil, timber,
hemp, linen, and wool, marble, granite, hewn stone,
plaster and building materials, anlphtir, coal, pig-iron,
steel, eopper, lead, rise, salt, dyestub and other chemical
products, wines, Inandy, dders^ earthenware and glasa-
ware, machinery, packing-paper, to.
Cotton nrianing and wnving in mniti on in tin town, sad
tb* msinilactius rf rttwMwriM (cotton (tbrita mm with
~ " 'the dmaitount et Btiot InHriMn
-' \Dt tbuabi " '
dnd jara). In tliis M
gives aaijdoTawnt to ai
■ Ba Da CoMM, GHvrla ifa rAmuiatifn mmfirimrfrtmt
12
ROUEN
Iti iiabihboiirbood, Md oukciiin of 30,000 toiu of mttonuiniutlr.
In 1S78 Uisn wen In tha Bonen diitriet 1.09B,M1 apiDdlM
mmpjd ia eotton-ipinning, uid »Wil power-loopu. Htnd-loom
ountty di«0
In the
«Dgi^ad, produw...,^ ».-'.«—' J ~ — — — , — , — ---
nuaufutDTB al printed cotUn lud mwllen goodj £1 sstabliiluntnti
and WOO mrknun an emplajtd. Tbs udiuI prodiutior '
nrinbid calico unounti to 1,000,000 plscet, eich 105 mcmi ( '
115 yards) long ; 3^3 uUbliabmuit* nith 700 workmen «te de
to tbo d^eiliK of cotton cloth, and S2 eitxbliilimenU with 1200
worlD»D to the dyeing of cation thnad, tbo indnitrrbcing apKiall j
IB (abont
Toored by the qualiCj of the v
•oap worka, 7 c!
Engioofriug wor
■a, and wearing-looi
mug-m
which ai
>I, and
agricnltural
^ i to a total value o( £880,000,
Then a an eatabliibmcst at IMvilie fat reBning copper and mann-
factoiiDE copper pipea. Other work) at Ronen an diatilleries, oil
nilla, breacherlBa and clotb-dntning ealabliihinDnti, tanneriea, and
Aip-bnildiog yards. The town ia abofanioni forita confectionery,
Mpedally iuera i4 jwinuit Among UiB publio inatitntion* are
■xtanaiT* poorhooaea (1800 beds in the hospice g^n^nl), aerenl
theatrea, a poblio library (118,000 Tolmnet and £S00 1(38.), a thao-
logicol ficnltT, a pnparalory
Khool of medicine and phar-
macy, a prepuatory achool
for higher iuetmction in
■cienca and litentun, and
ichools of agiionl tun, boUny,
and forestry, painting and
drawing schools, kn. Sgiidea
the Grand Cgurs, which rana
along the bank of the Seine
above the ■
nsgnificent alma, the
the Conn Boieldien, with the
compoaer'i atatne, tha Solfer-
Ino gudeu in the beart of the lu
town, and the botanical gar- \
danaatStSanr. (O. MB.) E
ffuCarv-— KatamaoT Rata-
Rouao, vae modiGad by tha I
Ronune into Rotomagns, and !
by the wiitsra of madisnl :
l^tin into Bodomum, of which |
tha praient
DndM 0
itha t
i"X
tba capital of the Teliocaa-
aians, a peonla of aeoondary
raok, and it did not attain to
any aminenoe till it was made
tba cantn of Lugdnnanais
Seonnda at the ctow of the
Sd csntary, and a little
later the aeo of an anih-
biahop. Ronan waa largely
indebtad to ita Gtit bishops—
from St Hello, the spoatle of the Tulon, wbo flontiilied abont
2«0, to St Romigioa, who died in 11% Ten or twelve of
tboea pralatca havs the titla of Hlnti; they bnllt in their city
many ehnrchea, and their Ismba becama in torn tha origin of Dew
tanctuariet, eo that Bonen was already, at that early period, what
it baa nmalned to tha prtaent time, and in epita of ili political
character — a nligionaeily full of eccleeuutical monumonta. Tram
this [Hiriod there hat been proerved the precioni crypt of St
Oervaia, which oontaina tha tomb of the eecond biihop of Ronen,
St Avitian. Under Lonia "le Debannaire" and hia tacceaaors
tformana several timea aacked the city, but the conversion of
SoUo in 013' made Rouen the capital of Kormandy. and raised
it to a greater degree of pioapeiity than ever.. The first Norman
Idngs ef England lalhar nededed Bou^ in favour fint'of Caen
and afterwards of Poitiets, La Hans, or Angen ; bnt the monse-
teiin, the local trade and maunfactares, and the communal
organization, which the people of Roned bad aiacted from their
nvenigns in lllC, maintained a moat flonrishing atate of affain,
indicated by the rebuilding of •ei'etal somptnona chnrohea, and
notably of the gnat abbey whioh bad been erected in the 6th
century by Bt Tictrii, and aftanraida took the name of St Onen
from the bishop whoae tomb it contained. Of this restora-
tion there, remain a in the pieaent bnilding a imail apae of two
■lories, tha only Morman &>ginent of any importance preserved by
the andont capital of ITornuuidf. The union of this prarinc* to
France by Fhllip Angnatni in 1104 did no duus* to tha ^"'^•P'tity
of Ronen, altboogh ita inbabitanta enbinitted to tiieir new maatar
only (iter a aiage of nearly three months. To this period bnlonc,
important bnilding in the town, tha catliedtal of Notn Dame,
whoaa vast pile, erected between 1200 and 1220 by an architect
called Ingalnm or Engoamnd, underwent ao many alterationt,
reetsntiona. and eitendona that it took its final form only in
tary. It ia in plan a t«tin cross 127 feet in length.
with aisles completely surrounding
three great chapeU of tha choir. TL(
transept are of ei
. fa^de and thoae of the
lera. Each waa snrmonntod by two
ily one— the Bntter Tower (Tour de Banm>—
L. facade, frequently enlarged, embol-
ccntnl dooi
T^S±
!C109>
of tbo 12th cenloty. ■ gnat
Ili Gcthi
dose of the ISth and the beginning of
the 10th century. The width of the front ia increased by tha pro-
iectiDn of tha two lowan : that on the left hsnd, the Tour Sijnt-
Romain, was commenced about 1200, and raised lo a greater height
in 1106-1477; thaton the right hand, tbefiner.has a heightof 200
feat, and takes its name of Batter Tower from the fact that it was
erected between 1489 and 1G07 by meana of the money) paid by
the faithful for permission tii sat batter in Lent. On the north
Flan of Rouen.
nde oT tha cathedral an variova acoaasory bnildinga dating trant
tha Middle Agea, and the Bookaellen' Porta], corTesponding to "
the
> the .
bnilt ii
_ had before ita destruction by fin in
1822 a height of 480 feet The iron sjiire added in 1878, thontili
nntortanataly much too (lender, has nised it to a height of 485
feet, and thus made it tha higheat eraction in Enrope after the
spires of Cologne cathednL while more harmoniona in iti styls
than the eiterior, the interior of Ifotn Dame de Rouen presents
nothing peculiar in iti aichitectnre, with the eicaptian of the falsa
gallery along the na*» with passages running round the pillara ;
may be noted a (toe series
carved stalla of the ISth cenCnry, tie tomliB
Heniy 11. and Richard I., that of Bishop M . . ,
luver ^rt of the present atmctun, an elegant Cothie ttainasew
and vsriona tombi (d atcbbiahopa and noblea.
Philip Angnstns built a eutlo at Rouen, bnt it waa rather a
torlresi than a palace, and the kings of Prance never treated it as a
naidenoe; a round keep called Joan of Arc'i Tower still stands. Ob
tha other hand, notMng nmsins of the castle erected by Henry T.
of Endand when ha took poMcasioa of Bonan in 1418 after a aan-
tncy (tained-dsss windows,
tombs of tha Sngliah kinn
lop Manrilla, who bnilt tlia
R O U — R O U
deuai. but it wu uorer eranplil
cutli tbftt J«ii of An WB* uDpriwuvd und triad, ud am of the
mblic •rjuina ni ths p1*a wben iba vai burned iLin in 1431.
^rom that jMr beju AHrica of Att«mpti on tb? part of tfaaFrvnch
to facaptan iba tDVtt- RicardfUld in 1432 aod X^intraiUea in 14M
iailsd ID tpita of tha a«nt oonoirinco of the iobalutanU. In 144«
aHtiongerand bcttcr-pluncd DxpaditioD waa auccaaatol, andSomer-
aat, tba Enf^liah <Dn]inaDdQr» wma Dbllgcd, in order to aecnn ao
boDoarabls capitalation, (o mrriDder tba princigia! fortified plana
la Nonnandr. Ths Gn^h mla, Ihongh badJj lapported bj tho
citiiana, had not bsao without ita inflocnca on the proapaiitj of
Bonen. It was tb*D that tho prenat church of St Onin wu con-
linnad aod almoat completsd ; Ibe foiindntiaa wu laid in IMl,
bat tba choir alone liad b«n conatniFted in the 14th untnrj. In
apita of Lite joxtapoaition of the aeoiGd and third or ** radiant " and
'^Oombo^t" itrla of Gathio, lb* building taken allogsther pre-
aenla in ila general liuBi the moit perfect unity— a nnilT which evan
the oodem addilion of a fa^e with tvto betl ton-era hai (ailed to
mar, though no ngtrd wu bad to tba original plana 8t Ouau la
tha largMtehnrcharectad in ITranca during the War of tbeHnndml
Yaui ; in IcDEtb (4B0 feet) it eioaeda the nthcdmL Tba oeotnl
tomt, not unfike tha BntterTower, vilh which it ia conteuiponr?,
ia aeS bat high ; tha two new toweia with their apina ais aoma-
■hatlowoi. Atwt from itaanormoua dimeuionaand tha liohnea
of it* aoatbam portal, 8t Oueu bu Dolhing that uad long da-
taia tika viaitor j ita atjie la cold and formal i tha iuEarior, bara
and atriiipad of ita ancient atained glaia, wia ftirther deiiiailsd in
l$Oa and in 17B1 of Ita attUtic tCEamna and of almCBt all Ito old
ehufuh-foniltara, The organ dataa trota 1830, and tha rather
haodaoBM raoiiacnaD^mtbalgth MDlurr. Tba cloaa of tba IMh
ceatarT and the firat half of tha Iflth^tha raigna of Charin
nil., Louie XII., Frmoda I,, and Henrf 11., and the apiscopatei
of Cardinal EatoutUnlle [14GV1183), Cardinal Oeorgea d'Amboiae
(14B4-1S10). and hia nephew of the aama name (IB 11-50)— rendered
Souan lor nearlf a hundred jKti ths netropolu id art and taale
in Fnnca ; and it waa one of tha Bnt towna wham the aplendonra
At thia time "" -»--— t -^
mildlag that can bardli __. .
,_ .thedral and St Ontn. but ia jnaUf e
ir the nluo and variety of ita artiatio tt«aanrca, aucb aa
id work of the principu doora, partlj Bi«cnt4d by Jean
the bMOtifnl stained glaaa, and an orgsn-loft nached by
an opan-work atdrcBs. The apir*, 18S feet high, ia a atructure
of th* prtMDt eeotnry. Beaida the cbunh ia tha old pari&h
cenatatj, called tbaAltr* of Saint Ifadou, lurroonded tn charming
Rcnaiiaance ^lleriea and famoua for ita damt rnocoAr* formed by a
aEciea ofacolptnred g>»°T*- Other fhorchea of the aime period— St
Oodanl, 8t lVtrice,St Vincent— en no leaa intercating tnm tha pro-
fqaionof their arch! tacturaldetaik than rmmtbair luagniCcant litta-
ceBturr itained-glu* windowa. Tbore in two glaaa windowa in St
aodari.andarcgulBrcoUoctioninStFatrica; but thelatter, though
the ilaiBM glaaa in St Viueent, due to two iueompanble artiela of
Baan^ England and Jean Le Frina,— tlia two principal albjecti
txmM ij tlwm being the OiTta of Uetcy and tha OloriGcation of
tba YirtcliL St Oodud coutaina, beiidea, old freacoa worthy of
note. The church of Bt I^urent, no longer used for worafaip, and
the tower of St Andri are both of 16tb-ceutnry origin. At the game
period the cathedral recsired great embelllahment^ the central fliche
Qeomi d'AmboiM, ttie Tirtnoog mtniBtcr of LooU XII., cbo» tbe
ehapiS of the Virgin for bia place of burial ; he caaied bii mauaoleun,
oonatractad after tba phoi of tbe archit«ct Roland le Rom, to ha
toiapUMd Mtinly <rf marble, m well u hli itatna, which be ordered
hum Jens Ooqioo. Qeoifiea d'Amboiae the aecond waa, according
to bk dence, interred In bia uncle's tomb, but hia statue is of much
leM nldo. Hear thia tomb are two aikcn erected for tbe lordi of
BrM ; both an Terr nmatkable ; theoldeet belongi to the Gothic
atyla; th« oUmt, tha tomb of Diana of Foitien'a buaband, ia a
iriinalnaiiiii aintctnr* of the time ol Uenn' ll.i but, coutniiy to
what waa long belieted, containi nothing from the hand of Joan
Ooi^jan. ITDdai Louia XII. the arcbbiabojia of Ronen alao rebnilt
tluir palaoe at the aide of the catbednl ; but in apita of the rii:
sen M it! anbitectore this lordly manaion oannot compete with
the 'palKX of Juatice" bivnn in the aame year, 149S, when the
•xobaquerof Normindy, which hid been eitabliibed at Ronen in
ISOt, waa erected Into a pnrlnnenf, though the title was not adopted
tfll ItlG. TUa ■umptuooa bnilding ia in tha Gothic stite; bnt
- - ■ ■ eafnmtb< ' '" '
HHal d* Booigthannidi
h ondi^pdMdlj at tba
.Ur o
>nted
I, the ■ubiecM of which are boirov^ From twc
qulta diflennt ordera of thin^^the allegoriea from Petnrch'a
IVAH^fs >^ tba int«TTiaw of tha Field of the Cloth of Gold
hatWMa Henry Till, and Tmwia I. Hany other aecnlar Renaia-
mMua baildjnn in Rooan bear witiwa to tba great eomroercial
pnapatty oitlta citiiena and to th^ keen appreciation of tha
(/errimm) of St Bonn
This ipleudoor of t
ilfgion ; in 1ES2 the town wu sacked by
did not pnTent the Idafoe from obtai "
' 'ter_Evi?i
18
n itona and eapadntly In wood;
a unique atructure, tba *^florte
. of pulpit from wl
raised befon tbe p.
iiTed pardon and libartj.
H--l!n,i during the wars ol
PiolnUnti, which
. rm a footing there
\Tj IV., after baling Tainly baieged it, did not obtain
entrance till long after hia al^iration. To the 18th century belong
the cicbango auS the claustrj buiiainga of tbe abbey of St Ouen,
transformed into an hAlel de Tille. Uuch more iniportuit works
lecnted in lecsnt timea. hot in great part at the eipenn*
ic (Ud pictoreeque featoiw of the town. On the other
I of public utility or enibellishniant — churchea, civil
and mOitary eatahli-hnients, fonntaini, itatun, Ac ; and many old
boildinga have liaen carefully reatored or completed. Bouen, more- -
oret, has laeantly been proTided with mnaennu of antiqnitiea, of
arta, of ceramic art, of natural history, and of indnstry,— tbe
two being rery important During the Franco-Ocrmau War
citT wu occupied by the invade™ from Ctb December 1870 to
July 1871, and had to submit to bcaiy requiaitiona. AmonE
famoM men bom at Rouen are the brother* ComeiUc,
tenella, tbe loomaliits Arnand Carrel and De Ville
compoeer Boieldieu, the painten Jourenet, Beetout, ai
mpoeer
e architect 6
italong
tbe pbyiiciat, a
t,the
»idt,
id La Salla the
(A. 8. -P.)
BOUQE. Tfaii name ia applied ta Twiooa colouring
of a brilliant carmine tint, eapaeially when tued
The least hann/ul of these preparationa are
have Cor their basia catthamine, obtained from the
■afflower (CartAamia tmctariuM). The Chinese prepare a
rouge, Htid to be ftoia aafflower, sUch, spread on the cuda
on which it ia sold, baa a brilliant metallic green lustre, but
when iaoLil«ned and applied to tha akin asBumet a delicate
CMinine tint. Jeweller'a rouge for poUahing gold and ailrer
plate ia a fine red oxide of iron ptepared by calcination
from Bulphate of iron (green vitriol).
EOUQET DE LISLE. Cu-udb Jobbph (1760-1836),
one of the moat noteworthy of those aulhora whom a
single short piece of work has made famoua, waa bom on
10th Ma; 1760, at Lons-l&&unier. ile entered tha
arm; aa aa engineer and attained the lank of captain.
He wrote oomplimentary Terses pretty early, and appears
to have been a good musiciaa The eoDg which has immor-
talized him, the Marteillaue, waa composed at Strasborg,
where Bonget de Lisle waa quartered in April IT92, and
be is said to hava composed both the words and tbe mneic
in a &t of patriotic excitement after a public dinner. The
piece waa at Grst called Chant de rarmit du BMin, and only
receired ita name of Mantillaitt from its adoptioa by the
ProTeQ9al Toluuteera whom Barbaronx introdaced into
Faria, and who were prominent in the storming of the
Tuileriea. The author himself was nnfavoorab]; aflected
by that very event. He waa a moderate republican, and
waa cashiered and thrown into prison; but the coontor-
revolution set htm at liberty. Little ia recorded of hia
later yeai«, and he received no pension or other mark of
favour t4U the accession of Louis Philippe. He died at
Choisy on the 26th June 1836.
The ifanrillaitf (of which aa uanally giicn tii aoTenllis only
are Boogefs) is so weU known that no clabormts critir-iem of it la
neceesary. The eitraordinarily stirring character of the air and
its ingenious adaptation to the words aerre to dlagnise tbe alternate
pDvatty and bombast of tbe words tbemaclTei. Aa poetry tha
•iitb stana alous baa much merit. Roui^t de Liste wrote a few
othersongsof tbe aame Vind. and »et a good msny of others' writing
to muaic He also produced a pisy or two and some translations.
But hia chief literary monument ia a slender and rather raro Utile
lolpmo entitled SaaiM m Virt t m I'nm (Paris, ITH). llii*
containa the Uarxiihiae, A proaa tale of the seutitnental kind
lied Adtlaidt H Uonnlli, and a coltocijon of occasiaul poami
nrions styles and dabjs, from which tbe author's poetic hcnity
.n be fairly judged. It ia humble enough. Konget was a uiera
Uower of standiird modBla, imiUting by turns J, B. Rousaetn,
a ?onUino, and Voltaire, anii eioAgerating the artificial language
! bia time. In Tim et Lscy, which turns on a lomantic story ol
14
K O U — R O U
tlw Kn^Ui mnj bt Amain, lu ba* emtdrgd vltlnmt in tlii
InM knowing it to mikt ■ pathBtio nil^ect niavmaij lodicmm.
Bat ba Menu to hftn been ■ very mil maniiis ud karmlan
pHwo, and bs bad one moiusit of remarkabl* Inapmtiaii.
ROniiEBS, or Bousounx, ft town of BeJgiim, in
the ptonnce of Wert Flnnder*, on ths Uamdelbeke^ a
tribntuy of the Lj^ 22} miloi (ontli of Orteod on the
nilway to Coortni, From time immemorial it has been
the «Mt of a great weaving iDilaati7, wliich now prodncee
both cotton, union, nod linen goodn ; and it alao manofao-
torea in variona other deportmsnta. The principal boild-
inga are the towii-hoa««^ the college, and the chnn^ of Bt
Michel with its conapicuona Gothic tower. Tho popnla-
^on Vu 16,345 in 1ST4, and 17,319 in 18S4.
Bonlen ii montianed in S31 u Boilar and In H7 aa RoIlBit.
Baldwin' Till., connt oT Flandm, dkd in a booae In tba principal
aqnanof thatovnln 1120 on htaretnni from th* battla^Aogsn.
In mt Boolen waa tlie gcrna of a conflict batwwn tba Anattiaaa
and tba Ptanob.
BOTTH (RdK) ia the name bj which the iiraba call thd
Kootan^ i,«., all anlqects of the Roman power. £Hdd al-
JEtfm, " the land* of the RomanH," aoconlingly meana the
Roman empire. The parte of the i^ empire conqnsred bj
the Arabs were re^rded as liaring ceaaed to be Roman,
but the Weatem Chriatian lands were atJU called lands of
the RAm, without reference to the fact that thej had in
great part ceoied to pay any allegiance to the " king of
the RAm," i.e., the fiytantine emperor. When Ibn Ji^r
takes a paaaage in a Oenoeae veMel he spea^ of the crew
aa Romans; and in Bpaiaa"BamIya' meant a "Chriatian
alaTs-girL" Sometiaiee all Europe ia included in the ianda
of the BAm ; at other timea the northern nationa are
eicloded ; sometimes again the word means the Bjantine
empire ; and, finally, the kingdom fonnded I7 the Beljfika,
in lands von by them from Bymntinn^ la the kingdom of
the Se1jiib« of Bdm, so that Rdm comw to take the
restricted sense of Asia Minor. 80 AbnIFeda nses the
term. Ronmelia and RoQEnania in like manner mean no
more than the "Roman conntty" in a apeoial limitation.
ROUUANIA, a kingdom in the aouth-east of Enrope
between the Carpathians, the Fra^ the Black Sea, and the
Danabe. The Pmth and the Eilla month of the Danube
now form the frontier with Bueaia. West of Siliatria the
Danube is the boundary between Roamania and Bnlgaria,
while to the east of that point the boandary ia formed by
an irregular line paadng east by aonth to the mart abont
ten miles to the -aonth of Mangalia. Hie territory thua
ahnt o£ between the Daanbe and the Black Bea is known
as the DoKEDDJA (9.*.), and differs in its physical features
and prodocta from the rest of the kingdom. It was
given to Ronmania at the close of the last Rnsso-Torkiah
War aa a oo'mpenaatian for the territory of Bessarabia, eaat
of &e Pmth, which waa then reatored to Ruaaia. The
area of the kingdom ia estimated at abont 49,3I>0 equare
miles, which ia rather less than that of EngUnd without
Walea. The greatest length of the kingdom is from east
to west near tbe parallel of 46', along which the length is
about 360 miles. The line rtretching from north-west to
aouth-easl between the extreme points of the kingdom is
about fifteen milea shorter.
The crescent-shaped portion of the kingdom lying
between the Danabe and Pmth and the CarpathianB ia
tolerably uniform in its physical featnrea. The tonthem
part d the area ia a plain continnona mth that of
aoutheni Russia. Towarda the interior the aurfaoa risai
gradual^ but slowly imtil we come to the spura ot the
Carpathians. Hie Boamanian frontier on this <ide nma
for the most part along the very erect of the monntaina,
which have peaks rising to from 6000 to 8000 feet and
npwarda. lie lowest part of this plain is that which ,
Etretcbet along the left bank of the Xtenabet and tbia also I
ia the draartest and leaat prndnctiTa. Larga tneti of it
are marshy and subject to inundation, and even beyond
the marshy districts the aspect of tlu country remains
extremely uninviting. Agrionltnre ia nefilected ; coarse
grsasea ooenpy large arsos ; and the moat cfmspicnons
teatore in the landscape ia probably a mde well, auch as
ia eeea in the puntaa of Hungary and some pans of
sonlheni Boasia, where the general aq>ect of the country
is so like what we find hen. Farther inland, however,
tha ^ipearaoce of the surface improves : ogricultnre
becomes more general, trees (willows, alders, and poplars)
more abundant; on the atiU bif^er ground nearer the
Carpathians the outward aigns of comfort and prospnity
become more and more apparent ; the Tine clothes the
hill alopes ; plnma, peachee, and aoutheni frails are grown
in profuaiw) ; large foreata of oak, beech, and elm reach
to the hill toft, and various minerals f^nm an important
addition to Uie present and prospective reaourcea of the
country. At elevationa too high tia the foliage trees just
mentioned theae are sucoeeded by pinea and firs, birches
and larchea, which crown the monntaina to a height of
5000 or 6000 feet. Eitenwve as the plains of Ronmania
are, 40 per oeut. of the entire surface is more than a
thousand feet above sea-level, while the greater part of ths
northern (or Moldavian) half of the creecent varies from
900 to 1000 feet, almost all the reat of Moldavia b^ng
still mwe elevated.
Ihe aoperflcial geology of Boumania, so for as it is
known, ia extremely simple^ at leaat on tba left bank of the
Danube. Quatwnary depoaita are tpread over all the
plaina. Among these the most important ia the yellow
loess, which covers anch large areaa in Hungary also, and
which in Ronmania attoina in places a depth of ISO to 300
feet. In certtun part* the black soil of southern Bussia
extends into Boumania, and ia iniportant on account of
ibt richness, thou^ its depth is nowhere above 3 feet.
Advancing inland one meets next with Miocene and .
Eocene depomta, unti^ in ascending the slopes of the
Carpathian^ Secondary, Primary, and ciyatalline rocks ore
Bean to crop out in sncceaaion. The desolate plateau
of the Dobnidja eontraata with the region on the left
of the Danabe in its geology oa in other respects.
Its basis consista of crystalline rock^ bnt these aro
covered with sedimentary formations of various ages.
On the north this platean, which ia hilly and even
mountainous sinks down rather abmptly to the delta of
the Danube^ m congeries of alluvial marshes occupied
chiefly hj aquatic and marah-loving birds.
Of the riven of Ronmania (7 far the mort important
is the Danube^ which is navigable for large vessels
throughout its Boamanian reach, the firet obstruction to
navigation, the celebrated Iron Oate^ occmring just where
it enters Roumanian terriloiy. The breadth of the river
is of some consequence in view of the fact that it is a
frootiw atream, and the marshea on the left hank have at
least this advantage that they enable it to serve all the
mcH^ effectually as a natural boundary. The plains on
the left are taaversed by nomerous winding tributaries of
the Danube, but of theae the only one ot importance as a
means of MHnmnnicatioB is the Pruth, which is navigable
for email grain-eaitying Teasels. The others — the Beretli,
Jalomitza, Dambcvitaa, Olto — ore sluggish streams, often
half-dry, bat yet at certain seasons subject to inundations,
which tmfortunataly ooenr at a time when the crops are
so far advanced as to be liable to be much damaged.
In oonaequence of this the Qovemment has bestowed much
paina on the regulation of theae streams, and ths works
for this pnrpoae are rendered further serviceable by the
fact that the Bomnmiait rivers can be turned to account
tor irrigation.
„Goo<^le
ROITMANIji:;
),Google
CTn"DTTr i
,yGoo(^lc
),Google
KOUMANIA
Hw dinute «f Boomuuft is one of eztramM u ngu^M
tempentnre. Winter tnd mmmer ue elmoat eqa«ily
byiog. In tlie former te—on the thermometer maj link to
~ 15* Fabr., while in the Utter it may rise to from 90' to
95*. Hie mean temperature of spring at Badiarest is 53*,
BOmmer 72)', antomn SS', winter 27)', Spring how-
erkr, ecaroelT' ezitta except in name, the interral between
the cold winter and hot tommer being very short, The
aatomn, on the other hand, is long and it the moat genial
aeaeoQ of the year. It lafta to the end of November.
Being eontinnona with the Bnwian plain, Ronmaeia ia
eipoeed to the bitterly cold wind from the north-eaat by
which KiutherD Bomia is also scourged. Ia Boamaaia
this wind, known as crittU, blows on aa STerage 155 days
in the year, while a west or south-west wind, called the
aatlm, equally disagreeable for its scorching heat, blows on
an average 126 dayi. The roiofall it not exceative. The
nnmbar of rainy days in the year is about 74, or only about
two-fifths of the number round London. The summer
months ore thoae in which the rains are moet abundant
Snow is onfreqaeut (IS-dayt in the year). At regarda
■alntMity the bw-lying plaint near the Danube are the
wont port of the kingdom. Monh feTer it there prevalent,
and the tendency to sufTer from disease is increased by
the miserable cluracter of the dwelliegs occupied by the
peaaantiy of that district. The hootea are mere pita dng
out in tiie groond and covered over with doping rooft
formed of branehas and twig&
Tkne-toDrthi of the popoIitiDn ara dt^odtnt npen affiicDlturs.
Ths nhlii* oovsRd by Ioh* uid bUck wil its wlnilnbij ula[itsil
fat we Rawth ot cereals, ind of thas Che m«t impottant tn
Duias, wheat, and buris)'. Tbs methodi of calUislioD M« la &
lir^ eKtent primitlva lod Imptrfact, but gnul improTementi are
lokuig i^ce tbroDgh ths BppIicatioD at foreign cajnt*! to the
davelopmant of the lutiTs teaoares*. ImptOTed agnL-ultnnl im-
plflmante of all kmda hare beni Intmdiiaed of lata jean in gnmt
1 — m — ij _i — 1. _i.i_i. 1 1 '-"■iig a Yum
mban. Tha eU pleof^, «Mcb haa a
re leMmbliag a
a pcaiajitrT broagbt about bj tbe law of 1841, afid lik(
*tag by ths introdnction oirailvan, bare mnlCnJ in in eDoriDOD*
tncnaae in the amount of tbe prodacCuin of oereala. Romnania ia
one li the priacipid gralD-eiporting coonttiM in Sarope, and the
inereaaa in tbe prodnction Joit alloded to ia anaclently well Indi-
catad 1^ the Sgiina girea below relatiTB to the elportl of grain lo
the Onitsd Kingdom. Tba pat vartatioai In tbete figurap, thaegli
obnaoalv doe in pari to pohticil saiue^ likeirise nrro to f llnstnte
the chier dnwback nnder which Bonmiinlu sgricultoie labonri —
namely, the liabilitf to dronght
Bcstdea forming a raloable article of export maixe hmiaha tbe
chief food of tbe people. The great body of BoamaniaDS aeldom
•at meat aioept on feait days, and the Favonrite food ia a dith
c^ad mamaiiga, mads by boiling maize-meal and flaroarlng it
with a little salt. It tbni reaemblea the hominy or the Americani.
Ia addition to cereala many kinda of vejTaCables, including garlic,
melooa, and cncDinben, are grown. Henp and cola are also
iroportant producta, and tofclfco fUrniahed a conftiderabla article of
eiport unnl it *u made a monopoly of tbe lUte in 187£. A*
already mentioned, wine and nomtrous fmita an grodaced
foot-hiUa of the Cupatbiana, - - -
greatly inferior to wbit they
care in the cnltiTalion of th
lemUon of the wine ia ne<
growing conntry of tba Srat rank. ' A) It ia, "ino are ntimatcd te
cSTer only aboat 250,000 acrea, or about i|, of ths entire aorfaca.
rroni plnma the Roumanians titrict a atroog ^Irit known ai
tBHKo, and It ia cbleBy tor this that ths plnm-tree ia cnltiTated.
Ths rearing of domestic animals ia Ukewiaa an iiaportanl
iodaitiy, but it kaa not adrancwi ao much of late years aa thr
nowth of cereala. Tbe eiparU of cattle are almoat
n rearal for the c ,
caption ol the aptne popalation of the Dobniiija.
«.>,*tk f,r f>)« total furface of Roomania ia eatiioatad to
a prodadog Taluab'le timber tnea. Oaks,
fin, and basohaa ars aaid to be met with baring a diameter of more
thik t IWt at Qm height of n leet above tba ground. Tbs mm
ing to nsilect the prodocti are
to bo. Nothing, it ia aaid, but
and tbe prepuntlon and ps-
Doan. Dunair — '
—nad for their s
tbe chief
About one-nith of the
ba Bovand with forents prodadog valuable
iing chiefly used
wood, wMch ia hard and laatioi
le Coll^ ol Agriculture and S; .
Fereetrsn, 2 miEce from Bacbaroat, will help to put a clii^k nyou
thu ImprqTidence, aa it ia wtthont doubt contributing greatly to
thenromotion of Ronnianian aflrienltnm.
The mineral veallh on the Kouiirauiui side of the Carjatlilana
ia coneideiablo, bnC at preasnt thcrs are only tUnn niiuerala that
bars any great iniluitrlal importance. Tliras are rock-ealt,
petroleum, and lignite. Tbe aall mines ars a atatc monopoly, and
two of theni. It Ocna-Uare and Tslcg^ its psrtty worked by
conricts. Ths depth from which the ult ia extracted nowhora
eiceeds SOO leet Tlis average qnantlty of aalt aold annually ia
about 62,000 tons. Lignite Is important iuasmDch as it ia used
along «ilb wood on the railwnya, a* well aa in brtek and lims
L:ilna Coal la alio foimd. in soms placai erea at the lurface, but,
though one oi two mines have been a|iened, the total ptodnction is
insigntHcant. Oionrits, or foasll wax, ia frequently found tn
aasociation wltb lignite, but ia used ouly in amall qnnnlity by
itry. Among other minenla ars anthiacito, irou, hoIiI,
.. __>_...._ ._,._.. ._ . ■ there ia little douW
ads ecouomicalty valuable if
lately deTeloned.
- -■''■- ■ « hardly
ilpbur, cobalt, and arasni
tj^sL K>me Ol mese at least might be ma
the reaonrcoa of ths eountrj wars adeqnatelr
Bo tn tlie niMiuIacturing induatnea of 1 . __
worthy of mention. There are petroleum nflne
sugar rtfiacrics, numeroua iteim-milla for grinding flour, beaidit
larp numbers of lloaCiug maiie-niilla on the Dennbe ; but in
adJitlou to tbc« there are only a few manulaitorics st Qalatx.
From the a^'counc Just giren ot the products of Rsumsnia it
followB that the eiporta of the kingdom consist chiefly of law
pradOM, snd abors all of csrsal^ while the imports ars mainly
compoasJ of tniDU^turtd articles. Ths couutries with which the
tiade ii chiefiy carried on ars Austria (with about <D per cent of
the whole trade in 1883), Great Britain (abont 80 per centX
France (ahont 10 per cent), Germany (about 8 per cent.), Turkey,
and Rnssia. The foreign commerce of Baumania ia centred id
Galati, which Ea altnated at the bend of the Danube wbere the river
ODca more Inma eaatward on reaching the Qortbera aitremity of
tbe Dobradja plateau. From this oentre there ia one line of rail-
way leading Into Kuasia, while othera pasa through the Interior of
Roumania and connect with the Anatrian lints la the north and
aouUi oF Hungary. Tbe first Roumanian railway was that [mm
Oiuif^o to Bncbareat, opened in I860. In 1SS4 there were about
1000 milca of railway in tbe kingdom. The internal trade of
Homnania is almost entirely in the hands of the Jews. It fa
greatly hampered bv the eifstence of the octroi in all ^e large
towoa, almost all the necessaries of life aa well aa imcuriea bsiug
taied wken introduced within the municipsi boundariea.
Clcaden, IMi)i
SlatiiClet.
The spprodmats praportlan of culti rated and nnenltivatad land
in Boomai^ la given in pogoncs ( -- 1 J acres] as fcdlows : —
Cereala, gardena, viaas 1,M5,T0S
Paatnia and bay 7,e«8,«10
Foreata 4,029,M7
UneoltiTated 7,»74,8Sa
The aonnal yield of earols oF all kinda ia roueUy estimated at
16,000,000 qiurter*. The number oF horned csttCs in the MtintiT
ia about 8,Dd0,OOO.
' I ths Following were the valnes ot the principal articles
and export ; —
iF import and export :-
The total imports of Britiah bonis produce, mostly cotton goodi,
Ac, and iron, into Roumaniain 188S amounted to £1,S14,61V, and
ths total exports, mostly barley and maiis, of Voumania to uiust
BriUin to ^,G16,11S.
There were in 188* about 1000 miles ot railway eom^ta In
the kingdom, snd 3000 milss of telegraph lines.
The estimated popnlatioa of the ooentry is 6,374,000, Inelodlnir
about 100,000 Jews and £00,000 Oipaica. About fonr sod a half
millions oF ths popalation belong to the RoDmanian btancb oF ths
Orthodox Greek Oiurcb, and there are 114.000 B
aDdl^»00rI
ROUMANIA
CMBouhi,..
884,168
I. 8S,0«1
SO,«T
22,811
s S,0«
Ifedkol ind l^il prafeNiontiad dniggiita.. 9BS
Jtrtiin, mniciuu, and pablicliti S,lt>6
Prittl*, moiiki,>nd nmii 18,463
TariniB iaS,81B
Totd ^ 078,911
Of flu lunr citin Bnclianat (Bnenntt) Bnmbired in 18711
m,8(» inlubltuita, Jwa; »0,I2S, tmd QiUti BD,T88,
In 1S88 than iien i7t2 primary icbooli with 131,180 paplb,
S Dormtl Khooli with 830 pnpili, uid S< high iclioa!a with 7998
Spill, baides ths two ntiiTiinities of Bucliarest ud Just, can-
ning n pnfcHon ud mden and 706 atudenCi. It ii ealJEUted
that abaat 1000 TODng men receive their uniTerBity edooition
■bntd, mcKtly at Paiia. Thers is ■!«> a ladies' collegs, called tlii
Aajla Bflina from iU bDndor in iti pnsent form, the Prinna
Helena Cun, and accomraodatiog !S0 girl), msn; of whom an
orphani. Amauffit lesJDod iiistirutioDB the Boumanlaa Academy
elaimi the first place, and aioellent contribntioni on tnbjecli of
national and sciontific iatersst will be fonnd amongst its procecd-
lna(^4us^ Academiei EontaiUt 1S78 Mq.]. Tho acadfimj bnildicg
lABochanst oonbuDa the national UbTarf of oto- 80,000 rolnmes
■nd « fin* archaolDgical mniemn contaioing man; Old Dacian
anOqnltiM.
\a6 peace itnngUi of the jiemunent atmr osnaista of 1300
ofleen and 18,583 men, with ISO nun. Beaidee this, there an
On t«rribirial arm)', consisting of IKt.OOO men and 84 gnns ; tha
militia, consisttng of thlrtj-two r^menli of inCuiti; ; and Snallr
the bills n ihmsl Etm; Ronmaaian, tkom his twen^-lint to lua
(bcty-sizdt fear, is obliged to sem hia timo in one of the ibore
otegoriei. The total M the Romaanian forcta, ucloaiTa of the
in«) n tHBss, amounti to about 160,000 men and 388 gani.
MtdiMMt md Modtm SiHerf tf fralaiJiia md McUawia.
Ttonmania ia the name officially Bdo|>ted W the united kiiudDm
that oompriass thefofrntrpriucipalitiHofWalachiaand UoL&Tia.
Initi native form ft appears simply is "Bomania," npiwnting
the claim to Soman deaoent pat loniud by itainhabituitB. These
call th«n*etT*a " Romasi " or " Bumeni, " but by their nsiglkboura,
SbTonic, Onek, Hsgyar, and Oennan, they are nniTsnally known
bj one or other form of the word "VUch." As, howerer, this
tiach or Boomau race occupies a far wider area than that incladed
in tbs preeent Roomanian kingdom, it may be conTenient to poat-
pone the Tered questions coDDscted with its origin, migrations.
■nd distribntion for more general treatment noi^ the heading
TliCidi, and to cooflne onnelTsa on thii occsaion to Romnsnia
proper^the conntry between the Carpathians, the Lower Danube,
and the Black Sea, It may be sufficient here to obaerre thi^
■ucording to the couentrent accouata from various sources, the
gn^ plsJn* of the latn Walachian lad Uoldavian princips lilies
wen first oocnpisd by an immwrant Bonman population ooming
from tlia Carpatliian land* and thi present Tranajlvani* in the
ml* UiddU Agts. According to the Bnsrinn Seslor and '
eaiUsat Hangariau chnmiclan, the Carpathian r^ion, including
I of aaatem Hongary, wen oocD^ed bjra Bonntan("Bo[Dan'^
sUonat the timeof theH^yirinviaionin the Vthcontoiy,
On the other hand, the meagre 'umsls of the plaioi that lie on
- " ' ' isively Dccniried till at
IS may have
le Hagyirin
Mgre annsls .
rt bank of the Lower Danube sre ei
■ s 11th a " ""
ins. Wh
considered the deacendan
, I, Petchei
Bnlgariins. Whatever title the Carpathian E
to be considered the descendant* in tilu of tl
vinoiala of Trajan'* Dada, it seema fairly ascerta^ed Uut'the
pnseut eiteiuion of this saataramoet bmnch of thi
over the Walachian and Moldavian plains Ea doe .. „
movement fVom the Alpine regions to the west, effeoted for the
most part in the ISth and ancceeding centnrie*.
Waiaekia.—Frir the early history of the Walachian (Talachiaa,
orWallachfan) principality the natiTa aonrcea are late and nntmst-
worthy. Theaa eanicM rilly nduce thenuelns to a singls chron-
icle, a part of which appeui to have been drawn np in the 18th
caotnrj In Bnlnro-Slovem, and of wlildi two Uonman tnosiaticns
' m lesn tbeli^t. This "Hiatory of the Bouman land ainca
le anival of the Bomnsna" (Iitaria Htm Bonuuutei dt eUnda an
.,.. . ^ '^ ^TCi a pnds* wmonnt of flie ftnnding of the
bjlUdD] iTcfini, ririvoda of the Konmuu of
called "Chmnialeof Hanil*i*amodanifocgN7, and
Polidi, and Bymntitn.
In ISSO the Toivode Abnnder Baand or Btsavaba Mooeeded
Hongaij, lad tx fbortMn yeui Talltchia anJond mmidate inda-
pendenoB. Lonie the Qntt sneeeeded for a nue in natotiiig the
HnDgaiian anpremacy. bnt in ISCT Ae vtdrode Tlad or TlarSshr
infliSed inothar tsven detst on the Hungiibuis, and saccesded
Ibi a Ume in oortiiic llie Higyar bsn of Bereiin and thus Ineor-
plating Utile Tdaehis, the otmntrj wart of the Alnta, in his
dominiraa. Bobieqnently, in order to nt*in ■ hold on the loyalty
of tlie Talachlan Tolvoda, the king of Hnngsry inveated him with
the title of dnke of tei^ta and umlas, Ronman distriiAa aitnate
in TraDsylranla, and thn invsstltnn seems to have left its impress
on the tnditiaul acoonnt of Sadnl JT^n.
Under the Ttdvode iliroea (1388-1119), »Ih» prowess is still
eclsbnted in tta mtional fblk-eoDgi, VsUchii played for a whUs
a man ambitions part. Thia prince, during the earlier part of his
rdgn, soogbt ■ coniiterpoiso to Hungarian influence in the ulaae
allunce with Kiui Vlulislav Jagielto of Poland. He added to bis
otber titles that (9 ° count of SCverin, despot of the Dohindjs, and
lord of SUistTia, " and both Widin and ffistor snpear In his pce-
sesaian. A Walachian omtingBnt, apparmitly Ulrcea'a, sided tbs
Servian Enlai Idnr on the fatal field of Koeovo ; later he waa led
by tlie fotce of cfrcnnutances to ally hinueU with liia fonntr
enemy Sigismnnd of Hiui|nu7 nainst B^aiet, and in IS9A shared
with nlm the dlaater of NU^poIiK B«juet sabercjiiently invaded
andlaidwwtealngsjMTt of walaohis, but the voivode neoeeded
in inOieiina considerable loss on the retiring Turkic and the capton
of B^atet by l^nr in 1103 gave the country a nprievo. In the
internecine sttnggle thet tbllowed amongst the sons of Bttjazet,
Hircaa espoused the cans' oCMnsa ; but, though he thus obtained
for a wbue oonaidenble idfliKmco in the Tiukish conncila, thia
ptdli? evantoally drew on hi m the vennanco of Saltan Uahcmstl.,
who snooeeded in ndudng him to > tmntsiy noaitiDa.
Durlu ibt mooeeding period the Walachian prinos* appeu
■Itanatdy as the allin of Hangirr or the creatuns of the Turk.
In Uie Ister battle of Eosovo afl418, between Hnnyadi and Sultan
Unrad, the Walachian contingent treacberonsly aurrendered to the
Turks, tnit this did lot hinder the victorious sultan ftom massacring
the jnisonen and adding to the tribute a yearly contrihutian <»
30O0 >a*olins and 4000 diields. In liSS Constantiuople fell; in
I4±4 Hunyadi died ; and two yean later the sultan invaded
Walachia (o set up Ttad IV,, the son of a former voivode. The
lather of this Vlajl had himself boaa uotoriooi for his fkroalty,
but his son, duriiiK bis Turkish sojourn, had iiuproved on lua
father's eiampte. He was kncnn in Walaehia as " Dracul," or the
DevU, and hs» left a name in history ss Tlad the Impalt
of hia ferocious ss-vsgeiy ■' '-"-' "■ '■ ■•"
iceed belief. He is said to have
When the BultaD Mahomet^
jtWidin,
hul been charged wiUi Tlad'a depsailiDn, iuvailed Walaehia in
poison with an immense heat, he is said to have found at one spot
a fbnat of nlea on which woe the bodies of men, woman, and
children. The voivode Badul, who was now subatitnted for
this moaater by Turidah inSnenoi^ was constnlnad to pay a tribute
(^ 12,000 dncata.
The shiftiiu policy of the Walachian princes at this dma ii
well dsKTibed in a letter of the Hnngatian kins Uatthlaa to
Ckilmir of Poland. "The virfvodea," he writea, "of Walaehia and
Uoldavia Eswn alternately upon the Tmks, tlie Tatars, the Pole*,
end tha Hungeriaua, that among so man; tnast^rs their parody
msy remain onpuidshcd." Ths prDvalent laiily of marriage, the
frequency of divorce, and the fact that illegitiinate children could
succeed as well ss those bom in lawful wedlock, by multiplying
the esmdidatea for the voivodeship and preventing any r^lar
ayatam of succession, eontrfbntad much to the internal confusion of
the country. Tha elections, though often CDntrolled by tha Divan,
still constitutjonally in the hands of the boiara, who w —
Tie priacce follow
with violen
n pntander to the
-id sucoeisiMi,
mds. A Is
pe^d* into tbt l^ansslidne pl
at Ompulungli ud Ihsn at Argiah, Rsdol dies in
snccseded by a series of voivodee whoae nsmas and dates in duly
given ! bnt this lul; cbqitei <rf Walachian history baa bean
I8U and i
st this time the capital of the n
wi^ two stone caatlta. ITagul E
was a great builder at mouaateriaa, and, beside* erecting a man
olnirch St Argiah, which he coated with white marble, and ■
athedial st Tir^vist, adorned Uonnt Atho* with his pions works.
He transferred the dinct allegiance of the Walachian Chnrch
to Constuitinapla. On Nsgnft death, however in IBSl, tlio
taief period of comparative prosperity which hia arohitectnrai
works attsrt wi* trs^ally intetmpted, and it ssemsd for • time
of Hani's JOBIQ no ud HKOMKif. ud, Mading him ■ pMosw to
StuiKnl, nmoBdad Ki namiukta TnktA gntnam u flts Coww
■Dd TOkgM of Wibohta. Tta WibeUina ndrtid dapcntdj,
•tootod Bodol, k Uunaa of HmdI, mtrola, ud nooMdtd wtth
HmMikn bdp in MHUing Haboood Ba; *t QniMb Id Utl
Tha coBlllot «*• pcokuttl with m;tufartBn<i, hot in UU tb«
iloml appadttai of lh> VolwAlaso ta^j trtanqilMd In Am
ulbiii'o ncogiitloB of BodnL
But, thou^ Wilachlk Um woipod wmwitoa lato > TaUA
paahiUi^ tba Uttb of Holuw In ISM dnddod tho kng pn-
pondaniua afnufciA oralmL thil vuhttmata-^oatam —rni
M > trtoitt mala bt TbiUA opodltioM >ptut Hdmoj
and TmurlraBii, and wm axhurttd hr toBOaatl noddtfooo.
TniUik oMttm Wm gndoillr mUIw good lUr feotfi« <Ut
WiluUaa w^ ind uonnM vna rldif In tho town Md TiUias.
no tiitroda JJaaaOH, who nioaMdottn IHl, ud who Uka hii
^Meeimtn bad boi^t hii pMt of Iha Km, oairiad tho mna-
tdon ami hrthtf bjr inbodod^ ^nlt tho ca^talatkHH a Jtn&aij
goMd, aod bimiDg oot Ua pn—BJani- to Ua TniUah aDKxNtw*.
Mnnvhib th* ToridA gonnica M tho Bolgailan baai narar
coaaad to mtmi the «omtf]^ and ania It aoemcd •• it TalaeUa
mort aUn Ikalata of tba BaUwa rt^ and aaenimh to tba dinot
ttotttaOttoman. In tba dapth of (ha uUsnil dlatiaa
of tU pn^ M oa Hldkaal, tba am of Fttnubko, tu
tho txA diooitBir tt Am laalm, who had Sod to
» llaiaadat'a maahbiatlOBa, Bnpurtad at
a loan of tOC^OOO ICiIk IQiftMl aoKoadad in pnenriaa fro
Dm* tha dapoiltion of kia anaur and hia owa nominaflon.
■EhaSasloiofHicbaal'lbabaTC-OnS-IMDaaeandiralaehla
in miTanal bktinT. ^m naattat br i "
nw amptta Bndolpb II. bad oinad
._ -__._ __. .. ^ UtboiC prio .
^ - - tkraw of
BO0MANIA 17
of bla ratniBlnx pnmptMr Baala, wbo bad qnamUad *lth htm
■hoot tha mpmna owimwd of tha imparial timet, ntoaond Ua
mntdar (AogBit 1>, IWl). Thai ptriifiod Hlobad Oh Bnn la
tha takj-^i jttmtMiT "* ' — *— '" "■ '
[ Kniora, I
^anaymnla
Ihagasloacf^ — .. , — ,
Kb a Ifina a placa in miTanoI bktinT. ^m naattat br oation
waa bTwiablo. nw amptta Bndolpb II. bad oinad aoma
aataawaa ont tba Tnrfci, and Usmnod UtboH, prinao of
Tnnninili, had bean drlTM ta Tntkb aotntioas to tbio^ **
tba aJManoa to tba MHan. Bat Iha Bnt ohatwJa to ba
with wia Iha pnanaa of th* maoT wlOin tbo waH^ and Hi
had lawiiua to Hw anw d«Mta axpadiaot aa tha Maataasttii
at a latai data. Br pnrlaa CBDaart with tha HoldaTian *cJ*od«
Aana, oa Honmha 1^ ISM, flta Toifciih gnaida and aatUaia in
tb* two prindpilitfaa wrn* mmmmil. at a ghm dgul. Htohaal
Mhnradi^i tluoi "Waladilan Tinn" bf an aotnal InraaloD of
TWtiih t(RitDi7, aad, aUad In Bigmiuid Bttliari, neeaedsd In
WUacUabra
lS&
mdtn
Tddiah aodCHm-TMwb
* iDTHlon
deCMtod i At tt&r khan wlthdnw with tha loaa of hfa bnnrt
tMommt, ia. ia f " ' - ■
r^—^-'OA,.^ .
iwiant moaaPulka'tlHBawpda'' totnnda
TAlHbla widi 100,000 m
Hiehael witbdnw to
„ a Toiroda navnMd tba o&naiTa,
mcDt, and, pondag Oa main bodf of liii fioeaa Is Q» Dannba,
OTfctak llr narnacd and ont it to piMa«> a^tarinr ooonnasi
- an FAb nfaunad b> Oonalantiiiopla to dia, ft kaald.
(or lib in BO oSoa at vliich ba haid baan onabla to dapflvo Uoi,
U Ifn, oa tha doinitfTo abdioalion of ^nond BiOiori in
TmMrlnnia, lIiehaa^ in la^na with tba Impenallat (imaa nndar
Oenttal Baala, aad in omnlraaoa with tba Bama bnisban, attackad
uad dafaUad hia ineoaaaoT Andiaaa Bitboil naai Hannaniuladt,
and, addBgUmaalttbaiaiaaafaDnaunai^aBondhiapnKlaaa-
tioaaaptiaeaitfTnavlTasia. Ibo n^am conaantad to m^at
him Ilia " locom tanaaa par naa^miiaai, ' and tho aollan laUflad
Ilia (daeUoo. Aa tiiaso «f TinnlTania ba •^——"-^ diata in
ISM and MOD, aw^ bartat aipdlad tba Toinda «f HoldaTia,
Bidtid nndat Ui map* tiuaa {AsdnaUtln. Tba jparllall^ Oiat
lio abowad tar tlw ■»— — » and Saakln paita of Uw popolation
aliaaatad, howaTor, tha Tianirlniilan Saxona, wt» pMtarcad tha
dirait ujiuiuuaat of tha ampinr. Tho iimtial cuinmilwtiinai
OananTBaata laat ha anpuct to- tho dtaafeotad partr, and
Mirhanl «aa drivaa oat of' nauiytnnia by a ■iiiiiiaaHil larolt,
irtiila a Poliah am* mdar ZinojiU iamdad Wabdiia ftoa tlw
Holdarka aida. KlebaaTa eooinaa and laaonna, bawaT«, nanr
Kk a Maonaat daaartad bin. Ha naolrad to tbniw hinaalt on
tba ^paor, lodo to Ttfpm, woa «nr Bndolph b; Us aiogalar
addia^and, ifcUf aap^MwiflieiDd^ nappaand ia Trawjlnnla
' Lnrial gotwiNr. In oaq|iinelkm with Baate ho dalaatad Oh
aopKloc nannlnnka tonaa at OaiaaU, apalUac Sinmnd.
Bithort, riw had i^fai aadnd to ^ cniwn. and taktag oiio
biradnd and ttlj lli^ and httj-tn cannon. But at tha noamt
Ittf thaaauU naonreaa
. , tEiMa of HoDTBdi and
BoMmM fa tbBMiMlaofaaalwngiiiqpa Hot onl j did ha aoooead
In ralU^ haok tor a tima tba tido <d Todiah ooBqaaat, hot fiw
tha iM and lart tiaaln nodam hialorj ha ouitad what onca bad
baa Ti^an'a Dada, In tta wldaat aitrat, aod with it tba wbola
Bomnan laoa north of tha Daunba^ nndar a dn|de aoaptra.
Wabaal'a wUa noriko and Ua aoB Pctmahko wan <aniad off
btlo lUar oapthrHj, and flutan, of tba Baaaaraba boilj, waa
raiaad la tha nindaaUp of TalacUa b; imparialiat InfinaDON^
On bia dapcaitloB by tboPorta In 1010, than Cdlowad a anaiiBaInn
ofpalnaaa who, thoaxh atJU fin Iha naat part of Bonman oiigta,
boo^ tbair itooin&nant ot StambonL Walseblaa tontiBtanta
wan oootiimalv enolond bj Iha Torfca la tbair Polish wars, and
tha lattlwiiBirt «f Onati In an offloial oi nwnaatila eafad^ in
tba prlncipalitT pnrokcd grnn diacontaut, which on ana oecaaion
look tho bra </ a maaaacra. Tha laign gf tba f oiTode UatthJas
Baaainba, who ioeeaadad in ItSt, waa an Intarral of ooopantita
prauatl^ and Ita Ungtb, twan^-ooa }<an, lonna llaalf a panagyiia.
BedaaadadbimaalfanaoaiiAillyaaainitUa powartbl rinl TMllia
Lnpnl. Iha TOiTodo of HoIdBTii, and Ua Tatar and CoMd illiaa,
anil ftonnd a gcddaa kaf to TnAiib tolannoat H« appaaia as a
lawBlrar, liaaalatbig t6> AutHn of Jo. Comaanoa, and fonndad
aaij dmdlH ai^moDaftariaa. His laat dajt «
boworv, br an ontbnA &I aillltarj anaichr. On bii daatb tba
Tnitiah7«t«a9dnw<iBlUdba>TiaTOD Wabehla. TIm <dd a^ital
I oonddorod br tba IHran lo ba too nair tba naaorl-
_ —I .V 1 — 1 ^ accordingly ooDiiallad to
Tba —»->"»t»ii «Vfn t£ tiM
idM,.*^ onplmd tbau la
tlu nAa, w« anbii^ wi& Aa onkiiwtion of th^^
orar Oo Dannha aboTo and balow Tlanna. na WalauuB la
wall as tba HtddsTkn piinaa, who bad bean ilao brood to Mu
bla oontiDgsDt, malnlalaad a aeoret InlalUffHMa.wMi ^ bMlagad.
an intallijnnca oonUnoad bj tbo ndroda tebaa dtar Ua la&m
lo WalacEia. Aa rmpaior gnoled bim a dlplona iiraatin bin
Bonut tl tba omjJra and locopiiilsg bla daaeant tnm tha inparlal
an iw« bnadiwla tba Pota. His nndaaoa, howarat, pa^
petnallr peabxmod the Oceanian, and Walaabla aoj^ad paaea to Ua
UaathmlosC TUapaacafttliWaof IbaeooBtiTgnaiheTdToda
ba had tU sUiabction oT aoaliig tha bat part irf aTalaeUan BiUo
iaiae Ihan tba bat piinlinc-pnaa of tbo ooantrr, wUoh ba bad
ealabliabod at Boehanat . He bad alao caiued to bo eompilad a
blatoiT ot Valachia, and had aallod to tho conntiT maoT taaehaa
ot Iba Qiaafe laogoiv^ wbaae bpiiBaas tt ns to inicniet Oio aons of
tboboianin "granunai, riietorii^ and phUoaophr.'
ImmadlatalT on fiarhuiTa daadi tha boh" ** ~~^
from '""^■"H orar tho oSo* to tba Qna
highaa^ proceeded lo eleet Ui idalw'a an
1& Ti^dab cspldji paaba, then in Bwhana^ waa pemadad lo pat
tba nftan on nis btad fa token of Tqrkiib appronL and na
patriinh of Oooatutiiwpl^ wbo waa alao sraMnt, and &t mb'
biabap of Walaobia, Tbaodoalaa, oanaaeiatad bin togediar at tba
hi^ altar of tha eathadral, where be look tba oonnation oath to
dnota Us whole stiaigth to tba good of bia eooatrj aad leaaiTad
oaaEnoation ot Us Htle tnm Aa Siran, bnt tba aooosnt d
ooionatian cvamoor lamains an intanattiw iMidmatk {n the
oonatitaliDnal Ustot; of tha ooontir. In bla fi '
at P<()anTal^ Hiah, and Vidin bi 1«S«, It waa (olr br I
tbraa that tha imperial troopa aaoored winter qnartan
-■ ' "■ — ^ --- "■- b^fa ot Pnltata io I^OV 8n
tolt Tbati_... .., _. _
Branoonn as bj Us prsdaoeaaor in farthering the
of^PnlUn in 1!
' ■'''"S <V» aSaet
we* aBpIored ^
^ , the IntNsal %alt-
bdi^of thaeoMtn, «itii.wbat sooeaaa is beat unaieat ftom Aa
daaaiiptiaa of Wafadiia left bj tba Horandna IM CUaio, wbo
fiaitad the eoontrr in 1709 and apaM ie*ea nan Ibaia. He
deesribaa tU rtooaUM WilaoUan pL^ with tb riob Mitara% It*
an* ef bbIm aad millal, aod wooda *o ^BDetrieallr plaalad
and oaratollr kept hf Brmocmn'a order* Ast Udins in Aaa WM
ant of tba qoeatiaa. Batter and hooar waae axportid to lapptr
tha Grand Bignor'okltahaa at Blamboal; wai and eattle to Tantee ;
and the nd and white wiaa of Valaehb, notablj Aat of Fitaati,
to Tiaaathtnia. Tha WaLufaisn Jion** ware in danwnd aaMaaat
XXL — 3
18
BOUMANIA
Ihi ToriM raft PdIm. Hw Sflmlk Bd dMwIwra mn MOt-nlnM
i^^HradliddltluwuiliotauTniiidmaUiBnOTlnsM; than
vm wwnawilib nqiiiai ndDM 4t Haidu ; and Iron «■■ warkvl
Bnr IbjgaTtat His Qlpcf noaunniilty tm bonnd to bring HttMB
pVMtdairaghtofgoIdbraitlwwuIiiiitiettlMAi^alL Tbi'-' —
, ..... ,_.., -opei.pl.wjM*. J
TbtboUn
n man of Qum WMlthjr, liat Ibt eoajam psopls w«n to gniimd
„ ra wttii UxatfoD that « flialt utskiit ttomui Talonr 0S7 th«
nuu fontiiud." To anid tlu «nmtioo ol tbrir ral«n ntuubon
Iwd Mnieratcd to Tnujlnnlt and tna to tho ToAiih proTinca.
1%> pitndpal VaUcbiui d^ wu Biiobai«M (Bneamt), oontoininj;
a popDlatlan of about 50,000: bot> aiMptEn twolaqt«'haiu''i]r
webaati' Uli boOt t^ Braoconn aod bU pndMaor, ud the
naanHj-anolid pdaoa, vhioh had a nurblo tMrmt ud a fioa
■lidoiL Uw bowM mn ot irood. Tho odMr prindpil towni vm
TtnoTlit, tb* <Jdo«iltd, Ctrnoti, PokabaiU, auppUad bj BraoooTaD
wlAuaqiudu^ FUartI, Qhiai^tn, Bui dfVadi^ udKiuoTo,
th* cqilbl of ths baaat of that DaBW, vhara a flaa ban had alto bMD
bailL At drnpnlingn waa a gnat annoal bir. Tha dnaa of tha
mviwaa tbonraddrTorfciab mept tor thoir limtwHii cap*, fliat of
tba voaian bidf-Orotlrbalf-TiiildiMi. Tbaboueamnacnipiiloailj
dMn and A«im with (met hsila. Dal Ohlaro notioa tba gnat
toitatiTo ctpuitf <rf tba itat, both artiatio and machanlcalT A
ValaoUan & TmIeo had oopled aeraial of the [detnna (hat with
grait ^01 ; tba snni-platta and wood aonaTiBa tor tba now
proa wan enontad b; natiTe hu.da. Tha VaUciiiaita Imitatad
■nc; kind of Tnrldab and Kmopaan manolaotan ; and, thon^ tba
boian impoTtad finor glaaa atan Tanka and Bcihaiiua, a ^aaa
maunbcton bad baan aatabUahad near Tboorlat lAkb prodoced
a better qnalitjr than the Poliab. From thaSneharert pmImoI^
a nilatr cf eoeledastical booki, than wan laned In tba Rotunaii
tDuoaa a tmulation of a Fnnch worh aititled ' Tha Maxima of
tbaOriantalt" and "Ibt Bmnanca of AloEuder the Great" In
ITOO Branooraii bad a map of the coontij made end a ooppar
plate ogiBiins of it axaootM at Fadoa.
The pmpentT of Talaobia, bowoTor, nndra Id "Qolden Ber,"
aa BmuoTU aai knom at Stamboul, onljr iooaaaad tba Tnrliiah
•laotlona. In 1701 tba tribute waa iDcnaied'to SO, EDO pnnaaof
SCO Borin eaob.' In 1703 tba Toiroda waa nunnuiaed in penoa to
Adrianoplik and anfn mmt naort to eilxaoiUi *"
"^ftoDi-,
oonitrUi
Divaa 8hoTtl;afl«,theWaIaohiaiia«>
aapplf maion^ caipanloia, and ouer woiknen for the fortiflcatios
of Bwider, and, thon^ tiieaa and otbar demands wan imictaallT
mat and tha Insnaled tribnta ngalailj paid, the laltan finally
naohad en tha nmoral of bla too proaperou TaaaL Bmuoran
waa aoaosad U aeoiBt eomapMidanea with tha ampenr, the car,
the king of Poland, and the Tenetian npnbllo. of batnTtng the
Porta'aaaent*, of pnlaningTiisoTiatloBiicbanataBansIaencc^ st
acqnlriog bum and ealacea in l^ansjlnaia, of keerdDg a^nli at
Teoloa and Tlanoa, 1b both of which oEtlaa ha had biTeated lam
aau, and of itriking gold ecdns with bla afllgj, one of wbicb, witb
tlialagB>>d<mnTi.RTiHVBBiaiAiusAiiBiRai(coTlilR o. toktoda
CT tUHOIM TAUOBM TUmuFiH^ and baring on the mrene
tba onuFuad ahield of Valaohia ooptaiiUng ■ nran holding a cnm
In Ita beak between a moon and a ata^ la angraTed by Del Chlaro.
Thn wen of 9, 8, and 10 dnoata wdght. A caiddji paalia arilTed
at Bncbanat on April 4, 1714, and prodalnHd Kuicoraa " maxil,'
{.I., depoaed. Ha wai omdnctad to ConatantiDopiD and beheaded,
togettaar witb kia foot acpa. A adoa of the riTal Oantaanionian
lamDjr waa eteolad br tho paiha'a orden, and hi^ after axhaustina
tbe pffnoipaUtT (or nu benefit of tha Diran, was la turn depoaed
and eiaoatad in 1710.
Flom tills pniod onwaida tbe Porte inlrodaced a new lystem with
Nnid to ite Walacbisn rasaals. Tba Una ot national princeaceaaaa.
Tna offlea of TOiroda or boepodgr was said to tha bluest bidder at
Stamboul, to ba Cainiad ont from a porelj menenan petnt
^10 princea who now snccaeded one aoolfisr In npid aoceaui
^laprlncea _ ^._ ...
moaUr Oneka tana the Paoar qoartar of Omstsntiuople wbo had
■erred tbe palace In theqoalitrof drafpnaan, or beld aome other
ooort appointnunt. Th^ were nominated by imperial flrman
withont a abadow of free election, and were deposed and tnufemd
from one nrlnolpalitj to anothar, eiecoted ot r«appoint«d, like ao
many pesbaa. Ijke paSliu ther tvsly held their office mon than
tlitee yearn, it being tbe natum policy of the Porte to moltiply
■neb Incrativs nominationa. The aame boapodar was often
nappaintad again and a^a aa ba aaecemled io ndeliig tbe som
neceeaaiy to buy iuk hia title. Constantlne Marrocordato waa In
tbii way boapodar of Walaebla at aii diflbrent timn, and i«ltl on
one ocauion aa rnnnh aa a million Uon-doilan tor tha olBea. Tha
[irinoes thoa hnpoaed on the eonntty wen geneiaib men of intelli-
gence andcnltota. NIdmlaa Ihnocstdato, the tint cf the snias,
WIS himself ths antbot of ■ Qnak wotk on dntita, and main-
Itanltfng tha daya of " annrU," ot fotsad labour for the landlord, to
twan^-fbnr, and in 1747 deoreod tbe aboUtim ot seifdom. But
lb* new qrisB oonld not bat bs podDdtT* of griading qipnsno^
and tba awarma of "hnngry QteekUDgs" wbo aoeomuuiled the
fanaiiota luleis tnm Btunbonl made Ibeii rale doobly liatefoL
Hninbsn ot tba iiNiaanty aminaiad, and the popnlation impiillj
^iiinli.l.li»t In \i4i the nnmber of tai.paying famlliue, which ■
few yean bafon bad anwoatad to 147,000, had sunk to 70,00I>.
Yet tbe tarn won eontinnally on tha Incnaae, and the boapodiit
ScarUta Ohika (1758-01), thoogb he triad to win aome popataritjF
by tba remoral ot Tnikiab aattlara and the abolition of tbe
"rakariti'ortax on eattla and horaea, which waa peculiarly hateful
to tba ntaaantrr, raised tbe total amount of taxation to Si.OOQ.OOO
lioo-doElaiB. The Torks meantime nuilntainad tbeir iron grip on
the eonntry In boldiog on tba Walaehiaii bank of the Danube tbt
fortresses of OlorgBrot TninnI, and Onora, w
distilots.
inlTBOitwasnoorandbrtbaFortelwililraUdiia- „
17(10 tbe Boaaian gsnenl Bomanioff occupied tha prindnlity, tha
Uabopa and daigy took an oath of fidelitr to tbe am praas Catherine
and a deputation of boian followed. Ila liberties of the conotry
were gnaianteed, taxation icfonned, and in 177S llie nuotiatioiu al
FoksGanl between Ronla and the Porte broke down Decanae the
_, ._ „_jlodTS
[774, Roa^ aonsenlad to hand back the principaliliea to tbe
aoltsn, bnt by Art xtL aaratal aUpnlatiDna were made la broar
of tbe Waladdani and Uiddirtans. Tha pacmla of the priud-
pslltiaa wen to anjer all tiie prirllagea that tbay had poaaeuicd
nnder Mahomet Iv. ; they wen to ba fiaed fioa tribota for tnro
years, aaaome compeuaatlwi fot tbe mlnous afltela of the last war:
they weia to pay a modanta ttibota ; the ageuti <^ Valachia and
MaUaTia at Conalantlnimls wen to eiuoy the ^its of naUons, and
the Bosatau mlniilat at Uta Porta shomd on ooosslon watch oret tba
Interests ot tha prineipalitlea. Tlu stIpulatiouB of the treaty <^
KnUinfc KaimaidJI, though deflelsDt in ptadaion <du WaladUan^
(or Instanotilisd Do antbentla record of the prirHegea aqjoyed nndai
Mahomet IT.), toimad the badiot the fUnn liberUes in bolb pck-
ontinni]^ tUa nriaw to tnm ti
Iter priiHdpBliqr.
Jfobbniii.— Tba mention of Tlicbi oi
tbe cailiv Matoi; of tha
the boiden ot Oalicia in
1180 (Nic Ohoa.,p. 171) rirea inatgnond for beliaring that a
Bonman potnlatloa aiialed & Msldaria at leaet aa culy aa tlie dnt
iMltof tbe IStb oentniy. Dnder the anccesiire douioadon, Itow-
ever, of Peb^enega, Cumans, and Tatars, it occopied as yet a anth
ordinate podtjon. It waa not tilt 1362 that t£a Tstan, alieadj
waakenedby PolitbuaauItaDUthaPDdoliiDBide, wens eipelled from
Ihia Comanlan noion by the Tnna^Iraoiao roiroibi Andraai
I^aEkoricb, It la m &et to the period immediately anoceeding thii
erant that tbe first eatiibllibtaent of an ludepeodent Roaman atate
in Moldarla is nfnred by the conconeot teatlmony ot Holdarian,
Ennian, and Hungarian sonrcea.
According to the natire trsdttionsl scconnl as fint glren by tlw
Uoldarlan cbreuiclen ot tbe 17th and ISth centurtea (Orlgwlt
Urechiaand Ulron Coatin), Druoab tbe aon of Bogdan, tbs fonnda
of the Daw prindpatl^, amigrsted with his Ibllowan tawarda tbe
btad of tha Moldavian national
honnd who perished In tbe weten thi
MoIda,lsda.-. .-
and ttom bis taronritc
le of tiia rirer. Fnim
od who periahv
— Hnnnrlan ani , , _„,^
preciae, tna data of tbe aTriral of Dragoab, who otherwise appeara
aa Bogdan, In Moldaris appears to bare been 1310, and IQa de-
partun from Marmarca waa carried Out in deBhnce of hIa Hungarian
sniaTaln.
In tbe agreement arrirod al between King Lonia of Hungary and
tba amperor Cbarlea IT. la 1873, the roirodate of Moldaria wne
reooniiedeaadapandanoyot tbeorownofSt Staphan. The orcr-
lonlablp over tba country wa^ bowarar, oonlaated by the king ot
Poland, snd tbdr riral oUlms wen a continnal sonrca of diipate
between tba two fciiudamib In 141S a lamailcable anvament was
airired at between Bi^smund, In bis qnsUty of king of Hungaiy, and
King JagiettS of Poland, br which both partiaa eonaented to po^ona
tba ijneation of suiamlnailp In Kddarla. Bbonbl, howarer, tlie
Turin Inrads the eounliy, tna PoUdi and Hunnriaa tonsea were to
unita is aipalllng fliani, the Toiroite was to be densed, and tbs
Moldarba lairitories diridsd between tbe allits. During tba first
half of tbe 1Mb oantnry Polish Influence was nnpondenni; and It
was cnslomaiy lor tbe rolradaB of Middarta to do bomsge to tbe
king of Poland at Xsmanlac or Bnyatin.
In 14H On ndrode Peter, alannad at tha prognas of the Tories
BO U MANIA
t> ind Tiliehii, oOind Saltui
ifamto. On hi* aapotlUao, bar-
la 'tiMGiot,' HoIdiTti bceuua
la lou I
jtwiT trfbnt* ef JtOOO dnxto.
U b/Stephtn, bKnniia'tiitarat,':
miOabloiUik* toTukiPolLind Eniipriui. Thisngb-
nigu of tbii TDifode, wUeh luUd r«rt7-«ix jnn, Irom
14S8 to ISM, hi* OHUUB ud nnnniB iMTa &ilMl Uai. In Uh
tulj put of hb nigs Ii« appcui, in ■gTMraent with tba Tnriuih
■uttu ud tb« Ung of FoUnd, tDrniiig out tht Hnngtriw tmhI,
tha rasdoiu Vlad, bom th* w.i.-hi.» thnnw, and uuadng til*
cout atim of Kilia tad Catato Alb* or Biskgnod, tb* Torkidi
Akifnnui. In tlu utonm of U71 tta« nltui Hinmoat aotand
Uoldatis It tha hMd at an innr trtllnatld^b; Os Foliiii birtoiiu
a wttbdiav iota tba
DlngiH at 110,000 men. Toiireda Stapbra
intuiiH at tha appnaoh <€ thk oranrfaalidiig bdrt, but on Januur
17, U75,tiinudatbaj(inlb*)iuikaatLakaBakciTfatiaudgdBid
■ complata Tietorr orar tb* Tork*. Fonr Mikaa wtn un '*••
•lain ; am * banilnd bannan fall into tba HoldiTian ham
onW a faw mrlTan aniicaidad In nachloK Ifaa EWinb*
Hahoiiut Bpin entand MoIdaTia, tbinOng fo
thoDgh ntMMilnl in tha opgn fiald, tba Tr"- -
bj waphien'i gnarQla oiubnuht^
wen anla eooMtniaai la ntira,
HBcee^ol BodastuiiDnilonaf B^Biat Thnajaon
innaon of MoIdaTi* tmdar John Albert witb 80,000 1
diiaster, and (hoTtlj anarwudi tha -rolroda Stephen, aUed bf a
Torkiah and Tatar coDtmnat, laid mata th* PoIUi tanitoriea to
tha npper water* of tha VMlUa, and mnscded in annutog for a
tiniD tha Poliah mrlnca of Foknda that lay bctwaen the Car-
ipanry amnlaitioii, tba Holdariaa tamtorr
I from the rirer UilcoT, which formed tha
\o tba Dniutar. It included tba Cupatbian
, literally" the beechwood,"wb*™ lay flareth
arlicet reudoDces of the TolTod*^ th* maiiliaia
dietriet of Buluk (tha later BeaHnbia), with Kill* and Blalooond,
ud the left bank of the lower Dtumba ftom Oalati to tba Snlina
month. The goranunent, ciril aad ecclealaitioaL waa practically
the ama aa that described in the caw of Waluhia, th* officiali
bearing for tha moat part Slavonic (itli^ derired from the practice
of tb* BnlcarO'Vla^iIaa caidom. Tfag church waa Orthodox
Oiiantal, and depended traa tha patriarch of Ohada. In official
docnmanti tha langoaga naed waa tha old Sloiene, tba style of a
HcIdaTian rain beiaa yaldialuii t Voitvoda KMotlaii, priuoe
and duka (- Germ. "FUnt" and 'Hanoa") of the UoldoTUcha.
Tha atectian of the Toirodei, thoogh in the handi of tha boian,
wai strictly r^ulitad by heradiCary prifldpleiV "^ Cantemir da-
vaibe* tha extinction of tlie hooie of Dragoah in tha Iflth cailtnry
aa one of tha nnaattlbg cauiaa that moat oontribnlsd to the ruin
of the ODOPby. Th* lloldaiiau aimy waa reckonad 4^000 itrong,
and the caTaliy arm waa aapBcially formidabl*. V*i — "— -'
Sabanico, an aye-witnoM of tha atote of l£oldatia at tba
-'"^-'"liceDtarr, --•"—- ......
iwalla-fii
anUna of
of the 16th a
foldatia at tba b«ginnia|i
la at th* Interior prorided
a of their national
adopted the Tnrkiib.
In \KH Btaphau tha Great died, and wii niM**d«l by hia ion,
Bogilan "tha Ono-*y*d." At taod with Poland abast PokntSa,
■i eStcackua mppnt from haid-prtaaed Hnnnry. the
hemmed
IStt b*
in latnin fbr tb*
la nppMt fromhaid.p
■aw no bopa of aalMy aixapt in a danndant
InucingOttonwi Power, whiah alnad*
on tha Walachian and Crimean aidea. In
with tbo adi
Holdnia in i
■gTBcd tapay
•altu'aguianloa taneaarTatbanat . . _ . .
ot HoldaTia, to whicli oonntry Ih* l^irin bow pn tha
Kara Bogdan, from thrii Birt niaU. Tha taima o( IfaldaTian anb-
nuHion wa« (lutbet ngnlatad bj a Iinun ■ign*d by Sultan
BuleuDanat Boda in 1G3> by which tba ynrlv pnaaut or "bac*-
■hiah," aa tha bibnte wa* *a|ibonioiaIy sallid, waa Izod at M
docata, 40 bataea, and 9( fidooni, and tba Totroda m* boiuid _.
Deed ta Mpldy tba TsrUah army witb a eontfngant ot a tbooeand
men, Tba Tnrka pnianed mneb tba aam* poliw aa In Walashia.'
The tribDt* waa gr^dnaUy intnaatd. A bold wa* obtainwl on th*
S'S.'J.
' nvfPDi •tranriiidda on Holi
n,— in 1B38 Oatataa AIU <i
<rf tba latb oratDiy &» yak* waa ao haaTT
(IMS-ieSl) becania Mobammadau to anid lb* aalbm'a anger.
At thia period oeuBwa emlow* int*ilnd* in Holdarian history.
ialaad*, acquainted wiOi Oraek and Lntin litaratnre, and
of moat Enrap«*n lann^ia, aniaaring altanutelv aa a atn
■atronamy at Wittenberg, whither ha had bom hiTltsd by Count
'-It oTMalanchthon and aa a writer of
flndinft that bia Migem to
' ' "' ■ IB of Doet lam ,
Ha publlahed ai
pedigree, in *hiih, atartlng from " Hercnlc* Triptolamui * ha
wonod hit way throng tha royal Sorrian line to the kinship of
Holdarian Tomdea, and, baring won tha emperor f nrdinand and
JUbKt Laiky to Ua flnancial and military mppott, meceeded,
thoajb at tb* head ot only 1800 uTalry, in routing hy a boU daab .
tha raitly aapaiioT (ore** of tlie Toiiodr, and *icn in purchaaing
tha Toruab oonltmatiDn of hli ijnrped tlt^e. Bi aaanmed th*
■^la of BarAffc MeXlifllai, and (Inded th* Turkish itipulitlon
that b* *hoald dlamiai hia lorafgii gnarda. In Holdaria ba
^ipiand aa a moral lafonnai, aDdoaToniug to put down tha prar*.
Upt Tloa* of Ugamy and dirorea. H* arectod a achool, placed It
ondar a Oarman muter, and ooUicted diildnn ftom eraiy part of
tha eonntiy to b* maintained and edncatad at hia aipenoe. Ha
aieo bneied himaelf with tba coUoctlon of a library. Bnt hia tai«
— a dacat for aacb Gtmfly — war* eonrid*red beavTi bia orthodoxy
waa auipectei^ Ua fbtMgn eoanaallm datcatai In IfiSt tha
people rtw^ maaaacred tha Hungarian gnard% the fortidn aattloia,
and finaUy Jacob himaelf,
Tba aipailed Toirod) Alaxandar waa now raatored by the Porte,
the Bchoola were daatnyi^ and tha oonntry nlapaad into iti
normal atata of barbariem. Hi* aacsaMor Ironia waa prorcJcad
by the Porta'i demand for 120,000 docata ai tribota Instead of
60,000 a* baratoforo 1- -• ■-- . . -
three (ictoriea ha «
>d and dapoaed in
_ ofllklwdthaa
a mts* indepandaat a^t Into the UoUaTiana. Tha ItoMaTian
dominion waa now diiputad by tba Tranaylranlana and Pol*^ and
Ae in Waladkla at a aomawbat later date the Fanariota ngimt
seemed now tboroogbly artablidied in MoIdaTia, and it bacam* th*
role that erery thiaa nan tha Tdnde ahonld prMOie hia ranAima-
tion by a Luva hackihiib, and erory yaar by a nudlai on*. Hw
prinoa Tsal&a LapuL howarw, an Albanian, who autoeadtd in
ie34, ibowed great ahilitiaa, and for twenty yean aaco**d*d in
maintaining hia position on the HotdaTtan throD*. Ha introdncod
••Teral intetnal raforma, oodified th* written and onwrittea lawe
of the oonntry, esmbllahed a printing iweK Onak monaeliG aohooli.
and alao a Latin achool. Ha h
t tba HoldaTian Cbnnh into
■bowed oonsiderable IsTOur to tba Lattue, allBwiDg tt
ehtmbea at Sociava, Jamy, and Qalata
During tha wan hetwaon Bobledd and the Tnrka Moldavia fmid
itaalf batween hammer and anTH, and anifeTed tti^tfnlly monorer
bom Tatar danatatlona. Tha rolToda Daka was forced like hie
Walachian eonbmipoiary to ntpply a contiDgant ta tba alega of
Vienna In lABl. After SoUi^I'b death In I<M, tba bant of
HoldaTia tanad to tiia adTanelBg UnasoTlta power. In 1711 tha
ToiTode Demetria Oantamlr, randered danente by tha Tnrklah
txactioDi, oonelndad an agreement with tSe uu Pater by whieh
HoldaTia wea to baeome a protaeted and Taatal atata of Rnnila, with
lent of ita traffitioiial Ilbartia^aa TalTodeebip to be
aimythafrinoa iwaed a {ooelamatian eontaining lb
«f the Bnadan proteotonte and oellliu; on th* boian and people to
aid thair Orthodox dallTerere. Bnt the Inm bad entered info the
peopla'a aonL The long Turbiah Inrorlam had done ita work, and
at aMupTeachofaTurkiah and Tatar host the gnater part of th
HoldaTiana deatitad their roirode. The Bnaian e ' ~ —
unmooaaitnl, and all that Ciar Peter could ofl'er C
boian who had stood b; him was an asjlnin on R
In hit Bnaalan exile Cantemir composed In a fair I^tln style
hia Dacrlptio UoldariM, the coantetpart eo tar aa HoldaTia ii
concerned to Del Chiaro i contemporary deacrljition of Walachia.
Tbe capital of the Huntry was now Jassy, to which city SCephan the
Great had Cramferred hii court from BaoiaTa, the earlier Rnidence
of tha ToiTodee. It bad at this time forty chnrchea — soma uT atone,
aome of wood. Fifty years bafcra it had contained 1S,000 houeet,
but Tatar devaMetions had reduced it to a third of Ite former
■lie. The most important commercial emporium waa tba Dannbian
port ot Oolat!, which was frequented by Taeaela Item tha whole of
grain, Imtter, honey and wax, aalt, and nitre ; Kilia at the north
monUi of the Danube waa also frequented by trading Teaiela,
Inclndluff Yeuetian and Ragnaan. UoldaTian wina wis exported
to FoUnd, Roaria, TninsylTania, andHungaiy ; thatof Cotnat waa
20
EOHMANIA
„ . . . » of tll«
Irora ot u Diuj u 10,000 Mi . . . _
l^)Unll to Duitiic Holiiirti ptnpnrwu diridtd into the npprr
MunCryar T'rrm ibnu, uid th« Itnrsr comitiy, or Terra dijoni.
BflHtnbii had b«n detached from tba mt of tbe prlndpalitr and
plued iiiid«T ths dinct oontrol of ths (enakiar. It waa dfiidad into
bur praTiDcti : — that ot Bodnk, inbabitcd br the Hwai l^tan ;
thatof AMamao orCatataaAlba, tlisGiwk MonkaMioii, aitRxiRly
rortifled plaaa ; and thoaa of Icmalla and SitiL The voiiDdn
bw«d thdi nanioatkiD aotinl; to'tht Porta, and Iho great offioeia
bf tha nalm wo* appointed at thoir ditersUtm. Tbiisa nor* dn
Dnat LoMthatB (Jfonlt Lmfita) or duDallor ; tlu gonmor at
Lower UaldiTi^— rani<aiA( dt firm it Jam; tha gorenior ot
Vppa Ualdarb—roniinifit •<> ferra ib mm; th« llalmam ot
sammandat Is shiaf ; ths hi^ ohamberlain — Jrara& FaiMaiai ;
Iha great Sjathar, or awordboarei ; the great cupbearer— Jfanefc
FaimTiiCH ; and Uie treamrer, or Fiiiimiifii, who togither formed
the prinoe'a coDDcil uid were known aa Bviari di Svatu. Below
theaa ware a nomber of inbordinato officora vho acted aa their
aa boiari of the OlT*n (JMari eU Bit
formed br the pnnea, matrop
tdbown: tha£o£ar<d>SHiJHdecldadan thamdict; die
The hi^ coart of Jaatic«
pot itau declared the law; and the princapioiioaiieedaenteiwe. The
boiaia were able lo try minor eaeei In tikelr own naideiiOM, bnt
inhjeet to ths right c) appeal to the prlnoe'a triboniL Of the
ohineter of th* MoUtTiui peoids Oaatimir doea not ^re a reir
bvonnble aeeonnt. Hi^ best points were their luapilall^ uiiL
In Lower HoMaida, their Talour. Thej med UttU for leltera and
wire jnoanUr {ndalaiit, and thdr pniJndioe igiiut meroaatile
Bonmb left fbt commemi of the oonntiy In the haada ot
itnu^au, Jew*, Qreeki, and "htkt. Tlia pnte-bI«od Boninan
popnlatlaD, noble and plebelaD, tnhabited the etUat and towna or
lu^ Till^gi* ; Oa n«Mn^ wen mntly ot Ltttle KmaiaB and
HmuBuian nee and ware In • terriU aon^HoD. Then wu a
emuIdeTablo (Hsqr w^nUtloD, •Imoet enc; bolir IiaTlu Hrreral
£uar fci^tHjj in ua poanwion ; Iboe wwe moitlT asdtoa.
Rob thta period onwudi the ahaneter of tlie Ottomin dombia-
Uonln HoIdnielilnnnyiHpectaiialogoaitothstof Talechla.
"~' ~~3* of ToiTods or hoepodar wu bnned out h7 tha Forte to
J , — .-I.- n_.i^ . — .ij f^j^ qnartat of Con-
, . ._a prime* laoalTed Uiatr caftan of oBlce at
Conalantinoplt^wberathnwenoanieDntad by tlie Oreek patriarch.
Tba ijitem biToand TmiiA nctortioa in two iaij»i flMjracoee
el Qw ToiTode'i haHj orameiioo* at Stambeol nT* fba Fotle to
many hoatagea tor hi* ebedienee ; on the othir IttDd Uie prlncea
themaelna oonid not rely on any in^Mt due to &1111II7 inllaence
in KoldaTia itaeU. They wen thn* mera popMta of &» Divan,
and oooldbe depea*dandihitledwiththan9i*neiUtyB**o many
Chaa — an objMt of nnUih policy, a* each dufise w** a pntait
anew hry of "bMiluhiaL" TheeUef^lfiM that riwed
the oBoe during Ihia paiod ««n tha** of HanDCOrdito, ffliika,
CellimMihi, Ynilantt, aid HnraaL AlOoi^ (rom On wen
oondittona at thrir cnation tliey regarded the oonntrr la a field
for ex^oftaUona, Oitj were themeelvea often men of edMatlon
and abili^, and nnqntaUraaUy made aone ptaiieworthy atttmpta
to pnuote the ganenl enltore and wellbting of thaii anltJacte.
In thla raipeot, area Ibe F*n*iiole nglne wa* preteaUa to met*
paeha mis, while it had the tnttbn eonaaqnenee of preaening
intact the national fi>nn of adauniatratioa and the hiatmiu offioee
of KoldaTia. Gregory Ohika (1774-1777), who him**ir spc^e
n — V _j ii_ii — r — j^ , ichool ""flT""" '""" at J*«y,
theolwy wen tan^t in a ftehlon. He
t ot Ovman proteitant oolraiali In the
in Jeaqr, irtiare they
._ _.. _„._.. -jpoh. OaTra,a8wiH
who had been tntor to Prince Ohika'* children, and who pahll*h*d
in 17S1 an aooonnt ct the actual *tate of the principalities apeaka
rf«em* of th* b^aajajraaaning a taate for French litenitnre and
eren tor the woAs of Volbure, a tendency aotirelT combated bv
Uwiiatriateh -*" — ' — "^ — '-
TtM Baaao-
it CienioTiti. wi
« Bgaao-'Rnfclih Var, which ended in the peace of Sntahnk
Eunat4iit *■* &tal la the int^ty of Ualdavian tanitwy. The
koDie <rf Awtria, which had alreaih annexed Oalisla in 177i, pro-
Bted by the litiiatiim to arrange wlui both oontending parda* fbt
the paaoefnl ocnion of the Bukortai to the Hanabarg Donaidiy.
Thii rtchly-woodad HoldaTlan province, oonta&ing sndaTa, the
earliaat leat of the raJTOdea, and Caniintli
■ITTl occD^dad by Eapdioig troops with Rni
In 1777 Baron liiBKnt procnred Its (ornial ca
The Bnkovina la ■till an Anatiian pioTince.
Walaehiait and MoUavUm BiMarv fimn Uu Trtaiy i^KulAiii
KaimardiiinVH to At EdMiAmaU ofOu Awmoatoi Kingdom.
— The tnaty of Enlabak Eaimaidji wu hardly concluded when
it was Tiolated by tha Ports, which nfnaed to rsoogniie the right
of ths Wilechlan boiin to eleot their nlroda, and nominated
in from ths mltau.
faahum. Th* mnn aeapied latent on raetoting the oM natem of
goveninunt In Ita entln^, but in 17SS the Knuian npraantatl*e
eilneled bom tba aoltao a hattiaherit deOning non predeely the
llbertlea of th* prindpalltfM and filing tha anunmt <^ the annoal
tribnte— tor Wdaehia 41B none* eirluiTB of the talnm and other
' tolSO,DOOpiaBtera,sndforM "
JaMy in ITSSthe Dnlaater waa reowuiie
and thapriTilagaaof tbepriodpalltleaaaL.^
oonfinned. In defiance of trtaliea, howaver, the Porte ooDlinDed
,000 Biaatais. Bythepaacsol
[uiied aa the BoMian ftontier,
la ipeclBed hi the hatUaberif
to ohann Uie houodan alnioat Twly and to exact aitnordii
iutallattoD waaa^ Tha rarolt U haran (tain hi Bulgaria _
the cams of^nat injnrf to Welicbla. The tabala ra*a^ Little
aitnordinar;
^»__^ ^.„ rwanat riewi ikfia in "-' ■
gnat injorr to ._
lSOl-9, and th«r nr^ea wen aoocaeded by thoaa irf
tha ToiUah troops^ who now ewarmed onr the country. EnotioB
rollowed eiaeUoa, lad In 1B03 Enaaia raaolTed to aaaert her trsaty
rights in taTooi of tbf ot^reaaed inhabitanis ot tha p^idpsilties.
On (he aroaaaionof Oonrtantine YpallantI th* Porte wu unitishwd
to iaen* a n*w hattiahaif by which evray prince waa to bold bia
office for at leaat seven yeai^ anjee* the ViMa aatiaaed the Busdan
miniatsT that then wen good and sufficient grooada for hi* dejnd-
" IrreRalar ooetilbntlona wen to oeaM^ and all dtuena,
Ecepiian ot tha bi^an and dergy, wen to pay their ahan
-■- The Turkish troop* then employed in the prind-
1.. __.!__ ._. . tribnte remitted for ths
■ithOie
of the tribi
palltie* were to be paid oIT,
, . Enanan eiiToy at Conatuitlnople,
to whom wa* entrusted the task of watching over tha Walafhian
andUoidavlanllbaTtiea. Thia, itwill b*Beui,waa*TtlI*d Boaeiaa
ptoleotonla.
In 1804 tf-
lominion, ai
rneilanti. The Parte, inMgated 1^ Napoleon's ambasaadar
(ebaaUani, teaolved on Ynailanti'a danotlos, bnt di* hoqiodsr
■nocaedediaeacainngtoStPstenbarg. In th* war that now rasnsd
b«tw*en the BassiaD* sad the Tork*, the fonner wen fiir a time
encceaalU, and even demanded that the Buadan territory abonld
extend to the Danube. In 1308 the Bnaalana, then la oocnpatkBi
of the principalltiea, fonned a governing committea conaiaUng of
the metropolitan, mother bishop, and lonr or five boisn under
the presidency of OeoeiBl Knanlkoft lie aaat cf the president
waa at Jsaay, and Oeneial Engelhart was anointed aa vice-jinsidenr
_. „_.!.__. .^ «_... _ Bocbareai, however, hi ISl^ thi
at Bni^rest. By the pasee of Bi
ISlS, the
piineipaUtlas wsre restued to the snllaii nndjn' the former oondi-
tloBi, with the sxeepHcn of B«anMa, which wm ceded to the
ear. The PtnUi thoa bseama ths Bnaaian boondaiy.
1 hoapodan pnUbhed twether a code spplicabla tc
iiie Greek tnavetnaut was now beirinning, and in ISII Aleiaudet
TpaOniti •ntarad Motdavla at tha^ieed of tba HshBrWa, and pB»
vdled on Uia hoqiodai Hidiael Sntia to aid him In invading tha
Ottoman dandntoas. TosacnnWslschknheliLYpsilantiadnaesd
on Bnoharaat^ bat the ninc<^ nieodon VlsAmiiesen, who renre-
aantad tha national Sonman raaotion against the Fanarioias
lepnlaed his overtnrea with dw remark " that his bnaineaa was not
to marehsgaiastthsniric^hnttoaleutbeeoantzyof TUsTiatee."
yiadinitsam wa* slain by a Orsdc nvohllionaiy sgeat, bol
YpaOHiti'a lagioa was totally mated by tba TnHm st DiigUiBni,
and the rasalt ot his anterprin was a ^lAlah oooupatiiMi at tbt
pilneipalitiM. In ISSI the TnifciA boon «ho bad nimniittad
gnat exaeaata, wen withdnwn on the eomlwed rspneentstjons ol
Boaaia, Anstiis, snd Onat Britain. Hie eooatry, however, wsi
spin nvaged by the retiring trooi^ qnsrtenot Jsaay and Bneharesl
tmmt and the oomplets evscnstlon delved till 18U, when the
Biitiah Oorsrameat sgain lemonatisted with tha Porta. By the
oonvantian of AUarman between the Bnadaaa and tba Tuika ii
1838 tha priTHegea <rf th* ptIndBalitlaa _._,
and they were uain latifiad in ISU, nnder Bnatdan gnsrantae^ br
the peace of Adrianoplo. By thispaaosall the towna on the left bank
of the Danube wen restored to Qie pilncmlitie*, and the Porta
undertook to nfnin from G>rliMng any podtbm <m Uie Walaohiaa
aidaot tha river. The prinoiparitiaa wen to enjoy oomnwreisl free-
dom, and the right of eatabliahing a qnaianline cordon along the
Dsnubeorelaewnen. TheintermdoonatitatioaotthaeenBtrieawaa
to be iwalated by aa "Oiganic Law," which waadnwn op by aaaiiiii
bliea olbiahopaand bc^snstJ**sysndBiiehanst,actin(t however,
nnder BaeUu DontroL TheOiganisLawlhuselsbontedwsa by no
means of a liberal character, and amon^ other aboaaa maintained
the feudal priTil^n of the boiarL It waa ratifiad by the Porta In
1834, and the Bujadan anny of oocnpation tb«eapoo withdrew.
B 0 U — B O U
ThanTalBtlMUiymo>rMMBtgf ISUMtndtdfcim tk*Beamua
ot Hdiuht iBd TnmntnBii ts Utb """»«" cf tk« Tnualplo*
lu^iDd tU kaqodH wShI Btoida tasondal la *Ra(in>
ths rintfitrlnra I> WtkeUa, buwanr. Oa inttndi tmik ■ nan
TtotsntlOrm. na pnpla ivnifaM at BndwrMt ud dtOMBdxl
~^ {Mm BIInkd, after wtdnf kk rinatara to
bmlttad ta hioL lad ta nunlTafia, aad a
t»miMMJM nTKnaast wM bmad. Tha l^tfc« toaanr, and
Chenio b; Baaaiaa iifkmtej, OMWd tb* Duoba, aad a jdnt
RuHO-Tnrkkh diatUonblp natorad tba "Onanla law.' Bjr Uw
Balta-Unu oaonoticin ttltli the two Oovaninmta tgnei to tt*
Duliig tba Dunibian auaraign that
M ioafitad «B tU lab^tutL bat
imad la Oair uata.
B7 tka tnatr of Faria in ]IM tba ptedpaUtia wllb tbtfr ndt-
Ing pri*ll(Ba* WW* |JMad ondw tba coOwtlTC goatantea of tha
eoBtnedag vrnmn, wUla ia»alaliig tmlm tta aaaitBiiitf ot tba
Porter— tha hita OD It* pact ""gy'"! to napaot tka oomplata In-
dcpoidtaca of tbair bitanal adauaiMialion. A itilp of aontbm
BaiHimbiB «aa laatoCBJ to HoIdaT^ao a* to nub baA A* Kualan
fnntiar bom tin Dooab* booA. Tb* aziauc lun isd atatatia
of hath prin^aUtfaa waw ta ha wriaad to » lawpiaa caw»fa*kB
Bttii^ at BwAan*^ rad tbali waifc m to U aadatod b; a DiTaa
or aatloaal eooxdl «hich Um Porta wai to eoanika arf Jua la web
of tha t«o ^nrtuca^ and la whlA all abaaia of Valaohlaa aad
HoldaTiaD aodatr wan to b< lopiawLlad. Tha Konpaaa aon
miBOB, ia anirt^ at ila aoodBtooi^ «M to tab* lato couidan-
tian tba oplmioa axniaMMl hj Oa nanaMtatlra eoanoU* ; tha
Ponn wtn to eoDU to tama «ilh tha Tola aa to tba rasomnwa-
dationa of tha camoiiadan 1 and lb* 1m1 nmlt WH to ba ambodied
fo a lottiAarit of the nltan, aUA ma to Iw do«a tha datnltiT*
oiipafaMloa ot tha t«» prbdpatMH. Ia IWT Oa oommlafeB
amTad, aad tb« r*pr*a*ut»ttT* ooaaaO* ol th< t«« paapln *■* con*
Tobd. On tbdr ButUDg In 8«ptamb<r tba; it ooea pncaodad to
Tota with nnanioiitf tha Onion of tba two priBotpallHaa into a
riagt* (tat* and*r tb* nama oTBraianbt (Boonuula), to ba gorancd
Wa la*«lp Btiaea daitad ftoM 00* of the ninlng dynotttta trf
EnnK aad UTios a rii^ itppnauitittva aiaoaUj. Aa Powan
dadOai ta ando tba wk of wtfeoal noloa. B7 tb* oonvantiaa
eondadad bj tb* Saropaaa aongw at Pari* in l&H, It wa*
didilad that tb* pdudfalltfaa dnnld sontiao* aa boetoton to ba
Eremad lad bj it* own piinoa, Talachla and Moldirla wan to
f* aapante aaiwnblka, bnt a aantnl -—r— *— '-- wa* to ba
stibUahad at Pdcdiani for th* prapantloD of law* if oommon
intatei^ wUob war* iflarward* to b* anbodttad to tha laapactiT*
aaHmblU. In aeeoidanaa with thb maTOatloa the dapnti** of
MoldaTia aad Wahafaia mat in agponta ananbliM nt Boehanat and
Jaaay, bat tba abate* of both Ml anaainoodroa PriasnAlanodv
John Cnio, tbv aaaming^ha penoaal udaa of tb* two (ringlnall.
tica (JuoHj UW). A naw eoolmae* wta mw aanotMad l«
Fuia to dianiaa tba aftlta of tho nlndpalitiaa, and tha daetloB of
Priaoa Coa faaltr nUBtd by tbaTowtn and tlw Porta. Th* two
ataamhU** a^O* oential cooimiailaa wan p«amd HU ISO,
whan a dagi* aaavablr Mt at Boabuaat ud a *ii«l* Blalatn WM
(bmed br tba two ooootri*^ Tb* OMttral oomniailon ma d tha
•aoM tiBB aboliibad, and a eoaadl of atala ohornd with pnouing
hiUa aobatitDtad Ibr It. la Hit tsei, owlns to dlOlsnltl** batwaan
tha Oannmaat aad tba naaral aMauMjr, lb* lattar was dlMatTnl,
and a rtatato waa anbmfftad to uaiTanal loffiag* givlu graat*r
aatliori^ to tha {v^icai and CTMting two cibunMn (of aaaalon
aad of oapati**). Tb* francUn waa now aitandad to all dtlaaaa,
a nmnlaUTe TMing powar Wng naarrtd, howanr, t«r pnp*r^,
and th* ti>a»aulij wtn eouuidpalad (rom motd laboar.
In 1M6 a eonUet twoka oat batwaau tita Oorenuaaut and tha
pcopio in Boehanat, Mid ia Pobcoair ISM Prinoa Con, whoa*
nraoDal Tica* had nndand hiai dataalabia, «m fbnad to abdieat*.
Xta chambat* chsaa tnt ai hi* noeaaasr the connt of Flaodna,
but OB hia dwlining tba o(Bo* pncaadad to «1*ct Prloo* Chart**
of HobanMll*m-Bi«nai)nMn, who waa f
ioll*m-Bi«nai)naen, who 1
Boaaianb Apifl W. 1886. A naw oonatitatiiai waa at
. _. tiow intraduBod, It* pnriiioaa *M!ara th* nniTOBl
laltngt of tBi-i«jing dtinn*, mtaiatacial nqioDalblllbr, trial
by JDiy, beadom of aiaatiag laA patitlDfi, of ipaach and of Uw
fnm (axarat *• n^vd* b«*acll*a tt th* srintaalaad*), gntaitoiia
aad eonpuaocf niamj adoeatlaa, aad tb* right of aayhiin Ibr
poUtkal adlaa. l^fMattn powai b iharad batwasa tba prion
aad danbaia, hot bfllB nlatiiig to tin budget and amy matt
origfnat* wMl ib» diamb« of da^tiea. Then an two dkamban—
Ihoaamlna^theahambariifdnatlaa. Both hoaaM an alaotin
mi\ Ih* JaUlwi li rwiM ml h] nuaaa nf ileiiliinl mllniaiiiaiiniiii
.. . ._ , _. Ihia w^ into fboi
of wbiob electa a meubar. Tba two hIghaN of thno
l« mmi alset tha aenaton, each aeaalor btiag *l*ct*d Ibr a
of auht yaaiiL Th* mmi* alao iuclndaa a a^bis eartaia
_ . oOelilB and accleaiaiUca, and memben for th* inlTenitlH,
Tb* aaoato couiata at prcaent of 130 niemban, the cbambar of
0(178. niaaotenign haaa right of Tito raarrad to Ubi
TbajodioiareyatMni* buedon thaCodaJV^M'lM.
On tb* ratbr*ak at tha RWK-Turidih war In 1877 Bonmanla
fijond baiaalf odc« mtn batwaan bammer and anfiL TMding to
fint anfiw tha Ooramawat of Prinoe Chart** oooaiDtad (0 the
pMayef Bn«»lin twopaaaroa* Bonmaalan tairitorj, on tb* Bnd*r-
itaadW that th* aoMM o( hoatilitlea waa aa br aa ponibb to ba
ranlOTaa ootdda the llmita ot tha principality. The Porta, how
»nr, ntOaing to raeomiw that P '" ""' " ' ' — ^
eoDatnlnt pnolalmed the B
Jy molTed to ofler aetlTa wlitanea to the
HMatana A Boiunanlan diiridoD of IS^OOO men ondar Qeneral
Ctroat, took port in the ai^ of FIstiu, and th* Bonmuibn
aoldlera dbtinniahad flMmaelv** In th* opinion of ^* n]~^ —
potant iadM dik* br thdr bvniara and aDdonna.
aaaanlt bv tha BooBaalaa troop* oa tb* "ladonlta
Qriiltn braad in bat the tarabg poiat (< the aiw and ol tha war.
In dnpeooeofStSlabaaiboweTar, Soarialnriatidoa tbeirbona-
don of the etrip ot BeaaanUa that bad bem natond to MoldaTia
by tb* traa^of Pait^gMngBonuaaia "in aichann ° tha lalanda
of tha DuBbiaa delta, and the Dabradja, iriilcb hadbatn o*d*d by
thaaalbB. Thb tanitotbl Ka^aetneatwaa latiflad totbatna^
ofB*itin( ** "-'- -— — " "- •^-
aoaaenled
dpal!^ mltfeet totbapiorii , . __^ __
ahoald enjoy roaii^te nligbraa ftwadooi, a elana* ln**rt*d oa
-of tb* J*wi*b p*> " — ■■■— ^-' '— '- '-'-— -'—
.. _._^.. .._ _ adBnrioulTta
it (oreineia in dw coaotir ibould M traatad oa
at*qiiality. Ill Dannbbn krtr
ofnrfwtaqaalitT. lUDannl
janadietion of Uw toropoaa
1 Tognbto tbo MS abba
lired tb* rl^t of rtpn-
*xt*nd*d ftom tha month to the Ina Qataa Tha
ot^ag-atona to Boamaaian iadepeadenm waa nt ^ tha pmcbma-
lioD <m Marob S8, 1881, of Princ* Charlee a* king of Bbamanla.
aad OD Kay tl of tb* nnw year hb ooronatlon took place with the
BOUHANIAN LTTEBATCRE. Bee yi.*aaB.
ROUHELIA. The i»me of Bwunili, " tha land of tlie
Bonuuis,'' waa applied from the ISth oeDtnn downwvda
to all that portion of the Batkaa p«Qin»Dla wfotwarda
(tOED the Black Sea which was labject to Tork^. Hora
precisely it was the coDDtr; bounded N. by Bulgaria, W.
by Albuiia, and S. ^ th« Moiea, or in otJier word* the
aueieot pronaott, ittdnding Coiiitaiituicnil« and Salmks,
(rf Thtao^ llMtBalj, and Macedonia, llie name waa nltf-
matel^ wplied more cqMciallr to an ejralet or prorinee
coinpoeed lA Ceotnl jUbaiiia 'and Western Uaoedonia,
baving Honaatir for its chief town and inclading Eeerie
(Caatoiia), Ocri (Ochrida), and Soodia <Scntari) 1 and at
Ingth it diaappeond altogether in the adminiatntin
alteratioM effected between 1870 and 1S75. Eutem
Ronmalia wu constituted an antonomoiu province of tha
Turkish empire by the Berlin treaty <d 1678, to be
gOTerned by a Chriatiaji govemtw-general appointed bj the
■nltan for a term of five jam. In 1879, in otwdiance
to an international aomminion, it wai divided into liz
departmenti and tweoty-eigjit cantona, the dmottmenti
being HuUppopolu (187,(WI>), TUHbwwjik QHtOM).
R 0 U — B O U
HMftfi (1S4,36SX bU-Zum {168,WI() Euanlik, SU^no
or BUtm (130,136), aod Btugu (88,(M6). On tlu N.
and N.W. But BoonidiR ma bounded I^ Bnlgwu, the
fro&tior ranoijut ftlMis the Itt^ <rf tho Pftlh"* Uum^ not
kMfiiDg to' die mtenhed ; on Uu S.W. aod S. la; the
viliqFetsof Skkoibl ud AdiiMxniltv thebotdtrianda form-
ing part o( Aa Bhodope oi D«qwto ntoontain cjatem.
Hie dinet dirtanoe betwean tha oorUunoat and sootbmost
point aa the B\mA Bw ia only 40 uabtt, bot the actoal
ooaat-lJne ia langOiened by tha lamificationa of the Bay of
Bniga^ iriiidi ii the only part of the Black Sea aftnoiug
■anral good andmragea. The gnat balk of tha Eonntrj
belbngi to the baain of tha Harita and ita tribstaiy the
niiga{MinflaeDce at Adxianople, to the aoatfa of Boamelia),
tiwadi a certain part draina nmtlHaatwaDla bj aeveral
nuJletieaiBt. Cm lAole area la eatimated at 14,868
aqnare milca, and the ptmalation in 1880 waa 81E,S13, of
lAom 578,231 mie Bdanan^ 176,709 Tnrk^ 43,SS6
Oreek^ I9,6M Qipna^ 4177 Jawi, and 1306 Armeaiaaa.
Thk nm(»dennae d BnlgMiana lid in Septembar 1 885 to
lilippopolia lerohitiMi, idiidi rteulted in the princi-
" It Sonmelia part and patcel
''«d BolgariaBa haveaiQce
a Sernans, who invaded
AeiT tctritorj.
BOUND TOWESa A peeoliar clasi of lonnd tower
axlBta Bcattarad thioiighoiit Irdand; abont one bandied
ud twenty eumplaa atill remain, moatly in a rninsd
atatcv bat rightfittn cr tweo^ are almoat paitd, Theae
towen ware bnilt either near or attjoining a cborch ; th^
■ " 13tt
UB muippopDiB nTwaum, wjucu neuiH
pali^of Bul^ria declaring Eaat Tt«"""li*
of United Bnlgaria; and &e United Bolgai
bean anooeaaf bI in a war with tha Serrian
areot ^
m datea tma periiapa the 8th to tha I
many diaracteriaUca wbioh are conusoa to aU. Ibey are
bunt with walla ati^tly batter^ inward^ ao that the
tower tapaia towacda tha top. ^Ke lowv part ia formed
of atjid UMonrj, tha one doorway bung raiaad bom 6 to
30 feet above the gNmtd, and ao only arwaaaible by nMaoa
of a ladder. "Oib towera within are divided into aevnal
atoriea by two or more Hoon, nnally d wood, bat in
Bome oaaaa, aa at Eeneith, ot (tone t^Ofy ardwd Tba
aoceaa &(»n floor to floor waa by laddan^ no (tone ataircaaa
bung provided. Tha window^ which aia alwaja hi^ i^
are aii^ li^ti, moatly aidiad <» with a flat atone Untd.
In iome of the oldeat towera th^ have triaognkr top^
formed by two atonea leaning together, like the window*
at DeeAnnt a^ other pre-M(«mBa tmiMmg« in Englaod.
One pecnliari^ of the door asd window cfwninga in the
Iriab ronnd towen ia that the jamba are frequently aet
aloinng ao tikat the opening growa nanower towards the
top, aa in the tsmplea of aaeient ^ypt. IIh later
example* of theaa towen, dating from the 13th and 13th
centnria aie often decorated with chevron, billet, and other
Nonnan enrichmenta ronnd the Jamba Mid archea. The
roof ia of atone, naoally conical in ahape, and aomo of the
later towen are aoiniBd by a circle of battlementa. Tha
hei^t ot the loimd towna variea from aboat 60 feat to
138- tlmt at Eiknllen ia the hi^aaL Tha maaoniy
diSan aeeording to ita dat^ — tha ddeat ezamplea being
bnilt erf almoat tincat rabble woric, and the later oaea (U
neatIy-i<Hntad aahlar.
Madi haa been written aa to the nee of theae towers,
and the moat conflicting tbeoiiea as to their origin have
been pr<^>oaaikd. It is, bowevtr, fairly certain that they
were constmetad by (Ariatian bnildaa, botii from the tact
that tbc7 always are <x onee were near to a chnieh, and
alao becMiaa eroaaea and other CMatian embleoM freqne&tly
occor anun^the Kolptnred deeoiationB of tbeic doon and
windowa. Tbo original pmpoae of these towcm was pro-
bably for placea of refoge, for iriiieh the solid baae and the
door hJ^ above the grnitid seem (qiecdaUy adapted. Hmt
may also have been watch-towen^ and in later dmea often
contained bells. Their circular f<»Ta waa probably for tho
aake ot etrength, anglea which conld be attacked by a
battering ram being thus avoided, and also becanse no
quoins or dreeaed atonea were needed, except for the open-
ings— an important point at a time when tools for working
atone were scarce and impeifecL Both theaa reasrais may
also accoont for the Korman ronnd towers which are so
common at t^-weet end of chorchea in Norfolk, Snfiolk,
and Eaaez, thoo^ these have little resemblance to thoae of
Ireland except in the nae of a drcnlar plan. One example
exactly like thoae of Ireland still exists in the Isle d Han,
wiUiintbeprecineta<rf Peel CaatleatljacenttA the cathedral
of St Oeiman ; it was probably the work of Irish bnildeia.
There are also three in SooUaod, via, at E^ihdiay in Ode-
nay, and at Abtned^ and Brechin.
Roond towen wider and lower in proportion than those
of Ireland appear to have been bailt by many prohistorio
taoea at diSerent parts of Enrope. Uany examples exiat
in Sootland, and in the islands of Corsica and Bardinio.
Hie towetaof thia class in Scotland are called "brocbs":
they average abont SO feet high and 30 feet in internal
diameter. Their wall^ which are nasally abont 16 feet
thick at the bottom, are boilt hollow, of mbUe masonry,
with series of paaaagea one over the other nmning all
ronnd the tower. Aa in the Irifh towers, tlie entrance ia
placed at some distance bom the gronnd ; and the whole
aboctore is deaigoed aa a atnm^ioTd. The brochs appear
to have hoea the work ot a pre<;3iTistian Celtic nee.
Many ohjeeti in bnmie and irin and fragment of hand-
made pottei; have been found in and near dieao towen,
all bearing witneaa of a very early date. See Andtenon,
SaOamd m Poffim Tima, 1883, ai>d ScoOamd n> Sarlg
Chidian Time*, 1881.. Dnring the Bth centniy choich
towen at and near Bavenna were nanally bnilt ronnd in
dbn, and not nnlike thoae (rf belasd in their pn^Mrtittia.
The finert existing example is that Vhidi atanda by the
dmrdh of S. Apomnan in dasse, the old port of the ci^
of Bavenna (see BASmca, vol iiL p. 416, fig. 6). It ia of
bric^ divided into nine atoiica, witb mn^eJight windows
bekiw, thie»light windows in the nppw atorie^ and two-
Ul^ in the intermediate onea Th« moat magniflcent
tampla ot a ronnd tower ia the weU-known leaning tower
of Fiaa, b^nn in the year 1174. It ia richly deonated
with tien of open marble arcadei^ supported on free
ccdnmna. The anmlai plan waa much naed by Moslem
races for theii minBreta. The finest of tbeee is the 13th-
century minar of Eootnb at dd Delhi, boilt of limeatooe
with bands of marble. It la richly Suted on plan, and
when complete was at least 360 feet hi{^
Tha bat aEcotint of tb« Iriih Toood towoB b tliat given far
FrtTM, la hii JSalaiaitical ArMUdart tf Inlcmd (DnbliL ISISf.
Swrnlio KeaiM, Toutn mtd Tngiltt ^AiiiiMtlttbaid0rAUB,
1850); T^nah, EedaiaMlitalATtXilKliiTt<^lrdandCDabVa,iej6)i
BartfATtkiUcliininInl^lDi"'
>EL See BoitDiAV.
oE<DBblta,lBT8).
BOUS, or Bousi, Fbakcu (1679-1669), known by
ma translation of Iba Pa^ma ; aee voL xii p. 690L Hu
works aniaared at London in 1667.
BOnSSEAU, Ji.o«<m (1630-1693), punter, a member
of a Huguenot fami^, waa born at I^iis in 1630. He
was remukable aa a painter of decorative landacapea and
clasaio rnin^ aomewhat in the atyle of Canaletti^ bat
without hia delica^ of touch; he appoaia also to hava
been jnfln*™*^ by Nicolaa Ponssin. While qoite young
Bonaaaatt want to Bome^ wh«a be waa faacinated by tbe
noble pictnnsqDeiMM of the ancient nina, and spent soma
yean m painting Aem, blether with the surroandiag
landacapea. He thua fonnud his style, which waa highly
artificial and eonvantioitally decorative. His colouring
for tha moat part ia nnplsanaf^ partly owing to hia viiteiih
ROUSSEAU
23
treatment of akiw witb crade Unea ud onuigti, and hii
cbtftFoacuro uaoalij u much emggontod. On bu return
to ParU he aooD becamo dutinguuhed as a painter, and
was emploTed hj Louis XIT. to decorate the walla of hia
paUcea at St Oennain and Harlj. He wai loon admitted
a member of the French Aeademj of the Fine Arte, but
on the TBTOcation of the edict of Nantea ha was obliged
to take refuge in Holland, and hie name waa itnick off
the Academy rolL From Rutland he wai invited to Eng-
hod by the duke of Montague, who employed him,
together with othoi French painten, to paint the walla of
his |»laca, Montague HouH.' Konoeean wae also employed
to paint ardiitectnnil aulqectii and landecapee in the palace
of Hampton Court, where many of his decoratifa panels
■till exist. He spent the latter part of hie Ufa in laodtm,
where he died in L693.
Qciuila being t jaiatw in oil uid fnwm Boonun wta an atcher
of ■dine aiiility ; muj (tehieg* bj bi> hand (ran th* woriu of tha
Carjfci and from hia own dcaign* atill aiiat ; tbay an fitforona,
Ihoush too coano ia «w>cation.
nOUSSEAU, Jzix Bunsn (167a<lT41), a poet of
aome merit and a wit of considerable dexterity, wa* born
at Paris on the 10th April IGTO; he died at BmsseLi
on the ITth Uarch 1741. The eon of a shoemaker, he ii
aaid to have been ashamed of hit parentage aod relatione
when he acquired a certain popuWity, bnt the abundance
of literary qoarreU in which he ipent bis lifc^ and the
mUicions inTentiTeneas of his chief enemy, Voltaire, make
tuiy each stories of email acoonnt He was certainly well
educated and early gained favour with Boilean, who did
not regard many people favourably ; but authentic intelli-
^Qce as to his youth is very scarce. He does not enrm to
lisTe attempted hteratnre very young, and when he began
he began with the theatre, for which at no part of his lite
does he eeem to have bad any aptitude. A on»«ct
comedy, Le Cafe, failed in 1694, and he was ,not mneh
liappier with a more ambitions play, La FlaUatirt, or
with the opwa of Yami and Adanit. He would not take
these warnings, and tried in 1700 another comedy, Lt
Capricieux, which had the same fats. By this time he
bad already (it ii not quite clear how) obtained influential
patrons, each as Breteuil and lUlard, had gone with
Tallard as an attache to London, and, in days when litera-
toTB still led to high position, seemed likely to achieve
Eucceas. To tall the whole itory of his misfortunea voold
take faz more space than can be spared him here. Thay
began with what may be called a club squabble at a
certain Cafe Laurent, which was mnch frequented by
litemiy men, and where Bousaean indulged in lampoons
on his companions. A shower of libellona and sometimes
obscene vcrsee wes written by or attribated to him, and
at last be was practically turned out of the caf& At the
»me time his poems, as yet only singly printed or in
manuscript, acquired him a great reputation, and not
unjustly, for Bouseean is certainly the beet French writer
of serious lyrics between Bacine and Ch^nier. He had in
1701 been amde a member of the Acad^mie des Liscrip-
tions ; he had been oflered, though be had not accepted,
proBtable places in the revenue department; he had
become a favourite of the libertine bnt not uninflueutial
coterio of the Temple; and in 1710 he prtaented himself
as a candidate for the Acadimie Fran^aise. Then began
tte second chaptar (the first had lasted ten years) of a
history of the animoeitiee of autfaon which is almost the
Urangest though not the moat imjiortant on record. A
copy of veisee, more offensive than ever, was banded to the
original object of Rousseau's jealousy, and, getting wind,
cecasioned the bastinadoing of the reputed author by a
certain Ia Faye or La Faille, a eoldier who was reflected
> KoBtafiu HoaM stood on Uw alU ol the British llBMnm.
on. Jjigai procMdinge of Tarions tinda followed, and
RonssesM eiUier bad or thought he had ground for ascrib-
ing the lampoon to Joeeph Saurin. More law ensued,
and the end of it was that in 1713 Bouaseau, not appear-
ing was condemned par eorUumace to perpetual exile. He
actually suffered it, remaining for the rest of his life ta
foreign countries except for a short time in 1T3S, when ha
rotnmed ciandestinety to Psi'is to try for a recall. It
should be said that he might have had this if he had not
steadfastly protested his ionoceoce and refused to accept a
mere pardon. No one has ever completely cleared up the
story, and it must be adnoitted that, except as exhibiting
very strikingly the strange idiosyncr^es of the ISth
eentniy in France, and as having affected the fortnaea of
a man of letters of soma eminence, it is not worth modi
attention.
RouNeau's good and ill luck did not cease with his
exile. First Prince Eugene and then other persona of dia-
tinctioQ took him under their protection, and he printed
at Soleure the first edition of his poetical works. But by
fault or misfortane be still continued to quarreL Voltaire
and he met at Brussels in 1722, and, though Voltaire had
hitherto pretended or felt a great admiration for him,
something happened which tamed this admiration into
hatred. Voltaire's Lt Pow tt Lt Contr* is said to have
(hocked Houssean, who expressed his sentiments freely.
At any rate the latter had UieDceforward no fiercer enemy
than Voltaire. Housseao, however, wv not much affected
by Voltaire's enmity, and pursued for nearly tirenty years
a Ufo of literary work, of courtiership, and of rather
obecure speculation and business. Although he never
made his fortune, it does not seem that he tru ever in
want. When he died hia death had the liugular result of
eUciting from a poetaster, Lefranc de Fomptgnao, an ode
of real excellence and perhaps better than anjtiiing <A
Bousaeau's own work. That work, however, has high
merits, and is divided, roughly speakiog, into two strangely
contrasted divisions. One consists of formal aod partly
sacred odea and caniattt of the itiffest character, the other
of brief epigrams, sometimes licentious aod always ot
almost always ill-natured. In the latter class of work
Eoussean is only inferior to his friend Firon. In the
former he stands almost alone. The frigidity of conven-
tion^ diction and the disuse of ali really lyrical rhythm
which characterize his period do not prevent his odes and
cantatas from showing true poetical faculty, grievously
cramped no doubt, but still existing.
B««idca the Solean edition iiitntioiiHlaboTt, Boa
nputJishsd
LodJou in 1723. Ths chiel i _
II. A. de Lutont liai pabliihed {Paris, Ginkr, ISOS} a nsettil
tboogh notoom)>t«t* edidoa, with notes of merit and sbiwnpbicel
iutroQuction which would hava bs«n btttar if the facta had baan
mon pauctull; ud pnciaaif atatad.
ROUSSEAU, Jkui Jaoqob (1712-1 776), was bom at
Geneva on the 2ath June 1712. His family had estab-
liahed themselvee in that city at the time of the reli^ons
wars, but they were of pni« French origin. Rousseau'i
father Isaac was a watchmaker; his mother, Sunnna
Bernard, was the datighter of a minister; she died in
childUrth, and Bonssaao, who was the sectmd son, was
brou^t up in a very haphoiard fashion, his father being
a diMpated, violent-tempered, and foolish person. He,
however, taught bim to read early, and seems to have laid
the fotltadation of the flighty sentimeDlaltsm in morals and
politica which Bousseau afterwards illnstrated with ' hil
genius. When the boy was ten years old his father got
entangled in a disgraceful brawl and fled from Geneva,
apparently without troubling himself about Jean Jacquea.
The father and son had little more to do with each other
and rarely met. ^ Bouaseau was, however, taken charge of
24
ROUSSEAU
by liis motber'i lelatioiis ftnd was in the first place com-
mitted by t^m to the tutorship of ft U. Lambercier,
pwtoT ftt Bonsf . Of these times as of the greater part
of hii life there are ample^tails in the Con/atiotu, but
it mBij be u well to remark at once that this famous book,
bowevar charming as literature, is to be used u docu-
mentary evidence only irith great reserve. In 1724 he
WW removed from this school and taken into the house of
hia ancle Bernard, by whom he was shortiy afterwards
apprenticed to a notary. His master, however, found or
thon^t Um quite incapable and sent him back. After a
sliort time (April 26,- 1720} hs was i^prcnticed afresh,
this time to an engraver. He did not dislike the work,
bot waa or thoo^t himself cruelly treated by his master.
At last in 172a, wheo be was uxtaen, he ran away, the
trnaney being by his own account unintentional in the
fint Inilanee, and due to the fact of the city gat«s being
•hat ttrtier than oaoaL Then began a very extiaordinatr
Miiea of vftnderinjp and adventures, for much of whicb
Umi« is no Htbori^ bot bis own. He first fell in with
some prowlytizen of the Bonuu futh at Confignon in
Savi?, and by them he was Bent to Madame de Warens
at A""wiy, a young and pretty widow who was herself a
convert. Her influence, however, which was to be w
great, was not immediately exercised, and he was, so to
speak, passed on to Turin, where there was an institution
wpvatlij devoted to the reception of neophytea. His
aiperieneas here were (according to his own account, it
most always be understood) ^fBciently nnaatiafactory,
but he abjured duly and waa rewarded by being presented
with twen^ francs and sent about his business. He
wandered ^out in Turin for some time, and at last estab-
lished himself a* footman to a Uadame de Veccellis.
Here occurred the famous incident of the theft of a ribbon,
of which he accused a fellow servant — a girl too. But^
tliongh he kept his place by this piece of cowardice,
Hadame de Yercellis died not long afterwards and he was
tnmod ofC He found, however, another place with the
Comta de Gouvon, but lost this also tiiroi^ coicombiy.
^en he resolved to return to Hadame de Warens at
Annecy. "&» chronology of all these eventa is somewhat
obscniek but they seem to have occnpied about three
Even then Bousseau did not settle at once in the
anomalous bat to him charming position of domestic lover
to this lady, who, nominally a converted Protestant, was
in reality, as many women of her time wer^ a kind et
d«at, wl^ a theory of noble sentiment and a practice
of libertinism tempered by good nature. It used to be
held that in her conjugal relations she was even more
sinned against than sinning. But recent investigations
seem to Bhow_ that M, de Tuarrens (which is said to be the
correct spelling of the name) was a very unfortunate hus-
band, and was deserted and robbed by his wife. However,
the welcomed Bonsseaa kindly, thought it necessary to
complete his education, and he waa sent to the semin-
arista of Bt lAsue to be unproved in claaaics, and also to
a mnaic master. In one of lus incomprehensible freaks he
set off for Lyons, and, after abandoning his eompanion in an
efuleptio fit, returned to Anneoy to find Madame de Warens
gone no one knew whither. Then for some months he
lelapwd into the life of vagabondage, varied by improbable
adventures, which (according to his own statement) he
so often poTEoed. Hardly imowing anything of mnuc, he
attempted to give lesaons and a concert at I«nsanne;
and he actually taoght at NeuchftteL" Then be became
or wy* he becvne secretary to a Greek archimandrite who
waa bavelling in Switzerland to collect subscriptions for
the rebuilding of the Holy Bepulchre; then he went to
Faat, and, with recommendations from the French ambas-
sador at Solenre, saw something of good society ; then ho
returned on foot throu^ Lyons to Savoy, hearing that
Madame de Warens was at Cbamb^ry. This was in 1732,
and Bousseau, who for a time had nuimportant employ-
ments in the service of tiie Sardinian crown, vras shortly
installed by Madame de Warens, whom he still called
Mantan, as amatit e% litre in her ungular household,
wherdn she diverted herself with him, with music, and
with chemistry. In 1736 Madame da Warens, partly for
BouBseau's h^tli, took a coontry houses I^ CWmettes,
a short distance from Chamb^ry. Here in snmmer, and
in the town during winter, Roussean led a delightful life,
wliich he has deli^tfully described. In a desultory way
he did a good deal of readinf^ but in 1738 his healu
again became bad, and he was recommended to go to
Hontpellier. By lus own account this journey to Montpel-
lier was in reali^ a veyagt A CglMre in company widi a
certain Madame de lAmage. This being so, he could
hardly complain when on retnming he found that bis
official position in Madame de Warens's hbusehotd bad
been taken by a person named Vintxenried. He was,
however, leas likely than most men to 6ndare the podtion
of second in command, and in 1740 he become- tutor at
Lyons to the duldren of M. de Mably, not the well-known
writer of that name, but his and Condillac's elder brother.
But Bousseau did not like teaching and was a bad teacher,
and after a visit to Lea Charmettea, finding Uiat his place
ther» was finally occupied, he once more went to Paris in
1741. He was not without recommendations. But a
now syBtem of mnucal notaticn which he thought he bad
discovered was nnfavonnbly recdved by the Ai^6mie des
Bciencee, where It was read in August 1742, and he was
unable to obtain pupUa. Madame Dupin, however, to
whose house he had obtained the entry, procured him the
hononrable if not very lucrative post of secretary to M. da
Montwgn, ambassador at Venice. With him he stayed tor
about ^^teen months, and has aa usual infinite complmnta
to m^e of his employer and some strange stories to telL
At length he threw up his situation and returned to Pans
(1740).
Up to this tune — that is to say, till his thirty-third year —
Bonsseau's life, though continuously described by himself,
waa of the kind colled subterranean, and the account of it
must be taken with considerable allowances. There tiB,
to say the least, grave improbabilities in it ; there are some
chronological difficnltiee ; and in one or two instances hia
accounts li^ve been fiatly denied- by persons more or lest
entitled to be heard. He had written nothin^^ and if he
was known at all it was aa an eccentric vagabond. From
this time, however, be is mote or less in riewj and, though
at least two events of bis life — his quarrel with Diderot
and bis death — are and are likely long to be subjects of
dispute, its general history can be chedced and followed
wIUl reasonable confidence. On bis return to Paris he
renewed his relations with tbe Dupin family and with the
literary group of Diderot, to which be had already been
introduced by U. de Mably's letters. He bad an c^iera.
Let MuHt QalatiUi, privately represented ; he copied music
for money, and received from Madame Dupin and her son*
in-law M. de Francneil a small but regular salaiy aa
secretary. He lived at the Hotel St Quentin for a time^
and once more arranged for himself an equivocal dcanestio
establishment. His mistress, whom towards the dcee of
his life he married after a faahion, was Th£r^ le VaBsear,
a servant at the inn. She had Uttle beauty, no educaticm
or imdeVstanding, and few charms of any kind that hi^
friends could discover, besides which she had a detestable
mother, who waa tbe bane of Bonsseau's life. But ha
made hinoelf at any rate for a time quite hafiffj witli her,
uid (according to Bonsseau's accoitu^ tha i
ROUSSEAU
25
wbioh luM ban qoMUooad) flfe diildmi were bora to them,
wlio won sU OMwigned to the foondUng hoeiiitcL niia die-
regftrd erf raapwaitolitT vnw putlj {nujihed by the hm hi*
crilica aade of it wImh he bec&me celeUsted u a writer
on edmrntion end. • piMchei of the domeitic effectioiii.
Didwot, with whom he -beoame more ftnd more familiar,
■dmittad him ee % contribntor to the Siteyetapidit, Ha
formed qew mixieel prciJBcta, end he wae introdoced bf
d^reea to maajr people of mqIc tad infloetia^ emong
whom hi* wermeet patron for a time we* Uedame
d'^iiuf. It wu not, howerer, till 1749 that Bouaeeaa
made liu mkrk. The aeadem; of Djjo& offered a priM tor
an eawj on the effect of the ffogrest of civilinldoD on
morale. Koanaaa took ap tlie enlyee^ developed hi*
famou* paiadoz of the enperiorit; of the nvage atste^ woa
eaB7 ie volitmiiiona. It ia agnad that the idea waa
eaggeated when BeoaMan weot to paj a viait to Diderot,
who waa in priaoa at Tineaimea for hie LMr* mr U*
treating tiie aubjeot in the ordinary faehi<» and
Untied at \tj Dideio^ irito flowed hm the advantagee of
the lea obviooa tfeatmant, DMerot himaelf, who in au^
mattefa ii almoat afaeolntelj trn*tw<Ml)i7, doe* not cfaum
the anggeation, bat naae worda which implj that it waa at
leaat partly hie. It ia very like him. Tat eaaay, however,
took the artificial and crotchety totaatj of ibe day by
storm. Francneil gave Ronneaa a Talnable poat aa eeehier
in the receiver geoeral'a offlce^ Bnt he reeigned it either
from ooudeotiooBnea*, oc crotchet Ot nervoiuneaB at
n^MonbOity, or indolence, or more probably from a
mixtnie of all four. He weot back to hi* mnaie copying,
bnt the >«lona of the day were determined to have his
eodety, and for a time th^had it. In lTS2,he brought
ont at FoDtaineblean an operettai, the Drvmdti YiUagt, which
wu very mcceetfal He receired a hoadred lonis for it,
and he wai ordered to ecme to ooort next day. This
meant the certainty of a penaion. But Boiuaeaa't ahyneae
or hi* pMvMvity (aa before^ probably both) made him
dieobey the command. Hia comedy JfarruK, written long
before^ wee aUo acted, but nnanecesafuUy. In the Hune
', however, a letter. 5«r la MtuiqM Frattfout again
t vogne.^ finally, lor this was an important
bada g
' Bomhhi'b iQjhuDa m Tnaeh mii^ «u gn«tar than mlgfat hir
m upHUdfnm hIa vwy tai" ~* ' ' " ■- ^ ■■ • —
wiieh b* r«*d a f9*t Mon the Aeedteia da BdieoM, AefSft S3,
1743, wt laSHlou, but pnntballT wocB thu aed^ ud Ullti
to •ttnet attMtlan, tiimigh Uwp*p«rwiainitillih*dlal7i>ukl«rth*
Htbol DlmtUtiai tur la niwifiH ■milfnti. InUHfUnoai "{
da bnfliiDi,'' ha took tiui put ^ th« " bnffoBbta," m uatsd la i
qoBM of Ibdr ittaiABait to Iha Italiaa "ap(rabulIa,"uoppaMdto
Um ttne Fneck opsn ; ud, tn hla IMIh ntr la mtm^mt Franfain,
pabliiktd In I7SS, ha Indolgad In & dolant tlnde ictisit French
BBBa, which ha daeUrad to ba as coDtamptlble u to laiul to the cod-
dadin " that Iha ProuTh naithir hmn, nor aier will hiTe. uj mniiii
a tlkair own, or at laan that. If they arar do han wj, U will ha k>
Bnoh tbavoraafOrtham." Thla iinjr Ubg] *o annxnl tb* perfomian
■t th« Ofan that tha; hugad aad honad its aiithoi in *Bgf.
Baaaaeaa nTengad hloualf hf printing hia danr aitln antltlad
Laltn if Ha lynpteaMa dt CAtadtmii Jto^ala da Jftutfiw d au eovw-
nO— 4» rncAntn. HIa UUn d Jf. Ainuv ta of ■ vaiT ditlerant
l]rpa, aad doaa toll jnrtlca to tlia ganina of Olock. Hia artldta «
Bsaia ia th* XmcfOtpldiA dMl ttty lapericlallj with thg lobjaet
■») Ua DietiMMira d* JCungiu [OwiaTi, 17fl7), thongh adminhl]
writtea. It not tnirtwartiij, either m a ncord of tuta or aa > col
laetiaa of ecftlml aoari. In ail tbna woika Oa imptifection at
Ua M^nal adnoatkiB la palnfoUj ^>pannt, and hla eompoi"'
babar aa aqnal lack ut knowladgs, thongh hla nfinad laatc
daarif dlaplajwl than ae la hla Iltamf pown In tha LMiri and Dit-
Umaqr. Bit Bnt apoe, Zw M%m OatotKi, piiTataljr prepand (t
year with him, the D^on academy, which had founded hia
fame, annonnced the sabject of "Tha Origin of In-
aqnality," on which he wrote a diacounu which wa< nn-
eacoeeafal, bnt at leaet equal to the foi ber in merit
During a vieit to Geneva in 1T64 Itomiseau «aw hia old
friend end love Madame de Woreni (now reduced in cir-
cumstancee end having loet all her charms), while after
alluring hii attjuration of ProUetantiam he ww enabled
to take np hi* freedom aa citizen of Oenevo, to which bia
birth entitled him and of which he waa proud. Some time
afterward*, retonung to Paria, he accepted a cottage near
Hontmorency (the celebrated Hermit^) which Madame
d'£pinay haid fitted up for him, and eatablished him-
aelf then in AptU 1TS6. He apent little more than a
year there, bnt it wa* a very important year. Here
he wrote La JfomtlU JtUoUt; here he indulged in the
paaaion which that novel partly repreeenti, his love for
Madame d'Houdetot, ai*ter-in-law of Madame d'Epinay, a
lady atill yonng and extremely amiable but very plain,
who had a husband and a lover (Bt Lambert), and whom
Rooaaean'a bnming devotion aeema to have paxtl; pleaaed
and partly annoyed. Here too aroae the inoomprebenailile
triangular quarrel between Diderot, Ronnaan, and Qrinun
which ended Ronaaeon'a aqjoum at the Barmitage. It.ia
impoasible to diacnia thi* at length here. The luppodtion
leaat favourable to Bonaaeau ia that it waa due to one ol
hi* numecon* fit* of half-insane petulance and indignation
at the obligationa whicif he wa* nevertheless always ready
to inenr. ThtX meet favonrabb to him is that he wa*
expected to lend himaelf in a mom ra leea compluaant
manner to aMist and cover Uadame d'Spinay'a adulterona
affection for Qrimm. It need only be said that Madame
d'Epinay"* morale and Roniaean'a temper are equally
indefensiUe by anyone who knows anything about Mlber,
but that the evidence as to the exact influence of both
on thift particular traneaction ia hopeleaaly ineonclosiva.
Diderot aeeme to have been guilty of nothing but thought-
le^neae (if of that) in lending himaelf to a acheme of the
Le Tasaenrs, mother and daughter, for getting Bouaeeaa
out of the aolitnde of the Hermitage. At any rate Bone-
eean quitted the Hermitage in the winter, and eetabliahed
himaelf at Hontloui* in the neighbonrhood.
Hitherto Rooaseau'* behavioai had freqaently made him
enemies, but hM writinge hod for the moat part made him
friends. Tha quarrel mth Madame d'£pinay, with Kderot,
and through them with the philoaophe pai^ rerenedtbia,
la^7mtpiie»MHa»Letlr«A<eAltmbtrtamlrtUiSpecla<iti,
written in the vrinter of the pnviooa yeai at Uontlonisi
This wa* at onoe an attack on Voltaire, -who wa* giving
theatrical repnaent«tiona at Lea IMlicee, on D'Alembert,
who had condemned the prqndioe apinet the etage in
the JlneydopSdie, and on one of the favourite amnae-
menta of the eodety of the day. Diderot pereonally
would have been forgiviog enough. Bnt Toltaire^ strong
point waa not forgiveness, and, though Bonaaeau no
donbt exonerated the eSbit* of hia "enamtea," ha
wa* certainly henceforward aa obnoxiotu to tha jiukt-
tha honaa of U Popalinlin, atfaactad nrr Ultla attention ; Int £a
Dnm dtt ViUagi, glTn at VontalnAlwui tn 1TII3, and at tha
Acad^mia la 176S. achlavad 1 gnat and wall-daaorrad Hnraaa.
Though TM7 anaqaal, aad aneadlnglj (Inipl* both in iljla and ocb-
etrsctioi, it containa aoma eharmlBf malodiaa, and ia writtaa thnngh.
mt In tha moat ntnad taeta. Hla Itgrntitm (17751 ia a malodnax
wllhoBt dagtnf. Sana poathnnuma IngnaBti of anaUw open,
AurUit 1 CUet, wn* jalnlad In 17B0 ; ud In 1761 appeared Lv
OmiolaluMI <iM Jtittra da M Tia, a coUertlon of .hoot one linndrad
soap and otbat fagltiTa ybat of Tarj unequal maill. Tha popvlii
■Ir teinni aa Jtwaaaarfa Avon la not contained In lUi ooUaatiDa,
and cannot ba tnoad back tartbel than J. B. Cnmar'i ealabialad
" Variatlana." If. Caatll-BIaaa bu accntvl Roiaanan of artaoalva
plagiactanu (or wane} In £« Detin dm Villag* and Pjlff;;^^*^ ^
appartDtJr wltbMt aaSeient cai
XXL -
(w.B.a)
26
ROUSSEAU
eophe coterie u to tlie ortliodox party. He still, how-
aver, kad no lack of patrons — he never had — thongh
his nnmrptumbie perrersity made him quarrel with
all in tnrn. The amiable duke and daeheu of Lnzem-
bonrg, who were hii neighbonte at Hontlnnis, made
bis acquaintance, or rather farced th^rs apon bim, and
be was eagerly indoBtriooa in hie liteiaiy work — indeed
caret of hie bett booki were prodttoed dnring his stay^n
the nei^hbotuhood of Montmoraoey. k letter to Voltaire
on hiB poem about the Lisbon earthquake embittered tha
dislike between the two, being eurreptitiouslj pablished.
La NoHtdU nUott appeared in the same yeai (1760),
and it was immensely popnEar. In 16S3 appeared the
Control Social at AnwteKiam, and £mil«, which was pub-
lished botb in the Low Conntriee and at Paris. For the
latter the author raceiTod 6000 linee, for the Conlrat
1000.
Jvtie, OH La SvndU HSoItt, it a novel written in letten
descrilnng the loTes of a man of low position and a girl of
rank, her lubsequent marriage to a respectable freethinker
of her own station, the mental agooiea tA her lover, and
the ^artia] appeasing of the distresses of the lovers by the
influence of noble sentimeot and the good ofi&cee of a
philanthropic Englishmaa. It is too bag, the sentiment
is overstrained, and severe moralists have accused it of a
' certain complaisance ia dealing with amatory errors ; but it
is full of pathos and knowledge of the human heart. The
Cmlral Soeiai, as its title implies, «adeavtnira to base all
government on the consent, diiect or implied, <d the
governed, and indnlgei in much ingeniona argnment to
get rid of the practical iaconvemeuoes of such a rnggestion.
imUe, the second title of which ia J^ Vidueatiim, is
much more of a treatise than of a novel, thooab a certain
amount of narrative inteiut is krot np thron^out
RouBsean'B reputation was now hi^er than ever, bat the
term of the comparative prosperity which he had enjoyed
for nearly ten yean was at hand. He Conirai Sotial
was obviously anti-monarchic; the NmadU HiUfiit was
nid tobe Immcwai; the sentimental deism of the "Profes-
sion dn Ttoaira Bavoyaid " in SmiU irritated equally the
phikaophe party and the chnieb. On Jane 11, 1GG2,
£t»iU was tiocdMnned by the parlement of Kui^ and
tivo days pi«vi(i<ulj Hadame de Ijoxembonrg and the
Prince de Conti gave the author inftmnation that he
would be arrested if he did not fiy. Thay also furnished
him with means of Sight, and he made for Tvardnn in
the territory of Bern, whence he transferred himself to
Hotien in NeacbJit(>l, which then belonged to Prussia.
Fteduick IL was not iodispoeed to protect the persecuted
when it coat him nothing and might bring him fame, and
in Mamhal Keith, the governor of Nencbltel, Bonssaau
found a true and firm n^nd. He was, however, unable
to be quiet or to practise adj of those mora or len pious
frauds which were cnstousrv at the lime with the nnor-
thodox. The archbiahop at Psaia had published a pastoral
against him, and Bonsseau did not let the year pass
without a Lettrt A M. <U JStauaumt The council of
Qeneva had joined in the condemnation of £m*U, and
Rouseean fint aolenuily renounced his dtiienship, and then,
in the Lettra de la Mantagne (ITOa), attacked the council
and the Genevan constitution nnsporingly. All this
excited public opioion agunst bim, aitd sradooUy he grew
nnpopnlar in bis own neighbourhood. This unpopnlority
is said an very nncertun anthority to have culminated in
a nocturnal attack on his hanse, which reminds the leader
remarkably of on incident in the life ef the greatest French
man ct lettsn of the present eentury. At any rate he
thought he was menaced if he was not, and migrated to the
lie St Pierre in the Lake <A Bienne, where he once more for
a abort, and the last, time enjoyed that idyllic ezlstence
which he loved. Bat the BemeM Oovemment ordered him
to quit its territory. He was for some time uncertain where
to go, and thought of Corsica {to join Faoli) and Bedin.
But finally David Hume offered him, late ia 1766, an
asylum in England, and be accepted. He passed through
Paris, where his presence was tolerated for a time^ and
landed in England on January 13, IT66. Thirtee travelled
separately, and was entrusted to the charge of James
Boawell, who bad already made Rousseau's acqaaintaoce,
Here he had once more a chance of settling peaceably.
Severe English moralists Uke Johnson thought but ill of
him, but the public generally was not unwilling to testify
against French iutoleranct^ and regarded his sentimentol-
iein with favour. He was lionixed in London to his
heart's content and discontent, for it may truly be said
of Boossean that be was equally indignant at neglect and
intolerant ol attentioa When, after not a fjw display*
of his strange humour, he professed himself tired of the
capital, Hume procured bim a country abode in the house
of Mr Davenport at Wootton in Deibyshire. Here^
though the place was bleak and lonely, he might have
been happy enough, and be actually employed himself in
writing the greater part of his Cm^euiottt, But his
habit of self-tormenting and tormenting others never left
bim. His own c^irices inleq>oaed some delay in the con-
ferring of a pension which Qeorge IIL was indnced to
grant nim, and he took this as a crime of Hume's. The
publication of a spiteful letter (really b; Horace Walpole,
one of whoae wont deeds it was) in the name of the king
of Prussia mode Rousseaa believe that plots of the most
terrible kind were on foot against him. Finally he
quslrelled with Hume because the latter would not
acknowledge all his own friends and Rousseau's supposed
enemies of the philosophe circle to be roseola He re-
mained, however, at Wootton during the year and throngb
the winter. In May 17S7 he fled to France^ addressing
letten to the lord chancellor and to Qeneral Conway,
which can only be described as the letten of a lunatic
He was received in France by the Marquis de Uirabeau
{father of the great Mirabeao), of whom he soon had
enough, then by the Prince de Conti at Trya. From this
place he agNn fled and wandered about for some time in
a wretched fashioo, still writing the Confeaioiu, constantly
receiving generous help, and always quarrelling with, or at
least suspecting, the helpers. In the summer of ITTO be
returned to Paris, resumed music copying, ond was on the
whole happier than be had been since he bad to leave '
Hontlonis. He bad by this time married Thiriee le
Tssaenr, or had at least gone through some form of marriage
with ber.
Many of the beat-known stories of Rousseau's life data
from this lost time, when he was tolerably accessible to
visitors, though clearly half-insane. He finished his Con-
faaoru, wrote bis Dialogva (the interat of which is not
quite equal to the promise of their coiioos sub-title
SoKMiaai Juge dt Jean Jaeqvtt), and began bis Stveria du
Prommear Soliiatre, intended as a sequel and complement
to the Conff—iaiu, and one of the best of all his books.
It should he said tiiat besides these, which complete the
list of his principal works, he has left a very large number
of minor works and a considerabls correspondence. Dnriag
this time be lived in the Bue Platifere, which is now
named after him. But bis suspicions of secret enemies
grew stronger rather than weaker, and at the beginning ol
1TT8 be was glad to accept the offer of H. de Oirardin, a
rich financier, and occupy a cottage at Ermenonville. ITio
country wua beautiful ; bnt bis old terrora revived, and his
were complicated by the alleged inclination of TbMss
me of M. de Qirardin's stable boys. On July 2d he
died in a T"frrnfir which baa been tnuch discoaM^ nu-
BOnSBKAO
27
|iliJnnn of anieida liftTing tt Om Ubb and nnea bam !)•■
qimL OndMiAolallwthaofjrcfaMtimldMlhdiMto
■ It of ^ctplaiT and yartMpa to iq)aci« Inttalad Modiat-
■Qr daring that St aaan noat fttHiMt, Ha lad alwija
^dfe«d fion intotaal and aonatitBlkMl aDiMBti mt
nnlikolf to Irog aboKt a^ an Mtd.
iMtw, Hh Idrtetjr <f hfa npolitiaa, Md th*
t Ua HtMUT woA B« lU la^fKta of bw«
Iiitifniio -nbrn of hii HtMUT woA »• lU la^fKta
(ntoMt. Then li Utd* doaU Oat te th* )mI tm ar lft«a ji
orlita lU^Dot fa«aA*<te*arUiq«unlwtthINibntii>d
IbdUB* 4!lUn^, b« «•■ — ' — •-- " " " — ' '-■
ot kta ud BDazpMM HI
: whd^ aa»-tlM WBblnid InfliMBM
nrbawud of oaoaUat Hfitoda wd
lA^ t(np«aMMt WM to nwOnw
tba IwIaiMt, MTW tkt otabb, afbii Oi
faitallMt B*wul>raaBMBiMfliaoal7MaaflitlMai<hl>liM
who iMd to nbmtt la moMUu lik* ■—oatfoa. Mno «b tbo
oUwdoi oido bwl Ui iban^lt, u mil w Tollali^ HdrMo^
DUitat, and HoDtnqnin on Oal cf Oo Iniionlion. Bat
BnuMas bad >at liko MeatMnolo^ a Moitka whkh oanataMl
Ub bDtt aafaw ^m|v i ha na aot *<aIU>7 Uka HalTtttoi i b* bad
Bot ^ madarin aapplmHa u^ trirHain «takb not witboot
Ui vaaltb VDold nrobaU; ban ddknded TolWn bimaalf ; and bs
kcbd ■ntiNlTtb*"bottom'cf Mnn andDidorat IHwn b*
w^ KolMtad te ooold onlj iblM at kla aualm and toMfaet bia
BJ,bdM«M* Etna Aaa aarnaa wbaabWarraiaBtioaa
Mm TTiataiM. la nfitad talaaMly ftoa It Hia mocal
■H andoabtMUr vaak In otbra waji tbaa tU*, bat it la
ii^paeBg paito of It «D«ld lot haTi Im ... . . —
"— '— ' arittaa. If art and* ballnalnatfaia, atanjia
rtitUutbaMtl<«>idami>ada1iBlull() - '
aUit hi
eaAialy bar* dood U|^ aa
u tba MttanidamiMd Birnbal to tb
Zofat UBoBMaahHlbaldbiah
a Doadagt of Q
J VMT bad ; a>^ tbaa^ Talpola «a* not
I ««na aotlon than bia Cmcoa lattar, tatMa
Vuonn, bat Oiir onadaal WH jfebaUy It aot aatalBl; nngntiM
In tha aaliMaa, OalraeaMacaabainadafaihiiii: batlhsuoniH
fsr ■ nan bora, m Hnma after Ota qoand aaid of blm, " witboot
It «aa to b* sxpsotid that hb paonliar mntaUcn would iuenaM
nthv OMadkainUi aftaihiadaalbi aadltdid an. Daring Ida
lift hia p«aoaal paoaUaiitlM aad tba bot that Ua o^aloai woa
BHrlvia otBOdooa to the ODB painaa to tba odurwoAad aaalnat
It itwMnotaoaftathiadMth. Tba nwa of th* Ban&tian
ooouthiog Uka idolatif, and bii Ittaian narita
Baar who wan rtj far bom IdoIbUg bua aa a
L aia atria aaartakw op bj Banarffia da flalat
aaaMand. It waa laiplnad hryomam qalla
■api^UBwltb
brChaKaaMand.
It froa tboaa to wMdt
It waa lanilnad ferToipoMB qalla
ba bad hi«ar i4^£d It, anf tbo
M wUdk bad baan m
liatad «■ bia ilda aU who adaUiad Brna— Oat la to aa;, tha
BumitT of tbaTomnt mat and wonan of Koropa'"' '**~
•ad ISM-aad ftoa dlffenat ildn of bia tnditlcin w
at <f lc«lo aad pnottoal apiiU in thoa^ whlla part
■la lUann atorat waa tba ooauaoa Dnoactr ot alnoat
M attaniptad Htjnutan. At tba
■t kaot ^^t lUacan'aaorat wu tba ...
- piad Utontnn. At tba nwat te paraana la
n and Hr Boddn no chlldna of Boanaaa
«ad !■ ao pffwarfal, and Oan ara thna polnta
raligkia, pdiUea, and BtonUna— irtdA H il aanMaaiy n tax* in
doinc UK la nlMoB Booaaaan waa nadonbtadlj what ba haa
bam nllad Umn-* oaattaMBta] dibt j hatao am who mla Un
IB {all to aaa that afntimmtiliani
• aeddottof hk otaad. Id Ua '
Tbsra won ieabnat pMBOaa iriiD wi
iatoUlgnt pawaM who pntandad
m gsoonaa and intaUlgnt barilf adatod In fnnoa.
JeHnatoMBOaairiiDwanaiaBaalToathoaai; than wan
paweM who pntandad to ba aa Bat batwaaa tba tlBS
r MaMillra m^ rMriTTiHi infl Ibi timi rf T laimnuli an1 flTph
daHiiatnlhaelMaanHaiaf whtmtaBKAi^ Borinlar, Botlar,
ind JobnaoB who npaawtatina daiplr md not adat la Fkanoa.
ij1 nttalj on^pllBad In an othw br adneatiOB, comnal^bl
or tha Maoril tondener of niraa optidoi^ lioBwwa natanllj took
nlbp In the nabaloai kind of naoual raU^on whidi waa at once
fiAiiwibla and oooroBlait tf bk pnetice tall ytrj fa ihott eran
ofMaawanajTMHtiatyatandaidof monBty aamnobaai-beMid
In peUia^ aa tha «<bw band, tbN la no doabt tkt BoMMa
aii»i'uaiaad,a»hfaalBbhal*]r. aooaTfaaadnaaMlna. Ha
bad DO gnat HactM* itf lacatK ba ' — fr lit mmi a wiiiaii
lo^dan, aad ha waa lanolrira and aaMtfoaal la Oa laliwi
obanotafMoa wUA la political mattan nadoobtadl; nadinaM
the labfaat to the ptdmnaa id agaaUtr aHha dT p^aol
nqnliltak Ha aaw that andar tba Kanob Maonbr tba aetnal
naalt waa &a nattot nitatr <d tba mattat nnmbv, nd he dU
not look nnob ftnthv. Tba OmIndBiM la for tba poBUoS
ttailant oaa of Oo Boat aoikoa and IiiImwIIhii bo^ •iWIb&
HlatorioallT it la nail i kflaaUT It b foU cf BElulkwa ; insttaiilv
ita naalpnlatloBa ot tba nIeaM rft laaa aod the •olmirMWraia
an alaaiir Inaafldaat to obviate aaaidir. Bat Ito nirtin of imI
eloamoaa and apoanat oopnor ia axaatb aaeb aa alaaja nrIm a
mollitada wUb &, if oa)r lOr a tina kpnonr, bi aona adaot
yUiaoKrs aa Ui adaoatiaaal aabaaua (obleflj paomolntod
Jbflt) an la parte, tba; an adminlila In' otbeta, and Ma vol
apinat Botban nfcain( to rntae tbair, AUdna Ut
parte, tba; an adminlila In' otbeta, and Ua jvotnt
m nfaabig to rntae tbdr AUdna Ut a Mot in
wUoh la not i^wndlA and ba« alwan baa a Mana
.to&eaatlon.
/ HMn pan a)!! aURi-tbat ii Is n;, n oa
aipoDMt nllMtthaa aa an "jn'"*'— of Idaaa ■ that Bonaeai b
moat aotewirth;, and t^ ba (aa aaanlatd n
Int thing natiBnUa aboat bin la Oat ba dattaa all AMgAnr aad
Boalwiilial nlaaJflniUna Habnotadrmatlat-hkwMtMaiA
b imlgalipant-^ota»>rJufcftti.tboiitft hb twooUaf wi
eiont Iba CtaAMfaw'art eaUednofela, AaAb onf onljTIa aa
and£a jroMHOi iTAotM b M a atoi; dilhae, ptear, and awkwud ta
adagraa. Ha waa wftetlr wHtioat ooaaiaad of poatb Ulna, and
ba taald oal; ha N&ad a palUaoahar In an ^ whaa (be tatn wm
•aed with aoA aiaaaiB^ma Wtf ae wta eutaaui; in the 181b
eaatni;. UbaBnBtbeclaaaad,bewaab<li>naIl AluadMofbar
— a dtaaafbar of tbe po^oaa of tba bomaa beait aad or tba bean Oai
ofaatoie. IndwfltatBartof UeweotlontbonontbtoofUaon
Toalb. eacb aa XariToai, Blebardaoa. aad PrMal, aa; be ^d to
ban dwwa btaa Aa wa;, tboa^ balmiovad araadj apoa Oiani
in Ae laoaad ha waa almoot a tnolor Is MOiNalnatba two ana
opnadaf tba fAet of oatan oa Iba fcaUnnand of the faeU^
— "■ ' -• -- ' — ba waa abaalnlfh wttboot a bmnnaar «r
tantoa ataea hb Una baa Seaa obMIr
on the aaipeet of aatan b
dUaaatlatad tnm litantan befim (I b; Aa ooloor aad fe
"' — "-"TTna
taaTSlt
A ontirallad la Ut
ItaniT biatoTj.
lUrbUtr tode
atatiaaat, dlWand^ftta latallaetaal and Hm pnaitkal-an of
ooana aotbaahCin bin, bat Aeyaia aiawid aad pallbtad by
Ue weoderiU baUafr and bj wbat m»j ba oeUad Aa nanoaata
alnoaii^ am of Ua laainean paeau^. Sobo oaTib bam been
laada i^elaet bb Ikeeab, bet nooa of Boob weliAt <
Abdla eaab paaa^ia aa (be haxwa "TaOi do h
Ae OatAaiiiia^ an Aa daaa^Hon «( Aa lab of ~
Hftaodon b dolu what U intaadad to do. 1%a nadv, m it 1
fceaai aaid, smt Aak ha bMiI ban da«M aoaMtbloa aba wl
adTtatM bat be ean baidlj tUak that be eoald bna doaa tl
thiag bettor.
•^ <aM •! Boat at BaaMoA vaita rdaaaad tariac Ml VMtaa Hif* a>
■aana. Ww fliniaiirni^aal ah»«n waaa. wal k til»«le.lMj et»» M
aaa miuStmli at l*a uaaaij, ^ptiril aa fliawa k IfOt. hiMH
paraaa<aalilli»^miamairllili illliiiXerff^aiMia .almi
j^raaaraaaMMOi'iKaa.iaawnit ImgMrtJ aaajj^ttatrf Mali
B0U8SEA.1T, TeAodon (181S-1S67), a dirtingaiihed
ndacuia painter, waa bom at Vmt, ami itndied in the
sde Oe* Beaox-Art^ after which ho apent aoina ttnw hi
taaTelUngand mafciiig atcdieaof landaopeasdakjellacta.
E« Snt ohibitod at the Salon in 1B34, obtainad gold
medala Id 1S4» and I8S4, and in IMS raoaived tba
Legion of Hoooor. HIa paintingi baeamo reij popular in
FiaikMv and Booaaean gtew- to be Ae an^nowIedgMl
founder of the modtgn taahatio aAodof hiwUe^w. Ha
waa lajgel;' ■"<'"°"~* in a^ bj Oooatabla and Tnnter,
the fmnter of whom waa periu^is mon thatm^j tipgndf
Bted in Txwaeo than in England. Hie inflaeoce of Tamer
is cWtIt Men in aome of Rottaaean'a pictnna, wiA atriUiig
eSecta rf cloud <x atonn, — aa, for example, in his Eflat
da Bolol and A[»ta b Hme (ISfiS), in the Uatinia
R o U — R 0 V
Ongente (1857), tbe Concher de Boleil <1866), and
one of his Uat worka, the Soleil par un Temps Orageux,
which appeared in the exhibition of 166T. Rousseau's
•tOrdjr of Constable is more eepeciallj apparent ic some of
his fins foreat scenes near Foatainsbleau, and in some
nugnificautlj painted views on the bauks of the Loire and
Other French rirera. His ezecutioa was of extraordinary
britliance, and he was a thorough master of atmospherio
effect and glowing sanaet cotonra. Though in tome re-
spects a realistic painter, be treated nature in a itrongl;
dramatic wa; and showed great imoginatiTe power. His
style is brood and dnshing, with rapid and at times appa^
rently careleea handling. His fame has increased rather
than diminished since his death in 186T ; and one of bis
pointingH has recently received the bigh distinction of being
transferred from the Lniembourg Palace to the Louvre, an
honour which is but rarely conferred. It is not, however,
one of the best specimens of his work. Most of Thdodore
BouHBCau's pictures are in private coUoctions in Paris and
dsewhere in France.
ROU8SILLON, a province of France, which nowfonuB
the greater port of the department of Ftii£h£es
OBiBNTiJ.m (q.v.). It was boanded on the south by the
^reneeo, on the west by the county of Foix, on the north
by lAugoedoc, and on the east by the Mediterranean. The
province derived its name from a small bourg near
Ferpignon, the capital, callod Ruscino {Rosceliona, Castel
RoMello), where the Gallic chieftains met to consider
Banoibal's leqneat for a conference. The district formed
firt of the Bomon province of Qollia Narbonensls from
21 B.O. to 1G2 A.D., when it wss ceded with the ntt of
Septimania to Theodoric II., king of the Visigoths. His
saceeeaor, Amolario, on his defeat by Clovis in Sdl retired
to Spain, leaving a governor in Septimania. In 719 the
Saracens crossed the Pyrenees, and Beptimaoia was held
by thsm until tbeir d^eat by Pippin in 756. On the
iavasion of Spain by Charlemagne in 776 he foand the
borderlands wasted by the Saracenic wart, and the inhabit-
ants hiding among the oioantains. He accordingly made
grants of land to Vlsigothio refugees from Spain, aod
founded several monasteries, roand which the people
gathered for protection. In 792 the Saracens again
invaded France, bat were repulsed by Louis, king of
Aqnilaine, whose nds extended over all Catalonia as far
as Barcelona. The different portions of his kingdom in
time grew into allodial fiefs, and in 893 Suoiaire II.
became the first hereditary count of Ronssillon. Bnt his
rule only extended over the eastern part of what became
the later province. The western part, or Cerdagne, was
ruled in 900 by Mirou as first count, and one of his
grandsons, Bernard, was the first hereditary count of the
middle portion, or B^salo. In lUl Baymond-B^renger
lEL, count of Barcelona, inherited the fief of Bisalu, to
which was added in 1117 that of Cerdagne; and in 1172
bis grandson, Alphonao II., king of Arogon, uut(«d Bous-
siUoo to bis other states on the death of the last count,
Qerard IL The counts of Boussillon, Cerdagne, and
Btetia were not sufficiently powerful to indulge in any
wars of ambition. Their energies had been accordingly
devoted to farthering the welfare of their people, who
enjoyed both peace and proaperi^ under their rule
Under the Aragoneee monarchs the progress of the nnited
province still continued, and Collioure, the port of
Perplgnan, became a centre of MaditerraneaD trada But
the country wss in time destined to pay the penalty of its
poxition on the frontiers of France and Spain in the long
straggle for ascendency between these two powera James
L of Arogon had wiestod the Balearic Isles from the
Moors and left them with BonssilloD to his sen James
(127G), with the title of king of Majorca. The consequent
disputes of this monarch with his tavitbor Pedro UL of
Arngon were not lost sight of by FbilEp IIL of France in
bis quarrel with the Utter about the crown of the Two
BiciUes. Philip espoused James's cause and led his army
into Spain, bat retreating died at Ferpignan in 128S.
James then became reconciled to his brother, and in 1311
was succeeded by hia son Soncho, who founded the
cathedral of Fwpignan shortly before his deatii in 1324.
His sacceaaor James IL refused to do homage to Hiilip
VL of France for the seigniory of Montpellier, and applied
to Fedro IV. of Aragon for aid. Pedro not only refused
it, but on various pretexts declared war against him, and
seised Majorca and Boussillon in 1344. The province was
now again united to Arogon, and enjoyed peoce until
1462. In this year the dispntes between Jcjin IL and
his son about the crown of Navarre gave Louis XL of
Fiance an excnse to support John against his anhjects,
who had risen in tstoIL Louis at the fitting time turned
traitor, and the province having been pawned to him for
300,000 crowns was occupied by the French troops until
1493, when Charles VUL restored it to Ferdinand and
Isabella. Daring the wot between France and Spain
(1496-98) the people suffered equally from the Spanish
garrisons and the French invaders. But dislike of the
Spaniards was soon effaced in, the pride of sharing in tho
glory of Chatlee V., and in 1S42, when Perpignan waa
besieged by the dauphin, the BausBillonaais remained true
to their aUegiance. Afterwards the decay of Spain was
Fiance's opportunity, and, on the revolt of the Catalan*
against the Oastiiians in 1641, Louis XIII. espoused the
cause of the former, and by the trea^ of 1659 lecnred
Boussillon to the French crown.
ROVEREDO (in Oennan sometimes Rofrtit), one of
the chief industrial cities in South Tyrol, and, after Trent,
the chief seat of the Tjrolesa silk industry, is situated on *
the left bank of the Adiga (Elsch), in the fertile Vol
I^garina, 36 milea north of Verona and 100 mites south
of Innsbruck. Though there are several open places
within the town, the streets, except in the newer quarters,
are narrow, crooked, and uneven. Of the two parish
churches, S. Harco dates from the 15th century and
SiA Uoria del Carmine from 1678. The only other
interesting building is the quaint old castia known aa
Castell Junk. ' As an active trading town and adnuDiaCrft-
tive centre Roveredo is well eqaipped with commercial,
judicial, educational, and benevolent institutiona. Thougb
the district between Trent and Verona yields about
120,000 n of silk annually, the silk industry of Roveredo,
introduced in the 16th century, has declined during the
last fifty years. The establishments in which the cocoons
are unwound (JUandt) are distinct from those in which
the silk b spun (jUatiyt). The silk is not woven at
Roveredo. I^per and leather are the other chief manu-
factnres of the place ; and a brisk tiade in southern fruits
and red wine is carried on. Hie population is 8864.
Tha origin cl Rovendo ii probBblj to be tnud to tlu fonnding
otUu cutis bv Witlum of Cutelbiroo-Liuiuia about 1300. Lttn
it nued to th* ampgroc ?r«d«ick of tliii Emplj Pockito, who
sold It to V«iu9 in 1413. The trnty of Ctmbn)' tnnifetral it
rrom Tenice to tha gnipenr UKrimillsD in 1610, aina which time
it bu ihand tha fata of ionChsm TjtoI, linill; nuHiog la
Anitria In 1811. In Beptantber 1709 tha Prmch nadir Maaarnit
won s victory orar tha Anatrisns near Bovarado. Hear the
neiglibonriog villiga of St Uaroo are the traces of s daatrBctirs
landitip [n 883, dewiitwi in the /r/nw (liL 4-9) bj Daate, wlra
spent pert of hia exile In 1302 In a ciatle near lifcana.
ROVIQNO, a city of Austria, in the province of Ihtria, '
is picturesquely situated on the coast of the Adriatic,
about 12 miles south of Porenzo, and 10 milea by raQ from
C^nfaoaro, a junction on the railway between Divazza
(Trieste) and Pola. It has two harbours, with ship-
building yards ; and it carriee on several indostries and a
B 0 V — R O W
b 4u>ppau«i duiiig tb« mthqiukn
HIT, u Uw l«ed iMod hu it, U» bodj
Ion WW BinenlaBdy oannrid to tlit
good azpert bmda, •^wcUlr b oUrfrol and ft a
mannEkrtiired in the litUa Ulaitd ol Banf Anilrw.
popolatioa wu 9fi€4 it. 1669 Mid 9622 in 16t»0.
Aaoofdiag to tmlitioB Bongna *■« origtuUr built
idiBdr (3>B bj udml wkieb ''- ' -'--'-- •'- ■•
■boatrn. In the eth OMbii,
of St Kopboau ol Chtloidon
Illui4 ; mnd4t«lAtB dat* It *■■ ir^iHpvnvu w uw ■wiamihw ujD
prDiiuBtocT, MaaU di Buf lDl«ni>, «btlb« It <ni Mtond Ij
IhB T«nMuM in 1410 iftn biin> in lU pawnJon il tba Oacn
from 1S80. Tb« dtooM rf BbtJswi «m mrmd in lOOS In tlw
buliopfk of PtmuB ; bnt ill chnreh oontiDnad lo hun tbi titia
of aUHdnL Korjgno emwI daHaiUvalr into tb* bkudi of th«
Tmatiua in ISSO, and it mmlMd trw- to tba ni>ablio till tba
tn>t7 of Cugpo Vonuo (lTST>i
BOVtOO, a. city <4 Italy, the chief town of * prorinoa,
mud the neftt of the biihop of Adrin, lie* between the Po
mad the Adige, nnd u traTened hy the Adigetto, % naTif
able branch of the Adige.' Bj nul it i* 37 milaa nnth-
•onth-wut ot Padiu. The nrchilecUure bean the atamp
both of Teiietiui and Ferroreu inflaenee. The cathednl
chnreh of Bauto Stefano (1696) ii of len intereat than
Ia Uadoana del Soccorao, an octagon (with a fine campa-
nile), begun in 1691. The town-haJI containi a IIIhbjj of
80,000 Totninea belonging to the Aecademia da' CoDcordi,
toonded in ISSO, and a pictoie gallerj enriched with the
■poiU of the monuterie*. Wo(^ nlk, linni, and leather
ara among the local mannCactnree. The pop^tion of the
dtf proper waa 71C2 in 1871 and 7373 in 1S81 ; the
w in 1681 had 11,160 infaabilanta.
Borigo (Neo-Iiitin JOudlgium) mppian to ba nwnUonod *■
RwIigD in BM. It ni ulaetad u bfi midano* bj tb* bidup id
iAiix OB tht dMtnmtiDii ot bii dty b; tha Hnua From tb* 11th
to tb* 14tfa oaobii} tb* Eit* bnilj wh nniallir In aatborltr i bit
tbe Taaatluw vbo oblaiMd tba town and aatia in pUdo* b*tw*ra
ia»0 ud 1100 took tha ^*m tr liff ia IISS, and, tboa|^ tb*
Bats men thu onoa raconnd 11, tha TaiHtiui^ nturnlngln 1GI4.
ntuncd poawtion till tba Traiicb BaTolaUpn. In ISDii tba «itj
m mada ■ dncbf la hTpar of Omtnl 8»(tr. Tb* Autrluit
in IBIS cnatad It a ror*! dtr.
ROTIQO, DcKi or. Bee Satut.
ROWE, NiCHOua (1674-1718), the deaoendant of a
family long reudent at Lamerton in Deron, wai born
little Barford in Bedloidihite, June 30, 1674. The hooae
in which he was bora is clcae to the Gnat North Road,
and a mull atone to his memory hai been erected in the
centre ot the garden. Hi* father, John Rowe, took to
the law ai hi* pofeenon, and at his dettth in 1693 (by
which time he had attained to the dignity of being a
seijeant at law) bad amaned anfficteot property to leave
to his eon an inoome of i£300 a year. Nicholas Rowe
passed some time in a prirate school at Highgatc^
thee proceeded to Westmioatec School, at that lime under
the charge of the celebrated master Dr Busby. lo 1688
he became a king's acholar in this lonndation, bat throe
ynra later he waa called away from ediod and entered as
a stodeiit at the Middle Temple. The study of the law
bad litUs attraction for a young man of good person and
lirely maDoere, and at bia bficr^ death in the following
year he deroled himself to n>M^ and to Utaratnra. Hii
fiiat play, Tit Atiibiliout StepaKttUr, waa prodaosd when
he «•• twenty-fiTe year* old. It ma followed by
Tamrrimu, a patriotic composition in which tha virtnea of
William IIL were lauded nnder the diwuise of Tamerlane
and the rices of tbe French kin^ Louis XIT., were
denounced in tbe penon of Btyaiet. Tba popniarity of
thia prodnction soon declined, but for many yean it was
acted Duce every year, on the annivenary of the landing
at Torbay of tbe Dutch prince. His next play, Tht Finr
Ptmltnt, king lelained the faTOniable reception which
marked its first appearance and waa pronounced by the
great critic of the 18th eentniy one ot the most pleasing
tragediai vriiich hod ever been written- Tbroogh iia sno-
the name of the [»incipal mai« character Lothario
became identified in popular language as tbe embodicjant
iri the manners and habits of a fo^onabls take. After
the production ot two more tragedies, Ulyaa and Tit
" I Cawnri, of slight account At the time and long
forgotten, Rowe tried, hie band on a comedy, Tlu
Biter. Much to the anthor*! enrprise hi* attempt in thin
direction proved a failure, bnt Rowe tecogniMd the
justice of the verdict of the audience sufficiently to abstain
from risking a second disappointment Bis two last
diamatie works were entitled Jant Shan and Ladg Jami
Grtf, and the former of them, from the popniarity of its
•atgect and the elegance of its langnan k^ its pcaition
tbe stage longer than any other ot hie work^
Rowe excelled most of his contemporsrie* in tiw
knowledge ot langoagsa.' He waa acquainted more or 1«M
th<N-on^y with Qreek, I^tin, French, Italian, and
Spanish. The k'.ter tongue he is said to have acquired
the recommendation of Harley and with tlie eipecta-
u that he would afterwards be rewarded l^ some high
office. When, however, he reported his new aoquisititni
to tbe new minister he was met with the dry remark from
Harley — "How I envy yon the pleastire of reading Don
Qniiote in Ihe original 1 " Notwithstanding llus dis-
appointment, Rowe eqjojed many Inoative poets during
his short life. When tbe duke of Qneensberry was
principal seeratary of state for Scotland (1708-10), Rowe
acted as bia uader-secret«ry. On the accenlqn of Qaorgs
L he wsB made a surveyor of customs, and on tbe dMih of
Tata be became poet laureate. He was also appointed
clsit of the council to the prince of Walea, and the list
of preferments was cloeed hj his nomination by Lord-
Chancellor Parker (Sth May 1718) as secretaiyof presenta-
tions in Chancery. He died flth December 1718, and waa
bmied in the south cross of Westminster Abbey. By
hi* Ant wife, a daughter of Mr Paraona, one at the soditon
of the revenue, he left a son John ; and by his second wifi^
Anne, the daughter of Joeeph Deveniah oF a Dorsetshire
family, be bad an only daughter, Cbaxlotte, born in 1718,
who married Heory Fans, a younger brother of Thomas,
eighth «atl of WestmorelaDd. The buriak of mother and
daughter ara recorded in Colonel Chceter'a RtgiiUrt t^
Walwaauler AlUf.
Bowa'i tngadin w*r« mirked by p— atimta fecKnc aat off W a
nsoffDl dictuin, aril vara vail adapted for sbij^ ifiMt If Till
Fair Fnllmt and Jnm SJLon hsva bani opalM tnta the slap,
tbslr blatoiM rapntatloa and tboir rtjla will repajr panuaL
Anoag Bowa a othii litaiwy aRbrt* aiaj b* Dmlioiiad an rditlva
of tba aorka ot 8hal[«*|iHue 11700), tor «bicb ba rsctlTtd from
UutottbabsakBallulbaaaino(£SS, IOl, a rat* of pay not out ot
proportian to tba labonr wb'ieh waa baMowMl upon tba tadi. At
tba tin* of bl* daUh ha h«l alao flnlabed a tjuialalion of Laeae'i
Pianalia, a vork then nrnch piaiaad and sot yit innnwdid by
asf nmi»titor. Bowa'i minor poama wera haneath tba laval of
bia aga. Ad editian of hia worka waa pnliliahail in ITSO nnJor tba
an of Ki (afttrwardi Biihop) Nevton. Uii trasilatlon at Lncan
waa sditad by Dr Wslmibd.
ROWINO is tbe act ot driving forward or propelling a
boat along the snrface of the water by mean* of oara. It
ia remarkable how scanty, nntil quite recent timet, are the
records of this art, whicii at certain epochs ha* played no
inrignificant part in tbe world's history. It waa tiie oar
that brought Fbcenician letteis and cirilizstion to Qnece;
it wa* the oar that propelled the Hellenic fleet to Troy ; it
was the oar that saved Europe from Persian despotism ; it
was the skillnl use ot the oar by free citizens which waa
the glory of Athens in her prime. It is to be regretted
that so Uttle is known ot the details connected «i£ i^ or
of tbe disposal of the rowsn on board the splendid fleet
which started in it* pride for Sicily, when 17,000 cars at
a given ngnal urnote the brine, and 100 long ahips need
at (ar aa jdgina. Tbe vaasela of the ancient Uraeka aiMl
80
ROWING
dented t
> Unmei, qudrireaiet, qninqiiiraines, and
basiniiMa— owed their ptee to the azertions of mea who
plM tfce oar iMber tliu to the nik with which they were
Itted, Hid wliidi wan onlj-iwed whn the wind was
fkiWKsbleb IVofwM* OMdner has ahown that boat ndng
waa not tmeomniOQ wnodg the Cbaeki;> aad that it was
ptaeUiiJ audog the Banana Virgil teatifles in the well-
known paaMM in the Uth book <4 the ..SmuI. And the
Tonetlan gaUeyi lAich wen mfaeeqnentlj wed na tho
riioiea "at the Haditananeaii in raedisral times were only
» modified form of the older kind of eratL These were
for the most part mam»«r)j hy r
wen io eoutaot empl^ment in
Bowing WIS onderstood bj the ancient Britona, as they
trasted them*elT«a to the mere; of the w&Tes in coracles
•ompoead of wieksr-work oorered with leather, umilar no
donbt in many raspecta to those now tued in Walea ; bat
tbtae fmil Tfeaala were propelled by poddlee and not by
oan. ^10 Saxons esem to baTe been expert in the
oar, as well as the Danes and Norwe-
ta it L) reoorded that the bwbeet nobles in Cha land
1 tbemsslTsa to it. Alfred the Oreat introdnced
long plloys from the Ueditsnanean, which wen pn^nlled
faf fcn^ or aiz^ oara on each sida, and for some time
these vessels were used for war pnrposes. It is stated by
William of Halmssbary that tigit the Peaceable waa
rowed b state on the river Dee from bis pahwt^ in the
d^ of West Chester, to the eborch of St John and back
a^in, by ei^t tributary kings, himself acting as
Boat qnintain, or tilting at one another on the water,
was fltat farooght into Tlnglo-M by the Nortnans as an
amosement ttx the spring and summer season, and prob-
§i)ij mnch of the success of tho champions depended
npon the akill of ihose who managed the bo«ta. Before
the beginning of the 12th oentnry the rivers wen
oomtnoniy used for conveying passengers and merchandise
oa boaid bMges and boats, and nntU die intrt>da<;tion of
ooaohes thn were almost the only means of transit for
rojal^, and fortin noUlityand Kenbnrwho had mansions
ud wateigatM on the banks of Ue ^numsa. It is, bow-
aver, ImpoMible to tnca the first ampk^mcmt of bargemen,
iHienymen, or waterman, bot th^ aeem to have been well
MtabUahed I7 that time, and wen engaged in fencing and
otter watermde duUea. DtuiagdMlMt^frata of the early
part of the ISth oentniy, freqnant mention !■ mads !d tha
chranidea <rf the distrata among the wmtetmen, bom which
wemayaasnme diattbrirnnmbemwsnlam. Iltqrwsn
empbyed in conveyiiig the nobles and l£eir retinnes to
Bnnoymede, where tb<7 met King Jtdin and when Uagna
CSiarta was sigiwd. Towards the dose of tUa caotory the
watenDea of Qieanwick wan fraqaeatly flood for over-
..h.i^ng ot the eatablithed feniea, and about Oa aama
time Bone t>t the d^ coDpaniea astabliahed barges for
water pininsaiiiim We learn from FaUan and Hiddlaton
diat in KM "Bii John Norman, then lord mayor of
London, built a noUe barge at hie own expense, and was
rowed l^ WBtennea with silver oan^ attended by socli ot
tho dty ooopaniea as posaessed batm, in a splendid
manner," and further "that he made toe barge be eat in
burn on the water"; but then is
■tatament Sir John Norman was hif^y
tUi actkm hf the membern <rf the cnft, as no doobt it
Mped to pCMptilarfas the faahwn then coming into Togne of
balog roind on the Humes W the watermen vba pUed
for hin in thdr whenies. Tho lord mayors pDoearion
1m water to Weatminetfr, whidi Agnra on the htmt page
M the Itttutraud Ltmim Hem, was made asnnaUj until
th» year 1866, lAen it was diseontinoed. Ite lord
> .fiwrFisI tfSMmn »Ma, 1H1>
mayor's state barge was 0, magnificent ipedsa of Aallop
rowed by watermen ; and the dty companiea had for the
most part barges lA their own, all rowed doable-banked
with ous io (he ton half, the after part eonsisi'
cabin nmothing like that of a gondola. The ¥
became by degrees so large and nnmemns a body that in
the sUth year of the roign of Hsnry VIIL (ISU) an
Act was passed making regnlatious for them. Uliis Act
has from time to time been amended by various statute^
and the hut was passed in 18C8. Hnch time seems to
have been spent in pleaenring on the water in tlie IStfa
and IStb centuries, and no doubt competitions among
the watennea w«re not oncommon, tbong^ thou is no
reocrd of them. The principal 01
who wen obliged to serve
ferrying and rowing &reB 01
of time the introduction of bridgea a
them from this employment, and the m^ority of them
now work as bargemen, lightermen, and steamboat hands,
having still to serve an (^^prsnticesbip. For many years
matches for mouCT stakes wen frequent (1831 to 1880^
but the dd race of waterman, ot which Plidps, the senior
Kdley, Campbdl, Ooombea, Newell, the UaeKinney^
Heesenger, Pocock, and Henry Kelley wen prominent
members, has almost died out, and some of the beet En^ish
scnllera during the last fifteen years have been landsmen.
Apart from the leferenoe already made to the andent^
we do not find any records of boat^radog befine the
establishment in TTnglt-m^ ot the coat and bodgc^ insti-
tated by the oelebn^ed comedian Thomas Di^ett in
171S, in honour of the house of Hanover, to eommemo-
rate the anniversary ot " King George L*! happy aoceedon
to the thrcae of Qteat Britain." The prin waa a red coat
with a Imb silver badge on the arm, bearing the wftite
horse of Hanover, and £e race had to be rowed on the let
of Aognst annually on the Thames, by six young watemon
who were not to have exceeded the time of their (^prentice-
ship fay twdve months Although the first contest took
place Id the year above mentioned, the names of the
winners have only been preserved since 1791. The nee
the present day, but under alight modiflea-
Hie first regatta appean to ban occurred about
sixty years later, for ws lean from the Awantal Rtgit^ of
.!._ -y^ Vii^ that an entertainment called 1^ that name
rtgabii, introdnced from Venice Into WnglMni^ ma
;itaL/n«
exhiUled ou dm Tliame* df Baneli^ Gard«i& ai
lengtl^aeeountof itisgivensttbeeDdof thewoA, The
lord mayor'a and sevenl of the d^ companle^ pkaann
bargee wen ctmspicuon^ an^ although we leare vaty Uttla
Indeed of the competing mmr boata, it aeemB dear th^
were rowed by watermeo. We find from BtrnttV Oporto
irndPattimu (firttmUidiedin 1801) that the prc^etor of
Vauxball Qaraens had for some yean given a new whoir
to be rowed for by watcnoen, two in a boat, whidi u
perhaps the first pair-oarad noe on record. Similar prises
wan also given by Asdey, the eelebrated honeman and
cirons proprietor of the Weatminster Bridge Boad, abmit the
same period ; hot thus far rowing was apparently viewed
as a laborioBs eierdae, and the rowen wve pud. At the
oonimencement of the preaent century, however, rowing a»-
sodatdons wan focnrnd, sad the " Star," " Arrow," " ^aik,"
and "Siren" Canba had races amon^ themselves, gene-
nllyover long eonrses and in heavy aix-oared boata. The
Star and Arrow Cauba ceased to exist b the early yean
of this century, and wen merged In the neiHy fomed
Leandw Club. The date ot Its eetablUmeot eanaot be
fixed eiacd^, but it wal protwbly about 1618 or I81B.
It ranked bi^ because the m^ority of its memban had
baqnently distingniabed theaadves In mattes wM tba
ffir aad muUb. Thi^ wera dm first U
BOWING
•boliil
■ batpingkad torMmgwatamtM vbeihcnradpramiMof
aqutic fuiH, tad \hej likswiM inctitated « oast m '
Mdge foe Knllen.
n* Bnt iBoonl at nbUo-iehuiI neins vhlcb nn now ba h
li ths WatiT Ltilnr ot WtMiDiuitR BchooT, which commnicn ill t
Tm ISIS with klkt of th* crew of tha lii-Hnd Fir. Thii cr
cmtUHd Ibr aon* tiaw to be tlis oulir boat of the Mhool. ud
leiS brft the TnnplB ■ii-ov in t ran hma Jolnuona Dock
WertmiBslel Bridgs br hill ■ IguitL Kton pn i ■ l)«t
bnati in 1811, if not at ui gulln- itte, uruiiting of & t«<«r ■
tiitBc boat! with elKht oan In tliOK Jaji Kiin« riths enn had
'j> pull itroke and drill Ibe ctiw, bat llili pnctia n
1S28. HI tlio mtinnan rruucmdj TDictd ■ bad atiok
obliged to lubaeribfl for bia day'a par, ht*T, and
n«i LiisuoiDrwud tba captain of each craw rDtwI tha itrvka-
ou. Tba earlianl racord at a nue at Eton ii vheu Hi Cvtar'i liiiir
ivwhI uajnat tba vatAlnan and beat tbem in 18IT : bnt the pro-
Iwionati bad a boat too anal! for than. In ISIB Eton ehalleiigHl
Waabniiutar School to nw from Waatminatar to Keir Bridge iniuat
tha tUa,bDtthsinatahwaiatoppedb]r tiia antlioritiw ; uilTtwaa
not nnUI 18SS that tba Brtt oonteat bctvaMi tba two ichoali wi*
btonght to an liaiu.
Rowing appaui to Iutb commencaJ attbamilranitioi aoon after
tba beginuiog at tha etntnrv, botakrliar at OironI than at Cam-
liridga. Tbera wan collagi Soiti nn the tiicr For aoiua tluia baron
than wen anf ncea. Tboae flnt ncordeil at Oifonl wan In ISIS,
aald to be aollan aishta. bat the boab naed an mon lilielj to hara
< waa "hoad ot tha riTir ' tnd Jaana their
The** two chlba wen conitantlj rowlug net*, biit
' HTaineiimtLel»eIi,aa the
nnbera of the
d thacr
:lothea i lluncefoi
btea Itmn. when
chief aji|«nant.
they wan not Isirpaitieo
Bra-'Boaa snw la 1814
The I
mtj Boat Clul
B 1839. At CanibridSB Bi|[ht'Oa»d TowlDff wa
■ " ' ' thelnl eight (balongiog to S
lue) not hiving
nil leX* tha Umbridsa UniTanitr Boat Cln'b »u formed.
it-oand ncaa van aalabliihed on tba Cam in IS27, whan Pint
tbitnw-i
Eiriit-oar
Trinity*
Oambridgs Ui
_., luThupaa, trma Honibladau Lock ._ _, _..
The noc wae rowed at Intamittanl yerloda np to ISM, linca w
jaar It h«> bam annniL Is IBSO tba inataar ahampionabi
theThamea wu ioatitntad bf Ht HnuT 0. ViDotald, who pnwnled
a inir of ailnr aculla to ba nwad for aanwiiU; bj tba amatanr
[lutoi to
a Mir oT ailnr aculla to ba nwad nr aanMU; bj tba i
acnilen of the Thauiea oil the lOth Angnt tnm Vaitmi
Pntnaj at half flood, but the unna and data of th* nca hi
lAiangad ain« Chen. Th* Bnt ecnilen' nca For tka profeaaioual
cbarapuHuhip of the Thamet wii rowed from WaatmEniitcr to
i^tur on the 8th Baptenibcr 1S31, Charlei Caupball of W<»t-
minitor dafeatlng Jobn WlllLima of Vaterloa Drtdga. Dortug
tha Bsit eight jean rowing Increaaad la bTomr tmoig *Bat*un,
and, ■• It wd takaa ft* prepat i<lu* among tha """^ paatiuaa,
■nd tha mat of a oaatnJ twt fat a ni^ttn wia moch (fit, Hvnlaj'
ou-TlwiMB wai diaaan, and It wia iladdad Uiat ■ rntta ahanld
ba bald than in 1SS9, and tha Qnnd Challanga cap br eight oan
wu e«abliahed, Thii baa been an innml flitun arar liucf,
inim baing glran for four oara, pair oara, and Bcnllan. u well an
for eight oan. In 1818 the Rdinl Thamta Bentti waa itertHl et
Pntnoj, and It nre a gold ohallenga cop for eight oan ami a nilTer
eha)laa« cnp for fonr oan, to ba round bj amalenn. In IBK
Oxford beat Caabridga at tU* ragalta, and to tb* ama jiaar fho
comraitte* added acfcampion nriia for wManDan. Abont thla time
U» Old TluLiae* Clnbvu aatAllabed, and thej eeiriwl off tha gold
challenge cap bj winning It (or tkr** jaua li wetaaalMi, Til.,
ie4<toJ84E. iDlSeithBAtgonanUOInblfatappaatwlMlltulaT
and WOB th* yUtefi^ cop, >Bd l> 1SU the Bojnl Ohaalar Rowing
Oab wen aucic«ai<nl III the Stewanle' oBptor Foot oait, *nd won th*
Qiand Challenge oop for aigbt — "■ ' *- * '
•--'- "'-iegOlDbWMaaMbll ,
' tiged to enter (ndac tha aune of th*
iTing baan la aalatauoa ■ vaar, ita new
Tha nait jair, howe*at, tbaj
IP tnok OifMd Dninnlt*, and
npaaweU. HanTaMndnh*.
■uch la tha KlnptoB, RwUay, W«t Loadan. TwtekaobMS, ~
tad etkar BMlnpelltin aad ■-•■-.
BowiegOlDb WM aatablldMl, bat thoaa mi
TOWM at Hettl^ Wen oblige' ■
Atnnnaati Ctnh, aa, not IwTli „
conlil not aompete sodaf ita aaiaa. Tha u
J Clnh, aa, not luiTi
i aompeH aodaf ita i
carried off tha On»d CballaBoi i
«Slew<ii&
~ : _
UoolaeT, and etkar nMbopelltin and pcoTliidal dabi
qnentlj ataMkhad, and h*** Bet with nriad aueeeaa.
Saala.— Hm
(bnnarly aaad, _ . .
knowB to ow fcrafetbf
heaTT liunbatiog etalt which alona war*
. ■ bar* been anpenaded by a lighter dmarip-
, , „,^ _jd nditf ontrigEeia. Tha <wd Thaniaa whem
with ft! kog pKJaatiag bow 1* aow aaMom aaen. and a roomj akiif,
oftM rami with a taU wh«i th* wind ia farwinbla, ba. taken ita
plua. HugiKben open boat with •nwvl ntnka^ haTing the row-
lochi, or ptrSe* of ««od batweon which tlia oar wnia, SiBl ajian th*
gtnwala. wbich n Tirtl all moihL Hm ikUTfa wider and longat
than tha gitf and of greater depth, anil, ritlng higher fon and St,
with nwloclEi placed on aeiured auii eleTateiTganwole, ha* greater
oarrjiiig jnwer lud row* ligbUr than the gig. Tba vberrr nm
high at tb* Ixiwi with a long noee Doinlad npwanli and a Tarj low
Hera, being eoqeKiaantljoMuilad^for rongh wiler. Tba uodarii
ndng boat dilTin nmch from the (bregoing, aa iU width baa Lmb
dtciHiKd rotMto oO'er aa little RuiUuca to tha waUr u poMbla,
while it u iimpUed lij oan working between ro»lock. filed on
projecting iron roili and croaa plecaa which an ni-de bit to th*
tiniJjon. The^a rwU ind crcua piecaa are Hgged out frwn tha alila
of tlie loati, and henea the tetm OBtriggen. Tfaiae boata an
eonitractK] for single eenIler^ for pain, (or foon, for eighty and
acFarioiiallT for twcNa oan. The antriggtr waa fint brongiit to
perfection bj tha late Hunrj Cliepar of Snrta.tl^on.Tjna, who la
tfcnenllj balitted to haT* bean Ita mrentor ; but th* flntontrigam,
which wan onlj mJa pi«!c* of wood hatened on th* beat'* luiln,
wan uad In 1838, nud wen e>»d to a boat at Ooiibuni-on-Trne.
The fint iron outriggen won alEud to ■ hoal in 18S0 at Daata'
Hole an Tjne. In 1844 Claijict, who had been imuraring apon
thew inTtiitioun, mad* bi> fint boat of tha kind >ud bron^t W
lanJon ; but ber outriggan w*n only 8 indiae In langA, and
In pneaaa of
TS^S
ane waa bnilt of aaveni >tnk» wi
time kecL> wan diii<tua»l with, tie outriggtn wen langtl
uid th* nklii o( the boat ii uow coinpoeedDr a (ingle Btnhe of
coder planed Tory thin and bant by meaua <J hot walac to lake the
form of tb* timbrn of the boat IE i* faalaoed bj copper nalla to
cBired tiiuben of uh, on* *ztr*aiitj of which ii Sied iota the
kaclaoD while th* other i> umde fait to long pieoaa of deal thit run
froR. end to end of tU* boat and in «U.d lunlai. Th* timbin
in the middle in tbiikir thin the reW, « aa U inpport tho Iron
ODtriggen which in faatanod to tbem, and th* thwirt, wbich ia
wilier ibiu it uaad to U In order to riirj tha ilidiiig eeit, which
worki UekwRtd and Forward with the oanniu, te acnwad to the
inwilaa. Thii aaat nwna toiud fro on rollan made of ittal, wood,
or bnif, iiid tnTala over a dlitnnn varying IWn ll to S laehea
icootding to thi jadgueut of the luitnutor. Tha eliding leat
aaemilo haTebaentlwlnTentiDn of in AmeiiceD oanaian. who Bud
one to 1 ionlting boat In IBSr, bnt It wai not until 1870 that be
had raatterad ttie prindple* aaOIcIentlj to diiKOYer how moch wai
kitj and ^jiioill]', Th* nlna of the ImpnTi-
befbn it wia
nnimaally racugnind, bat 11
if tba London Rowing Cab, who d*lM«d tha reptmntadna ot
Ih* M*w York AtatuiU Clnb at Patae* in June 187% nwl lUdlag
aaati, and tha ctab alio bad them lltted to their ei^t, which eaailT
carried oflT the Orand Challaog* cnp at Htnley a few daja after.
warda. lu 1878 the lUding atat ttat adopted by the cnwi rowing
In tho UniTonity boat nee. The Amerbana bar* alio tha orslit
of two othei InTcutiona, tIl, tha atoaiing a^^wntaa, whicbenablai
1 onw to di^ipeuBO with ■ coiiwalu, and the awirel rowlock ; hot,
thoagh the (omier ie now fil.ted to the miiarity of non-«ilw*in
pnln and toun. (he uie of th* latt*r ia oonbed Ibr th* moat (lart
to acnlling boiti In outHEgnl alghta, totira, and pain the
„^ ,___, .._.. 1 .,_._,_ ateachrfder"'— -• '
they an plan
•Id* at diicn
;, Tinrlng witl
1 pain the
but in glci, akiQe, rbRTiva, and funnl** th*y an plaocd oppoute
__. .. .A_. .. .. L .... . aithar aide et diaoetloa. The
" the width
thaedieot
placed one for each thvait, al
a glci, akiQe, rnRTiva, and
luochar, » a. to be ukI a
oan eeuonllr nand ira about IS I
of tba boat, and e.-ntla an aa mm
D/mrfiuM/or fluma^.—In mo<
tha bsBille of tha oar with both haudi, •ita'FDrward on tha'edge J
bia leat, atntchra out bla arme ontil they an fnlly extended— the
btadr of the oar betu^ Jntt pnTioDi to eularlug the ureter, at ridt
aaglBi to ita anrfaca. It ia ^en dipptd into the water Jut nnr
'"■' ' tmir>
eawaro ai m* aama ^' —
. — . .-_J iic*>**d hard ainii
■tntcbor, and tb* handle finally inlled G<
amiB, (he rlbowi being allowed to pua the aidaanutil the handle of
tlM oar }Brt toocbn th* lower aimmity of the htcaot Tba blade of
~ ~ thna api>aan to be forced tbnngh the water, bat in reality
fery aJightly the caae, u the water, which ii the fnlcmm,
I itanoat immonble. In aculHnE, tb* opcntion !■ tha eatne
. diat the aenllar ban a aenll in oicli band and dilTaa tha boat
dea to aaBi*t hiia. Bowiog b made up of two parte, the atrnko
id the fmthR. feethariug ie toning the oar at the *nd of tha
toke hy loweriiig the hauda and dropping tha wriita, thna briogiag
ir FUt bind* of the ear panllel with tha aaifaoa of the ntor, and
_, ..-ad to Inolnda tlio diieinr ftwwairl of tho band'
of "the oar and tba .
to the beginning ofi
Vhau pniKiod to
iterirauoBtaideor
__e boat with bla fica to tha item, when be ahosld at «
hiaiaalf and ihip bia oar. and than try the length ef hii etreteher
to MB tint it niU hia teagth of 1*(( Tbia anaseod, ba ibonM
10 pni'l ihosld lay hIa oar on tba
ana if a ahonalile oar. and atap into
32
E O W — R O W
pnMMd to MtUa UMdf Snlf opM Ui flwMt, dtttag qnlb
nan lad npridit bat not too nnr A* adn of i^ Imoun a m>
tE« ohuoM wo Uut tlu lomr put of tho bwk «iU not b« (tnlgfat,
udirhkM*t4iBotlnib*einDatildl>tidwidogtb«boit. H»
■haold ait aboot flmo qoorton of tb* tliwnt alt in u ordiuarj laeiiif
•OMllj epporit* flw hudla <( Ui on. HliM mut ba pluitad
find* iouiat tbo atralolui awl tmnwdUtaly cppcdtt hti bM j and
ow,— tht bad HMllMtba balltrftlufiot praainc aaalut tho
■tiotobra, aal th* twobaola oloaa togaOarvith tlw toiairida fit,
■D ai to kaap tb* kusM opon aud «a[u«t«. itt eonraa if tb* wipil
dti ftlr ana NBata, and immedtitoly oppooita tba lundla a iLii
on,ha«iUbaati»erfi)aandBotintba «mtn of tbe boat Tb*
Mfotohar, It Bsr ba oddad, abosld it aa tbxrt m poaaiUa soo-
nailanttr tor danlip tlwUMa and to amciaius eompM* eontnl
DT«r tba oai; IIm CinIj aboold ba nprlgbt, not bant tbrnrd and
nsk down «pm Hw tnnk ; tba abonlden iboald tw tbrowD badt,
IIm ahaat -««, and tba dboaa dovn eloaa alonorida Uia SaulUi
Tbaondkodd ba bald Innlf , bat irith<] ll^U;, in botk baada,
not oltttciiad md otimpad aa in a Tl»~Uia oulidde bud oloM to tbo
■idof fltobaDdK'oltb tba flngan aboTO and tba tbomb ondanuath
it, and tbo Imida bwd, <v that naanat tba bodf of tb* [w, from
an Indi and * Italf to 3 inebia any from lli lUlaw, bnt naaplng
tb* oar nuraodnTailfllun tbe latlar, tho anmb (Ming koiS andor-
DMtb. Tha bnauu* abonld bo Mot the IsTol of tb* baudl^ and
tba aiMa dropped and rolaiad, llw on Ijlag fl*t and faatbaiad
apon tb* mbo* of tha -water. The diran* poriUooi of tba two
band* and wrfrti •sabb tb* oar to b* wieldod wiUk gnatw bdll^
tbaotr tbarwan allko, and allow bofli ana* to b* ifaatelwd oiit
parftofly *d|M a (naked am bdog piAapa tb* k**t p*idonaUo
bait In Towias. In tddng tba atroUllka bod; ahoald b* inclinod
Ibnntd* ritb lb* Im^bona atiaidit, tb* atafaaob wall oat and
down bftvMB tb* )v> ^ obMt ftnraid and aUratad aa DOoh al
[iiaallila Tba knan Kut be Bifnd ali^tlr oatmidai and tb*
■bMddasakDoUetawnodKatalTbnni^ bi^ parltotlj lard, and
MiBiqaalb^t TUarmaabodd plarfinidf in tlMdMnildei
jolntL ud AmM b* paiftoUr abai^t boa Ibe duoldeta to &*
wiM*j thaaatisaeftbaUpiaboaboBU b* frM. Th* iodda
wHit, bovarw, mart b* oomnrikat niaad, and du onlrida <na b*
bMtdl^dTraud,U miM Ibat aafcanoUeanHrbepafBlM to
tbaaaivaadtbaiMltMll Uinjjgrnad wiA boa b*nda,not
Tfttt tb* tin* o( dw flnoora bat nm tb* »bole of fli* flwm wall
raond U^ and aaab mu IhUiu tbe bandl* dirtlDotlj ; O* kDuUa*
of tb* tbuil* aboaU U about an Inoh and a half ot 1 indMa a^ait.
1 n naAiiv Ibnmd die band* iboald b* ibot oat Mnight &oa tba
bodf vlOoat tb* lM*t aufi, and ai aoMi a* the oar baa paaaad tho
bnoNtlywiMBriiaBld^iai^aedtobiinctbaUadaattightB ~
to tba water jwpaiatQijtB din^aglt, andwhen fl>e mnam at
I linU;, <riiieh wiU bijort orer the atntdw, tbe oar ahoold
be ttnA down flimlf and dtddnly Into tbe wi
I, bXgiaC a* mnadw of bi* back and In Into pin"
. » abodd I* flalAad wlUi tb* anna and Aoalda*, Oa
dbom bWM kept doaoto the ridt^and the ihooldeii down and
batk, tha koid atlll np^ and Oa eb«t oat. and tbe oar iteelf be
b«a(^ atnd^t boma to tba abeal^ tha knneklea loiKldng tha
bod; aboat an inefa or 1m btlow tb* bottom ol tbe bna^ltODe
wfava Am tfb* bcanoh off i when tlure tbo hand* iboold be dropped
don Md Om tauMd onr, and Aot oat anin doa* aknu tbe !«,
thabodrlcUn^ktaM)), Oaio AoiU^awiaa be tilun not to
la«<n tba fima aopliej to tha oar aa tn* itnba dnn to n oooola-
aka, bat to pot flw vhcd* ■tr*Bstb of tb* am and abonldara into
tha lafA «f O* itrok*. wbno it will natnmllf diminiah odto bat
•aa>fth.M Aa oar fom* aq abtnai ai«le with that portion of tb* boat
brfbraAarowloet Toa&otaqnldiaooTanaMlaekuMtbakajit
Mi^ tb* kiMM Boat not be dropped too low, and the moBcbi of
a* Sod;, a^Mda^r «f tU itoBBdi, moat be wed to anabla tba pavil
to^finiMdfbrthanait atiok*. ii the mme tlm*, no nutUr
kovadnnta and pcacfae wiittaa inatraettona ma; be. the; (Ml I
In^ut tb* knoiAds* Out (an be nioktd np ^ watcbintt t^ BC
rf *« *«0»MllJud comtn far tb* wpm H Ire miaDte* s b-n
O* impMittn n*aaidt;ot ■ ptnetieal axpoMBt o< Aa prindilM et
n* Bit in oontadiilloottaa ta ■ nanl; Oamtioal " eo^ "
ft**qpfaK,"»flwmwHlaliofiowlafcM»ibaT*bt«agtTanU
•MH ImAb^ in d^aO an lb* notloia aro n*eeaaaril; T*n eom-
^katod. n* apnatloM an mitd> tb* ■une wbttbet a pn«m
W lowlnB on ■ liad or didiu *Mt. bat a noriea dtonld be Co^
toraw<a*|iadiat,aad^will aftaiwwda btaadlvaUato
■cqdn lb* art of aUdluj wUeh im; MNM b* doo* ftom MkwtM
Aa MOONpaajrlng dlre^oaa. Tha otnman. In nWng lOrward,
aboaU ailMid bia am* to thatr ftall length, and wiS the amiatanc*
•t tb* (trap* en tha atratohv, rimnltanaoul; dnw hlmadf a* oloaa
•p to the Wtar ■ be an, hk kneta bataig eligbtlr and ajmrnetri-
fiUr tpwad, an4 tb4 bod; ntehid IdtwhS a* HB^ aa poadhliS tb*
ftraightODt b; tbe time tbeitrokeia Inidia^ and not brftaak the
bod; and abonldn at tbo end of th* atrake being thrown well
becL The iMd; ia then itoorwed to the uprldit psmtian frna tbo
bipa. lb* Innda thrown fotwud, and b; tha bme the; an Juat peat
tho knoM tbo bod; ia being drawn forwaid, anil Um kneea bant.
Tbo motion thon be^n* tb* mat aa befme. (B. D. KJ
X«Bg lalind, fbar-oarod b*t)(M, *
Hew Jane;, to tbo flig-ataff on th*
and anah woa tb* pnii ~
Batter;. Bev ToA wi
It impottaDt
7 uauat all
m Handmo^
nmalDod for U^-lDar ;«n, a coDennt t*ciniiini ot pn
tiou antQ dwtnred b; fln in Jul; ISflS, Sinoa tbii
tvt DO ;aar baa Min withont but nam. At that tin
"■—>—" and lanfiBeliiml ireni duIedoiid an the w> '
Qudeii flmatiinT Boat dab Aandition — America'
ot paliUe aibn^
tb& biitorio con-
tiiu* the worda
the Oaatls
taToweOl;
Than had beai infbtnul daba and deaolbn; tadng at Tale
OoUm aa aart; m IStt, Int th* flrat ragolar orgininHwi wia
in Uamh ISU. Harraid followed in September 1344, and Ynla
and Hamid Siat met on tli* watn at I^ka Winneplaeogei^ Hew
BamptbiKk Aogwt S, I8S9 ; aiaot 1S7S the; ba** met annwll; at
Mnr London, Cma. In IMG Harratd, Y*K Tiinlhr, and Bnnru
fonaed the Onioa OoU^ B^itta J— ~H.n™, whioh laatad thro*
rin.- i>.^__ . i,(,jm ^ Anwrioan Colbon^ whJob at
ilWti, died in 1671 In iSsi Bowdoln,
m, MatseiB, DBirenit; of PeonnlTaui*,
lU^s. ' ---■ ■-
and Veol^n formed tb* Intern]
te 1t*i»ii.ff Aaaooiatlon, which
„_^ srloabati
AaoociaHon of Amatanr Oanawn, finuulad in It
ddp innlndH all tba better ii-— <4 «~»— » twat alnlK It*
managnent i* rated in an Bxaratire Oomniltte* of nin* Bmabm.
(htee of whom are aleoted at Mcih annual meeting ot tb* awoeiallon.
Th* rallngi ol ttia oommittee are auldaet to reritw, uford, or
raTiaaL at aadi annnal meating of (he fall ***adBl£n. TU*
Mail nil 1 1 II II l^na an annnal opan amatanr ngatta, rimilar to tb*
Bonl Baol^ Beptta in being th* obirf aqnaUo emut if Ae jner,
bat nnllk* it In not bdnc rowed alwnn on tli* urn* comae, but
moring obont from nar u jraar— binng, ainn 1871, beoi rowtd
■t FUlacbl^ilB, Newa^ Tiiij, and withhia (N.t.), Detroit,
Vaahington, and Boatoa. Tliare an In the Unllad Stat** *leTen
iwilari* oiganind araatenr rowing aaodatian^ formed I7 lb*
naion of l""'-" rowing olnba and ciTiiig aeeh Tear one or men
regatta*. Thae amociationa tft the Ilational AMoeUtion it
Anatear Oanmen, tba North- Weatem Amatenr Bowing Aetodation.
th* UimimipFl Talk; Amatenr Rowtu AmodaUon, th* Paiaeto
"■ - ■ " — ' — ' '-"— a* lotanolligiato Bowing
Uon, tbe floha^iliU Kar;. tb* UppwH „
Ton Koll B^iitlB Aaaocialion. At tnglkb r(ptt» it la naoal to
■tort Aia* buta In a b«*t, aometime* ilinr, ftre b*iu tb* atouiat
limit, where** at Buatoga, in tb* grait r^pttu of 1ST4 and 187^
tliare wen Btaitid abnaat, in fimr amanto raoa*. alaren da^cm
(twIcaV thlrtaoD oonwalnh** tbnnt and thlrtem couwalniMB atin.
The primuT diridon tit Amvioan ndug <nft ia into (■) Inp-
itrtaka or ellnkan. bailt of wood in narrow vtreak* wlA ortmpidng
ediM at vKdijtdnt, and (t) amooth bottoma, made ot wood <» paper,
andbaringn hiranrboe. withoot pcqectbig Joint or aeam. Cap-
■tiMk bo& an, bowerer, now laiel; aaod nn In b*^ noM.
Than lUlowa the aabdiriaioa into bWM which an open Inilmd
In. whldi an <mn oatrimod boot*, and ihtUs whioh an
oatrlgRBd boatt Tbn* tba* tlamii ol boat, an (kitbM
£d IbrwMd on Mottmlaaa'whaela or balla. mii, beat of theei U.
*k*a ran men e^;, an dmwr, and 1cm liable to accident tba-
A* ctdlnar; dl(Ui« aMt birilA ouaman oae tba eliding *Mt aa
■ man* of nvklng tbdi old aoantomad (tnka hmger and mon
powerfttL Anterioan oaHMB boU that what ia nea^db; an oan-
Mntanot Ae*ddiliono(lb*l(»g)lldatotb*ald-babloaedlo*g
Bwiw, bat the almoat total labdtotloB o< did* lor ■wisft th*
H^Ar ot th* laboar ftam back to l«a-^ bot, a totall; new itjl*.
BOWLAHDSOH, Thohab (17S«-183T), ouieatatut,
wan bom Id Old Jewi^, Londoi^ in Jnly 17o6, theaoo of %
ot tiXj mwchut It ii recoraed tturf " he «o«l(l
R O W — R O X
S3
makt Aat^M ittam be lawued to write,* and tlial ha
cOTBied hit lenoD-books with caricatorw ol hu nusUri
imd falloir-pilpilt. On InTing Bchool he beoeme » itodent
ID the Boy«l Acmdamy. At the ege of lizteen he iMided
kod etodied for t, time in Pkrii, And he afterverda mtide
frequent toon on the ContiaeD^ enriching hii portfolioe
with nnmertnu jottingi of life and chumcter. In 17TS
he exhibited et the RutbI Aesdemj e diawing of Delilah
Tiaiting Bmoaoa in Piuon, and io the following yean
ha waa raprBeented bj variotu pcstraila and laodMpei.
Foaeaaed of mnch fadlit; of eiecntion and a readj com-
mand id the ignr^ he wat apoken of es a promiaing
atndant; and had he oontinQed hia eaiij application he
would Ittfe made hia mark as a punter. Bnt he *u the
victim of a diaastiou piece of good fortnoe. Bj the death
<d hia aont, a Frencb ladj, he fell heir to a mm of
X70(K\ and pwaently he plunged into the disdpationa of
the town. OambUeg became a pawioe with him, and
he hai been known to dt at the gaming-table tor thirty-
aiz hoora at a atretch. In time porarty overtook him ;
and the friendahip and exsmple of Qillray and Banbnry
aeem to have aoggeated that his early aptitnde for carica-
tore mi^t fnniisfa a ready meana of filling an empty pune.
Hia dnwing of Taazhall, shown in the Boyal Academy
exhibitioii irf 1784, had been engraved by PoUard, and the
print WM a aim iiai Bowlandaon was largely employed
by Rudolph Ackarmann, the art publisher, who in 1809-
1811 iwned in hia Poaiad Magaant "The Schoolmaster's
Tour" — a aariea of plates with illoatrative Teraes by Dr
WiUiam Ooovdw. They weta the moat popnlar of the
artiat'a worim. Again engtaved by Boiriandson himself in
1812, and inoed under the title of the Tonr of Dt Syntax
in Search of the Pictnreeqne, they had attained a fifth
editioa faf 1813, and wete followed In 1620 by Dr Syntax
iaS«a(chofOanMlatioD,andin 1B21 by the Third Tour of
Dr Syntax, ia Seardi of a Wife. The lame collabontioo
of deogner, anthor, and publisher appeared in the Eogliah
Daooe of Death, iMned in 1814-16, one of the most
■dmirride of Rowlandson'i eeriea, and in the Dance of Life,
1622. BowUQdwn also ilhutrated Smollett, Ooldsmitb,
and Steroc^ and bis designs will be fonnd in Tht ^rU
i^lAePiiilieJomiKiU(\6i6), The £jiglitk Spf {1626), and
Tib ffmmoitnH <163I). He died in London, after a pro-
longed tUnca, on the a2d April 1837.
BowIsDdasn'a dadgn* w«« nniallf uscntHi In ontllna witb Uu
nad-paa, and dtiualtlj wuhad with eoloar. Tbiij ««• than
vichad by tba artiat mi the eoppar, aad aftenmda sqaa.tlntgd~
nnullj bt tjfnibmioail angnvar, the Im^aarioni bnng Baall;
eshnuvd by Eud. As s dasigMr be WB aUmclarind bj the
ntmoat boiUtr and aaaa dT dnnshtarauuhlp. H* pOBMd iorth bu
. . sUtr and aaM dT dnnghtarauuhlp. H* uarad
dangni ia ilf-cOBaidfrad peCliafam, and Uis qoaUty ol bii a;
aaOnrad rrom thia taaats and ovar-pnidncttoB. Ha ma s trat if
nsl a vary raaaed hnniniit, daaling laas IMqaMtlj thse hia Sam
egntampnu} Oilln; with politic^ bat commontj tooobin^ in s
rstbar gwitla apirit, Uu vaiiinia anacts sad isddMiti of socU lita.
Hb Best sttiitio woik la to ba ronod sming tht Bota <antal
drawings of hia aarUatpariod; bnt ana smoos tlia groas roroM and
•Eaggaiated taibatiue of hia latar time wa Bi^ ban and than, in
tb> gramfol Unas c^a Igiiie or tha nnat fastnraa of aoma maidan'a
bcB, anOeiant hlota that this nustar of tha huuMWia night have
atbuoad to the baaatiha had ba so willed.
BOWLET, WiLLUM, actor and dtuiatist, oollaborated
with several of tha eelelnated drunati:ita of die EUiabetbaa
ptriod— Dekker, Uiddleton, Heywood, Fletcher, Wefaeter,
Waaainger, and Ford. Nothing is known of his life
exeept that he was an aotor io varions oompanies, and
married m 1697. There was another Bowiey, an actor and
playright in die same ajeneration, Samoel, and probably a
third, Balph. Four i^ya by W. Bowley an extant,—^
WtmoM ittmr FrX (printed 1693), A Match at MiMght
(1S33), Aa-t Lotlbr Lmt (lOSS), ud A Shpmaim' o
Qfutitmau ( 1 696). From Umm an t^nion m^ be fotmed
of hia individual style. Effectiveneaa of aitnation and in-
genuity of plot are more marked in tbem than any special
literary faculty, from which we may oo[\jectnre why be was
in auch request as an oaeociste in play-making. There are
aignilicaat quotations from two of his plays in Lamb's
Sjieciinmt. It ia recorded by Langbaine that he " was
beloved of those greet men Sbakespeere, Fletcher, and
JonaoD " ) and the tradition of his personal amiability it
supported by the fact of his partnerahipe with ao many
different writers.
BOWLEY REOIS, an urban sanitary district of Staf-
fordshire, is situated on the Birminoham Canal, and on tlie
Stourbridge branch of the Oieat Western Railway, 6 mile*
west of Birmingham. The original village surrounds the
parish church, tbiting from the 13th century, but rebnilt in
1840 witb the exception of the tower, which was also rebuilt
in 18S8l The village is situated in a rich coal and iron-
stone district, and round it numerous hamlets have grown
up within recent years. Lately the parisli has been erected
'■a an urban sanitary district, governed b; a local board
fifteen members. Besides collieriet^ iron works, and ex-
isive quarries for "Bowley rag° (a basaltic introsioa),
there are potleriea, rivet, chain, and anchor works, breweries,
and agricultural implement works, the district being one of
the most important manufactaring centres of Btafiordthire.
Tha population of the urban sanitary district (area 3G70
res) in 1871 iroi 23,S34 and in 1881 it was 2T,381i.
ROXANA, or Roxani, daughter of the Bactrian Oxy-
artea and wife of Alexander the Great (see AuoiMDU,
vol L p. 484, aod Macesohiah Empok, vol xv. p. 143).
ROXBURGH, a border county of Scotland, oocnpyii^
the greater part of the border line with England, is bounded
E. and B.E. by Northumberland, S.E. by Cnmberiand,
&W. by Dumfrieashire, W. by Selkirkshire, N.W. by
Midlothian, and N.E l;^ Berwickshire. It lies betweea
D6* 6' SO" and fi&° 43' 30" N. lat, and between 3* 10' and
3* 7' W. long. Its gratest length from north to sobth b
43 miles, and its greatest breadth about 30 miles. Tba
area is 428,464 acres, or about S70 square miles.
Surface a%d Oeologg. — The greater part of Boxbnrgh fa
included in Teiiotdole. The whole oonne of the Terio^
40 miles in length, is included vritbin the county. It risca
in the tuiges of grajwacke bills which separate the county
from Domfriesthire and Selkirk, and runs north-eastward^
following -the dcfmsition of the greywacke rocks to tha
Tweed at Kelso, and diriding the county into two unequal
parts. On the nisth a high range of land runs parallel
with its banks and slopes to its mart^ South-west be-
tween Dumfries and Cnmberiand the greywacke formation
eontUtutea an almcat oontinnoua anccenion of eminenoei^
tbrongb which the Liddel finds ila way southwards, nia
highest snmmili of the greywacke ranges exceed 1800 feat.
Although occasionally rocky and rugged, t^ hills are for
the most part rounded in outline and clothed with grsM to
their summits. This Silurian formation occupies nearly
the whole ijt the western half of tlie county, but along wiOi
the greywacke rocks is associated clay slate of a muish
colour, (Simmering with minute scales of mica and fre-
quently traversed by veins of calcareous spar. The forma-
tion is succeeded to the eastward by an extenaive deposit
of Old Red Sandstone, forming on irregular quadrangular
are* towards the centre of the county, emitting two irregu-
lar projections from,ita aonthern extremity, and interrupted
towards the north by an intmaion of trap rocks. Owing
to the sandstone formation the tranjiverse valleya formed
by various affiaents of the Teriot present features of great
interest The action of the water has scooped deeji
ehannela in the lock, and tboa formed picturesque narrow
dgfike, ot lAich the high saodstone scaurs are a pto-
XXL-i
84
E 0 X — R 0 Y
slaaat Awuliriitio, tluir darit rad ctdoDr blending finel;
vith tke bii^t gnwn woods and ■parkling stitami. The
kMt emnple of this Bpeciei of scenerj ia on tlie Jed near
Jadbtiigh. From the left the Teyiot recwveg the Borth-
wick Mid the Ale^ both ruing in Selkirkshire, and from the
right Um Alko, the SKtrig, the Rul^ the Jed, the Omun,
■nd Um Ekl^ which rise ia the high grounds towards the
gjigiriJi border. As the Tenot Kpproach«e Hawick tlie
coan^ bMomea mote cultivated, aJthon^^ frequent irrup^
tioM ot igneou loeka ia the shape of iaolated hills lend to
it [netaneqneneM aad vaiietj. Towards the Tweed, where
the lower diTkiwa t4 the ocal formation prarails, it eipanda
into k Ine duunpaign conntry, richly cnJtivated and finely
wooded. The Tweed, which enters the county about two
mil« north d SelUic, eneeea ite northera comer, east-
wards bj Abbotsford, Helioae, and Kelso to Coldstream.
Ite tributaries widiia the eoontj are, baaidea the Teviot,
the 0*1% the Leader, and the Eden. One of the principal
features <rf the Tweed district is the beaotifni group of the
Eildon Hills near Melrose^ ooosiftiDg of felspathic porphyry,
the highest of the three pMks reaching t38S feet. The ei-
tensire range of the Cheviote nmoiog along the Northnm-
berland border ii of timilar formatdoo. Within Roxburgh-
shire they reach a height of over 2100 feet. The lochs are
oomparatiTely few, the principal being Tetholm cr IMmsKLe
Loch, and Hoeelaw in Linton parish.
The principal miuerali are calcareoni apai and qtnrts.
The spar is frequently of a red or rose charsclo' Indicating
the presence of hematite. In the greywacke sbata foesils
are very rare, bat in the Old Bed Sandstone fweil fishes
of the genus Pttrieitkyt and Boloptydtiui are Tny nnmer^
ons, and a ^reat Tariety of plant impremons have been
tonnd, especially foeoids, but also vegetablea of a higher
Minn, inclndiDg distinct petrifactiooa of CaltmHa.
CiimaU owt JfrfwftHra— Hie nma uniul tempmtiue sp-
riximatN to that cf Scotland nuasU;, bat <t fa moi^ wsrmar
ths law and uaUa portlcw, wlius alea tha laluhll ia tnuch lea
dun In tha hitly fwiima Tha «ia Tida mnch in dlffanot dii-
tiieto, baing Ehiafly loun in tha to* ud lanl tncts along tha banks
of tha tiret whan it is slaa Tan fertile. In othar narta ■ uiiitarB
«t cUj and gnvel pranils, W then ia also i EonaidaTabls aitant
•( noaay bad. Tha hilly diatriat b OTarTwhara oorarad by a ^ick
giean paatonn adninbly mitad for abeap. Both in tha pulonl
and in tha arabla dlabicta agriooltnre ia in a Tary adrancad con-
ditioo. Tlw obiaf Mtantion is datolad to o^tls sod aheep
raaring.
Of tha total araa tt 428,4«1 aona, 1B4,1H wan In eron in ISS£,
U.SOt bcdng aadw corn crops, 18,38S gnan eropa, Se,SS7 elorsr,
47,I)H parmanant putnra, and 810 tallow. Of tha araa nndsr oom
anpa, A,a21 acna, or I^t tvcChlrd*, wetsoccaplad by oata, ud
IS.SBS aona by bariaj. Tnmipa and awwiaa wan tba principal
giasueron, oocBpyiig as,lta acraa, while potstoa ocoiipiad ooIt
&1S. Tha total nDmbar of boraaa ma 4420, of which MS7 van
isad tolaly for pnnioaaa of agricaltara ; of cattU 17,831. of which
SIM wan cows and halfen in milk or in calf; of ihaep £02,731 ;aiid
of jdn 1788. The vsloed notal in 1S71 was £814,833 Scot*, or
iCM,S!lB starling, whila tbat In 1363-84 waa £420,103 incladlnff
laQwaya, Aocwding to the parliamentary ntnrn of lands and
haiiUgaa, the total number (d ownan waa 24SS, of whom 18S0
pnaaaaaid less thM one acre. The duke of Bocclench poaacaed
104, 4EI acraa, or nmrl; a roorth of the whole ; Che dnlca of Bos-
biinfaak60,4fiai the countaee of Home, 25,380; marqaia of Lolbian,
19,740; and Sir William P. Elliot oT Btoba, 18,47E.
Jf—Uft ^ m, —thaofgi aaaantlally an agricnltnial oonnty,
Boxbor^ishln poaaaaaaa woollen nnnoftietara of Boma imnoiiance,
iDolsdli^ tweeds, bbikab, shawls, and hoaieiy, the principal saats
behig Hawlek, Jedbqigfa, and Ketso.
Jbtfunyi.— Tha coBntj la intnaected br one of tha lines of nil-
way fnm Kdlaburi) to London (the " Waverley " ronte], which
!■■■■ Helioaa sndHawick. At Rjocarton a bruich paaaes aontb-
•aatwaida to Kawcastle. Tha northam diatrict is croaaad by tha
border raUway fraai 8t Boawella to Kelso, Ckildatraam, and Barwi^,
S bnnch rasalnB sooth fnm near Kelao to Jedboiidi.
itVuIoMEnL— Between 1S8t and 1881 tha popnjatioa IncnsMd
fiwa 48.80a to 5*,44S (3a,l«8 nwlaa, 38,008 famaUa), bat tnm
1881 to 1871 than wm a daenaaa froin H,Iia to 4»,407. the
town popolatioa nnmbared *4,S7) in 1881, Oe vflkge eSST, aad
0M nnsl IS,MS. Jadbnrgfa (popalation >4Si} is a iml buvtrs '
(tbalsaapoliMaad farliaaMBtarr bw!gb. as la VkmAm HaiAck
(18,184) ; Kebo (4<S7) la a police boigfa. Tha n
TilU^ an MolnM (IGM). ITewcastletou (H4), and Yatbolni (746).
ilutery owl Antiqititiet. — Among the man iinpurlant reliei of
the early inhsblluitB ot the oouatr an the aiHvJM DnMli«] n-
maini at Tlnniahill batwean the paiubeaot Caatlabm and (koonbie,
at IIineataiierifKatarHermiUgeCaatlB,aad at Plenderiaath batwwn
the Omam and the Kala. Otold ftorta tbenantwaot|Toatriieon
the lammita of Caeibj and TinniahiU in LJddeadala, sm aaambor
of amaller onaa in diOenat parts of the eountT. On tha north-
w«t of the Eildon Hilla an two fbaan or tamparia Amniag a
circuit of man than a mita. On CaldahielB Hill than wm asotlHT
British fort, and betwaen them a ditch with rampart <rf earth do&od-
Ing the oocntry from the east. Thabmoqa CitnJI, "partitfoaaf
Watllng Btnat touched on Koibnrgb at Broombartlaw, wbenoo paa-
Ing along tho moonlaiiu now formfaig tba bonndary of the oonut*
for a mile and a half, nntil It aatered Scotland at BIsekball. it
turned Dcrthward br BoiOadwaid, Honnt Teviot, HoWtoD, liUoB,
and Mewateed to Chann^kiik in tha l^immatmnli*. On ll> Hna
irtant stations at Cbewgreen in tha Cherbts (t Ai
' LCd didon HUl (T rn'nnfiiHii).
Kaldenway ^m Jlaidan Caatlo
in Weetmcnland entered Rosbnrgh at Deadifater, and under tha
name of the Whaaloanaaway (nvarsed tiu nonh-aaat comr of
Liddeadale into Teviotdak. From Watllng Stnet ■ bnadh calbd
.-inmbariandtbraaranl aanloiiM, Boibargh *aa
nliuqnlahad aloo* with Lothbn to tha-flaottbh Uiv aboat 1030
SM LoTHUH, ToL XT. p. 10). It Is sawMaad tc bsra bean faamed
to a ahin in tha rdgn of David L,lt« tmimX •owtytMn of
Bulbar^ forming, along with Idinborrii, Barwlch, aadSthiliBg,
the court of tba foor bnnma of Scotland, wncaa Uwa wan ooUaBtad by
that kins Boibargfa Caatlo betwaaa the Twaad and T^vtot near
Kabo, wsa a loval naldotee tl tks Sawn Vmgi of BotthnrnMa
' •■■ - ■■- ■-- ' betneotly taken
and aflorwards of tha Scottidi monanha It wi
t^ tho Engliah, and James IL waa kilbd that. _, . . _
« a cannon. Aflar thb It ramslnad In ruins lOl It waa lapairad
by Frotaotor Bomenat ifaortlT sftCT whtdi It waa damolUhed.
Heimltaga, In Liddsadsla, the aoaoa of Laydani ballad a( £«rrf
Soulit, was probably built by HichoW do Solas hi tha baBfauiag
of tha ISth oeatiUT. OntksIorMtanof theaoalbhinlly& USO,
It waa granted by Bobart A* Bnwa to Sir John Qraham of Abar-
oon, and pswad by tha maribga of hb halreai Mary to her
hnabaud WDUan Douda^ faiif^of LMdaadala, who atarvad <lt
Aleisnder Baiuaj «l DaUumab to death ia it ia 1)43 ia lartnn
for Baraaay'a appmntmaot as aheriff cf Boxbnr^ by David it.
la 1403 AnhllMJd Douglas, fifth eatl of Angna, auhas^ tha
Hermitage for Botbwell Caatle^ on the Clyde, with Pstri^ Hep-
burn, first earl of Bofliwel] ; and it was dian that hb deaoandan^
the fourth sari, WH vbited in IH4 by Haiy qaaan of Boob. The
principal of tha othar old caadaaanBnniholnidntha.TeTiot, long
the nodence of the Bnccboebs and the scene of Sir Walter Bcott?
LaurfOiiLeallUiitrd; Oeirfixd, on a rldgslnoliningtowatdaths
Kala,fixinaiiyof gnatatrauth, baaiegedlnrsSOt^ Sonsy, to whom
it snrmdered; and Parniehfist the nuuwfonof ths Ken, on the Jed,
ocoDpylng the ifta of > baranlal (brtna araoted In 1*10, and tha
of many a tray. Hie dtstriot waa fin a long tlma ths sosna of
Ltinnsl border OMifllctB, the ba^bn in which waie tba Armabonn
or paal% diitdy in
Liddaadab, as at OilbrookB^ Csatleton, Whitahsn^, Oopabsw,
eupying tha fortnaaaa c
Syde, liangartou, Goianbarry, Hartagarth, and Bawaastletoo.
junong many fins modera msndons niantion may b* made ot
Floon Castle, the aeat of Oia dnke of Boiburghe : Mlnto Honaa,
theaaatofthaaarloflDntoi and Abbotsford, built by Sir Walter
Soott. Few ooonliea can boaat of andi imporbut eorlniaaHral
remalna la thoae of ^ ahbaya of Halniaa, Jedbnigh, and Edao.
Then an aavenl sacient croesea In the county, tiis principal baing
those St Ancrum, Bowden, Haiton, and Ualraas. Among Bomer-
ooa eminent men connactad with Boibnt^ mention maybe made
of Bamual Bathatflird tha theologian, Jamoa Thomson, antaorotnU
Araaoiu, John Leyden the poet, and Bir Qilbart EUiot of Uhito.
Sea JiOraT, tfUw* ^Jbaaw^taMn. 4 nk, U*T-S4i Aia^ii^fi MUkj
e^UHMWt, U»4 (T- '■ BJ
ROXBUET, formerly a city of Norfolk eoonty, HaoK
chosetts, U.S., now incorporated in Bo«tok (q.x.).
ROT, RiMHOEuiT (1772-1833). BiiiA Bimmohnn Bojr
S'Bi.j), the foonder of the BnUuna Samij or Tlwistia
urch of India, was bom at Ritfhinagw. Boigal, in May
1773, of an ancient and hoitonnullo firaboutn fami^.
HiB hther gave him a good edocatioD ; ke laamt Pss^M
at home, Arabic at Patua [wh^Fs he atodied Evclid, Aii»
totle, and tbe Koran), and BaoAritat Benares. Altboo^
ft dmvt kloktw in b(7hP0d,Ji« «(!tr b«fM^ dmbt aikd
R 0 T — R 0 T
apMdhl^MdatlftanWt bone to rtadf BoddUn is
^bst, iflMK Ui oHMnu on A* LMa»-wcnh.'p gwra K«A
cAoMk Att«rMiMjMn'b«T«l hantnnied, W^Uaanti-
idobtoHH MtttuDenta oUiginf biia to Imtc bonu, he lired
«t BiWM nntil Ui fMhar'a dcatk to 1803, After thii,
litiMttj, utd h« alM i«Md hit fint mik, A<Vte«(
JABMUAMui(''A<»t to UoBothairti-). T'
«M in FeniMi, with an AnUe pnfftM, and
pnrtMt kguiKt K^Nntition and ptiMtamft.
(MWiiny brought €n him nttoh -boatilitj, and
cntM^ ud m ISli he ntind to Otlontto for
Mfe^. Em* be won MtobUAed K Utlo FHwdlr
jlt^fa 3aN^ which met week^ to nad the Eindn
BcRpbitM M>d to ehant moaatiuMe Imwu. In 16K ha
tmnahtod tin VedAnta into Ba^ nod HindnrtnnI,
following thie hj % eariae of tnaakuona from th« Upani-
J»jif into Thmali, Eindutani, and '^■)j'***'_ with Intro-
Tnr*f*« ot Ua.own. Hmm wo^ he pab-
a noanae and diawnuaated widel j amoog
Hit WBtii^ exdtod mnch (^)poaition
) to muowou oonboveniaat in which hla
abili^, tact, and laaraing nadand him foUr a match for
hie aat^oBMta. Bat the daadftaat blow iriudi be iafiictad
npoB Hiodo aiqMntitioB waa Ua aflaetJTe a^tadon ag^inat
tbe rite at aatta^ the btiznini[ of liring widowi on the
fanml pilM of tidar deoeaaed haabaoda. In 1611 be had
been a honifled wUoeaa of tbia aaoriflce in hla elder
hcothac'a family, and had rowed nerer to net until be
bad iqvootdd Uie onatoffl. He expoaad tbe bcdiow pre-
tenoea of ita adTooatea In aUmtato pamphlet^, both in
ttoi«ft not a theologkal wuxm, atlMeted
id Boeaiderabh
wboaa Atmtji
la eoctiniit, At laat Hbnmohiui felt
nbodj bia cheridted Ideal, and on Asgiut W,
(^NoedAeArrt "BrlbaijaAaaociatioa'^niAMa
a legnlatioa aboliahiog anttee throngboat all tba tent
toriee antgeet to Fort William. Bimmohnn waa an aetire
politieiaa and philanthrotnsL He built whoolboases and
eatoUiabed ecboota in which naafol knowledge waa Knto-
itooalj tao|dtt thi*a>ffli tbe iwdJuin botii <tf the Endiah and
tfaenadre^ugoagea. He wrote a mggeatire Bengali gnus-
mar, at wbich be pnbliibed one rvrion fai Englidi (1 — '
and one faiBeagili (1693). He wrote Talnabla pamp
OD Hindn law, tut Bade atnanooa exertiona for the
fteedoB of tbe native pnaa; bealaoeeteUidiad(183S)and
mainlr eondoeted two native newapvafi, Hm 8amh6d
KaummA in B^^ and Qt rigb^ idantifled) Oe Jfrntt-
otXbUrir in FarBao, and made them tbe meaaa <4 diffDaing
niui naefnl politiQal toftxiDation. Beoouisg intereatad in
Chriatiaai^.he leanwd Hebiew and Oreek in oidec to lead
the BiUe in tbenigiaal hmgoagw; and to 18S0 be iaanad
a aeleetkn fmm tbe four OoqMB entitled Jlu Prtetpu ^
Jtau, til* OiMt to AoM attd HappiMm. 1%ia waa
attacked bj the fiap^ miaainnariee u Secampor, and a
long eoatniTMBj eoniad, in wUdb be pnblkbed tiiree
remarkable AppmiU to At CkrMm^IMhtU m D^mte* cf
rt« " FrtE^U y Jtnt.' He alao wrote otfier tbeotogioal
tncts (aometinNB niider amuutul aamea) in wbidi be
atta<iea both Hindn and Ouietiait ordiodcHj witb a
■trCDg hand. Bat hii peranMl lelatioaa with ordiodaK
Cbiiatiaoa were nem m^iendl;, and be rendered labmble
Maiatenee to Dr I>oS in tbe lUter'a educational idMme&
Be abo warmlj' befriended a Unitarian Ouittian MiaaioB
whiefa waa atoited in Oabntto (ISM) bjr Hr WilUam
Adam, formerif a Baptiat miaaioiivj, into^ in attempting
to oonrat RAmmohon to ^Utarianiaeo, bad UmaeU Mca
eoorerted to tbe aggaiin tiev. lUa UnilailiB HiMion,
aUeto
1898. he
a>M^al _ _
tbea erected and placed in tbe haada of traataaa, wttb a
email endowmani and a wwarfcable knatnieed bf wUeh
the bmldii^ waa-tet apart "for tbe worah^ and adontiop
ti tbe Eternal UnaaaNbaUe^ and Immwtafale Bung iriw
ia tbe Anthor and ftea«i'»« lA the oniTerae.* Ihe new
ebuch WM focnalb OMoed on tbe n tb 1U«^ ( Janun 33)
1630, from wfaidi daj tbe Brihma SuMj datea iti
eriatenoe. Having now aoeceeded in bk chief projaati^
lUmmnhmi rHoIved to viait England, and tlie king of
Delhi ^^(^ted him bia envoj thither oa ^eeial bnamaai^
and Dare him tbe title of riijL He arrived in w^gi't.^ tin
AfirL 8; 1631, and waa received witb nniveraal eordialitr
and reject He watdrnd witb q»acial anxiety tbe parlia-
mcotary diaouaalona on tbe renewal of the Beat India
CcMnp^j*a diartir, and gave much valuaUe evidenoe before
tbe Boerd of Oontiol on tbe ocaditioii of letS^ niia he
repnbliahed witb ""■fa"""-' aoggeetJopa {Sijiemtim ^ At
PracHaal Optntim «f At Judtttal md Bmamt Sf^ltmt ^
Jadia), and alao lelaned bia important Aenjr on At Bight
^ Bmdut our Aiumtral Propartg (183S). Be viaited
France, and wialied to viait AaMtioa, but died nneipectedlj
of tmin fever at Brlatol, September 97, 1833.
Bia Bengal and SanArit wo^ mn Ulal* rdaoad In one
•lams, t» B^aMin Boa* and 1. 0. TfatotabUah (CUantta,
180X and Ui 'IbbIUi wnto vfll ihartlv to miUUad la two
iamm bj Ut^Aaadia BcM ^KtgMlnoiA ObatlDIM^ta'a
itan^ tBOoir of Urn (1881) k O* I^Mt 7«t pabtiib*<C
HOT, WiuuM (t. 1730-1790), a lamom nodMia^ Via
employed in aone o( tbe great national frigDOometrical
meMnrementa irtueb were made during laat eentoi7. In
1746, at the age of twen^, when an rm'tlft in tbe ofltce
Of OoIomI Wataon, dqmtr qoartermattargeMnI to North
Britain, be began the aarr^ ct the reainlaod of BootUnd,
the reenltt at ^lioh were embodied to lAat ia known aa
the "duke of Comberland'a nu^" In 170A he obtained
a lientenanqj in the 51et regbntnt, and proceeded witb it
to Oermanj, irittre Ue talenla aa a military dran{^rt>nan
bronght bin to notice^ and pioeuted him rapid pioiaotlon.
while depn^ quartemaater genewt at Ue Horse Quarda,
bia aervieea were called into reqoeat for condnotius tbe
obeervationB foe detcamiaing the relative poaitionB <S the
IVencb and &idl)di royal obaervutoiiaa. Hit meaaure-
meat of a baae uoe for that pnrpoae on Hoonalow Heath
in 178^ irtiiah waa deaUnad to be the genu of all aabae-
qnent BDrveTt of Uie United Kingdom, gained him the gold
medal of tbe Bojal Booielr cf London. Owing to onfoM-
aeen delays the triengtiTetion for ooaneeting tbe meridieaa
of the two obeervatoriea wee not carried out until 1787.
WRkaatMadJKU
pabUahad In ITto.
BOTAL HOUSEHOLD. In all tiie medieval moo-
fatem cA govero-
r^al hooebold.
na eovereipi'k domeataoa were bia offieera of ateti^ and the
leadtog dignitariea of the palaee were tlm pitoeipal admin-
iattaton d tbe kingdom. Tbe royal bonadiold itaelf had,
to ito tnm, grown out of an eatUac and not* primitive
iiMtitidioB. It \o6k ito riae in tbe ttmMmt deaeribad by
Tacitna, tbe duwen band at eomita or compaaiona wbc^
when ^ Soman biatorian wrotet ooaatitated the perBmal
IbUomnft in peace ae well aa in war, ^ tbe Teut^
s«
ROYAL HOUSEHOLD
prmc^ or Mitiaia. In Engboid htton the Ornqnart
tiM tomitalmi had derdoped or dagenorated into Ote
thcgibood, aad imong tlw most amiDeot ind poweriol of
tha king't thagna, mre kit dttkthegn, hi« bow^thegn, and
Ua boftethegn or ataller. In Nonnandj at the time of
tb« Oonqnwt « dtnilar anangeman^ imitatad from the
VnoA eoort, had long baea eatabliilMd, and the Ncninan
dskei^ like their OTerlonb tlw kings of France, had their
aniwirilial o* itewaid, their eh&mberluD, and their con-
■tabb. After the Conqoeit the ducal hmuehold of
Cormandj wm reprodneed in the rojal hooaehold of
Ifiughutd ; and eince, in obedieoee to ^le epirit of feudalitm,
tha gntt <McM of the fint had been made hweditary, the
gnat offloea (rf tba second were made hereditary aUo, and
wan thenceCorUi held b; the granteea and their deacend-
•nta aa gnnd-aeijcaotiee of the crown. The conseqnence
WM tiiat th^ pMeed ont of immediate relation to the
practical conduct of allun either in both etate and conrt
c» in Ae one or the other of them. The steward and
diamberiain of England were aaperaeded in their political
fnnotiaaa by the justiciar and treaEorsr of Sngland, and
In tbdi d^Mstdo fonctiona hj the steward oiid chtunber'
Iain at the lioasehold. The manhal of England took the
phoe of the oonstable of England in the rojeX pablco, and
was associated with him in the command of the royal
■rmiea. In dne conrst^ however, the maiaholahip as well
as the eoovtableship becams bweditaiy, and, although the
emwtabte and marui^ of England retained thdr nulitary
anthoritj nntn a oomporattralT lata period, the daties
Htj bad mccassi*^ performed about the palace bad
been long before transfcned to the master of die horseL
Under ueee circnmstanoea the boldera of the t^iginal
mat offioea ot steta and Um hoosehold ceased to attend
ue court except on occantms of extraordinaiy eersmon;,
and thur lepresentativw either by inheritance or bj fecial
■ppoinUnent bare ever since eoatiniied to appear at corona-
tuma and some other public solemnities, sncb as the apea-
ing of the parliament or trials by the Honse of Lotds.'
^His nutoriala available for a history of die royal honao-
hdd are somewhat scanty and obecnns. llie earliest
record relating to it ta of the reign of Henry IX, and is
eontained in the £lack Boot of the Xxrhrquer. It ennmer-
atei the Tariooe inmates of the king's pahce and the
daily allowaacM made to them at the period at which
*t was compiled. Hence it affords valoabla evidence of
the antiqni^ and relatira importance of the oooit offices
to which it refen^ notwjtbstaiiding that it is silent as to
.2e fnnctiOQs and formal snbMdination of the persons who
Blled them.* In addition to this record we have a series
of far later, but tor the most part Equally meagr^ docu-
ments bearing more or leas directly on the constitution of
the royal household, and extending with long ioterTsIs,
from the reign of Edward UL to the reign of William and
Haiy.* Among them, however, are what are known as the
a csUIogoB of
* Tlw greet elBon of lUU Mid Uw iKnuchold
putlBBlBir mantioiwd do not of «ourM uhurt t
than. Wb iat nuud Uidh only whoM npnmo
dlgDltuiM of ths eatat tad [oDationwla of tlia p*UM. U tba
tmOtr oonnlti HiJIim (JTuUI) Afa, voL L p. 181 f.), VnvBUi
(ffamoH Ontjiuit, ToL L p. VI 19., wul *oL t, p. ISA tj.), ud
tHBbb({<%iul. Hitt.,nl Lp. 843,«,}, hawflllMkblBhlmHlftofill
la tiM ifOt of ttu oDtU» H Un giTan Bbav*.
■ Tha TCODcd In quitiaii ii uUtlad CoiutUiMi Dmm Rifi* d*
PnrmvimuhiiM, iiii it -fxiaUi 'bj 'O.antt {Libtr Ifigtr gcaemrii, voL
f. ^ 341 *:.). It Ii iDiljtti b} StDbba (Cbiuf. SiiL, toL L nota %
It »«).
» Aa>llte»m<ifOrdiiiaiuittaitdStgiilalli>tu/(ira»Oor»riimmt<tf
f iNff IPiSuw ami QiMM JTiHy, inliiUd tor tha BooM]' ol AntiqiuriH,
London nW. Baa alao P<«a'i Cunaiia, fvhtijibti putlr baton
sad putlr att«r thli Tolonu; and Cariiila'i Qtnamtii iif On PHn
Oamhr, pobllabsd ia 1S». Ftgg* ud CMlda, bowura, dul with
MwU tod JMJjpiifleant poiUou of tb« rojil *i<i¥hlirirl
BloABotA oftluSiMutkfild and the OoMm ifKH/umi
compiled the fint in the reign of Edward IV. and the second
in the nign erf Hamy VIU., from which a good deal of
detailed information may be gathered oonoeming the
arrangemeota of the eonrt in the 15th and 16th eentoiie^
The SfahOf iff XUAom were meant for the practical guid-
supply of the sovereign's honsdtold
at the time they were iMued. Bat the .Koot ^eoit 0/ lAe
HoiuAM, besidee bnng a sort <rf treatise on prinoaly mag-
nificence genetally, profeases to be faasad on the regolations
eetablished lot the goremanee of the ooort by Edward IIL,
who, it sAnna, was " the fint setter of oert^nlisa among
bis domeeticall meyne, npon a gnmnded rale* and idiose
palace it dtaeribee aa " t^ hoose ai very polide and flowre
of England ; " and it may tlufefore poMiUy, and even
probably, take ns back to a period mnoh more remote tliaa
that at which it was actually pat togetber.* Various orders
returns^ and acronnts of the rngns ol Elimbeth, Jams* L,
Charles L, Charlee H, and WiUiom and Mary throw ooo-
sideiable light on the organisation ot partiMilar seetitHta
of the royal household in timee nearer to oar own.*
Moreover, there wore several parliamentary inqniries into
the expenses of the royal household in OMinexion with the
settlement or reform of the dvil list during the reigns of
George UL, George IV., and William IV.* But they add
little w nothing to our knowledge of the snbject in what
was then its historical as distingoiihsd from its contem-
porary aapecta. So much, indeed, is this the case tha^ on
the accession of Queen Victoria, Chamberlayne'a Prttml
State of Ettgland, which contains a catalogoe of die officials
at the court of Qneen Anne, was deacribed by Lord
Helboome the prime minister as the "only authority"
which the advisers of the' onwn could find for thor
assistance in determining the appropriate constitntion and
dImensionB of the domestic establishment of a qoeea
regnant'
In its main otttlinea the existing organisation tit the
royal household is essentially the same as it was under
the Todote or the Flantagenets. It is now, as it was then,
divided into three principal departments, at tiia head of
which are aeveially the lord steward, the lord chamber-
lain, and the master of the horse, and the respective pro-
vinces of which may be generally described aa "below
stairs," "above stairs," and "out ot doors." But at
present, the soverugu being a queen, the royal household
IS in some other respects n^er differently arranged from
what it would be if there were a king and a queen consort.
When there is a king and a qneen c6nsort there is a
LOitr tfigtr Deaau Bigii Eduard IT, and OrdijUBitou fir Ike
tAold wudt at SOutn in On mtntKttlh jFiar tf King Bturjf
Vlll., A.D. ISte, an tha tltlaa lit thaae two doeomatita. Tka aariiH
dooomaata prlntad In tha auna ootlMttan an BautAM af Xiitg
gdiaard ill, ia Pmw md War/mt Os 4igliltmii lo IM* (wnMy-jint
rtat af)a* rag» ; Ordauiuu if On StrntluM t^Kiof HeHrj IV.
^UcUiHy-Uirdyaori/MinvH, A.D. HBS.tniAttlelaeraaiiui
lit King Smry VII. for Ou Rf^OaUim itfkii HnuiOuiU, A.a. 1484.
• na&nki/UatfaiMAoUi/QwBJItBbauiKmsniaiiHrf
in lli4jMi/-Uard pear of Aar Jbi^ iMmti ta oat 8»—ni^ Lard
Siag Jama, Jie., la aaplT ■ IM of oSoaia' n
to in Arthmilcgia (voL ilL pp. W-4S). For tk
manti aaa OnftwHCM mid AynloliMU, *c, pp. Sit, UO, MT, US,
SS8, aod (80.
* Buika'ioalabntadAct "loraBablingHlill^aatTtodlachusatlw
debt oontnctad apon ttia dvfl Hat, and for prarentlng tba aazne fna
bdng in urear fat tbe fntun, ftCg'tS Oeo. III. d. SS, v
ioITSS. Bat HwMfntahadowtdlnhlagiMtipaachriD "■<
Hafonn" delivared two jrean bdOia. Binoa tba baglniiisc of the
current cantorr aalect aonuuittaaa of tha Honaa of CoBunona have
rapoKvl on tha cItU llat and iDjal honaehoLd tn IBOB, 1801, ISIS^
and 1831.
'Tonwia'a MmolnV WiUitm, tmLKfmmf JMrnit*, voL
U. p. tOS. O
ROYAL HOUSEHOLD
iiBCiDt " ftbore suits " and " ouf of doon ^
for the qaeec ooiuort She has a lord chunberlaiit's
deptrtmeDt and a dspartmsnt of the maater of the hono
of her own, and atl the ladies of tha court from the
mistRM of the robea to the maids of honour an in her
oerrictt. At the oommeDcement of the reign of Queen
Victoria the two Betabliahtnents were combined, and on
tbe whole conaidereblj reduced. Hence the rejal honse-
bold, although it is of conne much larger than that of a
queen oonarat woold be, ii also appreciably smaller than
tiut of a king and qoaen conaort together has been sinoe
the reigning (ainilj acceded to the throne.'
Hmml tflJu l/ird Stmard i^Ot B
B, swrir, and f/mirj ; tlw wiaa, hi
brd atawstd Is tb* tint digslurf of tfaa court, uii pronilH it tb«
Bnud of Qnn Cloth, wban sU Uit sccoonli iX tba boDuhDld sn
nTsmilMiil sad pssawL' Ho ii slwiji s menibv of the OoTfim-
mcat of th« dsj, a psir, inil ■ prirj oooncillor. H* mxyni liii
sppoiattasBt from tlii lOTonini in penoD, sud besn i wbiU atsfT
as tha •mUaiB and wsrrsnt of hit lutliority.' In his depsrtniaut
tha tfMBwr tnd comptroUsr of tha hooaehold »n tin officcn
aaxt t> laak to him. Thaj sl» sit st th* Bosrd of Onan Cloth,
CUT wUta Mare^ snd balong to Cbo mluistrj. Tbsy sn slvsy*
peers or tb« sons of pans, sbJ priTj couocillon. BdI tha dalles
^ich In tbaocy baiinift to tha lord itawird, tnssnnr, snd conip'
trollar of tbs hoiuahoM sia in prsctlce parfonncd bj tha maitar
«f tbs hoBMbold, who is s psTBtsssat oncer sad naides In tbs
palaOK It is bs who rssUj UTsstifisto tbs aooauols snd ms!n-
tains diaelpllna smong the ofdinsrj •sn'suti of tha rojsl aatsblish-
uaDt Ha i* a whita^stalT offieai and a msmber of tha Board
of OrasB Clnth bat not of the mlniitr}, snd smoug olhar things
lis pniides st tha dsflj dlnnais of the ■oita in waiting on tiis
soracdgB.* In tha li«il itawsid'a depsrtmanl sre Oi* •ecratai?
sad thrsa darks of tha Bosrd of Qnun aoth ; tha soroner sud
pajwastar of tha household ; and the oSian of the slmoniy,
araulj, Hm heroditsiy grand ilmonfr,' the lord high slmoncr, tha
snb-ahnooar, tbs graoni of the stmonry, snd tha aec-etsrj to the
bed Ugh slawosr.*
It Dfartmni 1^ On Lord CKamiirta,iintfOuBBUMKiild.— Tim
badchsmbtr, prirj chamber, sad prasenea chamber, tha wardraba,
lbs hooasksa^er's room, uid the gnsrdroom, tha natropoUtsD
0 ii the ssoond dinilsij of the oonrt,
mbat at Iha aoranunantof the dsf, s paar, sod -
"- - — '-- a whits sua; snd '■--
and I* slways a :
piTT omaoiUa. __ _ . . „ ...
wwsUad tsy, tjidcal of the Vej of the palsoe, which is tnppasod to
Da in hla durga, as &m an^gns of hJa offloa He is rasponsibla for
.. . ^ -.y, ,1,^ ooramonifa, each
mingL snd fanaisls Alt
_ _. _ _... lam* bj oommsnd of th»
I, aad st disving rooms snd lafsM he stands next to tha
_i and aDDOSDoes tbs penoea who era sfqiroseliing the
thnna. It (a slao part of his dn^ to condaet tha sCTecel)^ to snd
boa hla or her eairlue.' The TUM-«hsmbarlsin of tha honsahold
fa Iha load ehambatisin's saaiBtsst snd dapaty. He sbo is one of
thsBiaiab?, a whits-staff officer, soil the besreTofskaj; snd he ii
alwaja a psar or lbs son of s peer sa well as a prir; Donncillor,
I etjamrsUM us ypUaa au larliltf ■»>•«•< in
■ Cwk. (h uSar Saailai 'Ike laaBtinf iHsaa M __-
SwiiSili, Jm— t»fWiM gfJNI iCffa" la Oato, Aiaau, 1.. oati. I>. Ii
a^ «■ pakB Mtjdlka, Jw., It. aaaf. n asA n : Itaant, AM^u^
Than then
C»^L"
87
king the groom of tha stole OOBSS Kxt to the
ict-chsmborUin in rank snd suthoritj. At preaout, boweTer, tbs
sCola.* Bha is the oolj Isdj of the court wbo cornea
id goea out with the sdiDiniilntion, snd the duCioa
she performs sra msrslT occsaionsl snd furmsl. She is always
s duchess, snd sttsudi the queen st sll atste caramouiea snd (Btar-
tsinmaBts, but is DSTor in pemisnent laaideDOS s( the pslsca.* On
the ooDtrsr; tbe Isdlna of the btdcbsmber ahsra tlia function of
penonsl stlandsnca on the aorareign tliTDUgbout the jrssr. Of
theee there sra eight, aJwsyi jneiHses, snd esch is in wsiling for
bedchsmbu, of whom than st« slw eight, sppesr onl; it court
inued under the sntharit; of the lord ehsmberlsiu. They sro
luusllj the dsughtera of peers or tlie wives of the aoua of wars, snd
in the old time, like the niiatiHs of the robes snd tha Isclies of Uia
bedchamber, hsbitually sasialvl the quean st her dsily toilette.
"■■■■■ ■ ■ V- '— <~ -. .v^, fb, naiM*
this hss long coued ti
;bt in Dooibrr snd h
. bjK
sugb ten or grsuddsnghtsn of pws, sn
title snd precedence bj birth sre called " honoursbla " snd pismi
neit after tbs dsughttis of bstvns. The quaen u s special mark of
snd msida of honour. Bat their position is sllogitbet bonoisry
sud iniolTes no chsrn on the ciiil list. There sre eight lonl*
snd eight grooms, who sn protisrly dmctibed u "of the bsd-
cbatnber " or *'in wsiting," sccording ss the reigning aotvrtlgn ia
s king or s quaen, snd whose terms of sttrndsuce sre of similar
duration to those of ths Isdies of tha badcbsmber and the luaiils
of honour. OccssioDslIjr "aitcs" lords snd grooms in wsiting
sre uominstsd bf the qneea, who, howater, sre unpaid Bud have
no regular duties. Tha mssCfT, sasiatsnt master, sd<1 marshal of
the ccremoDies st* the sScen whose nwiil functiou it is to
enforce the otaaemnoe of tha ilifiaiU of the court The recaption
of foreign potentatee and amhwsdors is mder their particnlsr
feitiiiUes st tbe psiscs." Tbe geutlFmiu usher of tba blsck
rod — ^the blsck rod which he csrrioa being the ensign of his
oDo* — la tbs princlpsl oshar of tbe court snd kingdom. He fa
one of the origins) funclionsiita of the order of the Carter, and
is in coDttsnl sttendsDce on ihs Housn of Lords, from whooi,
either ponooslly or bj his deputy the yeonisn usher of tha black
rod, it la part of his dutr to carry mesisges snd aummonsea to Ihs
Honse of Commons. Ths gentlemen nahcn of ths prjiy cbsniber
snd thegautlemeii nahan daily waiters, of shorn their are bur each,
snd tha gentlemen uaben quarterly waitara and the Bcrgesnts.st-
srma, of whom there sre eiglit esch. sra in vslting only st drawing
noma and lareea snd aUte bdls snd concerta. But of the
sovemgn'a selgeants-st-srms there sre two others to ■bom special
dutlea sra snignad, tha one sttanding tbe ipesker in the Houia of
CoromaQs, snd tha other sttending tha lonl chsncellor in tbe House
of Lords, carrying their toscee and sxsmting their orders. " Tha
yeomen of the guard data from the reign of Henry VIL, and tha
gentlemen-at-srma from the rrifo of Hrory VIII. The captain of
each corps is slwsya s member ol the miniatri' snd s peer. Besidai
the captains, the former, now csllad the qneen a IxHltguud, conaiati
d a liButcnsut, ensign, clerk of tbe cbeqtts and sdjutsnt; Cqur
gentlemen pensioners, ooniiits of s Ucutensut, atsndsrd-bearer,
clerk of the chaijne and adj utant, ainboSctr, and forty gantlemon.
The eoniiibullar and examiner of sccounta, tha licenser of pfaj
tha dean and aubdean of the chspal royal, the dark of the eloai
~ le groom
id of thi
chspal royal, the dark of the eloaet,
. ^jgagortha hackalsii^ of thachi *
poet Isuresla, the toyal pbyiicisi
rs snd sculptors, librsrisns and mua
ipertntendance of the lord chsmbnlain of
the groom of the robss, ths pegag of tha hackalsii^ of tha clumber,
"id of tha preaencs, the poet Isuresla, the toyal pbfiicisns snd
Lrgoons, cbspEsins, psinters snd sculptors, librsrisns and muaidans,
tha household. 1*
Iir DtfOTimt*i if Ou MusUr if Aa STry.—Ta» staUn SOd
coschhouses, tlie atud, njewa, and kennels, sra in tha maatar of
ths horse's departinsnt Ths msttsr of the hone n ths thlid
E 0 Y — R O Y
digMbn of lh« «aiirt, tad b ilnji a nwnW of tba Oornn-
m«Dt of tha d>r, ■ pnar, ftnd a priTj mmdllOT. All mmttan
ConoHtMl with tie hnw* ind hoandi at tha aoTara^ an within
Ui JariidkUon, Tha mutar tt tba booUioniiiii, vba ii alio ona
«f at nlniiti;. nnkt uxt ta him, and it ii hii detj to attond tha
Mjalhant aad to JtoHl tin proeiadoB of iml aqaip^t>a on tha
ncMoniH tt AkoL when h* pitaaatt Iiimnu on honabaek in ■
0MB ud gM mabna weariiK the cooplv of a bound u the
Badge if hie oOoa. Tbo hamfitair grand UoODBr' le alio mb-
onkutad to the iDBitaT of fha bono. Bat the practical manua-
neat ot tta t«jal atablaa and atod In Kwt devolrv on the ohieTor
•njwii eqnenj, (anDarly called the ganUnmn ot iba bone, who b
■am In pntoul atteodanee on the aoverajgn, and irhoaa appaitil;-
OMnt la parmanant. ne aleifc manhal haa ua ntperriaian of the
anranntaof Hw douai tuwut before tbaj are anbmttfad to tha Board
ot{lnanOloth,aaal* InmJtingon the aoTareign oa atats occavone
oplj. EialDBiira of Qa erova aqnan? than are aaTan regular
•gaeRlai, beddai «ctra and honoiair eqnerriBi, ona of irliom ii
alirqa in attudanea on tha aorenlcn and ridea a
are of tha ar
■ ai tha
^ Thare are alio throe pagoi of honour in tb<
matter ot Iba bmae'e department, irin mnit not be conronnded
wiik the puaa ef nrlooi tlnda who are in tba dopartment of tbo
lord ohaiBMnafn. Thtj an jonthi aged tnni twelio to eixteen,
Mlaoted br the Mvetebn in peraon, to attend on her at atata
~ ' a, whan two oftham arrajed In an antiqne eoatume aniet
Jn oompacatlTdy noant ttma_ .
lirint* nontan and the kaaptr of the prir; pone t
wUeh are fer the preaant ppmUned, onglnated no i „
tha eeiUer part «( tha onnvat oeDtorr. Terr giaat donbta wen i
la time entert^ned ai to wbathet meh
TerjmatJ
an offlee ai t
Taga tbiui
prlTTparaa ft
SrtofWn
)t &a pitii
hoDidioId oonebt ot ua pitrata aeeretair and keeper ot the
pnae, two eilntant printa tecntariea and heepen of Qt»
pnrae, and- a aeoteti^ and two ehA» of tte plr; pane. I
the rani
_..^ prii7
priry pane. J^ tbe
Jie bwuming of the *
h^t^^tbe diil' liet ^ -
rTpniaeWMfliodat£«0,(»OaTtar,
id other expenaei of the Tojil hoan-
It lU^m.
BOTAL BOCIETT, 1^ or, more folly, The Bo^ol
8ocie^ of LoodoD for Improving Natuml Enoirledge, ia
Ml uaociation of men intereeted in tha adnncement of
matkemfttical ■nd phyacd edemM. It ia the oldeat Bcien-
tifio aouetj in Qreat Britain, and one of tiie oldeet in
Europe.
'Pte Royal Sodet; is onutU; ooDiideted to hare been
faonded in the Tear 1660, bnt • nnclens had in fact been
la eziBteaae for wtme f&rs before that data. Wallis
infonns tu that m earij as the ytar t64Q weekly meetings
iren held of "diren worthy penona, inqniaitiTe into
natntal uhiloK^y, and othw parts of homan leatning,
and partacnlarty of irhat hath been called the Nat P/aio-
utpkjf or B^^mitrnM PkHoK^iijr,'' aiH thus can be little
doabt that this gatheriog of [dulosovlwn is identical with
the "InTisiblB College" of which Baji» apeaks in nmdiy
letters written in 16<6 and 1647. TheM weekly meet-
ings, according to Wallia, were first sd^geited by llieodciTe
HiU, "a Oeiman <d the Palatinate tlien resident in
iKmdoQ," and they were hsld sometimes in Dr Ooddard'e
lodgjngi in Wood Street, sometimes at the Ball-Head
Tavern in Che^iiide, but more often at Qresham College.
On November 28^ 1660, the first jonmal book of the
society was opened with a " memoraodnm," from which the
following is an ratract : — " Memorandum that Novemt).
S& 1660, Theee persona followiog, according to the mmaU
costom of meet of diem, mett together at QrediBm CoUedge
to heaie Mr Wren's lecture, viz.. The Lord Bronncker, Mr
Boyle, Hr Bruce, Sir Robert Morej, Bir Fanl Neile, Dr
Wilkins, Dr Ooddard, Dr Petty, Mr Ball, Hr Booke, Mr
Wren, Mr HilL And after the lecture was <aded, Uiot
did, according to &t osnall dianner withdraws for mntuall
> TbadnluotBtAlbfw
converse. Where amongst other matters that were db-
conised of, something was offered about a deaigne of
founding a Colledge for the promoting of Physico-Mathe-
maticall Experimental! Learning. " It was agreed at this
meeting that the company ahonld continne to aseemble on
Wedntttdays at 3 o'clock; an sdmimion fee of ten shillinga
with a subscription of one shilling a weelc was institute^;
Dr Wilkins was appointed chairman ; and a list of forty-one
persons judged likely and fit to join tbe design was drawn
Qp. On the following Wednesday Sir Robert Moray bronght
word that the king (Charles II.) approved the design of
the meetings ; a form <d obligation was fiamed, and waa
signed by sJl the persona ennmerated in tbe memorandum
of November 28, and by seveoty-three others. On
December 12 another meeting was held at which fifty-five
was fixed as the nnmber of tbe society, — persons tit the
degree of baron, fellows of the College .of Physician^ and
public profeasore of mathematics, phymc, and natoral
philoeophy of both omverxitieB being supemmnereriea,
Qreuiam College was now appointed to be the regular
meeting-plBce of the society. Sir Bobert Moray was ciioasD
president (March 6, 1661), and contioaed in that ofttce
until the incorporation of Uie society, when he was snc-
ceeded by loij Brouocfcer. In October 1661 the king
offered to be entered one of the aocie^, and next year the
society was inoorporated snder the name of " The Boyal
Socie^," the charter of incorporation passing the groat
smI on the lEth Joly 1662, to be modified, however, by
a second charter in the following jear. The council of
the Royal Society met (or the first time on May 13, 1663,
when reeolntions were passed that debate concerning those
to be admitted should be secret and that fellows should
pay Is. a wei^ to defray ennnaee.
At this early stage of the society's histMy one main
part of their labows was the " correspondence" which
was actively maintained with Continental philosopher^
and it was from this that tiie PMhtopMeal Tramadiont
(a publication now of world-wide celebri^) took ite rise,
At first tbe TmntaOvrnt was entirely the work of the
secretary, except that it was ordered (March 1, 1664-^)
'f that Ute tract be licensed by tbe Council of the Socie^,
being first reviewed by awne of the members of the mane."
The first number, conaiatdng of sixteen qnarto pag«a,
appeared on Monday 6th March 1664-0. In 1750 (onr
hundred and nine^-aix numbers or forty-mx volumes had
been published by the sGcretariea. Aft^ this date the
work was isaned under the superintendence of a committee^
and the division into nnmbeta disappeared. At present
(188&) one hundred and seventy-five volumes have been
oompleted.
Another matter to which the society turned their atten-
tion waa the formatioa of a mnaeum, tbe nucleus being
"the collection of rarities formerly belonging to Mr
Hubbard," which, by a reaolution of council peawd
Febmary SI, 1666, was porchased for the sum of XIOO.
This museum, at one time the moat famous in London,
was presented to the busteee of tiie British Museum in
1781, upon the removal ot the society to Somerset House.
After the Great Fire of London in September 1666 the
apartments of tbe Boyal Society in Qresham CoUego were
rehired for the use trf the city authoritJM, and the society
were therefore invited by Henry Howard of Norfolk to
meet in Arundel House. At the same time he preaented
them with the library purchased by his grandfather
Thomas, eail of Arundel, ssd thus the foundation waa
laid of the magnificent collection of ecientific works, pro-
bably not far£ort of 45,000 volumes, which the society
at the present time poasessea. Of tbe Arundel M8S. the
bulk waa aold to Uie trustees ot the British Museum in
1830 tor the earn of £36C0, tlie proceeds being devoted
ROYAL BOCIETY
b» tba pnnihaM of seinfiBe ^kkAm. Thme HS8. ue (till
kapt ia the iDowiiim ai a, Mfsrata ooUeetion.
Under (kte December 21, 1S71, the joornBl-book neordi
that "the lonl biahop of Sanim propoaed tor candidate
Ur lMa« Vewton, prototeor ot the nuitheiaiticks at Cam-
bridgB." Newton was el«et«d a fellow Jaanary 11,
1671-2, and in 1703 he wm appointed praaident, a poet
which he held till hie death in 1T37. Daring hi* pre-
udenc; the eociety moTed to Crane Court, their tint
necUng in the new qoarten baiog held KoTember 6,
1710. Id the aame jvai tbey were appointed riaiton and
ditcctord of the Rojal Obaerratorj at Oreenwich, a fanc-
tion which thsj ccDtiuued to perform until the acceaaioD
of William IV., when bv the new warrant than iaaued
the president and six of the feltowi of the Royal Attioao-
niLcaJ Societj were added to the litt of viajton.
In 1780, under the preudene; of Sir Joseph Banlt, the
Rojal Society remoTed from CtaiM Cbort to the apart-
meuts asaign«d to them by the OoTernment in the new
SomerMt Houoe, where they remained until they removed
la Burlington Houaa in 1SG7. The policy of Sir Joaeph
Uanka wae to render the feUowthip- more difficult of
attunnflDt than it had been, and the meaaurea which
be took for thia piirpoae, combined with other cireura-
klsac^ led to the riae of a taction headed by Dr Eorsley.
Thronghout the ye«a 17S3 aud 1784 feeling ran ezcead-
iiiglj high, but in the end the preaident waa anpported by
the m^ority of the aociety. An account of the contro-
veray will be found in a tract entitled An AtuAaUie Jfarra-
ti*t of CA< iTuunwMU onif DtbaU* m the Sofol Soeitlf.
In connexion with thia policy of Six Joaeph Banka may
be mentioned a further atep in the Mine direction taken
in the year 1847, when the number of candidatea recom-
taended for election l^ the ooancil was limited to fifteen,
•ml the electioii was made anunaL Concuitently, how-
evar, with this gndoal naiTOwing of the Boyal Society's
bonnilariea waa the sncceaaiTC eslabUshmeot of other
aetentific bodice. The foonding of the LinnBan Society
in 178S nnder the aoipicea of aaTeral fellows of the
Boyal Bocia^ was the first insttmce of the artabliahment
of a distinct acientific asaociation under royal charter.
Tbe Oeological Society foUowed in 1807, and the Roy^l
Aatronomical Society in 1820. The Chemical, the "Sajtl
Get^raphical, and tlia Entomological are the remaining
chartered acientific aociatiea eziating in London at tbe
prMont tine. The Royal Society ooatinuee, however, to
hold the foretnoet place among ^e edentifio bodies of
England, not only from the number of emioent men In-
cluded in its fellowship, but alao from ila doee ofSci^ con-
nexion with tbe QoTernmeat
Tbe foUoviug irill imne » •qbu ladiatkia of th* Tuisty and
importAncv of tli« Kieutiflc nulton apoD wLich thej Live b«D
coDkultaJ hj or luve memorutiad tbv OoT^mniAiit daritig thfl
Ivt acrriitr jau*;— ISIS, itudird mauona at laDgth ; 1817,
upsditioD IQ Hcrch of Korth-Wat Fwaga ; 1821, ue oT ood-tu
In T^ii'i of Hu ; bat mtniMr of miuuriiift loiitiug of ship* ;
18S3, eormiou of coprnr iLesthing bj Hs-witer \ Babbsge*! cal>
ca1iitia£-iRu)iIiM ; ligbtnliiR-ceitdacton tor TMSiIg of vu ; ISaS,
■Bpcrrinmi of ^^niriu ; 18SS, Vwrj't Korth PoUr azpadltloii :
1R32, tidal obHmtiDiu 1 I8SS, iBitnuatol* and tibts for batlD^
tha (tiTDsth of iptrit*: lUB, ABtantlii iipaditigii; magiHtic
abscrratoncs in ths colaofas ; IS4E, franklin'i Arctic upoflUoD ;
1S4B-5S, Gonmmcnt crant loT KMod&o ISHanh ; 1883, tho gnat
Uclboonio blnrHpt ; IBSE, pgndDlsm obaerTatiaaa hi India j 18SS,
f«rgauisitio& of ths motawolaglcaj dapaitiDaot; 1888, d«p Ha
nKuchi 1873, "CkaUgnnr" aniedilian ; 1874, AntiD aipadi-
tiea i 187& MlirH anwcUdon ; 1878, TlTiHction Bill ; 1377,
traoait of Vsnna upaditiDD ; 1879, pnrniCian of aocidentB in
■ians; I8tl, naadolaai Dbwrratlan*; 1682, tnodt of Tniu ;
oniaa af the ' TriLon " in 7ani* Chatunl ; 1881, boringi in delta of
KlU i 1884, Bnnan dea Poida at Ueanna i prima mandian confar-
•M*, Ik. Om of tb* DKiat Important dntia vhlcli th< Bcyal
Sodrty parfoinu on babalf of tfaa Oorammant b th< adminiatra-
tina A the annual giant of £4000 for tha pniuiotion of aeiantiBc
re«arcb. Thl* grant raiginatad In a propotel by Lnd John
ill In Itii that at tlia cloaa of tlia *«ar tha pnaulent and
:il elionld paint out to tbe fint lord of the traaiiir^ a limilid
lerrajr the c
Dt£10OOa(l»n
im tha pant
cnU migfatbe of a.
tialH
in additional earn of £4000 16c >ifai]>t par-
poaM vaa gcanlAd, sod tbe tva fnodi of £1000 and £1000 naro
■duluiiUind ooncurrantlj untU 1881, io which Jeu tbe two wen
camblDFil Ln a eingla annua] omit of £4000 nodar d<w nguktioiu.
Qua of tfacmort luirnl of tha aociety's nndcrtakinRi of UU run
iatbegTaatcalslagiiaorBciantiaD paptn, — an iudai, in eight quarto
1 1 .!.___. _ .. ., . - iiiportiDoa
riantiflo] , .
ilumM, nndar authors' n*ina% of all tha i
in the chief Kugliab and foreign aoientihc leriali from tl
'"""'" '' " J87B. The work »™» prapirBd under the direu.
of th* Bojal SocfetT, and waa printed ly
1800 to th* year 38
tlon and at the eipa
H. H. Stationer; Obce.
A stst«mtat of the tnut fiuida sdnihiiatand by tha Bafsl
Sodaty will ha tousd in tbair publiahed Pne—dingi under data
HoTember SOth of each lur, and the origin and hiatocy of tbaaa
fiuida will ba found In Wald'a Hittorg of da Sayat Sotiiy, and in
th* late William Spottiawoode'a"AnniTer«aryAddr««a fbr 1874"
\Fnc Bat. 3^, laUL p 4R). The inoome of the society Ii
untribationa and oompoutJan fan of th«
redflom
fallowa, from rent", *i
llahed in the i^ticHifiii|;i at each auDlrenary. Four msdab (a
Copier, two Boyal, and a Dayy] an awarded by the socLe^ eterj
rear, and the Biiniford madal In alteniate yean. The Gnt of Cheat
origiuated in a beijueat by Sti Oodfrej Copley (17DR), and i* awarded
"to the living anthor m luch pblfoeaphlaJ ntatccb, -tther pnb-
liahed or oammnnicatcd to ths soeiMy, a* maj appear to the couDcil
le bt daaarrhig of that honour"; tha anthor may bean Englishman
or a fbnigner. The Bumfotd medal origiliatod in a gift from &HiBt
Rumford in 17M of jCrOOO 8 par cut consols, for the most
important dleooTeriaa in beat or light nisde during tha pr*c*diiig
two ytan. Th* Boyd medals were Inititntad bj Oeoi^ IT., and
sr* awarded annually for tha two moat important contributions to
adcnca pablisbtd in the British dominions not mon than ten ycsra
nor Iaa> than one yaai from the data of the award. The Otrj
medal waa founded by tha will of Dr Jolm Daiy, 7.B.S., th*
brother of Sir HampbtjDayy, and ia ^Ten annual] j (or tha moat
J. . — * J' f_ .1. — 1-. A^.^ Eoropaor Anglo-/— "-"'—
important discoTerj in chemistry mj ^ .. _
An annisaralion of th* awaida of aach of tha medala wil> bt fooud
at the sod of tha list of fsllows which Is published annually by tha
KioielT.
Under th
fbr altatioB m
by ^ or mor* CsUom, of
psraonal knowladga. Froi
ooancil annually tettct firteeu by ballot, and on tbe firit Thursday
in June the Barnes so selected an submitted 10 the society la the
form of s pttntsd btUoting shut with tcaca left for etaanra and
snhatitntioa of nan». I^cea vt tha blood may, howaTer, b*
proposail at any ordlnarr meeting and put to the i
IT th* *xiBtiog; itatnls* of the Soyal Boclety eTei^ candldata
tioB must La raoommendad by a eartiSatein wntlng slned
or mor* CsUom, of whom Ihna st least must sign Item
a
H. U. J
a day upon
>e balloted for
oertUaila is rtsd. Foreign nembari, m
saleoted by the conncQ from amouf; men oi ue gzeaEen sciennno
MDinaeae. and propoaed to tha society far tlection. Ertry member
of the pririlnged class is Liable to aB admiseioQ fee of £10 and an
annual [wymenl of £4 ; other fellowe [ay £8 per annum. The
oompoaitjan for sdddsI paymauta is £80:
The anulTenary meeliog for the election of tbe cooadl and
~ aid oD St Andnw'a Day. The council lor the ensniuB
if which an choeen ths preaident, treasurer, principal
and foreign secretaiy, must consist of eleven niemt»n
the eilBtIng council and ten fellow* who are not lueaibsta of
tb* (dating oounoiL Those an nominated by tha president and
oDUDcU pnviooaly to the anniveisary meetinf^ Ins aaaaian of
the atwiety is (loni Norember to June ; tha ordmary meetings am
held ercrr Thursday during the sewdon, at 1.30 r.it. Tha
aaleetion lor pubUcatlon from (he papers read befon the sodety is
mad* by the "Committee of Papera," which cousista of tbe
membeiB of lb* Muncil for the time Ulog aided by raferHt. Tfaa
upnn so stiected are publiahed either in the PkiUaopliiciil
Trvimclvnu (4to) or the Pnatdi*^ e/ lAs Soya! Socitty [ftro).
n is bald OD :
40
E O T — K O T
Oaw U)MM.B«JHKv ^MXMT), -IMi aaaMi unto « * MM*
BOTAN, 4 town of FnnM^ io the deputmeiit of
CiMiente lafdrisun^ u utnated oo libs ri^t bank of the
Guoiid«^ y/hen it joiii* tbe mmo} k bniioh lias of 5)
mika DOnneota it irith BBinoo, ou the Seodio Butmy,
vhioh joina ttis BadeMu-NMKca line at Poos. Uojaa,
which m 1881 btA b potinlBti<ni of oalf 4tS73 (6446 u a
comiuDDe), ia oM of tbe moat freqiualMl bathing naorta
80,000 aimii^j. Bofxt owes thia popohritf to ita
durmintf nughbonrhood, plMsantlT mtmd 1^ brooks
and shBded b^ flu tnea down to uw ateep vxiKj shore.
Hie ooMt la dirided into a nnmlMr of snail bayi or
"ooDduM," forming so mmny diatinct beacbea : to the aait
of the town ia the "Oraoda Conche"; to tbe sonth tiie
"Ooiudie de FtmciUon," separated from the firat-nanied
br a qnaj which fornu a fine terraced esplanade ; beyond
the fort erf Bo^an, which proteda the entrance of the riTefc
follow in Boooeaaion the oonchea " in Cba.f and " de Grand
Bobtuon," aod the moat faahionable of all, that of
Pontaillao. In the Aveone de ^ntaiUao sta^d a larga
new caainc^ a theatre and a hTdiopalUa eatabliihmeat.
lU^an alao has a race^oniae (uid a mosenm of natoial
BoTu, vbm InluUtante ««n Prettahnta had to mtalB la
Iflllaadglitd»j^winb7tb» tnopayLodiXIIL Adataai
tta and onMtaantotTltw«abnta"l>Dnig''(i(aboat<MuUioQMBd
iMtaantotr: „
lUtanbL DotiMabl* onl; for lb prioir, vfaura Bnottaia
> mmW tUal
luKnni bf Hia Di
Hwii DRiu mooini, mt u yat &» hnbonr ii ftfll
a and b drr at tow water. Tka Midina, bwa
ta of loyan, u can^t by the local AdmuMn.
B0TE&00LLABD,PnsupAin.(lTeS-IS4n,nMidi
itataaman and philcaoi^er, wia bom o& A» 31at Jnne
17S9 at Sompnis near ^try-le-Franuaia. At an early age
he became a member of tfaa bar, and pleaded aereral
timaa in the old parlement <A I^tria. On the breaking ont
of the Berolution he took tbe popolar aide^ and was eleeted
to a aeat in the mnnidpal council of Faria. He waa
awralBry to thia body from ITBO to 1762, bat sep^ratad
himaelf from the later ezceaaea of the Berolution. Daring
the Beign of Terror hi lired in retirwnent at Sompois,
and aftBc Tainly Bodeavonring in 1T9T, aa member of the
OoBOcil of Fi*e Handnd, to bing about the rsstoiation of
the monarchy, he retired altogetW frcnn pabUc life till
the fall of Kapoleoa in 1814. Daring the interral be
devoted himaOlf mainly to [duloeopbical stndiea. Animated
by a pnrfonnd diatrasi of Ihe negative senaationaliam and
matenaHsm which bad charactmzed the Frendi philo.
aapbj of the 16th century, he fonnd a master whom he
conld follow in Tbomaa Beiii The study of Bud'a
Inqauy, which be picked np on a book-etall, fiiat gave a
dafiohe form and direction to hie thinking. Boyer-Collard
nav be aud to have introdnced Iteid to France, and tbe
EB <A the Scottiab pbiloaopher were banslated not long
iida by his pnpil JonSroy. In 1810 Boyer-Collard
became profemor of philosophy, and taught with ntocess in
Fuia^ tOl the Beatoration recalled him to politieal life.
In 1816 he was elected to represent bia native department
of tlie Mame in the chamber of deputies ; be waa alao
made oooncilloT of state and appointed premdent of the
oommuaion of public instraction. A royaliat of moderate
viawi^ ha helped to reetrain the extreme mamben of hil
own par^, oppodng alike ihe reactionary laws against the
preasand the propoeal to give the dargy ccmliol lA public
instmctjon. Ia 1827 be waa ao popular aa to be uected
io seven deparbuenta, and ahortly uterwards he became a
member of the Ftrascli Academy ; in the following y«ai he
waa made preaident of the (jiamber. In this c^aci^ ba
bad the anpkaaant duty of pteaenting to Cbarlea X. the
address in which the mqority of tSe chamber refused
th^ farther aupport to the Oovemmant (March 1830).
Bi^eFOollard retained bis poaitiou aa deputy under Ihe
new regime of Ijouia I^iiliupe, but no longer took a pro-
minent part in pablic affairs. In 1843 be withdrew con>
pdetely &om active life and spent meet of hii remaining
time at hia country aeat of diUeauviBaz near Sainte-
Aignan. Bb died tJiere on tbe 2d Septembw 1846.
pliilosophtr, Boyar.Collird ii
oruliimlitj' or profimditj ; but hs poHuses % cart&iu itnportaoca
whiTfna tranrolanted to Francs thi phjloaopbr otcommoB awm.
He hai tdmaBU Mt no piiiloaophicil vriUnn ucopt wnna ftu-
m«nt> which sppaw ia Joalflmv'i editioD A Kaid ; bot hj ^
uampl* and i""*^"! h* fbandad th« aohool which bat bvaa
nriondr aaoMd ths Socto-rnndi, tha aelMtb^ ths qdritqdlatia,
cw tha pmho1(i(^ciL Kaina de Blran, CouMn to bdm aitant,
and JoalTnT fa a doair imj, u mil ■* Janet mud othon at Oa
pnaant day, ua dia ehlaf npnaanlatiTM of tho acbooL nia aaaw
''BpiritDaliama," wbidi ti milu[M tha oommofwat dwignalton,
aipiaMta du taud^ wUh which, la oppodCion to the dominast
aoMationaiUtlo mstsiiiltan) of TraiuB, it ariuilda the dootrina of a
^IrilaBl Ego aa a&otof eonacioaaiMaa. The title pajebologleal,
banner, would b* prebrnd br tha philoaophaa tbenualtea aa
dtagrfUnc Ihair method, and tb* bula on which tbey claim to
have waotod tbeir ^dloeophy. FhiloaophT tandi for them, aa Sx
Bald and Btawart, to baonns a clMtiflcaQon at iinUtod bete ef
amiim £m. Bt^OuBmi. K aiiw i. m m Aria, laai, la t^H^^
m«a»brni<uw> ■oiI'Mmta. la mimm mmj ba awmmd Mimttrm
lar AtH^otuva, tf bit B^an Obit M Bii^.
BOTI^ Sam Fobbw (ISOO-lSffS), a distfqguiahed
botaniat and teadm of materia medica. ffis npatation
b eapaeially foonded npcm the raofia of pnsonal invest!-
gadtmain the Himal^a Uoonlaina and m othar parts of
Ha was bon in Oawnporo in 1800. Hia
. Mtka was obtained b London, and on ita
conqdetioo he entered the service of the East India Com-
pai^, and waa sent to India in 1S33 in the grade ci
aaaistant jmrgecm. In this service be devoted bionelf to
atudyins in &» fieU tha botany and geology ol the ragjooa
within bk nacfa, and made laiga cdleotkna ammg dte
Himal^a Ifotmtaina. He alao made ^edal inveatlga-
tions of tha nadical propertiea of the plaota of Hindnataa
and of the historr of thur naes among tbe native taees.
Tbe remits <rf thaae inveitigBlJom appeared in 1837 in
tbe form of a valuable work 0» tie Antiqititj/ qf Hwdoo
MetOeine. For ncariy ten yeara he held the post td snpar-
intendent of the East India Oompany's botanic gatdeo in
ths Himalayas at Sahaianpnr. He rstnmed to London
on forlou^ in 16S1, and in 18S7 he waa wpointed to tho
profeaeo^pftf materia medica in King's Cdlege, London,
a pcaitiomrtiich he held 11111866. From 1838 onwards he
oondncted a apedal department of correapondence, relating
to vegetable products, at the East India Honae, and at the
time of hia death be bad jnat completed there tbe forma-
tion wid arrangement of an extensive and valuable muaaum
of technical [^octa from ihe East ludiea. In 18E1 he
superintended the Indian department of the Great Ex-
hibition. He died at Acton near London on 2d Januaiy
1868.
The woA on iddeh hi* rapolatian eUaflj reata ii the iSwAndtou
af Ot Bobmt and cthfrbnuUkmi^lfatiiral Hiitarvilfl^BimalaKi
MaaiiaaM, and nfOit Bora i^ Quhmm, In 9 vole. 4to, begun in
1889. It coDtalni macb Information on tbe natnnl prodnota of
India, eapecUllj on toch at an naetal in the arts or at dniga. In
■d^nan to thia work, hDwaver, he wrote eevenl othen of lepule,
iit.,A»Smiy<ml]uPrvd,KtittJt-«iTom</Ii-dia(UtO),JKm«al
</ MaUria MMca (IMG), An Emag «• t&* ^'^"^^J^!^
R S H -R U B
41
BSBKTF. SMScnrr.
BUBBEE. Bee Ivsu-Busbkb.
RUBENS, Frms Paul (1E77-I6t0), the mprt eminent
mprtwnnhitiTfl of Flemiih it, and one of the gnateat
painten of tny achool, ina bom veiy probtbljr at SiegeI^
m Wm^IuIu, on the S9th of June I6TT. "nil aome
thirty yaui ago Cologne might itill claim the hononr of
haTing been the muter*! birthplace ; the Rheniah city ia
mentiaoed bj Rnbena hinmlf, in one of hia lettara, la
doaeljr connected with hii ehildbood, and through hia
Uber'e epitaph we leara that for more than nineteen
yeara Cologne waa the famiiy'a place of refuge amid the
diatnrbanoe* pnrailing in the Low Ooontriee. Thi^
however, haa been proved to be bnt [«rt of the tmth, and,
if Bnbani'a paranta oertainly daring aeveral years did lirg
at Cologne they aJao teaided elaewhere, and that for
leaaona aa atroDg that both wife and hoaband might well
deare to Me them for ever bnried in secrecy.
Altboogh of humble deecent, — hia father was a dmggiat,
— John Rabena waa a man of Jeaming, Ha had atndied
law at home and abroad, and became conncillor and aldet-
maa in bi« natin town (1S63V A Catholic by Inrth, it waa
not lo^ before he became Hke many of hia coaotrymen, a
aealona npholder ot the Befonnation, and we even find him
qioken of by a 'contemporary aa " Is ploa docte Oalviniste
qni fnat pour Ion an Baa I^yi.* After the plnndering of
the Antwerp chnrchea in 1S66, the mogiatiatea were eaUsd
npon for a jnitificatioD. While open^ they declared
theueelre* devoted sons of the chnrch, a list of the
followers of the Reformed creed, headed by the name ot
Antbony Tan Stnkn, the borgomuter, got into the hand*
of the dnke ot Alva. Thia waa a sentence of death for the
magiBbale^ and John Rnbena Icat no time in quitting
Spaniah aoU, ultimately aettling at Cologne (Oetobei
IMS), with hia wife and four childiMt.
In hia new nddenoe he beaame legal adviaei to Anne
ot Sazoay, the second wife of the prince of Onnge,
William the Bilent Before long it waa diacovered that
theirrelations wen not purely ol a bnmiHaa kind. Thrown
into the doDgeoiie of DiUeDbnrg Bnbeoa lingered tb«n for
many montfa^ hia wife, Uaria l^pelino^ never ntazing
her andeavDUra to get the tmdntiful hnaband restored to
freedom. Two years elapsed before the prieoner waa
raleued, and then onl^ to be oonSned to the amall town
of Siagen. Hare he lived with hia family, from I6T3 to
1578^ and here mo«t probaUy Maria Fypelinri ^ve birth
to Fhil^ aftemrda town-dark of ^twarp, and Peter
Panl. A year after (Hay 1678) the Antwerp lawyer got
leave to retom to Cologne, where he died on the 18lh of
Mardi 1587, aftw having it ia aaid, returned to Oatho-
tictam. Aa there are at Siegen no records going back to
the 16th c«itniy, the facts relating to the &rth of Peter
PmiI Habeas must, of coune^ remun coqjectaral, bnt hia
■Bother certainly was at Biegen a few day* before bis birth,
for w« find her there, petitionii.g in favour ot Jdu Babena,
oa June 14, 1677.
Bnbeoa went to Antweq) with hia mother when he was
•oarcely ten years of ag^ and made good progreaa in his
Hsnrirsl atodiea, which he bad begun with the Jecnits at
Cotogne. An excellent Latin scholar, he waa also pro-
ficisnt in French, Italian, English, German, and Dutch.
I^rt of his boyhood .he spent as a page in the household of
the counteaa of Lalaing, in BroHBela ; but, tradition adds,
and we may well believe, the youth's diapoaition was soch
■a to induce his mother to allow hiia to follow his proper
vocation, choosing as hia muter Tobias yerbaecht, who
was in some way connKted with tbe family. Not the
sli^teat trace of this first master's influence can be detected
in Bnbeo^ works. Not so with Adam Tan Noort, to
whom the young man waa next ap^irenticed. Tan Noort,
whoee aspect of energy is wdl known through Tan Dyek^
beantifnl etchinn, was the highly esteemed master of nnm-
erons painters,— among them Van Balen, Sebastian Trance,
and Jordaena, later his son-in-law. Hia pictures are almoat
eiclusively to be found in Antwerp cborches.
Rubena remained with Tan Noort for the usual period
of four years, thereafter studying nndar Otto Tceuius or
Tan Teen, a gentlenuu by birth, a most distinguished
Latin scholar, uid a painter ot very high repute. He waa
•\ native ot Leyden, and only recently settled in Antwerp,
bnt the town gave him numeroua ooEnmiaaiona of import-
ance. Thou^ Bnbena never adopted his style of painting,
the taatea ot maater and pupil had much in common, and
aome pictures by Otto Vceniua cui be pointed out aa having
ioapired Babens at a more advanced period. For example
the Uagdalene anointing Christ's Fee^ painted f<K' the
cathedral at Malaga, and now at the Hermitage in Bt
Petersburg, closely reeemblca in oomposition tlie VMy im-
Sirtant work ot Otto Vceains in the chnich at Bergoea neai
unkirk.
In 1698, Adam Tan Koort acting as dean tjf the Ant-
werp guild of paintera, Rnbena was oOdallj raoogniaed aa
" maater,"— that ia, waa allowed to woA iodepeadently
and receive pnpiU. We have no maana of forming an
idea of his style at thia early period, two yeafa before hia
journey to Italy, but even the aomewhat later worka found
at Genoa, Mantua, and Some differ oonsidetably from
what may be termed the Babenesqoe.
From 1600 to the latter part of 1608 Rubeu belonged
to the household of Tincenio Gonnga, duke of Mantua.
Few priDoaa in Italy sarpaaed the Oonikgai in ^hodoiir.
For them Mantegna, Oiolio Romano, Titian, and hima-
tiedo had produced some of their most admired worics,
and their now deaerted palacea atill bear traoes of the
richest decoration. To the Maatuan coUeotion the Pittl
palace, the Louvre, and the nyal gAUeries ot F-^glairi owe
aome of their noUaat apedmeos of Italiaa art How
Rnbena came to be enga^ at Mantna ha* not been
explained. The dnk^ it la kxnm, ^ent eooie time at
Tenioe in Jnlj 1600, aad ii anppcMd there to have met hia
f ntnre paintw, bnt it iaalao to be remembered that anothar
naming, Fraiwia Fonrboa the yoonger, was at the time
empk^ed l^ him in taking the likmaaa of the prettieat
women ot Ae day ; and Rnbsn^ much against nia will,
waa aiaa, at first, it aatma, inlraated with a aimilat task.
The infinenoe of the maater'a atay at Mantna was of
extreme importance, and cannot be too cofiatantly kept in
view in the atndy i^ hia later worka.
Sent to Rome in 1601, to take cc^nee frata Raphael for
his maater, he waa also comroiawoned to paint mvwbI
_ a cardinal, Oe titnlar of that aesL
A copy of Hcreory and Psyche after Raphael iayrseerrad
in the mnaenm at Feath. He nli|jan* mininip — the
Invention of the Cmae, the Crowning witti niorns, and
the Crucifixion — are to be tonnd in the hoapital at QtaMa
in Frovrace.
At the beginning of 1603 "Tbe Flemings' aa ha waa
termed at Mantna, was sent to Spain with a varie^ ot
presents for Philip III, and his minister the dnke d
Lenna, and thus had opportunity to niend a whole year
at Madrid and become acquainted with some cf Titian's
maatarpieoaa. Two of hia own works, known to belong to
the aame period, are in the Madrid Qalkry, Heraditna
and Democritus. Of Rubena'a abilitin ao tar back aa
1604 we get a more complete idea from an immenae
picture now in the Antwerp Gallery, the Baptiam of Ov
Lord, originally painted for the Jeanits at Mantna. Hara
it may be teen to what degree Italiaa antronndingi had
42
RUBENS
iDflmnced ths p&mtar of TinMiuo OoDMga. Tlgoroiu to
tlie eztnme in dosign, h« reaundB na of Michelangelo »■
mnch u mj of the degenerate mastera of the Boman
■chool, while in decorative skill he eeemi to be deecendad
from Titian and in cobocing from Oiulio Bopudo.
Equally with tbia [uctiire the TnktuiSgnration, now in
the moseam at Nancy, and the portroiti of Viocenio and
hia consort, kneeling before the Trini^, in the library at
Mantoa, claim a large share of attention, apart from iba
intereat awakened bj the name of their author.
Two years later we meet a very large altorpiece of the
C^omcisioD at St Ambrogio at Genoa, the Virgin in a
gh>ry of Angsis, and two groaps of Saints, pointed on the
wall, at bcAh aides of the high altar in die charch of
Santa Haria in Valicello, in Rome. Undonbtedly these
worka glTB an impression of grandeur and effecLvenees,
bat, in the immediate vicinity of the finest prodnctiona of
the Italian aehool, they lOok higher as documentary evi-
dence than in intrioaic volne, and nmiod na of a saying
ot Bo^one^ wbo woa acquainted with Rnbena ia Italy,
** ApprsM ^gjd. biiaa goato, e diede in ona moniera bnona
While employed at Bome in 1608, finbena received
moat alarming news as to the atato of hia mother'a health.
The daks of Oonioga mu then absent from Italy, bat the
datifol BOO, without awaiting hia t«tum, at once set oat
tor the Netherlands tlioagh with the fall intention of
■hortly leanming his poat at court, oa we gather from a
letter to Annibole Cliieppio, the Uantuan minister.
When he arrived in Antwerp, Ham I^rpelincz waa no
more. However«Btmng hia wiah might now be to retnrn
to Italy, hie parpose was overruled by the exiireae desire
of hi* eovereigns, Albert and laabeil^ to aee him take np
a penaaaent reeidence in the Belgian provinces. Scarcely
* year before, the archduke had unaucceaafnily attempted
to free tha painter from hie engagement at Mantna, and
hecoold not fail to take advantage of the opportunity now
presented for the folGiment of hts wiaheo. On Auguat 3,
1609, RubenawoB named poiater in ordinary tiftheirHigfa-
nsBsea^ with a salary of COO livree, and " the rights honoors,
privilegea, eiemptiona," ite,, beloogLog to persoos of the
loyal hooaehoid, not to speak of tha gift of a gold chain.
Not leaal in importance for the painter woa his Complete
exemption frcn all the regnlations of the guild ^ St
Lnke, entitling him to engage any scholora or fellow-
workers, without being oUiged to have them enrolled, — a
tavooT, it must be added, which has been the sonree of
considerable trouble to the hiatoriana of Flemiah art.
Although eo recently returned to hia native land,
Babens aeems to have been, with one accord, accepted l^
hia eonntrymen as the head of their achool, and the
municipality waa foremoet in giving him the meana of
proving hia acqniramenta. The fiiBt in date among the
nnmeroaa repetitiona of the Adoration of the Hagi ia a
picture in the Madrid Gallery, meaaaring 12 feet by 17,
and containing no fewer than eight-and-twentf life uie
Bgorea, many in gorgeona attire, warrior* in otMl armour,
horsemen, daves, comela, &c. This pictnre, painted in
Antwerp, at the towa'a expenae in 1609, had scarcely re-
mained three years in the town-hall when it went to Spain
M a present to Don Bodrigo Calderon, count of Oliva.
Tb» painter has re[?eaeated himaelf among the horsemen,
bareheaded, and wearing hia gold chain. Cumberland
q>eaka of this picture aa the atandard woHc of ita author,
and certwnly it waa well calculated to bring Rubena to
the front tank in bia profeeaioa. From a letter written in
Hay 1611 we know that more than a hundred yonng men
were deairona to become his pupils, and that many had,
" for several yeara," been waiting with other maaters, nntti
he could admit then to hia atndio. It woa thus from the
beginning regarded as a pt«at favour to I
pupil of Kubeus.
Apuf from the aoceesa of hia worka, another powerful
motive hod helped to detain the maater in Antwerp, — liia
marriage with Isabella Brant (October 1609). Many
pictares have mode us familiar with the graceful young
woman who was for seventeen years to ahare tha master's
destinies. We meet her at I^e Hogue^ St Petersburg,
Florence, at Qrosvenor Houa^ but more especially at
Munich, where Babens and his wife are depicted at full
length on the same cajivaes. "Hia wife is very hand-
some," observes Sir Joshua Beynolds, " and has an agree-
able countenance J " but the picture, be odda, "is rather
hotd in manner." This, it must be noted, is tbe case
with all those pictures known to have immediately
followed Bubens's return, when he waa still dependent
on the asaistancB of painters trained by others than him-
self. Even in the Raising of the Cross, now in the
Antwerp cathedral, and painted for the charch <rf St
WalboTg in 1610, the dryness in outline is very striking.
According to the taste still at that -time prevuling, die
picture ia tripartite, but the wings only serve to develop
the central composition, and add to the general effect.
In Witdoeck's beautiful engraving the partitions aien
disappear. Thus, from the fiivt, we see Rubens quite
determined upon having bia own way, and it ia reeiwded
that, when he punted the Descent from the Cross, St
Christopher, the subject chosen by the Arquebuaiera, waa
altered so as to bring the artiaUe expresidons into better
accordance with his views. Altbongh the subject was
frequently repeated by the groat painter, this first Descent
from the Cross has not ceas^ to he looked npon oa his
masterpiece. Began in 1611, the celebrated work was
placed ID 1614, and certainly no mors striking evidence
could be given of the rapid growth of the author's oblli-
tiea, Rubens received 2100 florins for this picture.
Although it is chance that has brought the Baising of
the Cross and the Descsftt from ths Cross into ^eir
present close joxtapoution, it is not improbable that their
uniformity in siae may have been designed. In many
respects, Italian influence remains conspicuous in the
Descent. Bnbens had aeen Ricciarelli's fresco at tha
Trinita de'- Monti, and was also acquainted with the
grandiose picture of Barocdo in the cathedral of Perugia,
and no one conversant with these works can mistake their
influence. But in Bubens strength of personality could
not be overpowered by reminiscence ; and in type, as well
aa in colouring, the Descent from the Croea may be termed
thoroughly Flemish and Bubeuesqae. Aa Waagen jostly
observes : " the boldness of the composition, the enei^ in
the characters, the atriking attitudes ^ii^ *'^'' effects of the
grouping, together with the glowing vigorous colouring,
belong to his later style, whereas a few of the heads, par-
ticularly that of the Virgin, display the careful execution
of his earlier period. The interior of the wings, on which
are painted the Visitation and the Presentation in the
Temjde, exhibit^ on the other hand, a greater resemblance
to the conjugal picture already alluded to, owing to a
certain repose in action, a more elevated expression of
dehcacy and feeling in the characters, and a less glowing
though still admirable colouring."
L^^d, in some way, connects Van Dyck with the
Deecent from the Cross, and ascribes to the great portrait
painter an a^m and shoulder of Macy Magdalene, which
had been damaged t^ a pupil's corelessiiBBS. Plain truth
here, once more, seems to contradict romance. Tan Dyck
was a pupil of Van Baien's iu 1609, and most probably
remained with him several years before c«ming to Rubens.
If Sir Dudley Carteton could speak of Antwerp in 1616
M "Uagna civitas, magna solitado," theiQ woa oo ploc'
K n B E N 8
43
UTHtLalaM wtidi oontd give % wider Kope to utistio
coterpruB. Spain and the Uoited ProriDCM wera for a
time at peace ; almoat ill tha charches had beeo stripped
of tlunr adommeatB ; monaitie orden were powerful and
ridiljr endowed, guilds and oiwpondona eager to ihow ths
fervooi of their Catholic laitb, now that ihe "monitar of
heres;' eeemed for ever qoalled. Here were opportuniliei
without nninber for paiotera aa well aa acolpton and
arcbiteeta. Qothie chorchea b^aa to be decorated aoeotd-
ing to the new faahion adopted in Italr. Altai* magnified
to monmnenta, aometimea reaehiog Ute full height of the
Tanlted roof, diiplajed, between their twisted f^?""",
pictnrea of a aize hitherto unknown. Ho master soemed
b«Atai fitted to be aesodated with thia kind of painting
than Bnbena, whoee irotki we hare already met with in
churches newlj erected at Borneo Genoa, and Hantna, hj
the Jcanita, in the gotgeooa stjle which bears their name,
aod which finbeu eommenda in the preface to hia Paiaai
d» Omtta (Antwerp, 1639), The temple erected b; the
nvefond l>thwi in Antwerp was almoel entirelj Ae
painter^ vcrk, and if he did no^ m wo eften flod asaerted,
d«Hgii die bont, he oertuttly ww tlte inspirer of the whole
boildin^ «4iicb, after alt, waa bat a lemiiiiMenoe of the
chorcbea ia Ouum, And the tempfe of the Jeenila ia
Antwerp remained for a eentnr; the onlj example of Hi
kiod in BelginnL Hitherto do Zoning had nadertakeB
to paint ceilingi with loreihorteoed Sgnra, and bleod the
religioaa with tha decoratire art after the a^je of thaae
bnildiDgs wbidi an met with inltaly, andowethurdeoora-
liaiw to nuaten Hke ntian,TeFoneae, andTintoretto. No
laaa tlttn lattf cttlingi were OHnpcwd bj Eubena, and
painted onder hi* direcUon in the apue of two jean.
All wen deabcTed bj fin io ITI8. Bkelchea in watet-
oolixir wete taken Mnae time b«f on the diaaster bj De
Wi^and froiB these wete made the etdung^ by Pnnt which
alone eaabk n toformajodgmMtof the grandiose nndar-
faking. In the Madrid Qalbvy m find a general new of
the lAorch in all fta nileodonr. Ihe ueaent ehnrch of
Bt Qtarles ia Antwerp u, exteraaDy, with some alteration,
the building here alhided to.
Unbent delighted ia nndertakinga of the Tsatest kind.
"Tka laige tise of a tictnn,' he writes to W. Trumboll in
ISSl, "nvea na pautats more connge to repieaent out
idaaa wiA the abneat fceedom and lemUance of reality.
.... I eonfeaa myaell to bc^ by a nataial inatinel,
better ftttad to axecnta works of the largest tin.' The
eorrectueaa of fljs qipreeiation he was Tery aoon called
i^on to demonittate moat strikiDriy br a eeriea of twenty-
foor pietnrea, flhutnUing the life of Mary dtf Media,
qnees-mother of France, ^le gallery at the Luxemboarg
Palac*^ whidi theee paintingi once adorned, hae long liiwe
disawaaied, and the complete work ia now exhibited in
tbe XoDTTe. Drawings, it seen^ bad been ssked bom
Qnsntin Tarin, the f>ench master who incited Ponsain to
become a paintw, bat Bnbens was nllimatelj preferred-
nis preference may in tome degree be ascHbed to his
tomter connexion with the oonrt at Mantoa, Mary de'
Hedid and tbe dnchees of Oonnga being aisten. The
atoty of Man iif Hedid may be regarded as a poem in
painting, and no person conversant with the Hteratnre of
the tjma oan tail to reeogniie that itrangs iniztnre of tbe
mati and the mythological in which tbe most admired
■ ITth oentnry
antbon of the I
It oentnry, begine
I with Malherbe;
deU^L AhaoMtely qnakin^ Mrs Jameaon may be ri^^t
in crilicuing Rnbens's "ccaree allegariea, histomal im[m>-
prietiee, Ac"; bnt a man bdon|p to his time, and uses its
langnage in order to make himself nndentood. from the
cradle to the day of her reconciliation with IiOtus XllL,
we fidlow Haiy de' Medici after tha manner in whidi it
mw cnaWBiai^ In Oos* ds^ to oeniider psnooagat^
snparior rank. Ute Fatea for her haTo spun the silken and
golden thread ; Juno watches over her birth and intrusts
her to the town of Florence ; Hineria, the Oracea, and
Apollo take charge of her education ; Lore exhibits her
image to the king, and Neptnne oouTeye her serosa the seas ;
Joitiee, Health, and Plenty endow her son ; Prudence and
Generosity are at her sides during the regency ; and, when
the reeign* the helm of the state to the prince, Justice^
Strength, Heligion, and Fidelity hold the oars. The
aketche* of all theae painting* — now in the Munich
Gallery — were punted in Antwerp, a namerons stafi of
distinguished coUsbnstora being iatrasted with the final
eiecntion. But the master himself spent much time in
I^ris, retonching tbe whole work, which wsa completed
within less than four years. On May 13, 1625, Rubens
writes from Paris to his friend Peireec that both the queen
and her ion ace highly latisfied with his paintiDgs, and
that Louis XUL came on purpoee to the Luxembourg,
" where hs ncTer has set foot sbee the pabca was bc^n
sixteen or eighteen years ago." We also gather from tbi*
letter that the picture representing the Felicity of the
Regency was painted to replace aoother, tha Departure of
tha Qneen, which had caused some offence. " If I bad
been 1st alone," he say*, " the other enbjecta would have
been better aoeepted by the oourt, and without acaudal or
murmur.' " And I fear," he odds, " far greater difficultly
will be fonnd with the lubjects of the next gallery."
Bicbeliea ga*B himself tome trouble to get this part of the
work, intended to represent the life of Henry IV., beetowed
upon CaTalier d'Arpina, but did not siuxeed in his endea-
Tours. The queen's exile, bowevar, prevented the under-
taking bom going beyond a few sketchee, and two or three
panels, one dl which, the Triumph of Henry IV., now in
the Palaiio Fitti, is one of the noblest works of Hubens
or of any master. Moat undoubtedly tbe painter here
c^ls to his aid bis Tivid recollections of the Triumph of
Cnsar by Mantegns, now st Hampton Court, but in his
day adorning the palace at Hootus ; of this he mode a
ei^y, inacribed No. SIS in the catalogne of hit effects
sold in 1640, and now in the National Gallery.
On the 11th of May 1625 Hubens was present at the
nnprials of Henrietta Maria at Notre Dame in Paris, when
the teaffKlding oa which be stood gave way, and he t«dls
ni he waa jnst able to catch an adjoining tribune.
No painter in Europe conld now |»«t«nd to equal
Subena utbw in talent or in renown. Month after
month pradoctiotttof amazing size IefttheAntwerpstudio7
and to tboae anacqnainted with the master's pictures mag-
nificent engiaTings by Tor*tennan, Pouting and others
had oouTeyed aingnlarly strildng interpretations. " What-
ever work of his I msy require,' writes Moretos, the cele-
brated Antwerp printer, ** I have to ask him aiz months
before, so ss that he may think of it at leisure, and do the
work on Stindayi or hdidays ; no week days of his oould
I pretend to gat tmder a hundred florins.'
Of the numerous creations of his pencil, none, perhaps,
will more thoroughly diedoaa to ns bis comprehension of
religious decorative art than the AsBumption of theVbgin
at the high altar of the Antwerp cathedral, finished in
1626. It is, of twenty repetitions of this subject, the only
example atiU preserved at tha place it was intended by the
painter to occupy. In spirit we are here reminded of
Titian's Assunta in the cathedral at Yetona, but Bubens'a
proves perhaps a higher conception of the subject. The
wnk it teen a coneideiable way off, and every outline is
bathed in light, so that the Virgin is elevated to dauling
^ory with a power of sBcension, scarcely, if ever, attained
by any master.
Able to rdy so greatly on his poirer as a colonrist,
Ettbeoa ia oot a men daowator. B« penetratae into th«
44
B U BENS
qiirit of bis auljects mor^daepl; tikin, at fint nght, leemB
oonaUtant with hu prodigious bcilitj in eiecutioo. The
Massacre of tts Inaocenta, in tha Hanich Qallery, is %
cnrnpositioii that can leave no person munoTed, — mothers
defeoding their children vith nails and teeth. If Mn
Jameson terms this picture atrocioDs, it ought to be recol-
lected ho» atrocioQs is the subject. When Bt Francis
Mtempta to shelter the wuTerBe from the Savioor's vrath
(BrOBsels Gallery), Knbeas, drawing his inspiration from
• pfuuagB of St Qermain, " Ostendit mater filio pectui et
libera, " recalls to onr mamor; that most dramatic passage
of the Hiad when Hecaba, from the walls of Troj,
entreata her aoa Hector to spare Us life. The enbject is
inconsistent with the spirit of Christiautj, says Waagen,
evidentlj forgetticg tluit to Catholic eyes nothing conld
be more imprMsite tliao the Virgin's interrention at this
■apreioe moment, when Christ, like another Jupiter,
br&ndishes his thunderbolt ag^nst mankind. Rnbens
was a man of his tame ; his itodies of Italian art in no
way led him bock to the Qoatttocentistj nor the Baflae-
leschi; their power was at on end. The inflneooe of
Hichdangelo, Titian, Tintoretto, more eepeciallj Barocdo,
Folydot^ aod even Farmigiano, ii no lase visible with
him than with those masters who^ like Bpianger, Cbr.
Elchwottz, and Ooltxiaa, stood high in pabllo eatimatioii
jmmediatelj before bis advent.
Id the midst of the rarest actirit; as a painter, Rnbens
was now called upon to give proofs of a very different
kind of ability. The trace concluded between Spain and
the Netherlands in 1609 ended in 1621 ; archduke Albert
died tha same year. His widow aincarely wished to
Klong the arrangement, stilt hoping to see the United
rioces retom to the Bpanish dominion, and in her
^es Rabe&a was the fittest person to bring about this
oonelnBion. The painter's comings and goings, howsTer,
did not remain anheeded, tor Uie French ambassador
writes from Brussels in 1624, — "Rubens is here to take
the likeness of the prince of Poland, by order of the
infanta. I am persuaded he wiH succeed better in this
than in his negotiations for the tmee." But, if Rubens
was to foil in his efforts to bring about an anaogement
with the Netherlands, other events enabled him to render
great service to the state.
Bubeoa and Buckingham met in Paris in 162S; a cone-
spondenoe of some importance had been going on between
Ute painter and the Brussels court, and befon long it was
[oopoeed that he ahoold endeavour to bring about a final
arrangement between the crowns of England and Bpain.
The infanta willingly consented, and King Philip, who
much objected to tiu interference of an artist, gave my
on hearing, through his aunt, that the negotiator on tiie
English side, B. Oerbier — a Ileming by birth — waa like-
wise a painter. Rnbens and Gerbier very soon met hi
Holland. "Rnbens is come hither to HoUand, where he
now is, and Oerbier in his company, walking from town
to town, npoD their pretence of pictures," writaa Sir
Dudley Carleton to Lord Conway in July 162T, "which
may serve him for a few days if he dispatch and be gone ;
but yf he entertayne tyme here long, be will infallibly
be layd hold of, or sent with disgrace out of the country
.... Ilia I have made known to Rubens least he
should meet with a skome what may in some sort reflect
upon others." Matters, however, went on very well, and
Rubens volunteered to go to Spain and lay before the
council the rcenlt of his nc^tiationa (1628). Nine
months were thus spent at Madrid; they rank among the
most important in Rubens's career. He had broqght with
ftveral portraits of the king and royal bmij. ^
eqneatrian picture of Philip IV., destK^ed by fire in iMt
century, became the subject of a poem by Lope de Vega,
and the description enables ns to identify the composition
wiUi that of a painting now in the Palazzo IHttd, ascribed
Through a letter to Pureso vrs hear of the familiar
intorcouise kept up between the painter and the king.
FhiUp delighted to see Rabene at work in the studio pre-
pared for him in the palace, where he not only left many
original pictures, bnt copied for his own pleasure and pro-
fit the best of ntian'a. No laea than forty works were
thus produced, and, says the author of the Annait of tit
AriiMt a/ Spain, " the unwearied activity of his we!l-ator«d
mind is exemplified by the fact that amid his many
occupations he was seeking in the libraries materials for
an edition of Marcos Anrelius, on which his friend Oaspard
Oevaerta was tbeii engaged." An artistic event of some
importance connected with the aqoum in Spain is the
me^ng of Rubens and Velazquez to the delight, and we
venture to add, advantage of both.
Great as was the king's admiration of Rnbens aa a
painter, it seems to have been scarcely above the value
attached to his political services. Far from looking npon
Rubens as a man of inferior calling, nnworthy to meckile
with mattttis of Btat«^ he now conucissioDed the poinlw
to go to London as bearer of his views to Charlea I.
Giving up his long cherished hope of revisiting Italy on
his return from Spain, Ruben^ henonied with tiia Utle of
secretary of the'lung's-privy couudliit the Netherlands
started at once on hu new mission. Although he stopped
bat four days in Antwerp, he arrived in London just is
peace hod boon .concluded with Fiance. In this eoignnc-
ture of afhii^ it can hardly be donbted that the eminent
pceition of Rubens as a painter greatly contributed to his
ultimate auccaea'aa an envoy. Bec^ved by Charles with
genuine pleasure, be very eooii was able to ingratiate
himseU so far as to induce the king to pledge bis royal
word to take part in no underiakin(^ against Spain so
long as the negotiatiDni remained uncouclnded, and all the
Bubeequent endeavours of France, Venics, aod the State!
found him immovable in this resolution. Although the
privy council in Madrid, as well they might, passed
several votes of thanks to Rubens, the tardiness of th«
Spanish court in sending a regnlar ambassador involved
the unfortunate painter in distitssing anxieties, and tha
tone of bis diqiatches is very bitter. Bnt he speaks with
the greatest admiration of England and the Engliah,
regretting that be shonid only have come to know tha
ooantry so late. His popnlarity must have been very
great, for on September 23, 1629, the university of Cam-
bridge conferred apoa him the honorary decree of master
of arte, and on February 21, 1630, he waa knighted, the
king presenting him with the sword used at the ceremony,
which is atjll preserved by the descendants of the artist.
When the council at Madrid had to deliberate as to
recognition of the title conferred npon Rubens in Ensland,
they remembered that Titian had been made a knight by
the emperor Charles V., and the matter was settled without
difficulty I but, the painter'a name having been mentioned
as a possible envoy to the British court, OUvarea olyected
that it was quite out of the question to moke an ambas-
sador of one who lived by the work of his bands.
Although, it seems, lees actively employed as an artist
in England than in Spain, Bubona, besides his sketches for
the decoration of the Banqueting Honae at Whitehall,
painted the admirable picture of the Blessing of Peace,
now in the National Gallery. There is no rMSon to
doubt, with Smith, that "His M^jes^ sat to him for his
portrait, yet it ii not a little remarkable that no notic*
occorv in ftny of the royal catalogues, gr the writers of Um
U U B K N K
Mriod. of &US eziahmm of inich a portnut.' While in
Ki^hnd, Babeiu vsry imitowIj eMsped drowning while
goiag to Oroenwich in a boat. Tho fact ii reported bj
Lord UotdiMtBr in a letter lo Uir laaao Wake (Rainiibmy,
cztl). At the beguming a( Uaich the paintnt'a mlsuon
canra to k doae;
Enbana wan now fiftr-thme jear* of age ; be bad bran
loqr yean a widower, and before the end of the yrai
(December 1630) he entered into a eecood marria^ with
the booutifol girl of aixteea, ni«nied Helena Foorment,
with whom hia [nctorea hare made the world lo w^ ac-
qoainted. Ifore than.twenty (lortnit* of her are deecribed
bj Umith, and she atao igatoi in (lerfaapii twice aa many
of the maater'a creatiooa. Whether Subena waa more
powsrf nllj led in the choice td his second wife lij faer per-
■onaJ bcMit; or bj the atraogth of a certain reaemblanee
to hia fenimne ideal ia qoeationable. Anjbow. Aa waa
an admiTable model, Kod none of her hnaband'K worlu may
be mon Juat^ twined masterpiecea than thoao in which
she ia Te{H«aMit«d (Unnich, St Patenbiirig Blenhaini,
LiechteiMtein, the Loivi^ du.).
Althoneh the loog months of abeenoe eonld not be
termed blanks in Rabena's artistic career, hia tetnm waa
EoUowod by an almost incredible activity. Inipired more
than aver by the ^oriooa work* of Titian, he now pro-
duced aome of hia beet creatioua. Brightoess in cdoarin^
breadth of tooch and pictorial conception, are specially
■triking in those worfcs we know to hare been painted in
the kttar pait ot hia lifetimei Could anything give a
hig^MT degree of Bubena'a genina than, for example, the
Feaat of Venn, tho portrait of Helena Foutment ready to
enter the bath, or the St Ddefoneo. Hia last picture —
now, as wriiaa the two others JBatallnded to, intheTienoa
Qallet; — was painted for the church of the convent of fit
Jacqnio, in Brassels. On the winga are represented the
archdnkee in loyal attire, vnder tiba protection of their
patron saints. The presence of theea fignrea has led to
some miataka regarding the data of tho productioa, bot it
has heen proved beyond doubt, through a document pub-
liabed by Ur Castan (1884), that tho Bt UdefoDso belongs
to the aeries of works executed after the journeys to
Spain and England. Archduke Albert had been dead ten
jean. Tie picture was eogtaved by Witdoock in 1638.
Isaibdla died in 1633, and we know that to the end
Bab BBS remained in high favour with her, alike as an
artiat and as a political agent. The painter waa even one
■ d to meet Mary da' 1
— jr eacape from Fiance.
Spain and the Netherlands went to war again, the king
never ccMing to look upon the Dutch as rebels. The sab-
ject need not be dwelt upon ; suffice it to wy that moch
naeteaa trouble and suspicion came upon the great artist.
A« to the n«J nature of his commnnings with Frederick
Henry of Orange, whom he is known to have interviewed,
nothing aa yet has been discovered.
Ferdinand of Austria, the cardinal-infant of Spain, was
called to the government of the Netherlands on the de«th
of his aunt. He was the king's younger brother, and
arrived at Antwerp in May 1635. The streets had been'
decoiated with trinmphal arches and ** spectacula," arranged
tr BnbsMS^ and certainly never equalled by any other
woika of the kind.> Several of the paintiogs detached
ErDB the tzthm were offered as pitaents to the new
iovemor^eoeral, a Bnaraely known fact, which
fertlwpreaenee of many of tbeee works in pnblio galli
* tUar ikatdMi of Uh udHs aie tOD pnMmd ia tk»
ia Astmrp, Si pgtnbars. CnbTUgc. WbiUiir. fcc All Ilia
tmm^ttimM nr* abbsd bhIv Um dinetloB of RqIhiu fay bii pa^dl
f. Via nnlda ud pnUldud OBdn Ui* till* of Ptmpm mimUa
tewri mrmdmlmi Pr^pit FirduuiuU Atuiriati a. a. M. mrd. •
4i>
(Vienna, Dresden, BnuHelo, tie.), llnbeiis wo* at t^e time
laid up with ipiut, bot Frinco Ferdinand wan desirous c^
exprewing his natistattion, and cailud upon the painter,
' g a long time at hin bouse. liuliuuiiandFerdinand
at Madrid, aod only a uhort time ela^Med before
the punter was confirmed in his official utaodinf^ — a motter
of small importance, if wo coasider that the last years of
hia lite were ahnoat exclusively employed in working
much more tor the king than for hia brother. About a
hundred and twenty paintinpt of coosiderablo siie left
Antwerp for Madrid in 1637, 1638, and 1639 ; thuy were
inteudud to decorate the pavilion erected at the Fardo,
and knovn under the name of Torre de ht Parada.
Another Hen™ hod been bcjnin, when Ferdinand wrote to
}kladrid that tbe jiainter wod no more, and Jordaens would
tinish the work. Kubens breathed his last on the SOth-of
May 1040.
Uon Ibrtauats thin msuy irtuti. BuUna left ths w«M lu
tba nidat df lila glorf. Not Ills ntnotsn tna of a)jpi»uJiili]|{ old
*gc. not tixt iligLat fullnu of mind or .kill <an be ^st«:leJ aviu
in liu \UMl workn. mrh u th> UortyiJoui of St Pelar at Colwna,
tlia Uanyideia of St Tliomu tt f'n^, or the Juitfpncut of Ails
■t M*dru1. wL«n hia joouk wife ■t>i>euii for cbe bat tluia. " aha
mil in Antnaqi.'' vrita Ffnlinind to his
f the comiiletiDU of what ha taniia'*tba
; •tnlghtron
ia imrtraj-oil m hia an works with
Hia proJactioiii o* vhst thay
in rapl)' to moj obattTsliona he may lia[}|xu to racciva, ws i
(tJniUr Slid him aaMsctiiiR tha ii<:.»>iti.:a of hil mhiecta, I
OODflrming a ramark made by Bir Joahus Heyoolda thf t liia aul^jacia
always aMm to auit his aCylK
Bubaoi ia ao well knom that It harJIv leeiua Beet nary to dwell
upon his outward sppuninca. - Fiom \\x own lettera and IlioM
in vhleh ha ia nfeind to ws becoioa soinaiiited with a man of
vsat amditioii, great good aanaa, dimity, and kinduaaa, nose mora
worthy otbeius called a gentleman ; hjU Sir Du<]lgy Csrleton, ws
kiww, tamed bim not only tba prince of iiaiutDis but of gaDtla-
hls irttatle eicalleiico to
and even aucb crilica aa WiiickeloiaDD, who an leut Ukaly lo
aTinpatbize with hit atyle, do honiiAa to hia aupahor nniua.
■'irubaD>,"hewritntal.'auntCobaui), " la the glory of ut, of hie
school, ofbUoountry, and of all eonuna mp*-"-- "■-'"•"<'- -*
bit inugination cannot be OTtiratad ; ha li
UBgiiiHcant In bit drspcry; snd bg raiiat 1
great moiUl for cbiar«curo, altliougb in t
tarrnod fanciful, but ha baa not au^riQced
beaa^ (Akw) Did UieGncM."
Bubena, indeed, althoofih liia type of fem'
moat DlenalDg, hai little of ths ItaJi
I ha WM ■ rial
ea; tfaafertili^of
ret in hit design.
lebeai
iagaaaially
u leuatmant, bnt
iding hli fteqneiit
ilenalDg, hai little of ths ItaJiu
la wu ■ FlemlnR througliout. n
TecoUactiona of thoaa Italian maaten vuom at rnoai aamiTea, ano
who themaelvea bava little, if snythiug, lu eomnion with BaphaeL
But it muat be borna in mind hov coTiijilutely hia predeeesson wets
froian into atiSuOP tlimugh Itidianisitiun, rud how neceiaarjit waa
to bring back the Flemiih icheol to lifg and nntnre. Critioa havs
>]wken of Rnlwns'a biitoricnt Improprietiea. Ofcoona nobody coold
It lwli» of hie
ig did not gD far .
enC or of Roman biitoiy van
; but in thii reipect no only
nroiinafi. i.nd many others In
of liana, tlgsr\ and
evaa the hinpopotamut and the erocodile, which may be techcaiad
among ihe finest apecimens of art. and bars anin are life sad
astura diiplayed with the tttiuoet pOKsr. ''Hit fiotias anpeifset
in their kmd,^ isya Reynolds ; hia dogs are of tbe'strong Flesii^
breed, and hit landtcapea the moat channing pictnns of Biabao-
tine •nnery, ia tba mldat of which lay his test of Staen. i» a
portrait jainter, althongh las refilled than Van Dyck, he showa
tliat eaineiiC rautat the way, and hia pure fancy aabieet^ aa the
Oaidan of Lots (Uadrid and Dietden) and the Village fesst
CLonvTa). bava never been eqnalled. Aa Mn Jameaon so jnii^
remartis. " Rnbsas it the most popular becaoss the most intslugibia
maybassidto
^--, r'"- AltbotiA
ina Qnellin lived till 1II78, the acfaool mlg^t bs
For nasrly on
Jonlaene and ,
tormed s body witboot sooL
BMN stchjogi hsva iMsa ascribed
4S
E II B — E n B
of Bnaaa, th* Dulf turn of irfkloh li In lli* Print Boom >t th«
Brilbh HiWHUD, «td • iMUilltul Asnn of St Catliaiiu, wo on
idnit Bam at Um otiar pliti*, mid to nmasd from Bobau, u
tatimitte. Subgu Mmtlidltu cnrciwd ao Iramoiu* inaiinice
on th* Ni of OBcrtTitie. Undar hli direct gnitUnca Bontmn.
Vontomta, Pootiii% Wltdoack, tiu two Bolns^ Patsr d* Jods,
H. Luimm, udinwiT athm (Hri«« uotaUft an iiBEpeDM DODibrr
of beaatirnl pbtn, iBpndaciiie the m«t celebntad of liii [Klnt-
infp. To ElTa an idoa of what nia idBiubcs wu capable oraMom-
Iilbhing, {dutoriall; ipeakiDR, it might b» mlUcioTit Is notico the
truafoniution nndovoDa 07 tUa Antwarp icbooZ af aDgravii^
nndar Kubaiui aren tlie modatn Klioal of angi*riD){, io mora tlua
oua napact, ig 1 caBtinDatian of tha ityla fint pnctiaad in
Antwarp. Hii inHaensa ii aeircsl; lata apparent m ■colpton,
aod tha oelabiated Luke Fafd'herbe vu hie pupEL
Kdthar In name nor in &ot did tha Flsndah aohool arar find a
■HBod Rabana. None of liie lonr aoni beoame apaintar, noi did
•cy of hia tbnn danghten mairj an arliit. According to Rnbana'a
will, hia drawing! ware to belong to that one of hia eoni who migbt
baoome a palntar, or in tba arent nf ona of hia dasghtara manying
a ealebcaUd artiit thar wan to be bar portion. The Talnabta
oollsotion waa dlnpaned onlj in IflSV, and of tba pictnna Mid In
lUO thlrtT-twD becuDO tha pnpartT of tba kiof; i^ Sniin. Tha
Uadtid Gallon nloM poaaaoca a bondred of hia worka, IToar yam
aftoT her hDaband'a death Hdana foormant named J. B. Tan
BnmekhoTan do B«rab*rck, knlf^t of St Jama, nmnbac of tha
priTy council, kc Bha diad In 1«7B. In 17M tha male line rf
Rubona'a dnonidanta wai oomplataly aitinot In the femata Una
Ban than a houdrad familiaa 01 nun* in Ennpa tnca thalr deaeont
from hini.
Tha palntlngi of Bnbani ara fonnd in all the principal nllniea
in EnTOp*; Antwerp and Braaela, Uadrld, Paiia, Lilla, ftoadan,
Berlin, HnDich, Vienna, St Petertbnrg, London, f loreaee, Milan,
Turin exhibit eannl hundreA orhii worica J. Bmllh'a Oatalcfnt
girea deiorlptioni of more than thirteen bnndred coni|»«itioni.
Uavm— 1. laa Hawk, Bunurt 4t f. P. 4«6ki, HhhIi, UM \ X.
OadM, tuirti bMUm it P. r. A^tm, Broula IHO: W. Naal latubBr,
I^t6lm,iM; C. Ktitmi^FUm fnl Kmtmi, Ottwmmu f Liltrm,tnm^
Bhu ^f^t^ aalL to uh.JFjUik MIT-M_; aTiiSm^ **™ * 'Aik
Itll; OaOu^ jniMrefMlltw a a^ltmmHtmit J*. R jSCSTbraMik,
Idl r. Oeaait, P. f. JMw. .inMaHMMn ear te> OrwUm ItimUr,
Antnn, MTIi Uai BeoHa. nim il PmraSTtrmtA f^rii P. P. IWtini
mr rivriiurU fl-MnitKU, Aatw, IMT: t. £m, niMtml JatiwaJ ^
U< ITirti <r CM iKvI iMjMil Sitfca aUnKuMTMUn, pan IL, Laofaa. UMi
Wh~, Awr /^n; BatoM (naalBUd froa Mte Oaniua tr B. bori. e«Uaa kr
■n jBiuaoa, LoBloii. I*M); B-Hynaat, IKiMrtitlmwmmdtmirtaliii
anttv. BnuHlL itlti a. a. VddiIiiIhi »ehti*»T»aft fttrtmii *• JtreiiMii
^iinln t^ritimimM, HuitM, IMt. {0, aj
BUBIDIUH. Sae FoTAsaiux Uxiau.
BUBRUQUIS, the name whidi hw mort waDmoalj
besD given to Viltiam of Bnbnik, a FranciacaLn friu ftnd
the Bnthoi of a lemaikabls nairatiTe of Aaiktio travel in
ths ISth century. Nothing il known ot him Mve what
can be ^thered from his own nuimtive^ with the exception
of a word from the pen of Bogei Baoon, his oontempimay
and brother FnoNBtxa, indicating per«onal aeqnaintAnce.
The name of Rnbrnqnis has Adhered to him, owing to thia
form ("WiHielmna da Rnbrnqnu") being foond in tha
imperfect copy of the Latin <^ginal i»inted bj HaklnjA
in hia colleddoQ, and followed in hia Ti'-ngliah tranalatimi,
aa well at in the completer iiaue of the Bngliah hj
FnrdiAa. Writer^ again, of the 16th and 17lh ceDtmiaa
have called the traveller Risbroa^e and Byibrokini, for
which there ia no authority, — an error founded on
the too haaty identification M his name of origin with
Rnyabroeck in Brabant (a few mileB south of Bmasela).
nil error was probably promoted bj tha fame of Jolui
of Baysbroeck or Ryabroeck (1294-1381), a Bdgian'
mjitie theologian, whoee treatiaea have been rqnintAd
aa late aa 1846 (see voL xviL p. 133). Our traveller
ia B^led "iQniUaome de Byalxoeck" aitd "RnyabtoAk"
in the BicgraiAu UwitendU and ~ in tha JToMi Biog,
Obitrtdt. It ia only within the laat twenty yeara that
Att«ntioa baa been called to the Caet that RnbronA
ia the name of a village and commune in what wm
formerly called French Flanden, belonging to the canton of
CbmsI in tha department dn Nord, and ]jag aome 8^ milea
north-eaat of 8t Omer. In the libtary of the
i^^y awdJMval docnmetiti azlat rafwiinc
Rubronok. and to peraons in tho 12th and 13th centuMa
styled as "de Rubrotick."' It may ba fairly asMuned that
Friar William came from thin place ; indeed, if attention
hod been pud to the title of Uu MS. balonping to Lord
Lumley, wliich waa iiubUihed by HAklnyt {ttiiierarium
fratrit WUlMmi dt Jtu/inu/tu dt Ordiiis fnUrim J/uiorMaa,
Oalli, Aaim Gratis l.i63, ad purla OrittUala), there need
have been no queation aa to the traveller's qnaai-Frenoh
nationality; ■ but (his (erroneonaly) has alwaya been treated
as if it were an arbittWi; jjloas of Uskluyf 1 own.
Friar William went to Tartaiy tmder order* from Lonia
nC (St Looia). That kinft at an earlier date, via.,
December 1248, when in Cyprus, had been vivted by
certain penona repreaenting tbemselvea to be envoys from
a great Tartar chief £lchigad«y (Uehikadai), who eom-
manded the Mongol hoata in ArmeoiA and Perita. Km
king then de^iatchad a retnm miadou conaisting of Afatr
Andnw ot Lonjomel and other eeelesiaiticB, who oartiad
presents and letters for both UchikadAi and the Great
Khan. They reached the court of the latter in the winter
of 1249-SO, when there wm in fact no actnaJ khan on tha
throne ; but in an; case they returned, along with Tartar
envoys, bearing a letter to Louis, which waa eooehed in
terms so Arrogant and offanaive that the king repented
BOtely of hAving sent such a miauon (ft mit m repwti fori
qtutnt Uy ntmia, Joiuville, { 493). These retnmed envoya
reached the king when he was at Onsana, therefore be-
tweoi March 1251 and Hay 12S2. It waa, however, not
Teiy long aftw that the aeaJona king, hearing Ihat a great
Tartar prinoe called Sartak was a b^>ld^ <%rUtiao, fett
strongly moved to open coramnnicalion with him, and Ear
this purpose dwnted Friar William of Babmk with con-
paniona. But it ia evident that the former rebuff iMtd
made the king chary as to giving tiieae nininiii ins tha
ehaiActer of hia royal envoys and f>iar William on evenr
occasion, beginning with a aermon delivered ia St Sophia a
(on lUm Sunday, i.t^ Ajoil 13, IS5S), futnally dladaimed
that character, alleging -thnt, thou^ he was ti
the king's letters And prasent% he went nmidy i
TAriona histories ff St Ltmi^ and other d
which have come down to us, ^va particnlsn of the
despatch of the missitHi ai Friar Andrew from Cyprus, but
none mention thAt of Friar William ; and the first dates
given by the latter are thoae of hi* aecmon at Conatanti-
oople, and ot hia embarkation from Sinope (Hay 7, 1303).
He must therefoc« have received his cooinuesioD at Aoe^
where the king wm residing from May 136S to Jnne 39,
1363 ; bnt he bad traTeUed t? way of Oonstantinc^tle, ss
ba* just been indicated, and there received letter* to •ome
of the Tartar cbieb from Uie emperor, who waa at tbi* time
Baldwin de Ooortenay, die laaC of the Latin dynasty.
Tb* namHva of the Journey fa eveiywhete foil of lifl and
btaica^ bat W* tannat tsUow ita dataili. Tha vaat HrannHta tt
jen^ili Khan wen itlll in nominal depeudanee on k
BttiikUaMl*^ ^jv_« »t ,_,
at tiik UlM lepnsaBtod bf Hangn Khan, rafpilng on tba II
liin etemH^ Mt pnetiEaUj thnaa eonqoeiti wan nUttins Di
aareial mat monanhka Of these tk* Dlfl* of JOftlh*
■cm of JowUi, formed tb* nioit .wisterly, end it* rnler waa
BUI
JeagU% formed tb*
__ .esbSlUedeatheTolgs. Stdak le known li
of the Hintok ■ BItA'a eldait •on, and wia amofaited hfa *db-
oaner, thoof^ he died immediately after hi* ta^er (13U). Tb*
etorv af Sarlak'* ptD(a**ion of ChiietianitT nay hava W aom*
kind of finirittl'Mi ; It waa eutrantly balietad among tha Aaiatio
pabllahed by H. Hib
__.. by V. lyAnna In AA A is
Ak. ifa M»., U vol for IBSS, pp. 6«»-C70.
• n* eeutir of na^anwaa at tkia Une a M of the AeoA
enwB (aaa Natalie de ValUj, Stlm am Juimilti, f. 178). VOHaB**
■nniAKaiHu may prabably bra tiaaa TlamiA. Bat tUa eaanat ke
" (p. «1) tkat aertala
novel by U* lapniMtetka to Haaga
IVatesMiAe bad bee* eantad away aa ■
niifrwi ffryirerL *a Or Tnu BohBldl taal
tnw^ an mA nptiad iDcog lb* R
ort wfioh ■■ Itai *• eUrf"rt <* f» 06--
a Aa HtdlUnuMa AM awl wkM to aow
-i. XoalDHd witk kooa* and auto fix th* Mmm,
- -'- 'iMlftutbMbMb<(tlMTola,bu>dMd
tb>i ntend to tba Gnat Khu htm-
leraJ ti»«lliw o( tb» p«^ (row fl» C™»» to tla fliui . owrl
BCD Kaakonui cannot bn« b«a, on a nra^ cakaUtu^ iea
,fc.„ BOOO nOa, Md tba ntumjoflniT to Ajai in Cilicii ranlU
i-i(_0arbrCOOUi7OOiiula. TbadiWdatH tobaftithcndfran
tlJ^?nttT* ■>• a) fidlon :-«a^nA M tb* EoiiM, Ui.r 7, 12. 3 ;
nd BoUak, n i -t <wtfli««v JaM 1 i rBjAmp of Sarttk,
JalT II ' bMh HwnW tram tamp of SUA (attvanl aeras ■uppa,
i?fam Oaika> (aoMli at Uka BalkHb). M ; nach camp of
Gmt KbtM. Daemtar « ; bna aaap of OtaM Kluw oa or
wTBarari aa>h No*«ibtr 1 ; at tba Ir^ GaU (DeriMnd)
ygStm- wait at VakhaUttB. (audar Aiuat) ; nach An-
tM> (ft«Hi AjS*i On««l. J™ ». ia« i "aoh TripoH.
^^S^eaap of Btta ««• naabid HardM DonlanuMat poiiit o(
1» ,T«-£ manbaa, thawha abort VkA uai Baca&ff (aaa
M*ne AJo, PioL, diu. UL nola 1). IMbn tb* oamn na Mt
tiiM tad marebad with Kftnaaaka don flu Toln. The eoiat
(4 ilnailBn iraoU Ha ca that rircrKmralMN batwatn 48* aid 60*
K ImT naraota takoi laj Matmid b; ■ Una ranaioit noitk of
tk« i^-^**" and Aial baalna ; than fHw abMt 70* L Im^ aooa
dnthMB* laatb^ to tba baas of ^ Talaaiirar; thane* aooa
^p^HBot duKlnhii Ak-tt« udaontb of tba balkaah Uk*
to OaAMol airf tba Bantmk I^ka (EU-nOr). Aoni tbb tba
tnTdtea ttooA iMrth acnai tba Bariok, or Aa Otkodnk
Jaj^juuiaeyfroMg
&itpbea,wi^a«
lUarantoiastr-
•Dablca ^ tnpompfar of that n(^ indading tb* naaaaga
IH, tha^in natb of tha Balbah, and tba AJa-bnl HaaB;
B jqantj, boing nada In anninwr, iflar nliaiaiiiii
tba Jibktm lalln,* Uj nnch lathtr to tha north, and paaed
MKth of tbm '*''*"'■. wiljt a tolarablT atiaigtat conn* pronablTi
to Aa Bflotha of tha Vol^ Thinea tha putr tnnliad aonth ij
IWIi— t, .»J»l<yglnMHtlfatK.AT.T>«, VAh.litT.li, aTjing.!!
Sirm, and laonim, to the aoaat of CUida, and arantaallT to tha
pvt of A}H, lA/m tbay (nbaikad tor Cjpm and fjria. St
LaoiBbad ntnadto Fnnta a 7<ar bafim.
V* ban altadad to TLaga Baoon'i nantioii of Tiiar Tillitm of
'CS
ltSS)b*dtBa
d, iH tb* aaogn(diiioal atotiiHi el tha Ojna ifiritu
I tha tnralW tapaatadh and ot^onil j, dtacriblns
Withelmna aaam doBUin* m nuiciu miiit ad
°]i£^
. . qid parliutnTit n^i
D Ui aniMia, et aeripait 1
aniMia, et aeripait hiwi
ta thia WSliBiii^ on tscidmtil paitlnilir u to hia twmg (1
hfa litBciuaur, friar John of Plan Caiplna, aee toL t. p. 13a
wrjhaaTyB— ' — -■ "--J'
r).*iKfW:
knov no non of hia
.^ __» atocT Itaalt Theae paint fcr na an hontat, piona, atont-
htntod. acota, and maat iBtetllgBnt ol<aaTTar, kean in tht aeqnlii-
tisBofkaovladgih thaaiaoriahetof ona of tha brat namtiTu
nf tnrcl in axMaoc*. Hi* langnag* indnd la I^tin of tha moat
n-Ckaroofait qnalitjr,— dog'Idtin v* (ear it mntt b* calltd ; but,
" It That va maj, it la in hia hand* a pithj and tranipannt
la aplto of all tba dilSeultiea of u
.- it ooljr aa to (lalatto natural ueograpbj, athnognphf, and
mann^n, bat aa to nIMon and'liaieiiaga. Of lila g»Kniphy ■
good namfila oeann In hia aecnut oftti* Oaairiin (aaprijr eujjjii
ap h; Kogar Baooo), lAich i* parfoctlr aoeamt*^ n«p( that ha
pkeaa tba bill oauntn oat^iuJ b; tha UnUhida, or AMaMin^ on
tl a caatorn inateod of tb* nnthoni ohon. Ma azpIioltlT comota
alltttatioo of laidon that it laagalf of tha «aaii:^i]on aat
am nnod didt TddonH nuaqium oiilm Ixngit o«■naD^
-.- Aattan <1 langoaa* «* miy dto enunplta. Tb* langoag* ol
tha PaasaHr (or Baohkirdi) and of th* HnaaaTJana i* tba aaaM. a*
he had laamad from Dominkana irbo had bean among than (171).*
""" ' 1 of the RntlftniaDi, Pole*, tlohaaiiaa^ udSlaTanUu*
I tha Kioa with that of th* Wojidal*. m Vanda (Z71>}.
1 of Eqniu* (immediatalr b*70od tb* lU, p«ta|ia
Aapua)' tha people *er* MobanoMdaua apaaUac Pairiia, tbooob
•D Tar raiDoto fmni Penia (381). Tha Tngna {ra Uignn) of til*
ODontrj (boot Cul*c (*a* not* *boT*) bad (braad a langoaga and
ThafBOn nf d-cir ovn, and in that lansaiga ud obmactar tha
»MoriaH of that tract Med to parlunn tbeii oa** ud vrita Uwir
«ln (M-S). Tb* 'i wan an the** *awag vhon u« found tha
■ntaia Bad not of tb TUrkiah and Cunuoia* tongn* (389).
-^ " -• ' ■- -"-ft"
lldr duncter baa b*ea adopted by tb* Mogbala. In orioe it
UwT bagla writing ben th* top asd wilta downwatda, irUlat llna
fbUmn liM fton )*ft to ridit <18«), Tba Statorian* w their
•arrk*, wd Ur* tbdr bolj book^ in Briiaoi bM knov nothing of
tha bogoM*, JtMt aa aoM* of oar noalu di* tta *aaa wtthont
knowing btin (2M). Tit Tlbat paopl* wilto a* w* do^ *od
tbolr Intm brnv * *trong Tnembbno* to oam Tho Tangnt
pMifAa writo fton right to l«ft lika th* Arah^ and their liuH
adruo* apwaiJa (>SCO- Th* oorrtot noaor of Catba; li of coltoB
Mp*r,>pilmiBl*i«thaDdbnadtb,Biidca lUi tbay prim Uaea
Uka thoaa of ICanga Khan'i aeal ■— 'iaiprfaiiiBf Hutu afant at
d^Unm tfana" — a nmarfcabl* axpmuoa. Tbn writo with a
pdnl«'* pandl and oombina in on* charactar aereial letlar^ fbria-
lag oaa aipnaaloa i^" fiadant in nna S^ma nliiraa Ittaraa acnuTirk
b*Dd*at*a BMm dtetioaam,"— a (till n
Bbowing aa maptagiaala apprabanaicM of the m
writing ns»).
Tet Mm —f**™* and honeat obaerrar t* deiionne*d *■ an
ignorant and Dotnrtbfkil Mnadanr bf laaao Jacob Schmidt (a atan
no doobt *f aaetitl leaning of a Und ran in U* day, bat namnr
and WTODg-lMaded, and in nataral ao^non and oandom tar iabrior
to tha IBtb-BentaiT friar wlkom be malinaj, drapl; bacaoaa tha
•Ttdanee of th* latter a* to th* Tarktah diiUot of tba Cignn
tnTCmd a pot h*r**r, long die* exploded, which Schmidt antor-
tainad, tIi., that the UigiUN *ei« bj raaa and langaage Tibetan.*
n> nemttn •>( RMn*, alMr ■**■ ■an'a oifteBI IH el It, ie*M U k«*
*nirrt DU x ^KA^lv i»7« I^Ma liaeaa^MDMie iK Ih* Ittk
StjmtJ^^ ^tptQaMj, ae we tore wnilaaed. Bat It w» »^ aPBi
Vr^S'itTum Oli^aMilMI ■««», hL H., agalalBe/aTlHnefh t«Ila
or Ike UOm Mrt, ea« a eaUiM o< ■£* IH athtUit HSS. sat fertk *t IL
T,. u.. .r . 111 I »iii>ihii, iiiiii jlhWiilitlaaiw.
iWrtrtt- Ba»lli«r.liii.™iiii*BriiT,Kt
tr al fetaear. Melilli^ea ta
•1 We 'B«ailfe <« RAnk.
loaiaeaavMth tba ■mat witter bee Mac ■iatiaWalt4,tal WW wM b«
JieJn- bJW tl eceemiilleliiaat. (Uox lUe wu ta In* Ike wriier liae lauitiaa
fnn Dr. Fnni Hu lebHIin u idmlnWa noancniili b^ hill. C*ir Ratnin
MitMt (BaOii, n. n). emaoal Inn ml. s. el Ui* amtr. erta. "k- Ar'.. aM
lieefnMlTvro«M[Wt>IBIl»TeTMBielI)i*anlcleta(ne(.) |B.Yj
RUBT. This name it applied hj lapidariM and Jewellen
to two diatiact minetala, which maj be dtitingaiilied aa
the true ot Oriental nib? and the spinel nby. Tk»
former is a red Tariet; of OOTnudum or natire &liinuii% of
48 R U
gFMt rul^ and nine, wbila ths kUer u an KlnmimU of
magiwunm, inferior to the tnia raby in bardnew Kid
mnch Iges tatemusi m a gem atOQ«. With ancient irriten
the Mmfniian ira* eren greater, for they appear to iune
eluaed togsthte nnder a oomnioa namc^ Each ai the air-
hmeN/Ni ci Plinj bt tka Mpai of Qraek writen, not only
oar two kind* of mby but aUo gameta and other inferior
stonei of a brilliant Serj colour. By modem mineral-
ogiita it ha« oome to be nnderstood that when the word
ruby it naed without any qo^ifying prefix the true or
Oruotal BtMW b lumriaUy indioatad.
tbo Oriental mt^, like all other vuietie* of eomndnm,
njatalliiea in the thoiobohedral ■yttem; bnt, ai it nanally
oocnn aa tmali pebble* or loonded fngtnenta, the cryBt&i-
line fwts can rarely be traced. Its ooloor -varies from
deep coduneal to pale i«>e red, in oome caaea inclining to
purple, the moat vahied tint being that known, to aiperta
aa pigeon'a blood colpnr. On ezponire to a high tempera-
tore the raby becomM green, bnt regaina ita original eolonr
on cooling — a behavionr which ia conaistent with the np-
poaition uutt the atone owes iti colour to the presence of
oxide of chromion, and indeed in artificial rubies the
reqnired tint i* alwaya obtained by the oae of some com-
poond of chtomidm. When a raby of the moat esteemed
coloor is properly viewed tiiroo^ a dichnxaeope, the
colont i« resolved into a carmine and an anron red, or red
inclining to or&nge. By this teat the boe ruby may be
diatinguahed from apinel and game^ unoe these minerals
cryBtalliia in , the enbio ijatem and therefore are not di-
cluoic. Angthei mode of diBtJnotioD ia inggeeled by the
high denaity of ommdiiB : the ipecifia gravity of the tme
n^ reachci or oven riaea ali^iUj above 4, and thns
greatly exceeds that <^ dtber nonel or garnet. But
perliu* the aimplaat teit ii afloraed by ita great hard-
ttaei(H— 9): tlia aharp edge of a oomndom crystal wiU
readily actatch (ither a ipinel or a game^ but has no
■effect on a mby. Hie tme niby haa a very hi^ index
of tefiaetion (fii-1'76), and to thia chancter ia doe
theTsmarkable Inatie of the polished atooe. Hr Cnxtke*
liaa ahown that the raby u brilliantly phoephoreaceot
wbm subjected to radiant discharge in a properly ex-
hausted venel, and curiously enoogh the ted light emitted
ia equally vivid whatever be the colour of the cornndam
under experiment. The microecopia Btmctnre of the
raby has bera stodied by Mr Sorby, who finds that the
atone oontains fluid cavities and nnmeraus ciyitallized
encloaores of other mineials (Piyie, Bof. Sue., xvii., 186B,
p. 391).
• .TbaOrlantCntrii a mbanl af vnylii
princiiEal loealltltt being coaflDsd to ths kingdom of Bomiib.
BNrt Impatluit Tubj miQa an liOulHi at Ejat Ft«d, abmit 70
BiOia .to th* uorth-eut or Uuidikj ; than m alio miiMe at
Xookap, ■ littl« firther north, ind otbrai is tha Sigyin HOK
within IS milM ol HuidsUy. Id all th«e loc^tis th* niUts
' " I willi HppblrM and atbsr pndoaa itoDca,
bnUoB^
pih. Tha
■mall til*, ud tha lusar
noasdlogaMTtalnwiiAt ware tha pcDportyi
>m. — 1 j» jailooJy vatshad, andi' —
ThamlDnwi
vidCad and daacribed n
; but 1
diffitult (or Earopoan
» Oiowppo d'Ai
beiJD dncribod b
D (Ball). _
■nyj™ IP> h
o w>* officially eoDnoeted with
BiaEaa in me otdpr worki on nuDantogy that mniefl ocx
Gapakau Hoontaina ntar Bjrian, in rega. In peainit
then an bat ftw loealitiM that field nibiea, bnt they 1
reported from tha oomndnm mine* or (ha Saleia diitrict
aiHl ftom Hnon^ In Ceylon thV oonu vith aipphina, bat ara
" n tboae g«ma, and tin C«lbn mbii "' " — '
Babiaa ham beau brought
It Duat of tha atoua repalsd to be Afghan rabiea
jnod ODhMir.
by CaL C W. Jmki In Msoon ca., Jforth Carnliu
a diKx
npphint, aadlslg«|idiUacf«a
bed ol a livar naai' a large na*
bMsm* known aa Cocnodun
arantnallybBoadtoBartalavaiBsfothaiatpaBtlaik IWevBadna
ooamrad arrMiUiaaij im ofti, bat was araW of audi a aaloT aa
vodld autltLB it to b« eatlod nby. Ur Q. T. Rmo, who haa
ranaDTn**
Colorado ; and in Arlaona.
a F^KawHniao; is ■
.- tha drift* oT O* Beaobwvth gold Md* tnd at tha Bstwi*k Ub
mioa, Wallaoa'a Cntk ; rtli* la Ha* Sooth Ta)** tb^ ooaai at
Madges, in tha Cadrow and aoow of it* tribotsija^ Md at
Tambeiiunba, oo. Wjnyaid. A n^ota-ooloand tuUd i«fay
from Ticteila k knom andar lb* Dune of " faaiklrit*."
Th* " *Ur raby" is a latbir olondy vaii*^ tram OajLo, *sSiUt-
ing when oat •» tabdlM a InsiDons *^ of A aj*, laOaolad
ttom th* convex nnlkos of th* atoiu
Tha larnat mby known in Enrap* Ii said la b* CD* of th* UM of
_ small hot's ^t which waa pnaantad by GaatniH III. of
Sweden to tha eapcaaa of Bnanson tha ooca^oa of his virit ta Bt
Fslerrimig. SaAm cJ largar like bav* bm deasribed hj
Tavamlar ud other Otiaatal travellet^ bat it is pnAsbls that ia
msay can* ninels bav* b*« mlstsk*n for tn» iMit. Tha*
aaama no daaU tfaat tb* gnM bistorio raby sat la th* Halt***
cioa in boot of tb* imiwial atata orawa oTBiiglaBd la a ajimtL
This itona wia glnn to Edward tha BlaA Fifoo* by Fadra tha
Cmel, king of CaitU*. on th* victory of Kijita in lief.and it waa
Wwanla won by Hanry T. at the bsttl* of AginooAt, »h*B U
tmiAj eBo^ied deatnction.
Tbeapinal robyhH been dtacifbedin tha artida UinaaUNra
(toL xtL p. S8«, *p M). Tbe*pinalanMdll»j*wiII*7an»»tly
obt«ia*d In Barmah, whar* tbay occar aa oobibednl ciyalals or aa
ktar-wora ptbhic* in aaaocialian tith th* tin* rnby, hr whii&
_aT era odan Iniatakgli. Tha* are alas toond in tha nU'baarinf
gnvoli of Caylon, Victoria, and Sm South Walea. Th* dslkata
mas-pink rariat; koown a* taalai rnbj na woriied far ce
Badatdnhin, bat the opantjoni appeal to hi
lata yeara. Th* mhits are altuated on t
tribatsiT of tha Oma. It ii e '-
■'»«l«*nr "1 - ■ --
r waa woneu jot goubiti^ ik
■I to hire been ■aiundad of
1 on the rivar ShUfcaaa. a
_. . manly laid that th* naaa
DOTtnplian <rf ftfulnVbtb"^ while etiitfa
derive it from Balhh. .
The Oriantsl raby has alwiya bean estaoMd of far U^ar tan*
than any other praoiaai at" ' —•--*--'-'-• •^' —
be pnaaat dsv tan
disniond oT equal wtd^t (Straeter). it Oa
inoressBS.itavahia-^"--' "
si wtd^t (Si
loaniSdlytli
wd^ ofOa atena
01 the rab; ii obtalnad J and, thco^ the ordinary "atnas^" or Bna
lead-elaH, It vaiy aoft, and theral^ *oon loM* if Ivttn, It la yet
poiaibta to prodooa a peat* rnniiiHnj of aOkate «f aloBlBa lAkk
ti ^moal a* bard aa mk tiistal,
It ia an Intonating bet Oat tl
eaeded la eaoaing aTiiniina. to •*
phyaicsl cbsrsetaiiatica sf the oatlve n ..
H. Oaadlu laprodaead th* raby oa a amaU aeah by me^mg
amownlaHiloiate tb* heat of Um tgjhydiegn Uowp^ wJUnliy
he obtsintd tdatd ahnnlna whkh waa nadDy eolmnsd by tha
addition of oxide of ehiomiani. A dKbrait nathod was fouowad
by Ebelman. H* dlaaolred afaunlna In botie add at a U^
tanpennn and on th* oodling of dw maaa obtained tha alaBuoa
to a erysiaUiied form ; while if ohromsta of anunoniam waa
maant ths Giyitals beiam* veritable rnln. KIL Bainte-Claira
Davill* and Caron heated a mlxtore of Dootida d alominiDm,
fluoride of chromium, and boiio add, and thai obtained a flnoiiila
ol bono, which, being TOlatOa, readily <acu*d, and Mt a natid
reildoB of alumina colnred by th* ■*"»■» Tbeaa, howar*^ war*
only laboialoiy aiperiment*, and it waa rasarvad (or HIS, niatj
and 7eil, in 1S7S, to reproduce tha raby and Mppfaiie bo aacalaao^
gHtire of n>nie commercial importanco. By healing a nnitor* of
irtificiil aluminti and red lead m a fireclay cradble, Uwy «btain*d »
ailicala of lead (tlie ailica being dnlved Krom th* eradUa}
italliial alumina, while th* addition of biidirainatB oT pota»
th* eovetad titf «t th* n
nd cryBtallio
auuiiftJt (ISO): Chmdi, PrtcU^t Kumn (iltl]i iiniin. ftmS3
s~i»<lo~<«Ui<>l.,ISM> Fi>rliHlku)De.lli1«*eeBair.Aw_i>0M_L
Minn thI. IIL of Ihe Motaml iT llu Otaltti at /■«■ (UB1]1 ter IHMiitW
BUu inbtn, auan. Jtur. C«f. Ok, ioU.. n>1. m. I*H *. Ma. US
Ami^tm Aar. Bciam. ur. 111. nl. tr, im, yp. )«*. IIV Hd aaAartM^
Mi.ml nrmrta aflM Vnilsl AnM, In X. WIIIUBa, Jia. (USQ. Fo M*
hUBiTT III llim turns mnH Klnfi Ml«l Hlil tf Ciulim ■,■■710111 ■!■
In >niacl.I mUc CMVM JEnf.^ «l. ln.r. 1B>r, Pl ISM. (RWTliT^
R 0 C — R U D
49
178a.
tola nau Cofania. ' He disd on th« 91>t
V&in Bflfikart npn hia litenrj can«r,
•tnggle vith
BijCEBST, FuxmuiB (178S-1866),
I Met, «•> bon at Sdiweinfiirt od Hie IGtli Uay
Ha «u ednwtod »t awgrnnMittm of hU uktira
I^Me and at tba nnivanitiei ot w3nlnirg and Htidelbeig,
wbere ke rtndied law and pliilcdcigr. HaTing taken bia
degree^ Ilo mnt to tin nainni^ of Jena aa a " priTat-
docent"; but tlui potHioBlwaooD alModoned. Foraome
time Iw worked in cmineKioii witb the MorganHaa at
Stuttgart. Neari; the whole lA ttfl Tear 1618 he apent
in Borne, where be deroted hinaelf to ^aiAj, espedallj
the atodf ot the popnhw poetry irf Italj ; and afterward*
ha IiTed for terenl yean at &>ba^ He waa appointed
a ptof— or Ot Oriental
IMaiigen m 18S6, and ii
poaition in Bcriin, iriMK ha waaalao made a pri*700iinaill«.
In 1649 ha leaignad hia profsaaoiahip at Berlin, and
toUveon hia ^ta "--^ - ■ "- '■-' - ■•--
Jannaiy 1SC6.
Oermaaj waa
N^mleon; and l ■
CUiriied in 1814 nnder the name of Fiwnnnd Bumar,
gaTe TigoKHiB expraaaion to the tmniling iMilinMDt of
hia eomttiTnien. In t816^)peand^(9of«o)i,MMfMUual«
foMO^ i» OfH .SMdM, and in 1817 the Krm* Ar ZiU.
He iaoed a ecdketioo of poem^ OtH^die Boim, in 18S3 ;
and in 1834-38 hie QttammtUt OmIidU* were pabliahed in
HZ vohun«^ft aelaetion boot lAoA haa paaaed throogh
iaBi7 editioaa. Bileker^ who waa maater of' thir^ kn-
gnage% made hia matk ehiedy aa a tiaaalator of Onaotal
poatry, and aa a writer ot poema ooDCMTed in the nnrit of
Oriental masten. Vtu^ attention wm attracted by Dit
Venramdlmige» da Ab% Stid, a traaalation of Hariri's
MabmuK (183fl), JCoJ vad Dam^mii, an Indian tde
0826), Amriihut, da- DiekUr i«<I Kli»iff (1843;
Eamuua, odor dU Oltaittt mxUtUdim TtOdUder (1846).
Among hia origtoal poema dealing wiUi Oriental snttjaeta
ara MoryemUnditclit Sofftit mnJ 0«k*mUm <1837X Srb<nh
Udkm m^SeKhanlMia^uit dtm MorffoUtmd (183»-38X
JbMAm wuf a>inl^ emt BddengttMdiU <183S), abd
Braimanacki SrtSUim^tn (ISSB).. Hie moat ekboimte
of hia worka ie Di* WtMtU (b*
lax. Tohimw ia 1836-39. Jo 184S-4S he iatned aevwal
diMnaa,.all of wbidi are greatiT inferior to the work to
■miuA he owea hia diriinetiTe plaoe in Oerman Htoatnre.
At the time of the Danidt war tn 1864 he wrote fu>
ArtMMf Xamp^Litdtr fltr SMaitiff-BoUlam, which, al-
thoo^ pnUidked anoaymooily, prodnced a conaiden^
impnaBOD. After hia death many poatioal tranaladona
and «a!gina] poema were fonnd among hia p^Mr% and
wrenl eoUectiona of tiiem wen pnUialwd. BO^ert
lacked tbe limpie and nabunl feeling irtiieh ia chaiacter-
iatic of all the greatort lyrical poeta ot Germany. Bnt
he had a certain ipleDdoiir of imaginati(m whidi made
Oriental poetry congenial to him, and he hai aaldoin bean
Mupaoed in hu power of giving ibythmio ezpreeaiiin to
ideaa on the condnct of tife. Aa a maater of poatioal
■tyle he ranki with Oerman writen of the hi^ieat daaa.
There are hardly any lyrical forms which ue not reprcaented
among his wcaka, and In aU of them, the limpleat and the
moat comi^Ga^ he wrote-wmi eqnal eaae and gtace.
A ManpMt edlliaD of BScfcirfe pottioal vorfa ipinnd in
laaUat 1b laOS-M. Baa Fortkn, Satkirl wid MftH Werkt
aW7); Bnar, JMtiriA XadbBt, *i» HograpltStdia SaJtmal
(IBMJ; iTw JfiUWIiMfMt «i«rJtfl«brt(ie7l)i ud JVns'iwIaaflH
fliJfata SachrU uad ufiu Balrtft m dam LAanmd BArfflm
(U7T) ; Boxbogw, JMabrf-SttidM (WS\
BCDAOI <d. 954). HaUm Mohammed Farid^addln
'AbdalUb, the fint great genins ot modem Fenia, was
bon in Bfidag a ril£ge in Tnseoiiana, abont 870-900,
—totally blind, as moat of hie bi<^iapheTs asaert, althongh
the toe diatifliten of cokma and Oie minnte daatription I
of Iha variooa tinta and ehadea of floweia In his poema
Batly cOBtiadiet the enstomaiy legend ot the " blind min-
Btnl" In hia dghth year he knew the whole Korin by
heart and bad be^ to write Toraea. He had beudea a
w<Kiderfal voice which enrt^itQied all heareia, and he pUyed
in a masterly way mi tbe lata. The fama of these acoom'
pliehmenta at last leached the ettr of the B&minid Kaar IL
bin Ahmad, the ruler of Ehorisin and Tranaoaana (91^
943), who drew the poet to hia oonrt and distingtushed
him by hie petaonal favoai. BAdagl beeama his daily
companion, loae to the higheat hoQOiiT^ and grew rich in
worldly wealth. He reeaiTed ao many costly preeente that
he eould allow himaalf the extravagance ot keeping two
hondred pages, and tiiat foar hnndred camel^ were oecea-
sary to cany all foM property. £a apita of variooa pre-
deceaeofs he veil deaarvea the title ci "father of F^raian
ice he waa the fiiat who impressed npon nery
r etna, lyric, and didactio poetry Ua pecohar atamp
and ila individnal character. Ha ia also eaid to have been
the foiiilder of the "diwin," that is, the tyfncal form of
tbe eomplete coUectioa o( a poet's lyrical compositions in
a moi« or leaa alphabetical (»ds which prevaila to the
preeent day among all Mabammedan writera. His poema
nlted,aoooidiiig to all Btatementa, one hnndred volnmeeand
eonaisted of one million three hnndred thonaand venea;
bat ot tbia there remain only fifty-two kaaldaa, ^laaal^
and rabila; of hia e^o maaterpieoea we have nothing
beyond a tew sbay lines foond nere and there aa iilus-
tiations ot ancient Fernan worda and [dinaos in nativa
dictionaries. Bot the moat aeriona Ion is that of his
translation of Ibn HnkaSa'a Arabic vendon of tbe old
Indian fable book SaUlaA tout Dinaaik, which he pnt
into Persian vene at tbe'iequeet of his r<^Fal pabvo, and
for which he received the handtome reward ot 40,000
diriiema. In his kaaldaiv which are all devoted to the
refined and delicate taste^ very
diSennt ttom tiia often bMabaetic oompoaitions of later
PMan caeomiaafa^ and theaa alone wonld entitle him to
ft fonnoat laafc among the poets ot hia country ; bnt hia
renown ia eowaderably enbviced by his odee and epi-
grama. Tboae of a didactio tendency ezpreaa in well-
maaaored line* a sort of Spicnrean phiIow>phy — in tbe
loftiest aeoaa ot tbe word — on bnnian life and hnmao
baj^naaa; mote charming etill are tbe porcly lyrical pieces,
aw«at and taadnating koo, wbii^ slonfy the two everlant
ing dtJighta of (Rowing benrta and dieerful minds— love
and wine. BAdagl anrvived his royal friend, and died
long after the qdradid day* ot Naar'a patronage^ the time
ot wealth and Inznry, had paaaad aw^ — poor and forgotten
by the world, as one ot hia poem^ a beaatifnl elegy.
It peami of BddagC ta Ptman
ompbtatd
Uit sari Dwtikil OannaB tnailkticm, t«iithai with ■ blognnht-
eal accBnnt, boad on fortr-six Fneian M8S., ii found in Dr EAff»
"RAdsgld(rafaainidandiGhter''(<»Uti^B'jr<HArteUn, isrs, pp-
BUDD, or BK&-Bn (LtMHuau ttyOn^malvimt), a fish
of the faioily ot Oarpa, generally aptead over Europe,
north and aonth of the Alpa, alao fonnd in Aaia Minw,
and extremely common in anitabla localities, via., still and
deep water* with muddy bottom. When adult, it is
readily recogniied by its deep, short body, golden-coppeiy
tint of the whole ntrfaee, red eyes, and scarlet lower fina ;
the yonng are often confounded with those of tbe roach,
bat the pharyngeal teeth of the mdd stand in a donbla
row, and not in a mngle one, as io the roach ; alao Uie
first dorsal rays are inserted distinctly behind the vertical
line from the root of the ventral fin. The Mial-raya are
from thirteen to fifteen in number, and the scalEs in the
tl tine from tbiity-nine to fortr-two. The nidd is a
60
EC D — K U D
fins fish, Imt littlo eatoctneJ for food, and m; ranlj ei-
caoda a loDgth of 1 3 inchoi or a iroight of 3 Si. It f eeda
on amall freBhwatar anlmala and soft vegetable niattBr, and
•pawns in April of May. It reodilj erosws wit^ the white
bream, more rarelf with tbo roach and bleak.
HUDDIMAN, TfioMAa (1074-1758); an eminent Scot-
ti^ Echohu', waa born in Octobor 1674, Bt Itoggal, 'm the
poriiih of Bo^die, BanfiHhire, where his father *aa a
fanner. H« studied Latin eogerlj at the achool of hia
nativo pariah, and whon siiteen started off to walk to
Aberdeen, there to oompoto for a college bnrainy. On the
waj he VU attacked bj Gipcics, robbed of a guinea, which
was all he had, and otherwise very cniellj treated ; bat he
t>orsaver«l in hii jonmof , reached Aberdeen, and competed
for and won the borsary. He then entered the nniferaty,
and foar yoora afterwards — on 21st Jane 1694 — received
the degroo of H.A. For aoote time he acted as scbool-
mastor at Lanrencokirk in EincardinsL There ho chanced
to make the acqaaintanco of Dr Ktcaime, of Edinburgh,
who persuaded him to remove to the Bcottish capital,
when he obtained the post of aasiatant in the Advocates'
library. As his satarj was onlj £S, Ss. 8d. per annnm,
he was forced to undertake additional employment He
engaged in miseelkneons literary work, took papila, and
for Bome time acted as an anctioneer. His chief writings
at thie period were edition* of Wilaon's Dt Animi Tran-
quiUiiaU IHaloffvt (1707), and the CtmHei Soiomom* Para-
jAratU Paaka (1709) of Aithor Johnstone (o& 1641),
editOT of the Delicta Poetarum Scotonan.
In 17U he pnbtiahed BudmatU of the Latm Tonffne,
which is even yet hia best known work. This was intended
to be an easy introduction to I«tin grammar, and was so
BnccOBsfnl that it at once sapersaded all others. Under
Tariona forma it has been in nse, down to our own day, in
the schools of Scotland. In I71S he edited, with notaa
and annotations, the works of George Bnchanaq in two
idamos folia As Buddlman waa a Jacobite^ the liberal
views of Buchanan seemed to him to call for frequent
censure. That ceoaure ia often rather implied than openly
expreaeed ; but it excited much opposition. A socioty of
scholars waq formed in Edinbnrg^ to " vindicate that in-
comparably learned and pions author from the calnmniee
of Mr Thomas Huddiman" hj pnblishbg a correct edition
of his works. This th^ never did ; bat a number of ob-
Bcnre writers from this time attacked Bnddiman with great
Tehemenee, He replied ; and it was not till the year
before his death tiiat hesud his "last woid" in the eon-
troversy.
His worldly Affairs, meaiiwhil^ grew more and more
prosperous. He fonnded (1.71S) a sncoeasfnl printing
iHuineaB, and after some time was appointed printer to the
university. He acquired the Caitdoniam Jfervmy in 1729,
and in 1T30 was appointed keeper of the Advocates'
library, which post, owing to failing health, he resigned
in 17113. EediedatEdinlHirgh, IDth Jannary 1TG8, and
was interrad in Greyfriais churchyard, where in 1B06 a
tablet was erected to his memory,
B«d(I«s tlio worki men tianvj, th« (olleiriiig writliifV of Euddhoan
deaarrs nntlcs :— oa edition <^ Osvlu Doimiu'* JEmld of Tiigil
(17tO) ; tfao sditinf! end campletion of AnderBos'i Scltdt^ Dipio-
nuiliHD tt Kun^irniatum Seoti^ ThaaHm (1738) ; CalaloQua if On
i' Librarv (17S3--12): in edition of Llry, fsmed tor iti
■'-a pnnly," in 4 Tola. (1761). *'"•'■" '
honoor to Mm," lald Johnaon.
as to all that did AM itdtnodldtely ecmMn Ui art •tiSA
can best be deocribtd as ont of data. He waa bom at
Dyon, 4th Janbaiy 17B4, and came therefore in hia youth
under the influence of the damocratio and NapcJeonio
idoala in their full force. Till the age of aizteen he
woAed at his father's trade aa a atoTomoker, amusing
himself with modailing in his free honra only ; but in
1800 he went up to Paris from the Dgon achool of art,
and became a pupil of CaatolUtir, obtiuuing the Great PriEC
in 1813. After the second restoration of the Bonrbone
he retired to Brass^ where ha got some vrork under the
architect Van der Stiaeten, who employed him to execute
nine baa reliefs in the palaoe of TerTUoren, which he was
then engaged in bniicUDg. At Brussels Bude married
Sophie Fremiet, the daughter of a Bonapartist compatriot
to whom he had many obligations, but, obtaining with
difficulty work so ill-paid that it bnt jnst onablod him to
live, he gladly availed himaolf of the opportunity ut
retnra to Paris, where in I8S7 a atatns of the Virgin for
8t Oervai»anda Mercury- Faateoing his Sandals obtiuned
much attention. His great success dates, however, frop
1833, when he received the cross of the Legion of Honont
for hia statue of a Neapolitan Fuber Boy playing with k
Tortoise, which also procured for him the important com-
mimion for all the omameliC and one bas roliof of tho Am
de I'^toIIe. This relief a work full of vatxgj and Sr^
immortalizes the name of Bnde. Amongst c^er produc-
tjona, we may mention the statoe of Mouge, I84S, Jeanno:
d'Arc (in rarden of Luiembonrg), 1853, a Calvary in
bronn for the high altar of St Vincent de Fa^iL 18G5, aa
well as Hebe and the Eagle of Jnpiter, Love Tnnmphant,
and Christ on the Croat, ali of which appeared at the Salon
of 18fi7 after hia death. He hod worked all his life long
with the moat extraordinary energy and given himself do-
rest in spite of the signs of failing health, and at last, on
the 3d November 181tC, he died suddenly with scarcely
time to cry out. One of hia noblest works, and easily
Bcceasible, is the tomb of Cavaignai^ on which be placed
beoida his own the same of his favourite pupil Chriatophe.
Although executed in ISIO, this waa not erected at Hont-
martre till the year aft«r Bude'a own death. Hia Louia
XIIL, a life sixe statue, cast in silver, ia to be seen at thtt'
Duo de Luynes's chateau at Bampierre. Cato of TJdca.
stands in the gardens of the Tnileriea, and his Baptism of'
Christ decorates a chapel of the Madeleine.
EUBE STONE MONUMENTS. The raising of com-
memorative monuments of . such an enduring material aa:
atone is a practice that may be traced in all oonotriaai
to the remotest time*. The highly eculptored statae^,
obelisks, and other monumental erections of modem civi-
lization are but the lineal representatives of the nn)"'wn'
monoliths, dolmens, cromlechs, ka., of prehistoric -oes.
Judging from the large number of the latter *' .i Dave.
Btill survived the destructive agencies (notaUy thoao: oE
man himself) to which th^ have been expoeed during so?
many ages, it would aeem l^t the ideas which led to thur-
erection had as great a hold on bnroanity in ita earlier^
stages of derelopmsnt aa at the present timtt. In giving;
some idea of theae rude monuments in Britain and elae-
wher<v it will be convenient to' classify them as follows
(see voL u. p. 383, figa. 1-4^. (1) Isolatbd pillare or mono-
lith* of nnhewn atone* raised on end are called Ifenhtrr
(nviflt, a stone, and Air, long). (3) When theae monolitha
are arranged in line* they become Aliffmittntt. (3) But
if their linear arrangement is auch aa to form an eocloanr*
(mMtnfa), whether circular, oval, or irregular, the group is
dedgnated by the name of CnndaA (see CnoNLSCE). (4>
Instead of the monoliths remaining separata, they aro-
Bometimee placed together and covered over by one or
moit eafetsDM io ai to form ■ Tude duunber i in tbii cut
BUDE STONE
Uw moiiaiMnt ]e mUmI a I>otmat {dmil, a Ub>^ ud mm,
a atoae). nii* ■"^'■tl'in dumber it ■ometimM partullT
w iriioltf imbaiilad in a mooad of Mtrth or itoDM K> M to
fbim • tomnlu or fira. Am, howvnr, dun^ an nanj
tomali aacl cainu whiek do not ocMitain mdgalithin obam-
bec% wo have only paitiaU; to deal with tliOn onder the
catcgoiT cf nida itOH mooanuala.
JfMUrK— Bud* moaoUOi And ts md (na toL IL p^ ISS,
Sg. l))uinbMaDndliiiUi8Mi>«niM7</p«tpaM^«imiMiB-
ootin and nligiDiu. Btra* {iUm wtn <Ih> ual ewwmmUlly
en tha aoondoQ of ktnn and ^trfi. In Scatlind, wlun rtonM
wBntluiinnd,tb«>w*alladTuirtBtooM,lka: 1 -i.i— »_i
oTwhidi *n tlw lia lUl, faniri; at Soon* (n«w
&^^
__^ ItMlabtatad
> £L TtO, toianlj at SoaD»ln«w at Ttatminatar
lilfaa UngaotBortlaadaaad tabs cromwd. Vs
o tX Hua cc Hoar Stnaa, Oambai «r Caam Btmtm, Ct
' )auiam,"WttthatnM,'"IH^Aaiaam,"ke. Tba
^ or aaxnM iMDPNtt, at Bt HadMi, Partlnlunh n>
iaM<7 of tika daAat or Aa Danaa at Lastntj, and a
uon<^ithno*MandlaccallialsIdo( Floddaa ia aid to naft ths
plan «WaK!v Jang* ML Thaniamihlii »«i»gio«Lp»dhigathar
tfaeir ninsbar wan oltan ilgwHhant *»■ twaba tJ«aL It. B)'Dr
ama (Hnod., UL 8). 8ama ahnAng atonaa an Sinnd lo hara
basD aTtUelalbpMfcntad, and Ona amantltloB laa invaatad with
aoma anrioM AnatiMn. An anMlfia of tUa daa nay ba
nantiiMiai tka bmoaa Blana tt Odin, naar tha tM» or Btannia,
Uw Ctocb-Owna, or Slona •( T( . -- . . ~ . ..
bah in AisrlkUnk and " - - '
___jihnTaoBp-maikaaDdaiib*bnaDBeanMaoinlaa. Inlretan^
Valaa, and the Borti of Baotland, thtf ara ooaadMuU; fonnd with
' " ^ aad in Iha north-aaat of Seotlaad (Ptotlud)
Ij «ontlnud on tha
^Ai
F«n mbaaqnaill J «oi
f nriy Chiirttan di
Maaauaata bm '
Uaa thar an vat;
laeaadad, af'rtkih aboot Oa halt ndV Ihr aa~
an wlD^ tha ft** diVartnanla which oioatitata 1
laat atflnaea Ihay aiaj— ally mall aadnotttba oaBMiadin
granJam to Ihoa* of Mttanr. At LoemailaanBr (HorbUan) ta
Qw tanaat nHnhir in tha w«dd. It ta in tha Tarn tt a luda bit
ili^.
>d fa an BvUtUoeaoitrlN.
~ -' n^montn^llrintha
r lew tadatad axaaa]
portioDi, O* i^CVala laaclh «f nUdi BMOoata to M-eO nwtM
labotfWftat). Itwaan^ofgnnila, fantsntoaa nri^boor-
aBKHuttd to S^Ul kikgraBswa «r S4I tona {L'Btmmt, 1S8G,
f. inv Tha naxt laigMt mtahlr in at PlMdy (CStwdn-Sotd),
^ ahont IT faat In brf^t Than tDUowaaUatotdztT-
laanrdlmlnWJiigtoIill"-*-'-— -'-•'-•^■■^- —
toTgfft
_„ , • mt in hti^l^ oT which tha flnt
tan Ul abora M feat) an In Brittany. Aa npuda tana, Omt
~iBnhin Tnj ipaaOr* Boaa an mUodikal, la tho wdl-known
pian dn dinp Dalsnt" at Dol (bai^t M laat), and that oC
Chdion fa Rnlatka (U tMt) ; whila that of PannMnh (18 fnt)
takaa liw ibift of a paitlallT azpandad lim. On tha iotiMaollon
afCtnlBtlanitT Ints naaoa {■ adhannta appaar to hoT* mada naa
of thtaa maaUn at as aa^r'paibd ; aunr of than at pnaent
amatt a oBMai and aoma a Madonna. Tha aeattaad pnittna
ofnnOBMiKditliaaadlkanolaaa ringnlai croasiag of othan ahow
tW, altiwn^ tt^ wan ^r-***"" naad at landmaA^ Ihia kh
only a aaooJaiy hnetlon. It la not Bnimnmon to Sad a nuraoUth
eTCTtepplM a tamnln^ thna rfmnlatl^ tha BBirta(gnT« or battla)
Btooaa of flaandlnaTla. i- Bn!.!.™!, .-.i~.irti.. .— n*^ .— ~j.t^
wiAflM atoaaolnlaa.aathoUac'aBtiaaatatantanDnw, Look
Ibg at littia SaOild, tho Biic Stoao at Arabnty, kc Ona^
Hw llnaat Britbh nunulitha atanda In ttu dharchjaid <if Bndataa,
Torkdiin. Sxamptn of a laig* dn an met with In Alflvia,
Moocoo, India, Oantnl Aal^ ke.
AUgtmttOt.—'nit moat odabtatid moDiunaota of thii dan an
in tha ridnltr of Cknua in Btitfany. They an ntiurtad in noapa
at lUnec, Karaudo, lerlaacan^ Kdarai, and St Barbi— ^
rilUn abwrnllaa of taah ofiiar, and tn the oaatn of a diatrlct
oootalnfaK tha moat nuaifeaUa mwiilUo nnainain thavoriii.
Tb* Bnt ana* groa|a an anppoaaf braomo anhaologtota tn b*
aanly poalioD* of oaa origiiiaraad oontmaon* aeiba of aunmanti^
wlddi axtmded naariy S milaa. in langth in a nnilbnn dinctlon
bom •enth-wMt to u>th.<HL Oommandiig at tho vil^p of
lUna^ tha maohin an annngad in alenn n>«a. Ji Int they
Mand ban U to IS feat abora tbt BTonnd, but, aa wo adTanoa,
Ov baeoma gMdnaUy BBBnar tm £ay attain only > or i ftat.
•ban Oagr oaaaa altogaOiac Aftai a Taoant apaoa of abont SCO
yaria «* ooma to tha Eannaiio greap, which eontaina only ten
Ifa^ bat tbay an aaatly of tha mma maanitada ai at tha b«iii-
irtH nf Ilia (ii»u ^\jh]j Af^ a MUlpnte lateral tha nuDhin
MONtTMENTS 51
anln apnaar, bat tbb time fa thirloen row*, at Ow Tillafl* of
sl^aannt In 1B8I It Tdiz Oaillaid, Floohanol, mada a plan
af tha allcnmaafa at Iida*an, a^lch ahowi that, oot «f a total of
lino maahln wUdi oUataally oooatltntad the ponp^ UO an etiU
■«»n.lin. 740 fallen aad BO nmond. n* auubin ban nay ba
tnoad loi Marij a mU^ bat di^ Untai ananganant la not ao
diftiDOt, nor an the atonea *» large aa then at Camab Abont
tgtj aUnmanta an known fa Fnnc& At Paaaurah then la on*
oonta^ig mm two hnndrad manUn anangad fa fi>or nwi^
OQut% bnwaraT, an fntaed of only a afa^a nw of itaon, aa at
Kardonideo, Leqri, and Camant Tha Siat la 180 nt. la kagtb,
add tarminataa at Ita aantbera aitramity fa a kind of Moii
nmmja. At Lout thna ahort linia neat at right anglea. Ha
ubd b ritnatad on the lUnggronndbatwaan the town aChnerot
andthopofat of Toaltagnet Itoooaiatt^abaaa llu^aoni* eOO
yarda VMf^ with fbriy-ona atone* (othan ban appana^ been
ramoTodl, end two rerpendioiki llnaa aa ahort olbaN. (aoae to
it ei* a dohaen ana a proatnte mmhir. Thaao bkn JIha en all
of coanaqaattaand oTaoiall d*^ oalyona, at Lean, nadkfaga
helAtof > *-* "■ •- — -'— ' — -* '- — ^— ——'-£-
oni BonMHUMa r^auiaim. une ai reynnoe (uuianf rana u ■
atralgfat Una fnm north to eooth fbr naavly 100 yarda, and confafaa
nliia&-threaataB*B,*DnaorwUcfa*nof>nataLMt AtBtOolmBh
fa Oomwall, then <* one called tba Nbi* Kailnn, vhkh 1* foinwd
of al^t ^naiti atiMiaa, aiteodfag fa a parftotly atnl^t line for Ml
ttat. la Britafa they an non befnantljananoadfadoabbfili^
or fa aTennee, loading to at bom othir aupltlhta mwmmenla.
aoah aa atlll adi^ or fonaerty eileted, at (he drdee of ATibory,
atooabanae, Bbals OalkiniMi, to Tba only eumpla fa bigland
nble to the great allgnmanla of Cameo ia fa the T'- *"
t hnndrad, an gronpi
Qlar panllaloanm wl
lb and bom 160 to M
ef^thi
IragtbasditaaiiiOtoSOOyBrde fabrmdth. Bb Houy'D .,
deacribaa gnape ofaiimllar chaneta fa Calthnee^ aa at Ov7-
Wbis, Cematar, TariMOBB, and the "many alonea' at OlytL
AUgniMBta In afajtb and mnltl[de rowa hare alao bean cbamad la
I {m^KMi Ibtmed of mde n
— - JwUth^
piaoaa ai mnTraia of a frw yatda, haTa generally a dronlar or
oral ahape. Bectangnlar faima are, howoTer, not ouknown,
anmpla of wUoh may ba eaaa at CnroooDo (Horhtbanh near
the nletaated dolmen irf that name^ and at Balnt Jnat (Illa^t-
TUaioe). nw teanot nuaaorea 17 by S7 yaidi^ and la now eom-
need of tw<o»-twa tnaohin, all of which an itanJlng <aome
tallea oan ha^n( been -neantly natorad by the OofanmtotX
Abont a doaen manhln wmdd appear to be wanting. A dcokey-
iboa-diaped oaeloann haa been doeilbed Iw Bir Hemr Drydaa, In
th*puldiofIdthefDa,Clailhneea. tt ie 2U ftet long and 110 feet
wide fa flM middle, and the two eUnmiti** an iS bat apart.
Bton* eiroke an tnqnently emnged eMMaatrJcaDy, aa nay b*
aeon fa the dicla at Kanmon, near Aixiftldy, ForthdiiM, aa wall
aa fa many othar Scotoh, Iriab, and Hcaniliaatlan aiamplea.
Hon raiB^ on* laiga drele anmnnda aaeondary granpa, witluint
baring a oaauaon caitm aa waa the eaae at Arabnn, when the
ontar eirolah IWO Int in dlemetar, indodad two otSiera, each of
which contained en Innv oancaBttlo drele. At Boeeawta, fa
OomwaU, them ia a gnap gf diclaa conftaaadly attached, and, aa
It wai^ partially oteriapptng aech other. Cixelea nay alao ba
oonnected by an alignment or arena*, aa at Simian Dnw, Dart-
moor, &0. Cnmlache en often aaaoclelad with othar nagalithio
monnmenti I thna at the head of the en*t Oiinac elignmenta an
tba remaina of a lazve drele wbich can be readily trocied, notwlth-
atanding that aoma Dooaea are coiutmctad within ita area. In tha
BriUah laiaa and tha north of £aropa cromlocba fteqnontly
aononnd th* doluiena, tomali, or caima, A few eumplea of a
didnicn aUTOOnded tr one or man concantrio circlea haT* alao
bean reooided by IL ui-tiuU]a& fa th* department of Arajmu fa
Fnncai OntaldB the cronilech then ia alao frequently to ba
tonnd > drenlai ditch or Talinin, aa at Aiabary, Btonehmige,
Aibcr Low, Brogar, fcc The moot teauckaUe mu^tbio nxmn-
ment of thia due now extant ia Stanahange, which diil^ how-
srar, bom iCa oongenen In hariu tho ftonea of Ita aeoond Inner
drou partially hewn and attaunad by large tnnaTene Untala.
The laigeat enmlech fa Fnnce atanda on tha Ile-raz-llofaeB
(UolUhanh fa the Tfllago of Ea
itMttojtA Bj tha enonacbmant o
0 BriUah cromlacha eicead tl
li may be mantiotud Arabiiry (1300 by 1170
(onlw drde 800 (bet, inner 108 feet). Stantoa
. „ „, , „ , inner 108 feetj, Stantoi
Dmr (too fnt), Bn«*r (8<6 feat). Long Hw and her Danghtei-
(830 feet}. One near Dombiea, called th* Twclra ApoatlM, alao
62
EtJDE STONE MONUMENTS
•iccadiBg 100 f«at In 4I*mstgr, Thit inoit of the ■uullsr dielu
btra bean iMd ■■ npnklina bu Iwn itpotsdlj pnnd b; utiul
axotntloM, vhich (komd ttwt inlmiwDti liad takm pUo*
within Omz aiM. It ii dUDsolt, hannr, to ImIwt* tlut thli
einld hftT* bMa tb* miin olJNt of ths lugn ddo. At Uaj-
tnnq^ mar fnirith, Utat b ■ dnla mtlnlr oom^KiMd of u
ImiMnw^n^ttonorMiwIlitaDMia thafotmafi giffutio riog
odoting *B*t tiM, Kbont SOO ftet in ditraeto. Nmt tha onitre
tlsn ii ■ fin* skosDlith, out (tf wmal known to ban brmerly
•toad than. Of the ama tjpa ii tha Gluif a Ring near BelfMt,
ocly dw riw in thla lutuiDa b niida of tuth, and it ii coiuidBt-
•bir knwlD diuiDtar (G80 f«tj ; tin motnl otycct ia ■ fine
ddmnt. It ii mon prebabls tbit anch aoelonuea won oaad, like
rainr ol ant modarn ahnrehia, lor the double puipoaa of boryii^
tha daad *nd addnBlng tba llfingi
Aihwu;— In its atmptnt bxm ■ dolman eonaMa of thnc, fon^
01 Sn itoa* mffntt, corand artt with oao lalactad magilith
cillod ■ MpitoB* DT tabla. A wali-luiown aximpla ol tbU kind
In EnglindIiEit'iC3ottr Honie,batwo«nBocheiiteruidKiIdatona,
wUohbfotnwdaf tiuMluSonippwtL with > co[atone mtuorlng
11 bf 8 hat Item tbia rimpla Iwm than la u eodloH niiatf oT
npwwd gndidoni till wa nwh tlH ao-adlad Otint OntTM and
Orottn au Tin, which an aooitnictad of namanoi mppocto and
•innl aapitoiiM. A dolman (oIUi eeumrtt) dtnated in a pUnt-
Bt^ it mi onbUrti of dia town of Bwninr la oompoaad oT fiisr
Ikt iopForti OB «di rfdt^ with one at Ika and, and four euataDea.
na luffHt ouatona nnanna 7-9 inaton tn Ungth, 7 in bnadtb,
ind 1 w thliitTiwi lb* dumbar Ii 18 matica lon^ t 't broad,
and I high. AnoUuc naai Xni^ oalkd "la Booha anz Yim," U
eqoalltung, and b ooMlnutad of ddctr inppottii with slt^t
euatonn, bdi"-- '* "^-'- "' ' "■'- ""* —
batng Ol „ — „ ,
•a aUfaa aoanrtaa} and man; other (BamplM of Uu aimpla
ihow DO arldnusa of hiTing bin oonnd over with a nunmd.
' " — 1, In ilia larger onte, an antranoe
iidaatonaioinipportBandaipttoneB. BomanRhaoIogbta maintain
pMa Btfta of duiiidatiao. Tbt alUa* oasTartaa ol Pniuoe, Qti-
Mtbe other hand, Ou Hnnnebeddan U Holland had both endi
oorand dolmam are eitnmelT Tarialite in ihapo, — circnUr, oval,
qnidmigiilar, or irngnlir. The aotianoe gallarf majr be attached
to the end, ai in the Gntte da OaTr*!!]!^ or to the aide, aa In II
Oalnt'a Onra (Jattoatnfr) at Oem near Boakllde. In othi
initanoM then ii no diitinct ehamber, but a loDg paiaagi gndnall j
widgmug fram the autnnoe ; and thia maj ba bant at an angle, ai
in the dolmen dn Boohflr(UaibilunX A^un, there maj ba aannl
ehamben oammaQinting witU one entruoa, or two or throe
aepaiate ehamben hanng aepanto antranoaa, and all Imbaddad in
the eame tamnloa. An exoellnt axaml^ of thia kind (a the
partially deaturrad tomnlna of Boadaaso, near Plonhamal raUwa;
•tatian, wblch oontalni three aepante dolmena. That eoeh Taria-
gaognphiod lingi, ii riiowa bj IL de ifortiUat, who glna plan*
of no Mae than riztSBi diffanntly ihanad dohnana IMiuti frAU-
to^w, pL eS), all within a oonfiuod lOrtriot \a Hoibiban.
Ho dolnuoi anlat lo aaatam Enmpa beyimd Saxony. Thay
reappear, however. In the Orlmea and Otniwii, whence they have
bean Iraoed flmnudi Oanttal Aaia to India, when thay an widely
dletrtbnted. SinSer magaUlhio almeturee have alao been i«ag-
niiid and doNribad bjr tnTellen in Palaitina, Anbia, Pania,
Aoatnlla, the Penrhjn lalanda, Hadigaacar, Pen, ko. Tha
Irregnlir mannCT in which dolmena an dlMribnted along the
Weatem parto of luropa haa led to Aa tiieory that ell theee
m^aJlthio atroctana wen ereoted by a apadal posple, bat aa. to
the when, wbeDoe, and whither of tnl* afiignlar raoa than ia r -
knowledge whalsTer, Thongh tba European dolmena hare
atemg wntly liheneaa, howevBT wideJy apart, thaj preeent ice
eharaotarUtie dlOeieiicea In the vatiooa oonntiiaa in whlcfa they an
fonnd. In ScandlnaTla they an conlined to tha Diniah lands and
a few protincaa In tha aonth of Sweden. Hen the eipoeed dDhneni
an ofUtt on artifldal noobda, and anrrcnndod by caiHnlecha wbich
an either einnlai (nmUyiHr] or oral ifcngdjfitiT). In Bwede
thoa^utture * oobriiia very ranly entirely ooTered np aain tl
glint gravel of Denmark.
Hanorar, Oldenbnrb "d Uecklanbmg an varr r^^h in the
lamaina of thaaa monnmaota. At Kieatadt, near tTalien in HanoTer,
Hum I^ on tlie inmmit ol ■ tnmolna, a very alngolar dolmen ik
oUong form, whiih meaaurea about 10 het Ions and over ~
feet fii bieadllL Another at Ka«:heiidorf, naat Wiamar, oonaii
' 1 1>7 • Urg* etela of rtonee and
coratod ohimbo on its aumnijt. ncnufni of a magalitlii*
atraotnro at Bndenbeck, to Hacklenbm^ thoseh uow impgrfi^
ahow that orlglnilljit W-- ■ — '-'^ '"^ -"'-
„ aida, two at one end (the oUiar
IE the sntranoe), and two largo .eapatonea. The levgth
had been abont 30 ffet, bieadlh 7} toet, and hoiglit ttoot die
floor to tha nndet-snifaoe of roof iboot 3 foot According to
Booitetten, no leee than two bodied of thcee mouumeula an
found diitribntad over the Oina nroviuceaof lilneborg, Ooabrtt^
and Stode ; and the moat gigantu oiamiilca in Oonnnuj an in Uie
dnchy o( Oldepbora.
Id Holland^ wlU one or two aicoplioni, tliey an conGned to
the provinoe of Dnuthe, when between £f^ and aiity itlU eiiiL
Han they getthe name of IIuonebeddcn[Hiuu'b«di). Tba Don^
HunuAed, tha Urg«« of tbia gmop, ia 70 fat long and 11 /e<t
wida. In ill original condition It contained forty-five itonia, tan
of which wen eapetonea. Thay an all now donnded, but aanw
■how evidence of naving been larroundeJ with a pwnnd oontaining
an aatrane* paawge. Only one dolman baa boon reoorded la
Balglnnii batln ^iu>ca thdr Bomber amonnti to 8110. llMyan
iiragnlanjt diatribatad over aeTenly-eiglit deparlmenta, aii hnndred
and olghtean bdng in Brittany, tn the eentn of tha conntiy
thay an alao nnmerom, noiloea than four hundred and thlrty-Gro
being roeoided in Aveyron, bat they an of mnch amallor pnportiana
thu in Oa tarmat loeali^. From the Pynneea the dolmene an
ipinely treood aLmgtbe north coaat of Spain and throng Portu^
to t— i»i"-i- wben they oecnr In ooneiderabl* nomben. ttoniug
Into AfrieathqranfoondinlargegraupainHoiocco, Alsida, and
Tnnii. Oenanl laidherba writoe of having eiamlned ilvo or eix
thonaand at tha oametoiiea of Boa Uomog, Wady Bordi, TebaMi,
Oaltal, ko.' In the Channel Iilaodi avtiyapedn «f megalithlo
MonnmEnt la mat with. At U^t Oochon, near St Holier, then
wai lately diacovaied in a monnd of blown und an illla coovarte^
and doaa to It a atone cjnle anrrounding i dalmen.* In the
Britfab lalta fliay an met with in many loeflitiaa, pactjanlariy in
the wait of England, Angloeey, tha lale of Itan, Ireliiid, and dcot*
land. In tha conntr; Inat named, however, tb^ an not tba moit
atriUng ftati
andoi^adoa
■-^aaton
hnowlodn all tb«a megditbia
atmotaraa wan formarir nf|udid ai of Oiltia oriain. & aama
tkey wan ranioaed to nave been eomtmetad by the DnUi, the
ao^tUedpriiauof tbaOalta; and banco tbcrwata often daaaribad.
th nu geographical diatribution of theae nide ilane
Una lor example. In Europe, not to apeak of their
localiiation in um^Celtlo conntrieo, tha me^Iitba ooonpy an elon>
fited atretch of territory on ita waatam ae&boord extmding from
omaraDla to Sarth Alhca. Thla area cnaaea at right aa^ia tha
'to have been oocnpied ij tbe Oeltia or Aryan
. .notward wavea of mlgntion. Than can bo no
doubt from InvartigatioD* of tbe k-'—' — ' ■*-' "^-' "■■'-
from Inva
primary objaot w
wHb entiinoa pi--„
tbaoiy that any of tl
faiU avldanocui tba
anrfaoa of tbe atonaa compoKng (pb gobiiid«- aimya nmaa
tnwarda. Hoiaovar, cap mariu, and other primiUva nuiUna
whan found on the capatonaa or anpport^ an almoat inviriab^
on their inilde, aa, toraxam|d«,ittbeaoIineDaorKetiaval, Kateado,
Dol en Uanhant, Oavt'inia (Horiiiban), and the great tomnlna at
Hew Qrange (Ireland). Fnm ita poaltion in the centre of a larao
circular encioaon no doliDen could be mon anggeative of pubuo
■acn£«a than that within the Qlant'a Ring near BcUaat ; yet
nothing could be man inapproprialo lor audi a purpoee than ita
capstone, which ii Is fact a luva graclto bonlder preaentiog on
ita Dpper ^e an nnnanally tonndoi anrihcA
Ho chronological aeqnence can be datoctal in the evolntioa of
the mde atone mcnumenta, with perhape the exception of tba
jffimitive dat which gave origin to tbe all^ coovertaa, giant
gnvee, Ac, and theae again to the tmnoli with mlcroUthle built
chambsra. Huch Icia can their ippoannce in diffonnt conntrioa
be eaid to indicate conlemponnei^. Tbe dolmena of Africa an
often found to contain abjecte peculiar te the Iron Age. and it ia
eaid that in eome parts of India tba people an atlll in the habit of
erecting dolmena and other megalEthio monomentL Scandinavian
anhnologiila anign their dolmena oelnalvaly to the Stone Age^
It would therefon appaer aa if a enbeeqnent atoge of deeradatton
ooenrredi whoa a tamer ityla of Interment enraed, and tha Bnmia
Age banowi n^acad tba dobnoDi, and Ibeae again gave way to flia
Inn Age barla& — tha Bhip-barrowaand large tomnnof the viUnga,
u manifaatad in tbe three tnmaU of Tlur, Odin, and Fraya at
1 CrmpttRmdaiaCm^^r^l^iiail
E U D — E U D
ss
md tlw CMbbul nomd on Ilia Buid«flofdi 0"
it dinnrj ot tht Tlklng ibip.
^tmrnmea. *■* Bum Mmtmrnut CmfU <■* *i (tafnh
RUDOLPH I (1218-1291), Owmui kine^ eldMt aon of
Albert IV^ eooDt of Hapabur^ was btxn on the lot M&j
121S. Bj nurriBge and in other wajb ha grekUj ex-
tended Itia bereditaiy doinmi(Mi% lO that vhen he became
Uog he ma lord not only of Hapaboig bnt (rf the eonntiea
of Kjboig Mid Lenzbnig and of the hwd^nate of Alaace.
At diSoeot timee be earned on war with tbe bithop of
StiMbora the abbot of St Oall, and the dtf of BaieL
He ma engaged in bis aeeond atnggla with Basel in 1373
when Tn&nck, ba^iftre of Noremberg, bronght the fn-
t^'ligaooe that he had been elected to the Oerman crown.
Basal at once ntlHnitted, and Rndotph went to Aix-la-
Chapalle, where he was crowned on the 28th Oetobef 1379.
The piincaa had become so independatit dnritig the Qr«at
IntaR^;nam that the^ would have pteferred to have no
topmme ruler ; bnt Vim QitgarjX. had tbreataned that
if thej did not elect a king he wonld hiBieU i^^nt one.
The pope now oordiallj ■nt>por(ad Rudolph who ptoved
to ba much Du»a anetgatiB Uian the elecwn had antid-
paled. Having sacnred the taaulAip of tba' ftitffa.m
Looia uid Dnke Albert of Saxony t^ allowing them to
laazTj his dangfaten, ha advanoed against Ottocar, king
of Bohenua, and Henrjr, dnke of Bavaii^ both ot idioni
had tafosed to da him homage, Henry was soon won
over to the new king's aid^ and then Ottocar had to ane
for peaca. His request waa gtantad onljr on condition
that ha should cede Aoabia, StTiia, CWrinthia, and
Camiolk. Bj and hj Ottocar sgaln rebelled, and was
slain fai I27S in a battle fon^ on tha Harchfield.
Rudolph gave Bohemia and Honvia to Wencedans,
Ottocar'a son; bat Asstria, Stjria, and Oarmola he
granted to his own sons, Albut and RodolpL Chiinthia
was given to Ueinhatd, count of l^n^ w> agteed that
if h^" daaeandanta in the m^e line died ont the land thoold
pass to Bndolph's family. Bniiilph compiled Otho,
count of UffMr Bnignndy, and otbir noblei^ who tried
to make thamsalvaa indaputdent of die Qerman crown, to
acknowledga his siqireniacj ; and he teoovered certain fiefs
in what is now Bwitiorland, which had been suzed bj the
coont of Savor. Ha also restored peace In Bohemia and
^ve hia dangler in maiViage to the jionng kin^ Wencee-
lana He often viait«d troubled parta of (he kingdoin,
settling local diqmtes, and deatioying the towers of robber
barona. On the whole, his rule waa a beneflcent one,
but he did not succeed in re-eetablishiag the authori^ of
the crown, nor did he see how great an dement of stceogtb
ha mig^t have foond in an allunce with the cities. "Die
electOTS he was forced to confirm in the poaseeaion of
important right^ iriiich wore maintuned under his sac-
caaaora. His reign ia memofable chiefly because be was
the fomder ot &» gteatnesi of tha house of Eapsbarg.
In 1381 his flrat wife died, and in 1384 he married
QlsBb«th, daughter of Hngo IV., dnke ot Ba^fundy.
He died at Oerraenluam on the llttii Jnly 1291.
Sn Icimt, ilMtaAf OaaWaUt itna wtd U JoMl (ISOT] ;
Bnber, JhabT aer artwr Onmiflilpmr (in the AlmanaA dir
fawriUlM jMmlt, lan) i B^^iiJaffwm aaMmy (1874).
RUDOLPH n. <16S3-161SX 'B^tj Roman emperor,
wastheaooof thaet^erar UanmiliBn Q., and waa born
on the 18th Jn^ 1062. In 1572 he obtaoied tha acown
cf Hnnptry, in 1070 that ot Bohemia, with the title " King
ot the Romans '; and in 1076, after his taih.t^t death,
he became empcfOr. He waa of an indolent and melan-
choly Aspontun, and preferred the study of astrology
and »lchai7 t9 the tea^oiwiUiiliaa of government, Be
surrendered himself absoktely to the oonlnd of Uie JsmI^
under whose influence hs bad been Ivonght np at the
gloomy conrt of Spain ; and in bis hereditary landa Ouj
laboured aswdnooaly to destroy PtotsatantiBin. Hm
Frot^tants were deprived of tbe right of public wonh^
in Tienna and othnr towns; their achooU were doeed,
and many of thair preachers banished. Almost all pnUis
offices, too, were placed in the hands of Roman Catholiea.
In the lands w^ch Rudolph ruled, not by hereditary
righti but as emperor, his advisers conld exercise len
autbodty ; bnt than alao they did what they could to
foster the Catholic reaction. In 1607 Marinijlian, doke
of Bararia, was allowed to seiM the imperial dty Donan-
worth, the Protestant inhabitants of irtuch had quaneUed
with the abbot. This and other b'g'^'"^"-^*'^ proceedings
alarmed the FrotesUnts of Oennany, and in 1608, uUte
the leader^p of Frederick IT., Sector of the Palatinati^
they formed a confederation called the Union For the pro-
tection of their interests. Tbe Catholic prince^ guided
by Dnke Maximilian of Bavaria responded by forming
the League. Civil war seemed inevitable^ bnt it was
pcatponed by the murder ot Heoi^ IV. of Fiance^ who
had promised to support the Union, and by tha death of
tha elector Frederick IV. Heamriuk^ the gnateet con-
fusion pteyailed ia Hungary, due in part to leligiona
opptesaion,, in part to a war with the Turks. In 1604
the Hnngjuiana rebelled, and peace was not restored
until 1606, when M'**'''"i the raipeior'B brother, with
the sanction of his younger brothers, who acknowledged
him as head of the family, came to terms both with the
HuDgariuis and with the sultan. Uatthiaa allied him-
self with the Proteetanta, and compelled Rudolph to give
up to him Hungary, Moravia, and the greater part o(
Austria. The emperor then tried_ to atrengtheu his
position by granting to the noblesi knights, and towns of
B(dLemia pe^eet religious freedom, with the ri^t to build
Rvtestant chnrchee and schools on theif own and on Uie
royal lands. Even after they had obtained the letter ot
mqeaty in which these oC3ce«iona were embodied, the
Bohenuana did not trust Rudolph ; and, when at hia
request the archduke -Leopold appeared in their eonntiy
with an army, they invited MatthJaa to come to their ai<L
Matthias went, and the emperor had no altematiYe but to
resign to him in 1611 the remainder of his hereditary
territoriea. Rudolph died on the 20th January 1612.
Baa Kui^ OmMM* Otittmlela taUtr Suttr Budo^ (1821) ;
Oiilddy, iMi>{r'/./. uRiIniM^ta (IBSSvU).
RUDOI^TADT, capital of the Oerman principality of
Schwarxbuig-Rudolstadt, and chief residence of the prince,
is aitnated on the left bank of the Saale, 18 milea due
south of W^mar, in one of tbe moet beautiful districta
of Thnringia. llie pictureeque little town is a favonrits
saminer watering-place^ with pine baths, as well aa a fre-
quented t«nriBt resort. Besides containing the Qoven-
ment buiidings of the little principality, Bndolstadt is
fairly well provided with schools and other institntions,
including a library of 60,000 volumes. The rendenoa
of the prince is in the Heidecksburg, a pakce on an.
eminence 200 feet above the Baalo, reboilt after a fire in
1735, and containing Tariona show apartments. Tha
Lndwigsborg another palace within the town built in
I7iS, accommodates the natnral history collections be-
longing to the prince, Tlie principal church dates frmn
tbe end of the 15th century. In the Anger, a treeahaded
public park between the town and the river, is the theatae.
Variona memorials in and near tbe town cranmemorate tha
visits of Schiller to the neighbonrhood in 1787 and 1788.
Tbe ioduetries of the district include the manufacture of
porcelain and of dyeatnfis, wool-spinning, and beO-found-
ing. The population (4100 in 1817) wa* 8747 In ISdO.
64
R U E — R U F
Th* nuu otBndoUUdt ocean ln>B iDTralorr of the poHcauDni
irf th* Mbtj ol Henhltl in tba jur SDO. Aftir puiinK
thnmgh tiw pomnion of tbe GnnoaD emperor ud oT the ralen of
OrUmUnila uul Weimtr, it otng Into tba buili of tba duke* of
BolinnbiirgmlSBS. ICitoini rigbCaweTa coiilirTu«l in IIOI ; aad
rinoa IG9B it bu been the naulence dT the rnlLug bouio.
RUED A, Lon Di. See Dbaka, voL vii. p. 420.
RUFF, K bird bo called from tlia very bcantifal and
remarkable frill of elongated teathen that, just before the
breeding-MaaoD, grow thickly roand the ueck of the male,
who is coDuderably larger than the feomle, known as the
Beere. In many respects this species, the Tringa
puffnax of Liaoteas and the Mnchrtei pwpiax of the
mojoritj of modem omithologiata, is one of the most
ungtilor ia oxiateace, and jet its singularities have been
Terj ill appreciated by zoological writers in general'
Theaa iiDgalaritieg would require almost a volame to
daaeribe properly. The beat acooQnt of them ia nnques-
tionably that given In 1813 by Montagn (Suppl, Om,
Vietionary), who wema to Have been particolorly struck by
the extraordinary pecaliaritiea of the species, and, to
investigate them, expreealy visited the feiu of Linooloshire,
possibly excited thereto by the example of Pennant whose
mformation, personally collected there in 1769, was of a
kind to provoke further inquiry, while Daniel {Sural
Sports, iii. p. 23J) bad added some otlier partdcolars, and
subeeqnently Otaves in 1816 repeated in the same district
the experience of hia predecessors. Since that time the
great diansea produced by the drainage of the feu-coantry
have baniihed this species from nearly the whole of it, so
that Lubbock {OU Fauna of Norfidk, pp. 68^73) and Mr
Stevenson {BirrU <if Norfolk, ii. pp. 261 — 271} can alone
be cited as modem witnesses of its habits in England,
> HrDarwlD, though tr*qnaitlfoitlii«(I>uc«iJitCJrin«i^£bzwU
atUetion, L pp. 370, 800 ; IL pp. 4t, *2, 48, 81, 84, 100, 111] the
Ruff u ■ witDen in Tuiona oapacitlo, moat natotUiMtlj aaama
MTU- to hsT* had iti pecnilaritlaa prtMntad to Idm in taeb ■ form
that he oould fully p«r«liB their bauliiga. HoTerer, the ^tntlflcsDoe
at tba leacDn that the Bn9 ma; taaah wai ha:^^ wncelTable befon
b« begun to write ; hot the t«t la not Iha laai to be tegretted that
bo nsfor aloddated Ita Irapertsnn, not oaJj in regard to " Bexsal
SalectloB," but more eipaidiliy trith respect to ''PoljrBiorphliin. "
He appeua not to hiTa coninltad HontAga'a original acconnt at tbia
bird, usd aaam* to have known it only by tha eicarpt ^ran by
MscsilliTTaj, In vbloh were not includBd the Important pawgta on
the eitiesie fUnenily of plaoiage exhibited by tha malu^that author
poaring onr tUs wondarfol pecDlluit; In ■ pois^traph of leu thsu ■
NondllMi.
while the trade of net^og or nuiring Rnfla, and fdttotuag
them for the table has for many years practically ceased.
The cock-bird, when out of his nuptial attire, or, to vae
the fenmaa'a expression, when he has not " his show on,'
and the hen at all reasons, offer no very remarkable
deviation from ordinary Sandpipers, and outwardly' there
is nothing, except the uoequal size of the two sexes, to
rouse suspicion of any abnormal peculiarity. But when
spring comes all is changed. In a surprisingly short iime
the feathers clothing the face of the male are shed, and
their place is taken bj papilla or small caninclce of bright
yellow ot pale pink. From each side of his head sprouts
a tuft of Htifi curled featbersj giving the appearance of
long ears, while the feathen of the throat change culonr,
and beneath and around it sprouts the frill or ruS already
mentioned as giving tha bird hia name. The feathers
which form this remarkable adornment, qnite nniqtie
among birds, are, like those of the " eor-tufla," stifi and
incntved at the end, but mach longer — measuring more
than two inches. Tboy are .closely arrayed, cajiable of
depression or elevation, and form a shield to the front of
the bteast impenetrable by the bill of a rival* More
extraordinary than this, from one point of view, is the
great variety of coloration that obtains in these temporary
outgrowths. It has often been said that* no one ever Ea«
two Buffs alike. That is perhaps on over-statement ; but,
considering the really few colours that .the birds exhibit,
the variation is something marvelloua, so that fifty
examples or more may be compared without finding a
very close resemblance between any two of them, while
the individual variation is increased by tiie "ear-tufts,"
which genetally differ in colour from die frill, and thus
produce a combination of diversity. The colouia rengi.'
from deep black to pure white, passing through chestnut
or bay, and many tints of brown or ashy-grey, wliilo
often the feathers are more or lees closely barrod wiUi somo
darker shade, and the black is very frequently glossed with
violet, bine, or green — or, in addition, spangled ititb white,
grey, or gold-colour. The white, on the other hand, b not
rarely freckled, streaked, or barred with grey, rufous-
brown, or black. In some examples the barring is most
regularly concentric, in othera more or le^s broken-up or
undulating, and the latter may be said of the streaks. It
was aseerUined by Montagn, and has since been confirmed
by the still wider experience and if possible more carefully
conducted observation of Mr Bartlett, that every Buff in
each successive year assumes tufts and frill exactly the same
in colonr and markings as those he wore in the preceding
season ; and thos, polymorphic aa is the mala aa a species,
aa an individual he is unchangeable in his wedding-garment
— a lesson that might possibly be applied to many other
birds. The white frill ia said to be the rarest,
That all this wonderful " show " is the consequence of
the polygamous habit of the Huff con scarcely be doubted.
No other species of Limicoliue bird bos, so far ss is known,
any tendency to it Indeed, in many species of Limicola,
as the Sottwel, the Godwits (vol z. p. 720), Fhalaropos,
and perhaps some others the female is larger and more
brightly coloured than the male, who in such cases seems
to take upon himself, some at least of the domestic duties.
Both MoQiagu and Graves, to say nothing of other writers,
state that the Ruffs, in England, were far more numerous
than the Beeves; and their testimony can hardlybedoubtod;
though in Germany JJanmann ( Ft^. ZfeafscAtuwJs, vii. p.
* TnteoMj there la a great difference in tbo lona of the poatcriot
margin of tha atsmniD, aa long ago raonrted by Mltiach.
■ This "mS" haa bean compond to that of SUBbtthsn or
Jacobaui caatome, bnt it la easantlallf dlfferant, ainca that *M open
Id front and widest ssd moat projecting behind, vheres* the liJnl's
J u_. jpj^mi (, ja5,( developed la fttmt sad »t ""' "'" ""
O"
K TI F — B U G
Sk) taoadat Ott tbk k onlf Oa caae in tha Mrlier
part of the HMon, tad tluU later the femalea gcwtlj oat-
muntm the m^ea. It renuint to m; that the moral
chantcteifatici of the Bull oxoeed erea aftjthmg thai
migltt bo Infored from what baa be«L already stated.
^ no ona hare thef been mrav happily doKribed Ihanb;
Wolk;, in a cofflinniuattiaD to Hewitaon (Bag* ' " '
.S^^ M ed., p. 3U), aa tollon :-
" The BadT, lik* oOk Am soil'
■ ^Baawiaihi
f Bril.
ikdattaaikhnriiwid. WUlatU
lyBittiw'j
„ id ipuriu «ith Gu aompulniL £db»th«*i
fined to thdr unfit It ii wmdoM wl4 wlut dnc^ien Iha
Uaaitm an attandsd (7 tiMr ffj i^Hmmt, *bo mod to b> wi
ttjiag to ba Bon attmUra thas tba Mt HoObv can bi mora
expnaaraofhnmnitr and inllBtlen than Mo* ollia aetkiM of
tbaSafl: H«thra«ihiinaaIfpnati«Uaatli«gKnmd.wifli mrj
trnOm «o Ui bodv itetdiag np asd mlnrtog ; but ha trmiia u
ifhn -mm afrril if nmnfi^ liin wat lili mliiiwa. lfihafli«4l(
ba (taita qi in an iaatant t» atrira b«lim br it tba nut plao* of
allghtinft aiid all bii aotiDna ai* foil of UI* and jpiiit. Bnt non*
of Ualftittiaa^endadlnaacalbrhlabmllT. Ha naro' eomta te
aM aftar aa anoij. In fli* [Lapknd] maaW a Ratra notr aod
tlwfliaanaarwitbBieatAlrandIbIat»i»4«t: batihainma a
doll birdi and makaa no jKdtj attack on an invadar."
Want of ^ace fotblda a tnller aoeonntof ttiia extremely
iDterasting mcaee, Ita Iveeding-granoda extend from
Ore&t Bmain* aeron northam Barope and Aaia ; bnt th«
birds beocana leoa nnmerooa towuds the eact. They
wintec in India, reaching ereo Caybn, and Africa as Ux
aa Iha Oape of QoM Hope, lie Bi^ alao gccaaionaUy
vinta leeUiid, and there are aqveral well-anthantiatted
leeocda of ita oecnrrence cm the aaateni «MBt of the
TTmtsd States irhile an example ia stated {Hit, 187C, p.
333) to bare boen nceiTed from the northern part of
SonUi Anwrica. (a. it.)
■ BUFIHUet Vnaamm (TraxiinnB, Tobarot), the
mil-known eontemparair of Jerome, ma born at or near
Aqoileia aboat tha year US. In early life he atadie4
ibetorie, and while atiH eooiparmtively yoang he entered
tfco ekniter ai a cateAnman, reeeinng baptism about 370,
Abont Aa same tim« a casiial viut of Jeronw to Aqoileia
led to tba fonnation of a rioe« a«d intiutate fiiendahip
betaraan the two itadentB, and aboftly after Jerome't
dcfiartai* for the Bait BnBinfa alao waa drawn thiUiw (in
373 or 373) by Ua interest in its theology »nd monastidmt,
He fint aattlad in Egypt, hearing the leetavas of Didymna,
the OiigeniitiB taaehar at Alanmdri^ and also eoltiTating
friendly niatioiia widi Maearina and otbw aaaettca in the
deaert. In Egypt, if not aren before leani^ Ifa^y, he had
boaooM intlnatdy aoqnainted with tMuia, a mtlthy and
dwront Bonntn matKai, iriio linoa tlw death of itarhoabaad
had devoted all her maaaa to reUgiooi m4 charitable
wtxka ; and ^ten ibe removed to I>lesdMy taking with
her a nnmber U olcrgy and ncoika on tritom the penecn-
tiana of Talena had bone heavily, Bnfinm nltimately
(aboDt 376) toUowvd har. WUb hia patrooaaa lived in a
MBvent cC her own in JemaalaHi, Bnfinn^ ia dose co-
operation with her and at her ai^enaes gathered togetht
ihip fonned at Aqoileia Wa
renvwed. Another of the intimates of Bolnus was Jdin,
biabc^ of Jarwalem, and formerly a Nitrian numk, by
whom he was cvdained to thfrptieathood in 390. In 391,
in Mmaeqnaaoe (tf die attack npon the docbmuB of Origea
niada by Bpiphanina of- P''fi'"'i duiDg a viat to
Jeniaalem, a fierce qoanol broke oat, which foond Rnfinni
and Jerome raaged on different sidaB ; and, thongh three
■b»;dand(ifIat*T*Bi It la* bean known ta tcMd otdr In <nt
toaS^, fit BMW or iltHttfn «( vUoh It It not datfnUa to paUIth.
yean afterwaidi a formal teooneiliBtioa was brot^Jit aboat
between Jeronie and John through the interrentkia of
third pattiea, ibt breach between Jerome and Bo&nw re-
in the antonm of 897 Bofinoi embarked for Bonu^
where, finding that UiethedogicalcontroTeTaiea of the East
were exciting mnch interest and cnriomty, he pnbliabed a
lAtin tmnalatioQ of the ApcKogv of Fampltiliu for Origen,
and alao (398-399) a aomewhat free rendering of the
npl ifmvir of that eaibot himself. In the preface to the
latter work ha had referred to liaotae aa an admirer irf
Origan, and SB having already translated some of bia wo^ ;
thia alloaoD proved very annoying to the snliject of it,
who wu now BzceedtDgly senaitive aa to hia repntntion
for wthodoxy, and the conaeqnence wna a bitter pamphlet
war, very wonderfnl to the modem onlooker, who finds it
di^mlt to see anything diaereditable in the acooaatioa
agMoat a Biblical aoholar that he had once thongjtt well of
Origen, «r in the eonntenharge agunit a translator that
be aad avowedly «x«i«i8ed editorial fDnoUoni aa welL
Borne tins during Um pontificate of Anaataaioa (3^8-403)
ttaflnnt waa mmmoned from Aqoileia to B«ne to vindicate
hia orthodoi^, bnt be ezeoaed himaelf . from personal
attendaaoe ina written Apologia pivfldi ma ; the pope in
hia reply expreaily condemned Origen, but leniently left
the qneation of Bnfinna'i crthodo^ to hia own conaeience.
In 108 we find Bufinoi at the nonaateiy of Pinetnm (in
the Ounptwnaf); thence he waa driven by the arrival of
Alaric to Bicify, being accMnpaaiad by Melania in his
ftigbt In BicUy he wai e -" '" * *-=— "-
SoBuliu pf Origo) when he di
'na oiigfnal voAi of Bolhnu
LUrmm ifiignii anappanJui to hi
of Pamphilni, and lataDdMt to ahnr that many of tha (aabuM In
Origm'i teaohiDB wUoh wara tbu bald to b» oI^MttouiUe arin
from IntupoUtloDa and AtUAcaUont of tba sannisa tait ;■ (2)
Dt BtntditHimibiu XIT Fatiarcltantni ZOH &— an azpodtion
ofOoi. iliz.; IS) Jpohrlat-lnmaitarum tnBiirenvmiimLibH
U; (1) Apolnaia pt9 rUt Bna ad AnialiuOm Ftnlifieni s (6)
fiWarfa AvWMea-oonatatiiu- of Aa Uvea of thiity-thtea Bunka
of the Nitrian dtant: (^ J^oaM) fi^mfaa. 'Oa -BilariM
AcIiriHfiw £Ar< XZ of Boflaat oi^drt partly of a baa traaaU tian
ol Inwbint (10 booka In •) and partly of a oontiiiiation (bka
z. and li) down to the thna of niaodocllla th* QimX. Ttn Mhcr
tmnalaUoM of Bofnaa an— (1) Am AMMto X«inKiarwa and aome
of tba .aoniUM <ff Baail ; (I) tha .^l»fa» of FniphiJaiL idtorad to
abovo i (■) Orign't A<mM> ( W (Mnn'i A>«Wa (6n.-Kiugi,
alw Ca^ and Bom.) j {i)OpiuBala UfJnprjel KadaniaT^}
o( Slxtoa, as nnknowa Gnak shUotophoi ; (7) ih»
Jvagnna; (S) th* CttaunMM StngMinu (Om mHj
form in whloh that work it now aKaot] i (t))ti» Oanem^atAalU
amiittm of BvtpiDt; (I
AwMm, ioa ilit n« iruual Egi3*3 (h
BUGBT, a market^town of Warwickahfa^ is finely
dtnated on a table-land riaing from the aoothem bank of
the Avon, at the junction ctf eeveral railway lines, and
near the Grand Jnnctbn Oraal, SO milee E.S,E. of
Birmin^iam, and 30 S.S.W. of Leiceater. It ia a well-
built town, with a large utunber of modern honaea a«ct»d
for private reaidencea. It occupiea a gravel rit^ is well
drained, and has a good anpply of water. It ow«a its
importance to the gtammv a^bool, bnilt and endowed \yf
Lanrenoe Bbcrii^ a mecehaat grooet and lervaat to Qneea
Eluabeth, and a native of tte nei^bonring village of
Brownsover. He endowmuit oondrted (rf the parsonage <A
Brownaover, Sheriffs mansion bonae in Bugfay, and one-
third (8 acrea) of hit estate in Hiddleaax, near the Fonnd-
bng Hoepitat, London, which, being let on building leaae^
gradnally increased to about ^£6000 a year. The foU
andowment waa obtuned in 1663. Ihe achool originally
Btood opDoaitn the parub church, and waa remowd to its
66
U U G — 11 U G
preaent uto od the sontli ude of the town between 1T40
and 1750. In 1809 it was rebnilt from designs hj Boke-
will; the chapel, dedicated to St Lawrence, was added in
1820. At the tercentGoar; of the school in 1E67 Bubecrip-
tiotis were set on foot for founding Bcholanhipe, bnilding
additional schoolrooma, rebuildiog or enlarging the ch&i«],
and other otijectB. The chapel was rebuilt and recoo-
BBcrated in 1872. A awimming bath was erected in 1876;
the Temple obserratorj, containing a fine equatorial refrac-
tor bjr AlTon Clark, was bailt in 1877, and the Temple lead-
ing room with tlie art masenm in 187S. The workshops
anderneath the gTmnosinm were opened in 1880, and a new
big school and class rooms were erected in 1886. Tliere
ftre three msjor and four minor eiliibitions for students to
•Of nnirersity in the United Kingdom. From about 70
in 1777 the nnmben attending the school have increased
to over 400. A great impulse was given to the progrees
of the school daring the headmastership of Dr Arnold,
1837-1843. The beat known of Araold'e sneceesors are
Toit, t^terwards archbishop of Canterbury, and Temple,
the present bishop of London. The parish church of
8t Andrew's is, with the exception of the tower and the
north ar«ade in the nave, entirelj modern, having been
boilt from designs by Hr Butterfiold at a cost of £22,000,
and reconsecrated in 1879. The danghter chnrch of the
Uolj Trinitj, a handsome bnilding by Sir Gilbert Scott,
in close proximity to Bt Andrew's, was erected in 1853.
Bt Marie's Catholic Church is in the Early English
style. A town-hall was erected in 1858, at a cost of
£7000. There are a number of charitiee, including
Laurence Sheriff's almshouses (founded 1667), Elborow's
almshouses (1707),HissBatlin'ealmBhonses(1851),and the
hospital of St Cross, opened in 1884, at a cost of £20,000.
A pablio recreatioD ground was provided by the local
govemment board in 1677. The town hoe an import-
ant cattle market. The population of the urban sanitary
district (area 1617 acres) in 1871 was 838S, and in ISSl
it was 9891.
Hiigby vu origioolly s luunlet of t]w m^joining paiiBh of Glifton-
oe.Danimara, ind ii lepintelj tmted of u lUilh in DomMdsj
Book. Ernaldas do Bobo (Eroslil do BoiiJ, lord of tlio muiDT of
Clifton, SMina to bavt orectad th> lint dupel is Engbr, In thi
niigu of Steiiben, sbont 1140. It was sltorwsrds gnutsd by him,
wiUi urtsin luuli, to aDilow thg sbboy of St Ktiy, Lsimilw,
which gnnt wsi eouRrmed by liis aaccnsors ind fay n^sl chsrt«r
ot neiiry II. la the sscond par of King John (ISOO) s loit took
plnco botWEon Ht&ry d* Bokaby, lord of the manor ot Rngby, and
Paul, abbot of St lUrj, IjacetUr, whiei rem!tod in the fonnar
obtaining jtoaaeaflion of tfae ad^owaon of Kngby, on oonditiDn of
iMmags and aerrica to tlia abbot of Leicater. By Tirtne of thil
a^rmmeDt tb« cfaapel was conrartad into a piriih chnrcli, and tba
Vicua^ into • twtory. In 13II0 Rstph, Lord Staflbrd, twoimg
insaMad of tha manor and advoveon of Bapby, and connderablj
anlugvd tha pariah ahunh. 8ubaeqnflnt altorationa, notably in
laii and 1831, laft little of thia itructuni renuining eicapt tha
tower sod north arcade in the nsve. The advonaua of Bogby it
DOW HiB property oT tha tarl of Criran ; and tha late roclor waa
widely known and honoorad aa "tlie poet paator," John Uonltrie.
BTJOE, AxHOLD (1803-1880), Oerman philoeophical
and political writer, was born at Bergen, in the island of
RUgeo, on the 13th September 1803. He studied at
Halls, Jena, and Hudelberg, and became an enllineiastic
adherent of the party which sought to create a free and
naited Oermany. For his Eeal in this caose ha had to
spend five yean in the fortress of Eolberg, where he
devoted himself to the study of classical writer^ especially
Plato and the Greek poets. On hie release in 1830, be
pablisbod Schill wtd die SeUun, a tragedy, and a transla-
tion ot (Sdipvt in Colonut. Huge settled io Halle, where
in 1838, in association with his friend Echtemayer, be
founded the SallaeAe JoArbiicAtr fitr denltt^ Kvnd vnd
Wiueiuehqft . In this periodical, which soon took a very
high place, he discussed all the greet questions whii^
were then agitating the beet minds in Europe, dealing
with them from the pmnt of view of the H^Uan pliii»>
eophy, interpreted in the meet liberal sense; The i/oAr-
hdditr was deteeted by the orthodox party in Prussia : bn^
as it was published in Leipsic, the editors fancied that it
was beyond the reach of the Prussian Government. In
1840, however, soon after the accession of King Frederick
William IV., rfiey were ordered, on acconnt of the name
of the periodical, to have it printed in Halle, subject to tho
eeosonhip there. Thereupon Ruge went to Dresden, and
the JahrhHehtr (with whieh Echtermsyer was no longer
connected) continued to appear in Leipsic, but with the
title DeuUcht Jalirbildiia; and without the names of the
editors. It now became more liberal than ever, and in
1843 was rappreesed bythe Bazon Government/ In Porta
Huge tried to act with Earl Harx as co-editor of the
De»t»(ArFnaubniAe JairbOchm; but the two friends mod
parted, Bugs having little sympathy with Marx's socialist
theoriee. Bnge next associated himself with a publishing
firm in ZMch, and when it was put down he attempted
to establish a firm of his own in Leipsic^ but his echeme
was thwarted by the Baion Government. In the revolu-
tionary movement of 1848 Rnge played a prominent port.
He ot;ganixed the Extreme Left in the IVankfort parlia-
ment and for some lime he lived in Berlin as the editor
of the Be/omt, in which he advocated the opinions of tho
Left in the Prussian National Assembly. The career of
the Btfont bung cut short by the Prussian Qovemment,
Rage soon afterwards visited Paris, hoping to establish,
through his friend Ledru-Rollin, some relations between
German and French republicans; but in 1849 both
Ijedm-RoUin and Rage had to take refuge in London.
Here, in company with Mauini and other advaneed poli-
tician^ they formed a " European Democratic Committee."
From this committee Ruge soon withdrew, and in 18G0
he went to Brighton, where he supported himself by
working both as a teadier in schools and as a writer.
He took a paesijuate interest in the events of 1866
and 1870, and as a publicist vigorously snpported the
cause of Frassia against Aostria, and that (rf Germany
against France. In his last yeate he received from the
Oerman Government a pension of 3000 mai^ He died
on the 31st December 1880.
Sngs was s msa of gmeiona sympetbtas aad an able writer, but
he did not prodnce sny work ot ondoring importanija. Id ISIS-IS
his OtmmmtlU Seluvteit were publiihad in tan vDlnnca. Attar this
tima ho wrota, anxong other boolu, Unttr SytUtn, Stailulioiu-
nmelltn, Dit Lojt da ffutnanbmHi, and Avt /rChtrv Zeii [hia
memoirs). Ha also wrote many poema, and t«V«rsI dnmaa and
rarnancea, and trauslstad into Garman variona Engtiah woAi, in-
cluding Ui» Lttttrt qf /wUiu and BdcUs's SiiIoiti itf Cinjuoluii.
rUGEN, the largest island bebnging to Germany, is
■itaated in the Baltic Sea, immediately opposite the town
of Strolsiind, 1} miles off the sorth-weat coast of
Fomerania in Prussia, from which it is separated by the
narrow Sbelsosund. Its shape is exceedingly iiregular,
and its coast-line is broken by very numerous bays and
peninsulas, sometimes ot considerable siie. The geoeial
name is applied by the natives only to the roughly trian-
gular main trunk A the island, while the larger peninsalas,
the landward extremities of which taper to very narrow
necks of land, ate considered to be as distinct from RQ^n
as the various adjacent smaller islands which are olno
statistically included under tho name. The chief penin-
sulas are those of Jasmtind and Wittow on the north, and
Munchgut, at one time the property of the monastery of
Eldena, on the south-east ; and the chief neighbonring
islands are Unmans and Hiddensoe, both off 'Cda nMth-
west coast The greatest length of BGgen from north to
south is 32 miles ; its greatest breadth is 36) miles ; and
its area is 377 square miles. Tha surface gTodnally riiics
towards the WMt to Bugard (335 feet), the "eye of
R U H — R IT H
«7
TIMgia,' ueai BeTftaa, bnt the liighert point u tbe Eertlut-
buTg (505 fset) in JaNnand. ICrratic blocks are icattered
thrMighoiit tho inland, and tho ro«dB are made with
granite, tboQgli nmcli of Itugcn is flat and sundy, tbe
fine beech-wooda vEikti cover great part of it aiul tbe
nofthmii coast scenery combine with tho canvenient m
bathing offered by the Tariooe villagee ronnd the coast
attract large nombera of- Tiaitora anmuJIy. The moBt
beautiful and attractive part of tbe island ia the peninsula
of JaamiLnd, which termuiatei to tbe north in the Stuben-
kammer [from two Slarooic words meaning " rock itepB*^, a
shew ch^ cliS by the MCk, the aiumait of which, known
as the Koni^etnU, is 420 feet ^boTs lea-leTeL The east
of Jaamnnd ii clothed with an extensive beech- wood called
the Btnbbenit^ In which lies the Burg or Hertha lake.
OcKiDected with Jasmnnd only b; the narrow iatbmiu of
Bcbabe to the west is the peniosnla of Wittow, the moet
fertile part of tlu island. At its north-west eztr«mtty
lisQB the faeij^t of Arcona, with a lighthouse.
The offictot capital of the isUnd is Bergea (3663
iiihalHtaats), connected since 1883 with Stnlannd ^ a
railway and ferry. The other chief plaoee are Qart
(2014), Bagant (1447), Oingst (1385), and Potboi
(17BS). The last ia tke old capital of a barony of tbe
princes of Futboa. Sassniti, Oohren, and Futbos are
among the favourite bathing resorts. Schoritz was the
birthplace of the patriot and poet, Aradt (1769-1860).
Ecclesiastically, BUgen is divided into S7 parishea, in wbico
the pastoral auccoasion ia aaid to be almost hereditary.
Tbe inhabitants are distinguished from those of the main-
land by pecnliaritieii of dialect, coetum^ and habits ; and
ef on the various peninsulas differ from each other in these
[■articulais. The peninanla of Honch^t has best pieservod
iXf, peculiarities ; but there too priinittve simplicity ia yield-
ing to the influence of the annual stream of summer
visitors. The inhabitants rear some cattle^ and Btigen has
long been famous for its gsese ; but the only really con-
siderable industry ia fishing, — the herring-fishery being
especially important. BUgen, vrith the nei^bouring
ifllandB, forms a governmental departmeal^ with a popula-
tion (1680) of 46,116.
The origiiul Oamuiiio InLsbitanta of Biigm waradkpoMMed by
Sl4va ; and than tn btUI rsriona nlici of the long reign of pag&nliin
that cnined. Id ths Btnbbanits and (Wwhen Huoa' or gianCi'
fTani (iK p. 5a, tigmij an common ; awl max the Hgrtha Liks
bru tb» raini of iq uicintt ailiiln which aoa>o have loiiAht (though
psrham Mioneoaijy) to Identifj with tha shriiit or tho liothBa
Unity Uettha or Kerthu, rafrared ta by Tacitm. On Arconi in
WiEtor an tlia ramalna of an ancient fortma, anclnine a templa
of tbo (mV'bnulodjEiKl Svwitsrit, which wu daatroyedin 11181^
tliD Daoidi king Waldamar I., whu h« macla himialf niaatsr of
tlia taUad. From that data Botil 133G Bi>Kau waa mlad by a sdd-
cQsian of mtiva {iriocss, at fint under Daniih supremscy ; and,
arioT iwing for a ceator; and a half tbe poeseasiDn of a branch of
tho relini lamilj iu FomBtanii, it *m ftnallj united with that
iiTOTiiK* In H78, wid pasaed with It into the ponnrioD of Ewedan
Id 1S18. With liw rst of Woatcni Fomanoia Rtigen haa bdongnl
toi'ma>ia«[ncolaifi.
BUHNEfiN, Datid (1723-1798), one of the most
illnsbriona achoUrs of the Netherlanda, was of Oerman
origin, having been bom in Pomerania in 1723. His
lorenta had him educated for the church, but after a
tenidence of two years at the univeraity of Wittenberg, he
det«^rminpd to live tbe life of a schoW, His biographer
(Wyttcnbach) somewhat quaintly exhorts all studious
youths who feel the iimer call sa Ruhnken did to show
the same boMneaa in crossing the wiahea of their jiarente.
At Witlaoberg, Bohnken lived in dose intimacy with the
two moat distinguished prof^Jsaors, Bitter and Barger, who
finid his giaaaina for thioga andent. and guided his studies.
To thou he owed a thormgfa groanding in ancient history
aud Boman antiqaitiee and literature ; and from them he
komed what diitint^iiiahod him among tbe ecbolara of hie
time, a pore and at the same time a vivid Latu atylck
At Wittenberg, too, Bnhnken derived valuable mental
training from study iu matbematios and Roman law.
Probably nothing would have severed him from bis snr-
roundings there but a debire whicfa daily grew upon him
to explore tho inmost raceBaes of Greek literature. Neither
at Wittenberg nor at any other Oerman university was
Greek in that ago seriously studied. It was taught in the
main to students in divinity for tfae sake of the Greek
Testament and the early fathers of tbe church, — taught as a
neoeeaaiy qipendage to Hebrew and Syriac, and generally
by tbe same profeaBors. F. A. Wolf is the real creator of
Greek schoUnhIp in modern Germany, and Poreon's gibe
that "the Germans in Greek are aadly to seek" was
barbed with truth. It is aignilicant of the state of
Eellenio studiea in Germany in 1743 that their leading
exponents were Geener and £mestL Buhuken was well
advised by his friends at Wittenberg to seek tfae university
of Leydeo, where^ stimulated by the iufluence of Bontley,
the great scholar Tiberina Hemsterhnis had founded the
only real school of Greek Icamiog which hod aziited on
the Oontiuent since tlie days of Joseph Scaliger and Isaac
Casaubon.
Perhape no two men of letters ever lived in closer
friendship than Hemsterhuia and Ruhnken dorlng tha
twenty-three years which passed from Enhnken'a arrival
in the Netherlaoda in 1743 to the death of Hematerhuia
in 1766. A few years made it clear that Buhnken and
Valckenaer were the two pupils of the great master on
whom his inheritance must devolve. As bia reputation
spread, many efforts were mode to attract Buhnken back
to Germany, but the air of freedom which he drew in th«
Netherlands was ' more to bim than all the flesh-pola his
native land could offer. Indeed, after settling in Leyden,
he only left the counti; once, when he spent a year in
Rtns, ransacking the public libraries (1766). For work
achieved, this year of Buhnken may compare even with
the famous year which Ritschl spent in Italy. In 1767
Buhnken was appointed lecturer in Gree^ to aasist
HemsteAuis, and m 1761 he succeeded Oudendorp, with
the title of "ordinary profenor <rf history and eloquence"
but practically as Latin professor. This promotion drew
on him the enmity of some native Netherlanders, who
deemed themselves <not without some show of reason) to
poesBBs stronger claims for a chair of Latin. The only
defence mode by Ruhnken was to publish works on I^tia
literature which eclipsed and silenced his rivals. In 1766
Talckenaer succeeded Hemst«rbuis in the Greek chair.
The intimacy between the two colleagues was only bioken
by Valckenaer's death in 1 786, and stood without strain
the test of common candidature for the office (an import-
ant one at Leyden) of university librarian, in which
Buhnken was ancceesfuL Ruhnken'a later yeara were
clouded by severe domestic miafortuue, and by the pcdi-
tical commotions which, after the outbreak of the war
with England in 1780, troubled the Netherlands withimt
ceasing and threatened to extinguish the nnlveraitj of
Leyden. The year of Ruhnken'a death was 1798.
Fersonally, he was as for as possible removed frMB
being a recluse or a pedant. He had a well-knit and
even iiandsome frame, attractive manners (though some-
times tinged with irony), and a nature simple and healthy,
and open to impressions from all sides. Fond of society,
he cued little to what rank his associates belonged, if
they were genuine men iu whom he might find sometlung
to learn. Hia biography even says of bim in hia early
days that he knew how to sacrifice to the Birena without
proving traitor to the Mnseo. Life in the open air had a
great attraction for him ; be was fond of sport, and would
sometinH^ devote to it two or thi«a days in the weeL In
OL-K. ~
58
R U H — R U M
hk btntnc towaidi oflur icfaolan Bnhukca ma geturom
and dlgijlliri, diatritmtiiig litenij kid with a free haod,
■ndmeeliwoiulMf^ts for tho moot Mrt with a smile. It
wmld btt^BoolttoiMniitont in the luBtorrof achoUtdiip
tb« HMM of anodwE man libo ao thoron^;
In the neorda of learning Rnlmken occnpiea an im-
portant position. He fonna a principal link in the chain
whicli oonneeta Bentlc^ with the tnodom BchoUnliip of
the OontiDent. Tba a^nt and the aims of Hemiterbnit,
'' ' ir of OoDliiMDtal lesnuog, were committed
bemUn
iohJa tnwt
■ tnwt^ and wn« bithfnUy maintained. He greatly
widened the cirde ot tboae who Talned taste and precinon
in flaiMiiJ aeholaiBhip. He powerfnllj aided the eman-
dpatioD of Greek stodiea from theotogj ; nor mnet it be
forgotten that he first in modem timee dared to tbinic of
leacning Flato from the hands of the profeesed pbilo-
■ophecv—mea preeninptnoDB enoo^ to interpret the
Bndentmge wiUi little or no knoiriedge
in whicli he wrote.
PUtlixHe IFa^rmTbtiamm ud
on Bomui law, (S) BntiUu Lnpoi ind atbaT gntniDi«daiu, (1)
VtlMiH Htonalni, (B) tbs worin af Huntu. Ha >Ik occapud
UmMU BiuEh with tbs MitarTot On«k lit«ntatB, niticabrlr tlie
ontarical litoatora, with th* Honndc hjnuu, tb* Khdii on Flito,
ud flu Ortak lud Boccian gnmmuluu and ibstaridina. A dii-
coTKj fuDoai la iti tiiiw «u that in tha tazt of tha walk of
baTa lanaaad tha ialarett of thk dlnmn wll
Burib Tha biosimphT of Bobnkon wn wllttni br hii gT»t ponfl
VlilBiibKh, KKUi attar Ua daath. 9. & B. )
EUHBORT, a boa; Hading town in Pnuna, ia dtoated
at the jmiction of the Bohr and Bhio^ in- the midst of a
Sroducdre coal diatriot, IS mika north of Dfisaeldotf.
Inhrort haa the largest river harboor in Germany, with
TeiT extenaive qDa;! ; and moat of the I^ million tons of
ODal which ara aiuiiudh exported from the neighboorhood
are despatched b the fleet of ateam-tngs and bugoa which
belong to the port Abont one half of the coal goes to
Holland, abd the rest to towns on the npper Bhine.
Grain and timber are alao expMted In 1681 11,382
craft, canying 1,791,213 tone, left the barboDT. The
goods traffic between Bnbrort and Homberg on the
o^orite book of the Rhine ia canitd on by luge steam
fetry 'boats, in which the railway waggons are plaioad with
the hdp of towers, 128 feet high, on ea^ aide of the riTer.
nie jndnabies of the town incltide activa shipbuilding
iron and ^n working, and the making of cordage and
madunery.' The inhabitants nnmberedlUS in I816,and
9190 in 1880, Bohrort formarlj belonged to Clevea;
it reoeiTed town rights in 1S87.
RTTT.RTfeRK, or BtTLHlfeBH, CUUDI ClSLOIUir HI
ilT3&--1791), poet and historian, waa bom at Bondy in
T3S, and died at Paris in 1T91. He was tor a time
a wldier, and served nnder Richelien-iik Qermanj. But at
twenty-fiTe he accompanied Bretenil to St Petenborg as
secretary of legation. Here be actoaily saw &» r«Tolu-
tionidiioh seated Catherine XL on the thront^ and thoa
Qbtaioed the facts of his beat-known and beet work, the
dtort sketch called Amedata ntr la StvohOhit de Bvtne
m 17et. It waa not pablished till after the emprsBs'B
death, me later yeara of Rnlhiire's life wer« spent uther
la Faria, where he held an iq>pointment in toe foreign
oAse awl went mnch into aoeie^, or else in taavelling
Of«r Oecmaa/ and Poland. The distracted aAuca of this
bHer ooontnr gaTo him the anl:tieot erf hia longest. woA»
EidiiiftU(AiianM»tUPii^iignt{l9ffl), iriiieh waa nenr
flnUied, and iriiieh tha pMriotiam of its lateat editor, H.
Oitaowski, haa ratim nnjnstifiably re' — ^— ' *«-'-^ —
d» Palegiu. Bolhiire waa made an A
Seaidea Um Uatoriaal mfa Bandaoad, ba wnts OBeoB
the Bavocati<» of the Edict c^ Nantea (1788).
and tha dwrt akoteh tt the R"— '-t tenlBUan fa JnHlr'nBkad
unong tha DUiterpueia a( flu kind in TraadL Of tte latgw
PaloKd Carljla, as JDstlj, oomplaliM flut its aUowHMe irf hat la
too tmiU in pnpration ta its bUk. Tba intbar was alao a tetUs
vritcr at vtrt it tmHli, ahoit nttrai, aniauD*, ko., which show
mocb point and poliih, and hs had a conBdaiabla lepntatlan auuiiK
tha witty udiiriutiind gioapilsa ccDttlning Chamlbil^ Bfrirol,
ChuapematL fai. On tha otlwr hand ha has the oradlt of hteg
long and dWntsratedljt uddnoDa In oaibig lot 1. J. Bnawnii in
bia moraae aid aga, nj
Riilliltn'i •dAi nr> ^nhUihal bj Anab hi irit (TiriL a f(l>, and. Tha
RnwaaiHMtiainaTtMfinad In Uit oK^aan WmAw (( IkaMlte-
tkm dudI, Dd Oh a^UkI, vlik tula (iindu iha^ bi Iha (^ OgBanta.
BUU is a Koritoons liqnor, pieparsd from molaaaaa,
aVimmings of the boiling honse^ and other saccharine bye-
prodocts, and the refuse Jnice of the canoao^ muinfao.
ture. Its distillation, which ia a simpla process, may ba
conducted in oonnexion with any cane-aapf eetaUiah-
ment, bat the mm which comes to the American and
EuH^ean markets is chiefly the prodnee of the Vest
India Islands and 'Quiana. The ordimuy method ot
working in the West Indies ia -the following. A wash ia
prepared coosiating of sogar skimmings 4 parts, kea ot
still or duuder 6 parta, and molasaea I part, the qnantity
prepared being equal to the capadtr of the still in nse.
launder consiati of the residue of the stiil from preTions
distillation^ and it takea the place of a ferment, beddea
whidi the acetic acid it contains, dmivqd from the fet^
meoting wash of previous oper^ions, haa a {aTooraUe
inflnence on the progress of attenoatbn. The wash fre-
psred as above is placed in the fermenting vat, when^
according to weather and other conditions, the fermenta-
tion proceeds more or less brikkly; bnt nmal^ a woek or
ten days ia the period required for attennataon, daring
which time the scam formed is removed from the surface
«f the vat twice daily. When soSciently attenuated, tli»
wash is ran into thi " " ' '
construction, and c
"low wines," which o;
wines" or strong mm. When a Pontefez atill ia used,
which contains two intermadiata "retorta" between the
a uBuj. n QHu BiuHaenuy aneDoareo, U9
to the still, which ia generally of a sim|ds
Lud distilled att, iisa first prodoct being
rhich on rediatillatiofi come over aa " hi^
per cant, of rnm, of an avataga strength of 3B* over
pnxrf. Fare diatillad mm ia an entirdy eoknirieaa liquid,
but as imported aikd sold it generally naa a deqi brown
eolonr imparted by caramel ot by storage in sherry casks.
It haa a peculiar arom^ derived principal^ fron the pia-
sence (d a minnte mopntioit ot bnlnie ethar. Bmnvariea
vary oonaidaaUy in qnali^, the meat bdng known aa
Jamuca mm, miether it is fta product of uiat island or
not. An inferior quality <d nun ia btown among the
Freooh aa t^ta; and the lowest qoali^, into the wau for
which debris of sngar cane eaten, iac^led ne^ ram, and
is maadyeoDsam^ tty the ooloared workcra in tba aagar
houses and distillerieai The planten sonetiinea pat rinda
and slices of pina^tple into flte banela ia whidt ram fa
matnrad, to improve and add to ita flavour, and ooeMkn-
ally anise and other flavonring ingredienta an also need
The spirit pnptni from moUssea of beetaogar facttmea
cannot be daased witb ram. Tbe product haa a bi^y
disagreeable odoor and taste, and it can only be rendered
fit for cnunn^ition by rwetUed distillatfan ud eoDceDtra-
degree (rf atreogtii, wbtfdiy die sjdritu
it," « haa only a faiat mm flavour. In
Uiia cWition it U used tot mixing widi strongly flavoored
ram, aitd tot the nqwation of a flotilioDB ram, the
flavonr of whiA' fa doe to "ram BasBdBO^"— > mixtnn of
artifldal ether, birdi baric oQ, and other Ribslanrti. Oaaa-
bigely into die mrterfala froas ^4^
R U M — R V M
n»
AxxiOK. (s-M.), tkfl tfSxii of /^n tnd tbe Indian Arehi-
peb^ is pniMred, bat hi AsToiir depend* more oo pftlm-
ttee toddjr, which alao ia a oonatitiif nt of the wadt. The
iBporti <^ nun iulo the United Kingdom and the bome
cniuwmptiicm hare been decrceaing for & number of jean.'
BUUFOBD, Oanwi. See THOiovon, Sa Bbrjajon.
BOhL Mohammed b. Hobammed h. Hueain albalkhf,
better known u ManlAn* JaUl-uddfo Bdmf, (he grestsat
Sdfie poet of Peraia, wm bwn on the 30th of Beptember
1207 (604 .1^ 6th of Babf L) at Baikh, io Kboris&n,
wfaete hia family had rewded fion time immemorial, rich
in proper^ and pablio renown. Ha claimed descent from
the c^ph Abdbekr, and from the EhwAriam abib SulUn
'AU-nddfai b. Tukoah (1199-1220), whose only daoghtaT,
Halika-i-Jmhln, had been married to JalAl-ud^n'a graod-
bthac. Her aon, Hobammed, commonly called Bdh&r
oddln Walad, waa a famotta doctoi of Balkh, who, to escape
tbe jealontrj with which the saltan Tiewed hia influetice,
entigrated to Asia Minor in 1212, Yonng JuhU-addln
was oOlf fire jean old at that time, but the aigna of his
futuitt graatnees in spiritnal matters began already to niani-
taat dieiiiaelTea in preeociooa knowledge and in eeataaiea
and viakna. After rending for some time at Ualatf jab
and ^terwarde at Emojia in Armenia, Bahi-nddfn was
called to Uriud«Jt m Asa Uinor, as principal of the local
eollega, and &em young JaUl-nddln, who bad meaan'hile
grown under the corafnl tuition of bis father in wisdom and
bdineH^ attained bia matniilr, aad married in 1226 Jauh&r
ini*Wii. tha daogbttr of LUA Sbaraf-oddla of Samarkand.
t^nallT, Bahi^dln wma ioTitbd to leonium by 'AU-nddln
KaiknWd (1319-1236), the anltinrf Asia Minor, or, aa it h
comBMoly called in the East, BAm, — whence Jalil-oddln'a
iunanw (UMaan) VAoL
After Bahimddln'a death in 1231, Jalil-nddln went to
Al^po and Damaacna tot a short time to study, bat, as
the men poaitiTe adencea in which be had been partien-
lariy tained failed to satisfy him, on hia return to Iconinm,
-whars ha became by and by profeasor of fonr wpante
collegM, he took for nine yean aa hia spiritnal guide
Say^d BoritAn-oddln Hosainl of 'Hrmidh, one of hia
bUier'a diadplea^ and later on the wandering 81III Bhams-
nddln of Tabrl^ who arriTed in leoninm on tbe 39th of
NoTember 121i, and soon acquired the most powerful
inBuenoe over JalAl'uddln, who eren adopted hu name
ee takballDB in his ghaials or myatio odea. Shama-
ndd&i'a ntbar aggnMiTO character, howsTsr, nmsed the
indignatiaa of the pec^ of Iconinm against him, and
dntug a riot iu which JalAl-udd£n's eldest aon, 'Ali-nddln,
waa killed, he waa arreated and probably executed ; at
leaat hs waa no more aeeo. This fote of his teacher and
frieod, togetiier with the untimely death of his eon, threw
Jal&l-oddiu into deep melancholy, and in remembrance of
theaa tictima of popular wrath he founded the order of
the Haiilawl or 0a Turkish prtmondation) Mewlewf der-
Tishea, famooB tix their piety aa well aa for their pecoliar
garb of DMnimiD^ their moaio and their myatic dance
(aamjlX wbieh is ue outward repreaentatiDn of tbe cihJing
moremeot of the apherea; and the inward symbol of tbe
eirdiag movement of tbe aonl oanaed by the vibrationa of
' Am Ant k ■ Ugd of Uqnanr, ot COM ponch, Un b«ii d( vMch 1>
nno, loaca JbIo*, sad ngv. It !• ^cputd t^ iddlng to Si gdlooa
<X inoC TBm 3 at o( th* twiatliJ oU nt omiga and an tqul quatltr
of — tial eC et Iwnoc dtwalrid la one qmrt of ipirit, ud 300 lb of
Titecd wapr dlwilnd In 30 ^ruu of ■rMn. TUi comblnMlDa !•
tbaoa^il7 uJxad tOEBtfiar, lAar vhlfh Uura li idded nlBdeat orug*
jaiea or aatBtlfai of taititlo Kild to pndoM a lUgtit pleuut iddltr.
AflK agttartlng llw mlitac* ^>1b tat •oma tliiM, SO giUoiu of int«i
tka TrboU Im aoDtinBsd. for half in hoar. In iboat ■ fortn^t'« Unu
tW Arab ihonldbttitiUUiit and midf Air bottling. Otlwr ftiiooiiog
fa^adlinta an nornlmnlly iddad, ud llw oainpoiuid maj tw mlod
a BiUfn fervent love to Ood. The eetabtluhment of thia
order, which still possesses nnmoKMU elointera tbroughouC
tbe Turkish empires «Dd tbe leademhip of wluub ban been
kept in Jal&l-nddln's family in Icooium uninterruptedly fin'
the last aiz hundred yean, gave a new atimulns both to
tbe zeal and energy and the poetical inspiration of Iha
great aboikh. Uoat of his matchless odes, in which he
aoan on the wings of a genoine eothtisiasm, high over
earth and heaven up to the thione of Almighty Ood, were
composed in honour of tbe Maokwl derviahea, and even hia
oput maffwaa, tbe Mat&nawi or, as it ia nauoUy called, The
Spiriiuat Uathivial (mathDawf-i-ma^nl), a production of
tbe highest poetical and rQltgious intuitiou in six books 01
dafUrs, with 30,000 to 40,000 donble-rhymud venea, can
be traced to the same aonrce. Tbe idea of thia immenaa
collection of ethical and moral precepta, interwoven with
nomerooa anecdotes and comments on venics of tbe Corln
and sayinga c^ the Prophet, which the Eastern world roverea
aa tbe greateat devotional work, the study of which secures
eternal bliss, was first suggested to the poet by bia favonrito
diaciple Hasan, better known as Hna^-oddln, who bcauuo
in I2GS JaUl-addin's chief aasbttaoL He had frequently
observed that the members of the UanJawl fnterntty read
with great delight tbe myatic mathnawls of Sani'l and
Farid-nddln 'AttAr, and induced his master to comi)oae a
similar poem on a larger scale. Jolil-uddin readily fell in
with thia suggeation and dictated to him, with a abort
intermpUon, the whole work during tbe remaining years
of bia life. Soon after the-compietioa of thia mssterxiiecs
JaUI-nddIn died on the I7th of December 1273 (672 A.B.
Cth of JumidA IX), worahipped as a saint iiy high and low.
Hia first anccesaor in the rectonhip of the Maulawf
fraternity waa Hus&m-nddln himself, after whose death in
1284 Jsidl-addln's younger and only Burviving son, Shaikh
Bah&ndd'fn Abme4 commonly called Sultln Walad, and
favourably known as author of the mystical mathnaw^
BoMmOma, or the Book of the Ooitar (died 1312), was
duly inatoUed aa grand-master of the order.
J«U!-nild(a'* lift 1> fnUj doscribsd tu Sbsnu-nddln Ahmol
AlUkfs i/vibliiS- Hi 'Dri/to (wiitlsa b«tWMD 718 and 7E4A.K), the
most iaiwitant portioDS of which liava Iweii trui:Jati)d by i, W.
B«lhoD» in tbe prcrice to his English metrical veriioa ol Tha
Uanevt, Bmt Oh Fini (London, IBBl ; mibnor'fl Oriental wrics).
Complete editioiu baT« been printed in Bombay, Lnoknow,
Tibni, Coonintinopla, and in BnUk (with a Turkish tnniU-
tiou, 1268 X.B.], at the end of vhlch a aeTsotb daflni iaaddeil,
)t which it refuted by * " '" ' '"' " '"'
iptn of the poem, Ooneley, 3M
1 by'Abd-uUaUr ( ' ' ' "
1024 and 1032 i.n.) 1« itiU nnimbliehcd. bi
a (7.). The nviied editiou b^
llatlr (mado bennm
_, ._ Ihe Jli/Haairi, Labi' if -ulnui, w ir i, md hit lilaaav,
LaW^-alli'gKAl, have been lithographed in Can-u]>aro (1870; and
Lacknow (1877) nuiieetlTelj, tUo laltor naJoT the title FarhJva-
i-uiaihuairL Fur the oUur uiimeroDB «ininir-ntariu> and for fuiihoi
biographical and lileiBrj paitloubuv vt JsUl-nddfu ko Itkn'* QO.
<lf lAa J>un'a ilSS. <f de Jfrif. i[ia.. toL iL p. C34 ». ; A.
S(irungBr'e Wurfft Oal., p. 188 : Sir Cora OiMolcy, .VrVVKj </ Fenian
PocU,-a, 112 fu.; and U. Ethf, iii.2!\iriiesUiniiuchtiitudicii,'La]iBe,
187U, p. OS w. Belect jMenii froui Jaldl-nddiu's dinun (oFtsn
■EyM IJtif^ik-i-SliaiM-i-TalifU) have hoan tnuielated iu Oonnsn
Tem b; 7, Ton Suieniwsig, Vienna, 133S. (U. E.}
EUMWANTS. Bee Mak^lh, vol. xv. p, *31.
BUMKER, C*w< Luiiwia Chrwtllk (1788-lB6aX
German aatronomar, was born in Mecklenburg on May 38,
1T88. He served in the Britash navy for some years until
1817; in 1821 he went to New South Walea aa aatronomor
at the observatory built at Parramatta by Sir Thomas
Brisbane (see QBrasvATOBZ, toL rviL p. 716). He re-
turned to Europe in 1831, and took charge of the school
of navigation at Hamburg and the obiiervatory attached
to it. His principal work u a Calatogvis of 12,000 fixed
atoiB from meridian observatiouB made at Hamburg
published in 1843. In 18S7 ha retired and wont to reside
in Idsbou, where he died on December 21, 1862.
(M)
R D K — R U N
KUNOIMAN, AuEtAiTOB (IJ^S^-l'S"), hiitorioal
painter, «m born hi Edinbnrgli in 1736. He atudied at
the Focdii'E Academy, OlugDW, and at the age of tUrty
proceeded to Borne wbere ha spent five jreon. It ivas at
tiiie time tbat he became acquainted with Foseli, a kindred
tpiri^ betmen whose productiona and thoee of BaneimaD
there is a marked similaritj. The puntar's earlieat eflorte
had been is landscape ; " other artists, " it was said of
him, "talked meat and drink, bat be talked landscape."
He soon, however, tnmed to historical and ima^natiTe
■nt^ecta, exhibiting hia Naasicaa at Flay with her
Haidena in 1767 at the Free Bocietjr of British Artiste,
Edinburgh. On his return from Italy, after a brief
residence in London, where in 1773 he exhibited in the
Bojal Academy, he settled in Edinburgh, and was appointed
master of the Tnuteee' Academy. He was patronized by
Sr James Clerk, whose hall at Penicuik Hoose he decorated
with a series of enbjects from Ossian. He also esecated
variona religions paintinge and an altocpiece in the
Oowgate Episcopal Church, Edinbtugh, and easel pictnrea
of ^mon and Iphigenia, Sigismunda Weeping over the
Heart of Tanored, and Agrippina Ifnding with the Aaliee
of Oermanicns. He died in Edinburgh on October i,
1786. His works, while they show high intention and
considerable imagination, are freqcently defectiTe in form
and extravagant in gesture.
EUNCIMAN, John (17*4-1766), historical painter, a
yonngar brother of the above, accompanied iiim to Rome,
and died at Naples in 1766. He was an artist of great
promisa. Ei« Flight into Egypt, in the National QaUery
of Scotlaw^ ii nmarkable for the precision of its execution
and tiw mellow richness ol its colouring
BUNCOBN, a market-town and seaport of ChediiMi, is
pleasantly situated on the south side of the Mersey and
near the terminos in that river of the Bridgewater, the
Mersey and Irwell, and the Trent and Mersey Canals, 15
miles S.E. of Liverpool and 16 N.E. of Chester. The
Mersey, which here contracts to 100 yards at high water,
is craned by a wrought-iron nilway bridge ISOO feet in
length. The modem prosperity of the town dates from
the oompletioa in 1773 of the Bridgewater Canal, which
here dsacends into the Mersey by a Boccession d locks.
The town was made an independent landing port in 1847,
and within recent years large additions have been made
to the docks and wareboose^ The town possesaee ship-
building yards, iron foundriea, rope works, tanneries, and
soap and alkali works. Tbo popolatioD of the nrban sBni--
tary dUtrict (area 1490 acree)in 1871 waa 12,443, and in
1881 itwBalC>,136.
Oirluft to tiM Hnhj b«tng h«ra foidabla it low ntsr, the place
WIS in wily Udim of emufdenbls iDiUtur liaportance. On a rock
whinh fonnerly intlad »m* dutioo* larthcr into the Uenaj
EthBtfleda tnctaS ■ cut!* ia tit, but of tlie bailding than an
naw DO rBinaini. Sfae Ii tlao nid to have founded a town, but
tnvbablv It aoon aFteiward* fall lata decay, u it ii not notiiwd in
Domowlar. The rerrj la Dotioed In a chartar in the 12tlt ceDtDij.
RUNE. Bee Auhabkt, vol L pp. 607, 812, and
SOAHDINAVIAN LaHOIJAOBS.
RUNEBERO, Johak Liidwm {1804-1BT7), Swediah
i>oet, was born at Jakobstad, in Finlaod, on the 6th of
■"ebruary 1804. Brought np by an uncle at Uloiborg, he
entered the university of Abo in the autumn tcrmTif 1822,
and in 18S6 began to conb-ibute vcibbb to the local news-
papers. In the spring of 1827 he received the degree of
floctor of philoeophy, and shared in the calamity which, in
September of the same year, destroyed the city and nni-
venity of Abo with fire. Runeberg accepted a tutorship
at Saarij^rvi, in the iutetior of Eioland, whore ha remained
for three years, studying hard and writing actively. The
nnivereity bad been removed after the great fire to Hel-
•ingfors, and in 1830 the young poot returned thither, aa
the Gomicil of the univerdty. Id fte muu
year he published his first volume of Diiler fPoems), and a
collection of Servian folksongs tianslated mto BwedidL
In 1831 his verse romance Srajven i Ptrrho CTbe Orave
in Ferrho) received the small gold medal of the Swedi^
Academy, and the poet married the daughter of Dr Teng-
strom, archbishop of Finland. For a tractate on the Medta
of Euripides he was in the same year appointed nniversitj
lecturer on Roman literature. In 1633 he leaped at one
bound to the foremost place among Swedish poeta with
his beautiful little epic SlgJtyeame (The Elk-Hnnten) ;
and in 1633 he published a second collection of lyrval
poems. His comedy Friarmt fruti Landet (Ihe Countiy
Lover) was not a success in 1834. He returned to mora
ehatacteristie fields in 1836, when he published the
charming idyl in hexameters called ffanna. In 1637
Bnneberg accepted the choir of Latin at Borgfi College,
And resided in that little town for the reat of his lifeL
From BorgS he continued to pour forth volumes of
verse, and he was now recognised in his remote Finland
retirement as second only to Tegn^r among the poets of
Sweden. In 1841 he published Kadachda, a romance of
Russian life, and JuiquOUen (Chrisbuae Eve), ao idyL
The third vcjume of his lyrical pieces bean the date 1843,
and the noble cycle of unihymed verse romanoes called
Eitny FjiUar was published in 18U. Finely, m 1818,
he achieved a peat popular suoceas by his aplendid Beriee
of poems about the war of independoice in 1808, ■ series
which' bears the oame of FAnrii Stita SUgntr (Enagn
Steel's Storiea); a second series of these appeared in
1660. From 1847 to 1860 the poet woa rector of Borgft
Collef^ a post which he laid down to take the only
journey out of Finland which he ever accomplished, a viHtt
to Sweden in 1861. His later writings may be briefly
mentioned. In 18C3 he collected his proae essays into a
volume entitled Sm/trrt Bardadur. In the same year he
was made president of a committee for the pr^iaration of
a national Psalter, which issued, in 1867, a Psalm-Book
largely contributed by Runeberg for public use. He once
more attempted oomedy in his ^'a* g (Cantl in 1862,
and tragedy, with infinitely more iuccees, in his stately
Kvttganu p& Salamit (The Kings at Salamia) in 1868.
He collected his writings in six volumes in 1873-71.
Runeberg died at BorgS on the 6th of May 1877.
The poem* ot Buneben ihov the inSnence of the Oraelii and d
Goethe in»n hie mind ; bnt he unaesaes a ffraat originally. In
an Bfe of conventionality ha ma boltllj reiliitio, yet iiever to the
iacrifi(» of artifitia beaTLty. Leaa knoim to the rest of Europe
than Togn^r, he yet i> now Mneiaflj cc— '^ — ^ * ' ■■'
hf Prof. Nrblom. A IDillinI« crillolm of BoiubAT^i nliKI^ potma, wua
tnnililkoi. acarfbmtr- n-in oT Oiwk'i AbMh InlAt Ultn^iut t/ JTartltrm
tmroml, Vnt, A •ttocUoa <f bl> lirlial ptHH via pntilUIua la u KM^Mk
tanilulDii br Urmrt Migngim inil ttlaa la UK.
BTJNNINO. In this mods of progreesion the step is
hghter and gait more rapid than in walking, from which
it differs in coosisting of a succession of ^ings from toa
to toe, inateed of a series of steps from toe to heel As
an athletic exercise, it hai« been in vogue from the earliest
times, and the simple foot race, Bpa/iot, run straight from
starting point to goal, waa a game of the Qreek pent-
athlon. It was diversified with the iuaiXoSpi/uit, in which
a distance mark was rounded and the stortiag and winning
points were the same, and also by the Sp6iuK iwKtnjr,
which might be compared to the modem heavy marching
order race. In ancient Italy running was practised in
circus ExhibitioDS, as described by Virgil (jSa. v. S86 «;.).
In modem timee it has been developed almost into a scieooe
by the Anglo-Saxon race in Qreat Britain and Nordi
America, till the distances rocently covered appeu almosl
R U P — B U P
61
fobuloiu comp&red iriUi the tierfonuBitcas up to tho end
of the first half gf the ceuturj. In all kind* of ran-
uing the entire weight oC the bodj is thrown on the toea,
tront which light strides are tftkeii with All po«uUe free-
dom of action from die hips. At starting tbq feet ue
plued About a foot apart, the bod; being inclined slightlj
forwvd, with tha weight of it oa the right or hindermoet
fooL A bent doable poaitioo with the feet wide apart it
on no aoooant Advisable. The st&rt cannot be mode too
qnickljoothaBigaal beiog given. Two or three short itepa
an taken to get fair); into stride, aftar which the raiiDer
dioold look atnight befrae him, aet hia cifea steadfaatlj on
the goal, and nm towards it at hii longest and quickest
atride, care being taken not to swerre or get out of stride,
Bnnnlng ia tuiul!; thai dmiflixl :— (1] >printlng Inckdn *tl
itlstsnrf nu to IDO yuds ; (2) medium diMsncea nngs from ona
qnaiter to Uirrc qiuit«n of t, mile ; <3) long diiUnna hn thoH
df one mOe ukd npwda. Tha firM-uiiMd is tbs moAt populsi-,
and is mnch prutiKid in ths north of EngUnd, cepecuijj; it
Sbofliald, whicn mij be termed tho homs of rotiut rtiDDing. It ii
leu fitigjitng than iMig distmco mdronnirea fcM »r jpom tninino,
while (tnmgtb to ■ cortiln ntvnt replKOS wind. A gr«t point m
quindna to to obtuB ■ good itut, (or whicb parpoM incemnt
ptactie* 1* m^niMd. A firrt-clus sprinter when it Ml speed will
dear (ram S la • feet in each striiia, sod bis toes lura the ground
with laeoneeiTsble nplditr. Whan in good condition hs inll run
lOOjudssttop speed in one breath, iniT probably ISO yards with-
out dnwii^ a second one. The quickest latboatlcilcd times in
which short dietuices bsTs been ran on perftutt; lerel ground
.-11 'W yard.. Ill sec.; IBOjirde, 15 aec.: 200 yards,
s, SO eecj and 100 yard*, 4B| se<^
is by far the
seo.i 800Tstils,ik
2iL ^
■Its. Ib bet a rannec should be sble to .
hondradyardssudbaU amilsare theoi. ,
filSM e( nnaing. Tbe stride is slower than in sprinting, and a
inan cannot maintsla tbe same qieed thnnf^Mnt ss is possible up
to WO yards. Tin best antheaticated tunee are— quarter mile,
4H esc 1 000 y■^d^ 1 min. 11{ sec ; hilT mile, 1 min. 53} Bee;
lOOO VBidL 3 min. IS see. ; three qnarter mile, S min. 7 lea.
light win men sre best fitted for long-distanoe runoiDg, where
atemba sod wind an man useful than speed. The strides must
be kag sad liidit. Aftsr some mUssa runner is unable to keep
the wS^t of file body im his toes sny Irager owing to Istigue,
pola his keels down, ami nuwltat-footsd. ^e times accomplishod
cf lata yesrt l>« toag-dialaoce nmnsrs are most remarkable. Those
for theeUetdlstaaessarsas '" '
t min. ISt SI
S niIes,»nio. Ill sec ; S ndlee, 14 min. M aeo. ; 4 mils, ]B
min. Msec.; G miles, » min. 10 see. ; 10 miles, Et min. 6{ sec ;
30 milsa, 1 h. GB min. S8 sec ; BO miles, 8 h. IB min. 9 see. ;
40 tnflssi 4 h. S4 min. 27 sec ; SO miles, 0 h. 8 min. ; 100 miles,
18 h. W mio. SO sec i 200 milos, SB h. B mio. 38 sac ; 300 miles,
68 b. 17 min. a see.; 100 miles, S6 h. 62 min.-, 500 miles, lOB h.
IS min. 90 sec; SOO miles, IS7 b. 36 min. 10 sea ; 610mile<, llOb.
Simla. 10 see.
Nsariy all running conteots new take place On preparsd cinder
paths, whieh from their springiness assist speed oanaiderably. A
~" ■ ■ ^' J—— -I.— tj 1 li-Ci. _j possibls, and consist merely of
ft diissa shooid bs ai
drawers ooTering tha waist and k
itin^ Chamois leathsr
a thin ifVt a pair of <
CTtsndfng^wnMidste
ning dusa with a few short spikes In the sol
el Oa fbot The Ipikes are kmger for sprint
aoeka fbr the toss and ball (rf the foot ms]
diminish aeaoaasiwi *• eadi Ibot naohea tl-_ „
intn)dn«daaoCAnn.EnoStOBia (as* t«L UL p. 13) into En^and
and Ameriea oommanoed in IBOO the popnlarltj of amatsor ran-
ni:^ taeta bse TsaQy Inenassd. lliese contsata are goremed by
BUFKBT (Hsodbkbt),9i, a kinsman (^ the Meroviugiaii
house, and biah(») of Worms, vras invited (696) to Eegens-
bm (Batubm) by Theodo of Bavaria, but finally settled
in Baabtng, the ludiopric of which was his foundation.
He ia tdgatded as the apoatb of the Bavarians, not that
tha land was up to that time altogether heathen, bnt
beeanae of his servieea in tha promotioii and coosoUdatioB
of ita Cairistiaaitj.
The flWaAMtfjnaAsrMCbiytaoriihsn been printed in ths
JnUt/lt /MsmJcL OmhiMt, ISSa. Iiom a lOtli-cestni/ US.
RUPEBT (IGig-168S>, princo of Bavaria, the Olrd
■on of Frederick V., elector palatine and king of Bohemia,
and of Elizabeth, sister of Charles L of England, was bom
at Frsgoe on December 18, 1619. In 1630 ha was placed
at the nmversit; of Leaden, where he showed porticolai
teadiness in bngoages and in military discipUno. In 1633
ha was with the pnnce of Orange at the siege of Bhyn-
berg, and served against the Spaninrds as a Tolnnteer in
the prince's life-gnard. In December 1635 he was at the
English court, and was named as leader of the proposed
expedition to Madagascar. In 1636 he visited Oxford,
when he was made master of arts. Betuming to The
Hague in 1638, he made the first diBpU7 of bis reckloss
bravery at the siege of Breda, and shortly afterwards was
taken prisotter by the Anstrians in tbe battle before
Lemgo. For three yean he was conSoad at Liu, when
he withstood the endeavours made to induce him to
change his religion and to take service with the emperor.
Upon bin release in 1643 he returned to Ths Hague, and
from thence went to Dover, but, the Civil War not having
yet began, he returned inunediately to Holland. Chariea
now named Rupert genertd of the horse, and he joined
the king at Leicester in August 1643, being preaent at
the raisjog of the standard at Nottingham. Ho waa alsa
mado a knight of the Garter. It is particnlarly to bs
noticed that he brought with him seventl military inven-
tiona, and, eepecially, introdnoed the "German discipUno''
in his cavtdry opeiationa. He at once displayed the most
astonishing activity, fou^t his first action with succesa al
Worcester in September, and was at Edgehill on Octobtc
33. At Aylesbury and Wmdsor, on the mai«h to
London, he received severe cheeks, but after deepetato
fighting took Brentford. In 1643 he captured Ciren-
cester, but failed before Gloucester, and in February
issDed his declaration denying the various chargea oif
inhomanity which hod been brought against him. At ths
end of M^T& he set out from Oxford to join the queen at
York, took Birmiogham, and, after a desperato rooistaiice,
Lichfield, but waa there suddenly recalled to the court at
Oxford to meet Essex's expected attack. Cbolgrove fight,
at which during one of his incessant raids he met Hampden,
was fought on June 18. On Jnly 11 he Joined the queen
at Btratfocd-on-Avon, and escorted her to the king at
EdgehilL He then b^an the siege of Bristol, which he
took on July 26, and be took part in the futile attempt
on Qkincester, where he failed to reptdse Essex's relieving
force. In the skirmish previous to the first battle u
Newbuiy he checked the enemy's advance^ and in .the
battle itoelf displayed desperato courage, following Vf tho
day's work by a night attack on the retiring army. In
the b^pnning of 1644 be was rewarded by being made
earl of Holdemeas, duke of Cumberland, and president
of Walea. In February he ins at Bhrewsbury, from
whence he administered the a&its of Wales; in March
he want to relieve Newark, and was back at Shrewsbury
by the end of the month. He then mardied north,
relieving Lathom and taking Bolton, and finally relieving
Tork in July. At Haiston Uoor he charged and routed
the Bcots, but waa in tnm completely beaten by Orom-
well's Ironmdea. He escaped to York, and thence to
Richmond, and finally by great skill reached Shrewsbury
on July 20. On November 21 he was repulsed at Abing-
don, and on 23d he eotered Oxford with CharUo. He hod
meanwhile been mode generalisMmo of the armies and
master of the hone. Agunst him, however, waa a large
party of courtiers, widi Digt? at their head. The in-
fiuenco of the queen, too, waa uniformly exerted against
him. In May 1645 be took Newark by storm. His
advice to march uorUiwanls was overruled, and cm June
14 the experiencM of Uanloa Moor wars rqieatad at
62
R u P — E U S
NaMt^. Baptri fled to Klito], Yritenee he oonnatlled tli«
bJDg to ooaw to tenu with the pwlunneot. In hii con-
dnot ot tho defenm of tho town, this " boldest attaqoer in
the woiU lot penooal ootinge" shoved how mniih he
" itanted tbe potieiue ftnd Beesooed head to consult and
Mtviee tor defanee " (Pepys). His sniieiideT of tiie town
ftfter only a lltree weeks' siege, though he bad promised
Outrlea to keep it four months, caawd his disgrace with
the king, who revoked all his eommisaioDS bj an order
dated Septembei 14, and in a cold lett<« ordczed him to
BBsk his BobaiBtence beyond seas, for which pnrpoee a pass
woBBenL him. Bupert, howerer, broke through the enemy,
leached the king M OzfMd, aiid was there reconciled to
him.' He ohall^iged an inveetigatdoD of his conduct, and
wae triiunphandf acquitted hj the coimcU of war. He
appears, tO(^ to have lemonabated personally witii Charles
in terms ot indeeeot violence. He then applied to Qie
" ent for a pen. Thi^ however, was oCleied coly on
litiiXiB. On Jane 24 Rupert waa taken
r by rairfaz at Oxford, and on July 6, at the
dMaaiid of the parliament, sailed from Dover for Fnnoe.
He wu immediately made a Tn»j»tial in the French
aerrioes with the command of the English there. He
nctoved a wonnd in the headat Armentj^rea daring 1647.
"Dm greater part of the English fleet having adliered to
Charles, and having sailed to Holland, Bi^iert went with
the prince of Watea to fha Hague, where die charge of it
waa put into his hand. He immediately set oat in
Jaanary 1649 apon aa expedition of (nguiiied piracy.
In Febroory, after paaaing without moleataticm through
Hio I^liamentary ahipa, he me at TTinMLla, of which he
took the fort He reUeved John Qrenville at the Scilly
Iska, and praddcall]' crippled ihe T^gH-'l' trade.
Attacked by Blake, ho sailed to Portugal, and was received
with kindncas by the king; Blake^ however, blockaded
him in tJie Tagos, and dwnanded his surrender. Bupert
broke through the blockade and sailed to ^ Me£ter-
ranean, landing at Baibary, and refitting at Toulon ; thence
he [ooceeded to Madeira, the Canaries (in 1652), the
Azores, Cape de Verd, and the West Indies, sweeping the
ocean between the latter plaoea for a considerable time.
Findlog U impossible, however, to escape ttie inde£atig[.ble
pursuit of Bl^e, he retomed to France in 16C3. He was
now iurited to EWia by Louis XIV., who made him master
of the horse; he had also an offer from the emperor to
command his forces. He tntvelled for some wlule, and
waa again in Paris in 1665. His movements, however, at
this time are very oncertaiu, bat he appeara to. have
devoted ' his enforced leisure to eDgiaving, chemisti;, the'
perfection of gnopowder, and other arts, eepedollj' thoee
of military science. Whether be wu the aohial discoTerer
of mexzotinto engraving, in which he was skilful, is un-
certain, but diis seems probable.
At the end of September 1660 Bupert returned to
England; he was abroad during 1661, waa placed on the
privy cotmci] in April 1663, and in October was one of the
comnunionera for Tangieis ; in December he became a
member of the Boyal Sode^. In August 1664 be waa
appointed to command the Guinea fleet agunat the Dutch,
and Bet aai! tu October. On June 5, 166E, he gained
with Monk a great victory over the Dutch, and on his
Ntum had his portrait painted by Lely along with the
other admirals present at the battle. He again put to
sea in Hay 1666, to hinder the junction of the Dutch and
French, and returoed in the beginning of June after a
heavy defeat, his ship having stuck on tiie Galloper Sands
during the fight. Ha was obliged to justify himself
before the council. Id January I66T he was very ill, but
recovered after the operation of trepanning. At this t^e
ho ii mentioned as one of the best teonis platan 'in the
nation. On Oetobei i% IM7, be nodred irith Uonk
the thauka ot the Honae of Commona tor his ezerticmB
against the Dutch at Chatham, and he was . again at
sea in April 1668, Ho was always stannch in his Pro-
teetant principles, and was eartinllykept in ignoraooe of
Chaiies's Catholic pbt in 1670. In August of that year
he was constable of 'Windsor, and busied himself wiA the
fitting up of the Bound Tower, a turret of which he
oouverted into a workshop. He shared in the prevail-
ing immorally of the tima, hia favourite mistreos being
the celebrated actress, Mrs Hughes. In 1673 he was
appointed lord high admiral, and fought two battles with
the Dutch Fleet on Hay 28 and August 11, but could do
little throng the backwardness of tiie French in coming
to his Bsaiatonce. This appears to have so annoyed him
that he heuceforward eagerly helped the and-Fronch party.
He waa an active member of the Board of Trade, and
governor of the Hudson's Bay Company. Till hia death,
on November 29, 1682, he lived in complete retireoient at
Wiiriaor. (o. a.)
BUPEBT'S LAND. See Hnmos'B Bat Comfavt and
Nobth-Wmt TtaxiKxT.
EHPTUHE. SeeHassu.
RUSH. Under the name of rush or rushee, the stalka
or Gstutai stem-like leaves of several plants have mlnw
industrial applications. The common rushes (spemes of
Jiauna) are used in many parts of the world for chair-
bottoms, mats, and basket work, and the pitit they
contain servee as wicks in open oil-lamps and for tallow-
candlea, — whence rushlight. Hie bulrush, Typha ^^pkim-
ttno, is used in Sindh for mats and baskets. Under the
name of rushes, species of Scirjmi and other Cyperaeta are
used for cliaiF4)ott4HQS, mats, and thatch. The elegant
ruah mats of Madras are made from Fapgrvt pangorei.
The sweet rush, yielding essential oU, is Andropogo*
SeiutMOrihut, known also as lemon grass. Large quantitiea
of the "horse tailg" Sg«i»etiaK hieHnoU, are used under the
name of the Dutch or scouring rush, foiv scouring metal
and other hard surfaces on account of the large proportion
of silica tlie plant contains.
HUSH, BaHJUON (1745-1813), the Sydenham of
America, was bom near Bristol (13 miles from Phila-
delphia), OQ a homestead founded by his grandfather,
who had followed Penn from England in 1683, being of
the Quaker persuasion, and a gunsmith by trodJe. After
a careful education at school and college, and an appren-
ticeahip of six years with a doctor in Philadelphia, Buah
went for two years to Edlnbur^ where he attached
himself chiefly to Cnllen. He took bis H.D. degree
thero in 1766, egeai a year more in the hospitals of
JjM^fja and Paris, and began practice in Philadelphia at
the age of twent^-foor, undertaking at the same time
the chemistiy class at the new medical schooL He at
once became a leading spirit in the political andfsodal
movements of the day. He was a friend of Franklin's,
a member of Congress for the State of Pennsylvania in
1776, and one of those who signed the Declaration of
Independence the same year. He hod aliEody written on
the Test Laws, "Sermons to the lUch," and on Ifegro
Slavery, having taken up the last-named sutjeet at the
instance of AnUiony Benazet, whose Hialorical AccouKi ^
Gvinea was the inspiratdon of Clarkson's celebrated college
essay twelve years after. Iq 1774 he started along with
James Pemberton the first anti-slavery society in America,
and wsa its secretory for many yean. When the political
crisis ended in 1767 with the convention for drawing up
a federal constitution, of which he was a member, he
rotired from public life, and gave himself up whoUy to
medical practice. In 1769 he exchanged his chemistry
lectureship for that of the Uttorj and praotdce fi ^jvo;
R U S — R U 8
83
Md wliea the medial eoUma, wUdi he htd helped to
foand, wM abeorbed by the oniTeniity of PeoosylTeiiw in
1791 lie becfttoe professor of the inetitatee of medicine
uid of clinickl pnctice, uceeBding in 1&05 to tke cheir ol
the thecay uid pnetioe <rf pbrsic. He ms the centrml
figoio in the medickl vorld of FhiWelphi*, ea ColleQ me
«t Edinburgh end Boerhaave at Leydeo. Uoch of hii
inSueoce end enooea me doe to his method end ragokri^
of life CD the Fmtklin model Daring the thirty jeeim
that he attended the PennqrlTaoia Ho*pital as phynciao,
he is said to hare noTer nuMed his daily visit and DSrer to
hsTO been more than ten nisiites lateL Notwitlutasding
B week cheat, vhieh tronUed him the giealer pert of his
lift^ he got thnmgh so enormoni emoiint ot wotk, literary
sod other ; he was a ajateinatic early rieer, and hie leieDte
at the end of the day me "pent in reeding poetry, hietoi;,
the moral sciences, end the ltk«^ with his pen always in his
hand. His temperament was of the gentle s(»l, and his
eonTereatkm mm correspraidence abonnding in ideoe. It
ie BtAted by his friend Dr HossmIe (rfKew York, that Ktuh
waa soeceeeiTely a Quaker, sn Anabaptist^ a Rvebyterian,
and an Anglican. He gained great credit when the
yellow ferer deTsstated Hiitadelpbia, in 1793, by his
asmdnily in nuting the sick (es many as one hnndred and
twenty in a day), and by bis bold and apparently snccaas-
fol treatment of the disease by bloodletting. When he
began to prosper in praetioe, he gave a seventh part of
his income in chad^. He died in 1613, after a five dsya'
ilinew from typhns fever. Nine ont of a family of thirteen
ehildnn sorviTed hii% all proapeKMisly settled.
Bnah's wriUait* ener an inn»oi> tuge of inljacti. Including
Isnnaga, tbs itody </ I^tin sad Qnak, th* UMnil benltj,
tm^lml p---*^ _-..-■-- .V- ■-.- ,-..—
•ngu; the bladnimi of the atgra^ the csni* oT •ninut lih,
a mcikiiig, ipirit diiokiw, u vsli u ■ long Urt of Dnin
tl topisi. Hii lait wmk mt u •Ufmrsta tnstu*
■ A^UiATwrfOSI!)- Hal* bnt knoTs now by the
of JfufiaU /nfHirin tad OmnBtiau, which hs
braoght oat it hitamli fnin 1789 to 1T»3 (two litar cditiDni
IDvliBd bj th* ntbai). IpideoiialoeT, ud jsllrm fgrcr in parti.
enlar, «ea tb« mbjtet oa wUcb b* mtt to in«t pnrpoas. Hit
tmlnHDt of fWlow r*nr hj Uoodlttting b>1pod mon thio uj-
thing alw to msko blm bmou, sltbon^ th< pnctics iroald now
bs condemnBL Bii Ti*n m to tha or^n tnd dilftulgn ol jelloir
f*T«r hiT* s note panusaant latoraat Ha rtoutlr maiBtaloaJ, m
■gdoat tba daetrlua otinpvlatiin tnm the Wnt Indiv. that tha
ytllow lenr of FUUdelphu »• ganoietad on tha ipot hj dotIoiu
aibslatiaB% tWioiigfa bo dos sot ^fn to hiTa nup«t«i tbit
thace *B* aomathiug tpcctil or apaeiAo in the fUtby condilioni of
■oil or hvlioDJ mud «hkh gaTu riia to tba siiunute. For ■
Bonbar ot mn ha aipriiad tba opiuion that jallinr favar migbc
iloliina bam panon to paraon. aadar cartain anrsTtl*d
uun 1 (Hit Id tba and ba [tofaiaad tba dootrina CAabaolala
M>a.eaDtiifiaaniaaa. Hs bacuna well known in Koropa aa u
antboritjr en tba nildanila of favar, and ww dactad sn bouoniy
■amber of aorand inraign tociatiaa.
BUSHWORTH, Jom> (c 1 607-1 690^ the compiler of
the Butorical CdiUdiiMt commonly deecribed by bis name,
was bom in NorthnmberlaDd abont the year 1607. After
a period of study at Oxfcnd, but not, it appears, at a
member of the nnivendly, be came to London, was entered
St Lincoln's Inn, and vras in due coarse called to the bar.
Alt eeriy as 1630 he seems to have commenced attendance
at the courts, espec&Ily the Stiir CbambOT and the
Eichet^ner Qiamber, not ttx the purpose of practising his
profession, bnt in order that he might observe and record
the m<aa remarkable of their proceedings. On tlie meeting
of the Long Parliament b 1640 he was appointed aasistant
dork to the Ecote of Oammau, and was in the habit of
making siiort-hand notes of the ■peeohas he heard de-
livered in debate. He lumeelf statea that it was from
his report thst the words nsed 1^ Charles L during faia
memorable attempt to seise the " five membenT were printed
for pnblio distribation nnder the king's jrders. Being an
expert horseman, it seems that Rnshworih wm frequently
employed by the Home es their messenger as well as in
the capacity of clerk When the king left London, and
while the earl of Eessi was genoral, he was often the
bearer tA commDuications from the parllameat to one or the
other of them. In 1649 Sir Thomas Fairfax, to whom he
was distantly related, and who was then in command of
the Psrliamsntary forces, made him his aeerotary, and he
remained with the snny almost continnonsly until 16fi0.
In 1649 be was at Oxford, and tha degree of master of
arts was ooeferred on him by the university. la 16sa he
was nominated one of the commiieionere for the reform of
the oommoD law, and in 1668 be was elected member for
Berwick in the parliament of the commonwealth. Almost
immediately before the Kettoiation he pnbliahed the first
volame of bi4 Htitonnd Co/ltdiaiu, wMcb had been snb.
mitted in maooieript to Oliver Cromwell, with a *eiy
Laudalcfy dedication to Richard Cromwell, then Lord
I^taclor. But the tnm of events induced him to with-
draw this dedication, and he subsequently endeavoored
without soccees to oonciliate Charles U. by preeenting him
with some of the renters bt the privy oonucil which had
come into 'bis poesestion. In the oonvention of 1660,
which recalled the king, he aat again aa member tor
Berwick In 1677 he was made secretary to Sir Orhmdo
Bridgeman, then lord keeper, and he was returned for
Berwick a third and a fourth time to the parliaments of
1679 and 1681. Boon after this he appean to have fallen
into straitened circumstances. In 1664 he waa arnated
for debt, and cast into the Kin^s Bench prison, where he
died, after lingering for aome time in a condition of mental
infitioity, the result of excessive drinking in 1690.
Bnahwortb'i Biiloriail CoOatUmi i/ PrivaU Patiaff tf SMt,
Wtigiil^ Jfailirt ■■> Laie, anj RcmartaiU FtBardinyt in Parlia-
iml *u nnrinttd in tight folio rolumaa in 1731. Tha eighth
Tolnm* of tliia tAMaa ii in urount of th» trial of tha eJl of
etnflbid, tha othar latan To)am« baiDn mncarnad with tha
miKsUaneoas OuisctioDi of the pariod from 1018 to 144S. Only
thD lint threa toIqidb and the trial of StnlTord nn origiaill;
pabliabed in Rufthwortb'a lifotima ; but tha ujA&mcript of tha
other TDlnmaa vu left by Mm tHdj for tbo yrat. Tho aitraina
value of the <rork ii mil known to all inqninra inU the blitorr ol
tha aril War, and much of the iaforaution it cootiiDs ii to be
folind nowhara elaa. Iti Impartiatitj', bowavarj can bsrdly ba
aarhnwlT nuintslnsd, end hesca it ia n^riiiaij to corault it with
RPSSELL, JOHK Bdsseix, Eixl (1792-1878), a
statesman who for nearly half a century feithfally repre-
sented the traditions of Whig politics, was tha third son of
John, sixth dnke of Bedford, and was bom in Hertford
Btreet, Hajlair, London, 18th August 1T92, one of the
most terrible months in the annals of the French Revolur
tion. Whilst still a child he wss sent to a private school
at Sunbory, aod lot a short time be mw at Weatminster
BcbooL Long and severe illneas led to his being placed, with
many other young men sprung from T\Tug parente, with
a private tutor at WooduesbOTOugh in Kent. Following
in the footateps of Lord Henry Petty, Brougham, and
Homer, he went to the nniveteity of Edinburjr^ then the
academic centi« of Liberalism, and dwelt in the bouse of
Frof. Flayfair, whom he afterwards described an " one of
the beet and noblest, the most upright, the most bene-
volent and the moat liberal of all philosophers." On
leaving the onivenity, he determined upon taking e foreign
tour, and, aa the gr«ater part of Europe was overrun by
French troops, he landed at Lisbon with the intention oi
exploring the conntriea of Portugal and Spain. Loid Jolw
64
RUSSELL
ItiiBseU had prerioDsIjr arrived at the concliuion that the
eontimmacB of the war with Francs was oecesiArj for the
reatoration of ths peoca of Europe, and hu eonvictioDB
were deepened hy the eiperieoce of travel. On the 4th
Hay 1B13, ere he was of age, he. was leturned W the
daokl bonmgh of Taviitock, and ia this he reiembled IiOtd
CAiesterfield and other aristocratto Icgbilatara, who were
eatrtuted with the dat^ of law-tnaking before they had
irrived at years of discretioo. After the battle of Water-
loo the 'Wliig rcpresentativea in parliament concentrated
their eSorta in promotiDg financial reform, and in reeisting
thoae arbitrary eetttemento of the Continental countriee
which fonod favour in the eyes of Mettemich and Castle-
raagh. In foreign politioi Lord John RubssU'b oratorical
talenia were eapecialiy Bhorm in his etrttggles to prevent
the union of Norway and iiwedea. Id domestic queBlions
he cast in his lot with tfaoae who oppowd the repreeuve
meoanres of 1817, and proteeted that the canses of the
diacoDtent at home should be removed by remedial legiala-
tioo. When failure attended all his efforts he resigned hia
aeat for Tavistock, and meditated po^nanent withdrawal
from pablio life, bot waa dissuaded from this atep by the
arguneots of hia friends, and eapecialiy by a poetic appeal
from Tom Moore. In the parliament of lSlft-20 he
again represented the family borough in Devon, and in May
1819 b^n his long advocacy of parliamentary reform by
moving for an inquiry into the corruption which prevailed
in the Comish constituency of GrampODud. During the
first parliament (1630-96) of Qeorge IT. the county of
Huntingdon accepted Lord John Bnsaetl'a aervicea aa its
representative, and it waa his good fortune to secure in
1821 the diafranchisement of Gramponnd, but his aatia-
faction at this triumph was diminished by the fact that
the seats were not transferred to the conatitnency which
be desired. Thia waa the sole parliamentary victory
which the advoeatea of a reform of the representa-
tioQ oEtained before 1832, but they foaud cause for
congratulation in other trinmpbg. Lord John Rngaell paid
the penalty for his advocacy of Catholic emancipation with
the loss in 1B3S of his seat for Iluotiugdon county, but he
found a shelter in th« Irish borongh of Bandon Bridge.
He led the attack against the Test Acts by carrying in
February 1828 with a n^ority of forty-four a motion for
a committee to inqnire into their operations, and after
this decisiva victory they were repealed. He warmly
sapported the Wellington ministry when it realized that
the king's government could only be carried on by the
passing of a Catholic Relief Act. For the greater part of
the ehort-lived parliament of 1830-31 he served bis old
consCitnency of Tavistock, having been beaten in a contest
for Bedford county at the general electtou by one vote ;
and, when Lord Grey's Reform ministry was formed. Lord
John Rtisseil accepted the oSca of paymaster-general,
though, strange to say, he was not admitted into the sacred
precincts of the cabinet. This eiclosion from the official
hierarchj- was rendered the more remarkable by the
circumstance that he was selected (let March 1S3I) to
explain tha provisions of the Reform Bill, to which the
cabinet hod given its formal sanction. The Whig ministiy
were soon met by defeat, bnt an appeal to the country
increased the number of their adherents, and Lord John
RoBsell himself had the satisfaction of being chosen by the
freeboldera of Devon as their member. After many a
period of doubt and defeat, " the bill, the whole bill, and
nothing bnt th^ bill " passed into law, and Lord John atood
forth in the mind of the people as its champion. Although
it was not till some yeara later that he became the leader
of tha Liberal party, the height of hia fame waa attained
in 1832. After the passing of the Reform Bill be aat for
ths Boathom diviuoii of Devon, and onntinaed to retun
the place of paymaater^^eml in ths mlnirtriea of Lon)
Grey and Lord Melbourne. The former of tbeee cabinets
was broken np by tha withdrawal of Mr Btanley, after.
wards Lord Derl^, on the propoaal for reforming die Irish
Church, when he eraphasixed Lord John Russell's fut in
the movementa by the Baying " Johnny 'b upset the coach ;"
the latter was abruptly, if not rudely, dismissed by William
IV. when the death of Lord Spencer promoted the leader
of the House of Commons, Lord Althorp, to the peerage,
and Lord John Russell waa proposed as the spokesman of
the ministry in the Commons. At the general election
which ensued the Tories received a considerable acocssioD
of strength, but not sufficient to ensure their continuance
in office, and the adoption by the House of Commons of
the proposition of the Whig leader, that the Boiplus fund*
of the Irish Chnrch should be applied to general education,
nocesutated the resignation of Sir Robert Peel's ministry.
In Lord Melbourne's new administration Lord John
Russell became home secretary and leader of the Eoose of
Commons, but on his seeking a renewal of confidence from
the electors of South Devon, he vros defeated and driven
to Stroud Although the conrss of the Whig ministiy
was not attended by uniform proeperity, it succeeded in
passing a Municipal Reform Bill, and in carrying a settle-
ment of the tithe question in SngUnd and Ireland. At
the close of its career the troubles in Canada threatened a
severance of that dependency from the home country,
whereupon Lord John Russell, with a courage which never
deserted him, took charge of the department, at Uiat lime
a dual department, <rf war and ue colouiea. In H^
1839, on an adverse motion concerning the administntion
of Jamaica, the ministry was left with a m^oriU of five
only, and promptly resigned the seals of ofSce. Sir Robert
Feel's attempt to form a miniBti; was, bowever, frustrated
by the refusal of the qneeu to dianuss the ladies ol the
bedchamber, and the Whigs resumed their places. Heir
proepscts brightened when Sir John Yarde Buller'a motion
of " no confidence " was defeated by twenty-one^ bnt the
glimpse of sunlight soon faded, and a similar vote vroa
some months later carried by a m^ority at one, wherenpoD
the Whig leader anuonnc(Kl a diasolntion of parliament
(181)). At the polling booth his friends were smitten hip
and thigh ; the return of Lord John Russell for the City of
London was almost their solitary triumph. On Sir Robert
Feel's resignation (1646) the task of forming an administra-
tion was entmsted to Lord John Rossell, and he remained
at the head of affairs from 1846 to I8I>3, bnt his tenure ot
office was not marked by any great legislative uiactmenta.
His celebrated Durham letter on the threatened aasump-
tion of ecclesiastical tides by the Roman Catholic bishops
weakened the attachment of the "Feelites" and alienated
his Irish snpportere. The impotence of their opponeuta,
rather than the strength of their friends, kept tha Whig
tninistry in power, and, olthongh beaten by a majority of
nearly two to one on Mr Locke King's County Franchise
Bill i^ February 1861, it conld not divest itself of office.
Lord lUmeraton's unauthorised recognition of the French
coup iitai was followed by bis dismissal, bnt be bad
bis revenge in the qectment of his old colleague a few
months later. During Lord Aberdeen's administration
Lord John Russell led the Lower House, at first aa foreign
BBcretary, then without portfolio, and lastly as presi-
dent of the council In 1854 ha brought in a Reform
Bill, but in consequence of the war with Russia the bill
was allowed, much to its anther's mortification, to drop.
His popolarity was diminished by this failure,' and although
he resigned in Januaiy IBSG, on Mr Roebuck's Crime*
motion, be did not regain his old position in the conniij.
At the Vienna conference (1865) Lord John Russell was
England's repreaentative, and immediately on bit retnrn
B n B S E LL
> aatnttiy tf the etdcniea ; bnt Itie nrora ta
„ ttioM at the Austmn mpitel followed him and
f onwl him tv rntira, Por K>iiK7etraaftw ttualte wu the
"alara^pabd" otfoUiica. He wm the chief instrument
in defMDg Lord Pklmenton in 1867. Hs led the att&ck
OD tbe Tfxf Boform Bill of 1899. A reconciliation wu
ibaa efleeted between the li-ral Whis -leedei^ ftnd Lord
John BoNell conaented to become loraigD MCietwj in
Xjttd PilmcfStoii'i minittnr, and to accept an earldom.
DiirW Aft American Wu Bad Boiaell'a ijmpi^dea with
tbe Nottii testiained his oottntiy from embarking in the
etntest, bat he waa not wpaHj sococnfal io his deairo to
[«eTeBt Iha opoliatiaD of Besmaik. On Lord nJmentoD'a
death (October 1B6S) Xkd BumbU waa once mora snm-
monad to form * caUDe^ bat the defeat of hii miuisby
is th« foUowiiig juw 00 the Befbrm Bill which the; bad
introduead was fallowed by hia retirament from pabllo
life. Hia Usm houw wera apent after thii event in the
pf^Mtration ot nnmberleee letten and apeeche^ and in the
oompoaitio& erf hia JttBelUeliiMi attd Suggatioiu, bat every -
thing h« wrote waa marked by the bdief that all philo-
aophj, political or iocia^ wu aommed va io the Whig need
ot fifw Tsan prerioualy. Eari BuseU died at Pembroke
Lodges BiehmoDd Fark^ aSth U^ 1878.
ntb>nUfaontnrTEwlKoM*UliT«]iathi
of polilioallih. H«partiaipat(dinth*tnHitiltaDf Whiggiunbefan
18^ oA dund Id it* triomph tOa tliat aroit H« nponndnl
ths nriad^ of tha SiM BJoim Bill ud llrsd to iM a wteaaA
caoMd lato lav tf Uw ConawratlTa miniiliT ef Lonl DcrV- l^i-
liiBltsd«ao>daioglnl)uowni«*Donica tttfomA him tomujrjHl*
ftom bdth frfand aad Eott bat ha n^th fatimatad hiipomn, and
thflTsunadbiiDtolhpliiglKatnlwiaiBtba atata. Hi* tngidie*
and hia caw* ata fonottan, bat Ui work* on Fox aia among th*
chWraOiKWiaraWhtepoIitua. E*dBsaBeU»»*t«ioBDttrf*d,
— On^ i> leU, to Adolafda, dao^tar of lb Thonua Uatar, and
widow cf ^MmiA^ leoond l^nd ^Dblaad*!^ and bbodimIIj, in lfi41^
to Lady TMoeia Ann liana, daogbtsi of tb* aeoond garl of Hinlo,
B; tba tnaai tta hud two daogfattn, br tho Uttar thna aroa and
on* daaa^tat. Hia aldeat mi, Loid AmbarisT, pnii«aaaHi bim
Mk JaDnu7 1876. (W. F. C)
BUSSEIJ^ WiuuK BOMKU, Loxd (leS^lSS^X f^"
Udid aon of Lord Biuaall, afterwaida llf tli eari ud atill
Uts fint duke erf Bedford, and ImAj Anne Cair, dangkter
cf du inhmnia oonntaH of Bauenat, wa« bom Se^eraber
29, 1639. Nothing is known of hia aavly yontili, except
that abomt 16S1 he wag aent to Cambridge with bia ehler
btotker IVanei^ On leaving the nniveisity, the two
hrathcM tmvelled alrnwd, TiailiDg Lyona and Oenev^ and
nading for arane iritile at Angateirg. Bla aoooont of hia
iiiH«iaaliiiiii ia qurited and intateating. He waa at Paria
in KS6, hot bad letomed ta Wobom in Decembar 1659.
At flie BaatoratioQ he waa elaetad for the fiunilj bofoo^
of l^viatoek. For a long while he appeaia to have taken
no part in public aUr^ bnt rattier to have indulged in
the folfiea of oooit life and iutrigoe ; foe both in 1669 and
1664 be- waa enraged in dnels, iif the latttt d which be
waa wounded. In 1669 be married the aecood dsogbter
of H» eari of Soothampton, the widow of Lord Tangban,
thna becMning OMineeted with Shafteeborj, who had mar-
ried SonthainptoD^ niece. With hie wife BuaKll always
lived on tecma of the greateat affection and eoofldence.
It waa not vnSal the formatioa <rf the " ooantty party,"
in oppoaititm.to the policy of the Oabal and Charlea'a
neDC&OafltoUo plota, that Baaaell began to take an active
part in a&ira^ He then joined CavendiUi, Birch, Hamp-
den, PowaD, Lyttleton, and o^en in vehement antagonism
to the eoort. With a passionate hatred and distrust of
the Catholica, And an intense love of political liberty, he
nmted tha daue for ease to Protestant DissBntera. Hia
fint ^eeeh ifipean to have been on Jannary 22, 1673, in
which he invugbed againtt the atop of the exchequer, the
attack oo the Bmyrna fleet, the corruption of conrtiert with
TnadtL wtioBj, and "the ill ministers about tha king."
In 167B1ib moved an addceM totbe king
for the nmoval of Danby from the rcnral ooandli, and fra
bis impeachment. On Felimary IS, 1677, in the debate
on the fifteen months' pronation, he moved tiie diaaoln-
tion of potliament; and in March 1678 be aeoonded the
address praying tha king to declare war against Ftanc&
The enmity of the conntiy par^ a^inst Danby and
James, and their deeira fw a diseolntion and the disbanding
of the army, wera graatar than their enmity Io Lonia. 'Oat
French king therefore fooitd it easy to form a temporary
alliance with Bnnell, HoUis, and the opposition leader^ by
which they engaged to cripple tha king's power of hnrting
IWice, end to compel him to seek Louis's friendship, —
that friendship, however, to be given only on the eonditioa
that they in their turn ahoold have Loaia's support for their
cherished objects. Bnssell in particolar entered into doae
eommnnication with Bonv^gny, who came over with money
for distribution among members of pariiament By the tes-
timony of Barillon, however, it is olter that Bnsaell himself
ntteriy nfused to take any part in the intended connption.
By the wild ^arms which culminated in the Focaah
TuTor Bossell appears to have been aSacted man ooea*
pletely than his oUierwiaa aober character would have led
people to ezpecL He thnw bimaelf into the par^ which
looked to Monmouth as the representative of Froteftant
intena^ a grave political blnnoei, thoodi he afterwarda
waa in confiduitial eommnnication wita Orange. On
Horembeci, 1676, he moved anaddrees to the king to re-
Miove the doke (rf ToA from hie person and councik. At
tlie disaolntion of the penaionaiy parliament, ba was, in
thenaweleotioaa^nbinMdfiwBedforddure. Danbywaaat
onea overthrown, and in April 1679 Busaell traa mm of the
new privj coondl formed by Charles on the adrioe at
Templet Only eiz days i^ter this we find him moving for
a committee to draw up a bill to secnra leligioQ and ^ra-
Ifoij in eaae of a Popish pnccessor. He does no^ how-
ever, ^pear to have taken part in the esdosion debatea at
thia time. In Jnne, on the occaaicm erf tha Oovenanten^
rising in Sootland, ha attacked Lauderdale pereonally in
In Jttnnory 1680 BnaeU, along with Oaveudiah,'C^)eU,
Powell, Eaaez, and Lyttleton, tandemd his reaignatfcu to
the kiii(t,wliich was reoeived hj Charlea "witb aU my
heart," On Jnne 16 he acoompanied Bhaftwhury, when
Uie latter indicted Jamee at WeatminBtar aa a Pi^idi n-
cnaant ; and on October 36 he took the extrcoae at^) of
moving "bow to snppnas Fopery, and ^vent a Ftmsli
auooeMor"; whileonNovembw 3, nowat the hri^tof hia
inflnenee, he went atill further ij eeoonding the motion
for exclusion in its most empbatio shi^e, ana on Ae 19dt
carried the toll to the House of L(«ds for th«r conrarmue.
The limitation acheme ha oppeaed, on dta gnaod thrt
monandiy nndar tha conditions expressed in it would be
an abaurdity. The atatement, made \ij Bcbatd alone, tikat
he joined in oppoeing the indulnnoe shown to Lord Stnt-
ford t^ Charles in dousing with tha mcwe horrible paita
of the sentence of death — an indulgenoe afterwards abowit
to Buaeell himself—is entirely unworthy of credenoe. On
December 16 he moved to refnse supplies until the king
patsed the Exclouon Bill. The Prince of Orange having
come over at this time, there was a tendency on tha part
of the opposition leaders to accept hia endeavours to seonra
a compromise on the exclusion qneetion. Bnasnll, however,
refosed to give way a hair's breadth,
On March 26, 1G81, in the parliament held at Oxford,
Bnssell agaid seconded the Exclosion BilL Upon the
dissolution he retired into privacy at his conntiy seat (rf
Strattim in Hampshire. It was, however, no doubt at his
wish that bia chaplain wrote the Lift of Juiian tht Apo^
66
tale, in reply to Dr HiekBB'B
E U 8 S E L L
1 wliicli the Uwfol-
— defended. In the
wild ichemea of Shaftesbury after the election of Tory
■Hheri&fQi- London inl682 he had Doshare; npon the viola-
tion of the charter^ however, in 1683, heb^^eerionsljto
consider m to the best means of reBisting the Qovemmeot,
uid on one occasion attended a meeting at which treason,
or what might be oonatmed as treason, was talkei Mon-
moatb, Esaei, Hampden, Sidney, and Howard ctf Eecrick
were the principal of those who met to consalt. On the
breaking out ot the Rye Plot, of which neither he, Eaaei,
nor Kdoej had the slightest knowledge, he was accnsed l^
ioformers ot promisicg his assistance to raise an inmnectioa
and compass the death of the kiiig. Refusing to attempt
to escape, he was bronght before the councO, when his
attendance at the meeting referred to was charged gainst
him,_ He was sent on June 36, 1683, to the Tower, and,
looking upon himself as a dying man, betook himself
wholly to preparation for death. Honmonth offered to
appoBi to take his trial, if thwel^ he coold help Rossell,
and IWe refttsed to atscond for fear of injuring his
friend's chance ot eecape. Before a committee of the
eonndl Boisell, on June 38, acknowledged his presence at
the meetin^t bnt domed all knowledge of the propceed
inEnrrectioD. He reserved his defence, howeyer, nntil hii
ttiai. fie wonld probablj' have saved his life but for the
pe^nry of Lnd Howard. The Buidde of Essex, the oewi of
whkh WM Ixoo^t into court during the trial, was quoted
H additional evidence against him, aa pointii^ to the cc>>-
tunty of Estex^ guilt On July 19 he was tried at the
01dBailey,liiawifeaMutii]g]umiiihLidefenoe. Evidence
waa givea by an informer that, while at ESiafteebniy'a
hiding-place in Wi^tjAn^ BiuBetl had joined in Ihe'pro-
posal to leue the king's gnard, a charge indignantly ijenied
bj him in his farewell pK>er, and £at he xras one of a
oosimittee of six ^pointed to prOTiare the scheme far on
insonectioii. Howard, tvy, ezpres^y declared that Bnssell
had urged A» entering into oommimioations with Argyll
In Bootland. Howard's peijury is clear from other wit-
uetMS, but the evidence was accepted. Rnasell spoke with
qiiiit and dignity in hie own defence, and^ in eepeoal,
vehemently denied that he had ever beoa pai^ to a design
so wicked and so foolish aa those ot the mnrdsr d the king
and of rebellion. It will be obaa:ved that tiie ksality ot
the bial, in so far as the jnron were not pit^Mrly qnaK-
fled and the law ot treason waa GhamefoUy stnined, wM
denied in (he Act of 1 William and Ibiy tHuiA aniiolled
the attNDdn. HaUam nwintaina that ttw oo^ overt aot
at tnasoD jvoved agunst finseell wm hia ooncvrenee in
Iba project of a rising at TauiKoti, ithkjt he denied, and
whk^ Bsmsay bnng the on^ vitseai^ wu not sofficdnit
to warrant a eonvidion.
BoBsell was sentenced to die. Hai^ attempt! were
made to save his life.' Hie old earl of Bedf<»d oSbted
^0,000 or £100,000, and Uoninontb, Legge, Lady
Banelagh, and Boehaster added their intenessions. Rnsaeil
hiinattf, in potions to C3iariea and James, offered to live
aimwd if hia life were i^ared, and never again to meddle
in tbe a&iia d England. He refnaed, however, to yield
to tiie ioSaenoe of Bomet and Ullotson, wiio uideavonred
to make blm gmnt the anlawfnlness irf raHstanoet aMiongh
it ia more than probable that cMnplianM in this wookt
have saved his life. He drew np, with Bomefa asBst-
ance, a p^>er containing his ^loloai and he wrote to the
king a letter, .to be delivered after hie death, in whii^ he
asked CharWs pardon for ai^ wrong he had done him. A
Eoggeation (rf eacap* from Lonl Caveodish he refused. He
b^ved witli hisnsnal qniet cheerfnlnees during his stay in
tha 'IWer, Qwnding his laat day on earth as he had intended
to Bpend the foUomng Snnd^ it he bad reached it. He
received the stwrament from l^Ilotaon, and Bnmet twice
preached to him. Having supped with his wif c^ the parting
from whom was his only great trial, he sl^t pMcefnlly,
and spent tbe last momisg in devotion with Bumeb Ho
went to tbe place of oxecntion in Lincoln's Inn Fields with
perfect calmnes^ which waa preserved to Om lasL Ho
died on July 21, 1683, in the forty-fourth year of his age.
A true uid modenl« samming np of hii chuKcter will b« foaad
in big Ltfe, by Lord John BiumU. (o. jL)
RUSSELL, JoBJT Scott (1808-1883), was' bom in
1808 near Qlasgow, a " son of the manse," and was at first
destined for tbe ministry. Bat this intention on his father's
part waa changed in conseqaence of the boy's early lean-
ings towards practical science. He attended ic ~
After spending a cunple of years in workshops, he settled
in Edinburgh as a lecturer on sciea(«, and soon collected
large classes. In 1632-.33 he was engaged to pre the
natural philosophy course at the nniversity, the chair
having become vacant by the death of Ledie. In the
following year he began that remarkable series of obser-
vations on wavee whose reanlts, besides bung of very
great scientific importance, were the chief determining
bctor of his sabeeqaent practical career. Having been
consulted as to the possibili^ of applying steam-naviga-
tion to the Edinborj^ and Qla^ow Canal, ho replied
that the qnestion conld not be wpwered ivithont e^)eri-
ments, and that be waa willing to undertake such it a
portion of the canal were placed at his disposal. He
resolte of this inquiry are to be found in the Trantaetiont
^ At Boyal Soatty of Edinburgh (voL liv.), and in the
Brkith Attodation Seportt (seventh meeting). We seed
not say more than that the existence of the long wma, or
wave qf froKdaluM, as well aa many of its moat important
feature^ were here first recognized, and (to dve ope very
simple idea of the -valne of the investigado^ that it was
cleaf ly pointed out whg there is a special rat% depending
on the depth of the water, at which a canal-boat can be
towed at the least ezpenditnre of eSwt by Uie horse. The
elementary mathemati<al theotj of the long wave ia very
simpls, and was soon sniped by commentotora on Scott
BneeeU'B woA; a toost complete inveeti^tion hoe been
•hioe givco l^ Btokea; slid t&e snijject may be considered
aa certainly devoid of an^ special tnyeteiy. BosmU held
aa<qipoeite oj^okm, and it led him to many extraordinar;
and groondlssB apecnlatiotii, some of which have been pub-
lished in a posthnmoua volome. Tie Wana qf Tnmila^
(1885). HIb obaerv&tbna lad him to [Hi^oee and experi-
ment on a new aystem <i nhaping vessels, which is known
as the tmw (juftfM. IRiis onlminatad in the building of the
enormooa and unique "Great Eaatem," ofwhich it baa
been recently remarked by a oompetent anthoii^ that "it
is probable that, if a new 'Qreat Eastern' were now to
be bnilt, the system at construction emi^oyed by Hr Scott
Buseell would be followed exactly.'^
Though his fame will rest chiefl/ oa tha'two ^Mt
■tepe we have just mentioned, Bcott Rnssdl'i activity
"and' ingeutiity displayed themselvea in many other fields — ■
steam-coachea for roads, improvement* in tKnlers and la
marine enginea, tbe iminense iron dome of the Vienna exhi-
l^ion, cellnlar double bottoma for Iron ships, riK^ Along
with Hr Stafford Northcota (now IjxA Iddealeigh), he woe
jcint secretary of tbe Great Exhibition of ie£l ; and he
was one tA the chief fonnders of the Institution of Naval
Architects, from the twenty-third volume of whose T\\\mt
attKnu we have extracted much of what is stated above.
Bossell contributed the articles Brui^ Bnuc-Emnirfl,
BuAM Natioa^tiok, ka., to the 7th edition of the Eiiey
•■ - •■ He died at Tentnor. Jtfae 8, 1883-
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67
BUSSIA
I BuuuK Ekfibe.
Paxx L— anmiL Bomnr or n
THE T>"— i" oB^iM k & vw]r
wtan Ennma 4nd northoii Am, widt
Biceedii^ 8,600,000 aqiun miles, or nnn mtih of the kod
Borbco of die ^obe (one twautj-diird of it* wh<de lopet-
ficMa). It ia, Lowerer, bat ihinlj peopled on the amtga,
indnding on^ ane^oarteenfli of the inhabitKita of Uie
eart^ It n almoil eotinly eonfiiMd io the cold Mid tom-
pentB umm. Ia Non Zembk (Nonjm Zem^) wd the
TounyT peninaok, it projecla within oe Arctic (Side aa
far u 77* 3* Mid 77' W N. ht.; while its aonthern tx-
tremitiet mwh 38° SC in Ajmeiiia, About 39* on the Afghan
froutiBr, and 12° 30* on the coasts ot the Pacific. To tha
wwt it adranccB aa far aa 30' 40* £. long, in Lapland,
16* S2' in Poland, and 29° 42' on the Black Bt* ; and ita
eutem limit — Beat Gape in tlie Bduing Btrait— eztonda
to 191* E. longitnde.
Hie Ardie OccAn — c(uii[Hlni^ the 'White, Baient^ and
Kan 8«ai — and tlie nortluro Fiwifle, that ia, the 8eaa of
Bebring, Okhotak, and Jt^MO, bonnd it in thJa north and
eaaL He Baltic, with ita two deep indentfttion^ the Qnlta
of Bothnia and Finland, limila it on the nortb-wait ; and
two ainQooa lines of frontier aqiante it leapeetiTdj from
Sweden and Nonmy on the noith-weat and from Pninia,
Aoatria, and Bosmama on die west "Bu aoothem frontier
ia still noMttled, and hai nerrer lenMined onaltered b« so
many aa twen^ conaeentiTe jeara. Quite leeendy it hai
ten pnahed Boathwarda, on both the western uid the
eHtem ahocee of the Black Se*, parts of Boomania and
Aaia Kinor having been anpexed in 1878. In An^
bejiHid tha- Oaqdan, die aonthem bonndaiy of tbe Mnpiie
remaina ragoe ; die adTanoe into the Turcoman Ste^MS
and Af^ian Toikeslan and on die Pamir plateau u stall
in progreM, Bokhara and Khiva, though npreiented aa
Tans] Uiaoatee,aieinreali^mendependanriei(^EnaBia.
An B{^)n>xiinate]j aetded frontier-line bagina only hrther
eaat, wbete die Koaaian and the Chinese empires meet on
the borders of Eastern Tnrkestan, Uongolia, aod Uanchnria.
Bnt eren diere^ die pronnca of Kiil4ja biu recently been
occupied by Buasia, and again restored to Qiina ; while in
eagteni Hoogdia, the ^mt overland ronte from EiaUtta
U> FBkiiig, wia Viffk, ia in fact in the bands of Bnasia, and
it is difficult to predict how far Bnssian injlnence may
nteod should drcomBtancee uad it to eeek a footing on
the thinly-peoplad pUteuu of Oeotial Asia.
Eoaaia has no oceanic poaBemiona^ and Has abandoned
tboee she owned in last centoiy ; her ialando are mere
appeodagee at the mainland to which they belong. Bach
are die Aland archipelago, Hochland, Tatters, Dag5, and
Osel in die Baltic Baa j Nota Zambia, with KolgaeS and
Vaigatdi. in the Barents Sea ; the BotoTStaky Islands in the
White Bea ; the New Biberiaa ardiipeUgo, and the small
ponp of the Medvyediii Ishutds off the ffiberian coast ; die
Commandor Islands off Kamchatka; the Shanlar Islands
md Sa^iaUn in the Bea of Okhotsk. The Aleutian archi-
pelago was sold to dia United Statea in I86T, together widi
Ala^ and in 1874 the Knrile lalanda were ceded to JapML
A Tast yariety of phyaioJ features is obvioody to be
e^iected in a territory like thia, friiicli ccmprises on the
ooa side the ootfam and ailk r^ona of Tnrkeatan and
nanacaoeasia, and on the other Oie moss and lichen^dothed
Aictio MMdnw and the Terkboyassk Kberiaa pole ot cold
—tha dry l^anscaapion deaecta and the regions watered by
the meaoona ot the ooasta of the Bea ot Japan. Still, if
the border region^ that ia, two D<triQir belts in the nwth
and aodth, be left oot of acconnt, a striking onifonuity at
physical featnte pievaila. High plateana, like Ihoae of
Pamir (the "Boof of the World") or of Armenia, and
high monnUin cbuos like the snow-ctad anminita of the
Cbincasna, the AUy, tiie Thion-Shao, the Sayan, are met
with only on the onlekirte of the empire.
ViBwed broadly by the physical geographer, it appeata
as occupying the territories to the oorth-weat of that great
platean-balt of the old continent — the backbone of Asia
— which apreadawithdacreaaing height and width from the
hi^ taUeland of Tibet and iWir to the lower iilateans of
Mongolia Mid thence nortb-eestwerds through the Vitim
region to the fnrtheBteztremity of Aaia. It may be eaid to
consist of the immenaa plains and flat knda which extend
between the plateau-belt and the Arctic Ocean, including
also the aeriea of parallel chains and billy spun which skirt
the plateaa>belt on the north-west. It ^ends over tlw
plateait itself, and crcaaee it, beyond Luke Baikal only.
Thia belt^the oldest gealogjcal continent of Asia —
being unfit for agricultore and for the most part unanited
for petmanoit settlement, while the oceanic slopes of it
hsTO from the dawn of histoi; been occupied by a dense
pc^Hilation, has long prevented Slavonian colonizatioD from
reaching the Pacific. Enasiana happened to croea it in the
17th century, only in its narrowest and most northerly
pai^ thus reaching the Pacific tm the f<^^ and frosen
coasts of ths Sea of Okhotsk ; and two centuries elapsed
et^ after ooloniaing the depreesiona of the platean armind
Lake Baikal, die Buesians crosaed die [JateaQ in a mon
genial sons and descended to the Pacific by the Amur,
rapidly spreading farther south, up the nearly uninhabited
Uanri, to iriiat ia now the Qnlf of Peter the Ortat In
the aonth-woaterB higher portions of the plateau-belt the
empin has only recently planted its foot on the Pamir ; as
we writ^ it fa endeavonnng to get oommsnd of the lower
passages iriiich give an easy aceeea to the Aff^iaa portion
of the platean ; while already, within the present ceotniy,
it has established itself firmly on the plateaus of Armenia.
A. broad belt of hilly tracts^-in every respect alpine in
character, and diaplayiug the earns variety <rf climate and
cffouiic life aa alpine tracts naually do— «kirla the plateau-
bJt duonghoot ita length on the north and nocth-weet,
forming an intermadiate region between the plateaua and
the pluna, He Caucasus the Elbuie, the Kopet-dagb,
and Puopamisoa, the intricate and imperfectly known net-
work ot mountains west of (be Pamir, the Tbian-Shan and
Ala-tau monntain regions, and farther north-east the Altai,
the still unnamed complex of Minusinsk mountains, the
intricate mountain-chains of Sayan, with those of the
Olekma, Titim, and Atdan, all of which are ranged m
ichcUit — the fiu'mer from north-wast to sonth-eost, and the
others fn»n sonth-west to north-east — all of these belong
to one immense alpine belt bordering that of the plateaua.
l^ese have long been known to Bwteian colonists, who,
seeking to eecape religious prosecutions and exactions by
the state, eaify penetrated into and rapidly pushed their
small settlemeiitB up the better valleys of these tracts, and
ccMidnued to spread everywhere as long as they found no
obstaelea in the shape of a f<«ner population or in unfavou-
able climatio cMiditiona.
As for the flat-lands which extend from tba Alpine hill-
foots to the shores of the Arctic Ocean, and assume the
character either of dry deserts in the Aral-Caspian de-
pression, or of low table-lauds in central Buasia and
eastern Siberia, of lake-regions in north-west Bnssia and
Koland, w of maiahy prairies in western Siberia, and of
RUSSIA
(■»frw in dw &I sorQi, — Quir monotoiMMu Borf km are
divBnEfled b; onlj » few, and these for most put low,
hillj tiMtiL Baceatlf etne^ed from the Poeb-Pliocene
MB, or cleared of their it»«iieet coTerings, the; preBerve
the Tsrj same featnrea ovw immense atretchei ; aed the
few portiona that rise above the genenl eleration have
mwe the fiharacter of tmitid and gentle swellings than
o^monntain-chaing. Of this class are the swampj plateavs
of the Kola peDinBola, gently eloping sonthwarda to
the lake-re(^oas of Finland and north-weet Rnuiai the
Valdai table-landi, where all the great rivers of Bnsda
take thdi rise j the broad and geoCly-eloDing meridiooal
belt of the Ural Hoontains; and lastlj, the Taimft,
TSrngn.W, aod Yarkhojansk ridges in Siberia, which do
not tMcb the snow-line, notwithstaiiding their mb-Arctio
position. Ab to the ptotoresque Bnreya moontaiiiB on the
Amur, the forest-clothed 8iUiota«liB on the FaciBo, and
the Tolcanie chaios of EDunchatka, tiiej belong to qnite
anotiieT orographical w<nld; they are ^ borderridgea of
tho tenaoes by wiiich the great pialeaa-belt dsMendi to
the depAa c^ the Rtcifla OMao.
It ii owing to these leading orogr^hical featoiee —
dinned hf Carl Ititter, but only within the preeeot day
revealed by geiu^phical reeearch—that so many of the
Cit rivera of the old continent are comprised within the
ta of the RoBuau empire. Taking rise ou'the platean-
belt, or in its Alpine oatakirt^ they flow.fint, uke the
npper Bbone and Rhine, along high longitudinal valleys
formerly filled up with great lakes; next ih^ And tbwr
way through the rocky walls ; and finally they enter the
lowlands, where they become navigable, and, deaorilHiig
gn*l carves to avoid here and there the minor plateaus
and hilly tracts, th^ bring into water-communication
with one another places thooeaDds of milea apart. The
donble river-^tems of the Tolga and Kama, the Obi and
Irtish, the Aogaia and Yenisei, the Lena and Vitim on
Ab Arctic slop«^ the Amur and Rongari oa the Pacific
slope, are inataooes. They were the tme channels of
BoMiaa colonization.
height and suddenly changes its direction from a north-
weetem into a oorth-autem one; tiiis desert u now filled
only to a small extant by the salt waters of the Caspian,
Aral, and Bolkaah inland seas ; bat it bears anmiatakable
tiac«e of having been duriog Post-FlioceDe times an im-
mense inland basin. There the Volga, the Ural, the Sir
Daria, and the Ozos discharge their wateis without reaching
the ocean, bnt continue to bring life Co the rapidly drying
Transcaspifta Steppes, or conn^t by their river network, as
the Volga does, the most remote parts of European Russia.
The above^escdbed features of the physical geography
of the empire explain the relative nniformity of this wide
territory, in coqjnnctioa with the variety of physical
features on its ontskirts. Tbey explain also the rapidity
of the expansion of Slavonic oolonizatioa over these thinly
peopled regions; and they also throw light upon the
intwnal cohesion of the empire, which cannot fail to strike
the traveller as ho crosses this immettse territory, and finds
everywhere the same dominating race, the same features
of life. In fact, in their advance from the basins of the
Volkhoff and Dnieper to the foot of the Altai and Sayan
Monntains, that is, along nearly a quarter of the earth s
drcnmferenc^ the Hnsaian colonizers could always find the
■ame physical conditions, the same foreslA and prairies as
they had left at home, the same facilitiea for agrionltnre,
only modified somewhat by minor topographical featnTe&
New conditions of climate and soil, and consequently new
enltoree and civilintioD^ the Russians net with, in their
e^ansioQ towards the aoath and eas^ oijy beyond the
[pi>nn.uioir or
ebasin of
Oaneasn^ in the Aral-Oa^an n^oa, and ii
the T^Buri on the Pacific coast. favonTed by ti
ditions, the Russians not only cooqneied northern Asia —
they colonised it;
The total popnlation of the Russian empire was stated
at 102,000,000 by estimates made in U1&-92 ; bnt it is
multiplying i^idly, and, as the sorploa of births, over
deaths reschea nfirty 1,200,000 every year, it moat now
be Mmewhat more tlun 106 milltODS.
Within the empire a very great diversity of uationalitiGB
is comprised, dne to the amal^mation or aljooiption by
th« Blavooian noe of a 'ranety of Ural-Altaic stems, ol
Toroo-Tartars, Tnreo-Hongolians, and various Caucasian
stems. Statistics as to their relativs strength are still
very imperfect, and liuir ethnical relations have not as yet
been completely determined ; bnl^ considered broadly, ^j
may be classified as fbllowi i —
A. The Letto^Iavonians comprise (a) the lithaaniaoa
and Letts on the lower Niemen and Ddna, and (b) the
Slavonians, that is, Hn Poles on the Vistnla and Niemen
and tiie Bosaians — Qna^ IJtUe, and While — whose
proper abodes are in European RussIb, south of a line
drawn from the Qnlt of Finland to the middle Td^
Spreading from this le^on towards the oortb-east, east,
and sonth'Sast, they have colonized north-east Russia, tho
Ural regioi^ OancasDs, Siberia, and Urge parts of tlw
Elrghii Steppe, — the leading featora of their colonizaUon
having always been penetration in compact masses among
the ori^nal inhabitants. Thus, on northern Caucasua
the Russians (chiefly Little EuBsiaus) alraady constltate a
iphct niial popnlatioD of nearly 1,GOO,000, that is.
than 2,300,000 agricnltorista, constituting fonr-
flf ths of the entire popnlation : in Eastern Siberia Aey
nomber more than 1,000,000, tWt i^ probably mora than
the ori^nal inhabitanta ; and the Eir^iiz Steppe has also
begun lapidlyto be colonized within the lost twenty years.
It is only in the more densely peopled Turkestan, and in
the recently annexed Transcaspian region, that Bnsaian
settlers continue to bear bat a small proportion to the
natives (who are more than 4,600,000 strong). The
Slavonians altogether unmber more than TS,000/OD0, of
which number 5,600,000 are Poles.
Swedes (310,000), Qwmans (1,S40,000), Bonmanians,
Serbs, &0., may number altogether about 3,600,000.
B. A great variety of populations belongtog to the
Oaocasiau rac«^ bnt not yet well classified, some of which
arc considered to be remainders of formerly larger nation-
alities pushed aside Into the mountain tracts during their
migrations, are met with on Cancasus. Snch are the
Goorgians, Ossetas, Lesghians, who fall little short of
S,0OO,OO0, and tiie Armenians, about 1,000,000.
C. The Iranian branch is represented by some 130,000
PersianB and ELnrds in Caucasia and Transcancasia, and by
T^iks in Turkratan, mixed with Turco-Tartar Sarts. The
nomad Tsigans, or Oipdee, numbering nearly 13,000, may
be mentioned under this head.
D. The Semitic btanch consists of npwards of 3,000,000
Jews in Poland, in west and south-west Russia, end on
Oancasns and in the towns of Centaal Asia, and ot a few
thousand Karaite Jews.
E. The Ti^ial-Altaic branch compriaes two great snb-
divisions — the E^nnish and the Tnroo-Tarterian stems,
mixed to some extent with Mongolians. The ttmner (see
below) occupy, broadly speaking, a vride Stretch <rf terriloiy
to the north of the Blavoniam, from the Saltia to the
Yenisei, and inclnde the Baltic Finns, the Northsin Finn^
the Tolga Unns, and the Ugrians. The Btuskna have
already spread among the hut two in oompaet maasett
»1
RUSSIA
Mid, while worn* ttenu, like tha Oitiaki, *n impidljr
dii^tpMring; otben, like Ui« HordTinuni, Fermiuu, &e.,
an liiiing their utionftl charactar, and beooming animi-
lated to the Buuiani. Tha Wert Finu atme havs fallj
inaintaiDed their natioaal fntnrea, and hi^p«D to ha*e
C9ii>tittit«d a taationalitj daf etoping into a separata it
llie Tnrco-TartaiH (iwarl; 10,000,000) compriM the
Tartan, the Bashkirs, the fUrghiae*, the Uibegs, and the
Turcomana of the Aral-Caspian regioo, the Yaknta on
the Lena, and a variet; of (mailer - stemt in Eatt Rnuia
and Caneaaia. They occnpy another broMl belt which
utanda trom the Atal-Catpian depreenon to the eastern
parts of the Arctic coast
F. The HongoMUnehnrian stems of tlie Tnngnaes, and
the Golds, and the Hanehns proper, come next, occapyicig
the eastern parts of the moani«in-belt and die plateaa
itself in Siberia, the TuQgasea also projecting north-west-
wards, so as to separate the Yaknta from their aonthem
Tarkiah brethren. Small stems of the same family also
pasB a Qomad existence in the basin ci the Afflnr. Tley
are rapidly diminishing in nnmber, end can hardly ba
catimatad at more than DO.OOO.
G. The Hongolian branch is lepnsented I7 Dearly half &
million of Kalmocks on the Altai oatskirts of the great
plateaa and aroand the Caspian, and by nearly 250,000
Boriats in and aroaod the Baikal depreaaion.
H. A Tariety of Items, not yet well classified, are met
with on the Paciec coasts. Such are the Tchoktchiea, the
Kainchadales, the Koryaks in the north-eaat, the Ghilyaks
on the Amur, and the Aiaos in Saghalio.
Statistics of the relatiTB strength of different nationalities
in the Rniaian empire, which, however, must be oon-
aideied only a» roogn estimates, are given (in milliaoa) in
the foUowing table (L) :—
Hie ana and popnlatum of the variona divisions ol the
Bossian empire are given in the following table ; —
Table n.—Arta and FnpiUatiai e/ Otd guMtiau Smfir*.^
70
ortba
RTTS
nu ri™, In th. Mbb. tb. fi>n<^ (SS8.SM «»»
K::=::::=-=::: := « :
it bin tlM bUoiriiig
lira falli into tno gmt rabdiTincai^
the Ennipean ani tiia A^tlo, the ktt«r of wbkh,
repreBeotiiig an aggregate of nearly 6,500,CX>0 aqnara
miles, with a popnlatioD of only 16 miUion iohatiitaiila,
ma; be comidarad bb held bj oolodei. The EonHMMi
doDuniDni comprige EoropMn Bnaaia, Unlond, whiiA b
in Eact a leparate nadonilitj treated to some extent ai an
allied state, and Poland, whoee yery name bai beeneiaaed
from official docnmeota, bnt which neverthelMa eontumea
to pnrane iti own development The Aaiado dominions
comprise the following great snbdlTiBioos :-— Ci.n(UBU,
(g-v\ ondar a separata goTemor-general; dia Tranacaipian
legion, which is tioder the goTerDor-geDeial of Cancanis ;
the Kirghiz Bteppes; TusotTTAN {q.t.), nnder separate
gOTOnora-general ; Weatem Biberia and Eastern Kbena (see
BiBXRU^i and the Amor ragioo, which laat compriaea abo
the J^cifio coast region and Eunchatb (see KutOBUXi
and Ilisima Fsoviiioi). The administrative sab-
diTisions, with tlielr populations, as estimated for 1682 for
Eampean Bossia, Poland, and Oancaso^ 18BI fw Finland,
and 1878-83 for the remainder (no legolar ceniiu having
been tatcen since I8CS), are shown above in Table II.
The empire contains odI; twelve cities with a population
Ktceeding 100,000 :— St Petersburg, 939,090 (1881); Ho*-
cow, 753,469 (1RS4) ; Warsaw, 406,360 (1883) : Odena,
317,000(1883); Riga, 169,330 (1881); Eharkoff, 109,660
(1883); Kfixwl, 140,730 (1883); Kishinefl; 130,000;
Kieff, 137,360 (1874) ; tod», 113,146, in Poland (1884);
Baratoff, 112,438 (1882); 'Kflis, 104,030 (1883); and
Tashkand, 100,000. According to the most recent rstnma
■Tiba, Orel, Rostoa, Asb^khan, ITikolaiefi, DllDabaig, lola,
Baroata, Taganrog, Ehersoo, Nijm-Novgorod, Betditchefl,
Bobmi^ Zhitomir, Wiaak, Vitebsk, ^aabetgrad, Beval,
and Voronezh had from 94,000 to 60,000 inhabitants, irtiile
61 towns more in European Russia, flnland, and Poland,
and 30 in the Asiatic dominions, had from 00,000 to 30,000
inhabitants. The nnmber of towns above 10,000 is con-
ndsrablf^ bnt the; ore moetl; mere administrative cenltes j
many vilhigss have greater importance.
Onlj 9,263,000 (or 9 per cent) of the aggregate popor
lation of Russia inhabit towns, the nnmb« <S which is
601 in the 60 Russian governments. Tlie great nnmbor
of tha Rnsiuaii towns are men villages ; their Inhal^tanta
depend on agriculture, and the housea are mostly built of
wood, only 137,000 ont ot about 787,000 hoasea in
towns bdng bnUt of stone. Of the 68,600,000 who in
1682 formed the mral population of Enropean Rossia
the greater part were settled in 665,378 villagsa, almost
entirely built of wood ; nearly one-eeventieth of the honsea
are destrc^sd by fire yearly (164,400 out of 10,649,000
in 1882).
RnsNa is an sbsolnte and sbongly oentraliaed numarohy.
The primary unit et state organiution is the village com-
nnuuty, CBt nw*. A niunber of mch oommnniliea are nfi^***!
S I A [iBnomniATOW 0*
intOMlori^ wfaoae psaaant inhahtlants elect an elder (mIo^
nor banana) 'and ■ psasanti' tribunal (teietlmog s»d)i
Plaoad, howevw, ante the mooattoUed nda d ft itatA
official— aawwwifywrsAUt and<rftbapdice,flie«MM
of Oe Totoot and hu eUA ha*a beoome mne otgaoa «
ths looal -ptdiea and tax^ptheten, while tha tribunal of dw
Toloat is at the DMr«7 boUi of infinential landio^rietMS
and of the wealthier paaiaiila or nuechanta. The ^stein
of to^ self government is continued in the elective distnet
and provindal SMnrnMif — the 'timttto on the one hand,
and on theothsrintbsdaetive jastioes of the peaM («>»«-
vagmdia), whoae periodical gtueringi (mmiPiiy lyad) are
Goorts of .appeal against the decisions of the individnBl
jostice*. Bat neitherofHuee institutions — and least (rfoU
the zemstf 0 — is v^Mible of aoqniring the neosesaty inde-
pendeooe. The zemctvoe — one for each district^ and in-
other for the province — oonsist of a tqmaentative aNOuUT
(iMwfays foftpmwye) and an aaontive (*«»ifa^ ■proM)
nominated by the fonner. The nbianije conasta of three
elassM of dd^tea:— tin landed j^t^eton (aU noblee
poasMsing more than 090 acra^ and delegatM fmn th*
remainder, along witli delegates ban tlie dcrgr <" *)>^
c*paeity of landed proprietcn); rcjifeeanbtiTssoflhemer^
chanty ortdiBn^ and urban popolatum J and rejaeesBtativM
of the peasaota, indirectly elected, — matters being mwlly
BO atUnsted that this class is less sanerons than tba tfigro-
gate of ths.other tw& In theoiy the mnstvoe ha<r» large
powers in relation to the incidenM of taxation, aa well aa
in matters affecting education, pnblio health, n»d^ te.
Bnt in reality they are for the moat part compelled to
limit- themselves to the a4jnstment of fin stats taxation,
wbidi is so hi(^ that new taxes for education, sanitair
porposea, and so on, must necessarily be Toy limited.
Moreover, tha dedsious of the semetvos era jealously oon-
trolled by the representative <A the centml GDvemmenl^ —
the governor,— and procnpt^ annnlled iriMnever tba^
manifest a different Hdrit from that prevailing for the timo
at the coxirt DisMiedienoe is punished by d]ascJuliol^
■nmfltfimw by aduunisb^ative ezilieb ^leee nirrn mntsufoa
have he^ed to eliminate from die sonstvos the better
elements iriiich at first entved into their compoeitioa. ^Hm
greater number erf them are inspired now witii the eame
red-tapeism as the ministerial rbancelleries, or an lufugsa
for pn^stoTB in search of a salary. Still, in sevml
provinces a good- deal of moat osafnl work has been dtnt^
especially edncatiooal, by thoaa temstvos in which the
peasants are in a majori^ w the preptiston are inqilrvd
with a more liberal spirit; while several other xematvoa
have reoentty made extensive and most valuable inqnine*
into the etmditLon of agticnltDre, industry, Ac
Knee 1870 tite muuioiiiaUtiee have had institnticma
like those of the nnutToa. All ownet* at houas^ and
tax-paying mctdianle, hrtissn^ and woAmao, are enrolled
on list* in a dsewmding order aeeording to Oeb assewcd
wealth. The total vacation i* than divided into three
equal parl^ eadi of which deots an eqoal nnmber of r^M-
sentatiTH k> the dtma, llba executive is in tha handa ti
an elective mayor and an tgmua -riiicb consists d several
^sra elected l^ the dMNo. Both an^ in Iitct, fwwtini-
luider dw governor, and the mnnidpal b '
Hie organs at file eentral government in the proviiuiea
ore tha layadmb (a kind at gardit^iketmpUn!} in the
villam, the jduMMjv and itprmuit (chiefs of the police)
in the districts, and the goveisMa (a kind of Nqnleonic
prefect) in each govemnutit— all inveated, the mjadmit
ftoealur titPiu.]
RUSSIA
indndad, frtth powen irhich an tlie more extenaiTe u they
ue bMiy nndeGaed. There ia ttlao in eaclt goTernment
ft apecuJ gend&nseTM onder the "chief of gendAimea,"
vho nmully ia al«o tfae bead of the " third BacCioa " of the
Imperial CbhuoiTj. Tbe tums of On third aection hu
lieeii recently aboliohed, bat the Inititation still continnea.
It lua ehMS of the lecret police of the atate, and hu
moat tvied fooctkna, mch u the urest of nippoeed
political oSenderH, their eiiie to Siberia, the delivery of
separation papers to ipooaed deairing dJTOnK^ and so on.
Several goiernnieots are placed nnder special governon-
gencn], whom the recent law on the "atate of aiega'
inveeta with almost dictatorial power*.
"Hie highor administration is represented by the emperor,
who nnitea the sopreme legisEativet ezecntiTe, and jndici^
powers, and is anrronnded l^ (our distinct connctia — the
committ«o of miniaters, the cooncil of tbe empire, the
senate, and the Holy Synod. The mioialera, who are con-
(idomd BB ezecnting tho will of the cur, and are nomioated
by him, are inveated with rery eztenaire powBrs ; their
cirenlars for the interpretation of kws have greater weight
thact the laws thenueWes. The cooncil of the empire,
whidi ecousted in 1884 of 64 members, nominated by the
emperor, beaidee tbe ministers and seTaral members of the
impfflial family, ia a couaaitatiTe body f (7 mbttera of legis-
lation. Tbe senate, olao noininaied by the emperor, has
two distinct f nitctiana. Seven " departments " <^ it are
administiativo; they promnlgate tbe kws, examine the acts
o£ goTemor^ abjudicate in their oonflicta with tematvo^
and, in theory, can make temonstiancea to the empeKir, —
in fact they merely register and promnJgate laws. Two
other " deportments * are oonrta of caasatioo. A special
dopsrtment, reinforced by repreaentatiTea of nobility, pro-
Qonncea judgment in politiml case*. The Holy Synod,
consisting of metTopolitana and bishops who dt '^
torn, hae the anperiotendence of religiona afbin.
The fndklil lyitem iatiodand in ISM wh conoalTtd in
iry libanl apinC, vMcli, miTattniiatel;, hu not been mail
taiaad.
qnBDtly InbiiJiictd. Tba
7 tha "third
' iadfm el bMnwoHa,'' IrmDOYabla br
w. u»a iiui jn unu uumJutM, iMi (DDCliona balDg diiduuvad
bf mlistitatM tntlidr dopaodcnt upon tba ulniatiy. £l«Mva
jnatJMB of the ptac* dadda fn *U oaMi Inroltiiig Ibb than loO
nnhlaa, or last than rii SMDlha' ImprlamUDsnt. lliair dadajoni
can be I«ini(^l by appaal Mem tba dbti^ gathning of th« iiu-
tioB of tba psace, and tlAaca bsSita tba aauta. All srimlnal
Dana innlriag setanr ponaltiaa an triad byjarlea, vhiaa vardieta
can b< aat arido only by a coort of ouaatiDn, Int are not respectad
in eaaea haTiiift a ao-eaUad " pditleal " upaet. Folitical o^cet
an triad bj tribnuali eompaaed ad Aae. (JtU eaata In whiob mora
than SOO roablei an inrolTad ara triad by oouta of jnatloa^ with
«t>peal to ahamben of Joatioa.
In IS79 in Kuopaan Bnaaia,— aiclmlTa of all Uthoanlsn snd
ttbitp Boadaa K>TBnini«nta, — l%SSO penosa war* triad bafbn tho
Doqrt^ snd S0,B(IO befon tba Jnaticaa of tba ptaoa, tbe oonTiotloiu
bolni raapcetiTaly ST,nT and 30,741. Tha asgrtgata nombgr of
coiKl^nmatlDDB pronoDncad in 1883 vaa 48,016 in bropeas BoiaiB,
tbat Is, Sil coDdBaned In taeh 10,000; only UU d them wara
waviea. OnJauoaiyl, 188!, 98,108 paraoDawwa iajafl: SSO.SOT
moD and M,D7B -omen (tha latter with >0,m obildian) wars
impriwnot dnrine the T«r. whQa 816.S80 niiCDan wara liharatad
or crilod, and - ■
Jaa (axEiDJing 1 „
than 20,000 an annaallr tnnapraied tO Biljona.
The ampin ia diTided for adnuuIitratiTS parpeaaa into goram.
amiits {gabtrniga) at tanitoriaa (oUbiC], of vhicb than ara GO ia
EaroiMan Bnmia snd ID in FoUnd. Each garammaa^ or tanitory,
ii diridW iato aigfat to IUI«an diatricls (t^a^ Tba AaU&
damiDiona an dividod' Into ana liaotsnssoy (na w(m<n<ff Hia<ad \
thit of Caocaaia, and IDii ganaral gownmaati — Tarhaataii,
Stipnoya (Kir^iii Stappaa), Eaat Bibaria, and imnr. Tboy com.
pijaa thirtr-thtea gennuaenls anC tairitoiisa, beaidta a fa* dia-
triiHx 'n^nif, aU^ti ia Tiuacaioaaia ana tba Tnoaciapiaa
_i.j .i___. __„ ^ j„ 8ii„ri« tha
and tia Inttltatioo
The empaiar ii L .
logical mattara having to ba givan by tha Synod. EUa t"iln«i>-t.
howerar, ii varr graat, aa tiw Domination of tba tMups rM* wifli
him. In 1881 ttwra wan ia BoaaU 40,Eea Ortbodo^ olmrebaa
and aboM 14,000 ohapali, with 17,818 priiat^ 70O8 dneona, and
1S,SSE alngaia Than wan ako tin moaka and MST aapiranb^
48tE ansa and 18,808 famala aaptruita. Iba ohor^ bndgat wsa
1B,S7«,S8T fooblaabl 1884. Tho moaaatarlaa and dmi^ are
pallid of graalrwtallb, ladndiqg ttSO aqaan nilaa of land (a
' — 'T gnalar than that of Oldanbtug), an Invstad ca^lal of
,000 rtnbka, an annnal anbaidj of «]B,000 ronblia from
Uoch itill tnoalna to ba dona Ibr tha dlfhaton of tba flnt
alomenta of a sonnd oducatkin throughout tha ampin i nnhappDy
ths endaaTonn c4 [fflvats panoni In tbii Said and ot tba nmstvoa
an far polidcal naaons dbooanind br tha OovanimatiL Thara
an aevan univanitiaa— Dgrpat, ILaaii, KbaAoff, Kleff, Uoaoow,
Odaaa, and 8t Fatatibnrg^to wbiah nwy ba added thna ik
Winaw ud HeUngfora. In ISBI tha aavan Bnaian nninnillM
had SOS profoaon and 1D,BS8 atadantih and tbara ware 81 nv-
feaaora and 1238 atndaata at TatMW. Tba ataadaid of taaobli^
ou thavholalabigh, and may ba oomparad to that ot tha Oarman
onirenltiea. Tha atndanta an hardworkinf, and gaaarally vary
intalligant. Hoatly iona oi poor pannta, ttav live In eitienw
povBi^, lappMtl^ thamaalvM chiafly I7 tianilanngaad ^ tntoiial
work. Savan nwannaa bava baaa Uan la 1881 b lagud to tha
oniwritlaa. Iiplidt lagnlatlona tat tbe intarpratstloa o( nfanee
bava baaa iaaaad, and laatrictfoaa laid opoa tha taaobiiw af pbflo-
aopby and natmal atdanaa ganafally ; ooraaantlTa lagiMtion has
b(«D aidndad from tbe srognmDaa ; taatihlng In Xoaalan {inataad
of Gorman} hai baan oidand at Doifat. Tba atodania an plaoad
nndar rigoroni inlstioDa In ngsid to Ihdr life ontaide tlw mii-
nnitv. Abont MO atodanb In thaalogtoal aadaoiiaa and UOO
in bighar taahnln^ aoboola mnat ba added to ths abovaL
The atata of iacoadaiT adncatloa attll laava* vary nosh ta ba
daalnd. Than wan la 1888 180 nrnnariama and pcegYmnniiima
for bqya in Bmopaan Buaila, and 34 In tha Aaiatio domlnioai, and
87 and 10 raapactivaly for glrla; t"^ ' "- '-
acboola In Enroptan Buda andS ia th, _
thaaa mnat b. addad Iba 14,800 popila in 58 tkaok«kal Bamlnariia,
and abont 8000 In vartoBaaaooDOaryaehoola Tha Mtady tandanoy
of Bualan aooiety towaida iDcnaalDg the Dombar of aaooadaiy
•oliool% whan fsatmotion woold ba baaad on tha atody of tba
natural adaaoa^ ia ehacked by Qevtmmaet In favoar of te
nlamloal gvmaarfnma. Tlia aAgraeata unmbarof tehoolitcrnaond-
« Biuda la 1881 waa tM for bop and
10 mala and 78,S3fi femala acholara. Of
thaaa, SU aohooli <4(^80S boja and 81W ^li) gin prohirfooal
For primatT Inatniatloa than wan
propar 28,320 acboola, with 1,I77A
pujala. Of tha 8,381.1(0 ronblaa 01 . _ . ._ „ ._..
only 747,771 ronblei van oontribnlad by Oovammaii^ tl
- - ilndar being acppliad by tha nmatvoa (3.813,111 nmblaa},h
idpalltiaa, or by private penona Bnnday acboola and pnbll
irea ara Tirtaallr prohibited.
. eharactariitio feitun of tba intallootnal niovement in Bnial
la Iti tandeoFy to extend to women the meaii ot recalTing highi
Tho gytnnaainioe for giila ' '
'edagoolcal CDniaas."
. .tny, ^aiaminatianaor wbieb wan avan
mon aaarching than thoaa of the ordinary aoademy {npedally aa
R^uda illaiaiiiia of womoi and ohildren), waa opaned, bnt aft;?
abont one hnndrad woman bad raoaivad Iba dwaa of M. D., it has
y Oorammont In aavaral nnireniey towna
tasoUng oatabliabmeota tat woman, tnppoctad
Saabaoription, with prognmnua snd aununatloiu aqnal to tboaa
tba anlveialtlaa. In 18SS tha atndanta nnmbarad 814 at St
FatMibnrK atKnit MO at Hoaoow, and 888 at Kaiafi.
na ikatDial adanoee aia mnah oollivatad ia BoHia, aapaehHy
darins tba Uat twenty yeaia. Beaidea the Academy Ot Bdtaea, tba
Hoaoow Booirty of fiatoraliata, tba Hfauralogical Soctaty, tba
Ow^iaphlcaJ Boiilety, with iu Caooaalan and SUiertan bnndta^ ths
arehBoLwical aodetiea and the icdantlflo aodatiea of tba Bamo pie-
Tinoea, ^ << whloh an of old and noognlnd alandin^ than kave
htaly apnng np a aariea of naw aooIatlM In eoaaadon with esA
nnmnujr, ud tbelr ae ' '
72
RUSSIA
■Ik urOoN of tha nomOr linilldiid Hcwxnr 8odet7 of Frienja or
Sttnal Sdsao*, ttx Chtmim-'Phyitial Sodetf , and rarioiu msdicil,
•rlooitiatiAl, and otliar looiatiM. The work uthund bj Buniu
ono^ opcdill]; in bjologj, }^jmi\egf, ud dumiat^, ud in
Um adnon dwcriptin of tlie Tut Unitoiy of EoBua, are mU
kaowii taSnnqM.
Tlw Sduom of ttwamidn m In a mMt BuatUbcto^ tnnditlaii-
Althouk tha nvanoa baa donUcd aioa 1866, utd bad tw:b«d
e>r,9Sq,MliaablM(£«9,7e8,0l)8)'lii 1883, ths arauditon, vMch
«M NtiiDatid at 7li,U7,Sli nndilaa tba Mnu jMr. ii always in
I n Mirf aw Ineoma. Ths natioDal d«U 1* i^ld^ augmauled botb
and bj bswi of paiwr mtnuj u dnmdated u to be vortb
at 80 to 8t »r Mat ef it* uomliurTaliie. Oa Jauiurrl,
rSit
tt ftretai. el
I l,W6.0O0,O0
and toa naanial d<b^ tba sapar-mann' indaded, nached about
aCSTLOOOiOOO, inetnaiTS oftEa nilwa; dsbt Tbe gnat der«cC of
Biidan flnanu it that Ita dinot taxaa an cbleRj paid bt tbe
paaanbj ni p« Mat. of til* vhol*}, and tha lanmnia ebiaB; baaed
at aniae datua (diraot taiea, ltS,10II,SZ0raablM; aidaa dntiea on
qplrit^ 1M,S»1,SS0 ; dntiM on tobaeco and aagar, 18,588,500 ;
i^ort duties 101,068,000). Of tba fwrij nTdins do Ihi than
410,000,000 nmUea an apent in inlanat and ainking fond qd tba
which haTs an aggr^ata jeadjr incame of about
. [iblM, haie alao a veu^jrdsficit oF '
mQUon loidllaa. Tba miudcijialitisa ' ' '
fUr^mflUao nnblta, haie alao a )|eu4; de
Id five abore one ™"H""
ddIt *b,OJ»,74B
haigat '- -
m : , , , „
Ckimam Vai, and campiila«<r militaiy aerrice ma intnidiiMd In
ll7t. hi 1881 flu (transth of the annr on a poraa footuw ma
~-*l mm wcTing iSh the eolonn, «S,7»nt — ■
BCtW OoaMolB and&tmlai^ 7^821 yieii,~&pit, .
. _ ,K dlMlgt
, ., — , re annj, GAS,
V MB,06T OoMackaaiKl lir^pilan, 17S,M01oeal,
rra troopa,
inatioetian
bmt, 41,661 aSaca,''888,)M iixmt, aod'Wn gnna ;
tliat 1^ about 1,MIO,000 man in Add, to whidi nnmbar l.OW.OOO
Witntiad militia oonld be added in cue of need. TheM high
temiL Mdit, bomm, to be mnch ndoud on aeooont of the
Mclandea of moUUntiraL
Ihi Ingilai tzoopa conilat of tea m<ifa»-~Don, EnbaS, Tank,
Mbtkbaa, Onnbo^ ITnL Wcat Siberia, BaialT;etdieDak, Tnma-
balkalia, ud Amur. All the men of theae T(dakM between iiit«n
aod brtr-ana jaan of age an bonnd to be nady for aerriM in ton
in tlm» of peace, and to equip tbamaelTea at thdr own expense
.—I J — ^"— "'--'- -proTidedbjGoTaniinaDt. In their twofbid
eif and a miliMry trot
ihto tlie oonooert of Aaia.
nnpnlaatT miutair aanlM baa baao introdnced in
rybdngproT _, ^^
aapad^aaMaaaDtaetaeif and a miliMrr tiaa, theae n
•mbubtad iDwih to the oonooert of Aaia.
fllnM 1878 Mmpnlaot; miutai7 aaniM b
llnlaad. nia Ftnnlab troupa (nina hattaliona of WIS liOei ,
■nitbe«mpkmd,Man)at Ite tba defenoo^ Uuir own tonntiy.
HotwitlMauiutu large noent oatlaji, the ft"— '-i am it b; do
neani adapted to the cxtaendai of modMa war&n i mDofi iliini ia
ttanftn laid at the gooa organiialian of the torpedo Botjlla. The
lka«7 Miii&ib^ SS8 vaMla, of 190,678 ton^ canjing 84,800 man
and 871 giiDa. Onlj- 40 of uaae an annound ahipi, tha mDaiDdeT
being innmoared Mptee, eorretta^ and emiaan, or torpedo boat*
(lin, wUla a gnat DDmhra are men tnuuporta md miaU enfl.
Tba aitsiiaife trontisr ia defended br many fiiiliijeaua, ohiafly on
ttwmrt. Folaaltathaweitof theflatalaieDiainaqaiunnpn-
taetad, brtUaationa being odIt now in oonm of eonatniction fa the
•eath-a«at itart tha Tiibila ia defandad hr tbe fint-das tbrtreaeM
of Hodlin oroTogeorjderak), Vanaw, and Inngond, with Bnat-
Iltonkinlke rear. 7 ox jmtectuw thia line Id rear aaw fortiSca'
tlMlaan being veated. The apaM between Fdland and the DUna
ii Botantad onlj br the dtadal of Vilna and the marshea of the
Pnpet. The eaooDdlisaofrortreaBBahaa been erected oa the Diina
and SnlepeT,— Bin DOnaboi^ Vitebak, Bobnlak, and KLeff.
The Bontli-WMtacnllmnldeT ia trnder fb» pnteolian of the adranced
WMlct «t Bemderr and Akerman, while the BLuk 8m cout ii
diAnded br Sinbsra and Otohakoff at the entnncea ot the Dnieper
and Ob Bof Babaatopol in tha Oiimea, battariM at Oduaa and
Hllrolaieff, and a aariM of minor fottificationB. Formidable delen-
d*B worki bare been erected on the Baltic at DQnamfliide, Beial,
Verra, Cronatadt, mboig, Frederikaliaiaa, Bohtenaalm, Sroaborg,
Hangbodd, and In the Aland lalanda. A great namber of minor
ibrla an aeattend throngbont Cauculi, Tnuuaneada, and
Tnifceatan ; but tha FadGo coaat haa onlr earth-wocka at Vladi-
-TdatekandinkdaieTik.
[xDiomx smu.
FjutT IL— Etaoruv SmnA— OBOoiuFsr.
The adminlitiatlTo bonndaiiM of European Eiuaia, apart Ihnn
Finland and Poland, broad.' coincide on Oa whoU with the
nitnral limita of tlie £ait-Eu.o{iBan pjaisa, when tiuf aoddenly
talu, eattwird of the Baltio Bea, a emit eitenikin towarda the
n^rtb. In tbe north it ia beunded by the Arctic Ocean ; the
iBlanda of Hora Zambia, £olsuaff, and Vai^tch alao bdong to 1^
bet tho Kara Sea ia rechoned to Siberia. To the eaat it £u the
Asiatic dominions of tba empire, Siberia and the Kli^ia Stripe,
from both of wbldi it ia aeiaiatad by the Uml Uconaina, the
Ural liver, and the Oaaptan— the adminiatratiTe boandarj,^aW'
erer, partlj eitendins into Aaia on the Siberian elope of the iTiali.
To the aonth it baa t.j Black Sm and Oaocaaia, itlag aepantad
from tbe latter by the double Tall*r of the two HanTtchia — a
channel which In Fcst-PUocene timea connectBd the Sea d Aioff
with the '^■H*" The w«atern boondv; ia punJj oonventioDal :
it erCHeea Ant the peninania of £o1a from tha Yaranger Fiord tc
in the aonthem B
taldnga great cir
aeparatdng Kuiaia from PnuaU, Aoatrian QiUcia, and Bovmuta.
>nd aeaa. For it la a ipadal f eatuM of
_ . _s impreaaed a apedal Aaracter on ita
history — that she hai no fiee coUat to the high aeaa eioept on tbe
ioe-boond aboiM of tbe Arctic Ooean. Eyei; Oia White Sea ia
mately a imnified golf of that ooean. Anothv wanwr gnlf of
thaAntioOoaaD— the Ta^-angar F' -' . ^— <~- .- i-
tba oniahabitable plataaiu d th(
abandoned to ITonray. Hu deep Ii
Bothnia and Finland waah the ihorwoi rimuan nrriTory, ana ii
ia onlj at the Tory bead of the latter gnit tha' the BnadaDBli^ipan
to hBTO taken a fltm toothald by erecting tb^ capUal on thri
marahN at the moath of tba Here. Tbe Quit of K91 and tha
■onth^astani Baltic baloDg alao to lertitoiv which ia not <»i)i«MtMl
by Slwroniaoa, bot by Finuiahatema, and by Qeiniana, It ia only
Tery recently, witldn tlia last hnndnd yeare, tlut Aa BoaalBna
dcfinitlTely iook poaaaaioa of the Dcsdum ahona of the Black Sea
and tha S« of AmC The eaatem ooeat of the Blade SMbelonga
properly to TranaciDBaaia, a neat chain of mountaina aepaiatitig
it from Bnaaia. Bat even thla aea ia an inland od& the only outlet
of whict^ tbe BoaphcmB, ia in fonign banda, while the Caspian la
but an immenia diallow lake, boiSeiid mostly W dwerte, and
poaaeadng men ImportanM aa a link between Biuala and ber
oohmlM than aa a duDnel for intenonna with other cnmtriea.
The neat territory oocupied by Eon^iean Boada— 1600 mllea i*
length from north to south, and nearly h mnch ftom wert to eaet
— ia on the whole a btoad eleratad plam, lanelng betwecm BOO and
BOO feet abo*e aea-lcTal, deapty cut into by lirar-vall^^ and
boonded onallaidea fc^ broad lutly swellinga or moontaina i— 4ha
lake platfana of Finland and tbe Haansdu heiahts in the north-
weat i the Baltic coast-ridge and spun of the Carpalhiana in the
weat w' .h a broad depreeaioD between the two, oocopied by Poland;
tha uiniean and Caucasian monntalns in tha soutli ; and tba bmaA
_ . ...compriaeaTTBr.Moeoow.a ,
and Enid, and inqjeeta eastwards towaida Samara, attaining ai
arange hddit oTSOO to BOO feet aboye the sea, tha anrlue ajenthr
■lopee in *U direotioDa toalerelof from 300 toSOOfeeL Aentt
■gain gently lisM a> it appnadjea the hilly tracti endodu the
neat plain. Thia central iwelUng may ba conaidend s conunita-
Bon towBidi the east-north^aBt S the gnat line of npheanb <d
weetem Eorope; tha heights of Finland would tben appear aa
condonations of the Scanisn plaleana, and the noithem motmtaina
of Finland as oontmnationa of the Bjijleo, while the other great
line of upheaTBl of the did continent, which runs north-weat and
BOTith-eaat, wonld be roprcsentad in Hojois by tha Oaocaana in the
■ontb and the Timan liage of tiie Fatoliora baaln Id the nortlL
The billy aspect! of aeveral parU of tha eaotnl plateau an aot
dne to fdduigs of the atnta, wbldt for tha (niiat put appear to b*
horizontal, bnt chiefly to ue excayatinE acti-n of mia, when
yalleya an deeply dog out In Qie ptataan, eepeoiallT 00 its
bardsr*. The roond flattened snmmlta of the Valdai pUtcan dc
not rise aboye 1100 foot, and they present tha a] -■
monnCains only in conaequance of the depth of the
layela of the nvaia which flow towaida the deprea
Feipas being only from 200 to £50 (e
similar with tbe Us
■nd Eoyno, which do
yalltiya— *«
dapreaaion of I^b
tha aea. Tha e«Be li
.nls, "Wendish Swltierhnd,'*
Orodno and Uisik. The aanie tle'ttion is reached by a raty few
flat Bommita of the nUteaa about Knrak, and fartlUE east on tha
Tolga about. Eanrnhln, where the yallna are exMratad In tta
platan to a dnth of ftom 800 to MM bat, riring quit* ■ UUf
ttftDt to tba oooBti]'. It la only in Iba aoa^-WMt, w^
wm.]
. . 0 tet n« Brt wttb, bOnMoM br dMp iMtaw
__ _ ■• M a* botdcn of tb» CMtnl pbUa tbM •»
mill ijiiiiilM tmriittiri ttinltinmill iiffmnrTl llln liilrtT
flack ta a* Inad JiinaiiBM of lb* niddlo Tdn> ud Imnr Kua,
boondod « a* ngrth br Ika bint nnlliac of dM Vntj. wblek h
' 1 kotmn th* AnUa Oomm sbiI tba T^n kulm.
,, .,._ ^ ._.___.i^ ,yn
' tMUloa
RUSSIA
nOm Dnb, iBd ontanlba oMU b]
Pitdun. Itihodii, Ihriilr [iiiiiiiliiil I
wdlig ud f« kniUg, U qolta h
^BotiMT bnad doprMiioBt
nilad br UkM FMm iadWL, taan, BtricMMO, bt^ Vod
■ml ■■■J IliiiMiBili It 111111111 w/liiiiilm Hi i mIhI |itilM>
tk* bbO, ud blton tho nm* oul-Dadi-OMt dInotfaiD. OdI]
law low nvUlna fipitiilo into It (Mb O* Dorth-wnt, >boM Lba
Ouwu ud imA H» t«^ who* i> tb* Boith-Hit it 1* udiMOd W
tba&gbTlflM^iriidai (1000 (tat). A third d»nrMida» of » itallw
dwnetw, oBcafM brtlM Pl4prt aadtboBfddloDiiiopn.oitndi lo
tb* wort of tb* oratnl pktaM ef BohU, ud pgDotiatM into Pokod.
Tb* !■■«■«« luBitiiH buim ia do* l^okon np Into ii>wlnrl—
panda, kk^ ul oilawbo ^oibM (no Uimc). It ii booadxl a>
tba aiiath b* tW Inad pbtwa nnuling <ut of tb* Cupatbiui.
BoBth of NT H. ht tb« oeotnl pliK«n gntl; dopH toward* tb*
ioKlb, aad «* bd a«* a tMitb dapnadoi tpnadlu WMt aid (Wt
thmaab Ft Han all IftMrtnff hnt irtH wMhiag *" "■ hlflhw- raiti
too to TOa bat. It 1* aapai^fd turn tb* Biack 8*a 1^ a (utl*
■wdlwwblEbBurbttcacadflOB KnB*D*ti to tb* Iwnt !>«■,
and pntapa ttitbat aoalb-aaat. Thia low a««llinc laetodoa lb*
Dmata ecal-Biaaiiiia aiid dia ndddla pmitia ridgtawbicb aaaa* lb*
lapldi ol tba Oaifpac !!■■% a uifc Iouwm* dam^oD, wUA
il li MowOolanloftbtoano, ntaodafaTMon thaa MO
mlka to tfaa Barib of tb* Gtapka, amptlrinc tb* lowar Tda and
tha Dnl aad baha ittM. aad otaUUdng ■ Ihk btt««ntaaaia
and tka AiaMhota n^HL Tfc* d«BiwJ»a I* aoBtfaiMd fartb»
Mrtt bjplala* U*wW* (tot wUd Jola Aa dtpna^u «( (b*
idddla ti&Lud adand a* br ■* Um aKHrth of tb* Oka.
Th* Unriiantdaa nant lU av*ct of a broad anllivwbo**
■ima BO low(*ibaft thabntaaataUtrw* ■*• l> Bd^ and
■laiBWi Maimafy *Bt iaf to rit«»a. It fa aouactad ia lb*
w«at witb bM^lpJBtM* J>d^i« tbw cd Motnl Ivria, bM il*
WHiapUa*! nhtllM ta ■Oar Mbaaral* mart te ■» cloid*
al^kd bate* tbn n> h* diA^Mr pnaouaad •■.
-. AoBboidJjutaaalaatlbCrima^ooa
__ . ni «» tb* pawti— t. fa oaemfad to a diy pUtaaa
■laltj Omtm aialb a^ •at, aad baidand ia O* *oatLaMt b*
&*T*BalloQaWBa,tt*iuaidla*r<aUdltMwab*tXB MW
lilt iMt.(M Oanua and TAmM).
Owlu t* AaoiBmBbkalatnetn**! a* lait-lDfanaw bIbIbl
wbieh baalBit bau daalbad, Hm fl*<r*jala« ha* atldwd • <nrr
iSA itanliiiiaiaail. IkUw tbah crbda fron a lalaa of naat
JaaoaMB* b**iD* aa^t^orv tba laifaB* of tb« pfatewud
diBM^*H^^ iadaaatiD^ tta liiiitu fhaaa dattft* la-
Baaa* anraa bate* laaBUactbaaw, and low wMb annfn^
padiaat, natriag aBBano* ten tribDt*ifai, wUdi tnnMTaalt
witat* fiM mat nmm. Tba* Sat Taij|a. Hw Mnm, and tb*
DoatttdaiauMilinlTalaulbortll^ UW, auiU)6mSlm,
ud Oiirbaaiaa eom MCeo«LlM,«0O, avl abort 115,000 aqoMa
■ilaa la^aiiUiiih. HanaraTtlM^arriTanaf Ba*rfa-tb*T«ln
a* Ma*. tU Dviai, aad ana lb* Unat and tb* Oka-3a
Oalr ite tn tba Mrl£-WMtan part o< tba aaabal plataaa, *d sloa*
fa ou aullH tbat Om* Bar ba aald to ndial* b<« lb* mum
■wab**. Tb* Kocato <f tbaDaa an taodlUd aiaaM Uw trib^
'~ - - ~ ' oftbaKaMjoin
tboaagftba Dwiaa
ri*<n*(laadabaT*
of tiad* BDd ndgtatioai, aad
dabaaliaa at tba aatbaal naltr tbu aqr Mttttel iBatHnUi
PiialiiiMliI II* miiiijwl niai lal aail aaj pia1*jii^ ftii iimt ll
b**iato—ottar,aadft«a»pnrtu«aiia aabaaqauttT tim— far
wu at Oa pnaut dv Oai
taaB* o( tlM oaoBtiT &■ »
d phtaaa fta nn baart ofl
kabaqiao-wan baoo^t into
iiihud tb* Tol^ bSoanna
with Om BaUi^ud tb* Vti^ i& oaonaatad witt tba Onlf of
Rnlaad. Tba Wblta Saa baa alao baao bcoodit iato oooaailoa
with tb* auml Toln baato, iridl* tbo Atwrimr <d tba VoT
—Om Titoa hiiTOi tb* main aitej *t otauaankatlu w
It mmi ba ibiirwl, bvwnar, Ibat, tboo^ ruUtq; bWon I
linn o( w**fan bnn* In nuMit rf lugtb, tha rirva of BaMi* L
tebaUBdaaTagaid*&aa»oB>tofwatJdlacharB*d. TbnlM*»
fawint»uddiyaf inaantoaT,udBwatofdt«maroB>T^aPlaoa^
daring tbo ncincJaodi ; oran O* mat Tola baaaaHa aa i
dnriag Aa bat aaa«» that odIt 1^ boata ou faa* it* riu
■HriakaaaTCaTlaM BOBMraf lakaa. naanauto
'^la_itoMfaM5r*tM,nOBnar*itilto.
n* UbaviiV fa a daasiptira liat of tba paindpal rinn of lora-
mBnarib
^..ABfcflini Will— {imaP«tobaM{10ttMlte)riia«iBtb*
l»)^
TIbu lUf. Tb* lifvr fa naTipbla tut 770 mllaai pain and
a Tariaff M noda ODmad (rrai lb* opptr K — — •— ^«
dmn, wbU* fin, Oab, and otbar predocl* of Ua
athJ* lirar la to BaBqMi>t*d to Tehacdn on tbo
IB (1*0 Blfaa) •itK* tb* Km* Saa. W Tha Ifcon ibju mumi
•niam tha Bar of liaaafl : it fa aaTlnM* te 4(0 miii^ and fa
aoohuDalof aeonaidanblaazpartol timbar. (1) Tha Bortiun
I>wlM,*rI>fina(BMnifaa}. wtebatoaiaol about 160,000 aqMi*
■ilaa fa tmmai to tha naiaa of two gnat lint^ tba Tv (VO
Hlfa*) and tha Bakbooa (MO Bdlaa). Aa Sofcbooa baa Ito «ri|dB
!■ I^ KabaaAan^ ia aoitb-waat Vologda, aad low* lapidlr
aouthwaid* and aaalmrda, bariav a mat luunbar af lapida. It fa
aarloabla thnaidMDt it* ItuUi, and, aa Uln Kobanricm oannn.
Bialta bj tba tUauit of WtMNaban CimI with Lab* Bfatm,
ItfaoaanaoladwithtbaCaBfanandBaUia. TtoTTtabHte(a6
■tlte), wbiefc aowa wnt *BBtb.wiat to join Uw Sahhona.tbniuh
a waadj lagioB, tbinlj paaplad. fa nart^lib te MO milt* andln
lb nopar portioB fa 0OBB«et«d bf a aaaal with tba ninar Kana.
Tha Dwiaa Bon wHb a T*f]t lUriit Itradiant Uuvludi • bniad nil**,
taalTlBg Buaj Mbalajfa^ and naobaa tb* Wbil* Saa at Ardi-
■uBlbvanaiabaiaf bnneba*. Motwithalandi^ aariaa* obotadaa
oond to duDowat c«n. tab, aalt,>Bd tiL.bar anknalTibipnd
to and fraoi AicbaBgd. (B) Tto Oh^ (Ut mUh) riaaa ia Uka
tatctolDlba aaotb ot Otouta, tad flonlntoOaaga Bni itto*
i^dd* i tlBbct i* tatei down ia aptag, and a£^ and *«a
naTiutioB an aanfad on tn A* kiwar p*ca*a.
B. BatUe Jfa>fa.-<*> Tb* R**a {^tolfaa) Bowa taaa Lako
£i£«lBtothaOnl(Df nalaBd(a**8TPRnaw^). <7) 1%o
TolkSoff (1» Mnaa), dfaahanbg lato Uka Ladoa (ato Lummu),
ud fombw part a( tha VnbnarclatA Mtom of «uaK k an
Impartaat chaiMl IM MtrteitiOB i it Bom frvo Uk* Uaaa (MT
Su* Bila*]. whU noaiTaa tb* Hrta (»0 Bite), oouMlad with
Jiiltf, Iha Lofat niO Blteh and Banf analfar Iribatariaa.
(8) ibSrlr jlW Bite), alao dfa^aigbw IMo L«k* Ladop^ Ion
horn Laka Onafft (tnt aaaata Bite), aad, bab* paiTW Oo
Ifariiiuft eaaal Qitoa, fa of sraat teportaaaa te aangatioB (*m
VoLOA). »}ThoKanTa(MBlte)lowiaatiifl4ka ftlpaalDto
tb* Oall <Fiul*Dd at Nam ; it baa laBaikald* ia|4d% aotwltb-
atandiH wbiab u actlra nafigatiaa to cafil«l on to maau of it*
waten. Uk*Pdpaa,«TBbAakora(lM*nart BiteXxadn*
— <I0) Om Talik^B (910 Bite), a ehaonal af teOa with aMtban
Btoiia from a laatoto utigai^, bat aaw naTlaiHa anl* In Ito lowar
porttei, lad (11) A* BaEHfc (U Bite), urlgitad br ataaBM* to
Dorpat <1« Tbo DOaa, o Vart Dwiaa IH7 ndte). wlA a barin
■iBa(l(Bbo>U7S,000auanBlla%riaMto A* Oalaabko* dfatrtat
nt Tnr, and Ufa bite tb* aaa babw Bl«t, Mm haiiH daatribad a
p**t eaira to tb* aoatb. It li A*Uaw abora A* lapIda of Jaoob-
Biamu nlamel), with a ooon* c. .. . . . , — .
wwA of Hindc, laara BBBfa at Tartncg^ and *nt«* tU KoriaA*
HalT; lafta an floatad ann it abaoat boB ito aoonM, and ataamN*
plf a* te a* to EoTDo ; Aa mport ad «otn Md ttabar to ftMria,
and laport of Aab, RtoeciT, and nuatetand war* an aoadd*-
abb; RfaaoanartadtotbaOginAiOanalwlAtfcaDnkpaT. Tha
ebW ttibalaite ai* tb* Tj%a and Aa Bban. Far (It) tb*
TlrtaU wlA lb* Bog and Hiraw: aa* Pouim.
a Jba» Aa A»<«.— (U) Tha PnA (f0» mite) itea la
Anatriaa Bnterina, and **panM Baaria tnm Bonniaafa t It
niaia (IS) tb* Suoba, lAieb Ion dong tba Bnadan iMatte te
lOOBilaMowBMtowbingUwiAitililfabnndL (IT) Tba
Dntete (MO Bite witbia BnMit and aboat *M Bite in iMtria)
riaeatnOaUda. Ugb ~ ' '
' ' p^on tl
l) Tba E
Jgbt baato and lafta art Ooatad at all potot*.
n tto Iowa ngrton j tto artaaiy baa iatpgrtut
'^' -g (l5o Bite), wtA a baJnai abort
la 0001*^ bcoa Datagobiuh to
buaal br tnO*. R laaiTea
. giva tte to tha Tdga and
Dttna. It Iowa wtat, aaatb, aooA-***^ and aawth-wa*L and
antoi a bay-in tha maA-aaalain part af Aa Slai^ Saa. hi Aa
Blddl* naVigabla put of iU ot * — "- — *— -^ *- "-'-
ilsoda£^ltlr "- * —
lam |ribntai.__ . .„ . . .
aaolid wiA the Dtlaa, aad Aa Priprt (400 m
Unortaat tor urigalloD,— «a wall aa aaraial atalte tribntatte on
WUA itfta an £atod ; on Aa laft tb* BoA OM mite), th*
D^ (SM BiteX oa* of tb* B«*t tepartant rinn of Knada,
■BTintad br atumva ** te' to BrianA, A* Sato (m aUaa),
As THal (ilfi bOb), and Aa Voiakla (tSS mila*). Balow
-' ** - Dnfapar flai|i br 40 mite throigb a aaria* of
U KhartOB it ante* iU long (40 mite) bat
IIL — m
oituuv, wUoli nedm the Wcat Bog (UO mllM) uul tlM
ISO luilH). The tnffio of llK Dnianr ud IM trlbotaiit*
htd in lasa ta *fsit«t* of IS-D tnilliaa ewti. ihlpptd
dJKbBTSnl, Uu piiocipil itraif bdng oorn, alt, and (dm
Ingulia . _. . .
nuW in lasa ta tmnpt* of ISil
87 dJKbBTSnl, Uu piiQCipil itani
(1«) Ths Don (11£S miks), with >
RUSSIA [a„Lo.,.
OBlf in Donh-mcttni JbmU (Xrtbavla, Uninu, Bt PatmboA
■nJ en tfaa Volklwfll vhora *U £<iio«ui inbdiiriiiimi of t£*
(1«) Ths Don (11£S mOus), with > buin of about ISO.OOO Nun
luilai, uil lUTinbla lor 8S0 inilMh tlMt in wnth-oulaiii TnU
tad ontan th< %* ot Anff at Boatoir bv thir^ moutbt, aftar
deacrlbiag a gmt earn to tba eatt at Tnntajn, approicIiiDg tfat
Volga, with irhieh it ii amiwtoJ by > isilway (<0 miles). Ill
Bvdgatioa ii ot gnat impaitann (G'l million ciita. ahinpod, and
e-1 diwbargHi), «■ jdall; for eoodj brsnght from tbtt Volga, ud
it! Bahsiiea an aztauin. T&o diM tribobuiea an the Soou
(170 milMt tnd Horth Donati (H6 mile*) on the right, and Hf
'T
ilMt U. ... - .
:h (809 uilci}, Kliopsr(HSiiill«a},H«iT:mlitn(110BU«a).
Uwiytch (SM milM), oa Oa kit nO) Tb* Ylja (IBS milH).
._ , tin Kobaft (HO DiiM. and (2e) tha Bion bekng b> Caneaaia.
D. n» Oufim Aute.— (U) Tba Volga, tba chiaf rirer ot
Bniila, bM a Ie^(th af SllO mU«, and It* liaiiii, aboat Ma,000
aiiaan milai In atM, «initaliia a potmlation ol mon fltu 40,000,000.
It ii connactad with tin Bal& fa; thrae imtnu tt euiali (m»
VoLiu). (SI) Ths Onat and tba Ultls UnA no kngsr nach
tha Oaniaa but loaa thsmaolni ta tba fiabiukofo IaEm. (It)
Tba Dial (HT6 milta), in ila lowai part, comtitutea thi frostier
batwaen Bonpcaa ItMala and ths Ei/gUi Stsppa ; it noaiTaa.ths
Saknan on Oa ri^t auiLth* llsk on tba 1% (SO) Tha Baat
Ifanytab {17B nilei) Ii on th* Cancaaiu bonndair. (Z7) Ilia
Knaa <U5 milaak <38} tha Tatak (SSO mll)4), and (SO) tha Kan
tahont WO milesl with tha Aiax (aboot SEO miiss), which raodna
the wtMn of Laks Oolctdu, belone to Cancaaia. '
Almoat orar* geological farmatlon, from tba oldot up to ths
moat ncant, !■ mat with in Boada ; but, u the; an almoat
At tha baginning of tba PalMotoio padod on) j a varyfaw porliDnB
of wliat ii BOW Biuaia — Finland, uamalf , and paila of Olonati —
lavs abon tba awfaos of tha aaa ; Int, «i tiia nvnlt of a gndoal
Sbaaial oontlnned tbnn^ ftmtaiAs timea, It ia nqipoasd that
tha and of tbli apaah Kiada waa • oonUaant not gnatlf dUisr-
Ing tMn Uw prneot ono. In Maaonb tima tba ua began anin
to iDTide tt, but, whila in tba pracadii^ period tha -— "■•>~°"
lantrad thenuelvea into a ndtwu nphaaval axtending from.waat
■ Ua npbniil want on ftma north'Mst
__„ lonio tea, bowerer, did not extend befond
what b now cential Bonla, and did not oOTar ths " DstoubB
plateao " of waatern Bnida, which remainad a eontlnant front *' ~
taaai«,in
toaontti-ai
what b
Oaitonifortiiu spoeh. Xoadoal iMng ^ tha Continsnt foilowsd.
and waa continasd tbtoDSta Kaoido tunaa, with perhqa a limilsd
anbddsncs in tha Poat-GlaaiBl pariod, wban tha actual aeaa aitendad
their narrow gnlb np tha nUan sow ooniplad by tba gnat dmaa.
Dnring ths fint part id tba Oladal period, Bnitla aacma to hara
been corsred bf an ^"'"r"' Ica-ahest^ which aitsnded alio <nar
central Otrman;. and of which the aaaton linrita cannot ;ot be
determined.
Tiio Archaan gnaliaea liaTS a Inad aitan^on In Finlind,
nortium Bunia, tha dial If oontalni, and the Caneaao* ; thaj farm
aln tha back-bone of the lidsa which extendi from tha Carp^hiana
tbiBogh aosthem Smda. The; conilit for tba moat pert it red
and grejrgneiMei and annnlilae, wi^ aabordlnata lajeia U (panila
and Jiuitfte. nu finland ran>B-Uot the Serdolnlgualea, ai^
tha Argte and Baallala mailila (with tte io-oaHed Aaem* eaao-
Am() Ttald good bnihUogMont ; while inn, copper, and elno-ora
are aonunon In Finland and in tha UralL Kbdj fHarded aa
npteaaatiiig theHnronlan ayitam appearolao in Finland, In north-
weatem Roieia, aa a nanow etrip on tba Diala, and in the Dnlspei
ridge. ThneoBBirtotaBerieBornnfiMalllfBroBaemtallinsiUtea.
Tbt Ouibiian b repraaenled l>r Une daja, nngnute euidibmee,
and bitanuoont alatee In EetboidB and St Peterabnrg.
The Silnrian qpttam ie widel; doTsloped, and it ii moet probabls
aa% with tha sloeption of tha Anhaan ooDtiDenta irf' Finland and
the iliala, tha Sanrianeeaconradtho whole of Bnsia. Beingcon-
eealad by more laoent dtpoaili, Silnrian toofca appeal on the lorlka
SHI nlUla ei^ftiral Ika lenite eCjA^^ matitSlSl
MmMadira, iki eflS^kad tt^^iabur, iriih m^nl le r ' Htbl
IM*} ««]g^ «*iHI ot tae IBa. e( Oon—olaUiiiii^Tyi ^P*™j;°ir 3
-^^•<ES«"%.
ik Rmtiai Eeknanetk OtpmtturBmai'mltri 'ftniiin, ne DmtiMirTeim^
vHpaUl^ ta Ura 1 HS Ilia nUiL Oner. JKv ?AiHia ; Us wtUaMa ■«•
B( i&j*i Hdlnkt •IbfMMiiit e( BbbIb,- m &b. of Oaop. Sec, UH
sjiton bare been fcand, in the Timau rUn, on the wteten tlnpe
of the Diala, la th* Fai-kho ridge, and in ths ialandi of ths ArcOe
Ocean. In Poland it la met with in the Kiale* nunmtaini, and in
Th* Deranlan dolomite^ UnuMotMa, and red aandatanaa cots'
immense liteta and appear on the aoiftoaoTit a much -wider at«.
> Tj..v_<. ..1. .1. ._.. ,orth«at to Lake Odhs, and
.1 ^.. , . ttdaothe
from EaOMOia thee* loeka m
Boatii-eaat to Mobiles'; theTfani.th* central plateau, Mdao the
■loMof^ UrBJamdthemiAomre^n. In nortb-wotein aurl
middle BnMia the; taUmn a qnoial luna, and it mmit that thn
Lower Oeronlvi •erlea of weetem Bnnpe, repreeented fai foland
and in tin Ural*, b miMfut in notth-weetem and er'-' *"
when onlr tba Uiddla and Upper Deronlan iHriaiana
in iHriciana are found.
m onljrtbalii
tebonlmona d
-.Jt l»DlidaTr be.— _ ._ «.
Dnieper, tbenca to the upper D , ..„ „ „„
laac-named linr, with a bog narrow gnif aitendlng wtat la
endrde tha platean ot the Draeti. Thejr an viable, bowerer,
onl]t on tba weatem bordna of tUi nsion. Mug eorered towanii
iia eart brtiiick Pemian and Trjaealo ebata. Bnada baa tliree
lare* eoal-bealing regioua— the Ueecow baain, the Doneti rorioi,
and the Drala. In de Valdai nlaten there an onljt a lew beda d
mediecnooaL In the Moeeowbaai^ which waa ■ broad gulf efth*
Ovbonifbooa eia, coal apeeeia aa laolttad li ^-'- •*-■
littoral dmait^ the tMmatloa rf lAich w
minor auhaddenoa* of th* aea-ooaat The
ig ahnndant n ., __ ._ ^
10,000 aqnan milaa, and eompriia • valnable etock of eicctlut
aathndta and coal, togedwr with Iran^ninea. SsTanl nnaller
ooal.Belde on the el^iee at the Orals and on tha Timan ridge mtv
be added to the tter*. Vtt PtlMk ooal-Oelda bdtmg to anothn
CarbOTihrooa am of depoai^ wUeh ektended oret Bileeia.
The Permiui UuMatotiaa and made Mcapi a eti^ in eealwu
n that earned to tbi
mua a Ikw jmn an. Tb* Tariesatea maria ti .^ .
rich in aalt-^slon >>i>t nn peormnMaliB, ate now bald hjaat
Bnedan gaologiatB to be 'nJaMO. ludispolBbl* Maaile duedta
hare been tboDd onlv in tb two Bogdo monntatna in the Sbahti
Keppe ICamfOtr^^etidUM) and in aontb-weetem F«laad.
Dnring the Jmaieic period the aea bcpm again to Inrade Bnah
from eonth^aataodnorth-waet. Ibolimlteef the RnntanJanaelo
thence to Kleff, with a wide gnlt penetrating toenudi ths north-
weat. Within tbb epaoe three iliiiiiiaaliiiii. all rmmfng aonth-weet
to north-east, are filled np with Oppar Jnnmio depwita. The;
are mneh denuded in tba nl^wr pu^ of tbb re^n, and appear
but aa iaebtad iilandi in eenCial Boiaia. In the loDtli «tt aU
the older aobdlTiiiaiia are npreaented, tha de}KiBlta haTiogtbe
ohaiai^er* of a deep^ea depodt in the Anl-Ceapian ngion and ou '
The CretnwNia depoaitB— aanda, looae nadetonee, marli^ and
white rhalt- mmrr tlw le^on amith ot a line dnnrn ftmn the
Niemen to the nppei Oka and Don, and tbenoe norlb-aaat to
SimUnk, with Oe eiocfitioa of tb* Dni^er and JXn ridg^ the
Yaila Moontaint, and tit* nppta Oancaana. nurararidilupind-
ingatoue, and enedallr in keoondai; layen of pliOBtdioritea.
The Tertiar; IramaUona oeeip; luge ai«a In •ontbem Bowdai
Hia Bocow eoreia wide tiacia iiom LUbnaaia to Ikailtnn, md it
repnegotad in- dw CilBea and Cauwwe b; tblak depedta balew-
iue to the eaua ocean, whidi left ib depedta cei tbo Alpa and tba
Hunal^raa. OltgocaM, qidte dndler to that of Berth Oermanr,
end eontainina brown ooal and ambw, haa been met wiOt only m
Poland, CMnand, and Utlioania. Tha ICoooae (SaimUiaa
Btase) oocupiee extmairo trnete in eoatbani Bnida, aontb af a
line dmwn throu^ LnbM to Ekaleiinodaff and Santoff. Hot
<mlT the higher eluina of HianeaaiB and Tall^ bat also the Dcoeti
^.ii. — Z°.i iL. i._i _f Ik. ujo^gQ, ,^ wbieh waa rer-
, while briber eoath it «
' "i the Aral-Chnfan.
_i of the Bladi and
ft'i* widely darehiped in the Aial-Caipiin region,
, the [Jat-Crt and tbe Obihehir Bjit nee abora the
He thick OmtaitaiT, or FUat-moeeiM dnodla wUdi eont
• "" ■ • - ■- ■-. 1— .-_ jher
connected both with the Vienna bi
n)*rthBD
the dB of Um beolden deereeaee on the w]
pnilU ta llie dineUan tt tba
■an. ixn cukats.]
molka of th* IraQUgn. lb MUtlwn tinttl^ na*Ur corTtnniid-
uig with tluM MUUiibtd hj Honhbon, bat not jat Httlod in tha
■ntb-ait md list, ai^ uconlliia to H. Hikitla, th« folloiriDg :—
tran dM MBthos frratiar of PoUad to Orrntcli, IlmaB, Eniom-
tchu, FUUn, ind Budonuj* [to* B. tetitoij*), wltli ■ com
9ac(£nid*toKanU(t); UwnH dus north to VMlog* (ES* DOTth
ktiCad*), <Mt to Qluora l> Tntica, and fmoi tliii plH towud* tb«
Bartli ud vHt alDDS tha ntmhod of th* Vo)A ind Pttehon (t),
SoDth of tk« 50th mnlM appMO* tb* low. vltb tU ili vmuI
chanctan (land tomlM, mat la atntificmtioB, i^), ibiiwiiig a n-
DurkabU nnilonBi^ of anpoaitwn vw ruy lam nibem; it
RTTan both walanhodi ukd nUtjt, but cUtdj th« lorQw. Such
Uing tb* olunctan of tba Qnatarurr d«p(vita in BoMii, tb«
iB^iori^ o( BOiriu |K>kfi«i now adopt tbt opiidoB that Biuda
na cornd, la he ai tha abon limit*, with as imcMoaa tot-ihiet
whidi onpt OTW cantral Kuala and autnl 0<rmaD;n?oiD Seandl-
nana and north Buiria. Another loa-oorsilDg wm probabl; id-
Taudng at tho laiu tliM from th« north-aaat, that ii^ troD th*
Dorthan put of tb* tTrali, hut th* qnaatioD •* to tb* tfadation
of tha Dnl* atill nm&<iu opan. A* fi> thf lo***, tb* Tiaw i
0 tluoiii[hoat Siberia
l*k*^ eouwctad bjr broad ohannal* (th* fitrin ol th*
Bw*d*aX whkh lalar on giT* rlM to tha aocaal ilnn. On tb*
oBtddit* at th* lacutrin* nglon, ckiwl; T**tiahUn|r tb* arcs of
th*a*tBaI<gBtlnanl,ti*c«*of Biariii*d*po*it*, not higW than 100
w pariup* wr«n ISO IMt abor* pnasot Ma-lanI, n tatmd alik*
*■ th* Arctic 8** ud om tb* BaRi* and Black 8** oeaata. A datp
nir of th* Anile 8m adnncad np tb* nlln of th* DwJa* i and
tb* Cwiaa, cosMClad bf tha Hanjrtcb with tha Black BaL aad
br th* tSiaij nUor with Lab* Aral, B«i*tnt*d north up th* Volxa
Tan*r, a br H it* Baman bmd. nnmiatakabl* tnota ahow that
■Ml* duiu th* lUaeial pailod Boada had an antic Bora and
bona, th* cfiuata of th* I^eactrina parlod w** mora geiiial than
'" —1-1 I n population at that tfaaa paopUd tha
RUSSIA
rj>
■ of tiw nambcr)*** bkia.
b-«Ht hill* i^at*ant u* *till in tbo atm*
, r* dottad inti nambarliaa laki* and pond^
ran omtian* to dig oat ttidr jot QadtUnniatd eluii-
tiu |rr*at lakn which eomod th* eonntrj dorinK th*
Id* nii3 lun dtatppund, Uariog bahind lh*Bi Innnaaa*
■ lib* tb(w of tha Tripat and ft Om nortb-aaat Tk*
Uaaraoannca of wlwt atUl Twnabu of th*m li acctlaralad not onlf
If tlw gadan] Jii,<i««i of MoiatOKk bnt alao faj tha gndoal np-
aaial of noitlkani XoiiUi which i* S/^% on mun JEathmia and
' lotb* Kola poninoda aad HoTa Zai "
**tn within ttia'hLitoile pariod, br tbrdtain-
~ of Novgorod ud at tho
ofabanttwofatturnntnrT. Thia nphaaTal,-
which ban haia tilt **tn within tbahlrtoile
u* of tb* ftaawrlr taopiaeticabli
■^-i of th* Onlfof finlai ~
(gnat*, whkh moat ba ■
land^— tagithar with tl
mridirod, howtrtr, m i
Mbm wnr BoaalaiJnd toward* inoraaaad ■hallowniaa of bar riTara.
At tbo Bua liiaa, aa th* padlant* of th* rinn art gnduallf iu-
iiwidn* OD aaeoBDt lA the cphaanl of th* oontliiant, th* rinn
dig tbor chtnntli d<*p*r and d«*p*T. ConoaqBentlj eantnl and
laiiii i*llj aoBtlum Biaaia witnaa* Um [onnatlDn of Dnmerona
ndniatai* oatoiUk or awroAi (daap
tapidly ndTUM* and mniit in tha
tha aowtbini attu*^ tbtlr d«doe_...
aboT* oaaaaa, la in npld pngr***.'
Tha aoQ of Bwria dapanda chicBT on tb* diatribotioo of the
bonldK-slajr and loan co««iiigi dtocHbad abon, on the pregma
mad* b; tM ii**n In th* uccantioa of th*ii valleT*, ud on the
BKUtna** of eliaata. Taat araaa in Bnaiit ar« quite onlit for
■ \ at European
ipird bj Iska*^
L bj for*.t., _H P-^cat, b;
nTini*), th* nimniti of wbich
' 0* dflpoaita Aa for
con*aqu«Dca of th*
—'■**. laad*, Ac, U per
botiaB of*
tog aobdli
prairiia, and onlj U mi eant. being nndar cnltun. Tbe dial
botiaB of all th**i I*, lio«**«r, Ttrr nneqoal, and th* fin folli
tog aobdlriBOBa maj b* eatabUabtd :— (1) tb* IwkJnu ; (3) I
i (3) th* middl* r^on,
g tha fmrfaa
..--_..., , , „ . ampHaiog
____ lor uiicnitoi* and parttj oonrad with fortati ; (4) th* bUck-
artb (tBtanHiibn} ngfon; and |t) tha BUppg*. 01 '
btaab-authngkin,— abDatlKI,(IOO,000- — -"-''^ -
tha Oarpatblui ' »»-< .-._.,__
tb»ni«k w
Flnikni
twwtm MabMinMaa^ Slkfr. IMt.. mA XvHl 4^ BtsU^ (£wUii).
t of h
ivfllopod richlj* daring
^ _ . . jCinnit nlallT*!]' dry arin at that «poeh. On th*
throa-fialda ijatant eora has bo*n grown Bpan it for Iftj to nvrntj
conMcntlTo yttn withont maniUT. laolatad blask-auth ialanda,
laaa tvtil* af ceona, occur alao in Canrland and Korao, In th*
Oka, Volga, and Kama dapraaaion, an tha alopaa of tha Ural% and
in a Ibw patehaa In th* north. Toward* th* Black So ooait iti
thlckn«*a divinlahaih and it diaappaan In tha Taliajit la th*
•itnuir* region catered with t«ald<r-el*7 th* black *artb apptan
onlr in iaolitad pl*i!«, and lb* *til conaiato lor tha nutt part of a
•and; rlay, aontalning i mnob unallar adoutun of hnoisa. IVn
enltDr* fa poiilblB onfj with tiM aid of a oonaMeraU* qnantltf of
manon. I)Tais*s* flnding no ontlat tbraugh tba thick cla; eonr-
Dt tha fareet region It oftin eortred with *xl*nri**
t thieketaBpread-
north-w**t randtn igricnlton lnct«*atnglj diBcnlt. On th*
irfi^ttitian
yioallT, In tha aoDtb-aaat, tomid* U* CSapian, on th* alep** of
tbeaonthem Uiali and th* Oti*hehlr9]rrt,a*al*o in th* int*riorof
tb* Crimaa, and tn Ba*«al parta <A BaBamW then art la
af real deaart, conrMl with eoara maA and aoToid irf i^
Motwithatandinf th* fUt tlHt Bnaia artanda fram
aonth tbioigb H dagriw of latltoda, tba etimat* of it* diffiirent
jwrtiona. apart tW)m tba (Mmaa and tba Caacaan*, tmaanli a
ttriklng nntfonnitj. Tha aerial enrranta— erdoiw antt-aralnnn,
and d^ Bonth-anit winda— aitand tnr wid* torfion and croa*
the flat plain* froalj. Ercnwhara «a fisd a cold winter and ■
hot nunmer, both nr^lng In th*ir dnrstlon, but dllhring raU-
tirflly little In th* aatrame* of tamparaton r*eord*d, hom Tabl*
III. (p*geTe)it will ba Btan that *ai« i* no pUo* in Boeda,
Archangtl and Altlallhan Inelodad, wh*n the tharmaOMter doaa
not rlae in aaaner naarl; to 84* Fahr. and daasand in wintar to
-ir and-SI*. It la onlj on the Black Ben nat that we And
tba abaidnto range of tamparatnra redoaad to IDB*, while in the
nmaindar of Bnnia it nach** ISS' to III*, the oacUlatiani b*inB
batwasB-STto -Sl*,oeaaioBa]lT-Sr, and SB* to 101', oceaalon-
allj.lOt*. ZvaiTwharatherainfaUiaanaU: UFinlandandPolmd
on th* *n* band and Cauoaana with tba Caipian dafBHalon on th*
other ba aidlBdad, tb* erong* jaarlj nintall Tine* batwtea tba
limita of IS and 38 inchaL Eraiywhan, too, «a find that the
nailmiun ninfall doca not bka place la wliitai (•* In waaUm
Borape) but in mnunar, and that th* month* of advanaad aprlng
Tbouh tbin exbihitiiig all tht diattootir* faatun of a a»-
tinentaTclinata, Baaaia ia not altogatber aionpt thnn tba niad*r-
ating inflnanoe of Iha ocean. The Atlantio cjclonea alao naeh
tbt Knaaitn plain*, nitlsating lo aom* aitaat tba cold of th*
wintar. and in aummer bringing with then th*lr nukt wind* and
thuBilentoniu ; tbair inllatBO* ia cbidlf filt in waelem Bnaaia,
but ■rt*Bd* alao lowardi and bajnukd tba Vral*. Th*; thn* ch*ck
the ertaniion and limit the dnntion of the cold antii^ontft
ThrongbDut Kuaaia tb* winter 1* of long oontinauic*. Hk
laat daja of froal ar* nperiencad for the moat part in April, hnl
aJaa in Uij to tha north of M*. Th* apiing ia aicepdonalli
beuitiful iu centtil Buai* ; lata aa It oauiilT ia, it Mtt In with
•igour, and Tegatation develop* with a rapidity which giTtt to
thia aaaaon in Buaaia a apcoial charm, unknown In wanner
climita ; the rapid melting of anow at the lania time raiaaa tha
riien, and nndtn a graat aaaj minor itreama narigable for *
few week*. But a latum of cold waatbac, liyDiionB to n^tatioB,
ia ofaMrnd thraughuot oentnl and •aatarn Buaaia between Hay 18
and SI, ao that it ia oul; in Jnn* thit warm waathar aeta in
D the correapanding loli
'- eipcrianced irsrv'-'-
and in f ' ' '
1 Kuuua 11 ii
I of Franca, an
It doei
«1],
C trail for long, and in the fint half of September the Bnt fnut*
gin to ba ancriencad on the middle Uiala ; ths; nach weaUrn
and aoutbam Kuaaia in the fint daja cJ October, and are fait on
tba Caniaaaa about the middle of HoTembar. The tamperatnn
deannda ao npidl; that a month laUr, aboDt October ID oB
tha middle Unla and NDTauber IK tbraagbont Buaaia, the
thermometer oaaaaa to riae abon the freeilng point The rifen
rapidlf fraau ; towarda Norembar 20 all tha •Craami of tha Wliita
Baa bido an oonrad with ice, and ao nnuio for aa ateng* of
107 dan; thoae of the Baltic, BUck Bra, and Caapian baaiut
freaie later, but about Dacamhar 30 naari* all tha isnt% of tha
RUSSIA
nning bttwMD 150 dm in tha aottli ud M diyi •
IB, tteltat lor 100 to 110 d>]ra, nd tU Dnincr lor 8S t
in*. On tka DBn* loe pnniiti ii>vi8*tiaa for 191 daji, and
•no tb» Tktala >t Wamw toouiu fnuan for T7 dan. Tha
ktiiwt t«np*iatana an axpoienivd in Juiiuiy, in irhioh moath
Um areiaM ii ■• W aa 30* to G° Tihr, tbroaghont Baiaia ; in tfas
Mrt odI; d»M it ilaa ibon 3S°, On tha whola, Fcbnuiry ud
Kanh aoBtimw to ba oold, and tlieir aTarage lempentant riaa
r« onlr od tlu Black 8«i c«at Eren at KitB and Lngafi
• " --■ '- "-alow SO*, wbils is Cilitnl Euaaia it li 26"
and OrsBborg.
_„ ^ ... sen the iaotharma of 82"
wot M*. On tbg whol^ thar an aon lamota from ooe another
thiB am am As idaina ti Rortb Amniea, thoao of 411* to SS° being
diitcibBtad orar W d^nca of lititoda. The; an, on tha vbole,
faKliiiad toward* flu aontli in taatwn BoaaU ; thna the iaothenu of
W rana from 8t tttmbaia to OraDbnn, and tlwt of SG* from
Itonal to Utaldb Tha iDBadoD 1) aUlT peatet for tha winter
botlunu. tSoadj (blowing ooa anotha, tbaj mn alni«t north
■Bdamth ; thiaOdtaM umT KBnigabas an aitnited ou tha aama
winter botiitrm of W* ; as alao St Fatsnbnrg, Orel, and tha
>Hm4 of the Uial rirar (about SCT) ; Uuan and Ulk (»*]. Tha
Mr iiotlwniw ooaa tba above noarlr at right anglaa, to that
Otf and Ulk, Taraaw and Tobolik, Bip and ths neper Kama
mn tb* wma kTeiags nmmer lamperatiuta of (M°, 62} , and 01*.
Vtadt, JMAirK, JZafMUI— Tba iBTetttgatlaa of tha cji^onea
and antii7<danea in Kvaau casnotiayet bengardadaaoooi^tad.
It ftma, bowar^ that In Jannar; tba nslonn. monlr aim
Dorth-wnt fiuaia (north of NT and wtat ettV %. long.), tollawlog
dinotiona wbieh vaij batwaan north^aat and wnitli-aMt. In Jnlf
thoT aro diipUead toward! tha north, and enaa tha Onlr of Bothnia.
wbua laother aerin of ejpdonaa eroaaaa middle BoaMa, botween HT
are not yrt tatab
I foUorad by both,
In Jannanand ii
The lawa of tha antlcTcli
liihed. Tha wlnda cloaely depend on tl» ro
Oensrallf, hcwarer, It nuy bt nid that al
Jnlf wot and toDth-weat winda pt«nil In
. wblU
, noTthan
winda an moat common on tba Black Sea coaat Tha tBangtb of
the wind it graatar, on tba whole, than in tha continental parte of
waatara Europe, and It atlaiiu iti majdmom In wintar. Taniltla
gale* blow bun Octolxr to Uarch, eapeclally ou tho wmthim
■tappa* and on tha tundru. Oalci wjfli mow fhiraiu, mtaUli),
laating ftom two to three dajn, or northerly jcuaa wttbont OMnc,
an eapecially danserooa to nan and beaat The aniaga idatlre
moiatunreaiibaaW) toWperoent. In tbe north, and only 70 to 81
per cent In aontliam and tattcm RwbIb. In the ttappea it i> only
SO per ooDt dnring •ommar, and rtOl lea (BT) at Aatnkhan. Ilia
*TU«gB amonnt ai dond reaebee 71 to TE pu oant. on the White
Sea and in litfaoanla, AS to 61 in central Buia, and only GB to M
in the Boath and aouth-eait. tht amoont of rainfall Ii ihown In
the BotyDinad laUe (HI.):—'
KUngfbl-. ...
St F<tenbni(..
BoBoalonk
DCTpt....
IfiMeoi
Tilna
Wanaw ....
Onubnnr..
Kniik
BiaB
nuittyn..
Sai::::;:
Aitrakban.
ISObL
aOSopt
70ct.
lOot
rOoL
17 Oct
18 Oct.
noot
lOKoT.
ST Oct
BUar
UUay
aitay
»Ap<^I
M April
27 April
7A^
II Apia
SlHar.
G April
na Son Of BMb, wbidi r
t*w than of Qmmany aod Sibvia, i* aOildi^T nit
* mry Ingi ank Hioii^ not poor at any gt*en luca^
•a If Aa naoa wrnrian by Bnai^ be takm into aoea
8>t> iftolM «1 itanawganii and fcraa bainc known. Few gnat
Ngkaa may b« dfatlnpiMwd ;— tho AiaUo, &a Foiaat, die ai^p«,
•tba JrMa JMm aonprina Am Uaidnt of tba AreUs Uttoral
UyondttaBnrtaamlimtfrfltoatit lAkb kat doaely Ibllowa tba
l»iatHB^ wltb bandi towirdi tba north in tba rirar nlttya (TO*
jr. kt. in Iblasd, on tb* Antis Clnla about AidianiieL 68* S.
U; OB Hm Valkf 71* on Weat aibnia). Tba ibor^M of the
HT, flw dafietwT of dndnaga, and the UiidmeH of tha ~
thatnaUagofthacbanetniitioftataiaaof tb* tn
t> which ^
r fluae of norfliera Sberia and HorUi America
tnan nm ei eannal Bum, Heaca and liduna eorar them, *•
alao Oe Uldi, Oe dwarf willow, and a mle^ of abrnba ; bat
whan tba aoil i« drier, and bnmna ha* been able '
Tailety of barbaeeoni Bowaclng plaata,
aba in waatem Bnropa, make thdi ai
toSgo^Aunngamaanfinrndwiebinv „
Tba tirmt Sglan of tha Botaian botantrta oaeipiea flie gnater
part of tba eounliy, from flu Aidio bmdra* to tba 8te|na, and
It malnWna over lU* immenae antf ace a nmaikable nnlfoimitT
s( Aayim. H. Bdiafciff aabdirtdaa it Into two pottton*— tbo
fcnat n^oo jcow, and tb* "Anlo.fltnpa'' l^rtddiBb). Tb*
MfttMB llnft it ma Ant*-8tappe wonld be npneantad by a lina
dawa fhmi Qia Booth Frnth ttmngh Zhitomir, Enrak, lunboS^
wd BtwiopAo-Tolp to tb* aonKaa of tbo UiaL fiU tiM
fimat n^on pnqwr HMlf jnaeirta a caittin Taitety of anaot in
lie northern andaoothatn puta,aud nraat in ton baaMtn nb-
divldad Into two pirto — tb* eonKarona region and that ec flu oak
tcnal% — tb**a bong aapaiated by a lin* dnwn Ihnnf^ Akofl^
Koatrona, EanB, and Vt^ Of oouaa, tbo oak •coat* Ihrtbv
ncitb than' tiiiiL and oontbrfotealaaxtand{artluraoath,a(lTanciiu[
eras to flie boidar>i^ion of lb* Bteppaa ; bat fliia Use mnat ttiU
ba oonddarad aa important To tba aoitii of it we ha** dao**
fonatl, eoToring tmt laiga ana^ and intannptad oflenar by
marahaa than by nuadowa or onltiTatad AeUa. Vaat and Inpeiia-
trabk foTcati, MpeaaahU nMudHB and thlekativ freooant Uaa^
■wamjiy meadow*^ witb daand and dry qiaeea ban and tbw* oocn-
pled by Tillage*, an tb* leading featnn* of tha nglon. Ftahing
and himting an tba important tonne* «f_ UTclibood. The
chancteriatica^ of what may ba deaeribed a* the'oek n^on, which
compriaea all central Bovia, an totally dllfennt Tia ani&cs ia
nndulatory ; manhr meadow land* DO longer oiiat on the flat
watartlud*, and only a 1^ ahelter fltantalTea In tba mnch deeper
and broader rirar Yalleyt. Fomrte an etHI snmenna when not
deatiiiyed by man, bnt their chaiactn baa cl
nre, --'■■' -
.J . , changed. Conifen ar*
and the Scotch nne, wbkh ooran tha tandy nlalna, baa
the place rf the ..Ala; bkeh, oak, md othar deddnon* bfaa
— ' ' ■- • .1 . ■ jL. ■■ ;■ ■ J.
Jtr MMmUfH aaJ MMmnliti'ti aHnU^ BaMl^al tr IM ia* tatj ; Tee-
•eiaiikT, abe((^BWilaataa4an): md, ftMaaemrTinlirwfcii <!■ MHm.
Aiuaa, ia« (BoK) 1 ihwMH ma JitMie ef Ike OeevoUeal laciitr ; wa^
ta^wa la^b* JftMiW aaJ JMftWa at Un Aoand Mnaa. k «k fM(
el Ibe tlJwIHii SMMlH at lie imimUlaB. tadia Monnr JWMla, *•.)
Wwafcia—dLJitla ATTMJhtnrii^iiiliaaJlMllBtf B>a»eehi-lWli^
n»fciWi7«tMr,ial>iiWF»-iiaidira*«lialftM >■. Owy..fct,Mafc
MUHA.]
RUSSIA
maai, tha knduape tmwnH k Mswdng nriatj of oon-lald
ZnMt, wkOa &t beiiuD fa bnk*B bj tlw ball-tonn bI nnnMg
vUluM dung thg tiuki of Um itnanu.
Tiawid u > wlkott, ths loim of tha fonat ngtan mi
n Enniwui-Nbaiiui ; ud, thmA nrtain qadti Hm
t^a awL whila aaw onM maka Ui*lt u^ousae^ tt
Iha wbiMLtlM tuot dunettn thiminoBt bom Polud to Kmm-
ehatk*. nDa tlia baacb (AV" lynaMeoX • cbanotariatlc tn»
(/ WKtan Eiiiop«k !• uaul* to boi tba eontlnanUl cHiuta ■?
Bnau, osd doaa not puiatikta bajood Poland and th< MKitli-
ntarn BoriaoM, iMppmriH again In tks Crionft. Tha ulTar fir
(pidUa) dos oot Bxtand onr KiMa, aad Iha oak doM not enaa &•
Unli. On tlw otW hud, nnni IxkUe (poda (Slbarian iitH,
Iij 'b, Mdir} gnnr fnalj tn tba nnrth-oart, whfla ananl anniba
an I hoitiMMMM ^Hiti, ori^iUf fron tba Aibtii ata^a^ hnn
ap Md into &■ aooth-tut Bat all tb«a So not matlr >lta tbt
gcncnl shnnctaia af tho Tutatton. Tha ooniiaioa finti of
tbsDortk eontiin, biiddea conihn, ti» hSitib {Bthila aO^R fut-
actti*, B. fimUam, and B. ttmmm, which kIukI noM tha
Pttdion to the Caocuui], tha aipen, two jpgdia of *ld», tha
mo 'Dtaln-aih (SOriiu tatmpa.ria\ tho wild ohBrr7-tnik uid threa
BH i« of willoir. SoDth tf 82* - SI' Dorth'ktituda sppaan tha
\im <-ti«a, which mnltiplia* npidlf and, DOtwithatanding tba
np tlltir with which it ii btiug aitenniiBted, Hmatitataa aotin
farvaU in tho aut <CMitn] Tol^ Tib). r»thtr nnth tha uh
(/Vnnwiu owbCiir) wd fht oak mako tbtir »pp«atnnc^ tba l>U«r
(QiHi uw yrfniiniliTfti) waehing la l»eU(«d groupaand tnaoufu'ia
._ =. «_.__t . o.^ti, nil*— ^ '" "-* ■- '- '*■-
It in tha •onth Mrt of Iha coBitaoaa ngion.
in 773 Bowering apodii •» found.
at which 568 dinotjladona occur b tha Aicbangal goTarnnNot (i
4M to tha aait of tti« Whit* Saa, whtoh I( a botanlca] limit for muijr
•pode*]. In oantnl Boaia tha apedia bacooM itiU mora nnBtarou,
and, tbsiigh tha local loraa cannot r*t ha oonildarad oomplota, tbar
sombar fram SSO to lOSO ■pecia* in tba aapaiata garanuMnla^ Ud
■bant IWO in tho bart rapforad jaiti tt Va» aonth-wwt Cora fa
onltiTatod tfuoaghant tbfa legiaii. Ita nortbam Urnfa which aco
■an to adranoa atill taitha ai tha population liiiiiniin iliiiint
1 .t. ._..,. _j^ ^ ^j Varangw Hardi hrtbar aaat '' —
h« north U AnbaDga), and tba Umit li
'nil. Tha northam fnntlar of m dcwlj <
apoodi to that ol larU;, "Wheat fa cnltiTated in Bontb Kniand,
bot Id weattm KuwU it hwdl j paaac tS* S. M. Ita traa domaini
are tha oak ngiao and tha Steppei. Finlt-traaa ara oultjrated ai
Tba Stgion qf OU BItpfa, which Kmn lE amtbam Buria, maj
bo nbdirlded Into two unaa— as intarnwdiata nna and that of
tba Btappaa propac. Tho Anto^tappa of tba pnoading ra^on and
tha latannedfata lona of tha Stappaa inelade Aoaa tncta whara
tha Weat-Euro^«an climata ttnigMi with Qia Aeiatfo, and vImib
a itraggia fa boug oairiad on banaan tha Ibnat uid Uw Steppa.
It U compcfaad batwaan tba nnmar faotbrnuof IV and tS*, Mng
hoondad OB tho anoth by a lino wUeb nuu throng EIntorinoalaff
■od Logafi. floath of tbfa Una bacin dia Stappaa pnpar. wbioh
aitaud to tha aaa and panatiat* to tba foot of UawX Cnaum.
Tba Stappaa ptopar an vrj brtila alaratad plaLa% ili^tly
andalated, and intanaotad hj nDmaroia tarinaa which an £; in
•ODuuer. Tho nndoIatioDi in aoaroalj qipanut to tba aja aa it
takca Id a wide pniapact nndai a bla^ng ana and with a donhbloa
m\.j oTHheail Sot a traa u to ba aean, tha few wooja and
thickata being biddaa In tba dapnaaioM and d*«p vaUan of tha
rircn. On tba thick ahaet of bbofc Mrth bf wfaicli tba Btapp* it
coTccad a luxorioBt ngetation daralopa In ipring ; aftat tha old
Eiaa baa bean boninl a bright groan ooran Immaoaa atntdia^
t tbfa npldly diaupaaia nildar tba hnmiDg nji of ib» ion and
tha hot natarljr winita. Tba colowing of & Bt^pa ohaogaa ae
If by magiD, and OdIt tha ailTan ^nmea cd tho Inyl {Stipa
wMobi) wara nudat tha wind, ^rug tho Stama tho aapoot of a
bright fellow aaa. Ftr dtfa tc^athar tha tnnllar aaaa no other
TagetuUoni araa thia, bowerar, diaanaan aa ha nean .tba ngiona
noantlr laft drj bom the ftnriaa, man nlted eUn ooTMad «it]l
a fav Sabolaeim, or man Haifa, take tba plaoa of uia Hark aarth
Han bcgini tba Anl-Caapiaa daaoit Tha atappa, howorar, fa not
ao davoU of tiaaa aa at Ent aight ai^wan. iDnameialda oloatan
ti wild ebarrlia (Aimim CBowiaHrnou), wHd apriooti {Amyadahit
una), tdutiJima (Ompaiia /nKooni), and otbar darap^rootad
ahntb* grow in tha da^aaaiona of the aor&ca and on tba alopra of
tha laimaa, giring the 3teppa that charm which manifeata itaelfin
tlia popular poetrf. UDfortooatalT the spread of caltiTation fa fatal
to taaae oaaca (they are oftan callad " ielanila " bj tha inhabilantaj ;
tha aia aad tbo ploB^ rotblealj daatra j tham.
Ha TaaatatioB of the poiif and nimucAoi in tha marahr
bottoma of tha laTipM. and In the rallayi of atruanii and rlrtn, fa
totally dibnnt. The msfat toil give* fne daTalopiaeot to thickata
irf rariooa willow* {SaUdiuM), bordered with denaa natli of worm-
wood and naadle-baaring Compimta, anil intarapanod with rich bat
not axtawiTa pniriaa harbonring a gnat Taiiaty of harbactaoa
^antaj while In lb* deltaaof the Black Saa riioia iinpeDotTable
maaaa* cf nah (Anniie Phn^wtila) iheltar a fomt faaoa. lint
ealtiTalian n|>idly chaoijea tba phTsicgnoniy of tha 3tappa. Tba
pralTfat an npanad*d by whaet-fiilda, and Bocka ol a1i«>|i dalioy
the tni* atoppe-giaB {Slipa pHiitata\ which rotires farther eaat
A great many q»d(* unknown in the fonat legion make their
appaaranca in tha Blappea. Tlia Bcotch pina atill ooTtia aandf
apacea, aad maida [Act tatarita and A. atmpain), the horabeini,
and tha whita and black popIarbecDmac^uiteccmmon. Tbannnber
lA ipaciea of buhacoaua planti npidly increan, while boyond tin
TolgaaTaiia^of AaiaticBpecleaJoin the ThI KnropeaB Bora.
"Ae CVnvM-JMitorrHuas Bifian i* T*pr**eDl«l by a narrow
atrip of land on ttw aouth ooait <4 tha Crimea, where a climate
rimuar to that of the HaJilenanaan coaat hai pennitlad tlia
daralopment of a flora cloaely raKmbling that of ths rallay of tha
Amo. Of coon*, hnnun coltirstloo ha* iiot yet acclimatinl
then the same rariety of planfa aa that imported into Italy since
the Romaae. It hai eien deitroyed the nch foreata which aixly
yean ago made deer-boating poMJblo at Kbersouca. The olive
and the ebaatnut an rare ; but the bncb resppaan, and tha
Film* FbuutJT recalli tha Itnliin pins*. AI s few polnti, ancb aa
tba Nlkitaky garden and Alopka, when plasla bar* bcon acoli-
laatlasd by hiunao agency, tha Cslifomisn WMi^imia, the
Iiabaaon cedar, many etrrgrren trees, the faarel. lbs eypreaa, and
area tha Anatolian palm [CKamrnvf enalta) flonriah. The
gnaa Testation fa Terr rich, and, according to Ifata itill inoom-
plate, no fewer than 14M flowaring plants are kgowd. On the
whole, the Crimean flon has little in common with that of the
Caacasna, where only 214 CriuDan apectw hareai yet been found.'
The fsnna of Ennpean Bnsais does not Tsry materially difler
from that of waatem Europe. In the fonata not uiany aninuis
which ban disappeared tnin weatam Edtoh hare held their
groand; whila in the Unfa only a Csw— now Slberfan, bot formerly
■lao Enropaan — an mat with. On tha whole, Rtuua bclangi to
tba same aoo-gaDgnphical r»lou sa cnntnl Eorope and nortiieru
Ada^ tha earns (anna eitendiujt in Sibeii* aa hr aa Uia Yenisei
and Lena. In ■ontb.raitarn Rnsna, bowaTsr, towards IheCiBpian,
we find a notable admiitnre of Asiatic specis^ tha daaarta of that
Krt of RuBiia belonging in reality ntner to tha Aral-Caspian
preauon than to Enrepa.
For the loo-geographer only three aepajalo sab-rsgiona appear
on the East-Earepean plain* — the tnndraa. inclnding the Arctic
falands, the tonat regnon, aapecially the oouirereos port of it, snd
the Ante-Steppe snd Steppe* of the blsck-earth rwon. Tha Tnl
moDntaina ini^t be diatmgnishsd • . a foorth sub-reajoii, while
the sooth cosat of the Crimis and Oancaiua, aa well ae the Caspian
daaerta, hare Ibeir own iDdiildnality.
As tor the adjoining seas, the fauna of tha AreUc Ocean off the
IforweEiaB ooaat comnponda, in ita western parti at leaat, to that
ottheKorth AtlanticOnlfStream. The White Sua snd the Antic
Ocean to ths cast of Sryatoi Hoa belong to a separate nolodcal
ngion connected with, and hardly sspanble from, that part of tbo
Arctic Ocean which ntend* along the Siberian coaat aa br as to
about the Leo*. The Black Sea, of which the fanna was former!/
littls known bnt Bow ippean to b* ytrj rich, b*lonn to the Uedi-
teiraneau ngion, slightly modiHed, while tha Caapian partakea of
the. charactoiislic fauna inhaluting the lake* and seaa of tha Aisl-
Caipian depraadcn.
In ths region of the timdiaa life baa to contend with anch un-
IsTDUnbfa condition* that it cannot be sbnodsnt Still, the rein-
dear frequents it for its lichens, snd on the drier alcpea of tha
moraine depoaite four spociea of lemming, bantfd by the Canit
lofoput, Snd quarter*. Twoapedes of tba white partiiaae (Zofogiui
aOut, L. alpiiua). the lark, one PUiiniffiana, two or ihiee Ipecica
of Sglvia, one PkyltcmcBpvt, and the MoUurilla most ba sdded.
^un^rleas aquatic birds, huwerer, riut it for breeding pnrpcaea.
Docks, direra. geeae, gnlla, all the Buafau species of snipa* snd
sandplpsre {LirAieuia, Tringa), Ac, cover the marahea of tha
tondras, or the cnga of the Ltptand coast
The (oreat r<^an, andnpeciallyita conifenma portion, thoogh it
ha* lost some of ita ivpnaeatatirea within liistoric timoa, fa atill
rich. The reindeer, npidly dlssppearing, fa now met with only in
Oloneti and Vologda : ths Ctrmt mgarguM fa found erarywhere,
aad raachca Korgorod. The wi
le fox, and the hare are exceed-
78
R [T S 8 I A
huij toaaua, u aba Ilia uralf ind ths bMr In lb* nortli ; but
a* ^tUB (Otis tonntii), the Ivni, uul etan tlia alk (C. obu}
H« I>(ddl7 dlnpwuiag. Tha *ild boar la eDnflDad to tha buin
•( tba DUu, and tha Km wnnaa to tha BialoTjaiha fnaata.
na aaUa bu qnita diMppwnd, baitig touod onlf on tbe Unli;
tb* basTtt ia IovimI at ■ Tew plana in Uimk, and tha otter
k TMj ran. On tha othar hand, tha hara (nmnai), and alao tha
ffvj partridga [AnNe timna), tha badnahog, tha quail, tbe luk,
&a nxA {liypnnomm /tufOtga), and the itork find Chmi way
Into tha teo^HHU nglon a* tha [onata are cinred (BoftdaooS).
Tia iTiTaniiB nt tbia nglon ii -nrj rich; it inctudea all tha rocaat
tud gardan Uida irbkh an known in mstata Eanipe, aa veil ai
a T<CT craftt nria^ itf acioatla blrda. A liat, alill incamplaleL of
tb*hbdiofStP*tanbnrg<howa25- " " ^ ' '
bg ^n ttocanalioii to ■ mat nai
lai* for. Aa loT lahaa, alT thoaa i . ...
awp, an mat vith In the Uksa and riT«n In immcDie qoaiitilis*,
tba ohacutarlatia faatora of tha nglon baijig 111 vealth in Coroffoni
nd in SalmoiMM genarall;.
In tba Anta-3t«ppa tba tartit apooiM propar, inch aa Planm^
mIom aid Tamiai Mriatiu, diiappaar, hut tbe oommoD aqniml
geimv nf^orw), tba ireaael, and tha bear an itill met with
tba (oreatu The ban ii incnaring rapidlj, u wall M the fox.
Hia ftTllaana, at courw, becomca piwnr ; nerarthaleaa the wooda
tt the Stappa, and itill more tha fonata ot the Ante-Steppe,
iriTa nTnoB to nuui; bin!*, ertn to tha haial-hen (Tatroo bamuia),
tbe WDodoook, and tha black grooae {TtinK MHe, T. vreoalhu],
Tb* bmub o( tha Ihickata at tbe bottom of the rirer Taileji la
MuntinKand i
0 bacondni aouoe In cmMqiuDc* of tbs
I, wbHa miun, aoob aa tha aulik (Spirvut'
banoma ■ laal pbgne, aa ain tba dnbnetiTa
Man > Konige to agrioiUan dnring recent
T«n.> n* abianc* of CBrwmi ia a chanutarirtio Itetnra ot tlia
bh-IUuu of tlw Stmpn; the cup, on the contmr, raappean,
■nd tb* liTfa in lien in atorgeoiK (Aciptnuridaj. On tba Volga
v-i — wii-i iir J .V. itorgBon (JciptTUB- rutVnw), and
LI alao a Terj gnat Tarletj of canoidl
i, appaar ia aoch qoandtlea that tbej giie
to naariy 100,000 people. The month* of tha Caapian
•apadallj eBlabratid for their wealth of Bah. ■
Frahutoria anthropology la a aoanse of rerj TMent growth in
Bona ; and, notwitbatandtng tha anaigy diapUyad within that
laid during the lut twenty year*, tha taak of raconatmcting the
■ariy hiatocy ot nun on the plaina of eaatem Kniope ia dailjr bacom-
I , oompUcal«d *■ new d*la an braojiht Co li^t Samaina
P^taTS, and Tonnuib, and perbapa alao on the Oka. nmaa el tba
lata portioni of tha lacoatiine period, mt the oontrary, ue aa
Domnou* tb*t (caraelr on* old lacoattina baain in tba region* of tba
Oka, tba Kama, tha Dnieper, not to ipaak of tha taka-iegion itMiU,
and aren the White S«* noaats, can be mantioned whan remains
of Heolltbio man bare not bean diacoTared, ahoving an nsai]MCtod
rarietT of iDlnar anthropological feattuBi, aran at that remote
parloi The Bnauan pleini hare bean, however, tba acsne of ao
many migratiana of Tarioua raou of mankitid, tbe dwell Ing-placta
at lasblatolio man and the rontaa followed during hii migrtitioDt
weia BO clearly Indioated by natonl i»DditionB, and ao often ra-
ooonpiad, or again eorarad by new wafaa ot colonintion and migra-
tion, that at many ptuta a aerlea of depcaita belonging to widely
diatant apocha are toond atiperpoaed. Bettlementa belon^g to the
Stone age, and mannfaatorfet of atone tmplemeata, bnnal gronndi
(ioffuAcAiH] of tha Bronaa epoch, earthen folia (sorsdMthai), and
*?S(Mi«r«a(.-Tlii _
e( Baalbk Mt«>* a TtfaaMTAaKli ngr (ha I
tftaApaaaaiitelkaRaMaatnailadiaotRa
wok (fnau XmnHU JIHH- JriaMH, and Ih
ra moonda (lurpaMi)— of which laat four diflereut typea aTit
>WD, tb* ewbaat taloDging to tba BcoBie period — ecr iraperiKwul
in and DbUlenle on* another, ac '' ' * ~ '
iriea of ra-*atvbor
generaliationa may be reaflied.
Two diffoent nan — ■ brachycepbalic and a dolicbooepbalio — can
ba diatin^niabed amanf tba lemaina of tha earlier Stone ported
8dciutrine period) aaharing inhabited the plaina at eaatrrn Europe,
at tbey are eopantsd by ao many ganarationa from tha aailieat
hialorio timea thai anre coneluaiona regarding tliam an jmpoaeiMe :
at all ereute, aa yet Ruaaian arcliBoEogiata wa not agreed aa to
whether the anceeton of the SlaToniani wen Sumatlaii* only or
Bcythiina ataa (S-imokTaaaff, Lemitrc), whoae aknlla hire nothing
in oomman with thoae ot the Uonsolian nee. The eatUeM points
that can, oomporatiTely (pe>)dii(L be regarded as aettled muet thue
be Cak*D l^oni the let oaatary, when the Northern I'inm mignted
from tha Nerlh Dwina region toward* the wnt, and the SanpatiiLna
were cmnpsiled to laart tha regloa of the Don, and to cr« tlie
Soaalan BlBp|iea from aari to waat, aodar the praenm of the AortM
itha liordTiniaa Enyal) and Biru^ who in their turn were aoon
allowed by tba Huna and tha Ugnr-Torldah atam ot Arara.
It appaui certain, moreoTtr, that In the 7th centnrr aonthem
EoMia waa occajiied by tha empire of th* KSAuu (j-v.), wb«
diore the Bnlgarun*. dgacandanta of tiM Hon*, Ihim the Don, one
•action of them migrating ap tht Tolga to fband there tb« Bol.
niun empire, and the nnuundei migniUng towird* tlw Dannb*.
Tfai* migration compelled tb* Bortbam TlnDB to adTanoa farther
weat, and a miitura of TaTasb and Karelian* p*n«tnt«d to tb*
aouth ot tbe Qolf of Finland,
Finally, it ia- certain that aa atrly aa tba 8th oantniT, *>d
probably atill earlier, aalnam of Slaronlan oolonluUon, ailrandDg
eaatward ftom tha Danaba. waa tfannm on tha plaina of aoDtb-
waatem Kiuiia. It ia also moat probable tlut aiotbar similar
■traam — tha nivlbam, coming thnn tba Elba, thnmgh tbo barin ot
tb* Tlitola— onsht to ba diatiogniaked. In tb* Mh CMttnr; th*
Slaroniana alnady occnpted dia Upper Tlatnla, tba aonthan part
of tbe lak* region, and tbe cantraT platean in its wNlwn part*.
Thty bad Uthoai^an* to tli* we*t : rarioni Jinnlab atama, niird
towarda the aouUi-aaat with Tnikiab atema (tha pTeauit B*>hklra) ;
the BotgarL who** origin (till nuain* doabtt^I, on tba middle
Tolga end Kama ; and to ttia aaath-eaat the TnrUah-Hongallan
'sral Slarcmlan stem*, and perbapa aleo aania at
.._ . . „ - 1 tbs 0th century alao the Ugrlana are auppnrd
to hare left 'hair Ural abode* and to hara croa>sd *out'
Finniib origin. In tbs 0th century sL
_ . andifweadd to tbem tlie Uongoliu luTafHnn, t
migmtjon of South Blavaniana towaida the Oka, the Nui
Blaronian eolonimtion attending nortb-eaat tnwaiil* tb* Urate a
thence to Siberia tb* slow adTanea of Slannians Into Finn:
toritory ontlie Voln, andat abtar period their ad Tancs into i
prairie* on the Bbdi Sea, driring baclc tbe Tnikisb ttanu wh
occapied tbem, — if we eonaider the manlfoM mntait biflueucci
I ahsll ba able to fon
(Falea, Ctacha, and Wends), tbe aontbem (Sraha, Bnigaiiaaa, Croi.
tians, Ac), and the eaatsm (Oreat, Little, and Wbit* Bneeians),
it will b* eeen thet, with tha eieeptioB of aoma 1,000,000
Ukniniaaa or Little BoaaiaoB, In East Qallda and In Poland, and
a few on the aonth slope of the Carpathian*, tha whole of the
East SlaTonians occopj, a* a compact body, weaton, centra], and
•onthem Bneala.
Like other noea ot mankind, tha Ruaaian rao* I* not a pur* one.
The BnHiana baTs taken b and aaaimilated In tha oonrae ot their
hiatoiy a variety at Finnish and Turco-Finnlab alementa. Still,
craniologjoal reaearobea show^that. notwithitandinc tbia faot, tha
antbropolcgioal featona aa an aaen in Uioa* of oat own day. This
may b* explained by a nii*^ of eaua*% of vbioh tba abfa ia the
maintananca bytlM BUToniauidown to > v«Ty IM* parbd of gantHe
OTganiiation and geotQe marriagea, a Act Tosdiad ur, not nily in
tha puea of Naetor, but atill mora t^ deep trace* Ml Tiaibla in tbo
face ofaociaty, the ;«u later on paanng bito dia vfllaga oommnnil?,
and the coloniiation being carried oD by great Ooonact bodies.
Tbia has all along maintaiMd tbe aam* Aanalar*. Tb* KnaaiiM
■" ' "^JF**' " '*''*'^ indiTldlttl* ; tb*r migrate in whele
The orerwbelnilng numbera of tka Slarailan*, and the
' dilfor«aeeain*thn{eal trp^ beUef, mytbology, between
■ ~ - ■ li^ya ooBMbaled in tbe sans
ry great dilfoi
a £rfBt anc
reotion, and ti
aee that, whih * , „
Sibtriana, readily marriea a Dattra, tb* Banian woman aeldom doH
the lib. AH tbtae eauao, andeapeoiBDj the Brat-mentieaed, hare
•nabM tb* SUvonlui* tc
ideapedallj the
laintaln tbdr M
K U 8 8 I A
79
_ ■ tb* (Umlcil tnt, wiclxnt
eMu lin to kalf-bnad new. Th* lulntanuca of tin Tecy nnic
BerU-BMriHi trpilram Honsrad to tb* pKific, with bnt minor
(llBtaMltotioM o> lb* irat*kirt»~*ad thii notwithitmndiDg tlia
IB of Wlttt
I, vilbout
midBg viA MtiTM. bat Ttry alcnrly bcingiH thtrn orer to Uii
Koafaa ■■■DOT of Ui^ tod Uiva *(T7 ilowlr t)£iu* in k ft* hnulo
ekmenn fnm tb*ID— gixi th* Ittf to tfau prainiHut fnlun of
IJMWtM Bit, vUeb ii a fsoloni^tica oa ua inniHUA vaI*. ind
iMJiBiktinn of bnlgBw^ Tltbont In turn loaiag lb* phnurj
Not m with tba Mlinul CMtMm. Than ■n_[Mtiim — th<
'• ono, tb* faatb— wUcb tb*
....,._ .. oa tbeaa mcvm-
■ •omdiiw to bal nam* ; b* BwdiflM bi* dn** ■nd idapt* hi*
nligtoSB btUen to tb* IsaJitj' b* lobibita. In oomnMnii* of all
Uii^ tbe Baabu pMsit (iwt, b* II nottt, tb* tnd*r) mart b*
neoeoixad u tb« bat cdoBlnr amou tiM irju» ; b* lira* aa tb*
bat tara* «itb IMakt, Tnttn, Bari*l% tod ma vilb Red
Indiiua nben loM io tb* pnlria of th* Annlcu Fkr-Wot
Tbna diArrat bnncbo, *U^ buj bccouw Ant npant*
dT tb*lr hlitorr i— tb Onat KbiJ*!!*, tb* Uttic Rudina
(nuorna** or Ukninklul, and tbe Wblta RiwibiBi [tb* Bido-
ruMH). Tbf*a oormpond to lb* two cnmnti of immignliun
iHutioD^d than, lbs aortban ind watharn, with wrhip* u inlar-
ncdiato osa, th* proper placa of tb* Wbtt* '^"■"— not biTing
u jat beBi cxartly detenmnad. Tba primarr dlatlnctiou bttncD
tho* bnocht* hate b««n^ inm—Ed daring tit* lut nlo* o*Btaiw(
"« Oiaat BoMiaa*
indRnlng ao
mbniitting to
ilact with aflcrant iiationlitfea,— fli*
Pinnldl alamanti, U* Lttti* E - ' "
ot Torkidi blood, aul tha Wblta
brtbair
bikuig I
ulDiitDie or Torkidi blood, aul tha Wblta Rovbiu mbmiRing
Litbnaniu inflncnca. Hononr, DotwitbaUndiog tba onltT of lin-
gn;^, It VHn tadMactanMnigtb*a«tBaMiuu tb«niHlni two
Kpaiatc btanebei, difl'*ting (Tom ana anothar bjr alight diTat][nicaa
orlaugo^* aod tjpa and dwp dltwdtlta of aatlaiul charactar,—
"-- "-- "-il RiMwnt and tha Votgorodiwu ; tha btter citend
onr, tbat minj minor (ntbrnolocinl ftatniM eaa ba dutinguidwil
both mamng tfe( Onat and l/ltb AMkmh dtpandlng probablr on
Ui* a*an>llat[«i of nrion* niMr nbdirisloM of tbe Cnl-Altuuii.
Th* Onat Kmdani nambn abaot 13,000,000, and occupy ia odi
bloeb tb* ipK* f ncbanl ij a lin* drawn from th> Whila Se> to
tha •onroM a( tha wittan DMa, On Dnaipcr, and tb« Doacti,
*iid th*>ee, tbra^h tba nontb of lb* Ban, bj th* Ycttnn, to
lltzeL To th* aaat of tbii twnndaiT thry are miiad with 'niico-
Finn*, bat In th* (/ral UonntaiB* thar Rtpp**r in a compact body,
and mntDd thenn Jifongh aontbtra Bibina and along tbe counn
oT Ibe Lani aad Amor. Ortat Rnidan Donmnformiit* m illucmi-
utad among Littla RsBiani in TehtruigDlT and Uoghlleff', and
they nappear In giwttr mama in NoraroBla, aa alio in nartli*rn
Tb* Little Rn»ian«, who nambar iboot 17,000,000, omipy tba
Stappa* of aoDthem itnuria, lb* >oath-waitnn dopN nt the central
plit**ii and tfaoaeof tbt Carnalhiui and Lnblin moantaini, end the
Carpatbian pUt*aa. Th* ffllcb of th* Ziporog Coi*«:lii colonind
tb* Slippu farth*r cut, t^wuUi th* Don, whan they mot with i
latgB popaUtion of Gnat Ruanan runavan, conadtuting tha
pre**ot Una Cmaclu. Th* Zaporog Caamcki, Knt b; Catherin*
11. to coloniio tha eut coait of tha Sh of Aioff, conatltut*] then
the BUek a« ud later tbe Kobafi CoiMck* [part of whom, the
XckniOTbir, mlgnl*d to Turkey). Thej ban alw paoplul Utga
]Mrt* of StaTTWwl and uorthnu C^nona.
ThiWhitcRaMianLUliad tDBomaaiUntwith Great and Little
Ruaiaoa, Pole*, aod LithatDlan*, now oecapf the Dpper parts of tbe
OU all orer nonbera RoMla, aTan then wen •ubdiiided ii
Ugrian^ ParaJan^ Bolgarluie, and Finn* proper, who drtiTe bi
the pnTiont Lapp popalation from wT ■ ' - -^ '
tha Ttb eratarr penatnted to the lontb of tb* Gulf ot Finlend, li
>n of th* LJicaand -
uandlotla.
Titb'ljtt
At prewnt tha*t*mi of FinnUi
^an, trben they mixnl to bo
At prewnt tha*t*mi of FinnUi origJa in npnaaatad in I
Ktha followifBg:— (a) tb* We*tara Finni; th* TiTtst* in a
ilaSdi Of kTiBM, fa porth-vHten finlanilj th* Kai*:
in tb* (wt, «ba aln ooMpj lb* laka-rrgloaa of Oloneti and
Archangd, and hav* nttlamanlB in ■eparata Tillaiaa in NoTgoTod
and Tver ; tha Iihon and Vod, which an local nimse for tlia
Finn* ob tha Ken and tba •outb-eiileni coait of tha Oalf of
Finland ; tba Enh*a in Eathooia and northern poriion of LiToula;
the Liveion tha Oulfof Riga; end tbe Kon, miud with tbe Latla;
(i) tbe Mortham Finite or Lappa, in northern Finland and on
the Kola penlnnd), ud the Banioyede* In Atcfaangel ; ((> Clia
Volgs Flniw, or ratlim the old Balgerinn bnucb, to which Uoloug
lb* UonoviNiAK* (f,*.) ind pertaniia th* Tcbirecniun lu Knut,
Koatmna, aud Vjatka. who an alao duaiiiccl by um* oulbon
with tba toilowins ; (lO tti* Peruioni, or Cli-Drallau FiiiiiK. in-
cluding the Votiaka on tha cail of Vjatka, tha Penuiima in Ptnn,
tha Zjriana In Vologda, Anbangel, Vyatka, and Pern, aud tha
Tehenmiw* ; fa) th* Ugriani, or Tnns-Uralian Fianii, inclnJiug
th* Vognli on both ^pca of the Urali, Ilia OatUka in Tobolak
and partly in Toniak, and tb* lI*dJaR*. OT Ugnani.
Tb* Tiuco-Tartata in EurajMn RiuU nnniber aboot 1,800,000.
Tha tallowing an tbeir chief nbdiviaioni. (1} The Tartan, of wlioia
three diRarant itema ronat b* diatingnuibeil ;— <a) the Kamh Tartan
on both bank* of th* Volga, b*loir the mouth of tha Oka, aud ou
the lower luma, penatnling alio farther eoalb in Ryaiafl, TaDlbolT,
taman, Bimbink, and Paoaa ; (&) the Tartan of Astrakhan at tba
montb ot th* Volga; and (c) tboae of the CrioKs, ■ gicit many ot .
whom haT* noantlj einigrated-lo Turkey. Then trt, b«ide<,,a
certain nnmberof Tartin From the eouth-eiiet in lliuik, Croduo,
■nd VUna. (3) Tb* Budikira, vho inhabit tha ilopa of tii* uutlicra
Ifiala, tbali^ tba Btappatof Ufaaad Orenbnig, eitrudiug alao into
Ptim and SaDiata. (Sj Tba Tcboraehea, on tin rlglit bank of tb*
Tolgk, l> KaaB and aimUnk. U) Tha Uocbetiaka, b tribe ot
Pinni^ origiB which fannerlj inbatntad tha haiin of the Oka, lud,
driTOB tbiiice during tha Ittb cmtary by tba nnaaian coloiiinn,
Immigratad into Ub and Pam, where thay now lira anolig Buh-
kiia, baving adoptMl tbeir nligioo ud cnatoma (S) Tb* T*plcn,
alao tt PtuDBb oiiciB, nttled among Tartan and Baabkin, togetber
with tb* UaaeheriBk*, alao in Swnan and Vyitka. Th*y ban
adeptad tb* icligioa and csitool* ot tbe Baabhita, trou whom tbor
can hatdlj be dlatliguiebML Th* Baabkin, ll*K;liFiiaha, and
Tsptan haTa nadartd abl* aartic* to tha Ruaiian Oorarmmnt
upuoat tb* Kirgbii**, and uitil IStS they coaiMtnted a aaiMrat*
£*hkir and U**ch*Ti*k Cnaaeka army, eMplayed for nri
tba Kirgbii Slappa. (0) Tb* Kirghiiea, whoe* tnie abodee i
Aaia, in the lihim md Kirgliii Btapp* ; bnt one eection ol
croaaed th* Dral* and occnpied tha Steppea betwcan the Urale and
the Volga. Only tbe Hord* ot Bukaeff ^babiti Europeui RoMit,
north-aeit of AjiUakhaD, tb* ramaindaT belonging I« Ttirkeatan
and Siberia.
Tha Uongolian nee b npnaented In Rnina by tbe I^malt*
Ealmok*, who inhabit tbe Bleppea of Aitnkhan between th*
Volga, th* Don, and th* Kum*. They immignted to tb*
month of tha Volp from Dznngaria, in tbe 17th century,
driring ont tb* Tartan and Nogaii, and el^er muy win with
the Don CoMCcka, followed by treatiei of mutual aniiUnce for
milita^ ucanions, one part ot them wai taken iu by the Don
Coaeacu, to that eten now then an among th«* Co*ncki
•ereral Kalmnk nCiioi or lanadiona. Thay live tor th* moat
part in tent*, lupportiiig tbaioacUet by cattle-breeding, and
partly by igricultnra.
Tbe BemitleracebrepnaBBtedin Ru^by upward* of S.000,000
Jewi and SOOO Karailca Tha Jewi fint entcnd Poland from Ger-
many during the cruiadei, and loon apread through Lithuania,
Conrland, tha Ukraine, and. in tbe IStb oantnry, Beuanbia. Tha
npidity with which Uie^ peopled certain lowui and wliole pro-
Tincea iraa nally prodigiooa. Thoi, ftom haTing been liut a few
doiena at Od**u aome eighty yeirt >ince, they make now one-thini
of iti ^pcUtion (7S,1<W, out at 207,000). The law ol Riiaiia
prohibiu them from entering Great Bumla, only the wulthiett anil
meat educatad enjoying thii pririlege ; neierlheleu tbry an met
with every where, o*en on the U«1a Their chief abode., hoirsver,
continue to be Poland, the weatem proTlncoi of Lilhiienli, IVhila
and Lirtle Ronb. aud Beaunbia. In Buuiiu Poland they an in
" " ifa. InKojno.Vilne, Woghilcff'
probably alM in Bceurabia and
aaenuQ, Luej couiuLuie, ud ijie avenge, IQ Co 16 per cent- of tha
population, white in temnte diittlcta the pcoportion rcechaa SO
to SB per cent. (tO'E in Tchion}'). Organiied ai they an into a
kind of community for mutual protection and mutunl help (tba
Eahal], they aooo became muten of the tnda wbenrer tiiey
penetnte. In the TilligFe they in 'te&illj iankeepen, inletme-
diuia in trade, and pawnbrokera. In many towud most of the
ikilled Uboann and agreat many ofth* uuikillrd (for iuilance,
th* grain-porten at Ou^ssa and eJeewhere) are Jew*. Jn the IG
weatem proiincea of Buult thry snmbered 2,843,100 In 1S83, and
al«ut 182, WM in fire Polish pmirinced. U%l theu B00,000 of Ihem
inhabit Tillage*, th* rrnulDder being conceiitnrled in towna
Tha Kanites diner antlnly trom the Jews both in wanhip and
in ipode of lli*. They, too, an indincd to tmlo, but alao aacofa»
Grodno, Volbynia, Podolla, ai
1 3 I A
AD«7 in VDnoa HniB viui lo* ■"—■"■
(X TcH KatOBMB^ onlf tka Oemuu attiin eonddanbls iraiii-
bar* (opwdi M ■ tatnion) tn Emipws Ibuiii. In th> lUtio
towriDOM tb«* aatHtata mt iiuM>bl«l Iksdlotd eiiM, and that
•r tl>dM>u tod «rti — •- "— " "^ '
GnanDi, ilo lndMm<
naaj al Ibdugar toi
bsTliic Im*& inTllad b; ^s Oortnunant to nttle ia SuMia, ud
thtir Miab«n IwTiu itiHlilT InonatBd liiiGa. nmllr, nombsim
af OomiM mn tasted in 17St to ntUa in •aatharn BbmU, u
Mparat* uriaaltonl odouoi, vhkkjnadiullraztBiidad in tha Doa
MtfoaaadTln nartham Oanctdi. ftottctaJ m Uwr wa« br tin
lipit of Mlf-fpmrnmait, auniptad ban miUttrj aarriai, and
•ndomd witk.ooBridarabb allotmnit* of good lud, Uhh ooloolii
jAoa tbsT bn adoptad tb* dovly MoiSlSad TiUaga aommanltr.
Thar an chiidj Latoanm, bat man; of than bakoc to otbat nlt-
BioM aaot^^-Xnabivtlrti^ McnTiam, Uannonlta (A<mt 10,000).
ui OKtaia diatrtota [Al^annan. OdiaH, Bardianak, Kamjihiii,
Kenoianak) tliajr omatitala IMm 10 to 40 par wnt cf tlu total
m^Moa. Tba Bvsdaa, «bo Banker abost SOO.DOO In Finland,
h^dlf nnsh 11,000 in Eorapaan Batda, nottlj in tlia Bahia pro-
Tb* BoQDanlana (UoldtTlau) nmbar not Ihb than 800,000,
and an aUll intM^ ThavlnhaMt tha aarannunla of Baaa-
anbfa, Fodidi^ Khmoa. and XkatatinsalaS In BaMiabia thay
eoaatJtnta ftnn oott-butt to thiaa feortha of tha popDiatitn A
eirtiin diatriet*. On tbo vbola, tiw Horaniarfan gvncmncnta
(Baaaaiabia, Kharara, KatMlnoaUff. and TWorida) aibiHt tba
paatM nria^ of praolatiOD. Littla a>d Oiaat Boialana, Boama-
niaMb Bdonana, 9arb% Oannani, Oraah, Fnnduaan, Polaa,
IWan, and Ja«a an ^xad tmthar and aoattand aboot in aaiall
aoloaiH, avadall; in Baannlw. CM odom, tha Oraaka inhabit
dUaflj Hm towna, whan tlia; tarrj on tnd^ aa alao do tha Ar-
manlana, aoaUaiad thnagft Aa towna of amUan Ba^ and
appaariag la laisai nmibna onlf la tta diitaiot of Soatoff (10 pw
Mat oTpnialalion).
__ Howanr mat Oa nrietr «( MtinwaHtfaa lobaHtfaig Buraaao
ti attuwkgleal oannoaition ia Book rim^ dun ml^ at
it ba nppoaad. Tha Banlana— Onal^ littlat Md Whlta
int a^ ba ninoaad. Tha Banlana— Onal^ littlat MdWUta
— laigah pnTafl orar all «Hua, both nDnnrioallT and la napaota
tha tMMolaa tha; oeoai? in aompaot bodla. Oaotnl TtilMi la
alnoat pnni* Graat Rniun, and npraaanta a oompaot bodv «f
■on ffian •0,000,000 inhaUtanta vi^ bot 1 to S par a«t of
■doiztn* of Dthar aaliBUaliliaa. nMBoranBantaontba Dniowr
(UaO; Volhnla, TckonigofC FodaUa, and Pottan), ai olao Iha
adHniog dutrieta of EharkoE Tomiadi, Konk, and Dao, an
Uttb-BoMlBB, Of Ukninian, with but a alight admlxtonef Wblte
and Gnat Roiaianii and aona It par oanL of Java^ Tba Polaa
than Dubar onl* S to 6 pat aant of tha p^olatioa— aUiijlnnd-
boUais— and an halad ^ tha Uknlniana.
Jloriiaaft VitabA, and Hinik an White Haadan, tha Polaa oon-
atltii^on^Sparaantotthap(^iaUtlaB(UlnlllMk). Inofliai
Blalonaaiia pwrinoait Oo Tbita Baaidana an niiad aithor with
Uthaaafana TTOna), or Uknlnlaiia (Ondiw). <w Gnat Bnnlaiia
(Swilawk), and thitr idatJOM to Polidk landloidi an no battar
thu ia tha Dknina. Tha Uthnaulana preraU In Konio, whan
fl^ranNparoatofthapapi' '
Jawi(Upar oant,}, Folaa (S pv i
^BJ an 80 par omt, of Oa papalatlon, tha rauindsr hint obiafl;
Jawi(Mp«r oant.}, Folaa (S par ceab), Gnat BmaiaiM (a par ocntX
Oanaana, te.
In tha Baltlo prerlnaaa <lithiwb, UnaiM, and Couriaad) Oa
imaiUng pooolatlna ia Zathoniai^ Conaiu, ta LatUah, tba
Oannana (ImdloTdL vt tndaaaMn and artiaana in towna) liaint
napai:tiTal7 0BlrS-M-S,and7«parcant.ofthBpopaktiaB. In
thathraa prmrinoa, Up.msladad, tboT hardlrrnch 110,000 ont
of 1,800,000 inhaUtanta. Tba nlallona of tha Eathn and Litla
to thair kndloida an anfUilig bnt (HohIIj.
Tha nortborn sorammant* of 8t Patanbars (qwf ftom tiu
eapltal), Olonati. and AnbannI oontain an admlitnn <€ 1) to 18
MI cant, of KanUau^ SamojadM^ and ZjrlaiM, tba nmalnder baing
Gnat Koaduia. In tha aaat and aoatb^aat pm'inea of tha
Tolp (M^ni, ffimUnk, Baman, Faua, and SamlolD tba Oraat
^-nalani again pnrail [88 to OB par oat). A* nmi' '
laflTUonlTiDteD«,npldlrKDaai$iiubaaBliDTBItUiL'
id Baabkin, Oannana in Saman and SamtofT, and lit
(lS-41 par oant.). In ^ tnl pnrinoaa d^Fena and'vjatka
Gnat Kuaiana an again la tha m^joiltT (01 and 81 pel cant), tha
lamaindar haing a miatj of Iliuui-Ikitwa. It la oalr in tba
•oatban Dial goTaramanta (Unlak, Onnborg, Vtk) &»i 'th» ad.
^xlon of a nriatj of Toroo-Tartan— of Klnfaina in UnUi (SI
par Bent), Baabkin in Onnbnrg and 1Jb (33 and >t par cent ),
and Ian Inpartant atania bacomaa oocuidanbla, ndndn^ the
fnh to r^ «T, and 11 p> «Mt
eathrae piairinoaa.
J nnrda tlM otb
nllj iia*a baau ai
r KuaBUTad tOln
I, nana*
■, sHMwij Biaa not tod
ban otian jofaMd Oa
I In thair nrolta, bnt an mfUSj \aiiag tbdr BatioBa%.
da tba otbar Tuoo- aad niuwTactan, tha Hoadrinlaaa
~ Uad to tha Boeaiana i tha Koelaa TMan
- . itlj on aieallant teme with tUr Bmliii
naigbboon and wonld ba*a ooatinnad to do ao bad m atteuta
been OMda to inlwfan with Ihaif hnd-lawa.
In weatan Bna^ wbila an antipaar oxiata batwtaa CbainhaM
aiiiiriiliii. IliiiWnnraaniiiB I'lii lli liaianliig liiWhiwialn
nli^onat odaeatianal, and aeonenfaal mattanL baa h— a aaltg-
oniras, notonljto tba Polaa, bat alas to tha Dkialniaaa; priati^
in Ukninian fa prohibitad, aad " Baa^Uloatlon " ia babg caniad en
aaHiDg Dkniaiaaa hj the aaaM aaana aa tboaa aaplojaa ia Foland.
Tba nna la trae with tba bthea and LatH wbon Aa Ooma-
■mbW wbilo eeantanandag than to aawia axtant ia thatraatiBaa;
to tba Garma aiittocnor, baa not yat (band laiaaa to aaadlUta.
Tlu nhtiTa attt^ith of tha dilhBBt athnieal almata of wUA
I of Barapaaa Bnwia aad Poland la oaanaaad aiu
mnthafidlwiring Ignta (lUOalV.). TVr not <>•
L buwont, aa laaA aatimatn oalr. Thn wan wiainll*
d brIL Blttieh for an umata popolatiea of aik;iMi((
On MlDwiMlahlo thay Kn awnlr ban Inmandin ho>
tn Oa ac^ papalatioa of »1,US.M0.
UttlaBnn
ana
17,141,000
sr-f
^la
oiSS!^„
^ „
" S
tablSUTCnIni.....
ssr,ooo
&™;:i
l,M^OOO'
Baamaolaai^ and Aanah (aboot 1000) .
GannanaaodKaglii
705,000
1,1«.«00.
"TT ■""
AnnaalanaandOaoiliana.
-
ITwtbani nana.
«;m
S*|f
TolganuM.
lOJOOO
ilooo
Cgrlaaa
IWnlQiat-AUataM.,.
D.gtzsdbyGoOglc
TIML WTtL
rwnoi.1
T?P2?
„...„,. .
"^n
ar-
■
T»B.1!Dt«
Onnd Total
RUSSIA
Pur TIL ZinoPUiT Bitmu— JhAnvtCB.*
Bnwti li on ths vliali t thinl^'propled amitXT, tlia irangi
popdUtiOB bnog bat 4S to tlu iqiliTa nil*. Ao datiiitT of
popaUtioii nrisg, boiraTer, vmt noch ia Eorepaui Kutui — mm
cms tnlubllaiit per oiMre mila In ths gOTtninHnt ot ArrhuiBel to
103 in thit of Hncow (ucliuiT* of th« c^Ul) mad lU la
PodoltL TwD-tUrdi of tba «hal* popobtioD ua conccntntsd
upon Int Bun an>-tbird of tba wholt rarftiM. T1i« moit tliirklj-
pHpIsil port! fono * (trip of tonitoTj nhkli ostondi from
Oalicii tfanmgh Kht to Uoaanr, md compiiM* putl} th* moit
fntila goTernnHintaof Ru^uand IWtlf 111* Daniutctiinng onei:
next eoms ■ atrip of tartQa eonnlij to tfaa tootli of tht ibora and
ngkm haa an arsraga of 90 liAibftaiita par aqnan mila ; tha
c(ntnlBiaiiDru:tiiriDgiHion,BS; tlia natarn p^aTlDc*it 7* ) tha
blaek-aartli and elaj ragtsD, Mj tba blM^-auti Stappaa, St ; tba
hillj tncta of tha CHmaa and CaaaaiHL SI ; tbo forat-Kf^
propor, M ; ths Slappea, 0 ; tlia bi north, laaa than 1,
Tka rata at wbicfi tba popnlilion ia liidiiailint tbimgbost tba
cmpin ii tbij cDmldsnuita. It ^ariaa, h«*«Ttr, rair mndi in
dilfennt parta, and ana in Euopaan Bnmta, bdur ilmoat twioa
Hhbhln thabrtil* tnctaotthaaoath at It la In tbaiiarth(l-8
ta Ivy n* lipid inenaat ia chMr doa to aarif maniajiga, tba
noanta ftrdw nuat part manTlns ttMir ioM at (^^taen and thair
danghtn* at atxtaao. Tba Taaoltlng hi|tb birflk-nta eompanaatea
br &t gmt BMrlnH^, and tha BsMan population ti jninaaiiv
mora addEl; than tba Foliah,LilbBsniau,nnnlih, or Taitar. In
1S80 tta marriagaa, Urthi, and deatha wara retornad aa toUowa
(Tabla T.) =—
-.^
.^
DMfea.
'^sss-
EuopeauEDaiU..
7M,m
flS,771
11,18S
s,tT8,eJi
SM,0S1
74, MS
1SD,80S
2,ra4.SS8
1SB,SU
U,777
IS1,7«S
WS.HS
1«,M7
so,m
wlooo
^MMdimn....
8H,m
t,lX7,S6t
l,0»,»18
1,167,»1
nan (1871-78), <
EoiopaaB Bnala al
>ttr HHl; with thoB* far a ania* of
ara an annoal auplat af M6,O00 for
[■ 1881, tbiDodtonf tba impira laarlng
. J* and Taml— Un Uitba nambtrad
4,4<»,SW and tba diatha S,«4,404, iSr M wtiaiatad popoUtiaa
«r etivS«,iaO. But tba Uitb-nta and daath-nta wara tot
dilbnmt In Bnaia pnpsr and in ths Aidatia donlniona ; In Om
tmw tbs7 naobad ineotiTalT 4-8S and 8*77, and is tha lattar
onlj S7B and iSt. Iba low bita-iala in Aaia aonntarbalanota
tbs low Mortalltir. B« alao within KmU propar : in tho onlnl
piDTinoiB tha bij[h mortiditj' (U pw tbogaand) ia oompenaatad hf
■ iiljb bbth-rala (19), wbila in tba waatum ptorinea^ whan tha
■ottali^is tihtinlr mall (>7), tha uunbar of Urtha ia alao tba
On tba ^lola, tha BiHtalitr lo RoMia ti giaatar than aarwhara
fliB in Ennpa. Tha lowaat flgatss aie taand ia Coarboa (SO),
■MMH (flMFaiH Ohm) VTai^ ' vLJIe, OAMI. tf l»Ms <Sbk)1
lii^t/a, gtfiMUm It ii Wmum nwwtiim ; Mm. af Uh Omgr. OkUIt
im uriallll Mat. tf UH Mmemt Ai. t/ FMrnti if ML Mmn {Jittrt-
Mflt; Hib, n> Av^ «■ A~lai 1^^ «««, F>)«)ar .dltlx ta M.
Idv. Far pnlMgilc ■utanviter, m* Owt Vt-nk, Aw^mHtn. Li I»-
IMit frMMtrIt Jf« w laC t1»a»i aadllartufc. fi ^adi ««■ -
inii A-ltaJMifi iiiMalniaBa—mila»M«iai»>A«al»iftai.a<J
be ^ VM^ ^ m. ft.; tks nnntea « Mrak^ ••« laa? ML
— 1— I I »M«g»ifcaial.(iajmria^fcIi« iMiiiJUirtl miM^iHifr
_. ■■ ^ — .gyj-'l'w^*'.. ^^^ — >. -™-'^i!;!y!'.t^ T. ■
■tt»llaihrir.JIM«r.Ai*(«,|nHUiaar«lTl^U*Rwl>BO«fiflilal
»i..iT.aMMlatitliliWiiBaiiB_»»s^in-faMlT^.ip.MMar^
> Fir ID ■>MMM tw Iglflia nill III ■• -WmII tl liitiiMBlii
Ewijiia Sonata UN Utantt AvAMr), inMAal laiaai tribat
toilBlnl Oil iilHFii lar as fstJF iilm imilml **iw m^m a
tiwBaIticpnTiiKM(S», and Poland (SO). Within Bo-ia itaalf
tba rata Tarita batwaso SB and 40 (30 to SB la towua). la 1881
11^ in tba IS cantnl goremi
of OS, ao Uiat then waa ■ di
„ -_ , —J idling thai
jaar. Frsm niUUi7 ngiatan it appaaia that of 1000 n
oahr 4S0 to too nach tbair twao^-lint yaar. and of thass only
876 an aUa-bodiad ; at tba laoMindar, who an unit for mililuT
aarrioa, H pir cant. uBsr fMm ebranie diaaiaia, MiaaiT, iuBni-
Kwria with PolBBd oal* 18,848 wim and «« haulc nnaoH^
~' ' and on* bsd in biaaital for araiT 1170 inbaUlanta.
~ ■■ Busqaallj diatiibatad, ttet in OS
Tba boapilah an, m
gtmrnmenta hMlu aa aangaU'caantiT papnlalioli of aboot
70,000,000 (bars wan «nl; U7 boapltalt with 8S7S beda, and an
iTanga of two aorgeona to 100,000 Inbabilaata.
(ion S4S,G0a. But witbis tho smpin iUsIf Duration tt
Ural, Slbaiia, and Ckucatna goea on sitaaaiTalj ; ngona, b
araa appre»ii»att, a— '-- " — '--.>-- . .— -
liaa thao 404,160 0
Buiaia, chicllf to Fotand and tho aoutb'W
A nij gmt dirmitT at nligioiia, Incl
nristiaa o( Cbriatlinit}) UohimiiisdaniBni, Shamaaiuii, and
Buddhiam, an foond in BaroHaa BnMia, corroipanding far tho
moat part with tha aapaiala atboolagieal •obdiriaioni. AB
Buaiaoa, with tha axccplton of a nnmbar of Wbila Bnaaiaia who
hdong to tba Union, jvofsaa tha Qnak Ortbodoi faitb or ono or
otbar of tba nnmbo'lMa rariatiaa of DODooofanait;. Tba Polta
and moat of ths litbnaniana an Roman Cbtholien, Tbo BMfaaa
and all oibar Waatara FioDa^ ths Oartnaai, and the Swsdaa
are Protaatani Tba Tartar^ the Baabkin, and Kiigblcn an
Uobammadana ; bat tbs t-il-T""H ha>« to a anat axteat
malntaimd aloDg with HohaBmadaniaai tbair o
n tha Votiak^ Tognla, Tcbannlaari, and T<^VTadiw, bnt
aaoia town or Tillan without ^Tiu riae to reliaioaa diatnriaBoa*.
Tha ncant ontbceaka agalnat tha Jawa wan dfiaetad, not uainat
the Talmidiat crcsd, but uainat tba tnding and onloitiaK
eommnai^ of tba "KahaL^ In bia raUtlona with Modn^
Buddhiati, ai
ID lsttchiit% tha Bi
. — , a peoaaat look* lalb
conduct than to nwd, tba latter being la ha viewajmplT a matlar
of natlonaUty. ludiwd, towaida paganiam, at laaat, ha la parhapa
STSB mors than lolsrant, tvsrernoB on tba wbols to kssp on good
tama with pagan diviaitiet, and in dilBeult drcnmataDoee —
flneciallr Mi IibtbI and ia honttng— not Uling to praaant to tbsia
bu oflsniio. Anr idea of proaeljrliim Is quits foiei^ to tha
ordinarj Snidan mind, and ths onlbanto at proaeljtuinit isal
oocaiionBllv mtDilssled bj tha clargy are really dua to tbs daain
fbr " BnaaiBcaCian " and tncsabls to tha inflnsiia of the hi^sc
dm/j and of ths OoTammeat.
T& niiona cnsdi of Eoropsaa Rnisla wen eadmated In 1379
as fbllowa ;— Qreek Orthodox lud Baikolnika, gS,Stf 000 (about
l!,00D,0O0 bebfi Bukolnika) ; UniLsd Onski and Armanio-
Orecoriani, tG,000 ; Roman Cathdlici, B,SOO,000 ; Ptotatanta,
I,B»l,000 : Jews, 8,000,000 ; Hoslenia, 2,800,000 : P^i, »,000.
In 1M1 ths niunber ot Greek Orthodoi thntnghoat tha empiia,
aidading two foreisn biahoprica, waa sstinuted at 61,941,000.
NooeontormitT (fiaskot] ia a moat important featon of BDatlati
poinlar Ufa, and iti InfiusuM and pntalence baTa lapiill; grown
dnriog the liut twcnty-livs yean.
Whan, towarda the beginning of ths 17th centniy, ths Uoacow
principally fell under tlie mleof the Uoaoow foidn (gaa of whom,
bodnnoff, reached ths throne), thsy took advantage of tha power
thnaacqairedtoincnaie tbdr wealth bra scnrs of measnnt affect-
ing land-holding and tnds ; they MnctiDned and snforead by law
tin aelfdom which had alnady from economical canaea fonnd Ita
way into Bnailin life. Tbs gnat outbnak of 1806-13 weakened
IhsiT power in (annr of that of ths cat, but witboatbrsBking it;
and tbniiKhont tha i^gm of Uicbaal and Alexia flu wlaiu were
iHied in the name of "the enr and bdara." Bartdom waa nln-
forosd by a aeriu of laws, and tbs whols of tbs 17th oentor; iachar-
aetarixcd by a rapid accnmolation of wsalth tn ths baadi ^ botara,
by tho deielopmsBt of luinry, imported fr<im Poland, and by tha
gtnuBds of a number of familiea lo acquire the political power
I ninSj anjojad by their Prildi n^bonn. Tba aame taaeaej
RUSSIA
[(t«iiooiirDKiUBr&
id br flis pRople at luTlog
larr," " Poliah cnf<l/ uid the tcndnuciu
tosudaupnmacjof tlw PoiJihclerR;. The mtrlircLi Miknu wu
■ pwAot npnantettra at theH UndoikCMi. Oppontioii renlt^,
mid Bia nfkiMk of th« ocnd booka, which wu undcrtikea bj
VOcoo, gare th» uppontioa acuta diancler. The Haikat {tit,
"^tCLag" i]r*'KliiBit'')iiudeitiappevuca,u(iatlwT»liiDdci
ib buumr, not 00)7 tlioM who *ooiiMd Nikon of Poliih " ind
" I«Ua " Candaaoii^ hot mlio ill thoM who wtn Tor tha old ciutomi,
tat MomtiTi aod ooammnlat priiKlplB of lodil urniuntiou,
■ml vbo TOToHad taimt isifiloou omtnlintioti, utd t£» rappm-
fioBOfmaiiidpal Ifis. -A wcfM af iuinmotlaiu bnkt out andor
lb*buuraftl»**l^t-MKl«"oni«o(tlw/Eiutiiliitia; BuUroni
fawBoM bf Aloifa, PMar L, ind their roUowo* did boC kill oat
*B eppoaitioB vUdi u>ipind with bnaliaU anthiiiiiaBi the beat
•lenoiti »aa^ th* Onat BoMiuu, and iDdmid iti lapportan to
aabnit to tlM £■ b^ tbonaadi at ■ time, while othan luhec thao
to BoloniM tha fecarta o( ^ Aictto IfttanI, or bMmk
-, .i Bibafla. Prafbund modifiaatkou han taken iilia
m DonopafijiBitr aiiica it* fint appwinoa. It woold be
le to eBDiMtata tlum all ban, rat the Ibllowiiig iwiud
of priauT inpoTtBDO* mnat bo mantkiBad. (1) Tbo man protait
aiiunat Klkoo'a "hiaontiotia" (wnwIiaMHa) led, ia the coone of
two canlnriaa, to ■ nian anrila Mharasoa to tha lettar of the ver-
nacaUr Seriplnna— ereu to obriooi aROti af earlier tntulalora-'
and tu IntKininaUe dlacnaaiMH about minor pointa of litoil and
aboot DniuUlligible worda. (3) Another nunot which now yes-
mdea tha whole of Knaaian noncanfonoitT li tbat pnKaading irom
lattonaliat aecta which had alreadj apread in north-weat Bojnia in
the Idth eentnn, and enn in the 11th. Tbaaa hare glTan liae to
MTonl aecta whlih deny the diTinity of CSuiat at explain awa;
nrHHU dcfpnaa and pcaaciJptioM of OTtbodo:^. (t) Prateetantiam,
with tta more or hea ntlvaaliitia tandencta, hai nnde itialf in-
enaalo^j fMt, tapadallj dming the praaent eantniyand in aon there
Kiuaia. <4) HealUe etltiia of tha QoTanunent and aapadally of
tiM waKomef, with ila umj of oOoiali and it> antaia of oon-
aoitottoM, paiipwit, and Tirioaa teatricdoBa on lellgiaaB Ubartj,
an iMind non or l«a in aU tb* ncnooafiKioInj bodiaa, wMoh aee
In tbna — nlfaatattona of aoOorl^ Iha appeaiance of tha Anti-
ehiiab fiamal of. them lafow aeeordin^r to hara an; deallngi
whatorar with ttie oOdal worid. (G) Another tcndawiv parratling
tha wlwla of Bnnian noooonfonnitT la that which aoeka a letnm
ta what aro aaimaad to hare haan the old conmnniat pTtaidplaa ot
Olniatlanltf in lln earlier dam All new aacta (tart with' B»i1ring
tbca* pinoiplaa to practical Of* ; bnt in tha oouiia of their daraiop- '
DKnt tbar niodify thani mora Mr leaa, Uiangfa alwaj* maintaining
tlMpindnloatlaaatofmntiialhelp. (9) Finally, all aaota deal mon
or toB wifih tha qnaation of nurriaga and tha po^Uon of wuman.
A fkw of tham eolre it bf encooraglne, — at leaat during flieir
"loTfr-feaat^' — ibaolntalr free relatiooa Mtweeo all "bcathran and
natara," whJla othen 01^7 idmit the diaaolnbility ef matrlaga or
prohiint It altogether. On tha wbolr, lecTing tha aitreniar nowa
oat ot aoooont, tho podtlon of mman ii nndonbtedlj hi^iar among
tha tHMwtwa than amoDg tha Orthodox.
Theaa Tariooa omTanta, comUaing widi and oonntenetlng ona
*aotbv in tha moat sompUcatcd waja, hava plajgd and oontlniw to
peaaanta from fUUng into al^ect miaery, tha , ,
tea, ai a ndo, a graator duna of praaiMri^ than (hair Ortliodoi
naJghbooK Tht bading nwtiue M Bindan hEatOT?, the i^read of
the <h«at i^"—'"" orer tha immenaa tairitoty thej now ocenpr,
cannot ba ririitlj nndentood wtthoat taking into aooonnt the
colonitaHon 3l the moat inacoeaible wHdenenea by Baakolnlka,
and the organiiation of thia by their commnnitioa, who aend dele-
gate! foe the oholoe of land and aomellniea clear it In common by tha
tuited labonra of all tha yonng man and cattle of the commiudty.
On tha other hand, the nonconfoiming eecti, while helping to
pnaerre aevaral adTuitageooa faatursa Si Rnanan life, have had a
powarfal inflnance in maintaining, aapaclally among the " Btuoobr-
TOltaj," the old syatam of the MoaoDTite (amilT, lubjoct to the
deipotio yoke of in chiel^ and hennedcally aealed ngiinet initrac-
It la worthy of nolioa that alnce the emancipation of the
mooaformity haa a^in made a anddan lA-rtfiee, tha more la
eta piaponditaUng orar the aciiolaatii: onea, and the inflc
' Pnliataatiam Imng inereaetag^ lalL NoDConformity, i
_„ ita^ blL
formariy had no hold upon Uttlaltaaaia (t!
among Pmtcatant EathoDians ai
mity, whtoh
^ Et had penetratad
u and Latla, and CTan amoi^ Hoelem
Tartan], haa aaddenly began to make [iiu^ieea there in the ihue of
""" "°" — '- " — iitnra of Protaatant and labonaliitio teaching,
iwarda a lodal bnt laiely aodaliatic nforma-
PopoTtey (tto ll-millione) ai
two I Imni. — tboaa who nosgnlia tta AaMclia hlaiardy, and thoea
who hare only Oithodoi " nuaway priaili " 1" By^tnOpOTtay'}.
The lattar bava recoatly reoeited nneipaolad help In the aBeamlau
of three Orthodox prieaM of graat icaining and energr. llI■ral>Ta^
then are among the FopOTlay about a mGlion of " Kdtnoryartay,*
who ban rtcoind Orthodoi priaata on tltacoBditioBofth^keepaig
to tha vnreTiaad hooka. Thar an uatroDized by G«nimmaDL
The BeipopOTtiy embody Ihrea large aecta — the Pomoiy, Fedo-
aaartay, and nlipOTt«y — and a variety of minor onea. Thayncog.
nia no prints, and repudiate the Orthodoi litul and the mcm-
menti. They amid all contact with tha aUte, and do not allow
pnyer for the oar, who is regarded at the Anticliriit. They may
nnrabar abuat E,OaO,l>af in west, north, and narth-eaat Bnaaii^ and
popnlatic
abuat E,OaO,l>00 in w»t. north, and narth-eaat Bnaaii^ and
It, on the whole, an intcllectnallT deTelo]xd and wealthy
n the whole, an intdlectnallj d
or tha very nnmeroas amaller
niki' (Ernuts) ue worthy of notice. Thay'pnIiBr to
) of hunted aattuta nther than hold atif relatlMl with
The Bpiritoaliala, very numnoaa in central and aouthoin Bnmla,
I aabdiridad into a groat nrietyoEachoalt. Tha "EhlTaCy," sbo
" e-teaeti," their ''Tlrgina," lometiniet ^gellatioB,
■ad ao on, npreient a nnmcroiu and^BtroDa organiiatioi
BniiiL The "Skoptey" ("Utnof God," "Cattrati") occoreTorj-
whare, eren amoog the Hioa, but chiefly in Orel and Knnk, and
in lonnt a* money-broken. The "DiAhobortny " coniniunitiea
(warriora of the Spirit), chiefly found in tho«outh*a»^ are renowned
The'
uth^t,
idly in Caucaaia and Siberia,
loniEera. Thej an epreaduig rapidly in Caucaua and Siberia,
' Uolokany" (a kind of Baptiata), numbering parbqia aliaut
nillion, are apread alao in the aoath-caat^ and an excellent
whoBigh''),tiie''Nepta((lahchtkl*
" St-Kaahi ° (tha " SoKnn "}, and
million, aj ^ . .
L Both are quite open to inatmotioo, aud
, .uJaancB of Piuteatactinn, like the "Stiuida "
in Little Basna and BeMitahia. The "Sabbatliers'and tha "SL».
knny" (a kind of Shakm) an alao worthy ot notice ) while a gnat
variety of new aecta, anch aa the "NemotTiki" ("who do ni '
pray"), the "ToidykhaleU" ("who aigh"), the "NepU
("whedonotpaytaxea"), the"" - ■■"— -"■■
ao on, apring up every year.
The logi^ata nnmber ot Baakolniki ia oSeiallr atalad at naariy
ona million, Dct thia ia quite —V—'i'^gi The mIniatiT of infailoi
atimalad Otm at »,00(kOOO in IgfiO and »,SOO,000 in ISH. U
raali^ tha Dombaria (till higiier. In Perm alona thoy wan reoently
oomntttad at a miilkm. and thaia woold be no axajgpratioo in aall-
mating thorn at a total of ihmi twain to Bflaeit m
The old eubdlTlilona of Uu
unequal righia ia atill maintii
81 -6 par cent., belong to th<
DobiliVfi I"! pafi't.i darg], . . , — — ._ _. — — ,, —
and manhan&h SI 1 mllitam fl-l ; fordgnera, 0-1 ; melaaailieJ,
0 4, Thna men than S8 mtUiona of the Bnaatana on pwanta.
Halt of thara were formerly attfk (10,4«T,I4a bibIm In 1868),—
[ "atata p»™iita''fBia. — "
._ _.d>angel go
(B4S,T40 matea tha aama v<sr].
Tha aarfdom irtiich hadipnmgnpin Knaaiain tha Itth ocntorjr,
■nd baoame oonaaoratad by law in IWV, toking, however, nearly
one hnndiad and fifty yaaia to attain Ita full gravth and aaanme
tha toTiaa nnder which it aroaarad ia tha pnaent eentnrTi *aa
abdiahed by law In 1S«I. Tfata law liberated tha itifa bom *
yoke wbioh waa raallr tarriblak ovaa nndu tha beat kndlorda, and
' m thia p< - - ^— " --^ -■- - ' ^—^ '^
the elate, tha prorinalal ai , , .
atatiatioianik The Metal mlta of thaaa inqnirlea may be
iummad up in the aub]<rined atatemant
Tha foroMr "dvorovyla,' attached to the (lenaBal aerrlce of
their iDastera, weta men!]' set free ; end they entinly went to
raisforca tbo town proletariat. The peaaanta proper laceirBd their
honaea and otchaida, and alao allotmenta of arable [and. These
allotmenta wen given over to the ronl commmie (nir}, which waa
made reepoaiible, as a whole, for the payment of taiee for the allot-
ments. The liie of the allstmenta waa dBtermiaad by a Ufilmmn
and by a mioimnm, which laat, however, oould ba itill further
reduced if the amonnt of land remaining in the landlwd'a haiida
w«* leaa Chan one half ot what wai allotted to the peaaanta. Fat
days per year), or bv a
from 8 to 13 roubles por allol-
anhaiated, tha peaaanta wen conaidend aa "temporarily obliged"
(uraiiw—e ntyammyJa). On Jannary 1, 1883, they atilf nmntiared
, fifloea to thirty
(" obrok "), which varied
relatioua
1 «■ MurD' •■ *ui<*s atitti; mttmm t/ bmm aiynwiw im
emlalwai ; •ml my Vlirf mpeit pAnled tD mUini. ehkilT In Ol-Ut. S
RUSSIA
CUM unaioin.]
1,ltt,eu ndiM ; bat Uk Miiar*T t* ■■•* '
quna of ■ mgiit !■« (DwuBlMr IS, I8S1).
Tte ■Untarato oobU b» nimmtl bj tba pwwili vith tb*
ki]pofthaerawB.M>l tlMiithkpMHiiliinntm<Jti«B tlUUIp-
"n tiw luHlloid. ThaaowniwidthalaniUDnlliiobli^Iuiu
tb» ndenntioD w« mloocd hj oa^-Bftb. Tb* ndimptiMl *M
Bot Ti'-t'-^'-' «B tb* nlw o( tb* illBCWMt^ b«tn* eoadimi
■• ft eomwMiHmi lot lb* Ion of tlw csapnlMn labow at tb*
•orf* ; B (bat tbmigboDt Bnad*, wltb tb* «i*«I1ob of • turn nv-
Tiaca ta tb* Hiatb-aart, It w md itill mlu Botvitbalauli^
* nij snM laom«i of tti« tiIiw of hod— BOob U^ur thaa tb*
mukat nln* of tb* iDMlMIiL iror*OT*r, taking kdnBt^* el
1 bs ia»rimnBi lav, Baaf proprtetocB ent amj Urp parts of tb*
allotBaat* tb* pa***Bta peiWMii uidac ■■tnlem, ud pmdHlj
tb* p«t( tb* naiaola war* axiit la naad o^ aaaialjr, naatiin
taada amoad UMir booM*, and tmata Oa tb* WDOM, Hm
tudanef na toglntb* allotqwati w •* to daprii* tb*
cl graiiac laad ud tbi* to Munpal
fna tba budliad at aay Brioa,
na {naanl eondltlaa <2 tba paaaul
... ._. pwaan t» *Bconllng to uttdal daen-
[Dlhnra. Ib lb* twain eaati*] gonnn«ati
~rv«, ban thail €>wn lyv-bnad Uk odIj
St oulj ISO and 100 daja. Ob* qiaitac
wm Ban nouna ailolaaata ct oalf ID acnapvnal*, aad
b*U 1m tbas 8-t to 11-4 aon^— du Donul *iM of tb*
to tb* iobdalaBat of a fiwUr and* tb* tbn*-
UUt ijilwa balBf aUnattd at M to 41 aen*. Land noft ba
ibna notid ham tb* badkinU at fabBlona ptkaa. Cattla-fareedlng
ia ■Imn^'h'Tg to an alanniag dwra*. Tb* aniua ndanptlon ii
S-Saniabl**Sb<mtl7a.)i)r iiicb:aU<il9Mnta,aDd tha aaullartb*
allotnant Ibt b«aTi*T tb* parnMOt, Ita tnt * ilaaalitlu ' (SSB
acn*) nutint twia* aa BDob aa tha Hatud, and bur timta a* mneli
«* OU tblif Id ill tb«*( nnnuiuDti, tb* atat* eommiidaii
taaHlUi. tban m wlula dlatnta «liai* m*-tbiid of tb* paaunt*
Inn na^T*d rilohMBti U onl; ID to f'B una Tba aKg"pta
talo* of Um ladamptiiK and laad-taua irfUn iMcbea from 18(
to STI pit aot ol tb* uomil Motal nln* of tba allotmenti, not
to n*Bk of taxi* ftir Noaltiu pucpOHL tb* cburcb, mdi, local
^^Tll^^'T^^-*'~'. and lo on, dw^ laTlad (mn psaaanta. Tha
anaan iBon**t am? jaar ; e»-ftnb of tb* inbahtanti btrg left
thaJT bniUM ; otila in dteppwiiigi Snrj nar nan tbu half
tb* adolt lulaa (ia aama dlatrieli thiM-toBitba or tba men and
onO'tUid of tb* ironwo) 1«>T* thaii honwi and nndar throuboat
Kiada Id aauvb <f laboni. Tha atat* peaaanti at* erij a littl*
UttaioO:
Baeb ii tha ttata of aHaln in caatral BoMia, and Itwould be oaa-
laaa to MalliplT flgam, tanatlDg saarij tba Mma dotaila. In tha
e^t gonniiBanta of lb* Idiok-MJtb li^ta tb* Mat* of matten la
baidl; battar. llaikT paiMiita took tha "gntnilow allotmaata,"
irboM amooDt via aboot one-*lthlh of Ib* aociaal onoa
Tim aTann allotmont in UiraoB Ii now onlj 0*90 acr^ and
lor allobnoDU tram l"* to CS aona tbaj paf frrai 6 to 10 raoblN
ol tadamptlon tax. Tb* atat* p**Mnt* an bottar oC bat atill
Uu7 an •miontfng ia nil ■ la It 1* onlj in tb* Stappa jiomn-
mant* Uiat u* dinatirai ii non hopeftiL la Littio Bwd^ then
tba alktoiaBt* wan panonal (tba tilr odMag only amoog itat*
p*a*aDta), tb* Mata of afbin doa* not dilTar lor tb* batia an
aeooBat of tha U^ ledanption tu**. Id tha VHtarn prorinoa*,
when tba laud km raload ebtapoi' aol tba allatnaDi* tomewhat
incnaaod aftac tb Poliib inramotloa, tb* ctoanl Btoation mutht
In battar wen It not br tba fonnoc mlaan at pgaMnla. FlDaDir,
in tba fialtio pravineaa neirlf all the land balongi ts Oannan
liodlorda, who dtbar can; op igrlculton thamadTv, wilb bind
laboonn, or nnl tbeir land a imall linna. Oilj ane-Iomtli of
tba peaiaata an finnan, the nmainder being in«n ubannn, who
an aDiicratlng In neat nnmben.
ThastoatloD oftha tomuT aerf-pnpilatan ti alio oniatiirM
Aecnttonnd to tba naa of eonipalai^ labonr, thej haig fail
. . .. ""-- 1. 11)*TW,00
by 71,000 landad pnfitalsn in ^nala ban been ^<ant witbont
eccampliaUna an* anicnltntal lapronmtDt The fnreata ban
baaa nld, and oolr tboa* landloida an preaparing who eiaat nek-
not* for tb* land without which the poavnta oonld not U*e npoa
their anotmeni*.
A* ibowlBg a batter lap^et of the litnatiOD It mnat ba added
that in ei)^-flTi diitrieta of Bnvla the peaainl* ban bought
t.Ul.OOD una of laud aiua ISSI. Bat tbeaa an moitljr iilUg»
tnden and palD-landan (knUki). A real aieaptioD eao b* made
oolrtor Tnr, whan U,17« liDoaeholden anited in eommnDitiaa
ban booght aS3,Ma aona of land. Then baa beon an Inon
It along wta lUa a ginanl tnpo*nhb>
.>o|>la'
- -.— BeandiBariaa* d*aeribed Snvla aa Gutfirifcl,— tha
DDoaCrr of lowMk— and until now Oieat Kn^a baa maintained
tU* eharaotar. Tb* dwallinn* of Um paaamttr m not aeattared
moniQ — tht mir, or tba niaHaHM.
WbM Haxtbwi**n fint deecribed the OnaE Rualan mir, it wia
aOBBdend a paanliatltj of tb* Bkrontan nn,— a rtew which la
D* lo^ar t*Dabla> Ilw mir 1* the Onal Ruaiin eqsinlent for
-' 0Maan,I>alah,aBd8win''naTk''ar-EllinFnd.''tbaBulIa'
(wnabin." tli* ThihA ^ iwriiinhiiiL ^ tha PnltfeK "rnnEnM.^tJi
' lewwhip,* tb* fnaoh
Booth fOaTonian 'adrao,* tba Finniah " pittayl,'' ka.; and it
nn neariy aprMacb**, uon^ diSerlu fran them 1* K]m*e*Hii<
tiaf hatoiia, th* iorm* of poaOaaioo of land pioTaiUng among tbt.
HoaleB Totoo-Tutu^ whil* tha aama nrl)uii]<l* la fonnd arra
aBMHig tha Mongol Bnriat abapbenli and the TnngH hnnten.
Tha followlDgan tba laadlng fattBra of tb* organiiation ot the
mir Knoag th* unal Raiolana.
Th* wbola ot the land oeoopM bj a Tlll^e-irhomr tn tha
landloid neogBittd by la* — th* Mala, a private panon, or n
1 — iji^.i _-,. 1 __ .1 ,_,._ .. y^ Coeaacha— b oooairland
Ij aa a whole, the aepaiata
)nly tba right of temnoraiy
pmparty aa will b« allowed
to tlmn by th* mil Id pnportloo to their wortiaf power. To
tbia fl^t eorraapanda tba obligaUon at bearing aa adaqoalB part
o( tba obaron whioh nuy ImI npon the oommnnit;. U ant
podnoi naiilti (torn tba comBum work of tha oommunltj, oaok
member baa a rlriit to an amiil part ot It
jarldioal nni^, aaeb aa tba nfato ot ll
a* '~'™'r»j M th* tU1*« oommnnllj *i
Bumbon oT tb* •ommnDinr bating onl;
paiaiiaion of niih part of tba oomnKm prq
■ arlriitti
.gloth***
, jn aanal part ot „
genertl prinoiplf^ tb
then an working ni
and each tamil; rtoaim a* man; kia a> it haavoriiinBanlta Tti*
nnit la unallf one male adnlt ( bat, whan the wotkiag pawn vt
a largo tUnllj I* Incnaaad by ita oonlainin^ a nnmbac oF adult
- - -- -i* tJi"
into atcoant^ a* wall >* the diminDlion from any aaoa* oI woclung
pow«r in oth«r bouaehold*.
For dlTidinR tba anble land into lo^ tha whole Ii lUrled fint
Into thra* "Mdi," acoordliig to tha thnabald totation of cnpa.
Aa each field. hoinrH, oontaLna land ot nriona qnaliUea, it La in
ita turn aabdiTidad iDto, mj, tbio* porta— ot gocd, artngo, and
poor qoality ; and each <^ ibeaa porta ia mbdiiided into aa man}
lota « there an working ttnlta. Each liooa^wld r*Mi*e* It* lota
in each of tha ubdlTiiiona of th* "field,' a carefully minota
eqnaliatioa at to tbi miBOi diSitranM* batwaan th* lota li*ing
aimed at ; and the paititlaa ia ntarlj alwa^ made M aa to pannit
each hoaaehold*! to nach hli allotmeat without paaaing llinogb
that of another.
To bcUitata thk dirltion, tba eommDaity dtildaa, fint, into
nnallei gronpa (e|< tktntytka, a "tan," an " tight," Ita), aiich ol
which la eompotad, by he* aalMtion, of a number of houeeholdan
— the commojii^ only taking can that each ahaU not be cotnfoaed
of rich, of poor, or of " tnrb3enta " aiduaiTely. The diviiion of
the land la flnt made among inch group*, ind the anbdiviaioa goei
OB within thaaa. The diriaion into gnmpa facilitatai alao the di»-
tribntion otiQchwotk a* tha oonuannity miy br— ' '-'-
ival, and othei inddtat* bring about
rrr among the diflennt
lina uniU in the com-
rediatribstiou of laad
ahangee in t
hoBaaholdii
~~ liW baa Incteued or decraaaed, a r
idwl) tollowi. Whether the land b*
'lag Ita nntil value)
(pindwl) b
aieeedhig It
jr^!
peredyol may ba "partial" ot
. e honaeholda wbcai
ditional loti, and via
"generaL" In moat caae* a m— . .,_
aavemi bmiliet will aem, and a general ndiatribatioD ia .
to only when greater Inequlitin ban ariaen. On the whole,
thaM ledlitribnCioiia an nn, and the pncarionaneaa oT land-
holding which baa been tappoaad to be a coneeqnanca of the mir
proTca to have been eiag^^nted. Hon detailed inqnlriea have
OweiaJMBti, BoMMal kr ttnrtt naiitita (Hoauv, TVtr.KJJgl, Tali, Ryuin,
TUibea, Mian, BanU*. ai.)-, Kmlia. rw fMiwrt Quiln; tialliciu-
kaff. (■■« rrtrtnt -^ Jirtailnrt (t iili.\ at rWaffUl* bbI AirlBtUtrn
InDokoK, riit raa tf ttrMtm *■ Hxata: ShuhkoB, "rHiaD(i7 In Hit lli.lUa
ProYtocti." B *iw*afii*r«I, lira, 1U. iiiilli.; Y. V, Afrlc. «M(e»*i a^Jtmirtl
OeloTUckiiS. C^ifl axtf t-Mnl ntmO^i Ecniliutl'i LilUri fltu Iki
AntfTi m*r lUbDM* p^an In nrton (ill Kaialia); UiA ApfiSlllI 10
B4
u u a s I A
[viLLAOB nniuoiiRiBi.
Honor, m tmtgt mtmbor of ndirttibnUiuu hu be«n t-l in
tw*a^ nui <lUB--78), ud In mm thu two-tliirdi of tfa<»
oemuaaSiiiM th* tadUHbatkiB took plua oulj once. _ On ths
dUmt hand, > ngiUt roMlon «f UI hon ~ "
pnstlaed In tba blwk-cwtk ngian, whtn
BaaidM tlio uablo lurk, tbira ti nnall)
, , ...Jt pllM Oulj . . ..
dUmt hand, > ngiUt roMlon «f UI hoiuthaUli iwer tO kiti, in
aria to (qimUia th* nnniniH minor lueqiuUtii^ ii tuy oftdi
— — "— ' *- "-- ■■'--' "- — ' — no nannn i* noMed.
• ™>"{<»"'»niinon'0
^ _„ „ _. d tnnr cattla, vutorer
IIn nuilwr tlwT poMia^ TOo dmuIowi to dthtr dimed on tlw
•bmt ntoddai, or mowad in common, and th« btj dlrtdcd
■oendbig to tb* nnrobor ot lota. Tba fomts wban coniiitliig at
•bbUwdm bl nBdant qaanti^, an laid umIot do iqialatiou;
wban tida ia leajo*, onrj bimk ■■ conutad, and nlnad accoiding
ti>ltaa«,na9ibarof lirani:baa,fce.,andtliawboUladiTid«d aooonl-
faw to tba DDDUr (^ lata.
Tba bonaaa and tlia orebuda bahlgd tbun belong iln, fo min-
dplt^ to tlia oiinmaiiltf ; bat no pandTSl la made, axcapt afler a
fln or whan the necaeai^ arlan M buiLding the hoiuea it gnatar
diattnoM apart. Tbt omlunli nnull; remain Ibr yean In tbe
vma hand*. «ltb bnl atov aqnillattona <rf tb* Iota io width.
All dadnona in the vQ^p aommnni^ an giren b; tha mb,
that ia, ^ tba (aninl aNamfir of all honaaholdn^— women beliw
admitm on as aqnal hotiiig with nun, whan widon^ or when thetr
male gnardiana an abaant. l^jr tbe daotdoBa onaumltr ii iwMB-
aaty ; and, thoi^A in aoma dlSenlt caae* of a genenl pendyd the
diacoaloDa majr »>t for two ot tbre* daya, do dodiloa ia reacbad
Bntfl the niaatltjr baa declind it* agreemaiit with the majoiity.
Baeb oommnsa electa an elder {Marotta) ; he ie tbo execatlTe,
but hai ns aothorltf apart from that oT the nir whoaa deciiiani
he oarriea oat All attempt) on the part of the Oorenimnit to
make him a fEmctJouUT ha*e tailed.
Opinion *a to Uie adTantasH uid dbadTantagea ot tha Tillage
(AmmoniCy being much dirided in Eniati, it tua been within the
lait twentr jean the nbjnt of aitenaiTe inquiry, both priTate
and oSoiaC and of an arer^gnwlng litatitnra and poleinio. The
auppoilati of tha mir an fonnd chiefly amwigthoaa who hare Made
Mora or laaa eztenaiTe Inqniriea into lla letnal oiganlntipn and oon-
aaqnaneaa, while thaii opponent* diaw their argnmenta nteoipally
froBk theonlioal oonaidenttcaia of polmcal aoanomr. Tba main
lapnaoh that it ahoolM indirtdnal dovvlopiDent and ia a aonica of
InunobiUty baa been abakin of lata by a baltar fcnowMsB of flw
Inatitntian, which haa bmo^t to light Ita ramaifcabl* plaafldty and
powv ct adaptaliaa to new dmunibuicea. ni* free aattlan tn
BlbvlahaTaTolDBtarilylnbodncedtlHaamaoi^intntioD. Innortb
and north-eaat Btuiia, whera anblo land it acattared In ouall patelua
anMDg foreati^ conmnnitiea of aevBral vQlwai^ or "voloat^ com-
mini&aa, bare ariian ; and in the " rotako " M tha ITtal CoaaMka w«
bdMDraoDityof the whole tanitoryaai^vdabotli land and Oab-
ariaaaod warklncommcni.. ITay, the Oennan oolonlatB of aoatiMm
Boaiia, who eat oat with the raincipb of peiiDtial pnpat^, hare aub-
aeqnantly intredaoad that of the *lllu* oommud^, ad^Cad to their
ipadal nacda (ChOia}. In asm* locJltlaa, whaia there waa no gnat
acarei^ of land and ^ aathotllfaa did not intarfare, Jdnt onRiTa-
lian of a oomnon an* for BlUng tin atonhoooM haa leoantlj ban
dereloped <in PmuC n* eammonea ban faitrodneed thii ^item and
oaltiralB an aggregate ot 20,911) aena). Tba renting of land in
Common,oreTen parobaiBrflandbywedthyi ■ '■--'■
quite luoal, ai a&o tbe pnnhaaa In oo
Since the emaadpatJoa ot tha aerb, however, tha mir haa bean
nudergDlDg nntfoand modiflcatlona. Tba dithnnoaa of-wnlth
which enined,— the ImpaieTiihrnentof the nuua, the laptd [oenaaa
of tha ninil proletariat, and the eoricliment of a few "knlika"
and " miroyedoe " (" mir-eatera "),— an cortiinlj opetaUng nn-
faronnblf for the mlr. The miroyBdoi iteadily atrlve to bnkk, up
the oiganuation of the commDne a> an obstacle to tb< eitonaion
ot their power orsrthe modenUily well-Ui-4o peaaaata; while the
wolaiariat eaiaa little abont the mlr. Fean on the one aide and
taopaa on tba othar have been Ihiii entsrtaineu aa l" the liksllbDod
of theDiriaai>tinctheaodiuiitegntiiiainllueacea,laTDimd, more-
orer, by thoae landownen and itiaaD&ctaren who foreaee in th*
creation ot» reral proletariat the cartiln^ of cheap labour. Bat
the village oommniiity doea not appear ae yet to bare loM tbe poirRr
of adapbittoQ wbtch it baa eihlbitad Oronglioat ita hiitory. If,
indeed, tha Imporeriahment of the r~"-1- continoM to go on, and
legialatiaD alao Intarferaa with tba mir, It mart of cooraa divp-
pa|^ hot not without a comaponding''di«taTbanca in Suaalan life.'
Tba eiMtperatiT* qiirit of the Oroat Bnaaiana ibowa itaelf farther
mn. Of aunncartvnfa Alt Unwise aii
■Mr IMi Unwsks, JtwKta tu. pim^m Ti
g<>WM> OrtwftuMifM. I«M ; Imima^
inJa, I'Wj an* yiF»n ta yaiHaaow at Oi
la another ipbm In tbe arfab. wbiiA have alu bean a imnlunit
feaCnn of ItuBuan life iiaca the dawn of bintary. Tbe attrl venr
much raaembleatbaca-opantiTeaaclaty of waateralnnfi^ with thb
dUTennca that it makaa ita appeannee witbent my Impalaa baa
theoty, nmply aa a nataial form ot popolar life. WbM warkaiea
fkom any proriDt* coma, for inatanca, to St Paunbng la aoMi
in tha textile {ndortttes, or to mric aa eaipaatad, maaa^ he.,
they imnedialely nnlta In gnnpa of from ta to tltj panew,
aettle In a boaae together, keap a oannon tatl^ and w aack hh
partof tbaexpeoaetotheelaeladeUvoftbeartaL lIIBmaiBi*
eonmd with aoah artala,— in th* Mm, in the Sttaatl, oa the baaU
of riven, on jonraey^ wd erait In tbeiclnr
The tndnaaial artd ii alnieat M hMBaal
tboaatiadeawhiohadailtaflt 'AaoaW-bii
mental alata of BoiriaD aociaty woold U a UMUY ot thair hanUng;
lablng, abipploK tndlnft bolldlngi expkibg artda. Artdaotona
or two hnndiad earptatm, brioUi^an^ 4e., an onnmon wbenvir
new bdldtng* ban In be enoted, or nilway* or bridp* madag tt*
oontraoton alway* pnbr to deal witt an artal, nOer Oaa wM
■aparate wotkman. Tha aama ptindplea an oftao put into ptaatka
latbadomeatlatiadaa. It ia n**dl**a teMdd that tb* wagn diriOal
by the artalaate lOgttt than thoaa aamad by iaolatad wofkmeD.
Ttnallj, a gnatmnnbar of attda Ol the atock aidianga. In tha
aeaporta. Id th* gnat oltita (ccoBlirioDalna), dodng a>a g^Mt
tain, and on nilwaya have pinni an of bta- aad have amnlnd
tfueonfidaDoaeftnuUtpaople to iM an i
anma at uoney asd coraplloatad banU^ opanliana
handed over to an artalablK (membv oTan aitd) wtmm aajp
reompt, hia nnnib*! or h|a nana bafag accaptad •• asBdHit
gomntee. Hieea attda an tcoBited oalj on penonal aoqaaiat-
ansa with tbe caodidater Ibr membaiJilp, and aeoMiQr nachlsg
£80 to £100 k aiactad in tb* oiehaBg* arttb. Tbaaalaathana
tendency to baoome mete Jotnt-atoek coDpank* anpIcTfng alitfed
MiTTuiti. Co^petattra aoeiaUaa bw* latalr bnn onuiaad hy
■eveial nmatroa. lliqr have addend gaod laailta, Gat d* not
exhibit, oa tbe 1^1^ da aama nnl^ cf isgnfaBttan aa ttoaa wUeh
have adaan in a natnal way among faaaanta and artlaan*.*
Tbe chief ocatpaUon of Iha popoMlon of Eonla la wiealtom
Only Inalbir patUorHoaoow, Tladliar,«BdNytf bMitbem
abajJoned for mannlaotnring pmaaft^ Oattl«-tnadlu ia tha
iMdlng indnatiT tai Ha Btippa ngion, ttw timbK-tnO* In O*
notth^aat and Uifng on A* White and Oimiail Baa. Ot Oe
total aarftoe of Buab, 1,SS7,HO,000 aoraa (ezolndiu.' Hnland),
1,018,787,000 aatn an ngiatnd, and it upaan that W I pet
cent of Oeea balona to^ otown, lH'to Aa domaka («A),
SI -3 to peaaam^ M? to landed prirartaton or to privala eom-
*^^ - ■ « tha aona
0IOU in 1884.* The oopa of 1881 v«r<
r, that b, !■• to 1 In ombal BdmIl a
' "— --d aa lbltowa(aeeJ o
being left
oot of aoooant) I— Br^ tS,I8e,000 qoarltn ;'wbea^ 31,60MOOi
oata, tO,40S,000; huley, lS,lT«,00ai otbec gnln% 1S,80B,0C-
Tboaa ai 1884 {a' veiy good year)
— ' hi^Mr, (du^ oata. The ciopa an^ b<
bnlad. In an.avoagayear tbvp are
and U
» oflj pat
r uaqaally
anta whkh
ivear then are 8 aoTammanta
8,MO,000 qoartan ahort of flielt nqniiamant*, K which
have an asotaa of 8^770,000 qnatten, and 17 which have ndthn
' * ' r. 'Dm amrt of eon (hm Bnmia la ateadily
ftom^B«8,or ■
rang* of (1,700,000 qaartan in 187
_i iSii, Tbk inotaaa* da*a not ptOT*, 1 .
mail fill limn iilii e lliliiliif niimla mi fimlna alllitaii. iliiilii|
the liat yean of acard^, tha aoport bade did m* decline ; even
m eanunn » pay uwv nwea. dcwu
■np^ of aom* ttn {aorincaa bii
a and of tbe apiing. Oraoh, and *<
lour for maUng Iscad.
. with floor fo. _ „ ..
Flax, both fcx yam and aeed, ia aitenatvaly gnwn In the voiib-
. Mand weat, and the annaal [sodaelloDheaHniBlcd at 8,100,000
cwta. ot flbn and S,1KI0,DD0 qnarteia of linmnil fiamp ia kigaly
enltivatad in the central govammanta, tba yaariy prodosHon hung
ta Marnln, mt k af*aadli M I
B U S S I A
83
L,§00,Ma swta. of film ud 1,800^0 ipWtOT* of Mad. Tba
suortc/both (vlddli aloaj{ with otbvr ojL-bcartiifr pluita THfhAl
H, niH oi; lM,eiB.IMfO nrabiM in lS8t) bold* tb« Moowl pkoi
of tlw hurt u inenuiDft ■ad In ISM 7SC,r0a
" It^awU ukI tba Dali^baDriiiit
■Iwdnp, yield-
Kt, ehlalr la UtUt
«*vw«M-, M,*aO,OOa owti. DfbHuuu^ >
■g l,ll>,00a nrta. of aagu, wUk KlT-fl**
ukI tba aalidibinirii:
' duRji.-
(twtntj'i
llS,a88,I
'ban, bat good qu-
toablM In IWa. TabMOii h culUntwl aniTwban, bat good qi
litiH HI obt*iB«d wUr in (bt Matk. In 187«-«a u aTingt ai
of lOl.tM HUH MM and*c thb itaadilT lainwdug cnltiin, ud t
mp of ISM JwLlad 8a,«)0,(W0 owtL Tba Tina, vbich night
trnra Baeh tuHtr m«tb tbin at DTMnit, Ii oaltinlad onljr on
Mout r^iHiiiia. in BtMumliia, in the CiioM*, tod on tbe lowrr
Don hr wiM, ud in Ekataiitwalair, Podolis, ud Aitnkhau rbr
tiMMi na jaulj nradDca ii 108 millioD gillon* in Buda, lOil
is lb* riiiniiM. ana ii in Tmucaocaaia.
Hariut ^Titi>ning ia extanalTiilr cairied on in Tamla*! hi a
niiity id TagatnUta for eiportatioD, in Uoaoov and BnnB for
bon aid in • Ifaa aoath for nuiSowan, poppas, maloaa, 4o.
OaiiniH b alao vidalj a^sd in Ulllt Buna and in tba men
__, _ , Ooedbnedaofiatlltj
■at Tilk mlj in tha Baltic preiineea, ud aieallant biawl* of Iwnia
n tba Doojin TambolT, andiuTonmah. Sine* tha tnandpMfoa,
tba jaaaanta hnra bean sompalled toredoea tha nnobar M thair
Mil*, m that tha Ineraaas in tbia dapartmut dot* not <mn«|iond
to Ihi fnavM* of population, aaia abaim bj lb* blloainf Hguaai—
uti.
tW:
OM«k
«,»«2,000
«,Ba7,ooo
8,8M.OW
0,816,100
17,H»,ST0
8,»7,«70
iSSr:::::;:;:::::::::::::::::::
S' • * ratun of Sl,Wn,Wa borata In hamu and Poland, that ia,
bomaper 1000 Inhabitaola — a proportion wbich laalaearbMi
appiiaabed only In tba Duitsd Stataa. Tbay an kapt in laigert
ambtnintlw thiaa Sl*[^ goTammanta and on tha Urala (SGO
and tU par lOOO tnhabitknta), vbila tba amallaat proportion ocean
in tha Banabotndog ngion (lU pat 1000 Lubibittnta], 00 par
east of tb< lotnl nnmbar of Itoraaa belong to pcaaanta ; tbaia an
Boatlr of a nrj poor dcaeriptian. Intaotioni diaaaaH maka graat
nngn am; ;aar. In ISB3 no teas than 121,SO0 cnttia and
tbo Nomagian
"-' induti? baiog oaCimatsd
__. MiTiiua. Tbaae flthetiM
Inlng. KaUng in tba Bdtfai ia not oT much
teporluoo. ' In tha aMoariaa of tho Dniapar, Dniaatcr. and Bug
tttfraaoocDB^tloa to about UOO nMn,uid marbe ralaad at !«•
than 1,000,000 nniblai. It* Baheriaa in tha Sn ot Aaoff, vbicb
oaanpjalMat IB,000 man, an mich mon important, aa an also
tbam <d tha lam Don, wblcb lait alona ara valnad at orer
1,000^ raoUai ■ ;*ar. Tba ehiaf aahariaa of Bosaia are, bow
•ta. OB te Oaatdan and in ita ftadoia : thoaa of tha Volga corar
ao Ian ttea OOW Haan mOaa, and tboao of tha Ural ai&nd for
n tha aaa ooaat and WO milai up tba ri
no baa than 1 miUion owta. . val
h takau amy jttz in tba 0
■iUioB raaUa% «
^i* no baa than 1 miUion oi
, of Aah takau amy jttz in tba Cwpian *
Tbo Saharioa on tiie lakaa of the laka n^on ai
nrajofBotiu.
" — --- ' imponani ioni
ao'othat ff^nt, being killadin diSa
it ionreo of Ineonu in north and i
" " 1 800,000 gron
; gorammanti,
tba alioraa of tba Arctio Ocean,*
ontiiu is u impoitaat
Bonb, BO leaa tbu «fO,000 n^airnla and 800,000
" '"latowaeil"
„_Btmprodn.. _
Motwithatuding tha waalCh of Uu ooontrr ia mioanila and
Bitak of all Unda, and the andaanraia nude br Oorennnent to
■neamaga miniiu, inelndiiu the impoaition of protcctir "*
xan aodiut Finland (In 1886), thb and the related in
aia atiU at a low ataga of dardDpUMnt Tha niaoteaaai
Bining from As indnatrial contna, tha want o( technkal
Ilea ud alao of capital, and tha azbteoo* of • aviaty of Tautlona
lagnlathMM mKf ba glraa at tha obiat ruaaoua fur tliia >4at» nf
""->*fln. Tba unporla of fonrlgu matala in tUo ronifb and of uoal
itaadily liii laaaliin. vhile the aiportii, ueTer otberwiia Ibmi
iiifieant, ahov no adranoa. The chief niinins dtatricia of
_ la are til* Ural Honntaina andOlanati for all kluda of matah ;
the Uoacov ud Doneli baaina for ooal and iron ; Poland and
Finland ; Caucaana ; and tba Altai, tba Nortofaluak, nd tha
Oold 1* obtained fh>m gold-waahinn In Bibaria («,104 R in
18S2), tha Utala (IO,SU ft), Central Aaia (BSi Iblu 1881), and
Finland (19 lb) ; aUrar in Sibaria (1B,1S8 lb), and partlj on Can-
caaua (1S»3 lb), tba qoantlt; ataadilT daowcbg ; platinui in tba
Unla (S0OO to ««00 k araiy jaar). Laad h atiaetad alo^ with
ailrrr (1B,«I< ewla. in ISSl ; UT.MO awta. imported) ; line ouIt in
FoUud [88,850 cwla. ; halt aa madi la inportodl ; tin in Finland flM
woriied in aanial ,
>f be Dr^ region, in kanh^ Yfntka,~^e«u, tUbeRa, and
pitted).
kodtbog-itoo). In 1881 tba _
>*DtHi anlr two-tbirda of the oouaumption)
- "■ -■- -* owta.l:-lJr»Ia. eiU ; ■
•a aa follow^
_ . ..„ 1 kanft, Vntka, Ouea
Finland, bnttbaindaBtrjltalangoiablBcaBa,aad
abow a dellelt (Sfi.OOO cwtn i doabla Ala anonnt ii inportad).
' n-orea an foaBd at nuny plaoaa. Eicallent mtnea an worked
tba (Jrala ; and inn minaa oceor alao ia laige nnmban thion^wat
tbsUoaoBwand DDBatthaalnB,aaaiaaintbaw«atain praVinca^ not
' of thoaa of tha Uatlo doninlon^ of Poland, and of Fin.
-'- -' '- •-- ■ '|ltiiwi(wUA
atad M •-"-—
(In thonaanda of Owta. ) :— Urala, eitt ; OMtnl BiMrii
Olonat^ a-, aouth and aontli-wnt Roaaia, tOl ; Poland, Ml)
Finland, 111 ; Bibaria, 86. Tba iron and atoal thnngfaoat Aa
eupln amoonted to 10,720,000 cwta, in 1S8S. Xanipeu SiMla
atone prodnccd in 1883 11,610 ewla. of tnpper, 7,T01,M0 ewbi. of
pig-ina, i 981,800 cwta of Iron, ud l,7»,<00 owtt. of at*>L
The prodnction of eool la npldl)' inenaaing and In 1883 reacbeil
48,370,000 cwta., thno-foottba being pndacad by tha Donetn
baain, and ana-fifth bf that of Xoaoow. Poland, noreorcr, jialdad
S7,»60,00a cwta. of ooal ia 1883, and tha Aabtio dominiou abont
800,000 cwta. Kaarlj 14,000,000 ewta. are Imported anaaallr-
~ -'- LphthaontliaApebanDpaainBulaofttiaCaaplu
oiK ud 100 000 owta. of aaphalt).
Bniaia and Bibaria an Ttrr rich In rock-aalt, wit aprlnn and .
aalt lakaa(lS,S()0,000o<na.wi[taoto<l|8,7W,a00inpartad). Kxaal.
lent giaphito h iMad in tba daaarta of the Bayan Honntaina and
Tunikhanak- Snlfdiar ia obtained In Cuaaria, KasA, and Poland
udSO6,OO0baDdB.'
Bioee tha tima of Fetat I. the Rntalan Ooranunant baa bean
nnrmaalng In Ita eflbrla Ibr the enation ud daTelopmut of hone
manufactnna. Importut monopolita in laat cantmy, and baaTj
protactiva, ot lathar prahibitira, import datia^ aa wall aa laisa
mane; boandee, in the prtaent, hare contrfbntad towaida the
accnmulation of immenee priTatu fortnura, bat nonnfitotarta hare
deiBlaped bat alowly. A gnat npvaid monmut baa, howerar,
of the machinrr/ in uie waa eDectod, whenby tb* nonibor of handa
employed waa redncod, bat the sieaiiv prodootian donbled oc
Cnbled. la aoma bnnchea tba pniluctian anddanlT raae at a vat
higher rato (cotUai fnim Ii million roablaa ia 18«6 to S0» wiUloa
in 1882). The following fignraa lor Eaioi
Poland and Fioland, will gi*e '-"- ' -'
Baiopean R
of tbia prof
"""i^..
Ea^'H
'•^£ss^
IBBl
IBBl
1870
e,!6a
H,OBO
18,803
6b:»06
tst.sn
66e,6M
483,093
064,871
157,873.000
206,680,000
462,080,000
1,138,088,000
817
528
977
,187
TheaeSgnrea looa, bowerer, aom« of their aigniBoDoe it the com-
BDondinR nte of prc^naa In manu^turing prodactiTit; in waatam
Enropa be taken into aawunt Beaidea, ^nce the great imprava-
menta Dri88I-70 the indnitrial progreaa of Buaia hai bean bot alow.
The manuftctorieaofnila and railway p[an^ and aTen the tJral [ron-
worbi, an in a preearioDa oondition. The textih indoatila^ thoo^
idoubtedly they hare made gnat idTucea, an aahjact to gnat
... — ^-.__ , z ..I ■^oaeof the boma cropa, and an that
.na libonr for tweWg, foorteeu, and
' "' * iditlon, u reraaled by
itributa to
Boataatif
BDDietiniet liitsen
recent luquiriea, la
rr nnaatbractory. Uanj
:bnical inatmctjon, the
11 U S S I A
■boT* all ttt fut of mtrkttK Boirta \at not. ud cuDLot la**,
aach lursign mukBti u tlis soaiitiiH whith Srxt uttoinHl la indiu-
trial d»T»lopiH«it H« mlonia at dacta, ind In tlio home
nurkcti ths mmulKtimr ohI.t llu<ti 80 millions of povorty-drKliEn
pnopl)^ vluaa nnti an ngoilTall nappUed by thgiT paCty dameglic
TluH,"thaC li, Uia damatio iudiuCriei which am curied on hy
tha iiHianta in coDJanctiou with their uiicnltDnil pumiita during
tb* lour dijB of idlanaii tmpoHd by tha olimate and by (ba n-
docad ^otmanta of Jaad, coutiauii, not onlr to hold their gnunit
^da by aida with tha Uige manulaiiliina, bnt to darelop uid to
compata wiUi tbtaa by tha ebMpucM at tbair iiroducti. Eitsnaivo
inqiririM an now baiiig mada into tbaae dooiMtle iudiutrlea {tualar-
nBgit pratevrfMa). §55,000 paraoaa an^^ad ta them slung with
'ouUdts ItHMarii hafs ainady baau r^utarsd, and an nncipuctcd
Taria^oTi
naighbaurhood ot
tToTLuIiMlriaihaiulaatilt man nuei|HCt«d tacluicajdi
DHniiiraeraial of BAm, hart baam diac1o«d bj theaa rcaaarcuci.
Tha jady pradnotiaii of tha SSE.OOa knetari who liare been rofiia.
tarad nacbei lia,«M,00O nnblaa ; wbila tim toUl namber oT
pataanti angigad In tha indnitriaa, moatly in Oiwt Kuiaia and
uorthani Caooili, ia MtimaCad at a minimum of 7,(100, DOO penana,
with a jHrty productloD ofat liait ], 800.000.000 roablm, or mon
tluB donUa Iha aggragtta produation of the mauufacturei ptnpar.
Of CODiao ttia machinery they ok ia i«ty primitive, and tha vign
for ■ day of twalra to aufaaii boon excaeJingLv low. But the
induatiiia an capabia oF being improred, and it hai bean brou^it
omt that'Paria'ailkbata and "Vienna" house rumiture Bo1d>y
aotial rorDini firms at Uoacow ars really manulacturad In the
' lod ol the capital by paaaanU who itill contiDoa to tilt
' rery much from want ol
17 of mteraiediariea. But
. ..taa under moat onfaToar-
•bla ooBiUttoiu idio* that thay mast a ntl want, which ia itialf the
•ODiaqnaDoe of the paoullai eradltioiu nodar which Boaaia, tha Isat
to oms into tha Intarnational nurkat, baa to deielop.
In thoag nn gatanunanta vhara two-thirda of Iha textile man n-
betoriea of Bniaia ara oonosntntad domaatfa) waanng (for the
market, not lor domeetia >iaa) amployi sbmit £00,000 hands, whose
inrly production is rained it 15,000,000 lonblea. In BtaTfopol on
Cnucaeus it has n npidly daTelouad that 4% 400 looms an now at
work, with a yearly prodnotkn ar 1,007,700 ronblea. But no ada-
quste idea could be given of tha petty indutriea of Bnaiia without
entering into greater detail than the scope of tha present artlole per-
miCa. Bnffica it Co ear that there ia no brsach of tha indnatriaa in
teitilea, leather, woodwcrk, or metal work, pioiided it needs no
heary machinery, which ia not suocosfully carried on In the
•illagna. Nearly stl the nqnirementaofiune-tenthB of the popnla-
The Bggragata prodoctlon of industries
within the empire, ia-
.. „. idln 188! aa foliowa :-Europ«an Ruaua,
1,130,083,000 Tovblsa I Folaod, 147,808,000; Finlaod, 15,130,000.
lie cbiat manohctaica in Enrapesn Bnaaia (ajnrt from Poland and
Finland), and their yearly productioD In 1888 in nllllona of roublea,
wan M folbwi :— cotton yvn and cottona, SOBil ; otiier Isitils
indoatriaa, lOS't; metal warn sad machiasir, 107'B ; chemicala,
■■fl i oandlM, soap, glue, laathar, and other animal producla, SI -4 ;
dMUsn pradoots, 1641} ; other liquors, 89-0; sugar, 1 10 e ; floor,
jm.- liunmallldat are of minor importance. Itmnatbeobaarved,
bonvrar, fhat Uum Sgnrts an much below those ginp for 187»,
wlua dw agna^ta prodootion of Rn«Ian mannfactur^ waa oom-
patsd at l|IOS,M0,OOO ranbles, without the mining and related
indnstriti, the dlatUlaty producta, and the flour.
Tha gaoniphfoal dirtribntlon of mann&etiu«s in Bnsua is very
nnequl. The goreraments of Uoacow and 8t Fateiahnrg, with a
jaaJy production oFl7S and 184 million ronblea nspectire^, repio-
nnt tiwither two-fifths of the aggragata pndnoljoo of Bnaaia. If
we add Yladunir (fll,7«t,000 roubSs), Kiair (78,300,000), Perm
(50,500.000), LlTonia, EathMiia, KhatkoB; and Eheisoii (from 30 to
Ii> miUIons each), we ban all tiN principal mannfactnring cantraa.
in hot, Uoaoow, with portioni of tba nsighbonring governuents,
eon tsins half the Bnasian manntaotnras exempted from exdie dutiaa,
while tba aonth'weat ooTammenta of Kief^ PodoUa, and Eheraon
_._._,_ — lo.thi,^ of those not so aiemptad.'
iiymttfi ^iesaJapmBti
tralllc la in tho Iiauild of a f[reat number of iniddlim:
JewB, aud eljsewhere RnaMxns, — to whom tha pea:
- ■ debt, «» t!
camrd on by tnrelling merobsntL ,.^
The falN an vary nnmerona ; tha minor onea anmbend KOO in
1878, and ihowed aaliB amonntlng to an aggre^te of 105 million
roubles. Tlioae of Niini-Norgaroil, with a ratom of 400 million
roubles, of Irbit and Khsrkoff (sbora lOO million ninbles oscb), of
Uomny, iCreatonkoyo in Perm, aud Uaniellnak in Ilia {it to 12
million loablae), liare considEralile imparlancs both Ibr tiado aud
for hoinamanufucWnB. The lalsl ralne of the internal tmde, wbleli
ia in tbe bsDde of OSl.llS Itcenaed daalars, is rai^^lytatlmstod at
Tlje deielripmeot of tha eitsruil tnde of Bnstis ii tSNi from Iho
following fignraa (millions ofroablea): —
iscl-os.
ISM-IO.
■"'-'H'-'H »»*-
lata).
Articles of food
Rawandhair-mlnu
601
12 -7
1169
ISOl
16 8
184-8
10-1
338-2
1B7-4
11-0
SIO-6
13-2
11-8
232-2
16 -a
Total
„ In metallic
rouble.'
158-4
2027
ai4-4
374-B
310-2
534-8
312-3
ww-t
838-8
817-7
370 -«
Importt.
Articles of food
Rawandbalf-manu-
fccturat produce
88-1
SO-1
lIS-8
H-4
109-3
208-4
122 0
2SB7
l!6-7
278-5
148-2
284-7
1861
182 -9
142-6
281-8
tI9'8
440-8
SBO-S
II20-B
t6«-4
617 «
844-1
688-0
340 -»
„ iuraetallio
Toublea...
in 1882 sa Ibllows:— Tea
) roublge), aalt, flah, rice,
Dnblea), Tariooa nw tai-
72,417,000), nw meUla
,000 rouUea), and alu)&
Tha chief article of exiert ia grain — wheat, oata, and rye —
(24,870,000 quarters, 821,012,000 roubles in 1882), to which tha
increase otciporls is msinlydna. Thin increase, howcTer, don not
QOrreapond to an Increnae of crops, only 10 per cent of which wcm
exported in 1870 and aboDt 20 pci oant. in 1BS2. Nait to grain
come flax, hemp, linseed, and hompseed (129,870,000 ronblea in
1892) ; oil-yielding grains (141,000 qnarisra) ; wool, tallow, hidea,
bristles, and bone (31,120,000 roubleaX If WB add to theaa timber
(35,011,000 roubln) and fura [4,117,000 nnblea), 06 per cent of aU
Kusiiui eiporta are accounted for, tha nmaindei oouaiatlng ot
linen, rop», and nnia woollen etuffi and metallic wara (7,172,000
roublta to western Europe, 2,888.000 lo Finland, and 8,783,000 to
Aaia).
The chief hnporti-from Enrope we
(18,091,000 roubles), liquora (18,124.
(nits, and colonial warea (38,448,00
tile wares (127,038,000 roubles— cotl
[32,830,000 ronblBs), chemioala (B7,f
(22,428,000 rouhlea). Ths Imports ft
same year leached 32, 353,000 rouhlea. Tho chief uuporta were iism
Cknnany (214,000,000 roubles) and Oreat Brit u (124,700,000),
the chief exports to Great Britain (310,000,000), Germany
(178,000,000), and Fnince (54,000,000). Kren in her ttwle with
Finland Russia importi mon than aha exports, —the chief importa
being paper, cotton, iron, and buljter; prohibiloi; tarlBt ware im-
posed on Fioniih warea in 1385.
During 1882 the ports of the emniro ware Tiaited by 13,838
foreign ships (5,337,oOD toni), of which number 1438 were to
AaiiSc ports [891,200 tone). Of tho above total onW 2489 Ticula
.[028,000 tons) wore undor the Ruisuin flag (moatly Finniih), vLilo
the Brili^ alone ehowad a (cnoege of 2,2S8,CO0 and the German
839,000. The coaitiog trade was repieseiiW hy 35,033 vesacU
(8,010,000 tons) entering the ports, chiefly those of the Black See.
The mercantile marine of Kussia in 1883 numbered 8383 vcssela
(727,000 tone), including 801 ateamon : of the total number 1603
(264,000 tons) wen Finnish. The chief ports sn St Peteiaburii,
Odessa, Riga, Taganrog, Lilau, aud RevaL Baku has recently
acquired Bome importance in consequence of the naphtha trade.'
The rivon of the empire, mwtly oonnacted by canals, play a ntj
important part in the inland traffic The amra^ls Uagth of
DSTinble wsten laaebea 21,510 milaa (488 ndb* of cuala), and
12,800 miles more an anilabla for floa^g rafta. In IBS3 61.407
bafts, with carsoaa anicnntlnB to 163,261^000 owt«, nloed «t
180,460,000 ronblea, left ths porta on Snaaian rinn and canalo.
),Google
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RUSSIA
87
Con, livMod, mi (tmbv WMlUat* tws-tbMi at Un nhtlt
cwBM Mniid. VithU Bovla prapOT, from a7«) to 7<00 txwti,
liuw and imUtur, worth from toar to Minn niilliau of nnbln,
lun bMD built uiniwlW daring tha lut >x ymn (Jtli boati,
Talnsd at B,768,[»0 ToabW lo 1884,-18 of tl«m bring ■tnniBrm) ;
mart of tbm in light ht-bOttoUMl ilnWliIlnB, which u* bnkn
up M ■nba a* Um; !**• nMh«d4h^ dwtiBiliim. Tb* DmBbCTof
stauMim pljiBg o> inliDd ntar^ cbisSj on th* Valgk, n> ali-
m.tBdiiirB7Bmtl06«<8«.8»hoi»^i»«r).
TwsnlT-fire Taus (go Eiaria had ool; M3 dOm of milnn ) on
Junurr I, isas, tha toUk wm 1S,<S8 mOai tor BoMia ud
Gauad*, 888 Ibr Poland, TM for nnlud, lod 111 lor f-
■rr«»o«™i ««««, and two «r. latM^thaj hrf_l««b.d M .IP
m tMm 8t PMmImuk follow Iba two
L Of tha pnioctad Sibanui milwaf
craoaoting mn and Bnauikl ob the
id thi chiS inn-WDlIu ot Oie Urali,
ndadiaat "■ ~
■ hrthu
.„ ^_ . __ » tht atab
^. —ui af tbam itn bacn ooutnietad oodar Oarammtnt gnc
itas, inTolriagpajuiaDtof rromllloSlraillioarODblMTaarli
n Um othac band Iba ToarlT inctcadng dabt of tha failwap to '
d la 781,«8B,»» — '^'-- '- "" ™ *■■
H graaaiiM of KoMto U tha aodttt-aaat, ana ina
ro frratinT witli Hoaoow, wbanca dx trunk lioa ndiala in all
~ >*Na) milltarr Umi nm along tba waatan ftootio',
kluM,jbutbg
g Pirn and Bnauikl
KuDk with BkBtsnnbnrg and
tad. It 1 ^
dtoTiuE
1 78I,ISB,»KI ranblaa in 1881. Of tha
ksa thaa mi nillkn nabka wan b>
mllUoD id^Kbo
bf Qoraimmaat ib aharaa
( of eonitnietion haa baan altogBtber oat o(
» what it owbtto be; (or, wbanat tba BTarage rata
~ ' in flnhnd waa onlj 10,000 rilTar rooBlta^ is
mlhajnpn
tad an axjiandltDn
la waa onlr 9'18 par
Z <m' tha' cutal inreatad (40S3 imbla par EnglUh mila in
lael). In 18W M.B7*,8» paaaangafu, «,M7,0M Bililajj, and
834,600,000 cwta. of marahaatoo w«" (onTand by »0B loo««-
ti*ia And !!»,»« eairtuaa and waggona. JoUjr OM-halTof tha
menhandlaaeaniadMBdatedof com (84 «» aant), ooal <U p«
cont),finwood(lSpai«ant.X»i»dtimbac(8pfto«nt).'
For tha oonrnaiMa of coffaapoiidsuM and tnTillara aloDS «dl-
paij ronta tha atate maintaiu an axtmuiTa organintioB 61 poat-
hoiaga batwMD aU towna of tha ampins that la, orar an aggiwata
lanRth of 110,170 mlW In 1883 18CB alatku with a atat of
lS,S»inaB»od4*«,460hoi»a^wankopt«plortt«itpiirpoaa. Ii
I8S1 M2,lSI,i70 iattan, nawapapeia (•^SW.OOOk ragiataiad
Icttan^ and pareala weco carriad, o[ which 1^808,100 balonoad to
iotiiniatiDiiar conaapoDdance. Tha talagiapb anion bad in tha
Eama vaar an aggnwatr I<i4(th of SS,SS4 milia, wiOi S,MT Ulagnnb-
offioaa, and tO^Si,1>B tclcpuu wen tnoamittad.* (P. A. K.)
Paw IV. Ruaauir Hmtobt.
Tha BtMUUu, properl; ao called, belong to the Skrcmia
nee, itMlf a dirinoa of the great krya faioilj. It ean-
Dot be denied tbat in^tlu northeni and eaatom paiti of
BoMU large Finniah elecnentt bare bMome mixed with
the Blan, and Mongolian in the aoath, bnt thia ia far
from jturti^ng the prqud^sed attempts of Dacbinaki and
others to challeogs thn right of the BniMana to be
called an Aijan people. The derivation of the worda Boaaia,
Romana (Anu, Sotiia, Bomaiu), haa been mneh diapnted.
The old-faahioned view waa to identifj them with the
Bhtuolani, who are now generall; believed to have been a
Hedish tribe. The later and probably corract one ia to
derive tiie wuns' from the Finnish Rnotai appUed to the
Swedes, and considered l^ Profeaeor Thomaen of Copen-
hagen to be itself a corraption ot lbs Swediah word
nUumatn, rowers or seafaron. They are Scandinavian
_, ^ nofteaAo); OokiTatehoff,
1 Bwibiuora SbonuJi OandantmiHiYkh
ZiiamiM (ola. It t *[L, tULi Brbakaff anil fiialoff. Our tFoyi nf
Ommmiri«,li», 188* ; Tchaproff, Tir»t%yU SOadt, Ac (tr«la in
viking with whom we first beoome acquainted in northern
Ruaaio, and who in ■ way fonnded the empire, although
from Arabian and Jewish writers we have dim records of
a Slavonic race inhabiting the basin of the Dnie^ier about
the dloaa of tha 9th century. In recent times Ilovaiski
and Oedeonoff have again attacked the view of the Swedish
origin of the invaders. They eee in them only Sla^ but
th^ are not oonaidered to have ahaksn the theory which
derivea the name from Hootai. As the stoiy goes, three
brotbera, Burik, Sincns, and Truvor, were invited to Russia
from the north and aettled at Novgorod in 862. Nestor
calls them Tatangians, a name in which moat people are
willing to see Norsemen. For a bng time the Russiana
and ScandinaTiana are considered, as we shall find, to be
separate races, bnt at length they are fused, as the Saxons
and Normans in England under Henry 1 Concerning
the origin of the town of Novgorod, wHcb bears a purely
Blavonio name^ nothing is known ; it has been supposed
that at &nt a Fioni^ settlement eziated on its site.
According to the legend the three brothers were invited
over by a leading citizen named Qostomlsl There is,
however, no mention of such a person in the Chronicle of
Neator. There is another story that Rnrik was the son
of the Swedish kin^^ Lndbrat, a person met with in
Scandinavian legend, and his qneaa Umila, the daughter
of Ooatomtsl, and was bom at UpsaU in 830. Whatever
Uie variuita of the legend may be, we aeem to learn one
thing, — that a successfnl Scandinavian invasion occtured
in the north erf Ruasia. Tht three brothers finally settled
in the coonby, — Rnrik at I^doga, where tae river
Volkhoff flows into the lake, Binena at Biekxizero, and
Travor at Iibonk on lAke Feipua. On the dMkth of
hia two brothers without hetr% we ore told that Borik
annexed their dominiona to hia own, and took the Utle of
ifdiJci hticu, <x grand-prince. Thsee three brothers ore
said to have brovght two other adveotorers with them,
Askold and Dir, who, having had a quarr«l with Borik,
aet out with aomo eompanions to Ooostantinople to try
their fortnneL On thdi way they saw Kieft, aitnated on a
iichaDdgraMTplain,in the occupation of the KfaocarsL Of
this d^ they made thwnaelTea maatera, and permanently
eataUiahed themselves m the Dnieper. The origin wf
Kiefl itaelf is involved in mystery. It is first mentioned
about the 9th oentniT. OonstantinePorphyrogenitusapeakB
of ri Kanrrpof rS Kiod^ ri trnfo/taiofurar "Sitpfiatix.
ThiM laat word has given much labour to scholara ; some are
disposed to see in it the Norse tatidbaiii, the bonk of sand.
It la at Kiefl that, according to the legend, St Andrew
preached the go^»sl to the Russians. From this place
Aakold and Dir sallied forth two years afterwards, with
an armament of two hundred veaeels, sailed up the Bos-
phonu, and plnndered the capital of the Byzantine empire.
The Greek writers give 851 as the date of this enter-
prise, thus making it precede tha arrival of Rurik by
eleven years. The emperor at the time of theii invasion
was Uichael m.
Having greatly extended his dominions by subduing the '
BOiroonding Slavmio bribes, Rurik died at an advanced
age in 879, leaving the regency of the principality and the
guardianship d his son Igor to the renowned Gleg.' This
chief anbdued Smolensk, a city of the Krivitchi, in 882.
Allured by ita wealth and advantageous situation, Gleg
now resolved to attempt KieS, which was held by Askold
and Dir. The story goee that he took youiig Igor with
him, and disguised himself and his companions as Slavonio
merehanla. The unnupecriug Askold and Uir were invited
to a conference and slain on ths spot. Thus was Kiefl
added to the dominions of Igor, who wu reoognized as the
lagrai sail HalgL
88
RUSSIA
rnisTOKY.
lord o£ the town.' In 903 Oleq ehota & wita fm Igor,
named 01ga,*aud to have been a native of luoff, the origin
of which [ilikce, now mentii>ned foillieGnt time,isQnkJiowa.
Via are told that it waa a citjr of imporUDM before the
animal \.t Rarik. The derivation of the name ia diapated,
MDie deriving it from a Finnish, others from a Slavonic root,
Oieg next readved to make an attack upon BTzantdnm,
Dnd bu praparationa were great both l^ sea and land.
Leo the Fhiloeopher, then emperor, waa ill able to reust
these barbariana He attempted to block the passage of
the BospboruB, bat Oleg dnigged bis ships across the laud
and arrived before the gates of Constantinople. The
Greeks begged for peace and offered tribate. Oleg is said
to have hung bU shield in derisioa on the gates of the
city. We ma; believe this without going so far as to give
credence to Stryikowaki, the Polish writer, who eajs it was
to be seen there in his time (IGth century). The atrocities
committed by Oleg and his followers are described by
Karaouin, the Sussiao historian ; they are just such as
the other Noraemeh of their race were committing at
the aamo time in northern and western Europe. The
Byzantines paid a large sum of money that their city
might be exempted from injury, and soon after Oleg sent
ambasaadors* to the emperor to arrange the terms. The
treaty was ratified by oaths ; the Byzantines swore by the
Ooapels, and the Buaaisns by their gods Femn and Tolos.
In Sll Oleg made another treaty vrith the Byzantines, the
terma of which, as of the prec ^ng on^ are preserved in
Nestor. Tlie authenticity of these two treaties has been
oiUed in qbestion by some writers, hot Hiklouch truly
' observes that it would have been impossible at the time
Heetor wroto to forge the Scandinavian names. Soon
after this Oleg died ; he had exercised supreme power till
the time of his death to the exclusion of Igor, and seems
to bare been regarded by the people ss a wizard. He is
said to have been killed by the bito of a serpent, which hod
coiled itself in the ikmll of his hone, as he was gazing at
the animal's unburied bones. The etory ie in reality a
Scandinavian saga, as has been ahown by Bielowaki and
Rafn. It is also found in other countries. In the reign
of Igor the Fetohenegs first make thmr appearance in
RnasiaA history. In 941 be undertook an expedition
against Constantinople and entered the Bosphorus after
devastating the provinces of Fontns, Faphlagonia, and
Bitbynia. Nestor has not concealed the atrocities com-
nutted by the Bussiana on thia occasion ) he tells us of the
churches and monasteriea which lliey burned, and of their
cruelty to the captives. They wert^ however, attacked by
the Byiantiue fleet, and overpowered by the aid of Greek
fire i many were drowned, and many of those who swam to
land were slangbtered by the infuriated peasants; only
one of their number escaped Thirsting to avenge hia
loss, Igor fitted out another expedition in the spring of
the following year. The Qreeka were unwilling to run
a risk again ; they renewed the treaty which had been
signed with Oleg, and wera only too glad to purchase
d^verance from their adversaries. The Russian at first
demanded too much, but waa finally persuaded by hia more
liradent attoodanls: "It Cssar sp^ks thus," said they,
"what more do we want tluui to have gold and silver
and silks without fighting! Who knows which will
survive, we or they) Who baa sver been able to conclude
a treaty with the sea t We do not go on the dry land,
bnt on the waves of the sea ; death is common to alL"
' Hbtb agiin WA hivfl ft Noth di
wblcli in it> older rona li Holga.
■ It Km Ihwi obanrvl that tha
tnitjsra pnnlr 8cud)ni.TJu.
a, Olg* il cqnlnlnit to Htll*.
Lmas of th« UDbacsftdoii In thii
A treaty of peace was accordingly conclodAd, whkb is
given at full length by Nestor ; of the fif ^ names attached
to it we find three were RIavonfc and the roet Noraa. Th#
two races are begioniog to be fused. From this expedi-
tion Igor returned triumphant. He was,, however, nofoi-
tunato in a sabeeqneot attack on the Dravlian^ a Slavonic
tribe whoee territory ia now partly occapied by tbe
government of TchemigoS ^e Drevlians had long
suffered from bis exactions. They r«aoIved to encounttir
him under the command of their prince Male ; for they
saw, as a chronicler says, that it was neeeasaiy to kill the
wolf, or the whole flock would become his pny. They
accordingly laid an ambuscade near their town KorcAtan,
now called Iskoroet, in the government of Yolhynia, and
slew him and all his company. According to lieo tha
Deacon, he was tied to two trees bent togeUier, and when
they were let go the unhappy chief was torn to pieeee.
Igor was succeeded by his son Sviatoslr^ff, tbe first
Rusaian prince with a Slavonic name. Olga, however,
the ajurited wife of Igor, was now regent, owing to her
son's minority. Fearful was the pnniahmant she inflicted
upon the Drevlians for the death of her hnabaad, and tbe
story lacks no dramatic interest as it hsa been handed
down by the old chronicler. Some of the Drevlians were
buried alife in jnts which she had caused to be dng fw
the purpose previonsly; some were burned alive; and outers
murdered at a trvna, or funeral feast, whidi she had
appointed to be held in her husband's hononr. The town
Iskorost was afterwards set on fire by tying lighted
matches to the tails of sparrows and pigeon^ and letting
them By on the roofs of the bouses. Here we certainly
have a piece of a bUina, as tbe old Russian l^endary
poems are called. Geoffrey of Honmouth and Layamon give
^e same account of the capture of tbe dty of Cirencester
by Gurmund at the head of the Baxons, and nomethiug
similar is also told about Harold Hardrada in Sicily,
Finally, at the clone of her life, Olga became a Christian.
She herself visited the capital of the Greek empire^ and
was instructed in the mysteries of her new faith by tha
patriarch. There she was baptized by him in 950, and the
emperor Constantino PorphyTOganitua became her god-
father. She did not, however, succeed in persnadinB her,
son Sviatoslaff to embrace the same foitl^ althougn he
took no measures to impede ita progress among hia Bub-
jects. This son was as celebrated a warrior as 01^; his
victories were chieRy over the Fetchenegs previously men-
tioned, a people of Mongol origin inhabiting the l>aBin of
the Don. He began, however, the fatal custMn ot hntiX-
ing np Russia into apanage^ which he distributed among
his sons. The effects of this injudicions policy, snbee-
quentl; pursued by other grand princes, were soon felt
Thus was paved the way tor the invasion of Russia by tha
Mongols, who held it for two hundred years, and com-
municated that aemi-Aaiatic character to the dress and
customs of the oonntry which the ubufs of Feter the
Great could hardly eradicate, and which perhaps have
not entirely disappeared even in our own timea la his
division of the oonntry, Briatoslaff gave KieS to bis son
Yaropolk ; to another son, Oleg, the conquered land of tbe
Drevlians; to another, Vladimir, he assigned Novgorod.
Il wonid be impossible to interest the reader in the pet^
vnus of these princes. After having gained several
victories over the Fetchenegs, Sviatoslaff set out on an
expedition against the Bnlgarians, a Ugro-Finnish tribe,
dwelling on the banks of thu Volga, the remains of whose
ancient capital can still he seen. He made himself master
of their country, bnt his victorious career vraa ciit Aatt at
tbe cataracts uf the Ihueper, where he and his wldiefs
were slain by the Petohenegs. According to the barbainns
costom of utB times, their prince Eniya made his ikoll
905-1174]
RUSSIA
into » drinkii^^M^ Tlodimir, the ho cf BviktOBl&S, wbb
ftr MBS Una m monster of cnielt; ftad delMiticlierj. Hs
killad^lM>thcrTuopolk,BDd aeued hu dominioiu ; ftud,
Tinpolk hkYing BOme time before mnidered his brother
OId^ Vl^mir now become aole ruler. To hit hendituj
doauniaBB he added GeJkuGr BadBnMn,uidcatgvgated
nme litlmBiiiut and liTCntMi tribet. Boddeolj h« Mama
to bsTB baen troofaled with Teligioo* diScaltiei. Accord-
ing to tho duooicliM, be Not MnbMMdor* to Mng him
teperia U the diSemt lali^aoa — CUbolk, Jewiih, Hui-
ndmu, and Qraek. Tkt h«t erf theee beliob teenwd the
mort MCnbcton. Thdimir mudied noUi, took the dtj
al Cbcrwoeeoa u the Crimea, whkh at that tune belonged
to tl» BTantine empcnin^ and then eent to demand the
hand of Hie daof^ter of that potentatai Alter eoUB
lUibvatKiD hia ivqaart waa granted mi eaodhwD that he
vM hiplued, AcGvdii^^ ha went to OonalantiQople in
968, and waa admittid into the dutch, and at the moM
time ncnTsd the hand el Anne, the BymntiBe princaaa,
alihoQ^ hfl m ■ to hava already had a gnat mmber of
win*. On hia latnm to Kief!, he canaed the Image of
Penn, tho BlaTonio god of flinnder, vhich bad been
nected oo an enunaoo^ to be caat into the ri*er, after
hinng bean belabonnd bj the eodgela «f hia aoMieia.
After Ihia Vladimir iaaoBd a [aoclamatMD orderiog all the
inhatataata to prooted on the following daj to the banka
of theriw to ipoaiTabqitiaia. Thii eztnotdinary con-
Band mat with nniveraal obedience^ and Buaia waa
CbrirttaniMdL Aa Tladimii inlndDced Chriatiaaftr into
BnMa, ao TaraaUE hia ion waa the firat l^palator. He
Ni ptinea td Norgarod, and died in 10S4. Tiadunir on
hii death divided Ua doainiona among Ub aona : — to
Tirtala^ Novgorod; to Ldaaia^ Ffdotak ; to Bori^ BortoB ;
loQkfa^Harwn; to BTiatoala^ tha DrerliaDa ; and a few
otiut pronnoaa to otbera of his aima. Eie^ hia cental,
«M eaued 1^ Ua ne^Jww Briatopolk, who mnrdand Bccia
ud QLab, BOW oanonizMl among the mar^ra ot the
BuHaa Chwch. Yaioalaf at length drove Sviah^iolk
frooi Eief^ «nd waa tenpoiarilf reatored bj the Pidea, bnt
oolj to be driven ont i^aii^ and he ended hia life aa an
uila. TaioalaS waaanoonrfnl agunatUieFetchenaga, bat
failed in an attack on Conatanlint^le. eU great ^un to
liii iiimwiiliaiiiil liea in hia pnbliahing the flrat tecenaion of
the £tMBisM Fratda, the carlieat Bomian code, which
ma handed down in die chnwiebB of Novgorod.
We now leave the earlieat period of Boaaian hiatory,
nth ita roaantia etoriea and embedded aagaa, telling ns
cf hermc man, for the ncond diviaitm erf onr aabject The
death ot Taroabf waa followed t^ the draarieat portion
of the Boaaian annah the period of the ifMuiagaa (tiditif),
Vutug from 10C4 to 1238. The country waa now brokeo
up into pet^ prindpalitiea, and we rikall nndetatand ita
cmditiocL more daarlj if we remember that the chief
diriaiont of Bnacaa firam the 11th centnn to the 13th
«ms aa follow*' :— .
(I) Tb» prijKialllj <il BtMimmk, tarnuiij ol giwt lanrtanoi,
n iBcladuig in ita tsritoTuia tlu aonim ot thno of Tht great
Raariao itnn— th* Vola, tbs Dniqw, ud tba DiKia.
(1} Tlw piindptUtf of bull. In lli< Mtl; ud nsMotKl mm,
(hxn^ultlsmnit afdvooimtiy. Tba firat fona o( tht sam* la
Bmw. Tba wnd iqipoia to ban been a oolltcUTa app^liaD of
tba wnfl» ; It waa imdw the Inflamoa of tlia B;»ntlnB writen
Uuttnths ITtbMDtarrtb* fomi Bodi (pnng np, vhieh In timi
Vnad OTD At whob Imd. Ve maat not Ibrget, howarar, that
lo UM iB^t(% of InglltlimtB till Ilia h-gfanitig ot tha ISth cm-
^.ibsama waaUoaooTT. Jtaiitqation on ths Dnieper waa Ttrj
■dTw>t>gaoaa;aBd tbeadlirai tortile, the bliuk-^utb ngion being
at tba fveasnt time tiia great nbeat-growing diilrict of Buna.
Beaidaa, tha BjaaatiM territoi? waa not tu oft On tb« nind-
BrfZiaffJapandadttaatorParaiMlaTl; and TiAgomd, Blel-
and Taru£mk wan made apajiagea tot piincae of tbe laiiie
ty-
Eitlmn de l» Muuie, f. 70,
lane army waa
pilbgad; ^nd tl
the Soiha, the Diaaa, and tba Btba, atretebad the ii ,
of TcbanugolT with fitarodab and Labaoh, and NoTgorod Baraiakl
vitb FatiTL Knnk, and Brlanak.
(4) Tbe doable nindnalitr of Bjuan and U
- - BClpiitT "
,_, ,DbCcaoij
of tha lattor, Vjatka
Iiiaalafl, the eon of Taraalafl, aeema to have had a
troubled reign of twenty-fooi yean, eonatantly diatorbed
by dvil warn. On hia death in 1078, althon^ ha had
two BOtta, be left the principality of Kielf to hia brothor
Taevcdod, apparently on a principle common among the
Blava to bequeath the crown to the iddeat male of tha
family j bat, oa tbe death of Taevolod, Sviatopolk, the
■on of Iiiailafl, aaeceeded in 1093. At hia death
VladiniiT Hononwkh came to the throng and mled from
lllStollZB. Bewuthe*onofTBevol<>d,BndwaacaUBd
after hia matenial grandfather, the Byuutine empetoi
Oonatantina Honomachna. llie reign ci thia prince waa
a vary proapenma one. He left a cnrioua treatiac
called " Inatmotion ' (i'oaeioau), aiddreeaed to hi* eons, in
wbkb m gat a picture of the aimple life in Bnatia at that
period (aee below, p. 103)- He also founded on the river
irii»»iii» % town which boars hia name, ^lero were eon-
tinnal qnatreb anong hia deaoendanta^ but it ia imposaiUa
to go Into theee minutely hen. Oearga Dolgcwuki, one ot
tbe aona of ThuUmir Mcnomakh, gained poeaeaiien of Kieff
in HOT, btri the diyaooa bepn to pale before the growing
power of Soida^ and eeaaed to be tba ca^laL He died
the Mme year, jn*t lAila a league waa being formed to
drive him oat ol iL Hie oonfederataa enlcNd the cily,
and their cUef made himanlf piinea. In IIW Andrew
Bogntioab^i, eon of Oeorge Dolgomkl, fwmed a ooali-
' ' ", who waa rdgning in KieS, and a
agaimt IJie city. It waa taken and
Hand |detai«^ aaoerdolal omamenta,
ana even neua were eanisd oS. It ia on this oocarion
that tha head of St Oement, the Blavonie apoatle, which
ia knonm to have been pwacrved at Kia^ waa kat.
After the bll of this d^ Bnmia ceaaed fw amne time
to have any political ecota. Daring the fifty'^ooi yeata
proTioos to the arrival of flie Ibngola, our cliief intereat
H drawn to Snidal and Qalid^ and tha repnUiBa of
Novgorod and FikoS: Oeana Ddgomki had toonded
tbe principalis of Snidal; his great anxiety, howevor,
was to roiJte himself raastei of Kiefl. nie diief aim of
bis son Andrew Bogolinbski was to coteod his authori^
in another direction, and to cause it to be rect^jiiiied tl
Novgorod the Grca^ where he bad estaihliabed his nephew
ae a kind of lieuteiMnL He attacked the dty in 1170,
but was oompletely r«i>ulaed from ita walls, a panic
baring iuied his anny. Tbe Novgondiana pnt to death
toany of their prioonAi, tod sold otheta as alaves, ao that,
to quote tbe words of their chronielm, "ciz Susdaliaoa
couM be bought tor a grivna," an old piece of money. In
1173 Andrew was also defeated 1^ HatlalaS the Brave at
Bmolenak, and in 1174 he waa saanaalnatwl by bis own
nobles. The reign of Andrew waa in all reapacts an im-
portant one. FrMQ his rsfoung to divide Ma dominion*
among hia brothera and n^hew^ it is plain that he saw tbe
evil effect of the ayatem of apanagee and could oonceive Ulb
ide* of a ouited state. Be was a man of iron will, and an
aatute diplomatiat rather than a great soldier. He tbn*
had eomething of the spirit of the Ivans, and anticipated
their potii?. Ha may be said with truth to have been
tbe bat .of the conspicnoB* rulers of Bnssia before the
Mongol invaaiona. Aa yet we have had but few wiathy
of tbe attention tA tbe historian. They are Bank, the
foonder of the empire, OUg the warrior, and Olga the
fint Qirirtdan aoveNign. To tiwae eoooeed tbe warlike
'90
RUSSIA
{m
SfiktoeU^ alain hf tlw Patehen^ ; Tkdimir, who caused
tbe oonnti; to be Chriitiaaized ; ftnd TarosIaS hi? eoh,
the l^aktor. During ths second pencuj, in which we
find Russia WBakeaed aud divided ioCo apaoagea, we
luTe onlj two noteworthj princes among a score of
tuumpoctaat psnons, — Vladimir Uonomakh and Andrew.
The death of Andrew, whose mnrdersn were not
brought to justice, was follewed bj many petty wars.
The only event, however, of any importance for a con-
siderable time is the battle of Lipetek (near PeraiaBlavl
Zalieaaki) in 1210, ia which Qeorge^ soq of TseToIod,
brother of Andrew, was defeated by the combioed troops
of Novgorod, Pakc^, and Bmoleosk. In 1220 we be&r of
Nijni-Novgorod being foanded. A prince of consider-
able importance was Boman of VoUiynia, to whom the
inhabitants of Galicia offered the goveromenc of their
principality, but he was superseded by another Viodimir,
and did not get the crown till after a great deal of
haid fighting. He is said by Kodlube^ ^le Polish
historian, to have acted with ferocioiia crnelty. In 1205
be was killed in a battle with the Potea. In 1221 we
have the first invasion of Rnssia by the Uongols. Daniel of
Oalicia was one of the lost of the Bnsaian princes to make
his sabmisaion to Batu (1338). He died in 1261. In
tiie 11th ceatory the ptindpality of Golida was lost in
the Polish lepablic, having been annexed to Lithuania. It
joined the fortunes of that state in its union witlr Poland
at the time of the marriage of Jagielto with Jadwiga.
We now come to the third division of our imbject —
Russia under the yoke of the Hongola, viz., from 1238 to
1163. This is indeed a dreary period, in which the
politioal and material development of the country mu
delayed by its complete enslavement. The first occasbn
on which the Rnssians come into ooutact with their
Mongolian invaders was in 1S34, when, in company
with their allies, the Pobvtsee, they suffered a complete
defeat on the banks of the Solka, nettf where it flows
into the sea of Aio^ and adjoining the site of the
present town of UarinpoL On this occasion, however,
the Mongols only marched a little way up the river
Dnieper, and retired after devastating the conntry. In
1238 they reappeared, and after destroying Bolgul, the
capital of the Finnish Balgaiians on the Volga, advanced
against Ryazan, which was plandered and burned, with
adjoining cities. They then defeatsd the army of Suzdal,
at Kokimoa, on the Oka ; after which they bnmed Moscow,
Suzdal, Yaroslavl, and other important towns. The grand-:
dulce Tnri of Bnidal had encamped on the river Sit, almost
CD the frontlets of the territc^ of Novgorod. He was
thete defeated tmd was decapitated on tbe field of battle,
while his nephew Vasilko had his tbroat out for refusing
to serve Bato. After taking Tver and advancing within
fifty Isagnes of Novgorod, the Hongola tamed south and
Moupied the two following years (1239-1240) in ravaging
Bonthem Bnssia. They then burned Fereiaslavl and
Tchemigo^ and Hangn, the grandson of Jenghis Khan,
directed hU manth against KiefE, The noise of the great
boat proceeding to the capture of the fated city is graphic-
ally described by the chronicler. The city was tdien and
given np to pillsge, not even the graves being respected.
Volhvnia and Galicia followed the fate of the other prin-
cipalities, and all Russia was now under the yoke of the
HongoU, except tbe territory of Novgorod.
The snhaequeut movements of these barbarians in
Hungary and Horavia cannot be described here. It will
Hiffice to say that soon afterwards Batu turned eastwards.
He next founded on the Volga the city of Sarai (the
Palaoe), which became the capital of tbe powerfnl Mon-
golian empire, the QoUen Horde. Hen alK> cmigregated
the rsmaini ot tbs Petebenegi, tha Fdovtzea, and other
tribes, and to these berfaarions Bossia was for a bng time
tributary. In 1272 the Hongotion hocdea embraced
Islam. Yaroeloff, who entered into his territory of Siudol
after tbe death of his brother Ynri, found his hereditary
domains completely devastated. He bad oommeoeed re-
bnilding the mined town, when he was snmmoned by
Batu to do him homage in his new capital of SaraL Thia^
however, was not consideired suScient, and the poor prince
was obliged to betake himself to the court of the great
khan, which was at the forther end of Asia, on the banki
of the river Amur. His title was confirmed, bnt (m hii
return ho died of the fatignes of tbe journey. He was
succeeded in Sozdal by his son Andrew (1216-1SG3).
His other son Alexander reigned at Novgorod the Great,
and gained tbe surname of Nevski from his celebrated
victory over the Swedes in 1240. He and Dmitri Donakoi
are the only great figures of this period of natioml abase-
ment. Alexuider Nevski has become conseoiated in the
memories of the people, and is now OTie of the leading
Rnssian saints. In spitc^ however, of his servioes to the
people of Novgorod, he aftortrards quarrelled with them
and retired to Pereia^vl yjliA«lri Bat the citisens were
soon glad to betake themselves to his help. On being
invaded by the German Sword-beoring Knights, vho had
established themselves in Livooia in the year 1201, and
an army of Finns, Alexander was summMied, like another
Cbmitlna, and defeated the enemy en Lake Paipns in what
was called the "Battle of the Ice' in 1342. He entered
Novgorod in triumph with hia prisoners. In qiite of bU
this brilliant snccess, Alexander was nnable to resist the
power of the Golden Horde, and was obliged to go to
Sarof to do homage to the khan. He was accomponial
by his brother Andrew. The ceremony was always
attended by many degrading acts ot salxnisBlon on the
port of the tributary prince. In 1 260 the If ovgaiodians,
who had so long preserved the liberty of their rennblie
nntajared, consented to submit to Uis khan end pay
tribute ; Alexander died before reaching Vladimir on h^
return from one of these hnmiliating jonneys. A great
part ot western Russia was now consolidated by the
Lithuanian princes into a state, the capital of which wsi
Tilna and die language White Russian. To this many ol
the western provinces of Russia gravitated, and by the
muriage of the Polish heiress Jadwiga with Jagiefto of
Lithuania these provinces went to Poland and were not
reannexed to Rossis till a mocb later period. The eastern
portion of Russia grouped itself round Moscow, which is
iirst heord of in the chronicles in 1U7. We find four con-
siderable eoatem states — Ryazan, Suzdal, Tver, and Moscow.
For a century after its foundation we bear nothing of this
city, the name of which is certainly Finnish. We are told
that it was bnmed by the Mongols in 133T, and that a ■
brother of Alexander Nevski was killed there in 1318, in
a battle against the Lithuanians. We have seen that the
political centre of the country has constantly changed.
From Novgorod it went to Kieft, from Kleff to Vladimir,
the capital of Suzdal, and from TladLmir to Moscow ; we
ehall soon find that owing to the vigorous policy of its
rulers this principality became the nnclens of the great
RuBiian empire, and gathered round it tbe adjacent states.
Its trae founder was Daniel, a son of Alexander Nevski.
who added to it the cities of Fereiaslavl Zaliesski and
Kolomna. At his death in 1303 he was tbe first to be
buried in the church of St Michael the Archangel, "^ere
all the Russian sovereigna were laid till the days of Feter
the Great Siuce that time, with the exception of Feter
IL, they have been interred in the church of the Petro-
pavlovski fortress at Bt Petersburg. Daniel was followed
onthetlLrone by hia sons Yuri and Ivan in sncceseion. Yan
Dauilovich (1303-1336) took possession of Moahaisk. Tbe
1174-1610.]
niga cf Iran 1
RUSSIA
91
, cr Um Pom (ISaS-lSW), itiU
_ I the aaw priaci[«Iit7. Ttw wu
•rddod, aid tlM |iTn wninnnnn of Momow wu Msond bj
t^ matKipoliUa coming to ttaide than. AfWr KiliU
OHM in nuceoioa hii two son*, Simaco tho ¥mad (1340-
13&3> and Iran IL (1303-13&6>. Kiomm ftnt took the
title of grand^uke of all the Bntnaa. He died of the
Black J>cath, which wai then derutating Eon^te. In
spite of Uie eSorta of tbve princea to maintain the
sopmnacy of Homow, t» their death the hegemony of the
Roauao atate* went agaio foe a time to Boidal. It was
Dmitri, samamed Doukm, the eon irf Iran IL, who woa
the battle of Kolikoro (UL "the field of woodooeka")
DTcr Uamai, the Hoogolian chief, in 1380. In ipite of
Que, howeTer, Toktamiah their general landed Rnsaia,
bamed Hoacow to tbe gtoond, and pat to death a great
nnmbw of the inhaUtaats. To Dmitri Mieeeeded hit eon
Ta«lii or Baiil <i389-1435), who waa piioce both of
Moacow and Vladimir. He in torn waa fdlowed bj Vaailii
tbeBUnd(U25-U6S).
We begin to touch fiimer groood when weaRiraach the
reign of Itbd IlL, the eon of TuiUi, who may be con-
aideied the fonnder of the aatoctacj. We maj take^ there-
fore, aa oar foorth dlTinoD Iha period from 146S to 1613,
which will include the oonaolidation of tbe empire under
tbe Tigeroiu rule of Iran IIL, Basil T., and Ivan IV.,
the nenrpatioo of Boris QodunoG^ the reign of the falae
Demetcin*, and the troublea following npoa it till tbe
aiimeaiiiii of the hooae of fiomanoS in the pennn of M if hen]
■Q tbe year 1613. Inn IIX reigned for^-three years,
and bad •• much influence in tbe conaotidation ai Bnaaia
a* Louis XL had in that of France. It waa the great
age when throngbont Europe abaolute monarchiea weie
bMng created on the rnioi erf fendaliam. On hie acceaaion
Ivan found himaelf tarroanded by powerful uetghboura — to
the eaat the great prindpali^ of Lithoania, to the aontfa
the Uongob ; RjaAn and Tver had not been annexed to
the tarritory of Muicovy ; Novgorod and Takofl were still
rqinblics, It WBB against Novgorod, a wealthy city and
s aiember of the Hsnaaatie league, that hia eSorta
were first directed. In oonaaquence of its situation, and
bj its paying the tribnta demaoded, it had eacaped from
the ravages which other parta of Riueia bad nndra-
goDc Taking advanteige of the faction* which harassed
this city, he succeeded in creating a party aabaervient to
hia own intereata, and aa early aa 1470 bad got the con-
trol of tbe government of the cily, which a rival faction
wu anzioua to tranafer to the Folee. In 1478 the
r^iublic of Novgorod ceaaed to eziat j the chief oppooenta
of Ivao were traoaporied to Moscow, and their goods
toafiaeated. Tbe vaci^ aa the public aaaemUy wu called,
waa tenninafad for ever, and the bell which bad summoned
the muttnou citixena carried off triumphantly to. Hoacow.
In 1496 the tjrant was so foolish aa to confiscate tbe
goods of many of the-Oerman mercbanta who traded at
Novgorod. In consequence of this nearly all tbe foreigoen
left the city, and ita proqwrity rapidly declined. It ia
DOW a decayed provincial town, interesting only to tbe
antiqnaiy. In 1489 Vyatka, a daughter dty of Pakof^
waa anneied end lost tiiereby ita republican constitution.
In 1464 by giving the band of bis sister to tbe prince of
Sfann Ivan made tun of the proximate onnexatiDn of
that apanage- He teizad Tver and joined it to hia
dominions, when tbe grand-[Hince Uiohael bad aLied him.
self with Litbaaaia. Tbe aystem of apanagea in Rnaaia
had now to come to an end. Bnt Ivan, who bad married
the nieqe erf the Byzantine emperor, and sssnoied as hia
cogninnce the two-headed eagle, was also to come into cnl-
liaion with the hereditary enemies of Ronia, the tlongola
The great power of tbe Qolden Horde bad been broken up ^
on ita rains had arisen the emplree of Eattn and of Sani
or Astrakhan, the horde of the Nogaia, and the khanate of
theCrimea. In 1478, when Ahine^ the khan of the Oteat
Horde, whoee capital was Saral, eeot his ambaaeadon with
hia portiait, to which the Rosaian was to do homage, Ivan
trampled it under foot, and put to death bU the envoya,
except one, who was deputed to take back tbe news to the
khan. Tbe reply of Ahmed to this outrage was a declara-
tion of war ; and the two armies met on tho banks of the
Oka. Ivan, who, like Louis XI., was much more of a dip-
lomatist than a soldier, acctuding to the accounts of the
chronieletB, was in great terror, and eonid not be induced to .
fi^t by the penoaaiona of his aoldiera or the benedietbna
of hia eccleaiaaticB. He had already, after the armiea had
been for some time encamped opposite to each other, given
the Mgnal of retreat, when, in conaeqnence of a audden
panic the Mongols olao retreated, and the armiea fed from
each other in mutoal fear. This invauon, which occurred
in tbe year 1480, waa the last greet inroad of the Asiatic
enemies of Rnxaio, but we shall find soma even later
than the days of Ivan the Terrible, in whose time Uoscow
was homed by thoea barbarians. Meanwhile Ivan went
on in his career of annexation. In 147S be conquered
Fermta, in 14S9 Vyatka. Ten years afterwards he had
extended his authority aa far north as tbe Petchora. Hia
good fortune seemed ever on the increaae ; by a war with
Alexander, king of Poland, he gained an accession of
territory to the west as far so the river Desna. Upon
peace being concluded, Alexander married Helen, the
daughter of Ivan, but that monaroh, on preteace that no
regard bad been paid to his daughter's religions acruplea,
declared war against hia new lon-in-Uw. Tbe Polish
monarch could not rely upon the fidelity of many of hia
vassals, aa we find so often the case in Polish history, and
saffered a complete defeat at tbe battle of the Vedrosha.
On the other hand, in 1501 the Rusalans were routed at
the battle of the Siritzo, near Isborsk, by the grand-master
of the Teutonic order, Hermann von Pletteoberg. Tbe
order had been eatabUahed in Lithoania as early as 1226 ;
the Bword-baarei* amalgamated with them in 1237.
Id 1473 Ivan bad married a Byaantlne princess, Sophia,
daughter of Thomas, l«other of the emperor Constantine
Falnologos. This Thomas bad fled to Rome after the fall
of Constantinople in 1453. In cooaequence of this mar-
riage, a great many Greeks came to Moscow, bringing
Byuntins cnltore, soch as it was, to Russia, end among
otiier things a qoaotity of valoable manuscripta, which
formed the nocleos of tbe synodal library. Italians also
made their appearance in Russia, among others the cele-
brated Aristotle Fioraveuti of Bologna, tbe architect of
so many buildings at Moscow. Ivaa not tmly welcomed
foreigners in hia dominioEia, but enteled into relationa with
roanj European powers, among othera iJm Germans, the
Venetians, aod tbe Pope. His reign is remarkable, not only
for the consolidation of the Russian autocracy, bot also
for legislation. In 1497 he issued his Sudebnii, or Book
of Lavre, tbe second Russian coda after the Jiuukavi
Pravda of TatoelaS. Comparison of the two codes wiL!
show how much had been done by the Mongols to lower
the Ruaaian chaiaeter. It la in the reign of Ivan that we
firat hear of the use of the knont : an archimandrite and
some noblemen were pnblicly knonted for being concerned
in forging a iriil. At hia death Ivan bequeathed bis
throne to bis second son Vaailii or Basil, passing over his
grandaoD, tbe child of his eldest sou Ivan, who had pre-
deceased him ; he vtas evidently unwilling to commit bb
growing empire to the perils of a minority. Vaailii Ivan-
ovich (1505^1533) fully carried out the programme of his
father. Hs destroyed the independence of E^koff in 1510,
put an eoci t« the v€ei« or popular assembly, and canied
92
RUSSIA
["
oS the bell wUeh Ruanumed ^e dtueii& Thus fell the
tut of the SUvomo republics. Rjezaa wu next added
to the Moaoorite territory. The prince, being acctieed of
hanng eoatiMted ta allianee with the khan of the CMmeo,
fled to Iilthoftnia, ■nhare he died in obeenritj. Kov-
gunMl Severn mt ftaaezed soon after, and b; a war with
Sigismond L Basil got back SmoleoBlL He was doomed,
bowever, to Buffer from an invasion of the Mongols of ths
CMmea, and is sud to have ugned a humiliating tieatj to
save his oapital, whereby be aoknowledged bimaelf the
tributary of the khan.
Meaowhile at home Bssil ezerdud aheolnte authority;
Bnsaia now exhibited the spectacle of sn Asiatic despotism.
Be entered into negotiations with OKaj foreign princes.
Herberftein, the Oennan ambanador, who has left us such
an interesting acoount of the Bosda of this time, has told
us of the great splendour d his court. We now come to
the reign of the terrible Ivan, who has left his name
written in blood upon the annals of Rosaia, and ruled for
the long period of fif^-one yaars jlS33~10M). It v
fortuute thing for die aggranduement of the empire
that, instead of having a sncceesion of weak eorereigns,
who only nded a short time, it hod three snch 'rigorous
potenlAteB as Ivan QL, Basil, and Ivan IV., whose united
teigns extended over a hundred and twratj-two years.
Ttte (p«iid'dnke Basil at his death left two sons, Iran and
Tori, Qndw the goardianBhip of his second wife Helen
QUnskft. She had eome into BnasiB from Lithuania, her
family having been proscribed by the Polish king Alexander
on the accusation of having plotted against bis life. The
gtond-duchesB ruled with great abili^, but died in 1S38,
haviitg been, as is supposed, poiscmed. The two yonng
princes then became the victims of the intrigues of the
chief femilies, eepecially thoaa of Shoiski and BelskL
Ivan early gave proof of a rigorons understanding whereas
his younger brother Tnri appears to have been half-witted.
In 1B43, when only in bis thirteenth year, Ivan determined
to emoncipaM hiukself from the gaUing yoke of the boian,
and by a kind of MHp itHat threw off their tutelage, and
caused Shniski to be torn to pieces bj dogs. After this,
for some time, be was under the influence of his maternal
relations. la January 1647 Ivan was crowned by the
metropolitan Macarins, end took the title of ciar, or tsar,
a Slavonic form of the Latin Cffisat. He soon afterwards
celebrated his narriage with Auastasia Romanova. The
same year b great conflagratbn took place at Uoecow.
Tie mob affected to believe that this had been caused by
the Olinskis, who were very unpopular, and massacred a
member of that family.
After this time Ivan seems to have committed himself
very much to tlie guidance of the priest Silvester and
Alexis AdasheS. Tbis was the happiest portion of his
rei^ for be was also greatly under the influence of his
amiable wiCe. To this period also belongs a recension
of the S«4ebnH of hie grand&tber Ivan HX (ICSO),
and the Stoglaff, or Book of the Hundred Chapters, by
which the BfEsirs of the church were regulated (1S51}.
Id the following year Ivan became master of Kazan, and
two yean later of Astrakhan. The power of the Mongols
was now almost broken. Triomphant in the south and
the east, he then tamed bis attention to the Dortii, being
auxions to open op a means of communication with the
west He antici[«ted the plans which Peter the Qreat
was dbstined to carry oat long afterwards. He wss thns
brought into collision with the Swedae and the Teutonic
Knights. When Ivan sent a German named Schlitt to
procure the assistance of some foreign artisans, they were
stopped \t3 the Qermans and prevented from entering
Rusrian territory. In consequence of this, war afterwards
broke out between Ivan mi the Order. In 1&&8 the
Rnsdan amy invaded Livonia, and took nvetal towns,
whereupon the Order made an allissice wiA.Sigismond
Augustus of Poland. But, while RuBoa was bo^ with
this war, a great diiOoge was taking place b the hoow
policy of Ivan. He tbew oA the inflnenca ti Silveatar
and AdoshtA, iriio were bo<^ banished. From this time
may be said to date the oommenoemeat of the atnmties ol
this enr which have earned him the ^diet eonstaofly
added to his I>am^ He was eenedally moved t? the
beosoo iS Prince Andrew Enrbeki, i^o^ ha^ng Mst a
battle with the Fole^ was too moch afraid of the wi^ of
his impttial msster to venture again into his dntdies.
He accordingly fled to the king of Poland, by whom be
wHB well received, and Iran bis safe retreat be eonunenoed
an angiy carrespondenoe with the esH, reprowdung him
with bis ervdtiea (ses below, y. 1041 The answer of
Evankos been preserved. In it he dwells upon the degrad-
ing ImbjeetioQ in which he had been kept by his eariy
advisers, and attempts to justify hi* cmeltici \sj saying
that they were only his stavea whom he bad killed, over
whom Ood had given him power of life and death.
In December I5S4 Ivan retired widi a few penDnal
friends to his retreat at Alexandrovskoe, near HoeMnr,
where be passed his time pretty much a* Louis XL did at
Flessy-les-Toura, for he resembled the French monarch
both in his craelty and his superstition. Hie boiar^
afraid that the monarch was about to quit them ioc ever,
went iu crowds to Alexandrovskoe to supplicate him to
return to Moeoow. This be finally consented to do^ and
on his return established bis bodyguard of opn^mUa,
who were the chief agents of his em^ty. In the year in
which he retired to Alemndroviioe we have die establidi-
ment of a printing-press at Moecow. Ivan now commenced
a long series of crueltiee. To this period belong the dmasi-
tion and perhaps murder U Hiilip, the archbishop <A Mos-
cow ; the execution, of Alexandra, the widow of his brother
Turi ; the atrocities committed at ifovgarod, whidi seems
to have fallen nnder tiia tfranfs vengeance for harii^
meditated opening its gates to the king of Poland ; and,
lastly, the temble butcheries tat the Red Square {KnmaM
PloiteAad). '
It was in the reign of Ivan that the Bnglish first had
dealings with Russia. In 1G03, while Edward TL was
on the throne, three ships were sent out tindsc W111ou^b7
and Chancellor to look for a u(»1h-east passage to (^ina
and India. Willongbby and the crews of two of the ships
were frozen to death, but Chancellor arrived safely in the
White Bei^ and thence proceeded to the court of Jvan, by
whom he wot favourably rec^ved. The English seraed
great trading privilegee from Ivan, and eetaUished fao-
torics in the country. In one of his mad sallies Ivan
actuaUy wrote to Queen Elimbeth (ISTO) asking for a
safe retreat in her dominions if he uionld be driven out
by his own snbjecte.
Ivan was continnally waging war in the Baltic territccy
with the Toulonio Enigbta, iu which, although on the
whole nusnccessfui, he committed great cmeltiee. Bat in
1571 he was obliged to suffer another iuvaaon of the
Mongols of the Crimea, wh(^ to quote the qoainl language
of an English reaidwit, homed "the Mosco every stick"
(Eaklnyt's yoga^e$, L 403). On the death of Sigismund
Augustus of Poland in 1673, when the crown of thst
country had become elective, the family of ths Jagiettos
being now extiocl^ Ivan declared himeelf one of the com-
petilois. The succeesfut candidate iras the French pince
Henry of Talois, but he soon fled from his new kingdom,
and, on the throne again becomiug vacant, the redoubtable
Stephen Batory was chosen, who proved a. formidable foe
16 the tyrant now growing old. In oonsequenoe of the
of Stephen, Ivan wm obliged to aboodon all hit
1633-U9&1
B U S SI A
93
■ in lircDift} ud (Im MttMDpt to open np a
muffin fni IhMMi intn thn Baltia&ibd till CHnad oot I7
Hw tdxta «( Petar ^ On^t.
Ona«f tk» «hief emda of tliia nign ww tba ooDqaest
vt Sibem by » Qt—ak auMd TnmA. who bad foniMrij
bam k nbbw, bnt ma pariaaed tif tho ear on lining hit
conqiMataat tba imptrial feat AmaagUMUifpouitaiiiwtiich
Itul naomUed BMir7 YUL ma tlw nambar of hiLmTCa.
On tba fi«atb of tba aanntb, he waa annoo* toprocDra
»Ti Mghtii from the oooit of bia friend Eluabatb il Eng-
land, ^"^ tba danf^ter d tba Bad of HoiitiiigdoD wm
offend to tba inapeetiML of tbe Biunan ■iiMMMiiliii,
j^odor .t*™'""H| at her own deiira and tbe <wan'a.
She waa •pfcaantid to him in tba BBf^«"f of Tock Hooaeh
T%a ambanador piMbated bimaalf bafbce Jur, and pro-
fa— )d to be dandad ty hat beaaty.. Bafofev bowerer, tbe
nagotiatiofla foe tbe mamage wan auKliidad, tbe yomig
Ja^, (rf whom a rery faiotuable aceoont bftd baan tnna-
mittedtDthaaoartaf l&Moow, becanwalanMd. Snmonn
bad nac^ad bar about tbe baaag wina of tba ent and
him babcta. Bba therefdra deelined tbe brillitot praaptet
of aa altiaiKa aMoriatad with to naof daageta. Full
dstaib «f the advsBtona cf tbe En^idimen who ntidad at
Imi^ooBrtwtUbefiNudiBHaUi^rM«VM. InlfiCT
.Antbocty Jeokiaaoa waa eoamianoned hj tba eaai to
coov^a Qtedal nuaage toQoeaa BJathatb, "that tbe
QoBvi^ U^aatiaaBd b> mi^ be to all their enanqrea
JDjaad M OM, ta^ 0wl 'fc'gi"«^ and BiiMland Might be
InallniannefBaacMia." In iact iTan wanted the «iaiatanf<
of the En^iab In bia wan agahiat tba Swadea aad tbe
^dea; heeoDld apfoedatadMnqtwlMi^of thalrweapoiw
aDdnuUtB^taotiea; pot Ehabetb onlr cared to Nourea
nonopolT' of i»d(^ iriiiah the 'Bwgl"" for a toog time
eojc^ad, and, aeeoming to the hiatoriia tTatBabri^ tiie
Bnwiaiia were but littkbenaUed by "
- ■ ■■ -gdawo*'
no, wbom
iritb hi* iron alw Vben tbe panaram
over, W grief ^laa boondUaa Fall
eootinnal^ atna
br hia MUJeeti,
which he bstocA himaeU to
eztriiad in dia year IDSi.
>^ Inn waa loaKeded by bia aldeat aiuTiTing boq Feodor
(IlieadoTe) at that tiine twanU'-eeren year* of age. He
«aa feeble both in mind and body, aad very aopeialitioaB.
Fletder calls bim "toj aimpl& and almoat a natnral,"
and Solomon Henmng author «x a Cknmiel* q^ Lmoiiia,
k-mii^ed tb
toUins dM
the ^Uef p
; '□ladeelinbig daja of Iiaowtreambitteiadbrtha death
of bis «ldeet eon, wbom he badatnokan in afit of paani
n a^A When tbe pantzyam <rf bia aoger w
ief poww In the ompire
o tiie handi of Bona Qodnno^* the biotbar4n-law
of Feodor,
npAcity. JEm inwdinate 1n«t rf role he oODOealed ander
the gniae of piety; bia oommandlng pnaedoe eatocted
itapect whererar be went Betweea faW and the tbiooe
wen oo^ the aioUy Foodor and bia brother Dmitri,
Btill a ^Id, who had been prenoady removed to the
town of Ustich in tbe govemment of Taroalavi For a
wbila Botialiad nooiielied the idea of pnohiming Dmitri
iUe^timatc^ on the ^oond that ha waa tbe aoa of Ivan'a
wventh wife^ a mamaga fctUdden by the canona of tba
diDTcb. Fliwllr, •■ Uiere aeemi amy reaMn to believe,
he canaed the chlbl to be aMaannated at Ugtkh on tbe
15th of Hay 1591, The drctunitaneei of the death of tbe
joting prince an invdred in myHtery ; eo rnnnh, howorgr,
it cartam. Dmitri waa playing in a emnt-yaid; hii gover-
n«M yamJiam ToUdura, hia nnna, and a
weia in atteodanoe. 'Wlwtbei from accideot or daaign
they all fw a time loat eight of him. Accordiug to thsir
sticking it into tbe gioimd and ratting piecea of wood.
Suddenly the nnree, on looking round, saw him pnatrata
and cOTBied with blood. He died almost immediately
from a laige wound in his throat The account of how
.the newa was Invngfat to Moscow ii described in a high^
diunatic niaooer by Horsey.* We have no direct evi-
dence of tbe complicity of QodnnoS in this murder; bnt
there aeem* little donbt of it A aeciet inquiry was con-
ducted; the body, however, was not examiived, and the
oommissionen reported that Dmitri had died of a wonnd
acddeataUy infiict«d by hioueU in a fit of epilepey. On
account of tho riot which had taken place at Uglich,
Boris proceeded to punish the town. Uora than two
hundred of the inhabitants were pnt to d^th and many
sent to Siberia. The i^urch bell of Uglich was banished
with them and placed in tbe capital of Siberia ; it was not
brought back tUi the earlier part at the preawit centory.
The remains of Dmitri, who was afterwards canmiiied,
were deposited in the cathedral of Bt Hichad, the burial-
place of the can. Soon afterwuds a great tin broke out
in Moscow, and Boris caused many streets to be rebuilt at
his own ezpenM^ distributed aid, and exempted the suSetera
from taxes ; but still tbe people murmured secretly; they
felt that tbe stain of Uood was upon him, and ungratefully
aocttsed him of having caused tba city to be set on fire.
In tbe same year (1591) the khan of Uie Crimea made one
of his periodical raids a^unat Moecow. He set out from
^rekop, and marched in a straight lioe, everywhere plun-
dering and devastating. In these circamstances, Feodor
diqtlaved nothlns but imbecility. He merely remarked
that the saints who protected Bussia wosM fight for her,
and again betook himself to his favonrite amusement of
beU-rioging. Boris, hQwever, ibowed vigour. In a few
days ha caused Moaoow to be surroanded with palisadea,
redoubt^ and artillery. Tbe Mongols were repolaed with
great alughter; but, although Boru saved bis country, ha
ooaU not aecnre the goodwiU of th« people. Indeed, they
aooosad him of having invited tbe Mongols that the general
danger might make them forget the death of Dmitri.
The ■-"■"*. Jnaa, wife of Feodor and sister of Borii^
about thia time gave birth to a female child, which lived
bnt a few dayi^ and Boiii was of course accused of having
poistmed it In r«ality the princess auSered from continual
ill^health, and on one occasion we find Eliabeth of
Bnplaad sending her a [Aysictan. Boris, however, still
persevered in his enargetio measnns for strengthening tho
empirSk Smolensk waa fortified, Arebangd built; and a
strong cordm waa drawn round the territories occnped I7
the Mongols. TbM Swedea were driven into Narva, and dip-
lomalio relations were opened with the EaDq>flan pomm
About thia timo the imbecile Feodor died, and with
him became extinct tbe dynasty of Scandinavian BoiiL
nuB event oootured in 1598, and Boris was elected to
succeed him. Oodunofi| however, who felt sure of the
erowi^ ft first afllbcted to be nnwilling to receive it He
retired to a monastery and was followed by tbe people,
fwpptifating him to be their amperes'. He kept Roseia in
this state of sospense for us weeks, and then relented. As
soon aa he asoended the tbnme, the traces of his vigorous
hand could be found bve^ywhera One of his first plans
was die abridgment of the power of the nolnli^, which
had been bc^on by^Ivan HL and continued by Ivan IT.
By this a benefit was confeired upon Boseia; but Bodtalao
aerved his own amlation. He waa particularly aerere to
* Diam, ad. Bead, p. SU.
S4
tt 0 S S I A
tlTttMBT.
aU membns of the Romuioft fuuilj, becaose they
allied to the house of Burik, mnd troabled his dreams of
iovereignty. The head. of this house waa compeUed to
become a monk ; hii son, however, was destined to ascend
the throca. Afamiiie broke out in 1601, irbich Boris vsa
Duspoiing in his efforts to allaj. lo the midst of all this
Baflering a romonr spread that Dmitri, the joougeet son
of Ivan the Terrible, vas ool dead.
One day in the jBar 1603 Frioce Adam Wisotowiecki,
of Bragin in Lithuania, happening to be very angry -with
a servant, Btrack him ud used an insulting epithet The
young man, with tears in his eyM, said, " If you knew
vho I am, yon woold not treat me so nor call me by
that name." "Wha than are yon, and whence do yoa
came!" replied the astonished prince. "I am the prince
Dmitri, son «f Ivan Vasilievich.'' He then recounted a
trell-coococted tale of his miraculous escape from the
asaasain whom Boris had employed. This was his [Aysi-
cian, wbo feigned compliance with the utorper^ designs,
bat only to ^istrate tham. On Ae night appointed for
the mnrdei, the man, whose name was Bimon, nnt the
son of a self into his youog master's bed (who was
accordingly killed), and iitunediat«ly fled with Dmitri from
Uglich. He was then committed to the care of a loyal
geotleman, who thought it better for the sake of proteetbn
that he should enter a monastery. Tlus gentleman and
the plwncian were dead, bnt in confirmation of his story
tlie nuse Dmitri exhibited a leal, beairlng the arms and
name of die prince, and a goMeo cross set with jewels
which he said was the bmAismal ^t of his godfather,
t>riDce Ivan UstislaTski WisnunrieiM believed his tale.
There were also other supposed dgDs.' The Polish nobles
thronged around the young man, whose manners, as we
read in the case of Ferkin Warbeck, seemed to bear oat
his pretensions. Heonwhile Dmitri remaioed in Poland,
n^oying all the lavish attentions of the Polish nobility.
Boris waa soon made acqnaioted with his appearance on
the scene, and offered the brothers Wisniowiecki money
and lands if they woold surrender the impostDi to him.
Without, however, replying to these overtores, they removed
him into the interior of Poland, and he was received with
royal bouonis by George Mniszek, the p*'*'^*^'"' ^'
Soadomir. Here he is laid to have antend bto a secret
nnderstaoding with the Jesuits to bring orer Bnasia to Uie
Latin faith, on condition of being snppoited l^ the papal
nnncio.' The pretender privately abjured the Ureek faith,
and signed a contract of marriage with Marina, the youngeet
daughter of Mniszek, by whi^ he settled upon her the
towns of Novgorod and Fskof^ and engaged to pay her
father a millioo of florins as soon as he had ascended the
throne. Afterwards be executed another treaty ceding
Smolensk and the surrounding teiritoty to Mniszek and
' Tha pn«ent irrlta dmibtfl the gftQultifliaa of thU oUlnuuit ;
HQAtij uitiiDn, howmr, Knifl of them rODt«mponiin, frero con.
T)D»d Ilut ho iru tho rwl aan of Ivan, lad Btuong theu tba llnl
pJmoB Dnit b« uigned to tba FnuCli mErcscarr optnln Hargerat.
■rboH inllniite nlattoDi with tha nim point him ont u ■ nlubla
mothurit]'. Thli clsvai tdTentarar hid antsFed tha BnatUn larriu
Id the tima of Boria Oadanofl; and n* i wHnua of tba wbola
atnggla. At Snt ha led tba tnnpa of tba Uttar tgainit IhnJtrl, but
nfaea tba prelandai had artabllahed hli anthoritr h* aowptad s
l-oat !n hia isrrlca. Ha hai glvea na ta intareaUng portnit of
Uniiljl, of vbom ha apeala tbtj fftroanblj, in Ua work on Bua^
l-nblltbsd at Parla la IBBB.
• AccQrtlag to toniB authon, Iha wboto plot had baea eoncocled by
tha Juulta for thii pnrpoa*. Toe tha contrarj Tiaw. howeTer, aaa
Rimt tt BtnMriiu d'aprti da dacunumti monceaia aaac pHet
jutlffiealitmt/aait^lt, i-T Pin mettias,S. J., ¥trit,lS78. Oaraid
MUller lalli n thU the pntender " cooTtrud in Latlo aid PolUh wltli
floancj 1 " It tbla bad b»D tha oaH hli knnwledga of (ha fonoer would
1m oully eiplnlnad by hU Jaaulthnl training. Kargeiat, howenr,
aenica it altogathar, ^H aat Eria oartaln qu'll aa polnlt InillnBaiit
I^t\n, J'cn pni) temoigner; moloa la UToit-ll lire at dcrira " (p. 163).
the king of Poland. These proceedings were not likely to
recommend him to his Rnsnaa «nbject*. For the present
they were concealed, and Dmitri publicly prirfessed the
Gheek ritual Boon after this Sigismond of Poland saluted
him as czar <rf Moscow, and assigned Mm .a peoaion of
40,000 florins. Ail Qm tima Boris affected to legaid the
pretender with contempt, and iMned a manifesto setting
forth that his real name was Oriahka (or Qreony)
Otrepieff, a renegade monk. Whetiier this iodiridiMd was
really the mas who personated Dmitri, the eon of Ivan,
cannot be known for certain; but it seems very probable.
Karaman has adopted thia view. Boris soon issoed a
proclamation against him, calling him an apostate monk,
who wished to introduce the lAtin here^ into Bnsna, and
to bnild Bomlsh churches in the Orthodox land. Dmitri
eittered that country on the Slat of October 1604, and
marched on Moravak in Tehemigoff. He met with oninter-
mpted snccess, large numbers joiniiu; hia ezpaditioD, and
the authoritieB of tha chief towns onhii lontacdhriiig him
bread and salt (iU he came to Novgtnod BeirsnU ou tha
33d of November. This well-fortified plaea was defended
by Basmanol^ a veterui captain, with flie hundred atidtd.
On the arrival of the pretender he was nunmoned to
capitulate, but, standing on the tamparts with a lighted
mateh, he replied : " The gnmd-prince and csar is at Mos-
cow ; as for your Dmitri he is a robber, who shall be im-
paled, along with hia aocoinptieM." AitM thiM moDtha
the invaders abandoned the siege, bat ihty bad the good
fortune soon afterwards to sein a latga siuii «( noDCT lAkh
Boris was sending to some of the towns. Ehor^ aftw
thia the important fortrtesea of Pntivl, Sieiiu, and
T<HMieah Burrsndered to Dmitri. Boris was too ill to go
in peraon against the impoator; h«^ however, raised an
army of fifty tbonaaod men. A great birttle to(A place
near Novgorod, and the suppnten of the cnr would have
soflered a moat ignoninioai defeat Itad it not been for
Basmanof^ This ei^tain wm ncalled to Moaoow and
loaded with honotun by Bcris, who, from motives not TIB17
evident^ nnlesa he had began to have luspieioua of his
fidelity, detained him in the oily, and committed the can
of the new army which he had formed to Shniaki, who
was probably only half-hearted in his cause. A great
battle took place on tha 2d of January 1605, on the
plain of Dobrlnichi, not far from Oiel; hme Dmitri
was defeated, chiefly through the bravery <rf the loreign
legion. He would have been captnred hod it not been
for the fidelity (rf his Cossack infantry — for U this time
the CoiBacks were snl^ect to Poland— who ware killed
to a man, and probably not a fugitive would bava
reached Sievsk had not Shniski acted with duplici^.
Meanwhile, the pretender rode as fast a* his btytta would
carry him to Pntivl, a strong town on the frontier, from
which he could eauly beat a retreat into Poland. Tha
followers of Boris reiaained at Dobrtnichi, putting to death
their prisoueis. The oonduct of Shniski showed with what
apathy he viewed the cause of his master ; he soon drew
o5 his troops into winter quarten, allying tliat nothing
more cotdd be dona that season, and also wasted time
before Eroml, an insignificant place. Meanwhile Dmitri
coiraptedaomeof the chief genraals of Boris. An attempt
to poison him soon afterwaids failed, and the pretender
■ent a message to Bori^ recommending him to descend
from the throne which be had usurped. Bnt the days of
the Utter were numbered. On the 13th of April 1605 ha
presided as usual at the oouucil-board, and received soma
distinguished foreigners. A gtood banquet waa given, bnt
saddenly after dinner he was seized with illness ; blood
burst from his nose, ears, and mouth, and in tb brief
period before his death, according to the Bussian custom,
the /^"igt of a monk was thrust upon fcim, and he was
]m-isi!>.]
RUSSIA
95
conncntad oudei tlie nama <^ Sogoltp (" iicwptablo to
Ood "). He ezpiied ia tile fifty-Aird joor of bis age, titer
ftragQ of six ytiua. Whether be committad luicide or
«H poisoaed caaaot aow be Mcertoined ; hJs death could
bvdlj bftve been nfttoxal. Borii was a taaa of great
eoergj of character, with vIsitb siagokrl; in advance of bU
aga. Id Bome reapecti he anticipated the plana of Peter
the Qreat ; thus be canwd mnnl yonng Bnwian* to be Rent
abroad to be educated, lome of whom came to England.
Bjr a nkaxe, however, binding the peaoant to the toil, he
b^Q the tjtteta which redocad him by degraea to a con-
dition of abject serfdom.
Boiiehad left asnfficient nnmber of paitiaana atMoicow
to proclaim his son Feodor, a routh t4 dzteei^ and all
classea took the oath of ailagiaaca to him. Sboiaki and
Ustislaraki retained to Uoacow to aoaiat the yonng car
in the goTcrnmeiLt. ButmanoS was sent to take the
command of tha army, but, probably feeling the canae of
Feodor to be despeiato, on the 7th at Hay ha proclaimed
Doiitri. He wu now ordered to march on the capital
Faodor, however, and his adherents still held the Kremlin
with a large garrisoa. Accordingly it was reaolved to
DUkka an attempt on SlrBsnoe Seto, a Urge town near
Moecow, where many wealthy merdianta icoidad. This
ms eftaily taken, wheranpon many ot it* citiieoa marched
to Moscow, and couTokiDg the people called npon them to
acknowledge Dmitri as £etr sovereign. Feodor and hia
mother were mnrdered, and buried in a cemetery ont-
side the city wftlla, whither alao the remaina ot Boria
wen carried, lor they were not aibwed aepnlture among
the tombs of the cnv*. Fetreini^ the Swedish envoy,
who hBB left ns an interesting acconnt of these times, tells
na that tha .nunonr was circulated that theae nnhappy
people had poiBoned themselves, bat he himself saw their
bodies, and the marks on thur necks of the ooids with
which they had been atrangled. According to some
authorities Xenia, the danghtcr of Boris, deaeribed as
beauUfnl by tha old Russian chronicler Knbaaotl, waa
foiced to retire into a convent but P«truos dadana that
she was compelled to become the mistreea of the eonqoeror.
The osnrper now hearing that every obstada wasiamored,
marched upon the c^titat, which he entered on Jnna 30,
1605. Wa hare not apace to detail the splendonn of his
retinue, tux the ceremonies and teastinga which attended
bia arrivaL He acted at fint with prtLdsnce and ooncilia-
Lion towards hia new anbjecta, and even pRuniied to pay
the debts ot hia father Iran. He received his moUier
with transports of joy ; she professed to identify him,
altfaongfa she aftenrarda denied that he waa h«r sou.
She waa probably, however, glad enongh to get ont ot
the oonrent into which ahe had been tbmst by Boris.
Bat Dmitri soon gave offence on acoount of hia Delect
of Roaaiaa etiquette and aupeiatitious observances. It
was {Jain thai he held the Oreek Orthodox religion very
cheap, and hia mbjecti could aee that he bad a propensity
for tha latin hereay. In the fallowing year Marina
fiTniiizek, his brid^ made her appearance in Hoaoow, and
tha marriage took place on the 18th of Hay. It waa
followed by continued banquets. But a rebdlion broke
oat on the aSth, at the head of which waa Vasilii
Sboiaki, whcnn Dmitri had spared vrhen about to be
cxeeoted. The caar, hearing a noise in tha night, and
Goding himself snnoanded by anemiea, opened a window
30 feet from llie ground, leapt down, and broke his leg.
He was soon afterwards found and killsd. Basmanoff waa
•lain while attempting to defend his maeter. 'Hie corpee
vi tha impoator was afterwards bnmed. Marina was not
killed, aldtoogb there waa a great massacre of the Fbles
in every quarter of Hoaoow ; ahe and tha ladies <A her
■uita vera kept m pcisonan. Thos ended this remarkable
episode of Boadan histMy. The whole period baa been
aptly termed by the national historians "tha Period ot
Troubles " (Svmtwijft Vremya).
The hoiius, on being convoked aft«T the murder
of Dmitri, elected Tssilii Ivanovich Sbniski for their
soverragn, bnt he fonnd himself in every way diaadvao-
tagoDualy situated, without an army and without money.
He was, moreover, troubled by an anDonneement which
gained credNiee among the people that Dmitri was not
really dead. To put an end to these ttunoura, Bhniski,
entirely changing his policy, and contradicting his pre-
vioua assertions, sent to TJglich for tha body of tha un-
fortunate prince, and caused him to be canoniied. Two
aubsaqnent impoetora, who gave themsalvu out to be
Dmitri, were taken and executed. To complete the mis-
fortnnes of Bsnia, the eonntry wM invaded by the Poles
in 1609, who laid aiege to Smolensk. Shuiski waa
defeated at Klttshino (a village situated to the north-eaat
of Hoseow), was taken prisoner, and was sst free, to
become a monk, — a fevourite way of treating troublesome
persons in Bnssia. He waa afterwards delivered over to
Sigismnnd, who kept bim in ^ison daring the rest of
bia life. He crown waa Anally oflered to lAdialaui^ the
son of Sigismnnd, who in reality for two years was
sovereigD of Russia, and canaed money to be coined in
hia name at Hoecow. Everything seamed to pmtend the
ruin of the coonUy, when it waa aaved 1^ the bravery of
Hinio, the butcher of Nijni-Novgorod, who roosed the
citiiens to arms by Ua patriotie appeal, and was joined hj
Prince Poaharakr, lie latter took the oommand of the
army ; the adminiatrative d^wrtment was handed over to
the former. The trnve priooa sncceoded in driving the
Poles tKm Rnssia. In 1613 the boian resolved to riect
a new CMT, bat they did not actually meet till ISIS, and
many debates ensued. Tie suflerings of the country had
been great ; a eonsidersble part of the city of Moeoow
(with the exception of the Kremlin and the diurehea bnilt
of sttme) was laid in aahea. The beaaury waa phmdemd,
and ita cmtanta aent to Poland. Among othw diinga
Olearina, the tzavdlei of the 17th centory, quaintly ad£,
" tha Bnaaiaiu lost tha horn of a nnieora 6l great value,
set with pradooa stoMa," whieh waa alao carried off to
Poland ; and he tella na that even up to hia time the
UnscoTtlea faittwiy regretted that th^ bad been robbed
of it, ftinosa Ifstlslavaki and FoEbaraki refused the
crown, and BnaUy the name ot Michael Bomanoff, a youth
of sixteen, was put forward as a candidate, chiefly on
acoonnt of the virtuea ot hie father Philuete. The
Bomanob wers connected on the female side with the
hooae of Barik, AimiauM Bomanova having been the
first wife of Ivan the Terrible. Before being allowed to
ascend the throne, die yonthfnl sovereign, according to
some author^ took a eonstitntioiial oath. The condi-
tiou of tbe oountry all this bme was most critical ;
large portions of ita territory were in the hands of
the Bwedes and Poles, and tbe villages were plun-
dered by wandering bands of Cossacks. Ladislaus the
aon of Sigismnnd had not yet renounced tbe title of
eiar; in 1617 he appeared with an invading army under
tbe walls of Moscow, but was repulsed, and on December 1,
IS18, consented to abandon hu claims, and conclude an
armistice for fourteen years. In 1617 a treaty had been
made at Stolbovo, a town near Lake ladoga, by which
tbe Russians had been compelled to give up a large
portion of their territory to the Swedes. Pbilarete, the
father of Uichael, who had been for some time imprisoned
at Warsaw, was now allowed to return ; he entered
Moscow in 1619, and was elected patriarch, an office which
had been vacant vnce the death (^ Hermogenee. Hichad
aaaoeiated his lather with himtitif in hie power; all nkaisa
96
B U S S I A
[siMofty.
vera pabliilied ia tlieir joiiit saitiH ; the patriarch held e.
separate eoor^ andalmja eaCatthe right hoad of the bota-
teiga. The patriarchate woi Bappreased in 1721 by Peter
tite Gnat, who hod formed the idea of making himself hotd
of the church from what he aair in England and other
Protestant coontrieo. The reign of Michael woa not very
erentfnl ; be employed it wuely in ameliorating the ooodi-
tion of the conoUj, which had recently suffered so mach,
ood in improviiu the condition of his ormjr. Foreignen
began to Tidt the connby in great nmuben, and Bunia
was gntdtwUf optning itself to Western ciTilintion.
Qtutavns Addphns of Sweden induced the ciar to aign a
trea^ oflenBTO and defensive and a Swedish ambassador
qipeared at tlia BoMiao coorL The safferingu which hod
been infliotad vfoa them by ths Poles made the Russians
Mgar to join an alliance which was directed against the
Bmnan Gatholie nligion. In 1629 a French ambassador
i^peared at Moecow. Dutch and German artisona were
tokea into the Russian aerricB to assist in the iron-
foiuidriei, with ^lecial riew to the manufacture of cannon.
The connliy swoimed with EogUah merchants who bad
obtained Taloable privileges. Boottish adventurers were to
be met with In the Busdon army in great Humbert. We
find dtein a« eady as the reign of Ivan the Terribla, to
jndge froav Hweey'i J>iaiy. The false Demetrios, like
LoDla XL, bad a Scottish guard. In Rnuian documents
we find the namei of Carmicbaels, Hamiltons (freqnently
in the eompted Russified form of KhomntoS), Bruces,
Qordons, and Daliiels. From Scottish settlers ia Russia
sprang the oelsbiated poet Lermontoff, the first two
syllaUes of whose name fully show his Caledonian origin.
lb* following ore the leading events of the reign of
A ^^'% who socoeeded to the throne on the death of his
tstW Michael in 1645. (1) First comes hia codification
of tbe BoHion lawi (called UloiA^iut), which was baaed on
the pteoading oodeaof IvanallL and IV. By the order of
the oiar, a eomminion of eeoleeisstical and lay members
was appmntad to examine the eziating laws, and moke any
werwiiary additions, or to adapt to present needs any which
bad become oheolete. The work was chieSy carried on by
ftinces Odoievski and-Yotkonski, with theaaaiitanoe of two
■eeretaries. They were engaged over it two mouths and
a half, and the origiaal «ode is still preserved in the
Onuheontua Paiata at Moscow. UstriiJoff boosts that,
by recognizing the eqnolit; of aQ men in the eyGs of the
law, it anticipated a [mndple which was not generally
acknowledged in vrestern Europe till the 18tb centnry.
This doctrine, howevw, may be oanaidered as only a
natural consequence of aatocracy. We are told that
Alexis allowed aocen to all petitioneta,aadat his favourite
village of Eolomenekoe, opposite hia bed-room window,
was placed a tin box ; as soon as the czar rose and appeared
at the window the suppliants came forward with their
complaints, and, maldcg an obeisance, placed them in
the box, which was afterwards token to him. (2) Tbe
Bscood gmt event of his reign was the incorporation of
the Ukraine and country of tbe Cossacks with Rnasio.
For a description of the censes of this war, see Folajid.
(3) By tbe treaty at Andmsiowo the Ruiaians gained
Smolensk, Tchernigo^ and finally Eie^ the Dnieper
being the new bonndair. and tbns the towns which bad
been taken by the Li&aanians and annexed to Poland
by the treaty of Lublin (1669) became Russian agaia
The only other events of the tdgn of Alexis of any
importance ore tbe great riot at Moscow, on account of
the depreciatioa of the MHuage in 1648, and the rebellion
of Stenka Razin, a Cossack. He riot is fulljr deacribed
in the interesting tetter of an eyewitness which it pre-
aerved in the Ashmolean Collection at Oxfoid. Rarin
davaatated ths oonutrjr round the Tolg^ and continued his
depredations for three years. Alexia, however, captured
him, and pardoned him on condition of his toWing the oath
of allegiance. He soon, however, broke out into rebellioa
again, and proclaimed himself the enemy of the nobl«s, and
the restorer of the liberty of the people. By various arti-
fices he succeeded in alluring two hundred thouaand man
to hit standard. Astrakhan woe anrrendered to him, and
he ruled from K^ni-Kovgorod to Eomn. He woa,
however, like Pu^tcheff in the reign of Cbthmne IL, a
vulgar robber and nothing mora. Hia atrocities di^ntted
the more respectable of his adherents; bis forcea were
gradoallj dispersed, and in 1671 he was taken to Moacow
and executed. The car Alexia died in 1676 in hia forty-
eighth year. One of ths most eminent men of hia reign
waa Ordin-Naatchokin, who negotiated the peace of
AndmsEowo. Alexia waa a man of broad views, and mada
many efforts to raise Russia to the level <d a European
power, by sending competent men oa niiilisiaailiiiii to
foreign porta, and developing tiie trade of the coootry.
In these respects he resembled Boris QodnnoS. Altogether
hit reign was one of distinct progress for Boasia.
He was succeeded by his eldest ton Feodor, by his first
wife Maria Miloslavsktua. Feodor (1676-1683) was a
prince of weak health, and his reign was nneventfui. A
notable oocurrence was the desbucdon of the rotriadaU
bii^ or books of pedigrees. According to the aiittliu-
chtttvo no man oanld take any office which was infericr to
an; which his anoestors hod held, or conld be subordinate
to any man who reckoned fewer ancestors than himself
Feodor, however, finding to what inteiminable qnanela
theee pedigrees ^ve rise, both at court and in the cucp,
hit upon a bold plan, said to have been snogested by his
minister Yaailii Oolitdn. He caused all t&s families to
deliver their pedigrees into court that they might be
examined, under pretext of ridding them of any enon
which mi(^t have crqit in. The noblea were convoked ;
and the cnr, aasiatwl by the dcrgy, caused their bodes to
be bnmed before their eyea.
On the death of Feodor, there seemed every probatnlity
that the empire would fall into a complete state of anarch;.
Tbe osar Alexis had been twice married: hia first wife
Maria Hiloelavskaia bore him two sons, Feodor and Ivan,
and asvsral daughttn; his second, Natalia Nortthkins,
was the mother of Peter and a dan^tar Natalia, Tlie
court was rent by ^e rival factions of the Miloalavtkit and
the Nartshkina. Ivan wat even mwe inSrm than Feodor
and tbe Naitabkina strove to bring it about that he ahoold
be let atide and Peter should be elected. Sophia, however,
the daughter of Alexis by hit first wife, was a woman of
■ingnliLP energy of character, the more remarkable on
acoonnt of the little attention paid to the edncation of
women in Bnssia and the cloistered and ^nritleas Uvea
they were compelled to lead. Accordiog to tome acoonnts
she wat a woman altogether wanting in personal at-
tractions. Perry, however, tbe sn^neer employed hj
Peter tbe Great, speaks oE her as good-looking. Bat tbe
podUon of the women of the imperial bmily was sveo
vrorse than that of the generality' ; they were not allowed
to marry subjects, and in consequence the m^cwity of
them led a life of enforced celibacy. Sophia wia the
favourite daughter of her father, and was snidnons in her
attentions to him during his last illness. One of her
brotbwa being an imbeiule and the other a child, she hoped
to wield the aceptre. She fomented a revolt of the strelt^
and, inatigated by her harangues, they murdered some of
the family and partisans of the Nartdikina. Not content
with slaying one of the czarina's tN^>thert at the beginning
of the rebellion, th^ afterwards dragged another bom Us
hiding-idace and cat bim to ^neoeo.
The nanlt of aU these disturhancea was that Ivan and
1619-1721]
RUSSIA
97
Petar wen dacland joint-fOvereigni, and Bophu wts
regent during their minotitr. Bbe appointed Tuilii
UoIitiiD to be comm»ader*in-ctiief of the tone*. He
Biirchad agunit the Mongoli of the Crimea, but owiag
to the lengUi of the joamej aiid ■ufleringe of the troopt
WBB able to effect but Uttte. In 1689 Peter nwrried
Endokw Lopnkhina ; bnt the nnioit mt* iff no a
A happj ODB, Two aoni were bom to Peter, Alenoder
and Alexis; the fint liTed eix monthi oalj, the latter
BOrnTed to make a ud fignre in Snuian biatorj. Neit
we have another rsTdt of the itreltil, (aid to bare been
instigated by Sophia and Oolitiin. It u acen alleged
that the ot^isct of thta oonipiracy was to pnt Peter to
death. Eia canae, howerer, prsTailed, and the rebel* were
puniahed with great nTeritj. Golitiin'a life wai spared,
bat all his property was takea fro2 him. Sophia was cow
permanently incarcerated in a convent nnder the name of
Siuamia, where ahe remained till her death fift«et) yeare
afterwBida, at the age of forty-aiz. Thni from 1669 dates
the aetnal nile of Peter. His brother Ivan, infirm both in
body and mind, had bnt little share in the goTeromeot ;
his tacnltiM both of light and tpeech are said to have
been very imperfect. Ha took a wifc^ however, and bad
Ome dangbtere, concerning one of whom, at least, w« have
tnnch more to hear. Ivan led ■ retired Ufe^ aod died in
1696 at the age of thirty.
Want of space compels ns to deal here only with the
leading facta of the reign of Riter the Great (1669-1735) ;
for more minute details the reader mnst consnlt the special
article (toL iviii. p. 698). The great object of the new
cmr was to give Rnfiia porta in some other direction than
the White Bea, constantly blocked with ice. Be bad
already trained an army which was officered by foreignete
in his pay. The Tnrks were the 6nt objects of his attack.
At first he waa nnsncceeafnl in his attempt to get possession
of Aaoff atthe month of the Don, — parUy onaccoont of the
treason of the Ihitch engineer Janseo, wno^ in consequence
of somB slight pnt npon him, went over to the enemy. In
1696, however, he took the fort and soon afterwards made
his triumphant entry into Moscow. In the following year
Peter, accompanied by Lefort and Oenenla Oolovin and
ToaNltzIn, aet ont on bis travels. For eome time be worI:ed
at the docks of Soardam in Holland, aod then he went
to England, where he remained three months. The story
of hi« itay at Deptford is too well known to need deacrip-
tioo hercL He left £n^and, taking with him a great
amnber of ingenioni men, who were appointed to teach the
arte to tlie barbamu Rnssians, He was getting ready to go
to Venice when he heard of the great revolt of the etreltd.
Befon hii arrival their insurrection , bad been qoelled by
Gordon and othen, and many of them lay in priaon await-
ing the eentencee to be given by Peter. When he reached
Uoeeow, a series of terrible ezecntions took place, which
hare been described with only too much accuracy by some
eyewitnesses, the chief being Korb, the secretary of the
German embassy. In 1T06 broke out the revolt of .the
Couacks of the Don, and in 1709 that of Hazeppo, the
betman of the Little-Ruxsiaa Cossacks, who eagerly joined
Charles XIL in his struggle with Peter. As early ta 1700
the Russian cmr had carried on war with this last of the
vikings, as ha had been called. In that year Charles
defeated Peter at the battle of Karva, but the latter,
although humbled, waa not dishearteued. He gathered all
his strength for another encounter. lu the following year
Sharemetrefl defeated the Swedish gener&I Scbtippenbach in
Livonia, and again in 1702. The great object of Peter
was to gun poeeession ol the Neva; this be attained, but
the Rossian arms were disgraced by many cruelties and
robberies in the nntartunate Baltic provinces, which had
already auBared so much in the w
a of Ivan the Terrible.
Charles XH now abandoned his attacks on the Polinh
king and invaded Russia. " I will treat with the czar at
Hoaoow," he said, Peter replied, "Uy brother Cborle*
wishes to play the part of Alexander, but he will not find
me Darius." At Lesna the Swedish general LuwDubaupt
fought a desperate battle with the Russians, in which,
although nominally victorious, bis loeeea were terrible.
On June IS (n.b.) was foogbt the battle of FoItAva, which
resulted in the complete defeat of Cbarlea. He bad
brought it on by his recklemoew, and, it may be added,
complete ignorance of bis duties aa a generaL
With tbe fall of Uaxejipa and the coalition of the Littla
Rnsnana in aid of Cbarlea fell aba the independence ol
tbe Cossacks and their ndi or republic; Tley now became
entirely dependeuC npon the Unacovlte ciar. Tha
hetmanship, which bad long been a mete empty title, lasted
tiU the year 1769. In 1713 Peter married Uattba
Skavranska, a Livonian or Lithuanian peasant who bad
been ttken prisoner at the aiage of Uarunbnrg in 1702.
Bnt little is known of her prsvioua histtoy ; ahe neeived
the name of Catherine on being baptind as « member ol
the Greek Church. Peter had previously divorced hi*
wifs Eudokia, who waa distasteful to him on acoonnt of
hv empathies with the conservative party in Roiwa. He
now set abont his gr«at plan of dviliiing tha oountiy on
the nKxlel of the nations ot the Weet. In this he was
listed by many forsignan in hi* pay. He abolished the
patriarchate probably from dislike ot ila great power,
baaed nobility entirely upon service either civil or militaiy,
and divided the merchants into guilds, bat left serfdom atiU
existing in Russia, or periiapa we may say with truth even
augmented it, by doing away with the privileges which the
odttodtorlti and polimnJci had and confounding all in a
common category of serfdom. His attempt to introdnee
igeniture into Euasia did not succeed. He pnt an
:o the Oriental seclosion of women and the Oriental
dress of men ; for the beard and long oaftan were aab-
Btituted the cleanly-shaved face and ue dnaa in vogue
in the WmL He abolished alao the jmivat* oi public
flagellation of dshulting debtors. Hie army waa ochb-
pletely remodelled on tbe European system. During
the exile of CSiBrle* XIL at Bender Peter drove Btania-
faus Less»ynski out of Poland, and Angnatca H n-
entered Warsaw. Peter oonquered Eathouia and livoni^
He waa not able to annex Oourland, which was a
feudatory of Poland, bnt be negotiated a mairiage between
the doke and his niece Anna, daughter ot the late uar
Ivan, who was afterwards empresa A foolish expedition
undertaken against Turkey was not successful. Peter
found himself bat ill-supported by the inhabitants through
whose territory be marched, and was ooropelled to sign the
treaty of the Pmth in 1711, wherel^ he gave back Axof^
}ne of hie moat valuable conqueets, to the Turfca. nie
story of his having been rescued bj the dexterity of
Catherine seems to lack confirmation ; under any eiicum-
stances, he shortly afterwards acknowledged hec aa his
wife. In Hay 1713 Peter gained some freeh victoriea
over the Swedes. In 1717 be made another European
tour, visiting, among other placee, Paris. On this occasbn
he waa accompanied by his wife ; ooncemiug both strange
storiee vrere told, but perhaps we must be cautious how we
receive too credulously, as Carlyle has done, the uialidone
gossip of tbe margravine of Baireutb. In 1721, by tlie
treaty of Nyntad with Sweden, Peter waa left master of
Livonia, Esthonia, lugria, and part of Finland. He had
begun building St Petersburg, "the window by which
Russia looks ' at Eutvpe, as early as 1703.
In 1722 we find Peter deacending the Volga from
Nyni to Astrakhan, and gainmg some important points on
that river. Previous to this had occurred the sad death
XXL — li
RUSSIA
[iiisrouT.
^ his son Alexii, in vHcb. it must be said with sorrow
E^ter seemed lost to all the fraiiogB of & hiber. Alexia
bad andoubtedly given Urn great cause for dislike by
Identifying himself ia every wsy v/ith the retrogressive
party. The trntortaaate young man probably died'under
the infliction of torture. In 1721 Peter promulgated the
celebrated uk&ze fsftertcnrda abrogated by Panl) that
t!ie BOTSreign Lad tbe right of naming hid BUccessor. Od
January 28, 1725, the gnt-t reformer waa doad. Ad
attempt to estimate bia char«ctar has been made in the
separate article assigned to him.
On the death of Peter the country was divided into two
factions. The old reactionary party, the Oolitiins, Dolgo-
rukis, and others, were eager to proclaim Peter the son of
Alexia, bat those who had identified themselves with the
reforms sf the late sovereign were anxioos that Catherine
fau widow, who had been crovmed empress, should succeed.
MenshikofE, tlie titTonrite of the late czar, who is said when
A bsj R> have sold cakes in the streets of Moscow, became
all-powerfnl at this period, and the reforms of I^ter con-
tinoed to be carried out Catherine died in 1T37 ; she
appears to have been an iodoteut, good-natured woman,
with bat little capacity for government, and accordingly,
throDghoDt her short reign, was entirely controlled by
others. She designated as her successor Peter the son at
Alexic^ and, in dofaolt of Peter and his issue, Anno, who
had married the duke of Hol^tein, and Elizabeth, her
daughters. The regeocy was exercised by a council oonsist-
ing of the tvro daughters, the duke of Holstein, Menshikoff,
and seven or eight of the chief dignitaries of the empire.
Henshikofi was still all-important ; he had obtained from
Cathertne her consent to a marriage between his daughter
and the youthful czar. But his authority was gradually
nndenained by the Dolgomkis. The favourite of Peter
the Great was first banished to his estates, and afterwards
to Bereioff in Siberia, where he died ia 1 739. The Dol-
gorokis were now in the aacendeocy, and the czar was
betrothed to Natalia, one of that family. He showed
every inclination to undo hia grandfather's work, and the
court was removed to Moscow. Soon atterwwds, how-
ever, in January 1730, the young prince died of enrnll-
poz. Hia last words as he lay on his death-bed were,
"Get ready the sledge; I want to go to my aister," —
allndiog to the Princess Natalia, the other child of Alexia,
who had died three ycois previously. The only ioreiga
event of importance in this reign was tbe attempt of
Haurice of Bazony to get posaeaaion of Courland, by
marrying the duchess Anna, then a widow. She con-
sented to the onion, and the states of the province
elected him, but Meiiahikoff sent a body of troops who
forced him to qnit it On the death of Peter at the age
of fifteen, various claomants of the throne were put for-
ward. The great czar had left two daughters, Elizabeth,
and Anna, duchess of Holstein, who bod a son, afterwards
Peter m. Two daughters were also surviving of hia
eldest brother Ivan, Anno, the dnchess of Courland, and
Catherine, duchess of Mecklenburg. Alexis Dolgoruki
even had au idea of claiming the crown for his daughter,
because she had been betrothed to the young emperor.
This proposal, however, was treated with derision, and the
High Secret Council resolved to call to the throne Anna
of Courland, thinking tiiat, aa she was so much more remote
by birth tiian the daughters of Peter, she would more
willingly aubmit to their terms. In fact, they had pre-
pared for her signature something like the pada convmla
of Poland. The follovring were the terms :— -<1) the High
Council was always to be composed of eight members, to
be renewed by co-optiou, and the czarina must consult it
on state affairs ; (S) without its coiuent she could neither
taako peaca nor declare war, could not impow any to^
alienatj any crow>; lands, or appoint to any aSco abov<
that of a colonel : (3) she could not cause to he condemned
or executed any member of the nobility, nor conit^ate the
goods of any noble before ha had a regular trial ; (-1) bIic
could not marry nor choose a Bucccsdor without the con-
sent of the council. In cose rhe broko niiy of thco stipu-
httions she mis to forfeit the croiiu (pro llambaud, p. 42ri).
Anna ofsented to these torui.' and mnde her entry into
Moscow, which wad now to be the ca;>itaL But the em
presi was soon informed how univenially unpopular them.)
patln coavrnia were, which in reality put Ituasia into the
bands of a few powerful familiei^ chiefly the Dolgorukis mid
Golitzina She accordingly convened her supporters, and
Cblicly tore the document to pieces, and thud ended tbe
t attempt to give Russia a constitution. Tbe new
empress was a cold, repulsive woman, whoso temper had
been soured by indignities endured in her youth ; slio
took vengeance upon her opponents, and threw herself
almost entirely into the hands of German advisers, espe-
cially Eiren, a Conrlander of low origin. This is tbe period
called by the Russians the Bimiotilchiiia, The country
was now thoroughly exploited by tbe Qermnns; some of
the leading Russians were executed, and othcra banished
to Siberia. Among the former was the able minister
VoUnski, beheaded with two others in 1740. He hod
fallen under the wrath of the implacable Siren. One of
the most important enactments of this reign was the
abolition of the right of primogeniture introdtKed by
Peter the Great, which had never been popular in the
country. On the crown of Poland falling vacant in 1733,
an attempt was again made to place Stanislaus Lescczynskt
on the throne, but it failed through the opposition of
Russia, and Stanislaus escaped with difGculty from Daatzic
Upon this followed a war with Turkey, which lasted four
years (1735-1733), in conjunction with Austria. This
was not very successful, but the Russian generals gained
posaeasion of a few towns, and were indignant when the
Austrians aigned the treaty of Belgrade with the Turks
(1739), and the campugn came to an end. In 1740 the
empress Anna died ; she had reigned exactly tan years.
She left the crown to Ivan, the son of her niece Anna,
daughter of her aister Catherine, duchess of Mecklenburg.
During the minority of this child Biren was to be regent
By a niiolvtion dt palait, however, the German adventurer
was hurled from power aod sent to Pelim in Siberia.
But matters did nut rest here ; taking advantage of the
general unpopukcity of the German faction, the parUsans
of Elizabeth, the daughter of Peter the Great, were
reaolved hi work their overthrow, and place her upon the
throne. They consisted of Alexander and Peter ShnvalofT,
Ujchael Torontzoff, Razumovski, Schwar^ and a French
surgeon named Lastocq. Elizabeth ingratiated herself
into the favour of the soldiers, by whom the name of Peler
the Great was still so mach cherished. Anna Leopold-
ovna, aa she waa called, her husband Anthony Uh'icb,
the infant emperor, Munich, Ostermacn, and the whole
German faction were arrested in the nigbl^ and Elizabeth
ascended the throne. Ivan VT. was imprisoned in the
fortress of SchlilBaelbarg ; Arma, with her husband and
children, vras banished to Kholmogort near Archangel,
where she died in 1746. Ostermann was banished to Bcre-
zofT, and Munich to Fellm ; they had both been previously
sentenced to death. Biren and his family were now
recalled and allowed to live at Yaroslavl. Elizabeth
Fetrovna <1741~1T62) inau^curated the return of Russian
influence in oppceition to the Germans, from whom the
country had eiiSered so much daring the rdgn of Annai.
The people were w^^ry of them, yet Uiey were, as we shall
see, to have one Qerman emperor more. On ascending
the throne she lusimoned to her oeart the Hn of her jistw
mi-m».]
RUSSIA
Aan utd the dnka of HokteiD, iilio took the name ot
Fitar Faodonmt^ OD Mnuning th« Gmak nli^Ao, ud
«M deebnd luir to tlw thioike. In 1744 lie mknied tke
Prineeai Sophie of Aobelt-Zerbit^ who bj hec b^tira in
the OiUiodox Oinidt became Getiterine. Hins the lioe of
dwcont WM Winnd to the dinct hein of Peter the Oieet.
In 1743, the eraiiee of Elittbelh hkTing gaaii«d tcmie
victoriee over the Swede*, the tna^ of Abo wMugMd, by
which BoMft uqniMd tlie Mmtbni put of FinUud, u far
as the RTBT Kiiunen. Tha next evect of importance it
the war between Bnnia and Frederiek the Qreat (1T56-
1762). InI767^akna<9O«edth0fo)titietwith8S,(»O
linssunt, occniued Etitem Prania, and defeated Lewald
at GroesJagendoif ; bat, inetead <i taking advantage erf
the Tictorj, he looa aftennvdaretind behind the Niemen,
having been tunpendwHh by the gAnd-dncheee Catherine
and the rbtn^llfHf T^hiihfrff Riimiim Tn 1758 Fermor,
tho Rnanan general, waa eom^etolj defeated bj Fiodericli
at Zomdorf, Mt ha wia allowed to retreat withoot nudeita-
tdoo. Inl7fi0 8aHtk<«beattheFnusiaMatFaltdg, and
in the nme year nederick waa obliged to submit to a
greatar defeat at Eflnendori^ where he lost ei^t thooauid
men and one hundred imd wiTantf-tvo cannon. It waa
cm the loM of this battle that ba meditated committing
nicide. In 1760 the Riusiana entsted Berlin, where
tbej ooinmittad jgrtat havoc and deatniction. "We have
to do," nid Frederick, " with baibarian^ who ar« digging
the grave of hnmanltj." In tbe following jear thej took
Pomerania. Hm eaoK of Frederick eeemed on the verge
of mini he waa nved't^ the death of Elinbeth in Decem-
ber 1761. nie ompren waa an idle, mpentitioiu woman
of lax ntorals, who wu greatlv nnder the inflaence of
hod
faTonribss. Sum the nigh of Peter L
ai^ieared worthy of him. Still Bnaria made moi „
ofuler EliAbath than it bad mads nndec Anna. Id 17SS
tiie Duivenitj of Moscow, the ddsst in the oonnt^, was
foonded through the influence of Ivan ShnvalofL Litera-
tnrs nude great advances, as will be seen below.
Stinbeth was sncceeded b; her nephew Peter, son of
her sister Anna and Ch&rles Frederiel^ dnks of Holttein-
Oottrnp. He was stupected of Oennan leanings, but his
fiiat measures made him very popular. InFebniai7l763
he pablishsd an nkate by which tho nobility were freed
from tho necesmt; of entwine upon nj state employment,
and be abdisbed the saeret chancery. On the other hand
he acted in eome mattcn iiyadietaasly, and tended the
pngndiees ot the Bvsrians, aa flte ftlse Demetrios had
dooe a centory and a half pTeTioash^ He ridiculed som
<tf dw eanmoniee of the Orthodox tSnire^ and showed „
foodnesB for Ae LttAeran. He Intiodsoed many Oerman
tactics faito the am^, and evinced a great prefeience for
hk Qarman eWpa it Holsteben. His personal habits
weraveiyeoaiM; he was consbntly seen drank. Moreover
he sent ont of the ooonby many of the talented Frenchmen
was at bis hnreat deptha after the battle of Etnendor^
now saw to hk ddight a complete change in the Bntdan
poU^. F«ter waa aa ardent admirer of the Pnueiao
soverdgn ; in order to ensure psaee, lYederick would have
ceded Eartccn Fnissia; but mer dreamed of nothing of
tlwkindihefastcradaUtbe Biueian conqneete and formed
an aUiance with him, offmsire and defensivs. He lived
very nnhaiipily with his wife Chtiierine, and meditated
divorang am and imprisoning her for the rest ol her life
in « convent. ^Hia ccndition ht whidi she passsd hw time
may ba seen from her memoifa, first puUidied by Bernn,
the antheatidty of whidi there seems to'be no reaaon to
doabL She, however, quietly waited her time, and a
ettmpnij waa ocMieocted in which she waa assisted by the
Orlob, Potemkin, the prinaasa Daahkoff, and others (see
FimllL), Leaving ha* randsDce at FMwhol^ Catherine
bddfy pntbetsslfat die head of twenty 'thousand men.
Hie nisefmUe emperor abdicated without a stmgg^ and
was soon afterwards eenetlyaaaaaHnated at Bopeha, near St
Peteisbura. Many of the details lA this cataali^he are
pvea in Om interesting memoirs of the Princess Dashko^
which were published by an English lady, Hn W. 6i«d-
tord, in 1840, having been taken down from her dictation,
Tlog had a Oerman woman, by adroitly &..teciug the
prejudices of tho Bossians, succeeded in making hmeelf
head of this vast empire. Two years afterwards Ivan YL,
who is said to have become an idbt from his long confine-
: at SchlUseelbnrg, was murdered by bis goaids on
account of the attempt of a certain Lientensnt Ii^rovicb to
set bim free. Whether Mirovieh was incited to this adren-
ture by secret promises of tbe Oovemmeut, so that theia
might be an excuse for tbe murder at Ivsn, hss never been
cleariy shown. He expiated his crime by public execution,
and is said to have expected a reprieve till the last moment.
"Hie Beven Tears' War was now over, and the next great
European complications were to be coccemed with Uls
psrtition of Polsnd, throughout the straggles of which
couQtry the Buesiane were oonstsntly interfering; but for
a fuller discussion lA this subject the reader most be
refemd to the article PoLUfo, In 1767 Turkey, urged
on by France, declsred war agsinatBussia; theolgect waa
to Bid the I^jles hj creating a diversion. Tbe Buanan
general QcJitiin attacked the grand viner, took the town
of Ehotin (^769), and in the following year BnmantBog
defeated the khim of the Crimea, the Turkish feudatory
and ally, and in 1770 won the great victory of Kagul.
In 1771 Dolgoraki overran the Crimea, and Alexis Orloff
I at this tune greatly assiBted by the number
of Englishmen in their service. In 1T74 was signed the
peace of Kutchuk-Eainar^ji, whereby the sultan acknow-
ledged the independence of the Mongols of the Crimea.
The Russians thus detached this province from the sultan's
dominions, and after exercising a kind of protectorate over
it added it to their own. He also ceded Aiofl on tbe Don,
Einbnm at the month of the Dniester, and all the fortified
|ilaces of the Crimea. The Greeks, who had been induced
to rise, were abandoned to the vengeance of the Turks.
In 1771 tile plagne broke out at Moscow, and many of
the inhabitants perished. The archbishop Ambrose was
massacred in a poptdar tumul^ while endeavouring to
cany out some measures which were necessaiy for the
preservatiou of the pnblic health. Boon afterwards
occurred the rebellioo of FugstcheS, a Cossack of the Don,
who declared himself to be the emperor Peter KL The
czar, he alleged, had escaped from the hands of his would-
be murderers, aiid would soon regain his throne. A large
band of disaffectnd peasaots and Baakolmks gathered round
MttIj and he was joined by many of the Mongol race^ who
were inimical to the Bnaaian rule. At first the generals
sent against him- were defeated. The rebel's path was
everywhere marked with bloodshed and pillage ; he even
Cpoeseasioo of several towns, including Kaian. Had he
1 something more than a vulgar SBsasBin he might have
made Catherine tremble on her throne, but his crueltisB
estranged hia more moderate foLowera. He was after-
wards beaten bf Bibikofl and other^ and finally surrendered
by hia accomplices to Buwaroff. He was taken to Moscow
in an iron cage and there publicly executed in 1776,
together with four of his principal f oUowert. In the same
year the empress put an end to the repuMi^ as it wsa
called, of the Zaporogian CoHsocks. A great codification
of the laws took plue under Catlucine, 'which may ba
100
RUSSIA
[HIHTOnl.
■tTlad the sixtli great period of RostiaD legialatioQ, Tlie
auta, however, ^wera not benefited by thetta cluagea. In
176T ut nkaie focbods tlism to briog &aj complaints
Ogaiiut their mutera. The latter bod tixe power of send-
ing their aarie to Siberia as a pnniahment, or banding
thun over to be eoUsted in the army. The public sale of
serfs WM cot pnt an end to till the reign of Alexander I.
The conntiy nas now divided into govercments tor the
bettor adminiaCration of jnatice, each government being
Bubdirided into uietdi or districts. Catherine also took
amy from the monasteries their lands and serfa, and
allotted them paymenta according to their importance from
tiiB state revenues. The plans of Peter I were thus fully
carried out, and the church became entirely dependeot
upon the Bl«te. In 1TS3 the Crimea was annexed (o
Roada. Aaecond-war with Turkey broke ont in 1T8T;
the Ottoman power had many grounds of complaint, but
its soapieions wbt« parUcularly aroused by the tour of
OatheriiM through the sonthera provinces of Rnssia and
her.interviewB with (he emperor Joseph II. Turkey
declared war that same year; and, to increase the em-
buTMsed position of the empress, Sweden did the same,
requiring from Soaaia the cessioa of the southern part of
Knland which had been taken' from her. But King
Qoatarns III., in spite of some petty auccesses, was nnable
to carry on the war, and soon signed the pcAce of Yerela
on tlffi footing of itatvt quo ante btllwn. The empress met
with eqoal good fortane in the south ; Fotemkin took
OtchakoS and Snwaroff Ehotin. In 1789 the latter gene-
ral won the battles of Fokshani and Klmnik j and in 1T90
after a sanguinary engagement he took IsinaiL By the
treaty of Jasey in 1792 Catherine kept posseraion of Otch-
akoS, and the shore bebweea the Bog and Doieater.
Bhe was next occupied with the affairs of Poland, which
have been described under that heading. In coosequeo
the demands of the confederates of Targovica, — men
were prepared to rain their country for their own private
ends, — eighty thonsand Russians and twenty thousand
Cossacks entered the Ukraine to undo the work of the
confederates of Bar. In 1T94 Suwaroft stormed Warsaw,
and the inhabitants were massscrcd. In the following
year Slantslaos Poniatowski laid down his crown, the thM
division of Poland took place, and the independence of
that oonntry was at an end. In spite of her correspond-
ence and affected sympathiea with Voltaire, Diderot, and
many of the advanced French thinkers, Catherine showed
great opposition to the principleB of the French Revolu-
tion, and the policy of the latter part of her reign was
reactionary. She died suddenly on November 17,1796.
Her character has been amply diacnssed by foreign writers.
It may suffice to say here tlat, whatever her private vices
may have been, she was nnqnsationably a woman of great
genius, and the only sovereign worthy of Russia who had
appeared since the days of Peter the Great. Hence the
veneration with which her memory ia regarded by the
Russians to this day.
F&nl, who had lived in retirement during the life of his
mother, was an object of aversion to bar. We are told that
she had prepared a will by which he would be disinherited,
and the succession conferred upon his son Alexander, but
his friend Knrakin got hold of it immediately upon the
death of the empreas and destroyed it. The eventa of the
reign of Paul {i-v.} can be only briefly diacuesed here.
He couclnded an alliance with Turkey, and entered into
a coalition against the French republic, which he regarded
with horror. Snwarofi took the command of the united
Russian and Austrian troops at Terona. In 1799 he
defeated the French general Uoreau on the banks of the
Adda, and mads a triumphant entry into Milan. After
this he won another victory over Macdonald on the TMbbia,
and later the same year that of Nov! over Joubert lie than
crossed the Alps for the purpose of driving the French ont
of Switzerland, but he was everywhere hampered by the
Austrians, and, after fighting his way over the Alps and
suffering great losses, he reached his winter quarters between
tbe lUer and the Lech, and soon afterwards be was recalled
in disgrace. Paul now completely changed his tactics. Ac-
casing England and Austria of haviog acted treacherously
towards him, he threw himself into the arms of Bonaparte^
who had won him over by skilful diplomacy, and, among
other pieces of flattery, sent back the Russian prisoners
newly clothed and armed. Paul then meditated joining him
in a plan for conquering India; but in the night between
the23d and 24thof March 1801 be was assassinated. The
chief agents in this catastrophe were Plato Znboff, Banning-
sen, snd Pahlen. The rule of Paul had become intolerable,
and he was fast bringing on a national bankruptcy.
He was ancceeded by his eldest, son, Alexander L
(1801-183!!). One of the first acu'pf theoew emperor
was to make peace with England and France. He^ how-
ever, soon changed his policy, and in 1 805 joined the third
coalition against France, to which Atistria and England
were parties. Events which belong to geneial European
history, and are well known, need only be described briefly
here. On December 2d of that year took place the battle
of AuaterlitE, in which the Russians lost 21,000 men, 133
guns, and 30 flags. They accused their Austrian allies
of treachery. The war was soon ended by the treaty of
Pressbu^ We now come to the fourth coalition against
France (1806-7.). In 1807 Hapoleon engaged the Rosuan
general Bono ingsen at Eylan. The battle was protracted
and sanguinary, but not decisive; both partiea abandoned
the field and retired into winter quarters. A defeat at
Friedlaud in the same year was followed by the peace of
Tilsit. By this treaty the Prussian king, Frederick William
UL, lost half his dominions. Nearly all hia Polish posses-
sions were to go to the king of Saxony under the name of
the giand-dQi£y of Warsaw. By a secret treaty, it Beamed
as if Alexander and Napoleon almost aspired to divide the
world, or at least Europe, between them. The terms, how-
ever, were received by a large party in Russia with di^uat
The next important event in the reign of Alexander was
the conquest of Finland. By the treaty of Frederikahamn,
September 17, 1809, Sweden surrendered Finland, with the
whole of East Bothnia, and a part of West Bothnia lying
eastward of the river TomeL The Finns wore allowed a
kind of autonomy, which they have preserved to this day.
The annexation of Georgia to Russia was oonsolidaled at
tbe beginning of this reign, having been long in prepara-
tion. It led to a war with Perua, which resulted in the
incorporation of the province of Shirvan with the Russian
empire in 1806.
In 1609 commenced the fifth coalition against N^Mleon.
Alexander, who was obliged by treaty to furnish assistance
to the French emperor, did tJI that he could to prevent
the war. A quarrel with Turkey led to its invasion by a
Rumian army under Michelsen. This war was terminated
by a congress held at Bucharest in 1612. Russia gave np
Moldavia and Wallachia, which she had occupied, but kept
Bessarabia, with the fortresses of Ehotin and Bender.
Gradually an estrangement took pUoe between Alexander
and Napoleon, not only on account of the creation of the
giand-duchy of Warsaw, but because Russia was suffering.
greatly from the Continental blockade^ to which Alexaadar
had been forced to give his adhesion. This led to the
great invasion of Russia by Napoleon in 1813.'
' This hM iHn tally deKrlbed in tlia pi^a of Eugin* Labuiin* u
BIr Bobsrt WUioil In lli< recant volnma tl tit uoellaDt Tevtsu
SMmtlArIMm, aditHl bj IL ButanlatT, will In buni H
tSTHtlng dgt^k tewt npoa RiuiliHi family psi>«i ai '
ITW-lMlJ
RUSSIA
' Od Mftj 9, 1813, Nftpohon.Mt Fkris tor Drradsn,
•nd tko Bnniaji and l^Veaoli unbssudon rscaiTed Ibeir
pMqiorti. Tb» grand armj conipruad 678,000 men,
S56,000 U thfm being French ; kud, to oppoae them, the
PT"T~ir Hsembled 373,000 men. NftpoUon crossed the
SiMiwa and advanced bj forced lUArche* to SmoleDsk.
Here Iw defwtod the Btmuns, and again al the terrible
battie of Borodinc^ and tlien entered Moacov, which had
i>Mn ahandfiiMid hj movt of the inhabitant! ; toon af ter-
wnrdi » fin loake out (probabi; caoud b; the order of
Boatopdiiii the goremor), which raged aiz dayi and
dwtHTad tlM gnaler part of the rdtj. Notwithstaoding
thia diaaetK, Napoleon lingerad fire veeki among the
rain^ codeaTCHiringtto nflgotiate a peace, which he seemed
to tUnk Aleaander wovld be nre to grant ; bat he had
mirtiten tile qnrit of the emperor and hia people^ On
the 18th irf October Kiqioleoa ninctantl)' conunmoed hia
baickwBid inaich. 3%a wiathet via nnnanallj aatart^ and
tlw eonntej all ntrnd had bean da*aatat«d l^ tiie Fnneh
OB liittr marrh, with th^ ranka oontinQallj thinned bj
coUt hongfir, f^ tha *^'*w>iah<w of tiie Coaneka who i*nwg
npoD their rear, tho Ftmdi naehed Ae Bennna, which
thaj' oroBsad MU Stndianka on tha Seth-Sflth of November
witii gr«U hm. , Via atrog^ on the banka of thia river
forma ona ot tha moat terrible ptctnrea in hiatocy. At
BoMfgoni, between Tibia and Hintk, Napoleon left the
armj and hnnied to hrii. flnaUj the wreck of the
grtmdt mrmt* ondat Ney eraaeed the Niemen. Not mote
th«n ai^tT timwand of the wbole arm; are Hid to have
It 'VTilliam HI. of Pmoia now inad a masi-
feato, and eotuhided an allianoa with Hnvia for the re-
TurtaMJfrhiTwnt of the Prtuaiaii meuarchgr. In 1813 took
pkee the battle ot Dreaden, and the ao«alled Battle of
the NatioDa at Leiptie on October 16 and &a two fol-
lowing dajra. In 1814 the B<ueiana invaded France
with tha alliea, and Icat many men in the aaMnlt npon
I^iia. After ^e battle of WatMloo, and the eoovayanctt
at Napoleon to the iaknd of Bt Hebna, it fell to tha
Bnarian fcsces to occupy CSiampagne and Lorraine. In
the Mma yeai Kiland wm r»eitahliahed in a mutilated
form, with a oonMitatioa which Alexander, who wai
cfowiMd kin^ awon to obeerva. In leSB tlie emperor
died anddan^ at Ti^uuog at the month of the Don, while
fiotiBg the aoathen prarinoee of hia ampire. He had
added to ^ Raaaa dominiona Finland, Folaod,
Beeaaiabt^ and that part erf the Canoaaoa «4iich im-kiliH
Dagbertan, Sbimn, Hingreli^ and Imeretia. Mnci wu
done, in tlua i«gn to improre tha eonditioD of the aerfa.
Tba Baakolniki were better treated ; manj eflorta were
made to improre pablic edncaJioii, and the nnivaraitie* ot
Kaaui, EharkoS, and Bc Petenborg weio fonnded. One
of die chief agents of theee reform* vraa the minister
Spennsld, who for eome time enjoyed the favonr of the
emperor, but ha attacked ao many iiit«reeta by hia :
that a coalition wai formed a^unat him,
deaonneed aa a traitor, and hia enemiea ni
getting him removed and aent aa governor to Nyni-
NbvgOTod. In 181S, when the storm raised against him
had eomewhat abated, he was appointed to the important
post of governor of Siberia. In 1821 he retnraed to Bt
Petersbius btit he never regained his former power. To
tha miU inBnence of Speianaki lacceeded that ot Shishkoff,
NoTMiltie^ and Aiakcheefi. Hie last of these men made
himaelf nniv^mll^ detested In Buna. He rose to great
indoenee in the tune of 'SvH, and managed to continnfl in
favour under hia eon. Besides many other pemidoos
measDre^ it waa to him that Bosaia owed the military
eolonie* which were ao anpopnlar and led to serions riots.
Tbs ceoaor^p a< the jinn bewme much stricter, and
101
many profeaeoia td liberal U
their ehaira in the nniversities. The coontry v
filled with secret aocieties, and the emperor became gloomy
and atupiciona In thia condition of mind be died, a man
thoroughly disenchanted and wear; of life. He has been
judged luushly by some autbora ; oaders will remember
that Napoleon aaid of him that he was faUe aa a Bynntine
Oreek. To as he appears aa a well-intentioned man,
utterly nnable to oopeirith the discordant elamenta around
him. He had discovered that his life waa a failure.
The heir to the throne according to tbe principlea of
ancceaaion recr^maad in Ruaeia was Constantine, the second
•OD of the emperor Baol, since Alexander left no children.
Bat ha had of his own free will secretly renounced bis
claim in 1832, having eeponaed a Roman Catholic, the
Polish princees Jnlia Omdzioska. In conaeqoence of thia
change in the devolation of the sovereign's aathority, the
conquracy lA the Dekabrists' Ixoke oat at the end of the
year, their object being to take advantage of the eonftuion
eaoaad by the alteration of the SDCcession to get cooatt
tntional government in Rnsaia. llieir ^(Kla failed, but
the rebellion waa not put down withont great bloodshed.
Five of the conspirators were eiecnted, and a great many
tent to Siberia. Some of tbe men implicated weie among
tlie auiBt remarkable of their time in Bnaaia, but tha
whole ootmtry had been long honeycombed with secret
societies and many of the Russian officen had learned
liberal ideaa while en^kged in the campugn against Stipo-
leoD. So ignorant, however, were the common people of
the moat wdinary political tmna that whan told to shout
for Oonstantine and the constitution (emuUhiltia) they
naively aaked if the latter was Couatantine's wife. Tbe
new emperor, NicholaB,.the next brother in succeaioD,
showed throughout bia reign reaotionary tendencies; all
liberalism waa sternly repreaaed. In 1830 apiieared the
Contplftt CoUatuM of Hu Lam of tig Summ Smpire,
whidi Nicholaa had caoaed to bia codified. He partly
rtatored the right ot primogeniture which had been taken
away by tbe empress Anna aa contrary to Bnadan naagea,
aHowing a father to make his eldeat eon hia sole hair. In
^ile of the inereaaed aereri^ ot the eenaorahip of the
prea, literature made great pflogi«aa in bia rugn. From
1836 to 1838 Nicholaa was en^ged in a war with Peraia,
in which the Bnasiana v'ere completely victorious, having
beaten theenemyat Elistbetpol, and again under lii^e witch
at Javan Bnlak. The war was terminated by tbe peace
of Tnrkmantchal (February 23, 1828), by which Perua
ceded to Rnsaia the provincsa of Erivan and K^hitchevan,
and p^ twenty millions of ronblM as an iodamnity. ^e
next foreign enemy was Turkey. Nicholas had sympa-
thiaed with tbe Greeks in their struggle for independence^
in oppoaition to the policy of Alexander ; he hikd also a
isrt to play as protector of tbe Orthodox CbristisAS, who
farmed a large number of the sultan's snbjecta In con-
aeqneoce of tbe sanguinary war which tbe t'orks were
carrying on against the Oreeke and the utter collapse of
the latter, England, France, and Rnaeia signed tbe treaty
of London in 1827, by which they forced tnemselvea upon
the belligerants aa mediators. From this union resulted
the battle of Navanno (October 20, 1837), in which the
Turkish fleet was annihilated by tbet of tbe alliea.
Nicholaa now pursued the war with Turkey on his own
aeconut ; in Asia Psskenilch defeated two Turkish srmiea,
and conquered Eizeroum, and in Europe Diebitach defeatsd
the grand vizier. The Russians crossed the Balkans and
advanced to Adriauople, wherea tnaty was signed in 1829
very disadvantageous to Turkey.
In 1831 "broke out the Polieh ineurrection, of which a
> UMnUy, t
Bnibu, tbe month fo vhlcb AltnunIiT
103
RUSSIA
deMriptioo !»• tbmij bMn given (aee Foum, voL xii.
p. 396). Sukewilcb took Wtiraaw io 1S31. The cholera
^riuek KM ften nging had alreadj carried off Diebitech
ud the gmnd-dutce Ouituitme. Poland was now ectirelj
at tb« mwe; of Kicholas. The constitutioa nhich hftd
beao granted hj Alexander iraa ancnlled : there were to
be no more diet* ; &ad for the ancieat paktiniiteB, familiar
totbehietorical etadent, were mbetituted the govemmecta
<£ Wkmw, Badom, Lublin, Flock, and Modlin. The
university of Yilna, rendered celebrated by Mickiewicz
and Lelewel, trae sappreined. Bj another treaty with
IkAsy, that of Unkiar-Skelesid (1833), Biusia acquired
additional rights to meddle with the internal poiitica of
that country. Soon after the revolotiou of 1848, the
emperor Nicholas, who became evoo more reactionary in
ooniieqnenee of the disturbed state of Europe, answered
die appeal of the emperor Francis Joseph, and sent an
umy under Paskewitch to suppress the Hungarian revolt.
After the capitulation of Oijrgei in 1B19, the war was at
an end, end the Magyars cmelly expiated their attempts
to procure constitutional goremment. In 1853 broke out
the CUmean War. The emperor was anxious to distribute
the poaseBsions of the " sick man," but found enemies instead
of RlUea in England and France. The chief events of this
memorable atmggle were the hattlea of the Alma, Baloklevo,
Inkennano, and Tchemaya, and the siege of Bebastopol;
thii had been skilfully fortified by Todleben, who appears to
have been the only man of genius who came to the front on
either side during the war. InlSGG theBusaiansdestroyBd
the aonthern side of the ci^, and retreated U the n<«them.
bt the some year, on Ibich 14th, died the emperor
Nicholses after a short illness. Finding all his plana
frDsbat«l he had grown weary of life, and rashly exposed
himself to the severe temperature of the northern spring.
He was sncceeded by his eon Alexander XL (1855-1881),
at the age of thirty-seven. One of the first objects at the
new cnr was to put an end to the war, and the trea^ of
l^ria was signed in 18S8, by which Kusua consented to
keep no vessels o! war in the Biack Sea, and to give up
her protectorate of the Eastern Christiana ; the former,
it most he added, she hsa recently recovered. A portion
of Bussian Bessarabia was also cut oS and added to
the Dannbian principalities, which were shortly to be
nnited nnder the name of Ronmania. This was afterwaida
given back to Bussia by the treaty of Berlin. Sebastonol
also has been rebuild so that it is difficult to see what
the practical reeulU of the Crimean War wer^ in spite
of the vast bloodshed and expenditure of tre&iure which
attended it. The next important measure was the emanci-
Ktion of the serfs in 1861. This great reform had bug
jn meditated by Nicholas, but he was unable to ac-
complish it, and l^t it to be carried out by his son. The
landlords, on recdving an indemnity, now released t'je
serfs from thdr seigniorial rights, and the village commune
became the*'actnal property of the serf. Thie great
revolntioD was not, however, carried ont without great
difficulty. Jhe Palish insurrection of 1B63 has already
been deecribed, as well as its fatal efiects upon that part of
Poland which had been incorporated with Russia. On the
other hand Finland has seen her privileges confirmed.
Among important foreign events of this reign must be
mentioned the capture <S Schamyl in 1869 by Prince
Bariatinski, and the pacification of die Caucasus ; many of
the Circasoiana, unable to endure the peaceful life of
cultivators of the soil nnder the new regime, migrated to
Tnik^, where they have formed one of the meet turbolent
elenMola of the population. Turkestan also has been
gradually snbjugated In 1865 the dty of Tashkend was
taken, and in 1667 Alexander IL created the government
U Torkeatan, [a I8{>8 ^nei»l UonvieS signed & treat;
with the Chinese^ by irideh Bnada acquired all the left
bank of the river Amur. A new iHirt has been created in
Eastern Asia (Vladivostok), which [iromiseM to be a great
centre of trade. In lOTT ttussia came to the aniatance
of the Slavonic Christians against the Turks. After the
terrible Eiefo of Plevna, nothing stood between them
and the gates of Couaiantinople. In 1678 the treaty of
San Btefauo was signed, by which Roumania became
independent, 8orvia was enlarged, and a free Bulgaria,
but {under Turkish suzerainty, was created. But these
arran^menta were subiiequently modified by the trea^ of
Berlin. Russia got back the portion of Bessarabia which
she bad loet, and advanced her Caucasian frontier. The
new province of Bulgaria was cat into two, the sonthem
portion being entitled Eastern Roumelia, with a Christian
governor, to be appointed by the Porte, and self-govem-
menL Austria acquired a proteetoraU ovor Bosnia ami
Henegovino. The latter pert of the reign of Alexander
IL vras a period of great internal commotion, on account
of the ai^ead of Nihilism, and the attempts upon the
emperor's Ufa, which unfortunately were at last sncce&ifvL
Id the cities in which his despotic father had walked about
fearless, without a sbgle attendant, the mild and amiable
Alexander was in daily peril of his life. On April IG,
1866, KarakoxoS shot at the emperor af St Petersburg;
in the following year another attempt woe made by a Polo,
Berezowski, while Alexander was at Paris on a visit to'
Napoleon HL; on April 14, 1679, Soloviofi shot at him.
The same year saw the attempt to blow up the Winter Palace
and to wreck the train by which the ciar was travelling
from Moscow to Bt Petersburg. A nmilar eonapitacy In
1861 f March 13) was EuccassfuL Five of the conapiratcn,
including a woman, Sophia Ferovskala, were publicly
executed. Thus terminated the reign of Alexander IL,
which hadlastednearly twenty-sixyeara. He died leaving
Busaia exhausted l^ foreign wata and honeycombed bj
plots. His wife and eldest sou Nicholas bad predoceased
him, the latter at Nice. He was succeeded by his second
sou Alexander, bom in 1845, whose reign has been char
acteriEsd by conspiradee and constant deportatioiw of
suspected persons. It was long before be ventured to
be crowned in his ancient capital of Moscow (1883),'
and the chief event since then has been the disturbed
relations vrith England, which for a time threatened
war. (w. X. M.)
Past T.—'RxjasuM LrmuTUXX.
To get a clear idea of Russian liteiatuie, it will be taoet
convenient for us to divide it into oral and written. Hie
first of theee sections includes the interesting Ulii^ or
" tales of old time," as the word may be bansle^ed, whii^
have come down to us in great numbers, as they have been
sung by wandering nunstrels all over the country. The
scholars who during the last forty years have given thcii.
attention to these compositions have made the following
division of them into cycles: — (1) that of the older
heroes; (2) that of Tladimir, prince of EieS; (3) that
of Novgorod ; (i) that of Moscow ; (5) that of the Coa-
sacka; (6) diat of Peter the Oreat; (7) the modem
period. These poeEna, if they may be so atyled, aie not in
rhyme; the ear ia satisfied with a certain cadence which
is obeerved throughout. For a long time they wore
neglected, and the collection of them only began at the
commencement of the present century. The style of
Russian literature which prevailed from the time of
Lomonosofl! was wholly based upon the IVench or paendo-
daaaiealschod. It was, therefore, hardly likely that these
peasant songs would attract attention. But when the
gospel of romanticism was preached and the Midorf of
Kanuoiin a^ieared, which preeeotad to the Biiwiani *
UTsunnui.] RUSSIA
put (A vtikh thef had kiioim but HtU^ deBcritmd in
poetiul utd ornate phnMology, a Dew impolw wea given
to the collection of ail the ramuns of popoUr Utentnre.
Id 1S04 appeared a volume baaed npon tboee vhicli h>d
been gatliwed together hj Cjt'tX or Kitsha Daniloff, a Co«-
saok, at the beginning of the J 8th cantniy, Hioy were
received with mnch entbnsiaKn, and a leoond edition w&a
pnblished in 1618. la the following jeor there appeared
at Leipdo a tranilation of m&aj of theaa piecee into Qcr-
man, in conseqQence of which they became known much
more vride)]r. Tbii little book of IGOpbgoaiaimportaot in
many ways, and not tlie least ao becauao the origiDols of
eome of the bilinl translated in it aio now IobL Since
that time large collecUona of thete poema have been
pnUiahed, edited by Blboikoff, flilfetding, SremeTski,
AvenariuB, and others.
lleee cnriDua prodnctdoiu have all the chaTacteriatics of
popnlot poetry in the endlees repetitions of certain eon-
veational phrases — the " green wine," " the bright Ban "
(applied to a hwo), " the damp earth," and otheis. Tba
heroes of the flnt <^le are moiutrooi beings, and Mem to
be merely impenoni&ations of the powua of natare;
rach are Volga Vsealavich, Kiknla Belianinovich, and Svia-
togar. They ere called the beffottri tCarthie. Sometimee
we have the giants of the mountain, am Sviatogor, and
the serpent Q<mnich, the root of part of both namee being
gora (monntoin). The serpent Oorinich Uvea in caves,
and has the care of the precious melob. Sometimes animal
natures are mixed up with them, a: imfHoffottr, who
Dnitea the qnaHtiea of tiie serpent and the giant, and bears
die name (rf Togarin Zmievich. There ie the Pagan Idol
{Ido/ialclM Pogaiuiot\ a groat ^ntton, and Nightingale
the Bobber (Solotti Rwiboinik), who terrtfiee traveUers and
lives in a neet bnilt npon six oaks.
In the second cycle the legends gnrap themselves ronnd
the celebrated prince Vladimir of KieS, in wboee time the
Christian religion was introduced into Rosiia, as previously
mentionad. The chief hero is Ilya Untomet^ who
performs prodigies of vakur, and is of ^gantic stature and
superhnmaii strength. The cycle of Novgorod deals with
the stmiee of Vasilii Boalaevich and Badko, the rich
merchant. The great commErcial prosperity of Novgorod
has been already described. The fourth cycle deals with
the ontocracy ; already Moscow has become the capital of
the fntnre empire. We are told of the taking of Eamn,
of the conquest of Siberia by Termak, of Ivan the Terrible
and his eonfldant Maliuta Sknvlalovich. It is observable
that in tin popular tradititm Ivan, in spite of his cmeltiea,
is not spoken of with any hatred. As sarly as 1619 some of
these bilint were committed to writing by Richard Jamea|
an Oxford giadaate who was in Bossia about that time as
chaplain of the embeaiy. the most pathetic of these is
that rehtting to the nnfortunate Xema, the daughter of
Boris QodnnoS. . Yennak, the conqneror of Siberia, forms
the subject of a very spirited lay, and there ik another on
the death of Ivan the Terrible. Considering the relation
in which sbe stood to the Rassians, we cannot wmder that
Marino, the wife of the false Demetrius, appears as a
nag^ion. Many spirited poems are consecrated to the
achievements of Blenka Bazia, the bold robber of the
Volga, who was a long time a popola
Peter the Qreat is a very interesting
in abundance on the voriotu acTiievements of the wonderful
czar, as the taking of Aioff in 1696. There is also a poem
on the exeontion of the streltEt, and another on the death of
Peter. In the more modem period there [kre many songs
on Napoleon. The Cossack songs, written in the Little
Kosaian language, dwell upon the glories tA the ukA, the
nSeiingi of the people frcwn the invasiona of the Torks
ind Mongols, the exploits of the Hoidamaks and lastly (he
103
&11 (tf the Co«Hck tepablie. Seddai theae, die RnsMsna
can boast of large collections of religions poems, many of
them containing very cnrions legends In them we have
a complete store of the beliefs of the Middle Ages. A rich
field may be found here for the study of comparative
mythology and folk-lwe. Many of them are of considerably
aotiqaity, and some seem to have been derived from the
Midraah. Some of the more important of these have been
collected by BeszonoS. Bewdea the Ulinl or legendary
I>oenia, the Rassians have large collectioiu of ahuU or
folk-tales, which have been gathered together by Bakharoff,
Afanasiefl^ and othen. They also are fnll of valnable
materials for the atudy of comparative mythology.
Ltating the popnlar and oral literature, we come to
what has been committed to vrriting. The earhest
■pemmen of Buaaian, properly so-called, mnst be considered
tne Ostromir Codez, written by the diak Gregory at
the order of Ostromir, the potadtuk or governor of
Novgorod. ^Hus is a Busman recension of Uia Blavonia
Ooapeis, of the date 1056-9T. Of the year 1073 we have
the IA(rf%ik or "Miscellany" of Sviatoalott. It was
written by John the dlok or dMcon for that prince, and is
a kind of Bnssian encyclopedia, drawn from Greek sonrcea.
The date ia 1076. The atyle is praised by Busloefl ai
clear and simple. "Hie next monument of the language b
the DixmtTK ixmcenwng th$ Old and Ifttf Talammt by
Ilarion, metropolitan d Eieff. In this work there ia a
pancfCyric on I^ince Vladimir of Eiefi, the hero t4 so much
of the Russian popular poetry. Other writers are llieodo-
sins, a monk df the Peetcherski cloister, who wrote on the
lAtin faith and some PoueimM or " Instmctiona,'' and
liuke Zhidiata, bishop of Novgorod, who has left us a
cnrions Dimxmrm to the Brtf&rm. From the writings of
Theodowns we sea that many pagan habits were still in
vogue among the people. He finds fault with them for
allowing these to continue, and also for tbeir dtimkenaess ;
nor do the monks escape his censures. Zhidiata writes in
a mora vernacular style than many of his contemporaries ;
he eschews the declomatoty tone of the ByBkntioe authors.
Witii the BO«alled CAronub of Kbstok fq.v.) begins the
long seriee of the Russian aonaliats. Tb^re is a regulai
catena of these chronicle^ extending with Only two beoke
to the time of Alexis Mikhailovich, the fatbw of Peter the
Great. Besides the work attributed to Nestor, we have
chronicles of Novgorod, Kief^ Volhynio, and many others.
Every town of any importance Mnld boast of its annalists,
Pskoft (ind Bozdol among others. In some respects these
compilations, the productions of monks in their cloiateia,
remind us of the Anglo-Saxon Chrtmklt, dry details
alternating with here and there a picturesque iocideot;
but the Anglo-Saxon Ckronida has nothing of the saga
about it, and many of <theaB annk Is abound with Qis
quaintest stories, lliere are also works of early travellers,
aa the igumen Daniel, who vixited the Holy And at the
end of the 11th and beginning of the ISth century. A
later traveller was Athanaains Kikitin, a merehant of Tver,
who visited India in 1470. He hsa left a record of his
adventures, which haa been translated into .English and
published for the Eokluyt Society. lAter also is the
account written by the two merebants, KorobeinikoS and
GrekoS. They were sent with a sum of money to the
Holy Sepulchre to entreat the monks to ptay without
ceasing te the soul of the son of Ivan the Terrible, whom
his father hod killed. Acurious monnment of old Slavonic
times is the PoHcAfltM (" Instruction") written by Vladimir
Mmiomakh tor the benefit of his sons. This composition
is generally found inserted in the Chronicle of Nestor; it
^ves a quunt picture of the daily life of a Slavonic prince.
In the 12th century we have the sermons of Cyril, the
bishop of Tum^ wbM art attempts l« imilftto in BaatiaD
IM
RUSSIA
ihn florid Bjantiiw aijle, . He k nrj fond of iQegorickl
TeptBBentattOM ; thui, in hi« Mnnoa on Holy Week,
Cbrisljanitj U r^reaeined nnder the foro of ipring;
P*guiUm sod Jndaism under tlut ol vinter, nnd avil
thooghta ue qwksn ot aa boiat«(oaa wiitdi. An Utempt
to can; diU ^mboliam throa^ oth«r portioDi ot hii
writing kada liim to manj fsntastio cooceita which are
tut from being in good taate. And hen maj be mentjoned
the man; liree of the lainU and the Fatheia to be found va
earlj Boniaii literatim. Some of theae have been edited
bj Coont Beiborodko in hie I'cmOniii Slarimtoi Jtmioi
LtienUwi (" Hemoriala of Ancient Buuian Literature*).
We now come to the Uarj of the expedition of Prince
Igor, nrhich Ja a kind of btlioa in proee, and Dairates the
expedition ot Igpr, prince of Novgorod-Severaki, a^unat
the PoloTtna. The mannacript «a* at one time preaerred
in a niMiaBtei7 at YaroalaTl, bat waa bunt la the great
fire at Hoeeow in the jear 1812. Iinckily the ator; had
been edited fafter a faahion) bj Connt Huain-PadikiD,
and a tniucnpt waa alao foond among the mieta of the
empreat Catherine. The anthenticity of thu prodnction
baa been diapnted by aome modem adkolan, bat withoat
■oM gconnda. The original waa aeen bj SOTeral men ot
letten in Knaaia, Karaman among Ibe nmnber. There ia
ft mixture erf Chriatian and heathen aUauoiis, bat there are
naiallela to thia style of writing in anch a piece aa the
" DinooTM of a Lover of Ctiriat and ^Tocate <:«F the True
Faitb," from which an eitiaet haa been given b; Buakeft
in hia Chrutomathy. Unlike moat of the prodnctiona of
Uiia period, which are tedioiu, and intereating oaljr to the
philologiat and antiqnarj, there ia a gnat deal of poetical
epirit in tlie atory of Igor, and the metaphora are fre-
quently very vigonxuu Mention ia made in it (rf another
bard named Boyan, bnt none of hia inapirmtioni have coma
down to na. A atrange legend ia that of the ciar Solomon
and Kitovraa, bat the atory ocean in the popular titeraturea
of many conntriee. Bome aimilar productiona amcmg^e
Bnaaiana are merely adaptations of old Bulgarian talea,
eapecially the ao-called apocryphal writinga. The Zadai^
afaAina ia a aort of proae-poem much in the atyle di the
" Story ot Igor," and the reaembUnce cA the latter to thia
|»eee and to many other of the ticataina included in or
attached to the BtuaiaQ chronicle, fumiabee an additional
proof <A ita genniDeiteaa, The account of the battle A the
"Field tA Woodoocka," which was gained by Dmitri
Doukoi orertheMoDgoUin 1380, ha* come down in three
imporiant vetnoniL The flnt bears the title "Stany xA
theFigbt of thePriooe Dmitri IvanoTich with Mamai"; it
i* rather meagre in detafU bat foil of expreaaiona diowing
the patriotism of the writer. The second veiaion u more
complete in ita historical details, but atill ia not without
anachroniam^ nte third ia altogether poetical- The
PantA 0 Drak»U (" Story of Draknla '^ ia a oollectian of
anecdotes relating to a cruel prince of Moldavia, who lived
at the beginning of the lEth oentury. Several of the har-
bvitie* deaoribed in it have also been asoigned to Ivan the
Terrible.
The early Buaaian lawa ptacent many featniea of
interest, such aa the Suuima Pratda ot Yaroala^ which
ia preserved in tbe chronicle of Novgorod ; the dale ia
between 1018 and 1094. Large additions were made to
it by aabseqnent princes. It haa many pointa iu common
with tbo Bcaodinavian codea, t.g., trial by vreger of battle,
the wergild, and the circuits of the judges. Tb^^wa
■how Busma at that time to have been in civilization
quite on a level vrith the rest of Europe. But the evil
inflnencB ot the Mongols waa soon to make itself felt.
The next finportant code is the Sudetnuk of Ivan IIL,
the date of iriiich is H»7 ; thia was fdbwed by that of
Ivan tr^ of tlio year IfSO, in wbith w« have a republi-
cation by the e»r of hit gHwUatker^ lawa, with additiooa.
In the time of this emperor alao was imned the StogUa
(l&Sl), a bodyoE eeclesiaatical ngnlationa. Mention must
also be made of the Uimitnii or " OrdinanoB" of the cnr
Thia abound* with enactmenta of eangninatT
at ; women are boried alive for □mrdering tbeir
hnafaanda; torture ia recogniaed aa a meana of jmemmg
evidence ; and the knout and mntUatiDD are menticned on
almost every page. Bome of the penaltiea are whimaieal :
for inatanct^ the man who naea tobacco ia to have hia nose
cntofi; this, however, was to be altered fay Peter the Otcft^
who himself p:«ctiaed Uie habit and encowaged it in
In 1553 a printing praaa waa establiahed at Uoaoow,
and in 166i the first book was printed, an "Apoatol;'' a*
it ia called, «.<., a book oent&iaing the Acta of the ApcwUea
and the ^tiatlea. Hie pdnteFE wen Ivan Feodoroff mnd
Feter Hatislaveta ; a monument was erected a year or two
ago to the meniory td the fonner. Aa saiJy aa 1M8 Ivaa
had invited printen to Bnaaia, bnt they wen detained «a
their joam^. Feodoroff and hia conpankma wan aoon,
however, compelled to leave Rnasia, and found a protector
in Sigiamnnd IU The cause of dieir failure appean to
have been the enmity which they had stirred up among
the cwviata of hooka, who felt tint their meana <k gaining
a livelihood were leeseaed. Tb<j aoceeeded acecnlingly
in diawins over to their side ttie mon fanatieal prieati^
who thought it degrading that the N«red "bookM should bo
multiplied by auch an art, just aa at tba present day tha
Arabs refuse to allow the Koran to be printed. The filat
Slavonic BiUa waa printed at Oatrog iu Volhyniaia 1581.
Another pres^ however, waa soon sstabliahed at Uoacow;
np to 1600 aiztaen books bad been issued then.
A curious work of the time of Ivan the TerrOile Is tli«
Domottnii, or "'Bookof HouaeboldMaaageoient,'* which ia
aaid to have been written by the monk Bylveater, althoo^
this atatament haa been dispnted. Hus priest was at one
time very inSuential with Ivan, but ultimately oflended
him acid was baniahed to the Bolovetzkoi monastery on
the While Be*. The work was originally intended tgr
Sylvester for bis son Anthemios and bis danf^ter-in-law
Pelagia, but it aoon became very popular and in general
naft We have a faitJiful picture of the Bnsaia of the
time, with all iU harbarixma and ignorances We see the
Dubounded authority of the huabimd in hif.pwn bonse-
hold: he may inflict peraooal disatiaement upon faia wife;
and her chief duty lies in minislering to his want^ The
Mongol* bad iatiodnced into Bnasia the Oriental aecluaion
of woman; those of the older time knew nothing ot thesa
reairictiona. Sylvester, or whoever wrote the book', was n
complete conservative, as indeed the clergy ot Bnssin
almost nniveraslly werth' To the r«ign of Ivan the Tet>-
rible must also be assigned the Ch^ii-Mtiiei or " Book
of Monthly Beadinga," containing extracts from the Greek
f&tliers, arranged for every day of the week. The worit
was compiled by the metropolitan Uacariu^ and waa
the labtmr of twelve years. An important writer ol
the same period waa Frinoe Alexander Korbski, de-
scended from the sovereigna of Toroalavl, who waa bom
about 1S28. In hia eariy days EurbeU aaw a great
deal of service, having fought at Konn and in livonia.
But he quarrelled with Ivan, who had b^un to peisa-
cute the followers of Sylvester and Adadtefi, and fied
to Lithuania in 1663, where he waa well receivad t^
' iBaawioultUvoftlisditsof 1898, ud bow uBmg Iha aun-
Kiipta of tb* Bodlalu, Kihop Bai»t wrItH thu of ■ prt«t wbo
Humiulid PMir |]is Qmt Is ni^ud : "Tinenr'i print Is aanie
DW, vlw li ■ tnly bdjr mu, ud aon lanniHl than I ihaiilil bave
■ jn«t pi™ o( nllfliB ts b( *o wf
LmBATDH.]
RUSSIA
103
Sigimiiiiid AognatiM. Vrom hia ratnkt be ttHmunooed ft
comapODcIence with Ivko, ia which ha raprowshed him for
hia snaaj enieltiea. Itui in his mniwer dscUivd that he
wM quite jostified in tokiog the Uvea of bii elavea, if he
thonght it light to do M. While liviiu ia LithnuiiA,
Kurbski appesnd m the defender of the Qreek fiith,
which WM being aodermined b; the JeeoitB. He died in
exile in 1563. Kurbaki tm a fluent writer, bufr Bcsta-
cheS Biumin thinks tiut hie tubtred of iTau led him to
exaggentes uid he regreti that Kanwnrin should have
foUnwed him h doaely. Boiidee the uuwen of Itbd to
Knrhoki, there ii hie letter to Ooeniu, end the brother-
hood of the Crrillian monuterj on the White Lale (Bielo
OzeroX in yibkh he leproacheB them foi the eelE-indulgent
live* thef ere keding Other work* of the IGth century
•xe the ^QMWuiHi ^n^gio, or "Bookol DiEgreea" (^'or Pedi-
greaa^ in whiui hiitoncal ersnta are grouped ondor the
imgna d the gnnd-dak<-< whoae pedigroes vn alio ^ven ;
and the Life of tkt Cm- Feador IvMOtick (1064-1698),
written bj the potiiaich Job. To the beginning of the
17th eentnrj boloo^ the Chnmograpk of Sergio* Kubasoff
of ToboUk. Hie work eitenda from the creation of the
world to the acceeeion of Michael BomanoS, and coutaini
interesting accounta of soch of the memben of the Riuaian
royal family as Kubasofi had himself seen. Something
of the Huse kind must have been the journal of Prince
UstislaTaki, which he showed the English tmbasaadca
Jeronie Horsey, bat which la now loat'
To the time of the first BoouuioS* bebnga the etory of
the aiege of AzoCf, a ptnee poem, which telle nt, in an
inflated style, how in 1637 a body of CoMacks trium-
phaatly repelled the attacki of tha Turks. They bad
seised this town, which they were auxiona to hand over to
the cnr Michael, but circumstoncee were not ripe for it.
Thva ia also an account of tlie uege of the Troitza
monastery by the Poles during the "Bmutoc^ Tiemya," or
Peziod of Trouble^ as it is called, — that which deole with
the adTOntorea of the false Demetrina and the Polish
invaaion which followed. Bnt all theee are aurpassed by
the wwk oo Kossja of Gregory EarpoS Kotonhikhin. He
served in the amboMadoPe oSm Ipotaltki prUxu^ and
when called upon to giro information againit hu col-
leogoee fled to Poland about 1664. Theooe he passed into
Sweden and wrote his account of Buesia at the request of
Count Delagardia, the chancellor of that country. He
was executed about 1669 for slaying in a quarrel the
maatar of the house in which he liTsd. The manuscript
waa found by Prof. Solorieff (not the emineot historian
lately deoaased) at Upsala and printed in 1840. A new
edi^tm haa recently appeared, and Prof. Orote nas col-
lected some fresh facta about the author's life, bat we
ha*e no space hete tor a minute examijiation of them.
The picture which Kotoehikhin draws of hia native country
n a lad one: ignorance^ cruelty, and superstition are
seen eTerywhere rampant. His work is of great import-
anoe, since it is from his deaciiption, and the facts we
gather from the Doinoitroi, that we can reeonatruct the
Old Bnsua of the time before Feter the Great, a* in our
days the Talnable labours of H. Zabielin have done in
ha* work oo Bnasiao domestic Ufa. Perhaps, a* an exile
from hia ooontiy, Kotoahikhin has allowed mmself to write
too bitterly. A curious work is the Uriadmk Sakol-
»ieliia Putt (" Ihrectiona for Falconry"), which was written
for the nae ot the empercv Alexis, whx>, like many Ruaeiana
•unit 'bj ■ fnU jutom prinoa ot Uw( ooiintrT uinid Kan Itu
r^crreviiai llMlalHkDl*, *b<i, owt (d Ml luTe uil fnvour, Imputed
onto ma mtaj Honstt oboamii In tb* mamorj iDd proda orhli tynu,
tfcatoomin— Hi."— Boml.JtiKrta- iht CUmi^'lluaixlmlkCmlwt
(BaUart aoris^), IStt.
of old time, was mnch addicted to this paatine. The Serbs
Yuri Kriihanich, who wrote in Russiaa, was the first Rm-
alavist, anticipating Kollar by one hundred and fifty yean
or more. He wrote a critical Servian grammar (with
compariMtn of the Buseiao, Polish, Croatian, and White
Buasian), which waa edited from the manuscripts by
Bodiauski in 1846. For his time he had a very good
insight into SUvonic philology. Hia Pauslavism, how-
ever, sometimes took a form by no meaiu practical. He
went so far aa to maintain that a common Slavonic
language might be made for all the peopLea of that race, —
an impoesible prqect which has been the dream of many
enthosiasta. From some unexplained cause he waa ban-
ished to Siboril^ and finiahed his grammar at Tobolsk.
Hb also wrote a work on the Buasian empir«s which
was edited by Beaionoff inlSSO. In it he ihowa him-
self a widely-read man, and with very extensive Western
culcar& The picture drawn, as in the correspouding
production of Kotoehikhin, is a very gloomy one. The
great ramedy suggested by the Serb is education. To
this period belongs tha life of the patriarch Kikon by
Shuaherin. Tiu) straggles of Nikon with the czar, and
hia emendationa of the sacred books, which led to a
great schism in Bnsaia, are well known. They have been
made familiar (o Englishmen by the eloquent pagea of
Dean Stanley.* At Moeoow may be aaen the portrait
of this celebrated divine and hia tomb ; hia robei^ which
have been preserved, show him to have been a man of 7
feet in stature. The mistakes which had crept into the
translation of the Scripturei^ from the blundsrs of genera-
tions of copyists, were frequently of a' ludicrous chuacterj
still, a large number of the people preferred retaining them,
and from this revision may be dated the rise of the
Baekolnika (Dissenters) or Staro^briadtd (thoee who
adhere to the old ritual). With the name of Simeon
Folotzki (1628-1680) the old period of Russian literature
may be closed. He was tutor to the czar Feodor, son of
Alrai^ and may be aaid in a way to have b^ped to
introduce the culture ot tha West into Bussia, as he waa
educated at EiefF, then a portion of Polish territory.
Fobttki came to Moscow about 1664. He wrote religious
works (VimOt Fieri, "The Garland of Faith,") and
composed poems and religious dramas (3V PnnHQid Son,
Nebuehadntaar, Jca). He has left us some droll verses on
the czar's new palace of Eolomenekoe, which are very
curious doggerel The artificial lions that roared, moved
their eyea, and walked especially delighted bim. Alexia
had probably ordered eomething to be constructed resem-
bling the machinery we find mentioned in the Byzantine
writara. There doea not seem to be any ground for the
assertion (often met with evju in Russian writer*) tliat
Sophia, the aister of Peter the Great, waa acquainted with
French, and translated some of the pl^rs of Molifere.
And now all things were to be changed as if bj an
enchanter's wand. Busaia was to leave her martyrologie*
and historical stories and fragmentary chroDicles, and to
adopt the forms of literature in nse in the West One of
the chief helperstif Peter the Great in the education of
the people was Feofane (Theopbanes) Procopovich, who
advocated the cause of science, and attacked unsparingly
the superetttiona then prevalent ; the cause of conservatism
was defended by Stephen Yavorski. The Aoci of Faith
of the latter was written to refute the Lutherans and
Calvinista. Another renmrkable writer of the times of
Peter the Great vvas Foeoshkoff, who produced a valuable
work on Povertp and Rieka, a kind of treatise on political
economy. Aotiokh Kantemir (1TD8-I744), eon of a
former hospodor of Moldavia, wrote some clever satires
still read ; they are imitated from BoUeaji. He alstf
' ^.MtwntailAsf
-.*« -C
RUSSIA
[uTERiTtrBK,
lUied __
tlie IditorieB of JotCia and Cornetiiu Nepos. Hs was for
Mine tame Btudan ambasBitdor at the conrts of Loudoa
And Ftrit. But more celebrated than theae men was
HiOHAXL LoHOirosoiT (q.v.). He wu an indefatigable
writer of verse and proae, and has left odce, tragedies
didactic poetry, eemyt, and fisgmtatB of epics ; without
being a man of great genioa he did much to advance
'.be edncation of bis country. He also nolle many valu-
ible contributions to science. Basil l^tistcheff (16SG~
1750}, a statesman of eminence, was the author of a Itns-
lian history which, although written in a eonfosed style
tad hardly superior to a chroniclo, is interesting as
She first attempt in that field, which was afterwards so
mccetsfdly coltivated by Earamtin, Soloviefl, and Koeto-
maroff. His work was not given to the world till after
hii death. There had been a «li^t sketch pnblisfaed
before by EbilkoS^ entitled the ifarrou o/Bvtrutn Hiitarg.
Basil Trediakovski (1703-1769) was bat a poor poetaster,
in spite of his many productions. He was bom at
Aalmkhaa, and we are told that Peter, posing through
that abj at the time of his IWan expedition, had
TiMUakovskJ pointed ont to him as one of the most
pfomiring boys of the school there. Whereupon, having
questioned hun, the czar sud, with truly prophetic insigh^
A busy worker, bnt master of nothing." His Tdanaikida,
a poem in which hs versified t&e TUhnaqm of Finelon,
brew upon him the derision of the wits of the time. He
)iad frequentiy to endure the nngh borse-play of the
courtiers, for tile podtioo of a Uterory man at fliat lime in
Bnsua was not altogether a cheerful one.
- From the commeDcemest of the ragn of Elisabeth
Eosaian literature made great progress, the French
(nruahiog models. Atezaoder Snmarokoff (171S-I7TT)
wrote prose and verse u abnndaDee — comedies, tiagadies,
Idyls, satirea, and epigrams. He is, perh^)^ best entitled
to rBmembrance for his playsj whidi an ihjmed, and in
the French at; le. It toc^ Uie Bnnians some time to find
out that their Un^tage was capable of the unrhymed
iambic line, which is the most suitable for tragedy. His
Dniiri Scenozuoitia ("Demetrius the Pretender") is
certainly not without merit Some of the pieces of
Knimlinin had great success in their time, such as Tht Chat-
terbox, Tht OrtffinaU, and especially The Fatal Carriage.
He is now, however, almost forgotten. In 17S6 the first
theatre was opened at Bt Petersburg the director being
Somarokoff. Up to this time the Rusaians had acted
only religious [uays, snch as those written by Simeon
Polotiki. The reign of Catherine IL {1763-96) saw the
rise of a whole generation of court poet^ many of whom
were at best but poor writers. Fve^ihing in Russia was
to be forced like plants in a hot-house ; she was to have
Homers, Pindsrs, Horaces, and Tirgils. Michael Kheraskoff
(1733-1807) wrote besidee other poems tjwo enormous
epics — the Somada in twelve books, and Vladintir in
eighteen ; they are now but little read. Although tbey
are tedious poems on the whole, yet we occasionellj find
spirited passagM. Bogdanorich (1743-1803) wrote a
pretty lyrla jaeoe, Du^enia, based upon Ia Fontaine^
and tellmg the old story of the loves of Cupid and I^che.
Perii^M the elegance of the veisificatioa is the best thing
to be foond b it. With Ivan Ehemoitzer begios the
long lilt of fabulists ; this half -Oriental form of literature,
so conunon in countries ruled absolutely, has been very
popular in Rusria. Ehemnitzer (1744-1784), whose name
seems to imply a German origin, began hj translating
the fables of Qellert, but afterwards produced origiaal
spedmsns of this kind of literature. A writer of real
i national comedy appeared in Denis von Tisu, probably of
Oermon extraction, but bom at Ucaeow (17411-1793),
His best production bfmiarMf ("The Minor"), in whicb
he satirises the coane featnres of Bnssian society, the til.
treatment of the serfs, and other matters. The oolonring
of the piece is trnly national He hss also left some very
good letters describing his travels. He saw France on the
eve of the great Revolution, and has well described what
he did see. Russian as hs was, and aocustomed to
serfdom, he was yet astonished at the wretched oondi-
tion of the EVench peasants. Tha great poet of the age
of Gathering the laureate of her glories, was Oabriel
Deizhavin (1743-1816). He essayed many stylw of
composition, and was a great master of his native language.
Many of his lyric pieces are full of fire. No one can deny
the poet a vigorous imagination and a grett power ot
erpressing his ideas. There is something grandiose and
organ-like in hie high-sounding verses; unfortunately be
occasionally degenerates into bomhect. His venificatioa
u perfoct ; and he had the courage, rare at the tim^ to
write satirically of many persons of high rank. His Oda
to Ood is the b^t known of his poems in Western eonntries.
We can see from some of his pieces that he was a student
of Edward Yonng, the author of the Ifi^ht Thonghtt.
Tawdry rhetoric, containing, however, occasionally fine and
original thonghts, rendered this writer popnlar thron^ont
Europe. Other celebrated poems of Derzbavin are the
Odet am tht Dtaih of Prince Jf a(cA«rsib, The NoUma»,
The Taking of lemail, and The TaH»tg of Wartaa.
An unfortunate author of the days of Oatherine was
Alexander RadistcheS, who, having, in a small work, A
Journey to MoKoa, spoken too severely of Ae miserable
condition of the serfs, was pnnished by banishment to
Siberia, fnnn which hs was lAsrwards allowed to retnra,
but not till his health had been permanently iqjnied by
bis Boferings. An equally sad fate befell the spirited
writer NovikoS, who, after having worked hard as a
journalist, and done much for edncation in Russia, fell
under the sospidon of the Government, and was
imprisoned by Catherine. On her death he was released
br her sncceasor. The short reign of Paul was not favoor-
U) literary prodnction ; the censorship of the press
extremely severes and many foreign books were
ided frmn Bnsaia. Autbore and lovers of literature
were liable to get into trouble, as we see by the Dxperiences
of the poet Kotzebue and pastor Seidler.
But a better stato of things came with the reign of
one of the Tories of whose days was NtOBOUi
(j.E.). His chief work is his HvHor^ tf the
Suman Empire, but he appeared in the fonrfold aspect of
historian, novelist, essayist, and poet. Nor need we do
more than mention the celebrated Aichbishop Platoit
(q.v.). Ivan Dmitrieff (1760-1837) vrrote Bome pleasing
lyrica and epistles, but without much force. He is like
some feeble Briti^ poets towards the dose of lost cen-
tury, in whom the elegance of the diction will not atone
for the feebleness of the ideas. Ho appears from his
translations to have been well acquainted with the En^ish
poets. Oieroff wrote a great many tragedies, which are
but little read now. Tbey ore in rhyming alexandrines.
His form belongs to the false closncal fchool, but he
occsaionally handled native subjects with success, as in
his Dmitri Drmdcoi and Yer<^k and Oltg. Iji Ivan
Eribfi (1768-1844) the Russians found their mqpt genial
fabulist His pieces abound with vigorous pietoiea of
Russian national life, and many of his lines are standard
quotations with the RuBsiaUB, just asfviftirai is withonr-
selvea. Long before his death Eriloff had become the
most popular man in Rnsaia, He resembled La Fontaine
not only in the style of his verse but in his manner of lifsL
He was the some careless, unpractical sort of peraon, and
RUSSIA
107
Bhowsd the ttBK BiDi^jlIcit; of character. Aa DenliBviii
was tho poet of the sge of (^therins, to Zhnkovski (1783-
1852) ma; be nid to haTe been th»t of tbe &gs of
Alesandei. He is more remarkablo, Iiowever, as m trans-
Utor tbMi u Ml original poet With Iiitn Romanticum
hegm in BnaauL The pseado-clueicAl school, led by Uie
French, WW now dead throogtiDUt Eorope. In 1802 he
pabliohed his Temon of Qmy's SUrfjr, which at ooce
bacama a highlj popular poem, in Rnsaia. Zhukoreki
tniuktsd manj pieces from the Oerman (Qoethe, Schiller,
Uhland) and Englieh (Bjron, Hoore, Boathey). One of
hie original prodactiona, " The Foet in the Camp of the
Kmiaii Wamois." waa on the lipa of every one at the
tinM of the war of the fatherland {OlecA^vnutaia'Voina)
in 1812. He attempted to familiuTEe the Bueaiafaa with
all the moat striking apecimena of foreign poetical litera-
toTQ. He prodnced Teraiooa of the epLsode of Nala and
Dajnayajiti from the MaiabJuwata, of Etutam and Zohrab
from the Shah-WMiiii, and of a part of the Odyttey. In
the caae of tbeee three maaterpieces, however, he waa
obliged to work from literal tnnalationa (mostly Qerman),
a* he waa nnaoqaainted with the original langusgaa. The
Hiad was treoslated during this period by Qoedich, who
was familiar with Q(««k. He hu produced a faithful and
spirited version, and has naturalized the hexameter in the
Rnasian laugnaga with much skill. CoostantiDe BatinshkoS
{1787-185G) was the author of many elemnt poems, and
at the ontset of his career promised mach, but sank into
imbecility, and lived in this condition to mi advanoed age.
Uenliakoff and TdganoS deserve a passing notice as tiie
writers of aongs some of which still keep their popalarity.
As the poet of the age of Catherine was Der^vin, and
of that of Alexander Zhukoveki, so the next reign, that
ot Nicholas, was to have its npreseatatiTe poet, 1^ the
common cooaant of hia eritiea the greateat whom Boisia
had yet eeen. During his short life (KaS-lSST) Alex-
ander Pushkin produced many celebrated poems, which
will be found enumerated in the article devoted to him
(see FonsEKix). It may suffice to say heie that he tried
almoot all B^les of compoeition — the drama, lyric poetry,
the novel, and mviy othen. In Alexander Qriboiedofl
(1794-1839) the Rusuans saw Ae writer of one of their
most clever comediea {Gort ot Uma), which may perhaps
be translated " The Misfortune of being too Clever " (lit.
"Grief oat of Wit"). The fate of Qriboiedoffwas sad;
he waa murdered in a riot at Teheran, where he was
leaidiiig as Rnaaiaa minister at the court of Persta. The
poet is said to have had a presentiment ot his fate and to
nave been unwilling to go. Pushkin, while travelling in
the Caocaaos, in the track of the army of Paakewitch, met
the body of his friend, which waa being carried to TiQls
for boriaL The satirical powers of Qriboiedofi come out
in every line of his pUy; be waa nnqnestionably a'man of
genius. A few words may be allowed to Ivaa KoiloS
(1774-1838), the author of some prattr original lyrics,
and Bome translations from the EnjjiMi, among others
Burns's Cotta't Sttttrrdag Night. He became a cripple
and blind, and bis misfortunes elicited some cheering and
sympethetia lines from Pushkin, which will always be md
with pleasure.
Since the death of Pushkin, the moat eminent Bnasian
poet is Lermontoff (1611^1); his life terminated, like
that of hia predecessor, in a duel He has left us many
exquisite lyrics, moeily written in a morbid and melan-
choly spirit. In quite a different vein is hta clever imita-
tion of a Bnssian blliua, "Bong about the Ciar Ivan
TssilieTich, the Tonng Oprichnik, and the Bold Uer-
chant KahshnikofT." Tha poet was of Beotch extrac-
tion (Learmout), t^ termination being added to Russify
hia mumtb lo one of his piecea he has aUuded to hia
poet wbi
lu the I
Caledonian ancestors. His chief poems' ore "The Demon,"
"The Novice" ("Mtdri," a Georgian wMd), and "Hadji
Abrek." He also wrote a novel, A Hero of tner Titae.
He has faithfullj' reproduced in his poems the vrild
and varied scenery of the Cbucomu and Georgia ; from
them he has drawn his inspiration — feeling, no doubt,
that the flat grey landecapea of northern Russia offered
no attractions to the poet. A genuine bard of the
people, and one of their meet truly national author*, waa
KoltxoS (1609-1843), the son of a tallow merchant of
Voroneih. He has left us a few eiquteite lyrics, which are
to be found in all the collections of Rnasian poetry. He
died of consumption after a protracted illness. Another
who mnch resembled Koltzoff was Nikitin, bom
town, Voronezh. His life was spent in
poverty ; his father was an incurable drunkard, and
brought his family to the greatest distreei. Nikitin, to
support his relations, was obliged to keep an inn*; this he
was afterwards enabled to chiuige for the more congenial
occupation of a bookseller. He died in 1861. The
novel in Russia has bad its cultivators in Zagoskin and
XiS^echniko^ who imitated Sir Walter Scott The most
celebrated of the romances of Zagoakin was Yuri UUo-
sfamlv a tale of the expnlsion of the Poles fi«m Russia
in 1612. The book may even yet be read with interest ;
it gives a very spirited picture of the times ; nnfortunatelj,
as is but too often the case with the writings of Sir
Walter Scott himself, a gloss is put upon the barbarity
of the manners of the period, and the persons of the novel
have sentiments and modes ot expressing them which
could only have existed about two centuries afterwards.
There is also too much of the senttmentalism which was
prevalent at the time when the author wrote. Among
the better known productions ot lAzheehuikoff are The
Heretic and The Paiaa of Ice. A Jaahy but now
forgotten writer of novels waa Bolgarin, author ot /nm
VUhiffin, a work which once enjoyed considerable popular-
ity. The first Russian novelist of great and original talent
Nicholas Gogol (1809-lSSS). In his Diad SovIm ha
ized all classes of society, (oma ot the portraits being
wonderfully vivid ; take, for example that of Fliush-
bin, the miser. Being a native of Little Russia, he is
very fond of intioducing descriptions of its scenery and
the habits of the people, eapecially in such stories as the
Old/aAiimed HouteMd, or in the more powerful Tarat
Bvlba. This last is a highly-wrought story, giring us a
picture of the savage war&re carried on between the
Cosaaeks and Poles. Tans is brav^ but perhaps too much
of a barbarian to be made interesting to Western readers.
He reminds ns of some of the heroes of the Cossack poet
Bhevehenko. Gogol was also the autiior of a good comedy,
The Seviier, wherein die petty pilferings of RnsHJan muni-
cipal authorities are satirised. In his Mentoin of a Mad-
nua and Portrait, be shows a weird and fantastic power
which proves him to have been a man of staong imagiDa-
tion. The same may be sud of The CUxA, and the
curions tale Vii ^The Demon"), where he gives ns a
picture of Kieff in the old dayi. He has very dexterously
mterwaven his tales with the tiaditiottB and sl^ientitiona
of little Russia. The fate of Gogol was sad; he sank into
religious melancholy, and ultimately into imbecility. He
made great eSorts to destroy all his writings, and indeed
burnt most of the second part of his I>ead Sotde; only
fragments have been [reserved. BUs Confauotu of an
Attihor is the production of a mind verging on insanity.
He died in 18G2, aged forty-two, Knee his time the
novel hae been very much cultivated in Russia, the school
culminating in Ivan Totgenieff, but it is the school of
Thackeray and Dickens, not that of Balzac and George
Sand. The fiusuana teem to aSect eapcf ially ^ mlistic.
108
E U 8 S I A
[urBKAnmc
novob of Rnghncl. AmoBc the mnt anupicnons of t
writan wu the oelebiBted Alexandei Hanen, author of
B itnldiig Tomance, Xlo Viitoeatt ("Whoia toBlunel"),
vhich he pabliihed onder tha amamed ouue of Iskander.
The poUie caxeer of Henen is well known. The freedom
of hit opiniona toon embroiled hiio with the authorities.
He was exiled to Perm, and, oeiziDg the fint opportnuitj
which offered itself of pasainff the BiUBiAa frontiers^ he
epent the remaiader of his life chiefly ia France and
Engtaod, and died at Geaera in 1869. Eia celebrated
jonreal Kololiol (" The Bell ") had a great circnktioii. A
Boveliat of repute waa Qonoharoff, hia two chief worka
being A Cimmoit-place Stoiy aod Oblomof. Qtigorovich
baa written The FMeman aod Tkt Snigmntt. Fiaemaki,
wother noreliat of the reoliatio tjv^ ia the author of The
Ma» ef St PftarAurg »nd LiiAt (" The Wood Demona").
Other noTelieta of celebrity are Soltlkoff, who writea under
the name of Stchedrln, and whoae Frovindal Strkhnpab-
liahed a few jeara ago mada a great aenaation and oave
been fallowed b; Lttttn to ily Atmt and other works;
Doatoiavaki (d. 1881), author of Poor Ptopit, Lftttn/rtm
the Hotae of Ihe Dead (deecribiug his impreewoos of Biberia,
whiQier he was banished in consequence of a, politi«al
oSaoce), a powerfnl writer ; and Ostrovakl We ma; also
ftdd Byeahatnikoft, who takes his choractera from the
humbler claswa ; he died at die earl; age of thirty-nine.
All these ore disciptea of the school of Dickeiu and
Thackeray. Count A. Tolstoi, also celebrated as a dra-
niatist, hoB written an bietorieal norel entitled Prinet Sere-
hriaiatL Oonnt L. Tolsttn is author of a work <rf Action
deaeribtng tbs war of 1819, which haa gained great Cele-
bris in Rtiatia,roi»aiJ/ir ("War and Pence"). KoTslisU
of tha Fnnck adool oreEreatoTski, Btebnitaki, and Bobo-
fOin. Daring 1889 a new writer of merit, Kozoleoko,
appeared, who deacribes Siberian life.
On September t, 1883, died Iron Torgenie^ aged
rizty^our, the moat eminent Boerian noveliat, and perhaps
the only Bossion man of letters nniTeraally known. Bis
oelebri<T dates (torn hia llemoin of a Sporttntan, in which
he appears aa tlfs advocate of the Bnawan vaahii or pea-
aanL He bod witnessed in bis youth many sad scenes at
his own home, iriiere his mother, a wealtiiy lady of the
old school, treated her aerCs with great cruelty. The poet
deTotedolLhiBenergiea to procure their emancipation. Tlis
WMk was followed by a long array of tales, too well known
to need recapitulation here, which have gained their anthot
a Eurwean reputation, euch as Dvoriatuioe Gneido ("A
Neet of Oentle Fttqde "), one of the meat pathetic Wee
in any language^ Nov ("Tirj^u Soil"), and other*] nor
can the minor tales of Tnrgeniefl be forgotten, especially
ittOiM, a story baaed upwi real life, for the dumb door-
keeper waa a eerf of hie mother'a, and experienced her ill-
treatment His last two works were Peelra m Pmt and
Clara Milich.
In Belineki the Bnanana produced thwr best critic.
For thirtecD yeara (1834-184T) he was the Aristorchus
of Bnauan literature and ezercLaed a healthy inflnance.
In hia latter days he addressed a withering epistle to
Gogol on the newly-adopted reactionary views of the
latter.
Since the time of Earamzin the stndy of Bossion
history has made peat strides. He was followed by
Nicholoa Polevoi, who wrote what he called the Sidory of
rt* RtumM PeopU, but his work waa not received with
much favour and has now fallen into oblivion. Polevoi
was a self-educated man, the son of a Siberian merchant ;
beaidea, editing a well-known Buaaiau journal The
Ttltyraph, he was alao the author of many plays, among
othera a translation of BamUt. Since hia time, however,
the English dramatist has been produced in a more
perfect dices I7 Kroneber^ Dmihinin, and otlun. Id
the year 1879 died Sergios ScdovieS, whose Jlitlorf rf
Suuia had reached its twen^-eigbth volume^ and
fiugmenta of the twenty-ninth were publiahad after hi*
deatL Thia stapondoos labonr lacks something of the
critical faculty, and uerhspe may bo deacribed i^ur at a
quarry of materials for f utarrhisloriaos of Bosaia than aa
actual history. During 1S85 the Ruanans have bad to
mourn the Ices of EoetoroaroS^ tbo writer of many valuable
monogr^ihs on the history of their country, of which those
on Bogdon Khmelnitzki and the FsJse Demetrius deserve
special mention. From 1847 to 1654 Koslomorof^ who
bad become obnoxious to the Bussian Government, wrote
nothing, having been banished to Saratoff, and forbidden to
teach or publish. But after this time liia literary activity
begins again, and, beaidea separate works, the leading
Buaaian reviewa. Rich as Old and 2fnt Emeia, The Hit-
toricat Afatengfr, and Tie Meufnger <if Ettropr, contain
many contributiora firom hie pen of the highest value.
In 1885 alao died Coustaatine Kavelin, the author of
many Toloable works on Buasl&n law, and KabtcbeS, who
published a classical edition of the old Buaaian code*.
Ilovaiski and OedeonoS have attempted to apeet the
genarol belief that the fonndeia of the Buaaian empire were
Scandinavians^ Their opinioos have been alluded to above
(p. 87). A good history of Buieia was published by
UstrialoS (ISfifi), but hi* most celebrated work was hu
TiartlPOfa»ie Petra Ytlitago (" Boign of Peter the Great");
in this many important documents first saw the light, and
the circumstance* of the death of tbe nnlortnnate Alexis
were made clear. Bussian writers of bistoiy have not
generally occupied themselves with any other subject than
that of their olm country, but an exception may be fottnd
in the writings of Qranovakl, such as Ahii Suffer (184S)
and Four Hiitorical Porirailt (1860). So alao Kudriav-
tioff, who died in 1800, wrote 00 "The Fortunes of Italy,
from the Fall of the Boman Empire of the West till ila
Reconstruction by Charlemagne." He also wrote on "The
Boman Women aa deacribed by Tacitus." We may add
KareyeS, now profeesor at Wursair, who has written oa
the condition of the French peaaantry before the Bevoln-
tion. Other writers on Russian hiatory havo been Pogo-
din^ who compiled a I/uiory of Stuaa tilt the oukukm of
Iha Jlongolt, 1871, and especially Zabielin, who has written
a ffutorg of Statian Life fnm the titott Remott Tima
(I87B), and tbe Prirale Lira of the Ciarim* and Cmn
(1869 and 1873). LesbkoS has vrritteu a i^iafory a/ £im-
tia* Lav to the 18tk Cmtiay, and Tchitcherin a lluloij <^
PnmHeial ItuHtntioiu in Ptana ia thel7tk CnKurjr (l&fi6).
To these most be added tbe work of Zagoskin, Uittorj of
Lau in tie State of ifvieory (Kuan, 1677). Piof.Uichoel
Kovalevski, of the university of lloscow, it now publish-
ing on excellent work on Communal Lnnd Tnurf, in which
he investigatea tbe remains of thia coatom thtoughont
tbe worid. Of tbe valuable history of Buada by Prof.
Beatoibefi-Biomin (1BT2) one volume only has appeared ;
the introductory chapters giving an account of the source*
and autboritiee of Russian history are of the highest value.
It is the moat critical history of Russia which has yet
appeared. In 1885 Dnhrovin published an excellent his-
to^ of the revolt of Pugatche£ Tbe valuable work by
"--aa Plpin and Bpoaovieh, Hietory of S^aronie Litera-
I, is tbe most complete account of the tnbjeet, and
has been made more generally acceaaible to Wesient stu-
dents by the German translation of Peeb. The Hietorf of
Slanmic Liieratvre by Schafarik, published in 1836, baa
long been antiquated. Previous to this, a history of
Bussian literature by Paul Polevoi had appeared, whkb haa
gone through two editions. It is modelled upoa Cham-
bers's Cydt^adia qf EngliA LUeratvru The Mcoont til
RUSSIA
109
the Poiioli rebdlioD of 1S63 by Berg, jiublished id 1S73,
which g&Ts many Btartling ftnd picturesque eptsodea of
this cBlebfBted atrnggle, tuu now boon withdraim from
ctreabtion. It appealed originally in the paget of the
Knee t}ie deedi of Lermootoff the chief Ituniaii poet
who baa appeared is Nicholas Nekiasofi, who died ia 1877.
He baa left six Tolumes of poetry, which ia many respects
[emind us of the writings of Crabbe ; the poet dwells
aminly upon the melancholy featurea of Roanan life. He
is of that reAlistic school in which RotBian anthore so mnch
resemble English. Anothoi writer of poetry deserriDg
mantioii is (^aiieff, for a long time the companion in
exile of Uemn in Eagiand; many of fata compoaitiona
^>pe«red in the PoJar Star of the latter, a medley of
ptoae Mid veise, which contains some very important
papen, iadnding the interestiag anCobiogntphic&l sketches
of Henen, entitled BOoa i Dvmt ("The Past and my
nioii^ta'^. Uaikoff at one time eqjoyed great popu-
larity aa a poet ; he is a kind of link between the present
generadon and that of Pnshkin, of whose elegance of
vecaficktion Jib is somewhat of an imitator. Another poet
of a paat geneiation was Prince Viaiemski, whoee works
aie DOW being cdlected. Qracefnl lyrics have also been
written by Hei, Fet (whose name wonjd apparently prove
Datch oztractioD, Veth), Stcherbino, and, going a little
farther back, YadkoS, die friend of Poahkin, and Khomi-
^off, eeletrated for hia Blavopbile propensities. To these
may be added Mdlle Zhadovtkata, who died a short time
■go, Bwiediktofi, Fodalinski, and Tiatcheff. It will be
seen that in Boaaia (as in England) lyrical poetry is almost
the only form now imltivated. It is becoming more and
more cdoored wtth imitations of the bllinl and reproduc-
tions of the old Bnssian past, which is perhaps getting
traated nmewhat fantastically, as was the old Irish life in
the Irish melodies of Moore. Occasionally Folonski con-
bibatea one of bis eiqnisita lyrics to the Viatnii Yevropt
("Earopean Messenger ").
ExesUent works on snty'ecta connected with Slavonic
|Ailolog7 have been published by ToatokoB^ who edited tho
Ortromir Oodex, mentioned above (p. 103), and Srocnevski
and Bodianski, who put forth an e^tioif ti the celebrated
codex naed at Rbeims for the coronatioi) of the French
kinga. Since their deaths their work has been carried
on by Prof. Orote {Philologi«al Invtitigatiotu, also many
critHMl editions of Russian classics). Bndilovjch, now a
profeaaoc at Warsaw, Potelmya of KharkoS, and Baudoin
de OooTtenay, who, among other services to philology, has
deacribed the Slavonic dialect spoken by the Besanians, a
tribe living in Italy, in two villages of the Jnlian Alpa,
The waoff (btlinl) of the Rosaiaas have been collected by
Zakreviki, Blbnikofl, Eilfsrding, Barsoff, and others, and
their oational tales by Sakharofi, Afanaaief^ and Erien-
vein. Kotliarevski, Tereehenko, and others have treated of
their DDstoms and sapetstitiona, but it is to be regretted
that no cpne aa yet has made a complete stndy of the
vexed question of Slavonic mythology. At the present
time Btaoiahaa Mikntiki, professor at the nnivendty of
Wanaw, is poblishing his Maieriali for a DiOxanaTy of
ikt Roob of rts Rvman and all Slavonie DialecU, but,
nnfortaiately, it reprteents a somewhat obsolete school of
phildjgy. lie Early Russian Text Society continnes its
nsefvd laboors, and haa edited many intereating monn-
ments dl the older Slavonic literature. Quite recently
two valuable codicee have been printed in Russia, Zogra-
phna and Marianne, interesting versions of the Ooepela in
PaliBoslavonic They were edited by tho learned Croit
ifpi, who now occupies the chair of Sreznevski in St
Petersburg. An excellent Toikovi Slovar Vtlihomstkago
TutEa ("Explanatory Dictionary of the Qreat Rtisaian
lADgnage"), by Dahl, hat gono into a second edition.
Alexander Hilferding pnbli^ad aome valuable works'
on ethnology end pbjtology, among others on the Polabes,
an extinct Slavonic tribe who once dwelt on the bonks of
the Elbe. Althongh they have produced some good Sla-
vonie scholars, the RuasianE have not exhibited many
worka in the field of classical or other Lranuhea Of philo-
logy. Exception, however, must be made in favonr of the
atndiea of TchubinoS in Georgian, Minayeff in the Indian,
and TivetayeS in the old languagea of Italy.
In mora! and mental philoeopby the Russians have yto-
dnced but few authors. We meet with some good mathe-
maticians, Oattogradski among otben, and in natural
science the pnblioationa of the Society for Natural Hiatory
at Moscow have attracted considerable attention.
Since the Baria Godunof of Pushkin, which was the
Bist attempt in Russia to produce a [day on the Shake-
spearian model, many others have appeared in the same
style. A fine trilogy was composed by Count A. Tolatoi
on the three aubjects. The Dealk of Ivan (Ac TernUe
0806), The Ciar Fmdor (18G8X and Th4 Car Borit
(1869). Other playa of merit have been written by
Oitrovski and Potiekbin.
Many excellent literary jonmala and magadnea make
their appearance in the country; among these may
especially be mentioned the time-honoured Yitttnik Tewropt
(" Messenger of Europe"), which contains some of the
moat brilliant writing prodaced in the Raasian empire.
The IitorkhaH Firttmii ("Historical Messenger") is full
of curious matter, and dote not couflno itself merely to
Russian subjects. It is edited by M. Sbubinski, the
author of soma pleasant sketches on the manncn of
Russia in the old time. On the contrary SUtn'lnt (the
"Antiqoaty," if we may so freely tranahte the origmal
name) is entirely Russian, and is a valaablo teperU»y of
documents conoerning the history of the country, and
memoirs, eapecially relating to the latter part of the 17th
century. The highly interesting magarine Dramaia t
Sovaia Bottia did not protract ita existence beyond aix
years, having come to an end in 1881. ttany of the beat
Russian writers contributed to it; it contains much valuable
material for the student of hlstOTf. He Ruakii Aiiiit
of the IBth and IStfa century have appeared in this
jonraaL Daring the last few years extensive axcava
tions have been made in many parta of Rueai^ and much
haa been done to throw light upon the prehistoric period
of the country. A large " knrgan, ' called C^ma MajHa,
or the Black Orava, was opened by SamokvaaoS in the
government of TchemigoS and described in the pagea of Old
and Jfaa Rtutia. E^lotations have been carried on on
the site of Bolgari, the ancient capital of the Ugrian
Bolgars on the Volga. One of the mast, active workers in
tiiis Seld was the late Count Uvaroff (d. 1BS4), who pub-
lished a valuable monograph on the Stone Ago in Rosaia,
and many other important works.
A few words mast bo nid on tho liUmtun of th< Bnadan
dialects, ths Litlla and Whito EaitiiD. Tbo Littls Riwfan is
rich in (jtnab (tain) sad aong^ rwulUr to thsm {■ ths dmaa,
■ narrative poom which comupondi iu m»ny nerticiuan witli Iha
Ruasian bllini. Bines the couimenceioeiit of the prsHnt contarj,
when cnrioeltf «M flnt sroiued on the eatuect of nitjonsl poetry.
the Little BoHiaa duiat ban heeli reiutodly eiliteil, w by
Hakaimorich Uotlinaki end othere. An elabonto odition (hr
oiioa) Tu cainmoucoit by Drstpmsnoir
I ;Dt onlf ono volume and a portion at a
\a oeTs mouo Lacir appoaninca. Jnrt aa the bUinl of ths
t Ruuiaiu, 10 alw thoo duuit of the Uttlo Brnwaai admit
lasilintiDn, still thej lutvo boon iliridul by tboir latott odibon
Howe :— (1) the joiipi of the t/mJiiua, trmtlnff o( the early
:« ai»I their r»IIaivcM ; (21 the CiHurk i-orid {Knmtekifto),
hich Ibo Coamclu an fouwl in rootinual narruo with ths
E U 8 — E U T
Folith POM ind tlie
BonnnCsthi
farmed '
Wroggl „ . .
•tanj frHbootan hu olnuly beei
ipt( of tha Janlti to Introdnce tha
led the UDclcns of the nitionol party.
The gmdiuJ bnak np of Iba rollitiry repnblio of tlirao
ibootan hu olnul^ b«a dncribed.
Tb* foiu)d*tiDn of tfa* Little BanLui litantnn (wrlttoi, u
■pond (o ths onl) m lud b; Ivan Kotllaniiki (1760-1888),
liDM tnvoatr or part of the jSstid e^joya great popnluitjr
in the gonmnMmt of £i«B| in th* oondllion of * •«( Tho rtnni^
If ths genei-
iita po*ttj,
aa Docapiod hinuelf irith piiatiDg with cooiidBniblt incctn. Kb
unfortunatelr beeam* otmoiiooi to th< OoTeromtnt, and wu
puniabed mth eiile to Siberia from 18*7 to 1SS7. Ha did not
long rarvira hit Rtani, djing in 18S1, aged forty-aii. No one
bu described with '••atar Tlgoor thui ^Tchenko the old d^j* of
th* Ukniaib In uk jroath no liatanad to the village tnditiona
handed down hj the piieatiL and he bai talthfnllT raprodnced
them. The old tima of NaUTaiko, Ucl'Oahanko, and oChen lira
grapUa pctnra of th* hoiron (nictni bj Qonta and liia tollDwen
at Vman. Tha aketchei an almoat too raaliitio. LOca Barn*
with the old ScotCiah aoog*, io Sharohenko hM raprodnced
admiiabl; the ipirit of the Uj* of the Ukraine. All those hmiliar
with his woria will ramembet the ehanning little lyrics with irhich
thaj ara Intanpaned. Hm faaenl of the poet was ^ TMt public
jvooaanon ; a giMt catTo, nunoantad with a croaa, wu nieed
orar hie ramaina, where ha li*i boned Dear Kaoloff on the baaka
of tlw Dnieper. HU giaTe hii bean atjled ths " Ueoca of tha
Sonth Biudan Banlntlimtati,'' He {■ tha graat national peat of
the Bonthem Konlaiu. A eontpleta edition of bii work*, with
inlemting Magrapbical noticoa — one oontriboted Ijj the norelist
TnrgeDielT— appeared at Prague in IS73. BedJea tha natiaul
Bonga, axoallant nllectioBi of th* Bonth RnBHian folk-tales haT*
■npBated, edited by Dngomanotf, Bndehenko, and otheiK ttmf of
theee are atill recited bjr tha " tdtamaki" or wandering psillan. A
Talnahle work 1> the Auubl <• YtaluHii Sattit ("PapenonSoathera
Runia "), published atSt Patanbi^ Id 18G7 by Pantaleinxai Kaliih.
After he got into treuble (with Koatomaroff and ShaTcheako) foe
his political Tiawi, the lata works of this author ihow him to
iplela change. Other writan nslng tha Idttlo
.^aiko-VoTChok (that '' "-'-— "
"lorich, wbo atnpli
vchenko. snranB b , —
.. _ y «g«in*t t
dnring tha Italian campaign. Nstnrall^r ws hiiil bis roenu flilod
with daacriptions of life in ths camp. Like tha Croat Franiiovii!,
lia began writing poetiT in tha" ' "" "- ' '
into more uatsnl patha bysc
of eongs of BokoTina was pal
cheTski. At the ia«aant tfano Engene Zeleoboweki oontinnee hia
raloable Dietumarji nf LU&t JiUMtOB, of whioh about SD* half hu
appeared. This pTomisei to be a Ten naafol book, (or op to th*
pneent time ttudanti hara bean obliged to rest salisfied with
tba scanty pabllcations of Levchenko, Keknnoff. and Terchnliki
liters is a^xid grammar by Osadti^ a pupil of Uikloalch.
In the White Bosaian dialect are to be found only a few >oi^
with the eiceptdon of portiooa of the Scriptnras and some Ii^l
docamenta. A Taloable dictionary was pablished a short time ago
by NoBOYidi, but this is ana of the most neglected of the Rossisn
dialeda, as ttte part In which It is spoken is one of ths dreariest
of the empin. Colleotiona of White RumIbu song* baTo been
puUiahed by Shein and otheia. Fei details residing thia and tho
othsr Euaman dialects lee Suva. (W. R. IL)
iKI"-
indDTi. Uuk n, n.
Mi^ (rnViitaiV ISL
oenff.iaa.
M^(llisOn*q,'f7.
BUSTCHUK (BnwJiTz), a <utv of Bnlguia, Turkey in
Europe, on the south buik of the Danube^ oppoeita
GiurgBTO, ftt the point when the rirer reeeivea the mten
o( the Lom, a fine streftiu from the northern slopes of the
Balkaos. Since 1867 it hu been connected by rail (139
miles) with Vania. The town was nearly deatroyed by the
Jliuuan bombardmeDt from QinrgBTO in 1877, and th^
militaiy works hare since been dismantled in terms of the
treaty of Berlin. Its poution on the river frontier of
Turkey bng made it a place of strategio importance.
In len the popuhtion was about 23,000 (10,800 Turks,
7700 Bulgamo^ lOW Jew^ 600 Armuiian^'SOO Qipsiee,
BOO Wallachiana and Serbs, 100 Western Eurooeuu}, and
in 1681 it was retatned as 86,163.
In tho time of the Romans Eostchuk wa) ona of ths torliiisd
points along tha Una of tha Danube. In the Tabida Ttaiageniaia
it appean *• Frboa, in the Ai^miM lUneraryiM Sonnlaprista, in
the SatHia aa SenMntapilita, and in Ptolemy as Ptlato Polia
Daatnjed by the Mibatian inraaion, tha town reeonred its
importance only in oompantiTaly modem timea. In 1810 it was
captured by tha Ruasianai and on his departure next year Kutnaeff
deatrnyed Uie fortifications. In 183S-!9 and again id 18S3-G1 it
played a part in ths Rueeo-Turkiih War, and in 1B77, aa already
mentioned, it was nearly destroyed.
RUTH, Book or. The atory of Buth, the Uoabitcss,
great-grandmother of David, one of the Old Testament
Ui^ogn^dM, U naullr reekoaed u (lie Moond of the 8t«
H^fillotfa or Fertal BoUa. This poaituw cortMpond* to
the Jewiah ptMitiee of raading the book »t the Feait of
Pentecnt; Bpttai^ M88., howerer, plaoe Bath at the
head <rf the H^ilioth (■•■ CumciLn); ftsd the Ttlmnd,
in a wdl-known pMHge of Baba BaUira, give* it the
Gnt plftOT unong all the Hkgiognph^ On the other
tmad the Beptugint, the Vnlgmte, and the Eogli*h vendim
DMke Roth Idlow Jndgee. It hu sMuettmea been held
that this ms ita originot place in the Hebrew Bible also,
or ruther th&t Bath was originalt; leckcmed u an appen-
dix to Jndgea, unae it ii onl; by doing thia, and alJo by
reckoning lAmentationi to Jeremiah, that all the book* of
the Hebrew eanoB can be reduced to twenty-two, the
nnmber aaaigned by Jow^hns and other ancient aathDri-
tiea. Bat it hae been ihown in the article Lakkktatiokb
(7.*.) that the argument for the inperior antiqmty of this
way of reckoning break* down on cloeer examination, and,
while it waa very uatui^ that a later KanaDgeroent
should tnwafer Rath from the Hagi<^iapha to the hiitor-
ical bocJu, and place it between Jndgaa and Bomoel, no
motive can be mggeBted for the (^tpoaite cluuige. Ilutt
the book of Rnth did not originally form part of the eariea
al Proplulm pnora (Judgea-Kinga) ia further probable
from the bet that it ia quite untouched hj the prooeai of
"pvpbetic" or "Denteronomiatic" edituig, which gave
that Mriea ita preaent abape at a time aoon after the fall
of the kingdom of Jndah; tlia narrative has no afflni^
with the point of view which kioka <» the whole biatory
of Jnaol aa a nriea at emmplee of divine, juatice and
narey in the ascoaeDve rebelliona and rtpentaooea of the
patlple of God-i Bat if the book had been known at the
lime when tiie hiitory frnn Jndgaa to Kinga waa edited,
it could hardly have been erclodad frcnn the coUeetian ;
the ancestry irf David waa of greater intenrt than tliat of
SanI, which is given in 1 Sam. iz. 1, whereaa the old
history namea no ancestor tA David bejcnd hia father
JeaaeL In tmth the book of Butb doea not olbr itaelf aa
a document writtei aoon after the pariod to whidi U
letera; it presents itaelf aa dealing with tiraee far back
(Rnth L 1), and takea obviooa delight in defHcting dataila
of antique life and obadete oaagea; it viewa ue rude
and BtcHmy pariod before the inalitution of the kinj^p
throogb the softening atmoephare of time, which knparts
to the acene a gentle aweetaeaa very diJFemnt frMn the
faanher oolonre of the old narratiTaa <A the book of
Jndgea. In the language, too, there is a good deal that
makea for and nothing Uiat roakee againat a date aab-
sequent to die captivity, and the very deeignation of a
period (4 Hebrew history aa " Ae dajv of the judgea " is
baaed on the DeateronoQualio additiona to the book of
Jadgea (iL 16 tq.) and doee not occur till the period of
the axil& An inferitv limit for the date of the book
cannot be aaiigned with, precision. It has been argued
that, as the author seema to take no offence at the marriaga
of IsraeHtea with Hoabite women, be most have lived
before the time of Eira and Nehemiah (Eira Ix. ; Neh.
jdiL) ; but the eome argument would prove that the book
of Eatbtr wia written before Esra, and indeed "a diraoai-
tiou to derive [«ominent Jewish ftmiliei bom proseiytai
pnvailed to a much latm date,* and Soda aj^Teaeion in
the Talmud (see Wellhaaaen-Bleek, p. 20&). The lan-
guage di Rnui, however, though port-claaairal, doea not
seem to place it among the verjr latest Old Taatament
book^ and the manner in which the atory is told is as
remote from the legal jaagmatism of OiKMiicles as from
the piophetia pragmatiun of the editor of the older
" ' ■ The tone of aimple pie^ and gradonanen
np^lHl \j tks Tsifnm (L 6, eX
T H 111
whidi runa Ihioogh the narrative, unencumbered by the
pedantry of Jewish legaLty, seema to indicate that the
book waa mitten before all the living impulses of Jewish
litnatnre were choked by the growing inflaence of the
doctors of the law. In this respect it holds in Hebrew
proae writing a position analogoua to that of the older
CAoiata in Hebrew poetiy. Bnt the triumph of the scribes
in literature aa weU as in law waa not accomplished till
loDg after the time of Ezra.
WDllhaasen in Bleek, 4th edition, p. 304 a;., finds the
clearest indication of Uie date of Rath in the appended
genealogy, Rnth iv. 18^23; compare hia remarks in
Fnl. Gfick. Iir^id*, p. 227 (Eng. tr., pp. 217 iq). Salma
(Salmon), father of Bosli, ia a tribe foreign to old Judah,
which was not " father " of Betblehem till after the eiile,
and the names of Salma's ancestors are also open to criti-
ciam. But this genealc^ is also found in QirouiclM,
and ia quite in the manner of other genealogies in the
same book, niat it was borrowed from Chronicles and
added to Buth by a later hand seems certaui, for the
author of Ruth clearly recognizes that Obed was legally
the son of Mohlou, not of Boat (iv. fi, 10), ao that from
bis standpoint the appended genealogy ia all wrong.
Tlie design at the book c^ Rnth has been much dis-
cussed and often in too narrow a siurit ; tor the author is
an artist who takes manifest delight in the touching and
gracefol details of hia picture, and ia not aimply guided
by a deaign to impart bisCorical inforatatjon about David's
ancestor^ or enforce some pairticnlar lessML Now the
interest of the story, as a work of art, culminatM in the
nftarriage erf Boas and Ruth, not in the fact that their son
was David's ancestor, which, if the book origjoaily ended
with iv; 17, is only mentioned in a cnrsorr way at the
cloee of the story. Had the author's main oeNgn been to
iUustrate the historjr of the honae of David, as many
critics think, or to make the point that the noblest stock
in Israel was sjoung from an alien mother (Wetlhansen),
thIa dea^n would certainly have been brought into more
prominence. The marriage acquires an sdditiDosJ interest
whMi we know titat Ruth waa David's greet-grandraother,
but the main interest ia independent of that, and lies in
the happy issue of Ruth and Naomi from their troubles
throagh the loyal performance of the kinsman's part by
Boaz. Doubtless the writer meant bis story to be an
example to bia own age, as well as an interestiug sketch
of the past ; bnt this ia effected aimply by deacribing the
exemplary conduct of Naomi, Rnth, Boat, and even Boaz's
harvMterB. All titeae act aa umfde, kindly, Qod-fearing
people ought to act tu IsraeL
nei* is ma Sstlqae eiutoin which ths ■wnimr follom with
pacdlisi Intinst and d»erib» with irchwolo^csl detsil •* a thing
whieh bsd •vidutly gon< ont of ue in hu ovu di;. Bj old
Hslswr law, ■* by ttia old Uw of AnbU, a wifa who hid bMn
biOBgbt into b«r bosbuid's booM by oontntct ud njment of ■
prl« to her bthflr ns not iflt f^ bj tha death of har btuband
Is mairy again at wUL Tfaa tubt to bar hiDd lay with Ih^
msrwt hair of tha diad. OriginalTj we moat aoppoac. imanft the
Hebnwi aa amouc tha Inba, thia law waa all to the duadTaDtaga
st tb* widow, whose hand waa aimpl;^ part of the dead man a
aatata ; bnt, while thia remained ao in Anbia to the tima o(
Mohsmmed, among the Hebnwa the law early took quite an
OfipiillS torn ; tha widow at a man who died childleaa Hal bald
to have a right to ban a son b^iotten on h«T by the nait
kinsman, and thia son was ragatded as the loa of the dead and
ancoeeded to his inharitaoce to that hia nama micbt not be est
oir ftotn lirael. Tha duty of niainR a
hia bmthei, hud ia Deut tit. 6 ia 1
brothert lire together. In old timei, ai
thia waa not ao, and the la
to bo that the neareat Hi
ri^t to "redeem for Mmaelt" the dead man'a catate, but al
mme time waa bonnd to marry the widow. The aon ot this
mairiage wia reckoned aa the dead man'i son and gacceeded to
bia property, ao that tha " ndeamet " bad only a tamjiotsry
aMfnct in It. Haoml waa loo old to bt maiTied ia this way, tM^
'ttf^'wi
ri from Gen. j
imei, aa appear! from Oen. tutul,
a put in the book of Ruth appiua
tn of the dead in general bad a
tis
R u T — R n T
■ho iaA ttrtain ilckti <tnr hsr liubuul'i *aMi whieb tha tuit
MTumia hud lO buj op before ho could onlor on tho properlj.
And thii lis wu willing to do, but hs vu not williog ■!» to
BiuTj Kulh «id bust on hct ■ ion who would tako tho Dims and
«ttt* of tlis dcoiT ud IctTB bini oat of pocket. Ho tlionron
witlidnwo anil DoM eonna in In hia j-lvm. That this la the souu
of lbs tiansiction ii clour i thtrs ii, howoTsr, a litllo obscunlj in
JT, G, whon ons lettor koris to )i*ve falleu oat and we muet md
on nlTflKBll. and Iranalala " What day thou bnyfit the field
(mm Naomi then mnit alio bay Buth," kc Comp. vr. », 10,
evi^m ™Jwii(™MMIrwi (« rtMIW *«*, Lrfp*. ITM." In mmi
t.ii» BKk taai UVII7 ton tikn ap lijf omamtMon >!«« wMh J^dmm
RTJTHENIANS. See Slavs. For Ruthenian <Littlo
RuBUUi) lilanttoro, tee Rubbia.
RUTHENIUM.' See Platutoil
RUTHEKFORD, or Ruthkbfobd, Saitjil (1600-
1661), Scottish divine, -ma bom tbout 1600 at the village
of Nisbet in Roiburghahire. He ia supposed to have
received his early education at Jedborgh, aod he entered
the DDiTersity of Edinburgh in 161T. He graduated MA.
in 1621, and two years afterwarda waa elected professor
of humanity. On account of Boms aUeged indiscretion
or irregularity connected with hia marriage in 1625, he
resigned hie profeaaorstiip in that year, but, after Btudy-
ing theology, he wat in 1BS7' appointed minister of A^-
wotb, Kirkcudbrightdiire, wWe be displayed remarkable
diligence aud leal, alike U preacher, pastor, and student, and
toon took a leading place among the clergy of Galloway.
Id 1636 hia first book, entitled EierakUionn de Gratia
—an elaborate treatise against ArmiDiauism — appeared at
Amsterdam, aod attracted some attention both in Great
Britain and on the Continent. Combined with his strict
and non-conforming presbyterianiam, the severe Calvinism
set forth in this work led to a prosecution by the new
biahop of the diocese, Sydserff, in the High Commission
Court, first at Wigtown and afterwards at Edinbargh, with
the result that Rutherfurd wu deposed from his pastoral
office, and sentenced to oonfinement in Aberdeen during
the king's pleasure. His baniahmeut lasted from September
1636 to February 1638, and was chiefly remarkable for
the epistolary activity he displayed, the greater number of
his published Lcttert belonging to this period of hia life.
He was present at the signing of the Covenant in Edin-
burgh in 1638, and afterwards at the meeting of the
Qlaagow Assembly the same year, which restored him to
hia parish. In 1639 he was appointed profeesor of divin-
ity la St Mary's College, St ^drewa, and shortly after-
wards became colleague to Robert Blair in the church of
St Andrews. He was sent Nip to London in 1643 as one
of the eight commissiousrs from Bcotknd to the West-
minster Aasembly. Arriviog along with Boillie in Novem-
ber, and remuning at his post over three years, he did great
service to the cause of his party. In 1642 ha had pub-
lished his Peaetaiit and Tanperate Pita for Pav£» PnAy-
tri-ie in Scotland, and the sequel to it in 16i4 oa The Due
Right of Pretbyteria provoked Hilton's contemptnous
reference to "mere A. S. and Buthetfurd" in hia sonnet
On the New Forcen of Conteienee tinder tJi» Long Parliament.
In 1644 also apjieared Butherfard's Lex Sex, a Dilute for
ilie Just Prerogative of Sing and People, which gives him a
recognized place among the early writete on constitational
law; it- was followed by The Dinint Sight of Chun^
Gonemtnent (1646), and Frre Ditputaliott againtt Preiendfd
Libertg of Coiueiou;* (1649), Among his other works are
the Tryal awl Triumph of FaHh (1645), ChritI Dying
and Dmuing Sinneri lo Hitntelf (lSi7), and Svrvey of tit
Spirilunl Anlichritt (1648). Id 1647 he returaed to
St Andrews to become |>rinci]>al of the New College there,
and in 1648 and 1651 he declined succeasivG invitations to
theological chairs at Harderwijk and Utrecht. His last
days were oasailod by tho persecution which ioUovred the
Beatcntlon in 1660; Hii ZtM Xa ma ordered to be
burned at tlie cross of Edinbargh, and also at the gate of
the college. He waa deprived of all his offices, and oa
a charge of high treason was cited to appear before the
ensuing parliament Hia health, however, now utterly
broke down, and knowing that he had not long to live he
drew up, on 26th Febnuuy 1661, a Tatttntmf, which wia
posthomonaly published. He died on the 30th of the
loUowing March.
Tlis fame o[ Ralhernud now nati principally upon Ma rsmait
allo Leiiert, on which Wodrow tbni common ta:—" Ho aeeini u
faoTs oaldoue svea hImMlf u well as everybody elae in hia admir
abin and every way dngular Isttsra. which, tbongb Jeat«d upon by
hrofuifl wita bB«uuA of MomofaiDiltaroKpTOfiatonis yot will bs own«l
•onl nnltod to Jeaoi Chrlal in I
raviih and edifj even eerioni
— '— -' — ' ntioned, B"'""
entia, tmi
i Arminianinn, of which Bichard 1
lo tha other works already men tioi
a treatiis £k Dieina Frovuimtia,
aa TDudly
. ami muit
_ _.. Id addition
Bntherrnrd publialisd <u ISEl
wcrs the bnt pie
klillli. SMilHa>tiiini.(/it>]' RiT.'Dr Andrew TlKUBWD, im.
BUTHERGLEN, an aucient royal bur^ of lanailr-
shire, Scotland, is aituated near the left bank of the Clyde^
2 miles south-east of Glasgow. It consists chiefly of one
long wide irregular street, with narrow atieela, wyods, and
alleys branching from it at intarvala. The parish church
is situated near the centre of the town, a little distance
from the tower of the old church where the treaty was
made in 1297 with Edward L, by which Sir John Mmi-
teith agreed with the English to betray the Scottish hen
Wallace, The moat important public building is the town-
hall, a handsome Btmctura with a large square tower. In
the vicinity there are extensive c<^ieries and ironworks,
and the town possesses chemical works, a paper mill, a
pottery, and a shipbuilding yard. Tha corporation eowisU
of a provoat, two bailies, a dean of guild, a trtaaurer, and
fifteen councillors. The population of the royal bnrgh in
I87I woB 9239, and in 18S1 it was 11,473.
Kutherglan waa orectod into a rofal burgh by King David in
lize. At this tims it iDcladod a portion of Glaasow, bat Id 121C
the bonndarioa were rcctiSod so aa to cicliids tho whole of tbst
city. In early time* it had a caiCle, which waa taken by Brace
bom the Englieh in 1313. It wi* kept in good irrvlr UU after the
tattle of Ungaide it waa burnt by older of tha regent Uurray.
After thia the town for a time Knunally decayed, the tnde bciai
abaor>>od by Qlt^ow. Bittherglen U included in the KilmunocE
diatrlct of parliamentary burgha.
BUTIUUS CLAUDIUS NAMATIANUS is known to
us as the author of a Latin poefn in elegiac metre, describ-
ing a coast voyage from Rome to Oaul in 416 A.D. ^e
literary excellence of the work and the flashes of light
which it throws acroaa a momentooa but dark epoch ot
history combine to give it exceptional importance among
the relic* of late Roman literature. The poem was in two
books ; the eiordinm of the first and the greater part of
the second have been loat. What remains conaista of aboat
TOO lines.
The poet's voyage took place in the lata autumn of 416
(L 135 t?.), and the verses as we have them were evi-
dently written at or very near the time. The author is
a native of southern Gaul, and belonged, like Sidonioi^
to one of the great governing families ot Uie Gaolish pro-
vinces. His father, whom he calls Lachanioa, hod held
high offices in Italy and at the imperial court, had been
governor ot Etruria and Umbria {contvlririt Tutcia/} pro-
bably in 3S9, when a Claudius is named in the eodosian
Code (2, 4, 5) as having held the office, tht iperial
treasurer (eomei memrunt Inrgiliomint), imperik. .earder
{piaeitor), and governor of the capital itself {pratfecltu
R 0 T — B U T
113
v(m)l BatfliiM beuli hia etnet to ban been no leM
dHtDganlwd tbui hii bohw'i, aod partieiilftri; indintee
tha £• bad been Hcretai? of (tate (maffitter offidorum)
tod goTeniarcJthAMpital(L 157, 427,167, 661). It ii
pnliiibla tbkt a certain Nunatiiu named in the lleodonaii
Ooda (6, 37, IC) a* wtagitttr <^aonm of the jrov 413 ii
no othar than our poet. The tnie literaij man ia apt to
be inordiimtolj prond of pcditkal diitinction, and Bntiliui
ccM>Btea kia own piaiMa in a a^le worthj of Cicero or
Pliiiy. At all eventa, he had lived kmg in the great world
of the Weetwn empii^ and knew much (tftlie inner biitory
of hia tiine. After nailing manhood, ha had pMwd
thran^ the tempeetnona period ilb»X alietehM between the
dnth of TheodoHna {39S) and tha (kll irf tha aiorper
Attahia, lAiA oeemred near the date whan cw poem waa
written, ^had witneased thecheqncradeataerof Btilicho
aiactoal, thoo^ not titalar, emperor <rf tha Weat; he had
Been tha boata of Badagiietia rolled hack from Italy, only
(o awe^ ovar tha belplaae prorineea of Chuil and Spain,
the deteta and brinmpha of Alarie, the three liegea and
fiial «ck of fioou^ followed bj the marraUooa reeoveiy of
the d^, Heraelian'a vaat annameot diadpatad bj a h«ealh,
ud dM Ul of aeren ptetaodeta to tha Waatem diadem.
UDdoobtsdly the ajinpathiea of Bntilina were with thoao
who dnring thia period diaiented inm, and, when tbaj
could, oppoaed,thegeneiml tendendea of tjie imporial policy.
We faiow from himaelf that he waa the intimate of dia-
tji^iahed men who bebnced to the circle of the great
crator STmmachiu^ — men who had aeooted Stilicho'i eom-
faet wiUi the Qotha, and had led the Boman aenate to
(Bf^mt tha prateiiden Bogenias and Attain* in the
nin ha^ at iwutating the goda wbom Jnlian had failed
tOBBTO.
but taw dinet taertimia iboot Uitoiktl
ii tb* poon, bj It! Terr ttiton tnd iplrit and
. i, iema on u inpafteot eonelniloai aoneemiiig tlia
foKliB and rdlgiai of tha tisaa, which an not toon^t homt to
uvitbdMMmtdicMtiuabgruir othautharl»: Tha ittitad*
of Iks writer towaida jngMdna li nmufcabla Tha wboU pooa
fa lBt«»ly pimaa, anala Mttrrtad by tb* iMliiig that tb* world
<f Htwatm* Bad cnltm* h and matt rsmain pagan, that ontiid*
IH«*haa Saa a nalm of bacbaiinn. Th* puM w<an u air of
aiilt*d Bparktity onr tb* taUafaNu Inngintan of bia day, aad
in* a bamnt oonUane* nat tha fatora of tba Dci«t aodi
la will Dot btlla duir gloriona paat InTcctlTS and apokigy
BB alik^ not bonble* bunMlf to abow, wil^ OlaadiaB, aroo
■ T|»aaBid griaf at Qu indlgnitka Mt apon tba old nligion by
tb* BOW. Aa a italaanuB, bo u at patiiB to amid oflendlng thoaa
ulitia CtelBlian lOBatMB vtn ^lom prid* la thair eoantTy had at
Mat aa mat powti a* attariuaent to their aaw lalldon. Only
nea aa Mo* do« Katmoi ■pa*b diieeay of Chriafianity, and
tbaa only to attaak tba manb, whom tb* tonponl aathoiitita
had baiAy a* yat nodgnliad, and whom, indead, only a ibort
tin* baCm, a ChilidBn ampnor bad torvil * "
O* lanka tM Ui anay. JadBim KntiliB* ■
Farttapa tha moit InloraatlDg Unsi in tha whole ponn ara tltoa*
In which Batiliui aiaaili tb* mcDioiy of "din SUiicba." a* be
~ fgariag to laffsr lU that bad canaed
lUnetanor arentii
nak giant of Gtilfaau% bad nnms.
Wo read In (Xbbon tbat "HonoriiiB «. , __
WW* adrataa to O* catboUa diineh from balding any offloa In tba
Mat*," that b* " obatbutdr qjoetad the aoTlca of aU thoaa who
diwntad bom Ub NU|don,'' and diat "th* lawwa* ^ipllwl in
da bdI iJg "
Oa pietma of nditical Ua Impnaed upon n* I7 SatUiaa. :
nin i* aaaiadiTnot that of a partiaBn ot a diaondilad and 01
bona botion. Wa na I7 lb* ud (f bia poam ■ aanaU at Be
MBKMd of paat oOoa-haldBr^ tba m^ority of
iBhi-i- __- irffli -nr. ai ^ Cbri*ti*n a
WtaiDly papn Btm. Ta diio*ra a CbriBtJan leotion wbsaa
(%»tiBal^ waa political lathar Oian tali^ona, who wo*
tnt and CfariatiaBa aftenwdB, wbom a n*w bnu* in
Bd^ aaaily ban WBftad baak to tbo oU
_ _ _ _I aid I. ___ „
•ttkriMtkai bbtnkna ban foD^ Imag^ that ahar Oaiaek
•f baa A* Uahop Innoeant tatoraal to a poaitiaa «t pfaotiiial
padooiaaaoa Vo on* who &irly liad* ftiUUDa «aa chatiib
thia Idia, IHa air of tba ouital, pacbapa oran <rf Italy, waa
atOl cbBlB*d with pa^niaiii. Tba aoart waa ba in adrHO* of
thapaoipla, and tbapwiiniilli^lawB W*a Id laita part ineapaUa
himaolf to b* hand,"
■au UM iMmnu \>ltjt B0U JIIHIHU tBO crHW UDUU, n»
I " miaiODa, In tba kit aaaotnaiy of tb* ompira. Hia
ickeder than tb* wilo of the Trotaa bone, than tb* wtl*
or of Scrlla. Hay Nero rat from all the lornantB U
Hui uamuni. that tbey nay •da* on Staiclu^ for II*ro mola bii
own motbor, bnt Btilicho, the tnotbat of th* world I
We ahall not wr in lappodng that w* hive ban (what we Bad
Dowliai* elia) u anthenlle eipraaalon of tb* fedjng antartamed by
a n^jority of the Baman Boiat* conosining StOicAo. H* badbnt
initatml th* policy of Iluadaalaa with n^afd tc tha barbariaBi ;
but area that gnat emperor bad met with paaaiT* oppoaltton fnm
the old Boman tamilies. The raUHoni, bowerar, batwaan Alaiio
ud Btilicho had bean cloaar and mon mnterioQi than thoao
between jUuio and Tbeodoeiii^ and man who had aeen Stilicbo
■nrrotudel I7 hli bodjEoard of Ootha not onnitunlly looked
on the Goth* who aieaUad Roma u StJiiebo'a aTcnsera It la
lotewcotfay that Bntilio* apealce ef the orim* of StilidiD In term*
Ear different tram thoe* naed bv On*ln* and tha hiatoriani of the
lower ampin. They beliared that Btilicho wu tJottiiig to mak*
bi* Bon emperor, and that b* called In tba Gotlu la order to climb
bi^ur. BmJIiOB hold* that be naed tba barbariani manlj to mt*
bimaetf tMn impending rain. The Cbrlatlaa blatorlana aanrt
that attliobo dcaignad to reetora pavaaiim. To BntUina ha la
tba moat nncompmmiaing Iba of pagaaiani. Hia erowning nn
(recorded by our poet alone) waa tha aeetrriction of the Blbylline
booki— aain worUirofooe wbobad docked hia wife In the ipoOa
of Victory, th* gaiiitm who had for ceaturiea preatdad orer tb*
del^omtione of the aenate. Thia crime of BtiUeho akna i*
ere* of BdUUii* toaocoont An the dlaMten that
th* d -- - -
later, traced the mi*eri
aodant rite* of Tiata.
With r^ard to the form of the poenL Kolfllne handlia the
degUe conplet with great metrical purity and tnadoni, and
betnj-a many algna or long atady in the elegUe poatiy ci the
ADgnitan era. Tlie I^tiu ia annaaally clean tor tha time*, uid i*
Sierally fairly elaealoal both in vocabalaiy lud cooatractlon. The
UatSntUJDataalaoamiiantiTelTpnre. If he lack* the genina
of Qaadian, h* alao lacka U* OTsrlsad«l pndineaa ud hia larga
exaggeration, and Ae directnaa* of Botilliu ahinea by comparison
witStbe labonred oompleiity of Aoaonin*. It ii oommon to caQ
Clandlaa tbelaat of the Soman poela. That titla midit fairly b*
elaimed ba BntHioL nnlea it be reeerred for Uerobaodea 4t
any rat* in paaang mm Batilitu to Bidoniu* no rtadv can fail to
leel that be baa left tba regloD of Latin po*tiy for tb* region of
Of the many int(n*tl»g detail* of tb* poem wa can ontymenlioB
law. At the ontaet we Iutb an alnoat dithyrambio addreH to
tha goddea Soma, whone glory baa erer ahone tha brl^ter for
dieaKer, and who will tlae once mer« In hai m^t and conjbnnd
her barbarian foea. The poet ahowi aa deep a oonaeienaaiaa a* any
modem hiatoilan that the gnadaat aobliTaiuent of Borne waa die
apread of law. Seat w* get Incidental bat a
la of the barene at th* monlba of the Tiber and
... exBsgnal**
the deaoUtion of tba (mce Importaot dty of Coaa In JBrnria,
wboas willa hare aearealy cbanged tttm that day to oara. n«
port tb^t ccrred Han, abnoat alone of all tbo** Tiritml by Bntfliaa,
eimt:> hzf retained Ita prDaperi^, and to bare foraAuowad tb*
ibsaiinast groLtnea* of that dtj. At ana point ea the ooaat th*
villasen ererywhere were * eoothing tbelr wMried hearia with b^y
memment," and weta celetaaUng the feellTal of Odil*.
aa aiMlaa MM. « SUUbi ir* latar tkn Mat, aaa *M anM tw a lait
eoH «( in uwUn Ha aaea u tlu iMiilirT <l BoMo, wkM aiaaweana atoil
ITM. TlM«*m iifciMi H that ay 1. B. flaa (ttoHaa^ im, t awfrtn^
pn •auau ma ten KHP ihiiM »tb^>> (i*>*). P- BuvBani, u hi* wuudb
of IhaBlBirLaMaiMA WwBidert (in^paitifaasiai "- -
^MO), ua MoHlad lAka^lAriB mfarfTertsB, L(
(UM). Bar In ■piiMly ma
iiribeiniaa. C-an.)
RTTTLAin), the amallest eoDnty in En^and, ia bounded
. and N.E. by IJncdnahire, B.E. by Northamptiinsbir^
and W. by Leice8t«rahire. Its ahape ia extremely irregular,
The grc^aat length fnm nOTth^eaat to lonth-weat ia aboul
XXI. — 15
114
E n T — R n Y
30 mile^ Mid tbe gmtaat bTMdth firom cart to wett about
16 miles. The uw is 94,8S9 acns, or about 118 tqa&n
mLlsB. The snrEoce ia pleuantly ODdoUiting, ridges of liigli
groDtid Ttmning east aod west, sepaxated bj rich sod luiu-
riaat Talle^rs, geaerall; about half a mile in breadth. Tha
CDcipoI rallej ia that of Catmoei to the tonth of Oakham,
ring to the north of it a tract of table-land commandiog
an oztoDuve prospect into LeieesterahirB.
Tha Welland, which is navigable to Btamford, flows
nwth-eaat, filming the greater part of the boondary of
the coon^ with Northamptonshire. Tha Gwash or Wash,
which risea in LeLceeterahiic^ flows eastwards through the
centn of the county, and just beyond its borders, enters
the Welland in Lincolnshire. Tbe Chater, also rising in
Leicestershire and flowing eastwards enleis the Wellaod
abont two miles from Stamford. Tbe Eye flows south-
eastwards along the borders of Lrieeetershire. The county
belongs almoet aatirely to the Jnrassia formation, consist-
ing of Liasaio and Oolitic strata — the harder strata, chiefly
limestone containing iron, forming the hills and ascarp-
ments, and the clay-beda the slopes of the Talleys. The
oldest locks are thoae belon^ng to the Lower Liaa in tha
Dorth-west The bottom of the -nis of Catmoea ia formed
(rf marlstone rock belonging to the Middle Lia^ and its
sides are composed of long slopes of Upper Lias day. Tha
Upper Lias also covers a large area in the west of the
county. The lowest suiea of the Oolitic formation is the
Northampton sands bordering Northamptonshire. The
Lincolnshire Oolitic limestone prerails in the east of tbe
cooDt; north of Stamford. It is largely qoarried for
building porpraes, the quarry at Kettoa being (amoos
beyond the boundaries of the county. The Qreat Oolite
preTails towards the south-east. Formerly the iron was
uu^y dug and smelted by means of the wood in the
extensive forests, and tbe indostry is again reviving.
s traudoni bat fsrtfli loam, ud In tha fsrlila iiU of Cutmon
tha goll ta dthar div or loun, or ■ mixtan ot tBs two. Tb«
pranlling isdana, which ooloon enn ths atnamu, is owing to
tha feimginoiii llmsatODS eurlod down from ths alop«g of ths hilli.
Tha nvna of thi coontT li br •oms ■athoritin dennU from this
clunotMistla of tha aoU, bnt tha Bn)luution i* doobCTuL Tha
•sMarn portloBa ot tha oonn^ *r* obfafly aDdcr tiJlwa and ths
weatam in grass. Oat ot M,aN acras no ftwor thia SB,<77 scm
in ISSS wera vAm onltivaUoii, corn orom oasapjiag 12,830 j
groan cropa TESO acras, rotatioa uiaaaia tOT
uutnn 4T,8tS aoraa. Ovtr tOM) aeras
Tha principal BOfu am is bailsy, ahiiA oi ,
whoat and aab an sWlaigaly grown. TarDips aod m
abmit Sva-ditha ot tbo arsa imdac graan oi
ipled 0481 acre^ bnt
■ sod Kwedea occupy
„ TODS. The roaring rf
jhsap and sattia oeaapfaa the chtat attiDtlDn at the farmsr. Luxe
qnauUUca of cbeasa an mnofactorod and sold aa Stilton. Cattto,
principally ahorthsn^ nuiubarod IS.SIO, ot whioh BOSt wars cowi
and haifara in milk and in calt 6h«ep — Loicoteja and South
DawTu— onmbarod 80,881, horaei 8062, pi^ tOM, and poultry
"~ '"" 'ocaidlngtothepariiamsntaryretorn ot I87S tha uambsr
in WBI UiS, of whom BBl poaaaHed Im tlian ona acre.
Tba largaat piopriaton wan ths tarl ot Oaiaiborongli 15,07'
Lord Aralaad 18,011, maiqnia at Eiatar 10,718, andQso
Pinch Bisa.
■Baiiaayi.—Tbt nu!n Una ot tha Qrest Korthsni intersectB tbo
north-aaitsm uamer of the coontj, and bnnchea rf that ajitam, of
tha London and Horth-Tcwtani, and ot Cha Uidlaod omnect it
with sll parts of tiu oonntrj.
jkbaiKMntfoH and PopulaHan Kntland oanpriHa Hts hnn-
dred* and contains Stly-aaTan drii parishas, and part ot tha pariah
of 8tok«-Diy, whiah altandi into Laiceatarahin. fonnarly npn-
ssnlad by two mcmban at parliament, ainco 188S It retnms ona
onl;. Thsrs ii no municipal or parliamtntaiy boronph. The
petty Mssional pnrpoHn. Eccleiiutiully it ta entinly in tlie
diocsas ot Peterbcrongh. The popabtion wae Sl.SGI iii 18l!l,
i£,QTS in 1S71, and 91,484 in 1B81. "Die average nombar oF per-
ioni to an son in 1S81 wai OlS, and of acm to a penon 4'43
Hiilory attd Aiitiquilia. — In tha tiniB of. tha Bombu tha
rliefridt nn* inclndHl ia RatlaDdshln wan probably inhabited by
1 — i_j-.i i_ m — i^ CeBansnais. finnyn
tbt Goritaoi, and ws* inolodad in Flavi
fitnrt tnrcnod it in tha north^ait, and than was ui Inpomat
alattoa at Qn«t Cutaiton. At a ahire it it latar than DomeHliy,
when a ponion of it was Included in North nicptonshin but the
greater gart in Nottiogham. It is reremx] to u com. RolsliDd
in ths fiith jear of King John, in the ilocumeiil uuKning a dowry
to Quean Iiaballa, but tot a long time pniTioui to thi> tha nania
Botsland wu spited to OiktuHn aod tbe country ronnd It
Edward, eldot acn of Edmoad of Unglsy, flfLh aon of [{dwud III.,
wu crealEd earl of Butland, bat tha titla bcnma extinct in the
royal house when Edward svi of Rutland waa eUbl>ed to death it
the battle ot QiBaid. In 1S2G tlia title was reviTed in tha penoa
of Lord Ro(, and tha tenth aarl wis cnaled duke in 1703. At
the battle of Slamfonl In 1470 Lanctetn' traa defeated by Edward
IV. Ths only old cutis at which then ais im)>anant nmaine ia
Oakhim, dating from the time rf Henry II., and nniarkabla far
ita Norman balL
RUTLAND, a township and village of the United States,
capital of Rutland county, Vermont, 117 miles Dorth-nottli-
weat of Boston. It is on important railway janction,
being tha terainus of several minor lines and tbe seat of
machine.Bhops and engino-honaes ; bnt its name is even
better known through ita qnairiea of white marble. The
population of the township was 13,149 and that of tbe
village 7S02 in 1880.
Chartsrwd by New Hampshin tn I78I and again chartered ai
SocialboTOugh lu 1771! by New York, Bntland booame in UTfi
a fortified pact on the great northcm mllilary road, and in 1781
was mida tha chief town af Butlond county, Bctiveeu 1781 abd
1804 it was one of the capilala of the SUte.
RTJYSBROECK, or Rdtbbrobk, John, mystic, waa
bom at Raysbroek, near Brussels, about 1293, and died as
first prior ot the convent ot Oroenendaol, near WaUrioo, in
1361. See MysnciSM, voL zviL p. 133.
RITYSCH, Fredkeik (163B-1731), anatomist, was
bom at The Hague in 163B, and died at Amsterdam on
February 22, 173!. See Asatoxy, vol. i. p. B12.
EUV8DAEL, or Ruisdaai, Jacob (t 162B-1682J,
the most celebrated of tha Dutch landscapista, was bom
at Haarlem about I62n. The accounts of his life are
very oonflictiug, and recent criticiem and research have
discredited much that was previously received as fact
regatding bis career. He appears to have studied under
bis father Izuc Ruysdael, a landscBpe-paintor, though
other authorities make bim the pupil of Bergbem and of
Albert voa Evetdingen. The earUest date that appears
on his puntings and etchings is 1616. Three yeats later
he waa admitted a member of the guild of St Luke in
Haarlem ; in 1 GS9 he obt^ned the freedom of tbe city of
Amsterdam, and we know that he was raaident there in
1668, for in that year his name appears aa a witness to
tbe marriage of Hobbema. During his lifetime his works
were little appreciated, and he seems to have suflerod from
poverty. In 1681 tbe sect of tbe Mennonitcs, with whom
he waa connected, petJtioDBd tbe council of Haarlem for
his admission into the alnuhouse of the town, and there
the artist died on the Uth of March 1G82.
The votha of Buyadael may be atudied in the Louvre and tha
National Oallery, London, and in the egllrcttone at The Hague,
Amatsrdun, Barlin, and Dn»den. Hie favourlto aul^ccli ars
simple woodland ecenea, similar to those of Evertlinj^cn and
Hobbema. or views of pictureaque mills and cattagCA, or rf rnincd
towen and temnlea, set npon broken ground, bedde stream or
watotfalli. He U eapMislly noted ae a mintir of trees, sud hia
rsndsring of faliago. particulsiiy of oak Itafo^ ia cfaaracteiized
by the gTBalesl spirit and precision. Hb views of dialant eities,
such as that of Haarlem in the possessiDn ot tlio TDuruuli rf Bats,
and tb&t of Kstwijk in the OUu^w Corporation Oallcries. clnrly
indicate the inflnoncs of Rembrandt. Ha frnmeutly piinti cout-
ocanec, and sea-piEces with bnaJiing ■:vaye« and etonny aldea tilled
•ilh wind-driven cloaJs, but it Is in his rendering rf hmcly
lomt glades that we iind him at hie best. Ths auhjedi rf certain
of his moantain scenes, with bold rocks, watorfalli^ and fir-trsei,
scam to be token from nomay, and have led to the suppoaitian
that be had trnvellcd in tlut country. Ws have, howevnT, no
ley, aud the works iu quiation a» probably
Br hs copied at
R U Y— R Y A
lis
St Inn hU bruli li known— an iJainU* inlolciT nt Ihi Vtv
mth, AmrtndMP, a tha poiiwrtnii of th« nujqnk of BnU. Tbe
pnnhiDg bna 0/ hit lu<iup« i> ■ hll rich gneu, whiii, hn-
■nr, bM duknitil with timt^ Thila ■ elMr gnj tona i( ch«nctar-
hsUattiiatm-piiBtt.
Th* trt (tf {Ujada^ wkd* II dMnn littl* of tha ■ewotiAa know-
Mn of bter ludioidftih Sm aaniitlT* tad poctio in aeatiBiaiit> uid
dinet ud ikilAil la (a(iiBb]aa. Kgnm ■» ipuia^ iotrodocad
jntD hii ooBpaution^ tod IDeb ■■ oouT u* balurad to b* fraiB tb*
pBDoOi <^ AoriiB Taadanlda, Fbilip Woawoaua, ud Jan Ungal-
Uch. InhiiloTaaf ludnucbritnlf, Inhiidaliriitin tbaaniat
udaolitBdaof uton, tbtpaiDtBla tbonoghlrmodaisin halli«
BnnlHlatehMlnlairpUtM, wBiah wan raprodMad br Amud
Dunnd in 1878, with tait by U. Ottagm Dnplou. Th*
"Cbcmp da BM ~ ud tba " Vojagmn' an ebuutarind by U.
eoBiM W ipMnana laa pki aignillcaUb da I'ait da pajMciM*
duH hN Faja-Bai."
BUYSSElJXE, or RdibbkiIdi, a Ill•Ike^towIl of
Belginm, in the prorince of Went Flaoden, IS niilaa aonth-
cait of Brngea. It ia baat known u the (Mt of n gnat
nlom»Xarj lot boja, foandad bj th« QovsnuDcmt id 1B49.
Thaptgrnlntion wm 6663 in 1874, and 6670 in 1S81,
ROTTER, HicHUO. Aitaux si (1607-1676), ■ di*-
tingniahed Dntch unl (dtoer, wu bora kt nnihu^ 3ith
Hmc^ 1607. Ha began hi* Mfaring life at the ■«• d
tleren aa a cabin bt^, and in 16M wm aatraatad bf tba
BMnliaBti of FhMhmg with the mmiwanH xt a eniiaet
i^inat the ¥nm^ ^tataa. In 1610 he tntered the
■amoe of llw Btata^ and, bcang appointed nar«dmiiml of
a fleet Utted o«t to aMiit Fortngal apinat Bpoiu, ipeoiallr
dittingnidHd UnaeU at Chpe 8t TinoBnt, 3d Norembei
1611. In the Mlowing year be left the aerriM d the
Statea^ and, nntlt the outbreak of war with En^and io
1608, held eoouoand of a menbant vaaeeL In 16^3 a
>«aala waa deapaitched a^init tbe
imand of Admiral TrompL Enjter,
d the sdmiial in thii expedition, aecunded
bin with 'great ikill and biavMy in tbe three batUee
whieb wen foogbt with tbe Bngtiah He wm afterwuda
•tatioi^ in the Heditemnean, where he captnied oeveral
hrkiab iiMMiln In t6S9 he reoaiTed a eommimoo to
join the king of Denmark in hia war with the Swede*.
Aa a leward of bia serrioea, the king of Beiunark ennobled
Ub and gjlre him a penaion. In 1661 he gronnded a
ii—il belraging to Tania, released fra-tf Cbiiatian alaTee,
made a tna^ with the Ttuuiiana, and rednced the
Algerine eonain to aubmiMion. From hia aebieveoienta on
the mat eoaat <rf Afrioa he waa recalled in 1665 to take
command of a large fleet which had been orgaaited agunit
Enf^and, and in Maj of tbe following rear, after a long
conteet off the North Foreland, be compiled tbe English to
take ntum in tbe Thames On Jnse 7, 1673, be fought
a drawn battle with the comUned fteeta of EngUnd and
Ftaooet in Sonthwold or Sole Bay, and after tbe fight
he oonTi^vd eafelf home a fleet <rf merdtantmen. His
Tmlonr ww diaplaTed to eqoal advantage in aeveial engage-
menta with the French and RngliA ja the following jear.
In 1676 he waa deipatehed to the aaaiatanoe of Bpain
afpiuat France in the Ifeditenaaean, and, recciTing a
mortal wound in tba battle on the Slat April off
Heeaina, died on the ZStb at STiaenae. A patent by tbe
king of Spain, inveating him with tbe dignity of dnke,
did net reach the fleet till after his death. Bia bod;
was carried to Anuiterdam, where a magnifloent monu-
ment to hia memorj waa erected bj oommand of the
8a« Lift of Rnjtar bj bandt, Anutardun, 1(187, and br Klniv,
td nL, Hauont, 1888.
RYAZAN, a goTerainent of Central Rnsaia, is boimded
by Hoeoow and Tnla on tba W., by Vladimir on the N.,
and by TamboS on tbe K and S., with an area of 16,2S5
ipun nik^ and a peculation of 1,713,961 in 1882.
RyanA is an intermediate link between tbe central Oreat
lUuaiaa go*emmenta and the Steppe govemmenta of the
aonth-caai, — the wide and deep valley of the Oka, by which
it i* tiavereed from west to eaat, wi^i a broad cnrve to die
south, being the natural bonodaiy between tbe twa On
the Wt of the Oka the aorfoce often conaiats of sanda,
maidieat and fbreataj while on the right the fertile black-
earth pniriee begin, occupying especially the aouthem
part (rf the government (the districts of Ranenborg
Bapoiok, and Dankoff). The whole of RyaaB ia e. plateau
about 700 feet above tbe ae% bnt deeply cat by the river
valleya and numerous ravines. Tbe geological formatioDa
lepreaented are the Dsronian, tbe Carbonifaroua, the
Juiaaaic, and the Quaternary. Hie Devonian appeaia in
the deeper valleys in the toaOi, and belonga to the well-
known " Malevka-HDraevnya horiaMi,'' now coosiderBd aa
eqoivalent to the Cfpridina awrato mfiiila Upper
Devoniaa depoaita of the EifaL Hie Carboniferous
depoaita are widely apread, and appear at the anrboe in
the bottoma of tte ravine* and valleys. They contain
atntta of exeelleot coal between plaatio blue clay*, which
are woiled at savctal placas. Upper Carboniferous lime-
stone^ as also sandattHke^ the age o( which has not yet
been determined, bnt whi^ seem to be IiOwer Juiaaaic^
eover the CarbMiifemia elays. "Bm Upper Junaaie de-
peat* are widely ^read, bnt diey have been much destroyed
and now appear aa s^arata iuaolar tracla. Tb^ belong
to the Ozfcffd and C^loviaa horixonsi the fomaer contain-
ing coiala, which are very rare on the whole in the
Bnaaian Joraaaie depoaita. The Quaternary deposit* ate
repreaentad by the Qlacial boulder clay and more recent
alluvial depoaita, which oocupy wide area* in the valley of
dw Oka. Iron-Mea, limcaton^ grindttone grita, potters'
clays, and thick beds of peat are worked, beaidea coaL
The northern part* of Ryaaafl belong to (he forest regions
of Rnsaia, and, notwithstanding the wboleaale daatraetion
of foneta in that part of the country, these (chiefly Coni-
ferous) still cover one-third of the anrface in aaveial dis-
tricts. In tbe south, where the prosimity of the Bteppea is
felt, thej are much leaa extensive, the prevailing spedea
being oak, birch, and other deciduous trees. 'Hiey cover
an aggregate area of more than 3 million acres.
Tbe Oka ia tbe chief river ; it ia navigable thraugbout,
and reoeivce the navigabl) I^nya, Pra, and Tana, besides
a great many smaller streama ntiliied for floating timber.
Steamers ply on the Oka to EaaimofF and Nyni Novgorod,
Tite Don and the LyeenM Toroneih belong to RyanA in
their upper Gooraes only. On tbe whole, the south dia-
tricta are not well watered. Small lakes are numerous
in tbe broad depreeeion of the Oka and elsewhete^ while
extensive marahes cover tbe north-east districts ; a tew
attempts at draining aeveial of these on the banks of the
Oka have resnlted in tbe reclamation of excellent paatnrD
lands. The climate is a little wanner dian at Moscow, tbe
average temperature at RyaiaS being 41*.
The territory of RyasaQ waa occupied in the Sth
century l^ iWtish sterna (Hordvinians, Hen, Mucoma,
and Hescben), which for the most part have either gives
way before or disappeared amongst the Slavonian colonizers.
The popolation is now Qieat Roasian throughout, and
contains only a trifling admixture of some GOOQ Tnrtaia,
1600 Poles, and 600 Jews in towns. Some Tartara
immigrated into tlie Sasimofl region in the IStb century,
and are noted for their lionea^ of character as well as for
thur agrionltiiral prosperity. Tha people of the Pra river
are deaeribed as Uesehenaks, but their manners and
onatoms do not di&ar from thoea of the Rnssiana.
Tha dilaf oeonpation in Byanfi ia i^^iiltiin. Oat of ID, 100,000
■una onl]' 888,000 an anllt for tillan. So-81.000 acTM ara
ondar <«>Fi, and tha umaal ^adooa is asHinatcd at abont t,SU,«00
R Y A — R Y C
qiuriart of oocb tml 979,000 qurtsn d pataton. The am nsdtr
cdllinliaii ind tbo etofm atmnira an umtMiiiig, as alio b th«
•Zpott oi gam. Bot am hti^ In ona of tba nalthist botsti-
mola c^ Bou tha iit»tbn of the uanola ia hi from aatia-
tutoiy. Cattto-bnaiisg ii lapldl; (klling off an aoMmnt of muit
of paatne hiid^ bot hif, which i* abauilint, tapaciallf on tbe rich
EMado* laada n( tba Oha, ii snorted. In 188S than mm
aa),eOO bono, »9,100 nttla, and SW,«O0 abwp. tha flgnna
baring bsen Me,0OO, 197,000, nod M7,000 napecUvcl; in lew
In tlM nottbani part of tha goren ' — '"- '- '— '-^
' MlwatbnlldiDg, tha
nW«(ootli
. ^ .ja prawation of pitch and lar,
la murabctim of iroodan naatl^ almgta, Ac Variooa otbci
atiadea, meh n rnaTisg, lace-tuking, lod boot'Oialdiu, an
inad with igrioaltiira, Muinlkctiina alao havo la^lj Ssgoa
' ' . ^bA in 1833 thait agm'B'ta production paached
1,860,000 ronblwl. Tiada, MpaciaUy in i
othar igrlenltiual producs and In mercbuidue muHifactimd In
tha TlIlwMh ia tot antlTe. The railway from Ejaall lo UoMoir
If ona ofth* moat importuit In finnii, ^m tha unoont of Eood*
Oanlod . from tba aonth-eut Bteppo gOTsramanta. Tha Oka it.
anothar artai? of trafflo, tha agi;re^te ampunt thippad to or
B«nt from ita ports withia RTaiaB laachlng 8,634,000 cwta. in
1880. The goTamnient Is illvidod into twain distrjcta, the chief
towna of which, with their poijulitEona In 18B3, ais rabjolnod :
R}aia& (iO,S!£ InhibEtanta). Danlcoff (S47S), Egoiiarak (OOfiB],
Kiiinioff (1B,£<J0), Hikhiilotr (3720), Pronak (1740), Hinanhnra
EiOO), Ryaihak {liWSX Sapojofc [2870), Skopin (IO,2flO), Spunk
lao^ and Zaraisk (6870). Kinenburg, Skopin, inJ Zaraiik nre
portent markata tor com and bemp. Beisnl Tillogni, sncb aa
Kntaavnja, DjsiUdoto (8800) and LoTti; (loadios r'*«* °° t^*
Oka], and Dkolova (market for com], havo mora commarca and
Indaatry than the district towna. Large Tillan an nttmcrona,
about aiity haTing tach from 2500 to 7000 iDhaStanta.
Tim Slaroniana began to oolonlia tha nfion ot Byanll aa early
a« tha Bth century, penetrating thither boUt from the north-waat
(□cat Boanana) and from theDni'per(Littb BoaalaDsl. Aa earljr
■B the 10th century the princinli^ ot Unrom and BjazaS la
inentlancd la the chronioW Darug tha following cantnriea
~ ith la extant and in wealth and
iw tha gDremmenta ot Kaluga and
aioacow. uwing w me leniiltT of tha aoil, Ita Knaelan popula-
lion ia|ddlT Instoaaed, while the linniah (tem* which tormcrly
Inhahttad it raigtatad &rthat eaat, ot became nung^ among the
BlaTontana. A donn towna, all fortifiai and oommarcial, are
nMnUoned aa halon|^ng to tha pijndpality lowarda tha end of the
llth century. The HangolUn ipTaaion (toppad all Uiia daralop-
ment. The horaeman of Batn Iraifiad and dotroyed wreral towna
in 12i7, and killed man* paopla, deaoltUng raa eomitiy. The
prlndnality, howerer, atiU aonldnnad to ei&t; "-
atrongly onpoaed the ammntion [dana of Hoaeow,
with tha Uongola and with Lithnania, bot tbaj
BYAZAN, capital ol the above gorenuneot, lita 119
milea to the sonUi-ar it of Howmw, on tlie eleviitMl tig^t
bank of the ITmbej, a mile above its jonction with tbe
Ok&. A wide prairie dotted witli luge villagM, being the
bottom of a former kke, Bpreada out from the baM of the
eiag oa which Byazyi it^ida, and has the aspect of an
immeute lake when it is innadated in the spring Except
one or two streeUg^ the town ia badly buUt, chieflj of wood,
and iU-pftved. ItMut* (rften eaffeted from fire, and haa few
lemainB of fotmer daTn. The larse cbnrcb of TJspenak
dates from 1770. "nioae of Arl^ngelsk and Ereeto-
TozdTyensk have preseiTad, however, their old arcbi-
tectoie, thoDsh obliterated to lome ezteet \q cabseqaent
repairs, aa alao the aichiepiacopal palace, formerly the
"terem" of the great princea. The indmtries are un-
developed, and the trade haa leas importaace than mi^t
be expected from the position of tbe town in eo rich a r^on.
It is, however, an important railway centre, no leet than
1 6,000,000 cwts., chiefly of corn, being bronght fronf tbe
•onth.eaBt and sent on to Hoaeow, while nearly 3,390,000
owts. of TariooB manafactared and grocwy wares are con-
veyed in tbe opposite direction. The hwUng place on the
Oha alao haa some importance. The popoktiao, 30,320
in 1883, is increaaingbnt slowly.
Tha capital of Byaafi princip^ty waa ByaalS— now Old Byaall,
• viUaga cl«e to SpaNli, alao on tha Oka. It ia mentioned in
tha name of Fwnyaalair.Ryuualdy. In
biihop of Unrom, oompelled to loava hla ai
following tlw asDal poltor ot that apoeh, — t
town witb aonnnldpai tradlHona, aa the a
annals aa eariy aa 1097, bat contlnnad to ba the chief town of tha
ptindpallty raly nntil tlia 11th oantnrjr. In tha Illh centarr
ona of tba KiA pilncea— probaUy Taroalalf BTyatoelaTllch In
tha banha of a unall lako, a fort wbiah receiTed
" " " ■ ' IS* (or In ISM) the
tana and probably
t of aelectlog a new
:lana of a new alala.
— •eltledin Fanyaalalf-^amiakiy, andthoi jan
to thia tormaly iuignlBcaut aettlanient The gnat pnneea of
RyaBB rolknndhia azampla and by-and-M oomplataly abandooed
the old nniblleaa town ot Bjantt, ttansfming alio Ita name to
Pareyaala^Byexanekiy. In 1300 a eongreea of Boaaian princta
waa held than, and In the tollowing year the town waa taken by
the Uoaoow [nlaca. It oontlnued, howarer, to ba the leiidence
ol tha Ryaatd ptlncea nntil 1S17. In 1806 and 1877 it wai
plandand and burned by Tartar^ bat in tha two loUovlng
centnriei (in 1400, 1E13, 1S31, a-l 1684) It waa atmng enough
to npel them. Earthen walla with towera were erected aftar
1301 ; and In tba 17th contary a "knml" atill stood on tha high
cng above tha Tmhij. ByuaB became chief town ot the ByaaE
iiantananey in 1778.
RTBINBK, or RoiBiinK, though hot a district town of
the government of Yaroslavl, with a permanent iMpiilation
(1883) of only 18,B00, is, ae being virtnally the port o(
St Fetersborg on the Tolga, one ot the most importaot
towns til tbe northern part of Central Rneeis. It lies 54
milea to the north-west ot Yaroslavl, and is connected by
rail (1B6 miles) with Bolc^ycs on the line between 8t
Petersbarg and Moscow. It derives its importance from
its sitoation on the Tolga, opposito tha month of the
Sheksna, — one of those tributanes which, flowing bom
the northwest have since the dawn of Boaaian histoiy
connected the Tolga with the regions anxmd Laka
l^oga. Rnssians settled there as early aa the 13A
ceottuy, or peihapa eviier; sahsequently it seems to
have bec<»ne a mere fishing station nnder Moscow, with
perha[» some shipbnilding. It became a considerable
centre for tiafiBc when the Tyshnevolotak, Tikhvinak, and
Mariiosk canal systems, connecting St Petersbarg with
the Tolga, were opened. Tbe cargoes of the larger boalf
from the lower Tolga, consisting mainly of cckh and Scar,
as also of Mtlt, spirits, potash, an^ tallow, are here trans-
ferred to smaller boats capable ot accompliafiing the
navigation to Bt Fetersborg, and viet vena. The amonnt
ot goods thtu transhipped is estimated at 16,000,000
cwts., worth 32,800^000 roubles. Since the opening of
the line to Bologoye, a large proportion of this merchaodiss
is sent to 8t Petersbarg t^ rail (9,393,000 cwts. in 1880).
The total number ot boats *isit^ Bybinsk onnoally is
estimated at COCO to 7000, their aggregate CKgoea
amoonUng to nearly 20,000,000 cwts. (abont 40,000,000
ronblesl Upwards of 100,000 labourers (male and female)
asaembfe at Rybinsk during the navigation, and (he num-
ber of vessels is so great as to cover the Tolga and the
Bheksua like a bridge. Besides the bniinen of ttaosbip-
ment, Bybinsk has an active trade in com, hemp, Ac, from
the neighbonriog districts. The town is bat poorly bnilt,
and its sanitary condition leaves very much to be desired,
especially in sammer.
BTCAUT, or Bio*ut, Sra Path. (d. 1700), traveller
and diplomatist, waa the tenth son of Sir Peter Bicaat, a
Hoyalist who on account of his support of King CharlM
had to pay a comuosition ot X1500. The son was admitted
a scholar of Trinity College Cambridge, in 1647, and took
his BA. degree in 1650. After travelling in Europe and
in various parts of Asia and Africa, he in 1661 accom-
panied as secretary the earl ot Wiochelsea, ambeaeador
extraordinary to Turkey. Buring a residence there (tf
eight ye^n he wrote Xhe PrttaU Stata of tit OOoman
Empirt, w Ihret haoki ,- eoMamittg the Maximi of lit
Tta-Hih Politie, their Sdigim aitd Military DitdjiiM
(ISTO; 4th ed, 16BS; Fr. transL by Briot, 1670; and
another with notes bf Be^iier, 1Q77)l In 1663 be pob-
R Y D- B Y E
117
Inhed At Oonitantinople The Capilulniim, Artteh* ^
Paaee, Se^ eaudwUd betwrem Ut Stuff <f Sti^md md lit
SaUa» i^Vu Ottimm Smpirt. HDlMqamtly hs *u for
dsTcn jMn conml at SniTrna, uid at the ecMOmaad of
ChorliB n. wrote Tie FrrurM StaU <^ At Gnet and
Armantat CAtmhtt, Jmo Cliruli 1078, whkJi on his
ntnm to EogUnd lie prc«ent«d to the king and pohliahed
in 1679. In ISSfi hard CUrendoo, lord lientanant of
Ireland, nude him principal Hcratary lor the proTiiioes of
Leioster and Oonnausht He at the tame time reoeived
rrom Jamee H the honour of knighthaod, was made a
member of the privy connoil of Inland, and named judge
of tJie hi^ii court irf admiraltj, which office be retained
tilll688. From 1S90 to 1700 he was employed I7 King
Willimm aa English naident at the Banie town^ and
diortty after his retum to England, worn out with age ud
infirmitica, he died on the 16th Deoember 1700.
^euiL mi ■ bUow t>r (ht Rani Bocistr, mil wnts an articla
on Sebl* Uiea whkli wh poUbhwl in ttatlr lYaiimttiimt. In
addition to tha worki alnadr nMotioBtd it <■•■ tba ■■thor of
AOoaUimaiifiufKiuiili^Bitlfr^^tU rWnbA«ti«0 la ISTT
ntao), aaifnm 1G79 U iS» (irOO) 1 A TfauLaiiM <ifI1atina'i
Lna ^ Of ft>« milk a CvHtinuatitm fivm 1471 It (*i Awmi
Tiau (1686) ; Tttt Oritidt, /rm O* SfaniA (/ Ontim (ItM) -,
■■d Iha Sofal CbMMniarte ^ Arv, /mt Ik* AmM if
OareiUmf lliSS).
RTDE, a mnnicipal boroogb sod watering plaea of ^e
Ilia of Wight, ia finely litaated on a eloping eminence
aboTB the Botent, B mila loath by west of Portamoath,
isdeetroyed
by tha French in the reign of Edward 1 1. Abont Uie cloae
«f dia 18th century it wai a email fishing hamlet, but
wheB the beauty of ita ul« attracted attention it n^idlj
grew into faroar ae a watsring-plaea. Hie itreeta an
wide, r^nkr, and well pared, and there are a large nnmber
of fine villas on the siopee of the hilL It is connected
by rail with the principal other towns in the island, and
thtte is also steamboat commnnication with Pwtamouth,
Soathamplaa, Sonthsea, Portaea, and Stake's Bay. The
per, bnflt Miginally in 1813, bnt since then greatly ex-
tended, forms a delightful promenade half a mije in length.
The principal building are All Saints chnicb, ei«cted in
1870 from the deugna of Bii Gilbert Scott, and other
dmrehe^ the market-honse and town hall, the Boyal Tio-
torift Yacht club-house, the theatre, and the Bojal lale of
Wi^ Infirmary. The town wa< inoorpotated in 1868,
and is governed bj A mayor, az aldermen, and eif^teao
comtdlton. The piqiulstion rt the munidpid boronj^ (area
7»S acres) in 1871 was 11,380 and in ]S8l itwaa 11,461.
BT& As in the case of other cereftis, it is doubtful if
ry« {StcaU orra^) exists at the prewnt time in a truly
wild state. The best evidence on this pdnt goes t«
■how that the phmt is a native of the regions between
the Black and Caspian Seas. It is also recorded from
Aff^nistan and Turkeetan ; but botanists ore very chary
abmit admitting the validity of the evidence hitherto
addnced. AitcfaitoD, the lateat inveatigator of the flon of
Afghanistan, mentions it aa nowing in whtat-fields, where
it is considcmd as a weed, not DUDg intentionally sown. In
some fields "it almost endieatM the wheat crop." Bnt
this merely shows that the eooditiens are more favoorable
to the growth of lye than to that of wheat In spite of
the oncertainty as to the precise origin of the cnltivated
plants fta onltivation does not appear to have been practised
at ft very early date, Tektively speaking. Alphonse do
Candoll^ who baa edlected the evidence on this point,
drawa attentioa to the fact that no traces of this ceretJ
have hiQierto been found in Egyptian monnmenta or in
the eadier Swiss dwellings, though seeds have been found
in aiMciiiioii with weapona (d tfae Broiue sefiod at
Olmfltc The aboenee of any nneial name for it in the
Semitie, Chinese, and Sanskrit languagea is also adduced
as an indication of its oompomtively recent cnlture. On
the other hand, the general ooenrrence of tbe name in the
nme modem langnagee of northem Earo]ie, under varioU!
modifications, points to tbe cultivation of the plant then,
OB now, in those regions. Tbe origin of the lAtb nsnie
tKoU, which exists in a modified form among the Basques
and Bretons, is not explained. Tbe circonistaucea that the
eultivatioa of rye is retstively not of great antiquity and
tliat it is confined to a relatively restricted area must be
taken into account, in connexion with the fact that the
variations of this cereal are much fewer than are noted in
the case of other plants of like character.
The fact stated by MUliec that the anthers and stigmas
of the flowers come to matority at the same time would
tend to " close fertilization " and a consequent constancy of
" characters " in tbe offspring, and, as a matter of fact,
the varieties of this grass are not nnroerous. Rye is a
tall-growing annual graa, with Gbrons roots, flat, narrow,
ribbon-like blttish-greeo leaves, and erect or decurved
cylindrical slender spikes like those of barley. The spike-
lets contain (wo or three flowers, of which the uppermost
is nsuoUy imperfect. The outer glomce are acute glabrous,
tbe flowering glumes lance-ehaped, with a comb-like keel
at the bock, and the outer or lower one prolonged at the
apex into a very long ta-Utly awn. Within these are three
stamens surrounding a compressed ovary, with two feathery
stigmas. When ripe, the grain is of an elongated oval
form, with a few hsjrs at the snmmit
In the southern porta of Great Britain rye is chiefly or
solely cnltivated as a forage-plant for cattle and hones,
being nsnaUy sown in autumn for spring nse, after the
crop of roots, turnips, Ac, is exhansted, and before the
clover and lucerne are ready. For forage purposes it is
best to cat early, before the leaves and haulms have been
exhausted of their supplies to benefit the grain. In the
northern parte of Europe, and more especially in Scan-
dinavia, Rusua, aud parts of northern Germany, rye is the
principal cereal ; and in nutritive value, as measured by the
amount of gluten it contains, it stands next to wheat, a
fiict which furnishes the explanation of its cnlture in
northern laUtudes ill-euited for tbe growth of wheat. Sye-
breod or bUck-bread is in general nse in northem Europe,
but Gods little favour with those nnoccustomed to its use,
owing to its sonr taste, the sugar it coctaina rapidly
passing into the acetous fermentation.
When the ovaries of the plant become affected with a
pecniiar fnngus {Cordycep*\ they become blackened and
distorted, constituting Ebgot (q.v.).
BTE, a mnnicipol town and seaport at the eastern
extremity of the conn^ of Sussex, 63 milea sooth-south-
east of London, is built upon a rocky eminence which two
or tlvee centuries ago was washed mi all sides by the
inflax of the tide, bat now, in eunsaquence of the gradual
recession of the sea, lies two milea ioland. It is sur-
rounded by rich marsh land through which flows the river
Bothar, uniting at the south-east foot of the rock wiUi
two rivulets to form a small serpentine estoary. Bye
harbour, tlie mouth of which is connected with the town
by means of a branch line of railway. In bfgoue year^
when tlie adjacent marshes were flooded with tidal water,
the efflux was so powerful as to effectually mainlair safe
and free entrance into Bye harbour ; and in the reign of
Charka IL a frigate of 60 guns conld enter and ride at
anchor. Now the harbour suffers serioosly from the
jhifting sand and shingle, and considerable sums of money
have boMi expended by tbe harbour couunisBioners with
the view of overcoming these impedimanta, with bnt
partial atuceai. The tndo is chiafiy in coal, timber,
118
R Y E — R Y M
ud berk, aod ahipbnfldiag U eacried on u well u fi«h-
iag. There is a large market eveTj oltonuite Weduetday,
Knd coneideroble business in cattle, Aeep, com, irool, and
hops is tnnsacted. Bye is a quaint, compectlj-boilt tow-o
perched apoQ the rock to which for ceatarie$ it mu
restricted, bat in the course e[ the last huU-centurr it hu
graduaJlj extended itselE over the northern slopes beyond
uie town walL It is excellently drained,- abundantly
supplied with clear spring water, end very henltby.
The church, said to be the largest parish chordi in Eng-
land, is of very mixed architecture, chiefly Transitional,
KormaD, and Early English; the m>*e and high chancel
were judicionsly restored in 1882, according to designu by
the late Mr Q. E. Street. Of the old tortificatioiu there
■till lemaiD portious of tiie town waD, much bidden by
newer buildiDge, a strong qnadrangqlor tower bulIC by
William of Ypro, earl of Kent, and lord nankn ia the time
tA Stephen, and now fonning part of the police station,
and a handaome gate with a ronnd lover on each side,
known as the Sandgate, at the entrance into Bye from the
London road. B;e ceaeed in 1885 to be a parliamentary
borough, bnt gives its name to the eaatem division of the
county. The popdatioa in 1881 was 4224.
Of the euly history of Eya littls ii baown. In Ihp mediievil
Frencli oliromclH it is tlvnjt mentiaiud u "Ls Rie." Macing
been coafcired apoB the ibbej of Feamg by EJnnl the Confsur,
itmuttkeii bwi bv King Henry IIL into Iiii own huidi, "for
the better defence of hie mlm," end rrceired from thit lOTereiF^n
the fall rit;ht> ind privilfga of i Cini]ite Port under tha title ot
"And«nt Taim.'' la coueequencs or the fntjaent incaniani ot
the French, by whom it was Bcked «nd bnrnt three tiaies in the
Kth cantury, it vu fortiGed by order of Ednini III. on the lind-
w«rd eide, the eteop precipiloni sidea of the rock affording sinplo
protection towirdi the hb. In addition to the naril aarricei
nadered by Bye ai a Cinqaa Port under the Flimtiigenet and
Tudor aoTerajpia, it was ■ principal port ot cammunication with
fnace in timts or peace,— for irtiich rfosn inccaiaive banda of
Hsnenota Oed thither between ISOa and IBBfi, naaj of whom
•etued at By* and have left repreaantatives now liiing.
BYEZHITZA, a town ot European Bussia at the bead
of a district in the Vitebsk government, in S6* 30' K. lat.
and 37° 21' E. long., 19B miles north-west fromYitehsk
on the Toilimy between Bt Fetcrebnrg and Wanaw, near
the ByechLta, which falls into Lake Luban. Its popn-
latlon increased from T306 (2902 Jews) in 1867 to
about 9000 in I881;'but its importance U mainly blMori-
cal The cathedral is a modern building (1816).
ByeiUtn, or, u it ia called in the LiroDlan chronido, Boiitin,
waa (bunded in ISBC by Vilhelm von Barburg to keen in anbisc-
tjon tb* Lithuanians and LotCa. The eutli vai contiDi
object of boatile attviks. Id 1E6S the Li'
t^ th* war with Boaaia,
it waa eaptnred by the
fortlflcatioiu dismantled by the Swedei during the war of ISM-
l«eo, it cootinnad Polish till in% when While RussU was united
with til* Baaaiin cmpiia. Id eatir timea Byezhitaa was a large
and btantiTnl towu. '^ ' ' >
EYLAND, William Wyvhx (1738-1T83), engraver,
waa bom in London in Jnly 1738, the son of an engraver
and copper-plate printer. He studied onder Bavenet, and
in Paris nnder Boucher and J. P. le Baa. Aftsr speoding
five years on the Continent he returned to Engluid, and
having engraved portraits of Qeorge IQ. and Lord Bute
after Bamsay (a commission declined by Stmnge), and a
portrait of Qaeen Charlotte and the Princess Boyal after
rraoios Cotee, B.A., he was appointed engtaver to the
kin^ In 1766 be became a member of the Incorporated
Society of Artists, and he exhibited with them and in the
Boyol Academy. In his later life Byland abandoned line-
engraving, and introdiwed " chaJk-^ngraving," in which
&6 line is composed of stippled dots, a method by means
of which be- attained great excellenc«s and in which he
transcribed Mortimer's King John Signing Hagna Charts,
■ri, echoed the drawings of the old nuttera and the worki
a eon tia Dally thi
of Angelica Katiffman. Tie badod largely in ^ints, bnt
in ceoaequenca of hia oxtravoj^uit habits hm affoini became
involved ; he was convicted of forging bilU npo« the Em-t
India Company, and, after attempting to coniiuit nuiciilc,
was execatod at Tyburn on the L'Uth of AupiBt 17UM. X
short memoir ot Kyland was published the year alter bn
BYilEB, TnoiiAa (1641-171.1), historiograpbcr rc^l,
nils the yonnger son of Italph Itymer, lord of tlio niauur
ot Brafierton in Yorkshire, doscribod by Ciarcudon uk
" poaaeaaed of a good estate " and executed tor b'u rinao in
the "Presbyterian riaing" of 1CG.1, Thomas wni>iirohalJy
barn at Yofforth Hall early in 1641, and vras educated at
a private school kept by Thonias KiiieJt, a noted Boyalist,
with whom Bymer was "a groat favourite," and "well
known for his great critical skill in hnman loamiug
eapeciallj iu poetry and history.'''
Ha waa ndmitted as jitueivtairliu miiuir at Sidney
Sussex College, Cambridge, on April 29, IG-IS. but left
the univeruty without taking a degree. On Uay i, 166G,
he became a member of Oray's Inn, and xnii called to tliu
bar on June 16, 1673. His first appearance in print was
as translator ot Cieero't Pritun (1668), from the Latin
treatiee (1S08) drawn np for IVince Hcnrj. He also
translated Bapin's JirflcctUmt o» Ariiiatlii TrvUim n/
PixtU (167i), and followed the principles there set forlh
in a tragedy in verse, licensed September 13, 1677, called
Edgar, or tht Englith MonarA, which was not, however,
very successful. The printed editions of 1678, 1691, and
1693 belong to the same issu^ with new tiUe-pagoi.
Bymer's vitnn on the drama were again given to the
world in the shape ot a printed lettor to Fleetwood Shep-
heard, the friend ot Prior, under the title of Tlit Truytdiei
</ tht Latt Age Contidertd (167B). To 0*u£» EjArilf
Traiulatedbf Sneral Ha»da (1680), with preface by Dry-
den, "Penelope to Ulysses" vraa contrihated by Bymer,
who WM also one of the "hands' who En^ished the
Flufarefa of 16S3--B6. The life of Nicies tell to hia shar«i
He furnished a preface to Whitelocke'e Memoriah of Sny-
luA Afoirt (lf!83), and vroto in 1681 A General Mrauff&t
and FTV^>tef of (i4 Omemment of Sitnpe, reprinted in
168» and 17U as Qf lit AitHqtaty, Foteer, and Decaff
ParUammU, vhen^ ignorant of tus future dignitf, the
critic bad the misfortime to observe, "Ton are not to
expect truth from an historiographef imL" He eon-
tribnted throe {Heeee to the oollectioii of PoemM to lie
Mewtorp </ J(&nim>j WalUr (1688), afterward* reprinted
in Dr^len's Mitaella^f Potm*, and ia nid to have written
the lAtinbucmiticMioD Waller^ Monnineot in Beaoonsftsld
(^nichyHrd. Be prodoead a coi^gratailataty poem upon the
arriral of Qoeea Hoiy in 1660. Hit next puce' of anthw
ship was to toanslato the sixth elegy of the third book
of Orid'e Triitia for Drydsn's MiteeO^y Poeme (1691^
p. UB), On the death of Thomas Sbadwell in 1693
Bymer reoeived the appointment of bistoriograpber nryal,
at a yearij sahvy of .£200. Immediately afterwords
appeared hie Short Vieu of Tragedy (1693), criticiiing
Shakespeare and Ben Jonson, which prodnced TA</mparfiaf
Critkk (1693) of Dennis, the epigram of Dryden,* and the
judgment of Hocanlay that Bymer wee "the worst critic
that ever lived." Within eight months of. hia official
appointment Bymer was directed (Angnst 26, 16B3) tatairj
■ B« BickM, Jfouiin ■i/'/oU JT^UnWl, 171S, pp. 10-11.
■ "The comptlDD of a poet ii the generatlOD of a ciltld " (^>«l
Iff Ou Third MiKiUany, in Waria, 1B21, tIL p. it), which la much
icon painted than Beaconafield'! nference to Mtloa m'nmf^
have faUed In Utentsn and an " {Ltiluir, chap, hit.} ct Balne'*
al^ hit at Hirimie in dmilir tenaa. The poet'* ranaika OB the
TragKlirt of On Laii Age inrfbHunprlBtailniiM Weria, 1811, iv.
n Johni
K L 177, tL Ul, il. W, X
\ Li/, vf Oryi€t. 8m also Drrdee^
R Z H — E Z H
111)
out tint great national andertaking with wliich bU name
will always bs honamablf connected, and of which there
is reasoa to believe that Lorda Someis and EalLfaz were
the ttiginal promotera. The Coda Jmrii Gentium 'Hplo-
mutittu of Leibnitz wa» taken by the editor aa the model
of the Fadem. The pU^ was to pnblitb atl record* of
allianeee and otber ttaoaactions in which England wa«
conceroed with foreigD powers from 1101 to the time of
pablication, limiting the eoQectlon to original docQmenta
in the rajat archiTes and the grast national librariBs.
Unfortonatelj, this wai not DDifonnlj carried ont, and
tlie work contains some eztnct* from printed chronicles.
From 1694 he corresponded with Leibnitz, by whom he
was greritly infiuenced with respect to the plan and forma-
tioQ of the Frtdara. While collecting materials, Rymer
nnivi«ely engiared a epurions charter of King ilalcolin,
acknowledging that Bcotlaod was held im homage from
Edward the ConfesEor. When this nme to be known,
the Scotdsh antiquaries were eitremely jadignant. O.
tledpath pnbliabed a )IS. on the independence of the
Scottish crown, b; Sir T. Craig antitlad SeoUatuIt Soorr-
eignty Autrltd (1695), and the subject wss rcfened to by
Bi^iop Nicolaon in his Scottitk Hutorieal Library (1702).
This led Rymei to address three Lttten to the Bitkop of
CarliaU ^1702), explaioing his action, and discoaung othm'
•ntiqDai.aD matters. The firat and aeoond letters are
nanally fonnd together ; the third is extremely rare. Bymer
had now been for some years working with great iodostry,
bat was constantly obliged to petition tha crown for mooey
to carry on the und^taking. Up to August 1S98 he
had expended ^£1203, aad had only rMeived £500 on
At laat, on KoTcmb^r 30, 1704, was issned the first
folio Yolame of the Fadera, Coyutntionet, LiUerit et ei(/iuctw-
qtu gtnerit Acta Pvbiica inter rega Attglix et idiot quotnt
imptraUtra, Ttgt$, dx., oi AJ). IIQI ad tuatra utqve
Itnpora kabita out b-actala. The publication proceeded
with great rapidity, and fifteen volumes were brought out
by Rymer in nine jeaia. Two hundred and fifty copies
were printed; but, aa nearly all of them were presentod to
persons of distinction, the work soon became so scarce
that it was priced by booksellen at one hundred guioeaa.
A hnudred and twenty sheets of the fifteenth volome and
the cc^y for the remainder were bunt at a fire at William
Bowjer's, the printer, on January 30, 1712-13. Rymer
died shortly after the appearance of this volume, but he
had prepared materials for carrying the work down to the
end of tha reiTn of Jamea L These were placed in the
hands of Robert Sanderson, his assistant For the grester
part of his life Bymer derived his chief snbeistence from
« mortgage asaigued to him by his father. His miscel-
laneons Uterary work could not have been very profitable.
At ooe time be was reduced to offer his MSS. for a new
•dilaoD for sale to the earl of Oxford. Abont 1T03 his
affair* became more settled, and he afterwards regularly
received his salary aa historiographer, besidea an addi-
tignal .£200 a year as editor of the Fixdera. Twenty-
five copies c^ each volume were also allotted to him. He
died at Amndel Street, Btrand, December 11, 1718, and
was borisd in the church of Bt Clement Danes. Hia will
was dated July 10, 1713. Tonaon issued an edition cf
Bocheater's Work* (1714), with a short preface by the
late hutoriographer. Another posthumous publication
was in a misc^laneons collection called Ctcritme Amvte-
Moif*, ^ M. B. (17U), which included "some transla-
Uona from Greek, Latin, and luUan poets, by T.
^mer.' Some of his poetical pieces were also inserted
in 1. Nichols^ Sthd CoUeOion (1780-86, 8 vols.).
Two mors valnnMS id ths JWfro mrc inatd bjr Ssndtnon la
171iaiiai717, sad the ls*t time ToluDMsUvliL, itc. andzx.) lir
the nm< niitOT, bnt upon s tliprhtiT difTnent plan, in ITSfl-SC
Tlw Utter volanm wen pnblinlied by ToiuoD. nU thfl ruruor by
ChnnbitL Uiuler Rynifr it wtu curieil doini to IGHS. nud »u-
tinnKl by SandarKiii to 1S54. Tils nritv and iin|>«rtiiBn at the
work indnood TonmD to abtun ■ \\<xaa for s Mcoiid nditioa, nuj
Qwrge Holme^ deimty kwiar of tbo Toirer rnanli, ira» imxiiutKl
•ditoi. Tliu naw nlilioD ii].]>nnd belvntn 1727 u<l 173E. Tlio
bit tlim volumM in th* uiiiu in both iuiuL Then m ■onis
!, The EhuwIitU
■ ■ ■ - -jlTaa t_. .„
._th!nl
luiBUcr ttiie tliau tb« othcn,
tai u compmHti wiinia laa roiio voinnuiL Ths nrmuj^mcat ii
ntbar mora convfliieDt ; tbamkauiamdiJitlontl mattor ; UialnUoi
ia batUr ; and on tba whole it ii to ba nnrurrad to aithai of Iba
pnvlooi editiani. Whan tha volame* of lbs PvtUra hnt srip«u«d
thsf n-era auilvaad by LedeR and Riiiiiii iii tha Sibliothiqiit
ChoiiU sod Bilulkiqiu Aiuiaiu\t t Undent. Kapiii'i uCiJiaa
wan collactsd togatliar, sod spimidvd, under tba titio of Abttt*
fdHaripa dxe aOm piiiiiiqua it X Aaqt
Utter
nUling to Iba joan
•-■--■ -leoftbs
FaxUnt. Six parti,
arwi lujiD, DuiHu uj Clarks, CaUy, and Holbrooke, vera jiab-
luSad betWHa 1B10 and 1S30. Conddenbls ftddilions wen nuule,
bat the adituig was perfonnsd in ao nuaatiifactorr a mauner that
tbe publication vta auapsndsd in th* miildia or printing a aevsutli
part. Tba Utter PDrtloo, bringing tba work down to ISSS, was
nltinutely iiaued in 1869.
The wide Uaraing and nntirlag Ubonn of Kymar have reedTad
the wanneat prilaa from hiatoriana. Sir T. D. Hardy atjlaa the
Faim " ■ vork of which thia nation has Braty naaon to ba uood,
for with all ita blemubei— and what work ia raultlen I— It hai
DO rival in Ita cUb" \Mfaim*, vol. IL, xinlX and Ur J. B.
Unlliiiger call* it " i collection of the b!|[{i«at valna and luthorit; "
(Uardiner and Unllingar'a /XraJBeNm (a Sn^lA HMmy, p. Kl).
Tba bait ae«wil of RjBar M to 1h ftna4 la Iba mttan ra Sir T. D. Hai4t^
Votw. 1K>-H, 1 nU. Sn. TtHia li aa uvaUMicd •"- '■- "— •'-'
BZHEFF, BsHxrr, Bnr, or Rzhoff, a (own of Em^iean
BuBsia at the head Of a district in the Tver government
in I>6' 16' N. lat. and 34* 21' £. long., S9 miles sonth-
west fA Tver, occopiee tite bloSs on both banks of tha
Volga (hen 350 feet wide) near the eoDflnettce of die river
Batnza. It is the termibns of a branch Una from the 8t
Fetersborg and Hoeeow Railway, hat a popnlaticm of
16,569 (1880; 19,640 in 1666), carrie* on a variety of
manufacturea — hemp-spinnio^ malting brewing, ship-
boildinft Ic — and is the centre of a great transit trade
between the provinces of the lower Volga, Orel, Kalngt^
and Smolensk, and the ports of St Petersbarg and Riga.
Ribetr ■ ■ - -- . - .
belonged to ,.
bfltvwm Tfovgorod a:
b«coms from 1225 a (abordiaata piila^iali^,
centnry the two portionaof tha townwa.ahald l^ ,
nrincaa, w!ioBe namea an atiU prasKvad ia tha deaigiiaUoiM £nyu
rednronkii and Knns DimlttlenkfL giTan rasMOtiTely to tba
leftandtberigbtbankoftheVoln. 1nlS«8 Bduffwaaaptorad
by VUdimir Andrasrilch, and Id 1S75 it Mood a tbrsa waeka^ aeigs
and had Ita anbiirb bamad by ths same prince. It was msda a
diftiiet Iowa in 177G.
itr wu almiljr in eiiMeDcs in tbe 13Ch eentn^, when it
id to Cht principal itr o( fimolsiuk and atood on thshi^wny
a ItfoTgorod and EletT. Undai' tbe ralaia of Sovainiid u
120
S
Srapnsents tlie hard open (or fricatiTe) acmnd prodaced
hj briagiog the blade of the tongna close to the
fTDDt palate, inunediatal; behind the gamn, or rather, this
ia the normal poaition tor B, as alight Tarietiee can be
ptodnewl b; bringiag the tongue farther back. By the
" blade " ii meant the pointed end of the tongue, not the
atn poin^ which at the same part of the palate prodnces
K Thia poeitioD differ* little from that for TH, into
which 8 p«MS in a lisping pronnnciation ; a larger part
of the ewfaee of the tongne ia brought near to the palate
for TH than for &. The aymlx)] wliich repretents the loft
open eonod coneiponding to S ia Z, thou^^ in practice S
often Itands tor both.
He hiatory of onr lymbol S ia easy np to a certain
point It ia the rounded foim of '^, rounded at a ver^
aarij period for convenience of writing, for the change
ii apparmt in the old Italian alphabet of CEere, and still
more on the recently discovered vaie of Formello ; and
even In the scribbling of the Oreehs at Abn Sirabel — the
otdie^ or nearly the oldest, bit of Greek epigraphy — per-
feetfy tonnded fomu stand aide by aide with the angular
onea. ^le common Qreek form S was obtained by adding
• fourth stroke, and gradoaUy mnUng the top and bottom
onea horiiontaL When, however, we wish to identify the
Oraek symbol (rf three strokea with its Fhcenician counter-
part, the difBcolty begins. The Fhceniciana had four
eymbola for sibilants, koQWn in Hebrew as Zayiu, Somekli,
Qade, and Shin ; the last of these at a very early date
tepreaented two sounds, the English A, and another sonnd
which resemUed that of Samekh and ultimately became
indiatinguishable from it, both being pronounced as the
Engliih $. The Greeks did not want all these symbols,
conaaqusntly in different parts of Greece one or other — -
Dot the Mune— Fhianieion symbol fell into disuse. One
of tfacM, M or V, called San, though lost in Ionic, appears
in old Doric inacriptiona, as those of Thera, Melos, and
Crete, Argos, Corinth, and Corcyra ; but the later Doric
form is the nanal Bigma ; probably San was too like the
nasal U. There is no doubt that in form Zeta represents
Zayin, and that Xi represents Saroekh. Moreovar, Zeta
and Zayin stand seventh in the- Greek and PhcEnician
alphabets respectively, and Xi and Sumekh each fifteenth.
Again, the form of San with three strokes corresponds
fairiy with Bade, and Sigma is moderately like Shin ; bat
here the evidence of position comes in again to strengthen
a soDievhat weak case, for in the old Italian alphabets
Sao ha* the place of 9ade, the simpler fona occurring in
the Cere alidiabet, the fuller in that of the Formello vase ;
in both Sigma (rounded in form) has the place of Shin.
These identifications would be certaiu if the names cor-
responded a* well as the forma ; but they clearly do not :
Zeta and Bade (not Zayin) seem to hold together in sound,
and Sigma (as has often been suggested) looks like a " popu-
lar etymology" for Bamekh. Bnt the olgectiou from
diffcienoe o( names ia not fataL All names which are
thought of habitually in rows or sets tend to be modified
ander the influence irf analogy ; and analogy bas certainly
hecD at work here, for Xi, wbicb is a purely Greek name,
is, like nd, and like Clii and Phi,' duo to the older PL
Similarly Eta and Theta have probably made Zeta ; but
it must be allowed that the metamorphosis of Bode is
more intelligible (as a matter of sound-change) than that
of Zayin. Probably we must have recourse to a different
principle to explain at least some part of onr difficulty.
Wo may Bnppoee that ia aome port of Greece the sounds
denoted ori|pnally trjr Qade and Zayin beMme indis-
tinguishable ; there would then exist for a time one sound
but two names. It would be a matter of little moment
wliich name should survive; thus Bade (or Zeta) might
aupersede Zayin, or one name might survive in one
district — as San in the Doric, but Bigma in the rot of
Greece. This suggestion is made by Di Taylor (7iU
Alphabet, ii 100). The history of the sounds, as welt a*
of the forms, of the Greek sibilants is difficult. ProbaUy
Sigma was generally hard — our s in ngti. Bnt Zeta did
not originally denote the corresponding i : rather it wai
d» ; some say c^ as in " John," but this is not likely. Xi
was probably a strong ubilant with a weak guttural, a* X
was ia lAtin. If the sound i existed in Greek, as is prob-
able, it was denoted by Sigma. In Italy, also^ we must
infer that the loft sibilant waa heard too little to need a
special symbol, because i^ which existe in the old alphabets
of Cere and Formello, was lost early enough to leave a
place for the nswly-made Italian symbol O. When Z was
restored, it was placed at the end of the alphabet and doubt-
less with the value of Greek Z in the Greek word* in which
alone it «*s nsed. One I^tia s — probably i — became the
trilled r between two vowels, — t,g^ in "Fapirius" for
"Papisius," "arboris" for "orbosia."
In English the symbol t olons existed till s was Intro-
duced from France with words of French ori^ as " nal,*
" zone." An attempt was made to employ it at the end of
plural nouna, where the sound is regularly heard except
when the last sound of the noun is hard, t.g., " beds "
(beds), but "hops"; but thi^ was not mointtuned, nor
even consistently done, for the symbol was used even when
the sound mnst have been t. We regularly write « ^br
both sounds, — i.g^ in "lo4e" and "loose," "curs" and
"curse," "hers" and "hearse." When there is adiatue-
tion in spelling the • commonly ha* the value of ^~«.^.,
"vies "and "vice," "pays" and "pa«s" "his "and "hisa."
S has the sound of lA in "sure," "sugar," and some other
vrords ; this is due to the palatal sound heard before the «.
Sh, in spite of its spelling, is a single sound, the poution
of which differs from^ that for s only in a slight retraction
of the point of tho tongue ; it is commonly found in
English worda which originally bod il; — e.g., " ahall," O.E.
artid; "shabby," a doublet of "scabby"; "fish," O.E /li.
The sound is the same as that of French f\jn "chlteau,"
"chef," "s&:heT," where it ia due to asdbilation of original i.
SAADI. SeeS^'Df.
SAADIA, or Baasiab (Heb. Se'adyah, Arab. iSa'Id'),
was the most accomplished, learned, and noble goon (head
of the academy) of SUra (see Bab). Mar Rab Se'tdyah
b. Yoseph' was bom in the Fayyflm, Upper Egypt^ in 893
and died at SJlrl in 9^2. Of his teachen only the Jew
Abii Eetblr is positively known by iiame,* but he mnst
have bad at least three more teachera of nKuiderable
leoraiog, one a Kamte,* one a Ifohammedan, and one a
Chrietian, as bis acquaintance with the literature of tbeaa
four religious bodies testifies. His pre-eminenee over hi*
1 Ha dgni liiiD»ir 1-m KTOMlcslly la Us .djAantt «»« n^
52, S3 ; KB iiots t on next poga).
• Hu'ildl, s cantaniponn', oU* O* tsOw Ts'sktA ; tnt SM rUst,
lUer-UsTbirU d. Oriail, tL coL 140.
• Mu'i^dl (D* Bur, ClWwf. Ar.. 2d ed., t WO, Ul).
• Tha Ute luinni lod iEgrafani KibU & L. Bipoport lelM M^
u in msnj otber plaeu, tli« Moie of Kijpliiu (" Toladath Bsbbtaa
Bt'odTih Ouin," in Bikktirt tfa'tOitu, YlranA, ISSS, noU SI). Fo-
hipi, sftv ill, a* Kuidta m>r >» t^t In smbIIiii tkst BdmM k.
TtnbuB WM Bsb Ba'adfili'i tucher.
,.c
I A A D I A
121
coBtcmponrMi fa indicated ii
1 Hm tact Uut lie wu tbe
onlj gtaa who had not been educated utd then advanced
bj dugreoB in the academj, to the higbeet dignity of which
ha ma called A-om a far-off conntt;, but best appean
in the ezoell«ac« of bi* manj wotlu, which extend
moat btanehe* of learning kmwn in bia time. And hia
le«nuag wai exceeded t^ hii manifold viitnea. Hia Iota
of tnith and jnatioe wa« made oiore oontpieaoaa by the
darknen of the corniption amid which he lived. When
the tSah gilothS ("priikoe ot the c^itiritj," the hi^aat
dignitary of the Jewa in Bal^kmia, and to KMne extant of
thoaa of the iriiole wwld) attempted to Treat jndgment in
a certain caae, and first aaked, then raqueeted, and finally
demanded the aignatiireiof thegaonof SOrt in a threaten-
ing manner, Se'adyah refnied it, fearleae of amaeqneDce*.
DsTid h. Zakku, the rteh gllathi, dspoaed hun and
choas another g/um in hia itead. A. reconciliation took
place some yean afterwards, and Se'adyah waa reinaUted
in hia old dignity. And, althoogh hia health had bean
fatally andennined by the behanour of the rtah gtlntha
end hia eon, Se'adyah, when hia former opponent died,
vaa indefatig^a in hia endearonra to have thia Tery aon
of hia once mortal enemy placed on the throne of his
fathen. But the new prince of the captivity enjoyed his
dignity for little more than half a year. He left behind
him a boy, twelve years of age, whom Se'adyah took into
his ova house and treated in every respect as his own
child, ^ia learning and these virtues endeared Se'adyah
not marety to hia contemporariea but also to the best
men of aneoeeding ogea. Behayye fa. Toaeph (the author
of the (fcbotA Bi^iebabtak), RhIu, Se'adyah (the author
of the commentary on Daniel in the Babbinic Bible), David
Kim^ Be^iayye b. Aaher (the anthor of Kad Ha^iemtA),
■11 appeal to him as an anthority not to be qoeaticsied.
Even D>n 'Ban, defer* more to nim than to any other
oathority. To this day Jewish and Christian adiolan alike
eiprasa for hiiu the hi^icat admiration.
The nnmannu works whldi an aacribad to him may be omi-
venisntly divided into fbar iUmh
L 04Maiiii amd Hill dEteiX fFtfrb.— (1) Arable traulattoni ot,
■ad in part commmtuui'DB, booki of tha Bible (a) tha Penta-
uDcli (pcinUd ia Babmr sharactcn, CooManClBople, IGlt, foL,
and ia Antdo chanctan In the PaHi ud LodiIod polyglotti) ; (t)
luiati (printed In Arabic ehatwtan Ctom Hebraw lactaia ot Iba
Bodlaum Ua Uti IM,* bj Paaln^ Jana, 17H-91, 8vo) ) (e) Paalma
(Enid, (Mm- dU arallltdi gm^rMfUH WtritjtdU
r^MHta, atottgart, ISii, 8»o)j (ri) Pnverba (Bodlg .. .. _..
IS); <*}JDb(niiU); (/} CantMbs (Man, J>i« Am^bhibIi CTiifr-
idlgian US.
•dviwj im Btlm JMm tm ArMiAa, Haidalbafft 18£Z, Svo),
m Rebnw LeiiaiinmiAr : Snwt* (M or »1) Snt Ttyiutn to be
bind in the Bibl^ pnbltabad hom tba Bodl. Ua Hoot G7S, bv
Dakia (X L M., ■w. S) aid In Baiyseab (DOariiK Attikijn, L,
Leipdc tU4). m Talnadia Utanton ■ (a) D«^ona (Iscorpo-
nted in 'lUar, Vaniua^ ISW, foL ; and in the book of RapoaMo,
Slaan Sati^, 8alonir:a, 1781, 4to) ; (i) On the Uwa of inhuitaaca
(BodL VS. Hunt. S30). («) Liturgy, both in pnaa and noetiv:
{a)8iddHr (Bodltian MS. Dri »l)i* {t) AraiMiir ilidrtmh Xv,
■ To Baka tka I^ iioUaat et tbmHA giUstU an* raqxclad,
lb* SBDatona of tha gnnUB ot BOrl ud PoabwUthi v<n dcalnbla.
A ipidaaa af a l«l dedakm br David b. Zakkat Dfiwd on tba
aotlurUy of Kab Ha'adyak OaoD la to ba toaad in rraokd-tMUc,
Uautlmtkri/l, xxiL ft- 1*7-170.
■ If WB Bar aigoa from tba knova to the ankaown, Sa'tdM'-
traodaUaoa, vlirtbn thay ware called litfUr or tkar^ contained
Biera than I nun taaaalailia. rnw (ba'lna^ pnbaa loUi Mm-
— atarr on tha Ptntataniih anl froa Iba AnUe oonm. oa tba Pealmi
pgUitbad la uoarpt b; Bvald.wa aaa tbat Bab Ba'adjali vaa In the
h^Mt of aiplainlnf la addlttco to taandatlng. Oomwa alKi Hank,
" Notioa air eaadla," in Oabaa, £a Stilt (lui»\ Hula, 1S38, Svo, p.
■ In the (opjlrt'i aabaoiplloB to tbia US. tba astnal twdbw la not
mrea (Bapopcn). bnt rrwaS -, tUi ilionld be tmw, aa Hank
prJata It (' KaOat," p. 108). The Bodlaian lIBa an nterad la D
tUa aniele bum panoaal luipactlan.
* Tba Gfiglnal oodai on tnnU
BaB^laaiia baadwrttlaE (Itth aenL
H dt* Idm (MdIo, in Hebrew latten(lt3. Jallinch of Tirnos,
with Hebrew sod Oanaan trmnaUtlDD hj V. ElKnitultcr, VhMina,
ISeS, troy (t) Baligioaa Ph{loaopb<ri (o) Commcniary on tha
Strliir r>r<nA HS. Uri t70 [Opp. Add., <to, SB), containa tba eai-
liar part of a Heb. trana in a loodarn hand -, {i) A'Udi al-Aiainii
'truqidif (LuuUuar, Laydan, 1880,8vo), tnnaUted into Heb
by Yabndah ibn Tlbbon (acUis pt
ConaUntinopIo, IBBl It
and by K. Bankbjah Hannakdati, aatbor of tba MiAtle Sku'alim
(uriatad only ia part; aaa bakaa, SMrdgi, pp. 10, IS); nine
ebaptan bava bean trkaaUCod into Oennan (Font, Laipalo, ISIS,
ISmo), and fotta into Engliah (Tkv TnaiiMt, by P. Allii, London,
1707, Svo).
II. f^orfa noic fait, ha Oi acUnat i^ itlilth it M(M f> ^
'latiiwipnmrif aad laltr anMor*.— (1) An Arabic tianalation of, and
' " ' alL tha otbar books of the
Btationa (£k,Aar
-.tl Tnatiaai : (a)
_. „ .... /oBgoo-fa) Traatiae on the Changea, (p)
Traatiaa on the CotibinBtiana, {y) Treatiaa on Saguk and Sa/duli,
l<)TrastiasonthaU«*nKr\n,K'; [t) Tnatlaa on Punoloation • i
jc) Treatiaa m Ri^t Reading' ;— It U not impornble tl^t tha fint
four conititnt«l one work and the la*t two another work (<)
Talmodlc Uleratoni: [a)Tr«n.latioii of the tfirijjoi"; (») Malh-
odolop of tha (Babjlonian) Talmnd " i (e) Treatiaa "" ■" '"
Treatiaa on Depaita"; (.) Trraliw on Oatha"; [/) Tt»«ti»e
ProhibiCad Di^rm") (g) Treatiia on Intpura it Pu\ ■ ' -
SUiiMoih Hiddah '•;— it ia vary poniblt tbat thoH
lli
f conatitutad one boot, JtiK aa the t
book (B) Calandario Litamtora : _.,...
latarealstieo).' (8) Apolofietlca ; Treatlae
Polaiuka : (alaaalnat Kanum— <■) 'Anaii,»(a) Ibn Sakkairijyah.'
{-,) Ibn ZitU (or Zutta]"; (i) aninit the SabbaniU Hivvt al-
Balkbi " i (e) agalnat the Karaite Ben Aahar (tbs completer of tli«
iramBrti; aaa 2. -A (t Or.,x. Ml). (8) Tha natnra of the SniWr
Eatgaiiii citad by Rabsd IL sod Ab. b. HiyTa in hia Siphtr Ba-Oim'
ia not clear.
IIL ^srlb aantad Is Si'adf<a III* auOtrtJitp <f irAJdt i» lul
mMmaf sroan.— (1) Tba aoomanUrv on Cuiticlea edited by
Ybbak Ibn^Akriah (Ctnutantlaopla, 1577, tto], and tbat pabliabed
by L JUrgalivyotk at Fiaukfori-on-Oder, 1777". (2) Tha wall-
known pieca irfdidactle poetry whldi glvaa account of ail tba lettcir
ot ths Bibia, how many Umaa they occnr, kc. ttdillt prmap*,
Venice, 1E38. at the and of Eliaa Larita'a UaaKntk Bammam.).
IT. ^sriaaaEribrfMAi'a^altvaiMait;— (l)ThaCommant_.'J
on Denial commonly foond In tha Babblnb Bible* bdonga to an-
otbar Bab Madyab, who llvad at laaat two handi«d yean latar,
and waa a natlta dthar «( risoce or tha aonth of Oarmany. (1)
Tba Coniaaotaiy on tha Ajato- ri^lrv*, prinlad with tba leit and
thraa other eonunentarias at Hantus in ItSS, 4to. (S) Tha Book
on Lola (Aftlar BaggtraMK), often printed aaparataly and in oon-
Jnnclioo with Btmilar work*. (4) £!«■ A'>wfl«aMtfi»(Zs^fii%iIo>
to Mm by B. Uoahah Bntiial (Itutui oditisB
aoptopKn]
of tha Sap
ApAar KtrfroA as sbova).
li 1b S. Anbiaa handwiitla|. Tba wall -knows "Tan raaaona ftr
Bonndine tha Trsiapat oa tba Daj at HemaU " are not toasd In tUa
Biddnr (agalaat Rapoport, mt Htpra, note SI}, Tba three poetleal
plesaa publlihtd aa In b; Ro«inbarg (.^abif. IL, Berlin, 18M1 IDnn
ui Intagnl part of Ibe Oiddur, bu bear on Iba •arftco marki of Iiavlag
bren taken from a aeeood-band, It not a third-band, eopj, aa the adltn
admlta with reganl to the " eaeond petltton. " Tba " T«o PetiHoae "
mnat have asrad Iba Oablial (Avmmaoii) aa a model tcr the tatta
or Htsifical part of hia TKX'O ITU, ]nit aa ha and otbeia after hLm
jdanUf stIUied Be'adyab'e ^Doaophy.
• Bee .p<i»o(A BaOiMM (^IKt) and Sitbui (Trnvela) of EL fetb-
ahnh a Batleton (London, 1S81, Svo, p. 2S>,
• A-& d Ontmit, I. ooD. SIS, 611, S84.
' Old., eon. filS, IIS, ■ Baa Radii aa Pnln dv. 10.
• L.-B. d Or., I. SIS. » AMaS (aa bi note S above).
" Bee Slum Baggedclim (Tllna, IBES, 8vo}, IL leaf 16b, Did. &
" Bee ffld'ar* ffal^ (vt tupni\ laat 17b.
" Saa R Hanabam b. Shelomob lebetb Hair (sontmotdy tailed
Ueirl) on AbM (Vienna, 1SS4, 8va, Intmdaction, p. 17).
'* Bee Bapapat, I.e., note ID.
» Bee Ptauker, Liffula fadwidiyyoOt (Vienna, I860, p^ 174, nota
I, in IfiipiMm). " Bee Bapopoft, Lc, ante 12.
" Saa J..B. d. Oth ilL MIL 101, lOS.
" Saa Sim (rrankfort-on-Maln, 1841-48, Svc), U. p. 137.
» Baa Pinikei (U npra), p. 103. " (HtM [u before).
" On Ihla commentator eea Ibn "Em dd Xiadiii iil. 24. Fram
thie paaaaga we leuB tbat Ba'adyah and Ben Zllta wen oonttiopatarlaa,
and even had oral controveniea witb oaa aootber.
" Baa HaiiUuia Ktdtm, Anulardam, 1S4S, p. 71. Hiwi iI-BalkM
had ralaad itrDng objeotlooa agalniit the truth at BcHptgie in hia Twa
Humdrml QiuHiait, or OV^Umi to Uu BOU
*> The edlUona "Pms", 1781 [SuInichDcidtr), and {[awydwor, 178S
(2adBv), art probably tht nmaM that of Frankfort with dltlLtcat Ullea.
\22
': A A — S A A
SAALFELD, a loayllttla to^m at 0«rman;,iii die eaatcm
born of the creaceatsliaped duchy of Baie-MeiEringen, u
pictnieequely titnated on ths left bank of the Saale (here
•panned hy a bridge), SI milea south of Weimar and 77
miles Boath-weat of Leipstc. One of the most ancient
tomu in Thuringia, Soalfold wa« the capital of the now
extinct duchy of Saze-Saalfeld, and containa lome interest-
ing old bnildingH. Among tbeae are the former reaidcndal
palace, bnilt in 1679 on (be eiK of the Benedictine uonaa-
teryof St Peter, destroyed during the Peasants' War ; the
Oothic church of St John, dating from the 13th csntnry ;
the quaint town-houBa, built in 1S33-37 ; and the Eitzer-
stein, a shooting-lodge said to have bean originally erected
by the emperor Henry L, though the present building is
not older than the 16th cenCnry. But perhaps the most
interesting relic of the past in Saalfeld is the striking min
of the Sorbenburg or Hoher Schwann, a strong castle said
to have been boilt by Charlemagne to protect his borders
from the Slavonic hordes. Its deetniction took place in
1290, under Badolf of Eapsburg. Saalfeld is situated
in one of the busiest parts of Meiningeo, and carriee on a
number of brisk industries, including the manufacture of
sewing-machinea, colours, «ax-elath and wire-doth, brewing,
and iron-founding, it'hsa an activa trade in iron, slate,
wood, and wooden goods, and there are ochre and iron
mines in tlte neighbourhood. The population in 1860 was
7458.
Springing np nndsr the wing of the Sorbmbm^ Bulfald culj
becima ui irajMriil damctne. and twsiTcd rsrioni bsBsGti kt th*
hind* of I
■mparon. After ■
ths town became tba oipital of tha dnchr of Saie.-Sullald, fooiidHl
in ISBD by th* yonngHt wd of the dnka of OotliK ; bnt in ITSi,
whan th* niocaHtan to tha dncfay at Cobnig *aa udgnad to the
dnkas af Baslliild, thrir Rddanca «si runovnd to Coborg. In
18H tba united dnchias margad by inharitssca in tht dacby of
Bua-Mainingen.
SAABBSCCKEN, an important industrial and com-
mercial town in iWaia, on the left bank of the Saar, a
navigable tributary of the Moselle, is situated i9 milsa east
of Hetz, at the south end of one of the most eztensive coal-
fields in Europe, to which it has given its name. With the
town of St Johann, immediately opposite on the right bank
of the river, here spanned by two bridges, Saarbriicken
forms in reality a single commnnity, with a united popu-
hitioa of nearly 33,000. St Johann, though now the larger,
ia the more recent town, being in fact Uie creation of the
important rulways whoee junction IS fixed there. Saar-
brOaken itself is not directly on any main line. The
iudustriea of St Johann-Saarbi^cken include wool-spinning,
brewing, uid the manufacture of tobacco, chemicals, tin,
and stoneware. The trade is chieBy connected with the
produce of the neighbouring coal-mines and that of the
numerous important iron and glass vrorks of the district.
The Saarbriicken coal-field extends over TO sqnare miles ;
and its annual output is about 6 million tons. Of this
total the FruBsian state mines yield about S,200,000 tons,
Pmauan private mines 100,000 tons, the mines in Lorraine
S00,000 tons, and mines in Rhenish Bararia 300,000
tona. In 1880 the population of Saorlvflcken alone was
95U, and of 6t Johann 12,316.
Till 1233 SlsrbrUcken *u la the poaodou of the old connti of
Ardannei ; bom 1381 till 17B3 it vu tba realdenoa of tlia priuceg
(trKMna-SasrlirUckaa; from 1793 till IBlGitwuinthe poKBioii
of tfag Fnsch ; sod nnoB 1816 it hu been Fraintn. 3t Jobann
a eaid to hare been tonnded u tn oDtwork to Aurbrllcksn in
1048, end to heve raeeirad town-righta in 1381, In the Ft«i«i-
Pnueiia Vir onB70-7I Ssu-brticlcEn WIS eeiied by the Fnnrh on
Sd input 1870, but the flrrt Qermen victory, on the helghta of
Spicheren, S miles to the tonth, relieved it four day* Ut«r.
BAABDAM. See Zjukium.
SAABQEUUND (Fr. SarroftieuiHf), an industrial
town and iwlway junction of Qermany, in the imperial
province of Alsace-Lorraine ia sitnated at the confluence
ofthe BUes snd the Saar, 40 miles east of Ueti. Ittartiei
on considerable manufactures of silk, piuah, porcelain, aod
earthenirare, and is a chief depAt for the papier-nacbt
boxes (mostly snuff-boxes) which are made in great qnon-
tity in the neighbourhood. To the south lies the district
lunatic asylum of Steinbacherhof. The town, which U
garrisoned by four sqnadrous of cavalry, in 1880 had a
population pf 9B73, chiefly Boman Catholics.
SAATEDRA, Akobl sb, Duu or Biru (1791-186S),
Spanish poet and politician, was bom at Cordova in 1791,
and fou^t with bravery in the Spanish War of Independ-
ence. From 1813 to 1830 he lived in retirement in An-
dalocia, but in the latter year he sided actively with tha
revotutionary party, and in consequence had to go into
exile in 1823. He lived suaeeaaively in England, Ifalta,
and France until 1834, when he received permission to
return to Spain, shortly afterwards succeeding his brother
as duke of Rivas. In 1836 he became minister of tlie
interior under Isturi^ and along with his chief had ageia
to leave the country. Having returned with Uaria Chris-
tina in 1841, he again held a portfolio for a short tima in
1854 ; and during the last two decades of his life he was
ambavador at Naples, Paris, and Florenc« for consider-
able periods. He died in 1865.
In 1811 he pahliehed JSuB)Fiia hhMow, ud batsaau Ihst det*
■nd hii flnt exile eavenl lngedi« of hie eoniporition lAllalar,
1814 ; SI Dim* SAjnilanla, 1B14 ; Zaamo, 1822) wan pat npon
the iten- Tanla nua auault Una, ■ cgmadf, sppMred in IdSt,
Dmt Ahare, t, tregedy, in IBM, end two other diunstto GoB|ia*i-
tione in 1S42. Suvedn wia slao tha inthot of £1 itan BxfiiUo,
■ Dsimtiva poem in ballad matia (two voloowslk and iTerfada, aa
SAAVEDRA, Uiamn. ni CSKTAims. See Cn-
SAA7EDRA FAXARDO, Dnoo dk (1684-164S),
diplomatist and man of letters, was bom of a noble family
at Algezarea in the Spanish province of Hurcia in 1S84.
Having been educated for the church at SaUmanca, and
admitted to the priesthood, he accompanied Cardinal
Borgia, the Spanish ambassador, to Rome in the capacity
of secretary. Ultimately he rose to high rank in the diplo-
matic serrice, and was Spanish plenipotentiary at Ratisbon
in 1636 and at MUnater in 1646. He was nominated to
the supreme council of the Indies in 1646, bnt not long
afterwards retired to a monastery, where he died in 164S.
In 1S40 hepablielied i treatiee antttlad Emfrttat folUlat, tUia
di t<A prineijn poiitito erutiano rtpnatiUado es (u« nu^mu, e
hundred ihort eaaeya, in which ba di»nuM* tha adaosCian of *
priiiR^ hit reUtioD end datiea to thoaa aronDd htm, and ea forth.
primirilj Intanded for sad dadlestad to tha son of Philip lY. It
te leDtaQtions in etyle end cheimcteTued by the cuHooe learning af
the time, end ie itlll nad and sdmirad In Spain. It paend throvrii
ber of edition* end vei treneUted into eeieret lengnegn, the
won l»iTig bjAetiy (3 Toll., 8to, London, WDU). An
hislorioel nork entitled Corttui Odita, CaeWInim, »
Aailriaai poiaiaintnU Hiulrada, apoctred la 1848. Another
work by SaJiTKirm, only eownd in popnlarity to the gmpntai, hie
£fpui[iia LilmHa, wu pnbliehed pocthnmooelj in 1870 ; it dia-
cniaea in t aomenhut mocking tone eama of the leading charactan
ia tlia ancient sod modara world of Irttan. Collertad edidou of
hie worki appeuad at Antwerp in 1877-78, end egun at Uadiid la
I78«-1H) ; see alao vol xiT. of the BM. dt AtiL £p. {18U).
SAAZ (Bohemian £aUe), a manufacturing and com-
merciol town in the north of Bohemia, is situated on tha
right bank of the Egw, 43 milea north-west of Prague.
The suspension bridge, 310 feet long, which here spans
the river was constructed in 1826 and is one of the oldest
of the kind in Bohemia. Saai, which claims to have ex-
isted OS eariy as the 8th century, contains a uumber of
ancient churches, of which one is said to date from 1 206,
and five others from before the close of the 14th century.
The town-bouse was built in 1559. A technical schod
vraa added in 16T8 to the already fairly numerous edoca-
tional iostitntions. Noils, leather, beetroot- sugar, and
pasteboard are among the chief manufactores of Saii^
;nBlieh verei
infiaiihad hi
1 A B — S A B
123
md, tovMrw, cwn !ti tuain importance lo being the
ccBtra of the Bztcoaivs hop-tnde of the neighbourhood.
Tba hep* of 8ui are Mid to have been lenowned for the
bat ftra Imndrad jmn ; ftiid nearly 800 torn «re anntuUj
i^Md in the district to which the town gi*et its name.
Hw popvialioD of Bmi wm 13,125 in 1880.
BABMA, BeeTnoK.
SARAH, or Bkitisb Nobth Bourao, is all that portion
of the ial&nd of BOKirao (g.v.) wUch vms foflutJI; recog-
iiiMd bj the charter of incorporation craDted in NoTsm-
ber 18S1 OS the toritor; of the British North Borneo
Oompany. It hae a coast'lise of over 600 milea, and its
area, tttU to a great extent aoexploted,' ia eetimated ac
30,000 sqnaia miiea. Leaving oat of aoeount the deep
indcntatioii* of ths coast-line, it may be said to fonn a
pentagrm, of which three lidca, the north-weit, north-east,
and icnitlireBs^ aia waahed by the aea, while tha remaining
tiro aideB are purely eonventiooal linea drawn fram Qva
Fuk (S* IW N. lat, 116' 10* R kng.), the one almost doe
eaat to the Sibooo river, tlM other nortb-north-west to tha
The gnat ewtial featnre of Sabah it the magnifieent
monntMn of Eiiiabaln (ooarput Bobhbo) or Nab^n, bnllt
Tof porpl^tk granito asd igneotu rocks to a height
13,698 feet, and dMoiuating the whole northern part
of the idand, with aU ita proEDaton o( keatt motmtains
tad hilla. Kinabaln, wbin hat the appeaiance of two
mooBtutt^ uniteB towards the east by a low ridge irfth
" Nonohaa f agaioh {the great Kwdiao) and the terminal
cona Tarabajtmkoa n^amboynkon)." Iliete two somiiut*
are respectively 8000 and 7000 feet hi^ and there are
othna of coMdetable elevation in the aame neighbow-
hood. At aoma Ifi or 30 milea to tha north risea Uonnt
Uadalon (9000 feetX aeparated from Kinabaln and the
other igneous and metamMphie hills by a wide vailey, and
consisting of tbooe aqneona rocks, Umestonet, landitonea,
and daja which i^ipear to occnpy the whole conntry lo
the nordt. Westward Iron K''"»l»l" are hills between
1000 aad 2000 feet in height, and about 40 or 50 miles
tDU&4aat ii an important groap on the north side of the
labok rall^ kwnrn aa ths Meutapok Hoonbunt (3000-
8000 feet). "Dke whole surface of the cotmtry is channelled
hj oonntleas streams whose ptedpitooa ravines, bonlder-
■bewn lapids, and enormooa beds of rolled pebbiea beepeak
the dennding energy of tropical raina. The ooasta are
generally bw and flat, and to a peat extent lined with
"n^narrnn trees, with here and there a stretch of mangrove,
a low amdstone or lim— hum cli^ or a patch of that great
torett whidi in tha interiu still coveia «o large a portion
of the territory. In the low grounds along the coast and
alw inlaiid amcMig the hills are vast swamps and watery
plains, which in t£« rainy seaaon, when the riverB rise 20
or 30 feet ahova their osnal level, are tetatformed into
lake^ On the weat tide of Babah the princ^ rivers
are the Ptdas and the Elias, debouching oppodto I^oan,
bat quite imcvplmed in their npper coonea ; the Fapar
{ftfiu or I^pal), which panes Uie viUage of that name
tod enters tin sea at Paper Point ; the Tampaiauk, one
of Oa first to be explored (see St Jcdm's Xt/s is Ae
Farti* of tka Far EatI) and remarkable far tha waterfall
et P— JfT or l^mpasBok (1500 feet high, and thus one
of the hi^iset in tha worid), formed by ita headwater
ths EaluiHs. The Sekwati, a comparatively small river
^ Bet tbe oflon of tlie ecimpui7 an W7 ictlra In fliplontlon.
!-&«■■ Dgaap, ¥. YUM (kSM 1882), W. B. Prja, Fiuk Hitton
MrilBM;^ and Emjj Vilkm *n w bin ben uaoBg tha Don
farther nortb, is well known for its oU-i^irini^ At the
northern extremity of the inland the deep inlet of Hanidu
Bay receives the iraters of the Mamdn or Haladn river,
wbich rises on the west side of Hoant Usdalon. On the
eaat coast are tbe Sogat, which has its headtraten in tbe
hills to the east of Kinabalu, and forms its delta in the
neighboorhood of Torongohok or Purpnra laland ; the
Labik, debonching in Labuk Bay, and having its sources
in the bigbland* about 70 mike inland ; the Kinabatangan,
with a longer eonrse than any yet mentioned, rising prob-
ably between 116* and 117' £. long., and forming at its
mouth a very extensive delta to the south of tjlanHakan
Harbour ; and finally the Segania, the scene of Frank
Hatton's death (1883). Farther south, and inland from
Darvel Bay sod Sibnco (or St Lucia) Bay, there ere no
doubt other rivers of equal, it may be snperior, import-
ance ; such, to Judge by ita delta, is the KaJabakong,
debonching oppoaite Sebattik Island. Moat of the rivers
mentiooad are navigable for steam laonehas of light
diaiiglrt, bnt Hieir valne is frequently impaired In a bar
DMt the month. Several c^ the natural harboun of North
Bomec^ on the other hand, are at once aeceasible, tofts
and OMnmodiona. Sandakan Barbour, on the nottb-oast
coast (6* 40* N. lat and 118* 10* K, long), runs inland
sothe IT miles, with a veiy irregular ontliiia broken by
ths mouths of numerous creeks and strauns. The mouth,
only 2 J miles across, is split into two channels by the little
island of Wnlhmll. iIb depth In the main raitranee
variee from 10 to 17 fathcoos, and veaaela drawing 00
f^ can advance halt-iray up tbe bay. Just within tha
mouth, on the north tide, liaa Ehnnira (see belowX At
Bilam, on Darvel Bay, farthw south, there ia good andwr-
age. Kodat (disoovered by Commander JohnstODcv of
H.H.S. "Egeria," in 1881) is a small but valuable haifioar
in Hanidu Bay mnuLag inland for S or 3 milee, but
rapidly shoaling after the first mile to 1 and 2 fathoms.
It affords anchorage for vessels of any diaug^t, but tbe
frontage available for wharvea is limited to some ISOO
feet. In Oaya Bay, on the weat coast, any number of
vessels may lie in safety dnring either monsoon, tha depths
varying from fi to IG and 17 fathoms.
Tfa« dimste of North BonMO is of conns tropial, with a Tity
eqostala Umpentnn. The hncut tniD^um of tha thermomeur
rRorded In 1S8S at "i~'^V*n was SB* 'E> In DKcmlier, Th< Rnatist
Intiml without rain ws) ai^t dsjn in UiktIl Ths ninfkll mi
m lnd» (IS7 ia 1SB0) st aandifcan, 12« it Pipu-, ud ISO at
Kadat In tbe intaiiar it miat oflm be mneb sbovs tbeao flftarea.
Tbat North Bomea ibonid pron ricb in minanls «u laiipaKd
ETobsblfl from tbo ch*ract«r 6r Kma othor farti of the iilsnd ; but
ithrrto [nmtipUou bare not ia tbii matter pn)v«d nrj iiu.
ccahiL Coal or tignits aiists, bat moat bniuantly tn thin leami
end iniigniGant pockets ; tbe petmlaDm ■pringi cunot come into
■nj- ttm oompedtion vith those Korked aliewben ; gold bu bna
diHDvered (18SE) In tba Soguoa river and may prore a etimnliu to
immiRntion ; iran-orea apiKar botb abundant aod at tima tirodtK-
^ „ „ , aiga, sosar, tobacco, Dofle^
pepper, and gambler. Tobacco ia moat nMcaasmllf grown by tha
natAw in ths Inland dialrlcts of KanMloL Kandaaan^ Kmria-
no, Gana-Qana, TombonHiga, Kaniabaa, Fennuk, Tios^nbaa,
if fhitn'CeOOO to 17000 ; aniTathsr cava of the wm kind
are atill nnwoHied. Aa the sativM (Dugn^ Tagaaa-B^ona, Idaan,
kc) m acsttned, moatlT In amall TOUgea, throughoiot tha nnei-
nlorod aa wall aa tha raplaTad diatriots, their nnmbar can only be
guaeed, bat it Is naDalTy atatad at IH,000. SIks tha fonBatton
of the companr tfaate baa bean a ataady iaunlnation, eaqpadallyof
Cbineaa fram BinKapon. At Zlopuia, tba oaptal of tha teniti^
and of ita Eaat Cooet nsidency, lbs Inhabitanti in 1883 nomband
ST;0[lSOObeingailMKand1DS&Snhni). Bonz-KoDg and Sinn-
pore itiBinsn DOW call nguUrlj at Sandakan, Usya, and Kadat.
In 1886 tha tamlory waa diTidad into Akock ptovinoe (hi tba
stutb), Sappcl proTiDce (along tha weat coaat as &r north aa
1S4
S A B — S A B
EiMuii B*j),. tba Eut CgMt iHHlflKj (to the amth-tut of
Alcock uid kippel proTuicu], and Dent provuica (to tbs aouth-n-eat
61 the Eut Ccut mkStacj nilh ths toiut trom Kimsu Bay lo
Brunei Bt;).
In ISflS u Ainirlcui compui7 itulad hj Mr Tomj obtaiuad
fram tiu nltui of Bnuui «rt«iii coui«Biaui of Icititory in Korth
Banuw; bat thli sntsrpriu prored a fiiiiiii:iat bill— ~ ' '' -
nttlami
tbtAm
Onrtnck
icui oampui)' ware bought up
bj tlm
, . Tbe rights of
lustrUo Barou van
Dent, iiho farther
» ™lt»D rf Sulu B Krid
of cbartsn conleiiiDi od tham tba noTareieii authority in Kortli
BoriMO UDdsT tba litln of mahai^ah of Sabab, rojcih of Giya and
SandAan aod Data Baod^un. In apita of tba oppoaition of
Spun, which clalmsd that tha Riitu of Sulu being ■ Spanisli voaul
enild not dlipM* of hia lanitorj wicboi:! ber conHnt, Iba EngliJiU
company organizad by Ur Dent Boccocdad iu obtaining a chartar
of incorpoiBtion under Act of Pirliament. lit ^DTenlba^ ISdl. ta
tba "Bntiak North Borneo Company," *itb right to acquira other
inEaHt* in. over, or iffuCing tha tairitciriai or pioparty coiuprinvl
in the aararal gru '
■J QtSiTomi)']'""'
SABAS, or Sabbas, St (Syr. 3fdr SahhS), one ot the
earl}' leadera of monasticiam En Palestine, ivas a native
of Cappododa, bom about 439. While still a child be
accomiMnied hia parents to Alexandria, whence in his
eighteenth year, having made choice of the ascetio life, he
nmoved to Palestine, settling at the desolate spot nov
oconpied by the convent called bj hia name, abont two
bours fiDm the nor^h-iveet shore of the Dead Sea. As his
lepntation for holiness increased he waa joined by others,
who nltimateiy oonstitnted a " taun " under the mle of
8t BasU. He took some part in tile doctrinal controversies
of the day, being a (Bsloua defender cA the decrees o(
Chalcedon. He died aboat C>32 and ia commemorated
on 5th December. Another saint of this name, snmanied
" the Goth," BUl^ered martyrdom at the lianda of Athaoaric,
the Tiaigothic king, in Uie leign of TaleDtiman ; he is
commemorated on ISth (or ISth) April. See also Hoff-
mann, Syr. AdeiL Pertueher MOrtyrer (18S0), Nos. iv. and
xiL, for live* of two mar^ra named SitbhR.
SABBATH (rijicf), tha day of sacred rest which among the
Hebrewa followed six days of tabonr and closed the week.
1. Obiervaiiet of t/u SabbalA. — The later Jewish Sab-
bath, observed in accordance with the rules of the Scribes,
«as a very peculiar institution, and formed one of tha
most marked distinctions between the Eebrem and other
nations, as appears in a striking iray from the fact that
on this account alone the Romans found themselves com-
pelled to exempt the Jewa from all military servica' The
rnlsB of the Scribes enamerated Ihirty-nine main kinds of
work forbidden on the Sabbath, and each ot theae prohibi-
tions gave rise to new sdbtilties. Jeaus's disciples, for
example, who plucked eara of com in passing through a
field on the boly day, had, according to Rabbinical uaauis-
try, violated the third of the thirty-nine rules, which for-
bade harvesting; and in healbg ^e uck Jesoa Himself
broke the rule that a sick man should not receive medical
aid on the Sabbath unless his life was in danger. In fact,
as our Lord puts it, the Rabbinical theory seemed to be
that the Sablath was not made for man bnt man for the
Sabbath, the observance of which was so much an end in
itself that the rules prescribed for it did not require to be
i'ostified by appeal to any larger pnnciple of religion or
lumonity. The precepts of the law were valuable in the
•yes of the Scribes because they were the seal of Jewish
particularism, liie barrier erected between the world at
large and the exclusive commnnity of Jehovah's grace.
For this purpose the most arbitrary precrpti were the
moBt effective, and none were more so than the complicated
rule* ol Sabbath observance. The ideal of the Sabbath
Wirieb all these rnles aimed at realizing waa abedute rest
from everything that could be called woik ; and evc;i tlio
exeicise of those offices of humanity which tha abrictest
Christian Sabbatarmna regard an a service to Qod, and
therefore as specially appropriate to His day, waa looked
on as work. To save life was allowed, bat only becoiiau
danger to life " superseded the Sabbath." In like manner
the special ritual at the temple preacribed for the Sabbetli
by the Pentateuchal law was not regarded as any part
of the hallowing of the sacred day ; on the contrary, tha
rule was that, in this regard, " Sabbath was not kept in
the sanctuary." Strictly speaking, therefore, the Sabbath
was neither a day of relief to toiling humanity nor a day
appointed for public worship ; tba positive duties of its
observance were to wear one's best clothes, eat, drink, and
be glad {justified from Iso. Iviii, 13). A more directly
religious element, it is true, was introdnced )iy the prac-
tice of attending the synofngue service ; but it is to be
remembered that this service was primarily regarded not
sa-an act of worship but as a meeting for inxtmction in
the law. So far, therefore, as the Sabbatb eziHted for any
end outside itself it was an institution to help every Jew
to learn the law. and from this [loint of view it id regarded
by Philo and Josephus, whQ are accustomed to sock a
philosophical justification for the peculiar institutions of
their religion. But this certainly was not the leading
point of view with the mass of the Bablaiis ;' and at any
rata it is quite certain that the synagogue in a pCHt-euliu
institution, and therefore that the Sabbath in old Israel
must either have been entirely different irom the Sabl«th
of tbe Scribes, or else must have been a mere day of idle-
ness and feasting, not accompanied by any properly reli-
gions observances or having any properly religious mean-
ing. The second of these alternatives may be dismissed
OS qnits inconceivable, for, though many of the religious
idesa of the old Hebrews were crude, their institutions
were never arbitrary and meamngless, and when they sjioke
of consecrating the Sabbath they must have had in view
some religious exerciss of an intelligible kind by which
they pud worahip to Jehovah.
Lideed, that the old Hebrew Sabbath vi'as quite differ*
eut from the Rabbinical Sabbath is demonstrated in the
trenchant crttlciam which Jesua directed against the latter
(Matt xii. l-I i ; Mark il 27). The general pooition which
He takes up, that "tbe Sabbatb is made for man and not
man for the Sabbath," is only a special application of tbe
wider priliciple that the law is not an end in itself but a
help towards the realization in life of the great ideal of
love to Qod and man, which is tbe sum of all true religion.
Rut Jesua further maintains that this view of the law as a
whote^ and the interpretation of the Sabbath law which it
involves, can be historically justified from the Old Testa-
ment. And in this connexion He introduces two of the
main methods to which historical criticism of tbe Old
Testament has recurred in modern times : He appeal* to
tbe oldest history lathsr than to the Pentateuchal code as
proving that the later conception of the bw woe unknown
in ancient times (Matt. xii. 3, 4), and to the exceptions to
the Sabbath law which the Scribes themselvea allowed in
the interests of worship (ver. S) or humanity (ver. 11), as
showing that the Sabbath must originally have been de-
voted to purposes of worship and humanity, and was not
always the purposeless arbitrary thing which Ae schotdmsn
mode it to be. Modem criticism of &e history of Sabbath
observance among the Hebrews has done nothing more
than follow out these arguments in detail, and show that'
tbe result is in agreement with what is known aa to tbe
dates of tbe several component ports of the Pentateuch.
tha BabMnkal Sabbatb ii waU ciplomad u
illannUBd la dalslL
SABBATH
125
Of the t^ punges that tpeak of Uie SabUth all tboM
which show a&aity with tfa« doctrine of the Scribes —
legudiog the Sabbklh u an arbitrary tigii between
J^vah and Israel, entering into d«tiuU as to particalar
acta that are forbidden, and enforcing the obeerrance b;
uvere peualtiea, ao that it no kioger lias an; rcligioua
valae, but appean as a mere legal constraint — are post-eiilic
(Exod. rri 23-30, xxd. 12-17, x«xt. 1-3; Kmn-xr. 33^6);
while the older Uwa only denuuul mch cessation from daiij
tinl, and especiall; from agiicnltoral labour, as among all
aiwienl peoples natoially accompanied a da; set apart as a
retigioaa festival, and in particular lay weight on the fact
that the Sabbath is a hnmane institution, a holiday for the
labonring dasaea (Eiod. Triii 12 ; Dent. t. 13-16). As it
atanda in theae ancient laws, the Sabbath is not at all the
nniqne thing which it was mads to be by the ScHbea.
"The Qreeks and the barbarians,* iays Btrabo (z. 3, 9),
** have this in common, tiiat they accompany their sacred
ritca by a foatal remisiion of labonr." Bo it was in old
Israel ; the BabbatJi was one of the stated religious feaat^
like tbe new moon and the thr«e great agricultural sacri-
ficial celebrations {Hosea ii. 1 1 ); the new moons and the Sab-
baths alike called men to the sanctuary to do sacrifice (Isa-
i. 1 4) ; the remission of ordiuary businesB belonged to both
alike (Amos Tiii. 6), and for precisely the same reason.
Hoaea oven takes it for granted that in captivity the Sab-
bath will be suspended, like all the other feasts, because in
his day a feast implied a sanctuary.
This conception of the Sabbath, howoTer, necessarily
noderweDt an unportant modification in the Tth century
B.C, when the local sanctuaries were abolished, and those
sacrificial rites and feasts which in Hosea's time formed
tha essence of every act of religion were limited to the
central altar, which most men could visit only at tare
utervala. From this time forward the new moons, which
till then had been at least as important as the Sabbath
and were celebrated by sacrificial feasts aa occaaiona □(
religious gladuesa, fall into iosignLGcance, except in the
conserrative temple ritoaL The Sabbath did not share
the samo fate, but with the abolition of local sacrifice* it
became for most Israelites an institution of humanity
divorced from ritual Bo it appears in the Denteronomic
decalogue, and presumably also in Jer. zvii. IS >q. la this
Conn the inslitation was able to survive the fall of the state
and the temple, and the seventh day's T«t wa* clung to in
etile as one of the few outward ordinances by which the
Israelito could still show his fidelity to Jehovah and mark
hia separation from the heathen. Hence we understand
the importance attached to it in the exilic literature (Isa.
Iri. 2 f., Iviii 13), and tbe character of a aign between
Jehovah and Isiaal ascribed to it in the poet-eiilic law.
This attachment to the Sabbath, beautifnl and touching
10 long as it was a apaataneons expression of continual
devotion to Jehovah, acquired a less pleasing character
wbau, after the exile, it came to be enforced by the civil
arm (Neh. xiil), and when the later Uw even dedand
Sabbath- breaking a capital ofiencet But it is just to
remember that without the stern discipline of the law the
conunnoity of the second temple could hardly have escaped
disKlntion, and that Judaism alone preserved for duia-
tiauity the hard-won achievementa of the prophets.
The Babbath exercised a twofold infiuence on the early
Christian church. On the one hand, the weekly celebration
of the roaurrection on the Lord's day could not have arisen
ucept m a drcle that already knew the week as a sacred
divisimi of time ; and, moreover, the manner in which the
"i^ai'i day waa obaerved waa directly influenced by the
■ynsgogne sarvice. On the other hand, tbe Jewish Chiis-
lians continued to keep the Sabbath, like other point* of
tin idd hiw. Euaebina iS.S., iii. 27) remarks that the
EbionitcH ohservod both the f^btnlti and tlio J^otA't day ;
and thia practice obtained to r<ome extent in much wiilor
circles, for tbe A/xjalolieiil Cinuii/iitioiit recommend that
the tjabbath shall be kept st a nieinuriul feast of the crea-
tion as well aa thu Lord's day ob a liiciiinrinl of the reanr-
rection. The featol character of tlio SabUith n'as long
recognized in a modified form in the Eaatu-n CUnrcb by a
prohibition of fasting on that day, which wiu also a point
in the Jewish t^bbath law ^comp. Judith viii. G),
On ths other hand, faul hod qnite diBlinctly laid down
from the first days of Gentile Christianity llutt the JewiiA
Sabbath was not binding on Chriutianii (Rom. xiv. 5 tq. ;
GaL iv. 10; Col. ii 16), and controversy with Judaiscrs
led in process of time to direct condemnation of tbuso who
still kept the Jewish day (e.ff., Co. of Laodicea, 303 a.u.).
Nay, in the Roman Clmrch a practice of taating on Satur-
day as well as on Friday was current before the tiuio of
Tertullian. The etepa by which* the practice of resting
from labour on tbe Lord's day h^tead of on the SabbaUi
was established in Christenilom and received civil aa well
as ecclesiastical sanction will be apokcn of in SiriniATi it ia
enough to obaerve hero that tbis practice is naturally and
even necessarily connected with the roligiouii olMorvonco
of the Lord's day as a day of worxbip and religious glad-
ness, and is in full accordance with the principles laid
down by Jesus in His criticixm of the Babbath of the
Scribes. But of counio the cornjilete observance of Sunday
rest waa not generally posKiblo to the early Christiana
before Christendom obtained civil rocognition. For the
theological diiicuiisions whether and in what souse the
fourth commandment is binding on CbriutiAn^ see Dica-
looTJs, voL vii. p. 17.
2. Origin of the Sablialh. — As the Sabhith wa* origin-
ally a religious feast, the question of tho origin of the
Sabbath resolves itself into an inquiry why and in what
circle a festal cycle of seven days was first ostablishod.
In Qen. ii. 1-3 and in Exod. xx. 1 1 the Sabbath is declorcil
to be a memorial of the oomplelion of tbe work of croattun
in six days. But it appeara certain that the decalogue an
it lay before the Deuterononuat did not contain any oUusion
to Uie creation (see Decaiaxiue, voL viL p. 16), ivnd it in
generally believed t^t this reference was added by the
same post-exilic hand that wrote Oen. L 1-E 4a. Tho
older account of the creation in Gen. ii. 4b uj. doea not
recognize the hexaemeron, and it is even doubtful whethor
the original sketch of Qen i. distributed creation over six
days. Tbe connexion, therefore, between the seven days'
week and the work of creation is now generally recognized
as sec(H)dary. The week and the Sabbath were already
known to the writer of Gen. L, and he used them to give
the framework for his picture of the creation, which in tho
nature of things could not ba literal and required some
framevrork At the same time, there was a peculiar ap-
propriateness in associating the Sabbath with Uie doctrine
tbMt Jehovah is the Creator of aU things ; for we see from
Isa. xL-lxvi that this doctrine was a mainstay of Jewish
faith in those very days of exile which gave the Sabbath
a new importance for the faithful.
But, if the week aa a religioua cycle is older than the
idea of the week of creation, we cannot hope to find more
than probable evidence of the origin of the Babbath.
At the lime of the exile the Sabbath was already an
institution peculiarly Jewish, otherwise it could not have
served as a mark of distinction from heathenism. This,
however, does not necessarily imply that in its vrigin it
was specifically Hebrew, but only that it had acquired
distinguishing features of a marked kind. What is cer-
tain is that the origin of tbe Sabbath must be sought
within a circle that used the week as a diviaios of tim*.
Here again we must distinguish between the week a*
126
SABBATH
bqcIl lad the utiol<^<sl week, >.«, the week in which
the seven daji are naaied each after the planet which ia
lield to ^eride over ita fint hour. If th«'dftj ia divided
into twentj-foor houn and the pUnets preeide in torn
over mch hour of the week in the order t^ their periodio
times (Saturn, Jupiter, Mare, Sun, Venoi, Mercury,
Moon), we get the order of daji of the week with wMtk
we are familiar. For, if the Snn presides over the first
hour of Sunday, and therefore elao over the eighth, the
fifteenth, and the twenty -Mcood, Yeniu will have the
twenty-third hour. Mercury the twenty- fourth, and the
Moon, as the diird in order from the sun, will preside
over the first hour of Monday. Hare, again, as third
from the Moon, will pieaida over Tuesday (Dies Martia,
Mordi), and so forth. This aatrological week became
very eunent iu the Roman empire, but was still a novelty
in the time of Dio Cassius (mvii 18). This writer
beUeved that it come frtfm Egypt ; but the old Egyptians
had a week of ten, not of seven days, and the original
home of astrology and of the division of the day into
twenty-four boura is Choldcea. It is plain, however,
that there is a loog step between the astroEogi<^ assigna-
tion of each hour of the week to a planet ud the recog-
nition of the week as on ordinary division of time by
people at large. Astrology ia in its nature an occult
science, and there is not the slightest troco of a day of
twenty-fonr hours among the ancient Hebrew^ who had
the week and the Sabbath long before they had any
acqountance with the planetary science of the Babylonian
priests. Moreover, it is qnite clear from extant reniaiiis
of Assyrian calendars that our astrological week did not
prevail in civil life even among the Babylonians and
Asayriana : they did not dedicate each day in turn to its
astrological planet. Theee facts make it safe to r^ect
one often -repeated explanation of the Sabbath, viz., that
it was in its origin what it ia in the astrological week, the
day sacred to Satum, and that its observance ia to be
derived from an ancient Hebrew worship of tbt planet.
In truth there ia no evidence of the worship of Saturn
amang the oldest Hebrews ; Amos v. 26, where Chiun
(Eaiwan) ia taken by many to mean Saturn, ia of uncer-
tain interpretation, and, when the tenses are rightly
rendered, refers not to idolatry of the Israelites in the
wildumeaa but to the time of the prophet
The week, however, is found in variona porta of the
world in a form that has nothing to do with astrology or
the seven planets, and with aiich a distribution as to make
it pretty certain that it had no artificial origin, but
•nggeeted itself independently, and for natural reasons,
to different races. In tact the four quarters of the moon
supply an obvioos division of the month ; and, wherever
new moon and full moon are religious occasions, we get
in the mist natural way a sacred cycle of fourteen or
fifteen days, of which the week of seven or eight days
(determined by half moon) is the half. Thns the old
Hindus chose the new and the full moon as days of
sacrifice ; the eve of the sacrifice was called upaniMtAo,
and iu Buddhism the same word (updialia) hoe come to
denote a Sabbath observed on the full moon, on the day
when there is no moon, and on the two days which are
eighth from the full and the new moon respectively, with
fasting and other religious eiHtrciees.'
From this point of view it is moat significaat that in the
older paria of the Hel^w Scripturea the new moon and
the Sabbath are almost iuvarlabty mentioned together.
The month is beyond question an old sacred division of
time common to all the Semites ; even the Arabs, who re-
ceived the week at quite a late period from the Syrians
(BIrQnL ChroHola/y, Eng. tr., p. 9S), greeted the new
moon with religious acclamation:*. And this moat hava
been an old Semitic UMtge, for the word whidi pn^Mrly
means " to greet the new moon " {nkUlii) ia, as I^garde
(Orimlalia, iL 19) has shown, etymologically oonnoctad
with the Hebrew worda used of any festal joy. Among
the Hebrews, or rather perhaps among the Canaanites,
whose speech they borrowed, the joy at the new moon be-
came the type of religious festivity in geneiaJ. Nor are
other traces minting of the connexion of sacrificieJ occa-
sious^.a., religious feasts — with the phaeea of the moon
among the Bemitea. The Honsniana had fonr sacrificial
days in every month, and of these two at least wero deter-
mined by the coigunction and op)ioeition of the moon.*
That full moon aa w^ aa new moon had a religiouu
significance among the ancient Helirews seems to follow
from the fact that, when the- great agricultural feeiits were
fixed to set days, the full moon was chosen. Li older
times these feast^aya appear to have been Sabbaths (Lev.
xziiL 11 ; oomp. FiaeovKB, voL zriii. p. 344).
A week determined by the phases of the moon has an
average length of 29i4-4~7} days, i.«., three weeks out
oC ei^t would have eight days. But there seems to be in
1 8t^ XI. 27, compared with vr. IS, 24, an indication that
in old times the feast of the new moon Usted two days — a
very natural institution, since it appears that the feast waa
fixed iu advance, while the Hebrews of Saul's time cannot
have bren good enough astronomers to know beforehand on
which of two successive days the new moon would actually
be observed.* In that case a week of seven working days
would occur only once in two montha. We cannot tell
when the Sabbath became dissociated from the month ;
but the change seems to have been made before the Book
of the Covenant, which already regards the Sabbath umply
u> an institution of humanity and ignoree the new moon.
In both points it is followed bj Deuteronomy.
Tin BtUiglmiaii <t!ui Jai/rian Salibaai.—ThB vanl "Sabtalli"
(ntoKuv), with the cipUnition ' da; of nst oT the hnrt," ii
I'lumwl u Asiyrun on ih» bani tS ■ teituil enuniliCiDa mada by
F. Delitach b II. BavL, 33, 10. Tha valn« of thi* l»Ut«l Si.J
nncertain taatunooy aunot be pUcni toit high, aiiil it leem* to
prove too much, for it in pnctically certain that tlia Babyloniaiie
at tha tiioa ot ths Hofaraw exile canuot have had > SabUth aiai.'tly
ajtrnpoDiliiig ia coDcejption to wlist tlis Hebrew Uabbatk had ba-
como onder voir ■pecial historical circnmetancta. Whit va do
know from a calendar of the inlartalaTr mouth EIul 11. ii that
in that monUi tbs 7th, 14th, IBth, 2ln, and 3£th diye had a pcea-
liar character, and that csrtain uCs VBTB forbidden ou them (0 th*
king and othern. Then is the greateat uncertainty as to ths dataila
(compere tha very diveisent landeringi in Jlianu af Uit Fuit, viL
ISO •;, i Schlader, £.A\T., 2d eJ., p. 18; LoCl, Qu, lU hitloria
Satiati, S9 j;.); bat theas dan which are taken to be Aaajrliui
Sahbatha, ira certainly not "dayi of reit of th< heart," and tosU
uppcinoca are DnlDckv days, and nprcsily desiignatal ai auch.'
ir, therarore, thay are '' Ainrian Sabbitba " at alL Ihcy sreciactly
oppouta In i^hanctol to tho Hebrov SabUtfa, which Howa dmrilxa
u a day of gladnai^ aud which nevar oeosBil to bo a day o( faaitiuj;
and good cheer.
Stynulimi ilfllu wml'Sdlibaai,-— Tilt •rr.n.nmlict^ r,.Hriii>i,diir
the word " Sabbath " ihow liiat II li a fenii
M-l For ihaibat-l, from TUT II. The iw
reaCing in the aeiua of eigoyiiitf re^ioaa ;
applicationB ic tueaoi to "aarar, to "pnl
eitivelyit meana tn "dealit," to '-coaiB '
malieal form of iSaWwtt mogcati a trauail
and apparently indicataa the Sabbath u diriding tho nionll
may maan the day which puti a itot< to tho week'x work, bui
U lea. likely. It cartdnly cannot be tmnaUtad - O.e day of run.
Sabbaiital Tw.— The Jew. ondcr the icnrid temple ohmne
every leventh year oi a Sabbtth acconlinu to the (poit-eiilic) lai
of Lav. XIV. 1-7. It waa a year in wliicb all aifrUultnn wai n
rm, jiroiiatly lAfl*-
loUung todowltb
h. it
tbi>
o the fUtrul, IIS, 14—1
a 17Uiai
' It appain fros Jadllh vita. S that ana in lals timei Iban ven
two dayi at tha new moon oa which it wu improptf to fai^t.
* LotiHynUwyarglockydeji; but tha eipnariaa which Le nnlrra
" Ha Jmitut * ii applied la every day hi Uit colendii. Tha net of
bit book doH not rise above tUa cisniple vf avaDNB.
S A B — S A B
127
nhttJ, In vUeh tb* Md* Ur . , ._ _._„.___
ud n*a Dm attnnl fninm wm uot gubsnd In. Ttut
4S wit obwrnd bdbn tlu nptiri^ m Wra Iniai Lai
ttOkUw
,-- -, - .. r. iiTi it
iq.; iudiadw lou uthsHibnmwtnu vricultanl pKipU aith
liUl* tn4a. In ■ bod aftu nnnd i^ aanrs bmiiMi. wch ■ Uw
aMid bM ba** b«aa ohHrrad. Kna u Utor tinM* H wm oucuioB-
(UrjinidaalinaranttdiitnMOlb&TLlB, Ui Jot., AnlL, lir.
IS, 1). IB Hk* oldif leglilatitm, honnr, va >ln^ nwot iritli >
■Tan jwn' puriod fn iDora than on* oonnudoo. Tba nlaua oT »
Habnir lerTiBt aftai dx /eum' Uboor (Eiod. ui 9 «}. ; Dant XT.
IS IV.) hu (Hilrsniion auhwjr to tka Stbbatial jui. Bnt id
£i«L iiiiL 10, 11 it if pnacribad that tba crop of tntj aar^th
, . _ aitandadlBvar. 11 to
ilnajard and tha ollra oil, bat ban tha aoltun aaaij to J
tha Tioaa asd olin tiaw In ordac ia not DiTbiddaB ; tba pra
iaanljUi
■a ptodoca ia to h> bit to tba poor. In Danl
■araotb yaar n
--, , -„ at Inti
o iDtamt ia tg M oiaelM bj tba cndltor trom
it no pnMasdiiiH an la ba (>£•& aalnit tba dabtor
U that yaar (Dant »». 1 1.■^. (W. R 1)
' ' SABBLLIUa Er«a after the elimination ot Qnosti-
dm the ehiirch renutoed vithont tnj nnifonn Chriatalogy ;
Uie Trinitkruuu and tha Unitariani contiDned to oonfront
each other, the kttar U the beginning of the 3d oentury
(tiU fMming the laige nqjorilj. Th^ in turn split into
t«Q ^inciiMl Kroops— the Ad^tkniata and the ModaJiata
— 4bs fomer Aolduig Chrkt to be the man choaen of Ood,
DO lAoat the Bofy Spirit rerted in a quite unique sBiiBe,
and wha after UA tad mbring, thtoogh Hia onaoaa of
will irith Qod, b«CMiie dirine, the Utter maintaining Cbriat
to be « DmnifeatatHHi of God Himiwlf . Both gnnpe had
their acieatifta llieologiaiii who eooght to *indicata their
ebancteriatic doctrinea, the Adoptianiat diviuM holding
1^ the ArutOteliaD pbi)ow^7, and the U odnliati by that
at the Stoics ; while the Trinitariana (TertuUian, Hippo-
Iftm^ Origan, Novatiao^ on the other hand, appealed to
Plato.
In Boms Hodaliam wai the doctrine which praniled
fran ViotM to Calixtoa (e. 190-330). Tht biahopa joat
mmed pntsclcd within the eitj the aohooU of Epigonua
and Cleomeoaa, where it wu taught that the Bon ia
iden&al with the Father. Bat the prtabTter Hippo1;tua
wai mooenfiil in eoaviuciug the leaden of that church
that tha Hodaliatio doetaine taken in ita atrictneaa waa
contrary to Scriptma^ Kahop Oaliztna aaw hinuelf under
(he necetity of abandooing hia fiiendB and aatting np a
waitiatiiig formula deatgned to harmontza tha Triuitarian
Mid the Hodaliatio poshioBa. Bnt, while axeotBmnnicating
tha atrict Unitarian* (MonarchknaX he also took the wme
coune witii Hippolyto* and hia followan, declaring their
taaching to be ditheism. lie mediation formula, how-
a*ar, proposed by Calixtoa became the bridge by which,
in tiiB courae of the decodee immediately foUowing, the
doctrine of the Trinity made ite way into tha Roman
Oturch. In the year 300, when the Boman presbyter
Horatian wrote hia book Ik Trinitate, the doctrine of
Hippotytna, once discredited a« dlthelBm, had already
t;ixime official there. At the same time Home and most
ol tba other chtuchea of the West atill retained a certain
leaning towards Hodalistie monarchianiam. This appeals,
DO tile one band, in the nae of expres«iona having a
Modalistic ring about them — see especially the poems of
Cocamodiaa, written aboat the tune of TaJeri&n— and, on
the other hand, in the rejection of the doctrine that the
Bon is (nbordinatB to the Father and is a creature (wit-
nasB the controTeny between Dionysiiia of Alexandria
md Dionysins vS Bome), aa well as in the readineas of the
¥est to accept the formnk of Athauadna, that the Father
ud the Son are one andtiie «Mne ia robaUnoe (^wnirmi).
The strict Hodaliiti, whom CafiztoB had exeommuii-
wted along with their most sealous opponent Eippolytus,
were led by Babellius, who was perhaps a Libyan by birdi.
Hia party continued to subaiBt in Rome for a considerable
tirae afterward*,' and withstood Caliitua as an unscropn-
lous apostate. In the Wast, however, the influence of
Sabellius seems never to hare been important; in the
East, on the other hand, after the middle of the 3d cen-
tury hia doctrine found mach acceptance, firat in tha
Pentapolis aod afterwards in other provincee.* It was
riolently contcoveited by the biahopa, notably by IKonysion
of Alexandria, and the development in the Eaat of the
philoaophical doctrine of the Triiiity after Origen (from 260
to 330) was very powerfully influenced by^e oppcaition
to Sabnilianism. Thus, for example, at the great aynod
held in Antioch in 2G6 the word &iMiaitruit wae rejected,'
aa teeming to favour Unitariauism. The Babellian doc-
trine itself, however, during the decades above mentioned
underwent many changes in the East and received a philo-
•opbical dreaa. In the 4th century thii and the allied
doctrine of Marcellos of Ancyra were frequently con-
founded, BO that it is exceedingly difficult to arrive at a
clear account of it in its genuine form. Babeliiauism, in
fact, became a collective name for all those Unitarian
doctrines in which the divine nature of Chriat was
acknowledged. The Inching of Sabellins himself waa
indnbitably very cloaely allied to the older Modalism
f " Patripassianiam ") of Koetiu and Praxeas, bnt waa
aistinguished from it by ita more careful theological
elaboration and by the account it took of the Holy Spirit.
Hia central proposition was to the effect that Father, Son,
and Holy Bpirit are the same person, three Jiamea thus
being attached to one and the same being. What weired
most with Sabellius was the monotheistic interest. The
One Being was also named by him tAarirap, — an expression
purposely chosen to obviate ambiguity. To explain how
one and the same being coold have varioua fonna of
manifestation, he pointed to the tripartite nature ot man
(body, Boul, spirit), and to the sun, which manifests itself
as a heavHily body, as a source of light, and also as a
source of warmth. Be farther maintained that Ood is
not at one and the same time Faths', Son, and Spirit,
bat, on the contrary, haa been active in three oonsecutive
energies, — first in Uie prosopon of the Father aa Creator,
then in the prosopon of tha Son aa Bedeemer, and lastly
in the prosopon of the Spirit as the Giver of Life. It is
by this doctrine of the succeaaion of the prcsopft that
Babelliua is essentially distinguished from the older
Modslista. In particular it is significant, in oot^nnction
with the reference to the Holy Spirit, that Sabdlins re-
gards the Father also aa merely a form of manifsatAtion
of the one God,— in other wo^dI^ haa formally put Hini
in a position of complete equality wi^i tha other Persoas.
This view prerares the way for Augustine's doctrine of
the Trinity. Sabellius himself appears to have made use
of Stoical formula* (a-Xarvmrfai, crvcrrcAXsrtfai), but hs
chiefly relied upon Scripture, especially auch passages aa
Pent vi 4, Exod. xx. 3, Isa. xliv. G, Soka x. 38. Of
his latsr hiatory nothing ia known ; hia follower* died OQt
in the coarse of the 4th century.
The aouiTv of aur knmrledgs of Saballianiiin an Rlppolytoa
(miat., bk. ii.), Epipbauiiu [Bmr., liiL), and Dionya. Aloi.
iBp/i, ) : aba vtrioiu fumge* in Atbanaaiaa and tba otbei fatbata
> In the 18th aaotsTT thara waa diaconrad In ona of tha caUcon
of Roma an Inasrlptlon eontatnlna the imd* ' qnl at Filial dloaila
Fatar iDTenlrla." Thli nan DBlf haia rmna tnta a SabsUiaB.
■ Wbatb«r8sbeIliiuhlm*alf«TaTlaltadttiaEHtt>aBlUiD«»
128
S A B — S A B
8AEIAN3. TnthnopaMagMoftlieKoianMohainined
msnticaii between the Jeva uid the Christians a sect whtan
he calls S&bioiu (SiOi'iHa). He distiDgniiihes them from
the Magians and polytheUts (zxiL 17), and aiipears to nj
that Uiey believed in Ood and in the day of reanirectioa
and jodgnient It has commonly been snppoeed that the
■act referred to is the Hucdauib (g.v.) ; but it b more
piobablti that they «et« some obecure half-Christian body
(Elkuaites 1), which had reptesentativei in .Arabia ilaelf
(see MottjuoraDAMiaii, voL ivi p. 647). The name is
derived from the Amnuiie nst, with a softening of D to N,
such aa took place in certain dialecta of that speech, and
Riettns "Bautists." The older Moluunmadan theologians
were agreed that the Sabians poeBessed a writtea revela-
tion, and were entitled accordingly to enjoj a toleration
not granted to mere heathen, and it appears that the Han-
diBons got the benefit of this, whether they ware the sect
Mohammed had in view or noL Bnt under Al-MamAn
(830) a body that bad certainly no claim to be deemed
other than polytheistB began to shield thanuelvei nnder
the wme name, vis., the ^a^ranianl, or remnant of the
old heathen of MeaDpotamia. Star-worship had a chief
place in the religion of tha l^rranians, as it had bad in
the older Babylonian and Syrian fait^ but they bad
partly disguised their polytheism in a fantastic pbiloeophy,
so that thay were able on occasion to pose as people of
enlightened beliefs. Accounts of these false Sabians
rwdied the Weat through Uaimonides, and than through
Arabic sources, long before it was nnderstood that, in this
^plication, tha name was only a disguise. Hence the
gitatMt confusion prevailed in all European accounts of
them till Chwobohn published in 1806 his Stairier lauf
Stabitmvt, in which the authorities for tha history and
belief of die Earranians in the Middle Ages are collected
and diacuseed. See also Doxy and Da Qoeje in the Aeie*
of the sixth Oriental congress, ii. 1, 18& *;., Leyden, 1
It ia quite inappropriate to c^ star- worshippers in genetal
Babians ra Zabians or to speak of a distinct Sabian religion,
as ddcr writers da The religion of the IjEarranians ia
simply a modernized form of the old Syrian polytheism.
SABICU WOOD is the produce of a large t^nminous
tree, LytUoma Sabictt, a native of Cuba, where alone it
appears to be found. Tha wood has a rich mahogany
colour ; it is azceedingiy heavy, hard, and durable, and
tberefora meat valuable for shiplmilding. Sabicu, on
account of its durability, was selected for die stairs of the
Great Exhibition (London) of 1851, and, notwithstanding
the enormous baffle which passed over them, tha wood at
the end was found to be little affected by wear.
SABIN£, Sot Edwisd (1788-1883^ astronomer,
bom in Dublin on Uih. October 1788, a scion of a family
said to be of Italian origin. He was educated at Woi
wich and obtained a commission in the Boyal Artillery
the age of Hfteen. He attained the rank of m^or-genai
in 1859. His only experience of actual warfora seenis
have been at tha siega of Fort Erie in 1814 i but few men
have seen more thau he of active and sometimes perili
service. In early life he devoted himself to astronomy and
physical geography, and in consequence he was appointed
astronomer to various expeditions, among others that of
Sir J. RoBB (1818) in search of the North-West Passage, and
that of Sir E. Parry soon afterwards. I^ter, he spent long
periods on the iBter-tropical coasts of Africa and America,
and again among the snows of Spitibergen. Sir Edward
Sabma died at East Sheen, Surrey, on 2Sth May 168'
ioToatlgstion of tb* figure ot the nrth and hi*
connected with terreatriil in<.gnetiiin. Bi> pandnlnni oburrttiana
nenthe Gnt tDihow thei]ta^th«r nneipectsd unonnCotiutiutscj
DsttN which, aaier tiia must fivennbla conJiamu,
istalilCdinKUt ol
■TiUm of mi^«t<o obHrntocioi in vnioiu ]i*n> of British tnTitory
■11 over the uiobe wu ■ccomplilfaoil Duiuij on bis nimMUtstioui ;
ud to tha directloa oT iLosa olwarriUirics lud to Ae r«lactloB
snd lUKDiaioa of the obyoi vitioni t gnat t«rt of hli Ufa wu
derotod. Hi* psblished t»l<vrt, u alioTD \ij th» RayftI Society**
Oataiiigiu, unauntsJ in 1873 to 101. While the nufority boar on
one or othei of tho iuIjacU jut mentlDiuid, othan deal wUh snch
videlj dilfennt topia ■> the binli o( Onmluul, oeeaa tenpan-
tun^ tbe Oalt Straus, baramstrio meuaramant of helgliti, ires of
metvliui, glular tnnniort of rocki, tlia volcanMs of tho Sindwkh
I*l*nili, tad vsriao* point* or natanology. SaUna occn^rfed Ibr ten
y«ra(IUl-71]Chepitaid«nt'*duirar tbaEoril Sociot *, sad WM
luda K.CB. in 188S. Thouh h« csniiat ba leid to luTa baan
a m*n of ttriking originility, lib nuBigpiug davodon to hi* work
deMTvedly won him in honounbl* poutioii luunig th* foisnuat
■uiaatiSo men of tha piuant Mnlary.
BABIKES. The Sabinea (SaLini) were a people of Cen-
tral Italy, who played an important part in the eiilj history
of Borne. According to all old writers they were one of the
most ancient nations of Italy, and the parent stock from
which many of the other tribes that occupied the central
and southern regions of the peninsula derived their tvigin.
Of their own origin and affinities we know very little.
Btraix) calls them a retj ancient race and " antochthoDoas,"
whidi may be taken as signifying that there w«a no anthen-
tic tiadition of their immigistion, or of the quarter from
whence they came. The story of their I^conian descent
may be safely rejected as one of those fictions by irtiich a
certain class of tha later Greek writen sooght to derive
every people in Italy frran a Greek origin. But the evi-
dence concerning their language, scanty as it is, is sufficient
to prove that they were a cognate race with the neighboai-
ing Umbrians and Oscans, as well as, more remotely, iritli
the I^ins. Cato, the best authority among the Boman
writers with respect to the different races erf Italy, affirmed
that the Sabinea originally occnpied the country about
Amitemum, in the upper valley of the Atimui, at the
^oot of the loftiest group of the Apennines. From thence
they gradually extended themselvae into the fertila valleys
about Beate, where we find them established in historical
times, and occupied the tmct from thenoe to the Tiber
and the Anio. But even in its widest extension Uu r^on
held by the Sabinea was of small dimensions, and for tha
most part of a rugged and mountainous character. Bene*
it was natural that thay should seek a place for thetr Bnpe^
fluons population by repeated emigrations into the neigh-
bouring districts, and the general tiadition among Bcnuan
writers ascribed the origin of several of the mora powerful
and populous nations of the peninsula to such emigtationa.
This result was especially promoted by a custom which,
though not unknown to the other nations of Italy, appeait
to have been peotdiarly characteristic of the Sabines--that
of a Tet Sacrum, or "sacred spring," when everything bora
in that year was oonsecrated to some ktoal divinity, most
frequently to Uamera or Mara. All the cattle were duly
BBcnficed, while the young men were allowed to grow up
to manhood, and then sent forth in a body to seek for
themselves new abodes beyond the limits of their native
land. To such colonies is ascribed the foundation of the
Picentea or people of Hcenum, the Samniles, and ths
HirpinL Of these the last-mentioned derived their name
from hirptu, the- Sabine name for a wolf, an animal of that
description being supponed to have been divinely sent sa
the leader of £e colony, as a woodpecker (pietu), alao
sacred to Hais, became that of the KoenL Tb» Peligni
also, as we learn from Ovid, himself a native of the Sit-
trict, claimed a Sabina origin, and the same was probably
the case with the smaller kindred tribea of the Uarsi,
Marmcini, and VeitinL The-Bamnitee, again, in their turn
sent forth the Fientani and the Lucanians, who extended
their dominion throughout the mountainotiB regions of
S A B — S A B
189
BonAara IMr •n' ouriad Uteir una from the Adriatic
to tlis Siolimn Stiutl.
UMQwhila the Sabincs themaslTN wen confined within
eompuativBly narroir limite, and tlieir exteniion towuda
the wnth ww checked bj the gnnring poirer of the Latina.
Hen their power appears i« have attained ita highest point
about the time of the foundation of Bomt^ and the legend-
aiy hiatoiy, familiar to ererj ichoolboj, of the contest*
betweea B<Hnalna and Tatine, the dirided eoTereigntjr at
mie time eatablished between them, and the peaceful reign
and legislation of the Sabine king Noma may be taken
u repreaenting the hiatorical fact that the population of
Bmie nalljr contained an important Sabine element, and
that Sabine influence* weie largely intennised with Ihoee
of I^tia ori^n, both ia the cinl institntioni and itill
more in the leligioii* rite* and eenmoDiea of Uis rising
iqmblia Beyond thia it i* impoesiblD to pronounce wi^
certainty aa to the real value and aignificanoa of the tradi-
tion* preoerved to ns in the poetical legends tranimitted
in die garb of history ; and it ii imponible in an article
like the present to give even an ontline of the varioo*
theoriea uiai have bem devised by modem writen to pnt
an historic*! interpretation nptm the reccnds thai preaened
to ns. It is clear, howerer, that the power of the Sabinta
wa* hy no means broken, even bj the establiehment of the
mora powerful monarchy at Boim under the Tarqoins, and
for a period ot more than fifty yean after the fall of the
DMioarQlqr we find the Bomans engaged inalmoit perpetoal
' hoitiUtiea agaioat the Sabinaa on the one nde and the
fqniana and Tolsdans on the other. At length in the
year U9 kg. the Sabinca were defeated br the crauul
H. Horatine, in an action which appears to hare been of
BD deciuTe a character that we do not find than again
appearing in uma agaiost the Bomonsfora period of more
than 160 Tears. Thur quieacence ia the more MngHUi- aa
doting thu interval the repnbtic wa* eiwaged in Ute long
series cj the SanmiteWare, in which their MlTenarieevrere
the direct descendants of the Babtnea; and had therefore
evBiy claim on their anpport. Still more unaccountable
ii it tha^ after looking on with apparent neutrality for ao
loog, we find the Sabinee in the year 390 n.c. onto moie
in arms against Rome, and that at a period when the
Third Samnito War had for a time crodiod all the hopes
of thur natoral allies. The result was, as might have been
expected, that they found themselvee wholly unequal to
contend siogla-handad against the power ot Borne, and the
consul M*. Curios Dentatus rednced them to submisaion in
a *ingle campaign. They were severely punished for this
defection ; and honceforUi their national existence was at
an end. Those who surrived the ^I'^'g** *'■"'' of the war
were admitted to the position of Boman citizens, though
at fint vrithont the right of suffrage^ but twenty years
after this also was gtanted them, and tliey were to all
intents and porposes incorpoc&ted in the !Roman state,
^os separated from all the tribes of kindred origin, they
never again appear in history, and, like the Campanians
and lAtins, were content to swell the ranks of the Boman
legions even in the fierce struggle of the Social War (91-
K B.C.). Under the arnLngemeota of the Boman empire
their very name was lost as a territorial deeignation, but
it always continued in popular nse, and was revived in the
Middle Ages as that of an ecclesiastical province. Even
at the present day every peasant in the neighbourhood of
jBome will point to La Sabina as the familiar appellation
of the bfty mountain tract to the north of l^e ci^.
Hie limits of the territory occupied by the Sabinee do
not appear to have varied much from a very early period
tin &e days of Bttabo. That geographer describee them
ai extending aa far south as Eretum near the Tiber, on
the nad to Borne, and a few milea only from Cnie*, the
repnted birthplace of Tatini and Nnma, but which in his
time had become a mere village. The principal town of
the Sabine* wa* Beate (still called Eieti), in the mid«t of
the beautiful and fertile valley of the Velino, and from
thence they occupied the upper valley of that river to its
■ooroes in the Monte deUa Sibiila and the rugged mountain
v^eys which oonnected it with that of the Ateran*.
Here wa* found Amiteronm, the original capital of the
trib«^ near the modem Aqoila, and between that and
Reate lay Interocrea (Antrodoco), in a pass that has always
formed one of the leading lines of communication throu^
the central Apennines. In the extreme north was Nunia
(Norda), noted for the coldnesa of ita climate, and cele-
brated in ecclesiastical history as ihe birthplace of St Bene-
dict These were the ooly town* of any importance in
the territory of the Sabines ; but they lived for the most
part scattered in villages about the mountains, a circnin-
■tanee absurdly alleged by some Boman writers as a proof
of their Laconian origin. It was doubtlese owing to this
habit, aa well as to the rugged roounUunous character of
the country in which they dwelt, that the Sabines owed
the primitive simplicity of their manners and the frugal
and severe chanuter which dist
dehed them e
the daya of Augustus. All reeders of Horace must be
familiar with his frequent allusion* to the moral purity
and frug^ manners of the people that inrroundrai his
Sabine villa, which iras situated on the reverse of Mount
Lncretilis, only about 1 S miles from the rich and Inxnriona
Tibur <^voli). The small town of Yaria (Tieovaro), in
i'« immediate neighbourhood, seems to have marked the
frontier on t.Tiw side.
No renuuns of the Sabine language are extant in the
form of inscriptions, but coins struck during the Social
War with the inscription " Safinim " show that the native
appellation wa* the same as that in use among the Latiiw.
Tht form " SabelluB " is frequently found in I^tin writen
as an etlmic adjective equivalent to Sabine ; bnt the pracdc>i
adopted by modem writers, of employing the term " Sabel-
lian " to designate all the tribes of Sabine origin, including
Samnitea, Locaniaru, &c., waa first introduced by Niebuhr,
and is not supported by any ancient authority, {k, a. b.)
SABLE {Muthla tiMtina). See Haktut, voL xr, p.
G77, and Fob, voL iz. p. 838.
BABLES D'OIiOKNE, a seaport town of Frano^ the
chef-lieu of an arrondissement of the department of La
Tend^ is situated on the Atlantic seaboard in 46* 30* N.
kt., 300 miles south-west of Paris by the railway for Toun
and lA-Bocho«or-Yon. The tovra itAnda between the sea
on the south and the port on the north, while on the west
it is separated by a cbaimel from "the suburb of La Chaume,
built at the foot of a range of dunee 65 feet high, which
terminates southwards in the rocky peninsula of L' Aiguille
(the Needle^ defended by Fort St Nicholas. To the north
of Babies extend salt-marshes and oyBter-parks, stocked
from Anray or Cape Breton, and yielding 6,000,000 to
8,000,000oj»teisp«rannum. The port of Sables, consisting
of a tidal baain and a wet-dock, ia acceasible only to veaeels
of from 350 to 400 tons, and ia dangerous when the wind*
from the eouth-nest. The entrance is shown by six
lights i a seventh lighthouse, that of the Barges, a mile out
at sea to the weat, ha* a height of 80 feet and is visible
lot IT to 18 nautical miles. In 1882 U5 vessels (62,073
tons) entered and 146 vessels (61,037 tons) cleared. The
staple articlee of trade are gram, wine, cattle, timber, salt,
tar, fish, building stone, maaurea ; 400 boats are engaged
in the sardine fishery. The beautiful smoothly sloping
beach, a mile in length, is much frequented by bathers.
It is Uned by an embankment which serves as a promenade
and drive, and ia bordered by hotels, villas, and <xif 6s. The
populotioa in 1881 waa 9T69, that of the commune 10,420..
*^^ . XXL - 17
130
8 A 0 — S A C
ni.iatlali,
[ Florence.
_ ^ ._. _ Looifl XL, who wsnt
time io 147% gnntad the iiih>Ut4Dta Tudoo* priiUi^Ea, impnind
tlu harfaoqr, ud feiUQad tbe entruiGa Captured uid r«aptur«d
during tfaa Wua of Beligian, the torn trtemanb bectioe n nurHrT
of huiJy uilon and privataen, vho haruetl thn SpuiUrde «na
iftemRJi the Eogliib. la ISM Ehbla vu bombuded by the
combined flDots of England and Holland. Hnrrioaaaa bare mon
tban.onoe oauaed giieTooa damege to town and hurbonr.
SAC3CATOO. See Sokota.
SACCHETTl, Fuirco {<^ 1335.e. UOO^ Italian novd-
bt, was the Bon of Beoci di Ugnccione, Bumamed " Baono^"
of the noble and u>cient Florentine family of the Socchetti
(comp. Duitcs /"or., c.ZTi),M)d was bom at Florence aboQt
the jeu 1335. While Btill a jmrng man be achiered repute
u a poet, and ho appeon to have travelled on a^rs of
more or leas importance as far ae to Qenoo, Milan, and " L>-
ciuavonia." When a leDtGnce of boniahrasnt was paaeed
apoa the rest <rf the house of Socchetti hy the Florentine
authorities in I3fiO it appears that Franco was expresslj
exempted, "per esser tanto nomo baono," and in 1383
he was one of tiie "eight," discharging the office of
"prior" foi the months of Idarch and April In 1385 he
was chosen ombMBador to Genoa, but preferred to go as
iwdesti to Bibbiena in Caaeutina In 1392 he waspodestb
of Ban Miuiato, and la 1396 he held a Bimilor office at
Faenza. In 1398 he receiTed from his fellow-citizens the
poet of captain of their 'then province of Bomsgna, having
bill TCBidence at Portico, ^e data of his death it un-
known; meet probablj it occoired about 1100, though
«ome writere place it as late as 1410.
SacchttLi Igll a ooniidsnble nnmbsr of KmiuUi, n
^Mdrigall, kc-t which hare noTor boen printedt hut
extant in at leaat one US. in the Lsnrentiso tibrai
Hii Vtvaic were Snt printed in 172t, from the UB. in tlu mme
collectioD, which, howBTar, ia for from complaU. They veie oii-
gimtlj 300 in niunber, but only 2fi8 in whole or in part now lur-
vive. They an written in puie and elegant Tascan, uid, iMsed u
they am for the moat part on rul inciJeuts in the public and
domeatic life of Florenoe, thoy era valuable for the light they throw
on the mannen of that age, and occaaionally alao for the biograph-
ical beta preaerred in them. But in no other respect do they come
up to the eoiresponding compositions of Ui3 friend Botcaccio. Soma
of them, it need hardly be said, are very coa-TC— ■ feature not com-
pcnaalsd for by the morsliiings almoet Inrariabl; appended — and
many more are dull end pointleia, leaving the ImpresiiiDa, aa Sia-
art of eouTereation bad remuned far behiod the othera.
SACCEI, Amdrra («. 1600-1661)^ a leading punter of
the later Eomoa school, was born in Rome in 1600, or
perhaps as eorljr aa 1598. His father, Benedetto, a pointer
of ondiatinguished position, gave him his earliest instruc-
tion in the art; Andrea then passed into the studio of
Albani, of whom he was the test and the most eminent
pupil, and under ATbani he mode his repntation early.
The painter of Sacchi's predilection wax Raphael; he
was the jealous opponent of Pietro da Cortona, and more
especially of BeminL In process of time he became one of
the mo»t learned dcuigners and one of the soundest colour-
iats of the Roman school He went to Venice and to Lom-
bardy to study Venetian colour and the style of Correggio ;
but he found the last-named master unadaptable for hb own
proper methodd in art, and he returned to Rome. Sacchi
WBB strong in nrtiatic theory, and in practice slow and fasti-
dious ; it was his Bidom that the merit of a painter consists
in producing, not many middling pictiu^ but a few and
perfect ones. Hid works have dij,'nity, repose, elevated
yet natural forms, severe but not the leM pleasing colour,
a learned treatment of orchitoctiu and {>erspective ; he
is thn;* a iiainter of the correct and laudable academic
order, sduiired by connoLiseurs rather thou by ambitious
studeuta or the large public. KU principal pointing,
often (ipolcen of b<i the fourth best easel-picture in Rome —
in the Vatican Onllory— is St Botnnald relating hia Vbion
to Five Uoutui ol' hU Order. The pictorial cnu of de&ling
with these fignrea, who an all in the wliite garb of thdr
order. Lob often been remarked npon ; and aa often the
ingenuity and judgment of Sacchi have been praised in
varying the tints of these habits according to the light and
shade cast by a neighbouring tree. The Vatican Qallery
contaiis aI«o an early painting of the master, — the Miracle
of Bt Gregory, executaii in 1624; a mosaic of it was made
in ITVl and placed in St Peter's. Other leading examiJcEf
ore the Death of St Anna, in S. Carlo ai Oatinari ; St
Andrew, in the Quirinal ; Bt Joseph, at Capo alle Casa ;
also, in fresco, a ceiling in the PaUuo Barberini — Divino
Wisdom — reckoned superior in expreosioa and selection to
the rival work of Pietro da Cortona. There are likewise
altar-piecea in Perugia, Foligno^ and Oamerino. Sacchi,
who worked almost always in Rome, left few pictures
visible in private galleries : one, of St Bmno, is in Gros-
venor House. He had a flourishing school : Nicholas
Foussin and Carlo Maratta were hb most eminent echolars ;
Luigi Oarzi and Francesco I^uri were others, and Sacchi'»
own son Giuseppe, who died young, after giving very high
hopes. Thb must have been an illegitimate eon, for Andrea
died nnmarried. This event took place in Rome in 1661.
6ACCHINI, Ajttokio Maria Qaspakb (1734-1786),
musical composer, of the Italian school, was bom at PomnaU,
23d July 1734, and educated under Durante at the Conser-
vatorio di San Onofiio at Naples. His firiit serious opera
was produced at Borne in 1762, and was followed by many
othen, nearly all of which wer« EuccessfuL In 1769 he
removed to Venice ; and in 1773 he visited London,
where, notwithstanding a cruel cabal formed Bgainst him,
he achieved a brilliant success, especially in hb four new
operas, TaToerlano, Zveia Vera, JfiiaU t Ptrtto, and 11
Gran Cid. Ten years later he met with an equally enthn-
siastic reception in l^ris, where his Siitaldo iras produced
under the immediate patrauEge of Queen Marie Antoinettes
to whom he hod been recommended by the emperor
Joseph n. But neither in England nor in France did
bb reputation continue to the end of his vbit. He seems
to have been everywhere the victim of bitter jealou^.
Even Marie Antoinette was not able to support his cause
in the face of the general outcry against the favonr
shown to foreigners ; and by her command, most unwill-
ingly given, hu last opera and undoubted masterpiece,
(Edipt 4 Colont, was set aside in 1 786 to make room for
Lemoine's Phidre, — a circumstance which so preyed Upon
his mind that he died of chagrin, Tth October 1786.
Ssccblni'a ityle waa rather graceful than elevated, and hs ITS*
deficient both in creative power and originality. But the dramatio
truth of his operas, motv sepocialiy the later ones, la above all praise,
sod he never fails to write with the car« and fliiiah of a Ihorongh
and accompliabed mnaidan. (Edipi was eitnuMly saecmftil slier
fail death, sod hsa since been performed at the Actdtaiia Dfirtr
flOO tlmea. The laat paifacmance of which any ncotd has teachad
ns took place in IMl.
BACHEVERELL, Hinbt (1674-1724), an English
church and state politician of extreme views, was bctu in
1674, the son of Joshua Socheverell, rector of St Peter's,
Marlborough, who at hb death left a large family in
poverty. Henry SachevereU matriculated at Magdalen
College, Oxford, 28th August 1689, and was demy of his
college from 1689 to 1701 and fellow from 1701 to 1713.
Addison, another Wiltshire lad, entered at the same college
two years earlier, but was also elected a demy in 1680 ;
he inscribed to Socheverell in 1691 his account of the
greatest English poets. SachevereU took his degree of
B.A. in 1603, and became M.A. in 1696 and D.D. in
1708. His first preferment wait the small vicarage of
Cannock in Staffordshire ; but he leapt into notice when
holding a proachenhip at St Saviour'a, Sonthwark. His
famous serTBons on the chnrcli in danifor from the neglect
of the Whig minuti; t4 tie>;p ^''%nj utik iU intemU
S A C — S A C
wn pnhU^ ^ ona M D«r1i7, Ufh Annit, tha otW
•t St AMil't Catbadiml, Dtli Nomibar I7(». Thaj w«ra
innwdiatdj Nprinlad, the Utter beiiig dedioted to the
Intl napv wid the former t« the ■nthor'a Usniiei, Oeorge
SKherarel], hi^ iheriff of Derby for the jMtr ; and, u
the piMrma of the idiole Britkh ptpuhti*^ vers at thii
period kamitj a^nciaad between the riral taction* of Whig
and Tory, the Tehement iavectivei of this fnrioni divina on
behalf of an eedaaiartical itutitnCion which anppbed the
bulk of the adherenti of the Toriea nude him their idoL
The Whig miniatiy, then alo^rlj bat inrelj loaing the tap-
port of the eonntry, were dirided in opinion aa to the pro-
ptielj of pTOBemting thia lealoiu paraon. Bomer* waa
agunat Bach a meaanre ; bat Qodolphin, who was bclicTcd
to be peraonallj alloded to in one al theae horangaea under
the nickname of ** Volpooe,* urged the neeeeaity of a
proaeentioD, and gaioed the daj. Hie trial laated from
!7th February to 2U Uarch 1T10, and the Terdict wu*
that Sachereretl ahouJd be anspeoded for three jean and
that the two aennoDa should be burnt at the Royal Ex-
change. Thia waa the decree of the atatc^ and it had the
effect of making him a martyr in the eyea of the populace
and of bringing abont the downfall of tlie toiniatry. Ln-
nudiately on &e expiration of hii aentence (13th April
1713) he ma inatitntad to the Taloable rectory ot 8t
Aodiew'i, Holbom, by the new Toiy mimatiy, who deapited
tha aathor of the aermon^ klthoogh they dreaded hit in-
flosnca oTOr the mob. Be died at tlie QtOTO, Eighgata,
DD Eth Jmw 1724.
■boQt liii Ufa and trial wHI bt fonnd in
am's Awi'jto- ^ Uoadatm, liL Vt-llO, and
..u. »uw... v—o -'■», Tol. IL Ur tbdui o( tb* Bodliiu
lAiuy hia eoopilal % 8s<dwTinlI bibUognphy.
SACHS, HAm (1491-1376), the moat eminent German
poet of the inth eentory, waa bom at Nuremberg ou
itli November 1494, Hia father waa a ahoemaker, and
Ban* was trained to the aame e*Llling. Before begioning
bii apprenticeship^ bowerer, he wai edtKated at the Latin
Khod of Nuremberg. HaTing Sniahed faia "Lehijahre"
ua shoemaker, he began bia "Wandeijahre" in ISll, and
TDrked at kia craft in many towns, indnding Batiabon,
hsau, Belabor^ Leipaic, LQbeek, and Oenabrtck. In
]I16hBretDraed to-Nonniber^ whersfae Teqtainsd dnring
the re«t of hia life, working ateadily at hia bosineaa, and
JsTotiog hia leioure tima to litetatura. He mairied in
ISIi, and after hia wife's death he married a^un in IMl.
Hi died on 19th Janoary 15T0.
itit ws* mneh ra*p«t^ by hk ftUow-dtlieBa, nd eeqnbed
ir«t bns as a »«t Esrlr In llh bs racaind inrtractlaa in the
ptudpln sad niln of tb* " JitaUTwumnm,' sad it Unnich bi ISII
la BwipletHi bii (tadjof "tb« ehaimlng irl" Xltorwirda ha
*nts aunj ponns in tfaa rgnnil miniHirtf ths "Usutsningn',''
but to tbaa tWnrXt hg altribuUd w Ultl* Importauca that bs did
iiol bcloili tbam in bis oicn coUscHon gf hia works. Anwng Ui
I't vritiofis ars hia farmna, la which be nTa eipriwon to tba
■*-it iBDitoal B^irMioM of the sga of ttis Karormatioii. H*
laiJUu pinat anjant adbmnts e( Lather, and in 1613 wmls
a bit boDovr tba poeni bwlanini, " Wa Wittrabngisch Hschtigall,
DiimujatihSratlibsnlL'' Tbl* poeB atlin(it«r oneh atLaution
•M ni ot peat aerrice to Latbai. Sacha also wnta in niH
nmr bbls, pnablaa, talea, and diaionsa Of Us dramatle
Y*™, tba moat nmarkabls an U> OtTOf Tu-Ium Flmt, in »ch
oTihicb lig off«i » linlj npnaantstion of an aeUon wltltMit soy
•tt^pC St exact partaaltnie or at B BToAnnd appraeialteD of natJTca.
Woib rf tbia kfud wan popolar Wore Sacha'a tlma, bat ha gare
»'a. tni\ vllallty by hU hDoiinr and fcncy. Sachs bad SKtra-
"°u>UT frrtUlty ofiiiuBination, and nona of hh Garmaa conteu-
Vnnta ^jirea^bad him in bia msataTT of tha torn* ot UtitvT
"piadoe vhich wan then kni — "- — '- '*■ -■- -'
bi^nt ii
. ._„ ....«,_,<_ Totnmas sppaarad ; and in
M UasB many nliuts* ef bia woiks to maanscript bars b**n
°w<;ir«d. rron aboat tb* n^ddl* of the ITth eantnry, *b*n
™un wTltan of ran* baan* es a rale mat* imitalotB et toniga
as alaoat tvggtlto, anta intotaat in hia wvA was
■■ -' " his wiltU« Un
abas bsan pnbUibad. A aoBplale aditlaD, prepand I7 A, Ton
K-11*T, bas lia*B laanad by tb* Litelary Boetrtjr of Stattgart. A
biiunphr of B«b* b« U. Solomcn Baniack wa* jmbUihoJ in 1TA5.
auif tb«a an latar bingrapbia by }. h. HolDnaan (1B4T), Vtllar
(ISM), and LUtalbVBU [1B7<}.
SACKINa AWD BACK UANTJFACTtnsE. Packing
is a atont cloae-woTeu fabric, properly of flax, but now Teiy
bugely made of jute. Tba cbief centres of the manufacture
are Dundee and Forfar in Scotland. Sacka, howerer, are
mods of many qualitiea and from different Gbrea, according
to the purpoaca to trbich they are devoted. A hrge pro-
portion of flour Backs, thoee particularly of Amencan
ori^u, are made of atont cotton. Numeroua attempta
have been made to mauafaetnre araTnlrmn aaeks ; bnt none
bare met with auceeaa. The ioTention of a sowing-machine
for the " OTOiliread " Beaming of sacka haa been aucceaafully
aolred in the machine of I^ing and other inventora.
BACO, a city of the United Srataa, in York county,
Maine, on the left or north bonk of the Saeo river,
oppcoite Biddeford, 9 milee from the sea aiul 100 from
Boaton by the Boaton and Maine Bailrood. The water-
power fumialied by tiie river, which hero fnlla 35 feet, ia
ntiliiad faf variona cotton -factoriea, machine-ahopa, Inmber-
miUa, ka. Originally included in Biddeford, but sepa-
rately incorporated in 1762 as Peppereltboroujjh, Saco re-
ceived ita present name in 1805 and was made a city in
1867, Tbepopnlation*as3795inIg70andG369iu IbSO.
BACHA21ENT. The Latin word laeramentutt, mean-
ing "an oath," ia most oonunonly uaed by claasjcal writara
to denote the militarr oath of allegiance ; for ita technical
application in legal phisaeology see - Roman Law, voL zx.
p. 683. In the earliest eocleeiastical Latin traces of tha
old militAry meaning are atill preaent ; thua Tertnllian
(Ad Hart., 3) wcitea, "Wa were called to the warfare of
the living Ood in onr very reaponae to the aacramental
worda [in baptiam] " ; but the main impoi t of the word
has entirely '•h.ngiwt^ it being saed aimply as the equiva-
lent of the Qreak ftiianJpiaK. Thua even in tlia Vulgate
we atill have the "aaciament <rf godliness" (1 Tim. iiL
16), "of the aeven ataia" (Rev. i, 30), "of the woman and
tha be*at " (Rev. xvii 7^ ; but In earlier I^tin vemiona
tlie word also ocenmd m nnnuaona other places where
" myaterinm " ia now found (f.r;.. Bom. xvi 25; 1 Cor. xiiL
S). In addition to its general eeiue the word fiurnj/iuiv
not tmnaturally soon came to have for Christians a more
tpucal meaning aa denoting those external rites of their
religion, solemn, instroctive, and more or less secret, which
bod moat analogy with the MYRTznm (q.v.) of psLgaoisni.
No attempt, however, was at fint made to ennmemle or
to define theae. Tertnllian sptsika of the sacraroont ot
baptism and the Eucharist, Cyprian of "either socmmaot,"
meaning baptiam and confirmation, and many otbera, fol-
lowing Epb. V. 23 (aee Vulgate), of the aacnunent of
marriage^ out all with tbe ntmMt vagueness. Augnatine's
definition of the word was little more explicit, but forcen-
I it waa all the Western Church had, and for even a
longer period it continued to be a sufiiciently adequate
axpreaaion of the Oriental view alao. According to him a
oaenment is " the visible form of invisible grace," or " a
aign of a eocred thing." The sacromente ha principally
haa ID view at« thoee of baptiam and tbe Lord's Bujiitcr,
bnt witli ao wide a definition there was nothing to prevent
him from uaing tha wati (as he freely does) in many other
applicatioDik The old Bocramentariea or liturgical books,
whidt can in aome coaea be carried back m far aa to tha
8t1t oentnry, in like manner contain prayers and bencdic-
tiona, not only for the adminiat^tion of the Eucharist and
of baptiam, bnt also for a variety of other riCea, such v>
the bleemng of holy watu- and the dedication of churches.
In tba i)* McrMMtfM Chrutianm Jldti ot Hugh of St
132
S A 0 — S A C
Tictor (cL lUl), tM> fsww tban ibirtj
•Damemtad, divided iuto thno clusea, baptiim and the
Lord'* Bupper occopying 4 fint pUc«. What proved to
be kn important new departure was token by Peter
Lombwd (d. UEl), in the 4th book of hii SmloKo, which
tre*ta "of aacramenta and lacrunGntal aigna." l^ere
for the fint time are enumerated the seren taemnenta
(bcptiam, confirmation, the Euchaiiot, penaikce, exbeme
niKtion, order, matrimony), which were af terwudi) fonnoUy
lecognized by the Chnrch of Borne «t the conncilt of
Florence (1130) and of Trant; and there alio for the first
time it was exprettlj reeagniiad that not all ugna of
ncred thin)[s can b« regarded u vcrament^ bnt only
thoM which are the form of iaviidble grace in inch a aenn
M to reiirewnt it and bring it about (" nt ipeins imoginem
gerat et catua oiiitat "). Thii " differentia " of the eacra-
ment, properly so called, became the bsMs of all nibae-
qnent scholoitie ditenaiion and aQthoritative decree in the
Weatern church, and even, though of eonme indirectly, in
the Euttern also. The main pointu in the Tridentine
doctiiuo ore these : the nacraments have the power of eon-
fenb}{ grace ac open optrala on the rodpiente who do not
resist it (" non ponentibua obicera ") ; for their validity,
however, there must be in the minister the intention of
doing that which the church does. Though all are in a
Mnse necessary, they are not lo with equal directnen for
each individiuJ, nor are they alike in dignity. The two
principal BacraineaU are baptism and the Lord's Sapper.
All were iuatitnted by Christ. Three of them (baptism,
confinnatiojo, order) impart an indelible " character," and
therefore cannot be tvpeated. For the teaching of the
areekChurcheomparevoI.ilpp. 168, 159. Thechurchea
of the Reformation, while retaining the current doctiine
that eacnmenls were "effectual signs of grace and God's
good will " " ordained by Christ," reduced thair nnmber to
two the remaining five being excluded partly because
direct evidence of Uioir institution by Christ was wanting,
and portly becatwe " they have, not aqy visible sign, or
ceremony ordained of God." For further details on Ae
individual sacrament* the reader is referred to the separate
(ttticles (BApnsM, Euohakist, Ac).
SACRAMENTO, a city of the United 8ta(«, the eajJtal
of CWitomia and the connty seat of Sacramento county,
135 miles by rail north-east of Son Frapei«» on the ~8t
bant of the Bacamento river, which at this p<»nt receivea
the American river futd becomes navigable tor large steam-
boats. The site is only 16 foot above low water of the
river, or 30 above sea-level, and as the ny
rises 20 feet the city was originally mliiject to dcBtmctavo
floods. Those of 1860, 1882, and 1863, however, led to
the raising of the level of the principal streets and build-
ings in the business quarter by 8 foot, and to the oonstruo-
tion of itronK levees or embankment*, from 4 to 20 feet
high tor 2 mDes alons the Sacramento and 3 along the
American river. FurUier measures of the same kind were
adopted after the disaster of 1861, which almost rendered
the city bentiupt ; and ftie lore! of the principal districte
U BOW 8 feet above the river. TTie shop* and stores in
the city are moetly of brick, but the dwalling-housBa gener-
aUy only of vrood. The State cspilol, commenced in 1861
and completed at a cost of 12,600.000, is one of the finest
buildings of its kind in the States ; it stuids in the heart
of the city in the midst of a park of OO acres. 'Hw other
public buildings — the State printing-office and armonry,
the agricultural h^ the Oddfellows' liall, &e hospital,
the grammar-school, Ac.^— are comparatively nnimporl^nt.
Beddes the State library (36,000 volumes) there are two
Other public libraries in the dty. The nnmberof industrial
eatablishmenta has recently been rapidly increasing ; they
comprise the ertensiTe wOTkshops of the Cential Pacific
Rulioad, a wootlen-mill, carriBg».|BetoneB, plcmsh-tMAoria^
marble-works, breweries, potteries, gtne-worka, Ac Ika
popnlation wm eSSO in IS.'SO, 1.1,789 in 1860, 1«,S89
m 1870(6203 foreigners, 1370 Cbin<9«), and 31,490 ia
1880 (7048 forcigncTK, 1781 Chinene).
Id lail John AogDMua Butts (b. ISeSX sSviH HUHafyoBc*.
obtua«I ■ gimiit of lud St Uia jniurtlon at tbt Hscraawnts sad
Anurkui riTsri, snd nutio x HtUsment vliitli be callad Hew Hd-
Tttis. Tba ilt*coT*rv at cdLI on hii pniarty In IMS chaii|t*d tks
wfaole hiitoTT of Odifotnbi. Snttar*! Fort, u tb spot wu poia-
Isrlv etllail, b«uu tha lits at a minlu ton, which waa asaJa tha
>^U1 of till Stat* ia 18H, uid obtiuHd ■ titj ekutu fas USI.
£■ nuna of Bunannto n* Snt npliul to Um jilsee In Uw ■ilTa>
Hmrat Ibr tha kIa of gronnd-lets ui 184B.
SACRIFICK The Latin word iicryjiriim, fran wUdl
« have the PigH'*' " aacrifice," iirojierly mean* an action
within the sphere of things aacred to the gods, act that
'' sacrificial " and "hiemrgic" are nnonymous, and, strictly
ipeaking, cover the whole field of racred ritnaL fiy tlie
Romans, as by all cncient or primitive nations, the god*
wore habitually approached with gifh), and the presentatiaii
of the gift, being the central feature in every ordinary act
of worship, is regarded as the sacrifice proper. In all parta
of the world, moreover, for reasons whicti will appear bj
and by, the stated gifts by n'hich the godH are honoured
in private worship or public teBsbj ars drawn from- the
stores on which human life is supi>orted, — fmits, grain,
wines oil, ^^^ ^^ '^ animals, and the like. All g^tq it
this kind, which are not merely prewDted to the god but
consumed in his service, fall under the notion of sacrifice
while permanent votive offerings of tresmre, land*, temple^
imSiges, or the like, not forming part of anv slated ritnal^
are excluded. But again, where we find a fvactlce of
sacrificing honorifio gifts to the gndii, we nitaally fiikd alio
certain other sacrifices vrhich resemble thane already diai^
acterized inasmuch as something is given up by tM wor-
shippers to be consumed in sacred ceremony, but diUbt Iron
them inasmuch as the sacrifice — usually a living victim —
ia not regaided as a tribnts of honour to the god, but hai
a apecial atoning or mystic significance. The moat tamOiac
case of this second species of sacrifice is that which the
Romans distingniahed nom the holln konoraria by the
name of kotia piaailarit. In the former case the del^
acceptsagift; intbelatter hedemandsa life. Tbeformer
kind of sacrifice is offered by the womhinier on the basis
of an established relation of friendly dependenea on hia
divine lord ; the latter is directed to appease the divine
anger, or to conciliate the favour of a deity on whom the
worshipper has no riaht to count. The precise scone of
ncriAce* not merely honorific will appear niMe dearly in
the sequel ; for the hiatoiy of religion this seoond kind rf
sacrifice has a very peculiar importance,' as may be judged
tnsm the tact that the ordinary metaphorical use of "••f«-
Gee " in English answers not to the notion o( a " gift " bnt
to that of " reluctant Burrender." •
ffonorifie Sacrifictt naturally bold the diiot plaee in aU
natural (as opposed lo positive) religions that have rewied
the stage in which orthodoj; ritual is differeotiarfad from
sorcery (comp. PBotsT, vol lix. p. 724), and in whh* the
relations between the gods and their worahippers in con-
ceived as being of a fiied and habituaUy friendly character,
so that the acta by which a. continuance of divine ftivonr
am be secured are known by well-established tradition
and regularly practised with full confidence in their efficacy.
Religions of this type unite the god to a definite cird» of
1 AiMt IHwnthliMtephcrtcsl — tb«w<il"iii»ltto»'tofcg*
k oftiB Uktm u «riioii)niioii« wilt " viotlm," WondltM oMsM— e**!
oilUd i»th«r bj th« TijB* wofd " offaringi" Thta lasf* Hfw^ta*
Co thB pnctlee ot Um l.nllii*iMd VmloD, which aciMea^PiB|Wa
SACRIFICE
133
■ fonning • natvnJ unity, lo tbat tmrj mut's
Urtb oc politick! itnd *odal tXairu determinea at onoe what
goA ha U called upon to worship and may coafidentlj look
to for help. Itellgioiu of this sort, tbereforq, are mainlj
tribal or national, and the deity is resided aa a king, or,
if than are tevetal gods worshipped by the same ciitile,
the^ an lords and ladies and are iiatiiraiiy to be honoured
in the Bme way as earthly grandeea. Tbus amoag the
Hebrew^ whose eulj institutioDs afford a typical Gininpto
of a naUon&l leligion, tbe fundameotal rule is that do ooe
w to appear before Jehorah empty-handed (Eiod. zziii.
1S\ just as it would be indecent (and in the East is atil]
indeceat) to approach a king or great man witbont soma
praeat, however trifling. £i like manner Homer teaches
that soda and kings alike are persuaded by gifts. A
qwdal raqueat will naturally be accompanied by a special
gift pr0poTti<xied to tbe occasion or by a tow to be f ulGtled
whao the piayer is beard ; but apart from this the general
goodwill whether of god or king falla to be acknowledged
aod secm^ by oflcringa renewed from time to time by
way of tribute or homage. ^ittB in Hebrew tbe word
aua^ means alike " gift," " tribate," and " eacrificial obla-
tion," eqMCtally an oblation of agricaltural produce. For
in ft rimple agiicaltnral society payments in kind, whether
to a difine or to a human lord, would natniaUy consist for
the Bort put of the fruits of the soil ; and with this it
mgnet thai not only in Canaan but among the Qreeka
then k eridence that cereal oblations bod a great place
in early ritual, though they afterwards became second in
imporbuice to ■"'"'"I aaciificea, which yielded a more
Inxorioa* sacrificial banquet, and also, as we ahall see,
derived a peculiar ingnificance from the shedding of the
vtetim's Uood. In almost all nations wa find that the
diief Mcrificial feasts are associated wil^ the harvest and
the Tintage, or, where pastoral life predominates, are re-
culoted by the Ume at which the flocks bear their young
(aoam. PamoTEB) ; at these aeasona tribute of fintfruita
•nd firstlinga is yaid to the gods of the good things which
tbrnr thamaelvea have ^ven to the inhabitants of their land.
Tb^ ODDO^tion of sacrifice may go willi very various views
of tha nature of the gods and of religion. It may go with
tlM idea that the god has need of ^ worshipper and his
Sla jiut as the worshipper has need of the ^>d and his
pt aad thus with a matter-of-fact bosinees-Iike people
like the Homars religion may become Tety much a sort of
bugain itmck with the gods. But, on t^e other hand, it
ia quite possible that sacnfices may continue to be offered
1^ men who have ceased to believe that the deity has any
meed of what man can give^ simply because mch gifts are
ia ordinary life the natural expression of respect and
bomaga ai^ no fitter and more expreasive way of giving
ntteiance to the same feelings towards the gods has been
deriiad. Thus the Hebrews continued to offer sacrifices
to Jehovah long after they knew that " if He were hungry
He would not tell man, for the world was His and the
fnlnesB thereof." Bnt when this standpoint is reached
nciifice becomea a merely conventional way of expressing
nligioas teeliiw; tbe ritnal becomea a simple oflair of
ttamtion, whi^ may, as in the Levitical legislation, be
baaed oa an eq)Na divine command ; and those who are
not contsDt with the authority of tradition as a aufflcient
pnKrf that the gods tore to be honoured in this way take
refnge in aorae allegorical explanation of the ceremonial.
In general, however, we find on extraordinary persistence
of IM notion that sacrifices do in some way afford a p!iy-
■oal MtisfoctioQ to the deity. If they do not feed him, he
m at least gratified by their odoui. Neither the Orixk
pliikM>^>hen nor the Jewish rabbin* ever qnite got rid of
this idea.
te( i> Itct the notion thai the mora ethereal eloments
of the saerifico rise to hnrcn, tbe a«at of tha gedi, in the
savoury smoke that ascends from the Tvrifiri*' flame eaa
in certala iustances be shown to ba connected with a later
development of sacrifice. Among the [temitea, for ex>
ample, sacrifices were not caiginaUy burned. The god
was not seated aloft, hut was present at the place of mai-
fioe, inhabiting a sacred stone (a baetyjium, beth-el, or
"houaeof god"), which answered at once to the later idd
and the later altar. That the god was thought by the
heathen Semites to inhabit the sacied stone, or in other -
cases a sacred tree, is e^reealy reocsded of eeveial Arabian
sanctotu-iea, and it cannot be doubted that this waa the
general view wherever there was a maniba (aaered dppus)
or an ai/iera (sacred pole or tree). Anidii) thaae eases the
gift of the worahiirper was not, in the more primitiTe calt^
consumed by fire, but the sacred stone waa daubed with oil
or blood, libations of nlilk, of blood, or of wioe were poorad
forth beside it, cereal gifts were presented liT I aing aimpW
laid on tbe sacred ground, and slaughtered victinw wera
left there to be devoured by wild beasts (^rei^er, Let.
Hok., ill iai), or even a human saeriflee waa oflitred t^
burying the victim under the cippua. Sacrifices of tlda
typa are found not only throughout the Semitic field bat
in all pacts of the world ; they belong to the some categoij
with Oie Hebrew showbread and the Roman Uctitltrnia.
In later times the food spread on the taUea of the god if
eaten by his ministers, the priests, to whom he is rappoaad
to make over the enjoyment of the banquet ; but this is
a refinement on the original usage. In older timea the
gods themselves were held to partsJce of these gifta at food,
just as the venerable dead were fed by the meat and drink
placed w poured out upon their tomba. In the rehgioas ol
savages both gods and the dead have very material needt^
among which tbe need of nonrishment has the firet place ;
and just aa we learn from the story of Periander and
Melissa (Herod., v. 92) that among tbe Greeks of the Tth
ccnttuy &C. it was a new idea that tbe dead oonld make
no use of the gifta buried with them unless Oiej were
etherealiied by fire, so also the fact that among the Qreeks,
eapecisJIy in old timea, sacrifices to water-gods were simply
Sung into the river or the aea, and sacrifices to underground
gods were buried, indicates that it is a secondary idea
that the gods vrere too ethereal to eoiaj a sacrifice through
any other sense than that of smell. Even the highest
antique religions show by unmistakable signs that in their
origin sacrifices were literally "the food of the gods." In
Israel the conception against which the author of IWm 1.
protests so strongly was never eliminated from the ancient
techniiad language of the priestiy ritual, in which the sacri-
fices are caUed CnSt onb, " food of the deity " (Lev. xxi.
6, IT, 21) ; and among the Qreeka we find not only such
general expressions aa that the gods " feast on hecatombs "
Jll., ix. G31) but even that porticulsr gods bear special
surnames, such as "the goat-eater," the "lam-eater,"
"Dionysus the eater of raw (hnmnn) flesh " (ouyw^yo^
KpUttJM-yOt, iij^l(47T^«).
A mcrifice, therefore, ia primarily a meal offered to tbe
deity. In some of the cases already noticed, and in the
esse of holocausts or whole burnt-offerings, the saerifldal
gift is entirely made over to the god ; but ordinarily the
sacrifice is a feast of iriiich gods and worabippers partake
together. If all sacrifices are cot convivial entertainments,
Btleast the tendency is to give to all feasts, nay to all meal^
a sacrificial character by inviting the gods to partake of
them (Athentens, v. 19). Thus the Roman f^iily never
rose from supper till a portion of the food had been laid
on the burning hearth aa an offering to the I^rea (Berr.,
Ad .£a., i. 730; Ovid, Ftut., iL 633); and a umilar practioe
was probably followed in early Qreeoe.^ At all event*
> Sm U« diKiwum in Bncbholi, HTmer. ReaNat, IL IL Sl> i^
134
SACRIFICE
tlie ilMi^tet of kn anlnul (wUdi gare the himJ k more
luzuriooa and festal dtancter, uiiiaal food being not in
^mIj dm with the man of the agiienltunJ populationa of
the Ueditamnean lands) seems to have beea always
vacriMkl in earl; Qreece, and even in later timea Bt Paul
«snirBea that the flesh sold in the duunbles would often
«0Ii8iat of itSnXAffvTo. Among the Semites sacrifico and
slaoghter for food are still more clesLrlj identified; the
Hebrews use the same word for both, and the Arabian
' iuvocBUOn of the name of Allah orer erery beast killed
for food is bat the relic of a sacrificial formnla. The
part of the gods in ench sacrificial meals was often veiy
■mall, the blood alone (Arabia), or the fat and the thighs
(II., L 460), or small parts of each joint (Od., xiv, 427),
or the blood, the fat, and the kidnefB (Lev. iii). When
the sacrifice was offered bj a priest^ he also natoially
deceived a portion, which, properly Bpealdng, belonged to
the deity and was sorrendered by him to hu minister, as
is broQ^t ont in the Hebrew ritnal bj the ceremonial act
of w4Tuig it towards the altar (Lev. Tii 2& *;.)■ '^e
thigtl, which in Homeric sacrifice is burned on the altar,
t)etongs in the Leritdcal ritnal to thf priest, who was
natnrallj the first to profit by the gtowtli of a conviction
that the deity hinuelf did not require to be fed by man's
food.
The conception of \ho sacrifice as a banqnet in which
gods and men share tc^ther may be traced also in the
accessories of saoed ritnal Music, song, rairlands, the
sweet odour of incense, accompany sacrifice Mcftose they
are saitnble to an occasion of mirth and luxurious enjoy-
ment. Wine, too, " which cheereth gods and men " (Judges
iz. 13), was seldom lacking in the Tine-growing countries ;
but the moat notable case where the sacrificial f«^ has
^e use of an intoxicant (or narcotic) as its chief feature
is the ancient kwio sacrifice of the old Aryans, where the
gods are honoured by bowts of the precious draught which
hoats the sick, iospiree the poet, and makes the poor
believe that he is rich.
The sacrificial men], with the general features that have
been described, may be regarded as common to all the so-
cdled nature-religions of the civilized races of antiquity,
— religions which had a predominantly joyous character,
and in which the reUtions of man to- the gods were not
troobled by any habitual and opprtasiTo sense of human
guilt, because the divine standard of man's duty corre-
sponded broadly with the accepted standard of civil con-
duct, and therefore, though the god might be engry with
his people for a time, or even irreconcilably wroth with
individuals, the idea vras hardly conceivable that he could
be permanently slienated from the whole circle of bis
■worshippers,— that is, from fiR who participated in a certain
local (tribal or national) cult. Bat when this type of
religion began to break down the sacrificial ritual under-
went corresponding modifications.' Thus we find a decline
of faith in the old gods accompanied, not only by a grow-
ing neglect of the temples and their service, but also by a
disposition to attenuate the gifts that were still offered,
or to take every opportunity to cheat the gods ont of
part of their due, — a disposition of which Arabia' before
Mohammed affords a classical example. But, again, the
decline of faith itself was not a mere product of indiffer-
ence, but was partly due to a feeling that the traditional
ritual involved too material a conception of Oie gods, and
this cause, too, tended to produce modifications in sacri-
ficial service. The Persians, for example (Herod., L 132 ;
Strabo, xv. p, 732), consecrated their ^orifices vrith
liturgical prayers, but gave no part of the victim to the
deity, who "desired nothing but the life (or soul) of the
victim." This, indeed, is An Bomon formula of piocnlat
■B distinct from hoaoiifio offering (Macrob,.,^iii. S, 1),
and might be token as implying that the PerdaiiB htd
ceased to look on sacrifices as gifts of homage ; bat aach
an explanation can hardly be extended to the panillBl Cftae
of the Arab sacrifices, in which the share of this deity iva*
the blood of the victim, which according to antique belief
contained the life. For among the Arabs blood mw K
recogniied article of food, and the polemic of Pa. L 13 is
expressly directed against the idea that the deity " drinka
the blood of goats." And the details given in Strabo
make it tolerably clear that Persian sacrifice is simply aa
example of the way in which the nmlenal gift offered to
the deity is first attenuated and then allegorised away as
the conception of the godhead becomes lees crassly matO'
rial But on the other hand it is undoubtedly troe that
under certain conditions the notion of piacular n«rific»
shows much greater vitality than that of sacrificial gift*
of homage. When a national religioi^ is not left to sloir
decay, but shares the catastrophe of the nation iteelf, aa
was the case with the religions of the small western Auatio
states in the period of Assyrian conquest, the old jc^ona
confidence in the gods gives way to a sombre aeuM of
divine wrath, and the acta by which this wrath. Cftn be
conjured become much more important than thd ordinary
troditioaal gifts of homage, 1% this point we most return
by and by.
It appears, tlien, that in the old national natur^-religiona
the ordinary exercises of worship take the form of meals
offered to the goda, and usually i^ banquets at which goda
and worshippers sit down together, so that the natnral
bond of unity between the deity and his Bal;jects or
children is cemented by the bond of "bread and salt" —
salt is a standing feature in the sacrifices of many races
(comp. Lev. ii. 13) — to which ancient and unsophisticated
peoples attach eo much importance. That tiie god is
habitually willing to partake of the banquet offered to
him ia taken for granted ; but, if anything has occurred to
alienate his favour, he will show it by his conduct at tho
feast, by certain signs known to expert^ that indicate his
refural of the offered gift. Hence the cuatom of inspect-
ing the exta of the victim, watching the behaviour of tlie
sacrificial Same, or otherwise seeking an omen which
proves that the sacrifice is accepted, and eo that the deity
may be expected to favour the requests with which the
gift is asBocialed.*
In the religions which we have been characterizing all
the ordinary functions of worship ore summed up in tfaeaa
sacrificial meals J the stated and normal intercourse between
goda and men has no other form. Ood and worshippers
make up together a society of eonmauali, and every other
point in their reciprocal relatdona is included in what this
involves. Now, with this we must take ths no less cert^n
fact that throughout the sphere of the purely sacrificial
religions the circle of common worship is also the circle
of social duty and reciprocal moral obligations. And thus
the origin of eacrificial worship must Oe Bought in a stage
of society when the circle of commensaU and the circle
of persona united to each other by sacred social bonds
were identicaL But all social bonds are certainly de-
veloped out of tie bond of kindred, and it wiH be
generally admitted that all national religions ore develop-
ments or combinations of the worship of particular kins.
It would seem, therefore, that the world-wide prevalence
of sacrificial worship points to a time when the kindred
group and the group <$f commensals were identical, and
when, conversely, poople of different kins did not eat and
drink together.
At first sight it might appear that this amounts to Uie
S A C R I F [ C E
135
. . . « tuiilj M tluii t7p«^ And that the type of ncri-
fica ti Mid a fMniljr mwl u ii found kiooiig tte Eonuuu.
And thk new would Hem to be fkvoored b; the freqaeot
OGcuRvaee wnoiig •ncient peoples of the conception that
the dei^ ia the tttiter (pragenilor and bvd) o[ liii
wonhipper^ 4rlio in turn owe fiiul obadisace lo hiiu ftud
Itiotlierij duty to one another. But in the preHnt stage
e hiitory of Mtlj iiociet; it it bj no
Mune that the Camilj, with a father
(n-igiual tjpe of the circle of com-
It ia impoauble to aepante the idea of com-
menaalit; tram the fact w conatantlf obeerved in primitiTe
natioDs, that each kindred faaa certain rnlea abont for-
bidden food wliich mark it off from all other kindredi.
.&nd in a Teiy laive proportion of case* kindred obligtr
tiona, reli^on, and lawB of forbidden food comlnne to
divida a child iiom his father's and iuut« him to his
mothw'a kin, so that father and sooa ore not commensals.
It is notewoithy that tuaHj meats an by no means so
nniTeml an iostitntion m miglit be imagined a priori.
At Sparta, for example, man took their regular meals not
with thur wives ana children but in ^/mtia or fAtiditia •
and a aimilar organization of nations in groops of com-
uienaala which are not famil; groups is foond in other
places (Crete, Orthage, itc). The marked and funda-
mental similarity between sacrificial womhips in all parts
of the globe makes it tbt; difficult to doubt that the; are
all to be traced back to one type of society, common to
prunitire man as a whole. But the nearest approxiraation
to a primitiTe type of society yet known is that based not
on the family but on the system ti totem stocks ; and as
this system not only folfils all the conditions for the
formation of a sacrificial worship, but presents the con-
ception of the god and his woiriiippers as a circle of
conimensals in its nmplett and moat intelligible form, it
eeeou teaaonable to look to it for additional light on the
whole subject. In totemiam and in no other system laws
of forbidden food have a direct raligiona interpretation and
form the principal criterion by which the members of one
stock and religion are marked off from all their neigh-
bour*. For the totem is nsoally an animal (less often a
plant); the kindred is of the stock of ita totem ; and to
UIl or eat the aacred animal ia an impiety ol the aame
kind with that of fcilUng and eating a tribesman. To
Eat the totem of a strange stock, on tha other band, is
legitimate^ and for one totem group to feast on the carcase
of a hostile totem is to aipreaa their social and religioua
particularism in the moat effbctiTe and landabie my, to
hoDonr thoir own totem and to cast scorn on that at the
enemy. The importano
tached to the religiaus feast of
a who have ±e aame laws about food, and are there-
fore habitual oommeoHla, iasuwe intelligible on this ^item
than on any other.
Thon^ the sol^ect has not becai complete^ woAed ont,
there it a good deal irf mdenet^ both from social and from
religkMa f^baBomena, that the driUied natiot« of antiqui^
once passed duon^ the totem itage (sae Fault and
MnBOUxn) ; it is at least not doabtfnl that even in the
histoiicat period aacnd animala and laws of fotbidden tool
baaed oa the aaendneas at animals, in a way qnita analo-
gooa to iriiat ia fomtd in totamism, wen known amoDg all
these aatioas. Amcmg the Egyptians (he whole oraMii^
tioa of the htoal popoli^ona ran on totem lines, the diS^ient
riUagea m districts being kapt ptnuanentl]' aMrt by the
fact that etch had it* own wend animal or herb, and that
ooe poop worahqiped iriiat another at& And the aacri-
fieialfNst on thseaieaieof ahoatfletotempeniBteddown
to a lata dat^ aa we know fn»n Flntarch (it. M Omr., p.
sao ; eon^ Alex. Polyta., f. Eos,, Pnep. Br., Ix. p. 433 ;
Diod. Bic., I 89). Among the Semites thero on nianj
relics of totem religion ; and, aa regards the Orueka, so
acut4.an observer as ilerodotoa could hardly have imagined
that a great part of Hellenic religion was borrowed from
Egypt if the visible features of the popular worship in
the two countnea had really belonged lo entirely different
types. To suppose that the numerous asaociatious between
particular deitiea and corresponding aacred auimals which
are found in Greece and other advanced countries are
merely symbolical is a most unscientific aasumpttoo ; especi-
ally as the aymboilc interpretation rould not foil to be
introduced as a barmoolring expedient where, through the
fusion of older deities under a common name (in connexion
with the political uoioQ of kindreds), one god came to have
aeveral sacred animals. But origmolly oven in Oreece
each kin hod its own god or in li^r language its hero ;
so in Attica the Crioeis have their hero Cri\a (Bom), the
Batado have Butas (Bullman), the iGgidn have j^eua
(QoatX and the Cynidn Cynua (Dog). Bnch heroes are
real totem ancestor* ; Lycn^ for example, had his statue in
wolf form at the Lyceum. The feuds of clans are repre-
sented as contests between rirol totems ; Lycua tha woU
flee* the country before fgeua the goat, and at Argos,
where the wolf-god (Apollo Lycius) was introduced by
Danaos, the struggle hf which the sovereignty of the
Danaids waa established waa set forth in legend and
picture aa following on the vicloiy of a wolf (repreeenting
banana) over a buU {representing the older sovereignty of
QelanorJ ; aee Paus., ii. 19, 3 *;. That Apollo's sacriSces
were bolls and rams ia therefore natural enoogh ; at the
sanctuary of the wolf- Apollo at Sicyon indeed legend pre-
served the memory of a time when fleah was actually set
forth tor the wolvea, aa totem-worahippeis habitually set
forth food for their aacred »Tii»vial«, — though by a touch of
the later rationalism which cbauged the wolf-god into
Apollo the wolf-slayer (Lycoctonns) tha fleah waa sud to
have been poisoned by ApoUo's direction in a way that
even theological experta did not understand (Paus., a. 9, 7).
Soch clear traces of the oldest form of sacrifice ore neces-
sarily rare, but the general fncta that certain n"'"*^!*
might not be sacrificed to certain gods, while on the other
hand each deity demanded particular victims, which the
ancients themaelTes explained in certain cases to be hostile
anunals, find their natural explanation in such a stage of
religion as has just been characterized, ^e details are
di^nlt to follow out, partly because moot wotships of
which we know much were ayncretistic, partly because the
animals which the gods loved and protected were in later
timea often confused with the victims they desired, and
partly because piacnlar and myaticat sacnfices were on
principle (as we aboil aeo by and by) chosen from the clasa
of victims that might not be used for the feasts of the gods.
A sin^ example, therefore, must here suffice to close this
port of the Bubject. At Athens the goat might not be
offered to the Athena on the Acropolis. Now according
to kgend Athena'a woraiiip was made I^nathenoic by tha
Mfpdm at goat clan, and Athena herself was represented clod
in the i^pa or goat skin, an attribute which denotes that
ahe too waa of the goal kin or rather had been taken into
that kin when her worship was introduced among them.'
QeneiaUy speaking, then, the original principle on which
a aaerifioial meal ia chosen ia that men may not eat what
cannot be ofibred to their god (generalized in later sjn-
cre&on to the rule that men may not eat things that can be
•^ftrnd to no god ; Julian, Oral., v. p. 176 C.) ; and that.
ink tha saiBsl. SoaiplM niO sppcsr bilott : csrapin d1w>
i-wailiaMimtiw [voL it. p. 90), whoitha isoh lymbolum
So toe Paumlss (i. 31, 10) doKribo ■ TvprsHoUUiMi ot Uui
136
lACRIPICE
wnvaneljr, acMptablo otbringi we tiia things which are
Mtsn bj piedileetion bj that divina ^"inial which in later
times became the tacred ■jmbol of the anthropomorphic
god, or elaa Tictinu are to be chosen which ore satred
among a hostile tribe. The two prindplea may often co-
indde. Fierce motmtain tribes who live mainly bj harrjr-
iag their iwighboun in the plain will be irolves, lions,
be«r^ while their enamiea will natnrallr worabip bolls,
•heep, goab, like the TroglodytM on the Bed Sea, who
"piTs the ilame of parent to no human being but to the
bnll and the eoyr, the ram and the ewe, becanse from ilkem
thej had their dail j nourishment " (Strabo^ iri. 4) ; and
thus in caaee like that of Argos the ultimate shape of the
ritnal ma; throw important light on the character of the
texlj population. tVben by conqnsat or otherwise two
each originally hostile nations are fused the opposing
animal symbc^ will nltimately be found in friendly asso-
ciation : e.g., Artemis (in her Tarious forms) is associated
both with caroivont and with stags or domestic »mmftU
The former is the origirial conception, as her sacrifices
show. She is therefore, like the wolf-Apollo, originally the
deity of a wild hunting tribe, or rather various comiTOrotu
deities of such tribes have coalesced in her.
Smnim Saenfices. — From these observations tiie trail'
ntion is easy to those human sacrifices which are not
piacular. It is perfectly clear in many cases that such
sacrificee are associated with cannibalism, a practice which
always means eating the flesh of men of alien and hostile
kin. The hnman wolves would no more eat a brother than
they would eat a wolf ; but to eat an enemy is another
matter. Natoially enough tracee of cannibalism persist
in religion after they have disappeared from ordinary life,
and especially in the reli^on of carnivorous gods.' Thus
it may be conjectured that the human sacrifices <^ered
to the woIf-ZeUB (LycKus) in Arcadia were originally can-
nibal feasts of a wolf tribe. The first participants in the
rite were according to later legend changed into wolves
(Ljrcaon and bis sons) ; and in later times, as appears by
comparing PlaUi(Arp.,viii. 15) with Fansanias (viiL S), at
least one fragment of the human flesh waa placed among
the sacrificial portions derived from other rictims, and the
man who at« it was believed to become a were-wolf. All
human sacrifices where the victim is a captive or other
foreigner may be presumed to be derived from rannilial
feasts ; but a quite different explanation is required for the
cases, which are by far more nnmerons among people no
longer mere savages, in which a father sacrifices his child
or a bribe its fellow-tribesman. This case belongs to the
head of piacular sacriiices.
Piaadar Sacrificei. — Among ail primitive peoples there
are certain ofl%nces against piety (especially bloodshed
within the kin) which are regarded as properly inexpiable ;
the offender must die or become an outlaw. Where the
god of ths.kin appeals as vindicator of this law he demands
the Ufa of the culprit ; if the kinsmen ref ose iJiis they
■haie the guilt. Thus the execution of a criminal ossomcs
the character of a religious action. If now it appears in
any way that the god is offended and refuses to help bis
people, it is concluded that a crime has been committed
and not expiated. This neglect must be repaired, and, if
the true culprit cannot be found or cannot be spared, the
worshippecs as a whole bear the guilt until they or the
gnilty man himself find a substitute. The idea of subatitn-
tion is widespread through all early religions, and is found
in honorific as well as in piacular rites ; the Bomans, for
example, substituted models In wax or dough for victims
^ In thfl Romui onpin huiDui ncriflce mi pnctiivl iit not i fow
ihriMt down to tht thus at Eidriu ; for sumpla thi luda mf
nttr to ParpliTrr, Bt Abiliit., IL S7, M i; mi to Clai, A^x,,
JfM. ad GtMa, p. £7.
that could not be proenred aeoarding to Um ritual, or ehe
feigned ^lat a sheep was a stag {ttrvaria o«u} and the
tike. In all such casM the idea is that the mbstitule
shall imitate as closely a* is ponibU or convenient the
victim whoee place it sappliee; and so in piacnlar ceremonies
the god may indeed accept one' life for another, or certain
select lives to atone foi" the guilt of a whole conunnnity,
but these lives on^t to be of the gnilty kin, juat as in
blood-revenge the death of any kinsman of the manslayer
satisfies justice. Hence such rites as the Semitie aacrifices
of children by their fathers (see Molocb), the sacrifice
of Iphigeneia and strntlar cases among the Qreefci^ or the
offering up of boys to the goddeu Mania at Rtnna pro
familirtnam KupitiUe (Macrob., L 7, 81). In the oldeet
Semitic cases it is only under extreme manifestations of
divine wrath that such offerings are made (eomp. Po^L,
De Abtt., ii. 68), and so it was probably among otber races
also ; but under the pressure of long-continued calamity,
or other circumstances which msde men doubtful of the
steady favour of the gods, piacnlar offerings mi^t easily
become more frequent and nltimately assume a, stated
character, and be made at regular intervals by way of
precaution without waiting for an actual outbreak of
divine anger. Thus the Carthaginians, as Theophrastus
relates, annually sprinkled their altars vrith " a tribesman's
blood" (Porph., J>t Abtt., ii 28), But in advanced
sodetiea the tendency is to modify the horrors of the
ritual either by accepting an eAiMon of blood without
actually slaying the victim, t.ff., in the flagellation of the
Spartan lads at the altar of Artemis Orthia (Paus., iiL 16, 7;
eomp. Eurip., Iph. Tatir., U70 »j. ; 1 Kings xviii, 28), or
by a further extension of the doctrine of subetitntion ; the
Romans, for example^ enbstituted puppets for the human
sacrifices to Uania, and cast rush dolls into th« Tiber at
the yearly atoning sacrifice on the Sublician bridge. lS<m
usually, however, the life of an "■"'"'"l is accepted by the
god in place of a human life. This explanation of the
origin of piacnlar animal sacrifices has often been disputed, I
mainly on dc^^matio grounds and in connexion wi^ the
Hebrew sin-offerings ; but it is quite cleoity brought out
wherever we have an ancient account of the origin of such
a rite {e.ff., for the Hebrews, Oen. xxii. 13 ; the FhtEuicisus,
Porph., De Abtt., iv. 15; the Greeks and many others
ibid., u. Si tq. i theBoman^Ovid, Ji'ai(i,n.l62). Among
the Egyptians the victim was nurked with a seal bearing
the image of a man bound, and kneeUng with a sword at
bis throat (Plut., /t. «( Ot., chap. xiiL) And often we
find a ceremonial laying of the sin to be expiated on the
head of the victim (Herod., ii. 39 ; Lev. iv. i compared
with xiv. 31^
In such piacnlar rites the god demands only the life ot
the victim, which is sometimes indicated by a special ritnal
with the blood (as among the Hebrews Uie blood of ths
sin-offering was applied to the horns of the altar, or to the
mercy-seat within the vai!), and there is no sacrificial meaL
Thus among the Oreeks the carcase of the victim was
buried or cast into the sea, and among the Hebrews ths
most important sin-offerings were burnt not on the altar
but outside the camp (city), as was alao the esse with the
children sacrificed to "Moloch." Sometimes, however,
the sacrifice, is a holocaust on the altar (2 Kings iii 27),
or the flesh is consumed by the priests. The latter wis
the case with certain Bomsn piaculo, and with those
Hebrew sin-offerings in which the blood was not broD^t
within the vail (Lev. vi 25 tq.). Here the sacrificial flesh,
is seemingly a ^t aocepted by the deit^ and assigned by
him to uie priests, so that the diaUnction betweoi a
honorifio and a piacular sacrifice is portly oblitetatsd.
But this is not hard to nnderstand ; for just a* a blood'
rite takea the place of blood-revenge in hnman Justice, so an
SACRIFICE
137
oflhan ifpiMt A» goda mmj ta eartain eaaw be ndeaiiMif
by « Boa («^^ HvckL, U. flS) of a McriGcial gift Thu
uuBm to to tlie origiiaU meuiiiiK of the Hebirev daidm
(luipaw eft ring), nMch wbs a kind of atonenMnt nude
parttj in amnef {Ler. t. IS *g.), but •cccnpwiiad f«t
IsMt in U«r tfami) by a aacriflce wbieb diifored Irom ua
■•nnid as the ritual did not involve an;
« of tbe bkwd. The ordiuaiy un-ofleringB
tto iwierte ate Um AmIi maj to a oxaponnd of
• and tto pnverh piacolar nbatrtntioD of life
for lifeL Tto two kia^ tx alonement an mixed np also
in Minh tL 6 «7^ and nltinntatr all Uoody laenftoe^
wp«ciall7 (be wbole biinii«ftring {wUdi in tarty tim«a
was vety ran bat ia prominent in the ritual of the Mcond
tam[^\ an told to tore an atoning eAoacy (Lev. L 4,
xrii. 11). Uan is, towsnr, anotlMi and myitical lente
■onoetimei aaeooiated with llie aating of dn-crffbringB, aa we
•hall M« preaently.
Sm meet emioiB derclt^Mnenta of piaeohi nerifice
take pkee in tto wonihip of deitica of totem tjrpe. Here
tlw natoial aototitDla for tto- death o( a criMUoal ot tto
trito ia aa Miiaial of the Und with which the wonhippen
*i>H their god alito oonnt kindnd ; aa mimai^ ttot ia,
whidt mnat not be 0<^«d in a aacrificial feaat, utd which
IndMd it ia impioaa to kiD. Thm Hecate waa invoked aa
» dog (Forph., Dr AiiL, iiL IT), and doga wore her pia-
enlar aamfloea (Plat., Qit, Boin., iiL). And in like manner
in EgTpt tl>e (HacnloT aacrifice of the oow-goddera laia-
Haator waa a boll, and the aurifico waa accompanied hj
iMBeatatioM ae at tto fnnenu of a kinaman (Herod., ii.
39, W). lUa lamentation at a piacular Mcriflce ia met
witk in atlMr eaae^ J^., at tto ijgean featival nt Borne
nhrqaaidt, S9m. SUuUmene., iii 199]^ and la parcel to
tto HMffca ol indignation which in varions atoning ritoala
it ia pniper to dJapUy towarda the prieet who performa
tto aanrlnra, At Xenedca, foi example, the prieat waa
attnckoJ witli atonea iflto ncrifioed to Bacchna a bull-calf,
tto affln^jr «f which with roan waa indicatod by the
■M^arMiw being toeated like a woman in childbed and
tha Tietim itaelf wearing the eotbomna. As the cothnimu
waa noper to Baochna, who alao was often addreaaed in
wonuip and nftreeented in imagea aa a bull, the victim
ton ia ef the lame raoe with the god (ML, H.N., dL 31 ;
FluL, Qa. Qt., xxzv.) h well aa witn the ironhippeta.
In aodh rttca a double meaning waa anggeated : die victim
WM an anSmal kindred to the aacrificera, ao ttot hia death
waa atrictlv apeaking a mnider, Ur which, In thsiAttic
Kipoli% uie aaoiftcial axe caat away 4>y tto priest waa
tried and condemned (IVia., L 34, 4), tot it waa also a
aacred animal abaring tto natora of the god, who thna in
a aenae died for hia people. Tto laat point oomae out
eleariy in the annual ncrifice at Tliebe^ when a mm waa
dain aad tto lam-god Amen clothed in hia akin. The
Mohippei* then bmniled the nm and bnried him m a
aaeied oofln (Herod., iL 43). Thna tto piacnkr aacrifioa
1b waA eaaea ia merged in the daaa o( odhringa which
najto MOed Mcrameotal or myaticaJ.
JOvtMal or SaeranmUd Saenfiet*. — ^That Uie myateriee
of nwea lito tto Oneks and Bgyptiana an apmng from
tto same dick of ideaa with tto totem myataries of aavage
tribea toa bam raggeatad in Httsoumtt, voL xvil p. 161,
with which the reader may eompan Mr lAng^ book on
<7ai(Mi laid MfA ; and exBmpl«« of sacramental sacrifices
tov« been adduced in tto same article (p. 150) and in
Hkzkio, toL xvL p. 313. In Mexico tto worahippere ate
MoaoMatally paate idols of the god, at slew and feasted
ea a hnmaa victim who waa feigned to to a npreaentatire
of tto daity. Tto UexicaB goda an anqneetionably de-
veloped oat of riiliaiia. and theee aacraments an on one
wof tto radar Indiaa tribes
in which once a year tto eacred animal ia eaten, body and
blood. Now Bccwding to Julian (Omf., v, p. ITS) tto
mjatical aacrificea of the cities of the Boman empin wen
in like manner offered once or twice a year and coudsted
of aoch victima aa the d(^ of Hecate, which might not to
ordinarily eaten or nsed to fumiah forth tto tabled of tto
goda. T^e general agreemeDt with the Amarican myateriee
is therefore complete, and in aiany caaca the reaemblaace
extenda to details whidi leave no doabt of the totem origin
of tto ritnaL Tie ntyatie aaoriflcea aeem always to tova
had an atoning dkaoy ; Itoir raadal featnn ia tbat tto
victim ia not aimply alun and bnmed or caat away bnt
ttot tto worshippeia partaka of tto body and blood of the
sacred animal, and that ao hia life pa nana aa it wen into
their Uvea and knila tbem to tto duty in Uvii^ comma-
nioa. Thna in the tngiaatlo cnlt lA the buU-Bacchas tto
worahippora tore tto toll to pieoea and devoored the nw
fleah. These orgiea an ccmnectad on the one hand with
older practicea, in which tto victim waa hnman (OrjAens
legend, Dionyaaa 'QfatTT^), aitd on tto other hand with tho
myth of tto mnrdar M the god by hia kinamen the ^taaa,
who made a meal of hia Beah (CSsm. AI., Coh. ad QmUM,
p. 13). Similar trends of fratricide occnr in oonnexion
with other orgiea (tto Coiybaotea ; see Clement, «( aKpra) ;
and all theae vaiiona elenieota can only to reduced to unity
by tirferring itoir origin to tiK»e totem tobita of tfaoo^t
in which the god has not yet been differentiated ftom tha
ploiality of aaeied *"'■"■'* and tto tribaamen an of one
kin witii ttoir totem, ao ttot tto aacriflce of a fellow-
faribeaman and the aacnifioe of the totem animal are aqoally
fratricidea, and the death cl the ^"'""1 la the death o( tha
mysterious protector of the totem kin. In the Diipolia at
Attons we nave seen ttot the alaughtar of tto aacred ball
waa viewed as a mnrdar, bnt " the dead waa raiaed again
in the aame McriGce," as the mystic text had it ; tto akin
waa aewed np and atnffed and all taated the sacrificial
fl«ah, aa ttot the life of the victim waa nnea«d in the
lives of those who ata of it ■ (Theojdir., in Por{dL, D*
Abi.^ il 39 J?.).
Mystic aacnficaa of thia aacnmantal type pnvailed also
among the heothan Semitea, and an alluded to in laa. Ixr.
4 «;., Ixvi 3, 17 ; Zech. ix. 7 ; Lev. xix. 26, Ac.,* from
which paaaagea we gather that tha victim waa eaten with
tto blood. This featnre reappean elaewhere, as in tto pia-
colar awine^fferinga oi the Fratrea Arvales at Rome, and
pOMeaaes a specisl BigniScaoce inasmuch as common blood
means in aoCiquiCy a share b common life. In tto Old
Teatameot the heathen myateriee aeem to appear as oera-
moniea of initiation by which a man waa introdnoed into
a new worahip, •.«., primarily made of one blood with a
new reUgiona kinahip, and Ui^ therefore come into promi-
nence Joat at tto time iriien in tto 7lli cantuiy b.0. political
convulaiona had shaken man's faith in Uint old goda and
led ttom to eeek on all aides for new and stronger pro-
tectors. Tha Greek myateries too create a cloaa tond
totween the ntyttx, and the chief ethical a^ntficance of
tto Elensiiua Waa that they were open to all Hstlenea and
ao represented a tootberhood wider than the political limita
lA individual states. Bnt originally the initiati<m mnst
tovB toen introduction into a partici^ social community ;
Theophraatna'a legend of tto origin ot the Diipolia is ex-
preealy connected with the adoption of the houae of Sopa-
tma into tto position of Athenian dtiaeos. From this
point of view the Ncnunental ritaa of myatioJ aacrifica
are a form of blood'«OTeDan^ and aerva tha aame parpoaa
> la tlw man -ny tha iMHlona taonoond tbalr pumti Mj aUag
thair dwd liodlM (HanuL, KM). Tba lib n* sot ulloind to go
ont of tha fuall j.
• For d>Ulli m W. B. &iiltt, KiuMf nd Marriagi in Sarlf
138
SACRIFICE
to Um misiiig of blood <r tatting vt «bc1i □thsr'i blood by
irhicli in tuident timat two men or two elans creatod a,
ncied coTCDAnt bead. In all the fonua of blood-covenant,
whether a B&crifice is offered ot the yeini of the parties
(^Mned and their own blood used, tbs idea is the Banie ;
tSe bond craated ii a bond of kindred, becaoae one blood
is now in the reins of all who hare shared the ceremony.
The details in which this kind of symboLism may be
carried oat are of conrse rery vacious, but where there is
a earenant MtcriBce we oraolly find that the paiiieG eat
and drink together (Qen. xxzi. Bl), and that the sacrificial
blood, if not aetnally tasted, is at least touched by both
parties (Xen., AiuA^ iL 2, 9), or ti»iiikled on both and on
the altw or image of the ddty who presides over the con-
tract (Ezod., zzir. 6, 7).i A peculiar form which meets
na in rarions places is to cut the animal in twain and
maka those who swear pass between the parts (Oen. liii.
9 tq.; Jer. xzzir. 18 iq.; Flat., Qn. Hem., iii., <kc). This
is generally taken as a formula of imprecation, as if the
parties prayed that* he who pmred nnfaithfnl might be
nimilarty cnt in twain ; but, as the case cited from Plutarch
ahowB that the victim choeen was a myittic one^ it is more
likely that the original sense was that the wonhippera
were token within the mystic life.
Even the' highest forms of sacrificial worship present
much that is repulsive to modem ideas, and in particular
it requires an effort to raooncile oar imagination to the
bloody ritual which is prominent in almost erery religion
which has a strong Bense of sin. But we must not forget
that from the binning this ritual expressed, howerer
crudely, certain ideas which lie at the very root of true
religion, the fellowship of the wtwshippers with one another
in their fellowship with the deity, and the consecration of
the bonds of kinship as the type of all right ethical relation
between nun and man. And the piacntar forms, though
these were particularly liable to distortions disgraceful to
man and dishonouring to the godhead, yet contained from
the first germs of eternal truths, not only expressing the
idea of divine justice, but mingling it with a feeling of
divine and hnman pity. The dreadful sacrifice is per-
formed not with savage joy but with awful sorrow, and
in tiie mystic sacrifices the deity hinuelf auffen with and
for the sins of his people and lirca again in their new
life. (w. R. s.)
TAt Idea <tf Saerifict in the Cht-ittian Church.
There con be no doubt that the idea of sacrifice occupied
on important place in early Christianity. It had been a
fundamental element of bodi Jewish and Gentile religions,
and Christianity tended rather to absorb and modify such
elements than to abolish them. To a great extent the
idea hod been modified already. Among the Jews the
preaching of the prophets had been a constant protest
against the grosser forms of sacrifice, and there are indica-
tions that when Christianity aroae bloody sacrifices were
already b^ioning to foU into disuse ; a saying which was
attributed by the EbionitM to our Lord repeats this protest
in a strong form, " I hare come to abolish the sacrifices ;
and if ye do not cease from sacrificing the wrath of God
will not ceadO from yon" (Epiph., xiu. 16). Among the
Ureeks the philosophem had come to use both argument
and ridicule agoinat the idea that the offering of material
things could b« needed by or accepbibls to the Maker of
them all. Among )xith Jews and Greeks the earlier forms
of the idea bad been rationalized into the belief that the
uioot appropriate offering to God is that of a pure and
penitent heart, and among them both was the idea that
1 InOrHkritiul the Idutitf oT (he coTRiaat icriflu with m jitioo-
inusliT ritet li daul J hronght not bftha uliualt ehiwiaiuid bfolhsr
iMtnm la Um ritsil. Ika Bcbpsnum, Or. AU., p. US tj.
tha Tocal expression of coDtritbn in prayer ot ot gntitndt
in praise is also acceptable. The best instoncee ot these
ideas in the Old Testament are in Fsalms L and li., and in
Oreek literature the Ltriking words which Porphyry quotes
from an earlier writer, " We ought, then, having been united
and mode like to God, to offer our own conduct as a holy
sacrifice to Him, the same being also a hymn and our sal-
vation in paseionleas excellence of soul " (Euseb., Dan.
Ev., 3). The ideas are also found both in the New Testa-
ment and in early Christian literature ; " Let us offer np
a sacrifice of praise to God continually, that is, the trnit
of lips which make confession to His name " (Heb. xiii.
16); "That prayera and thanksgivings, made by worthy
persona, are the only perfect and acceptable itacrifices I
also admit" (Just Mart, Trypko, c 1171; "We honour
God in prayer, and offer tiiis as Uie beat and holiest sacrifice
with lighteousuess to the righteous Word" (Clem. Alex.,
Strfm., vii. 6).
But among llie Jews two other forms of the idea ex-
pressed themselves in usages which hare been perpetuated
in Christianity, and one of which has had a fcTumilAT- im-
portance for the Christian world. The one form, whiJi
probably arose from Uie conception of Jehovah as in an
especial sense tha protector ot the poor, was that gifts to
God may properly be bestowed on the needy, and that
consequently alms hare the rirtne of a sacrifice. Biblical
instances of this idea are — " He who doeth alms is offering
a sacrifice of praise" (Ecdus. xzxii. 2); "To do good and
to communicate forget not, for with such uwriiicea God is
well pleased" (Heb. xiii. IS); so the offerings sent by the
Philippiaos to Paul when a prisoner at Borne ai« "an
odour of a sweet smell, a sacrifice acceptable, well pkoiing
to God " (PhiL ir. 18). The other form, which was prob-
ably a lehc of the conception of Jehovah as the author
of natural fertility, was that part of the fruits of tlie earth
should be nffered to God in acknowledgment of His bounty,
and that what was so offered was especially blessed and
brought a blessing upon both those who offered it and'
those who afterwards partook of it. The persistence tA
this form of the idea of sacrifice constitutes so marked
a featnre of the history of Cbristisnity as to require a
detailed account of it
In the first instance it is probable that among Christiani^
OS among Jews, every meal, and especially erery social
meal, was regarded as being in some sense a thank-offering.
Thanksgiring, blessing^ and offering were co-ordinate terms.
Hence the Totmudic rule, "A man shall not taste anything
before blessing it" {Toupkta Berachoth, c. 4), and hence
St Paul's words, "He that eateth, eatelh unto the Lord,
for he giveth God thanks" (Rom. ziv. 6 ; comp. 1 Tim. It,
1). But the most important ofTerins was the solemn obla-
tion in the assembly on the Lord's day. A precedent for
making such oblationa elsewhere thaji in the temple had
been horded by the Essenes, who had endeavoured in
that way to aroid the contact with nnclean persons and
things which a resort to the temple might bare involved
(Jos., Anfiq., xriil 1, S), and a justification for it was
found in the prophecy of Halachi, " In erery place incense
is offered unto Uy name and a pure offering; for My name
is great among the Gentiles, soitb the Lord of hosts"
(Hal. i. 11, repeatedly quoted in early Christian writings
e./j., TeaeAing of tie TikIk Apoith\ c. 14; J-ost Matt,
Tryplio, c 28, 41, 116 ; Irenicus, ir. 17, 6).
lie joints in relation to this offering which are clearly
demonstrable from the Christian writers of the first two
centuries, but which subsequent theories hare tended to
confuse, are these. (1) It was regarded as a true offering
or sacrifice ; for in the Teaelutig of Iht Ttaelvt ApottU*, in
JustiiB Martyr, and in Irenicus it is designated by each
of the terms which are used to designate t»cri&c«f io the
SACRIFICE
139
Mtameni (9) It «w priiBan]^
fmita of the Mitii to the Cnmtoi ; thn u clear from both
Jtutiu Martyr tnd Imicni, the Utter of vhom not only
expliotlj et&tca that each oblatuma ue continned unoog
CbriatiMia but ftleo meets the cnnent olfjectioD to them
by •rgcdng that thej an offered to Ood not a* though He
UMded anjthing bat to ihow the gratitude of the c^rer
(Iien^ It. 17, 16). (3) It «m offered ae a thanksgiving
pMTtly for CTeBition and piUMiiatton and partly for re-
demption : tho Utter >■ the ipeeUl pnrpow mentioned
{e.g.) in th« Teadung of tiu Tuttm ApotUt* ; the fotmar U
that upon which IranieQi chiefly dweUa ; both are men-
tioned together in Justin Martyr {Trjp^, e. 41). (1)
Hkmo who offered it were required to be not only laptiied
C&ristiaas bat aleo "inloTefuidchaiity one with another "j
than u an indication of thie Utter reqairemeot in the Sa-
BWD on the Mount (Matt v. 33, S4, where the word trans-
lated "gift° ii the nsoal LXX word for a eaciifici&l offer-
ing mod is so used elsewhere in the same Gospel, viz.,
llatt. TiiL i, zxiii. 10), and still more explicitly in the
Ttaehmff, & It, "Let not any one who has a dispute with
hia fellow oome together with you (•'.«., on the Lord's day)
ontil they have been reotKiciled, that yonr sacrifice be not
defiled." Hiis brotherly nnity was eymboliced by the kiss
of peace. (5) It was offered in the assembly by the hands
of the president ; this is stated by Jnstin Martyr {ipol^ i.
05, 67), and implied by Clement ol Borne (J>., L 44, 4).
Oaml»ned with this sacrifice of the fruits of the earth
to the Creator in memory of creation and redemption, and
probftUj always immediately following it, was the sacred
meal at which part of the offerings was eaten. Such a
•acted meal had always, or alinoet always, formed part of
the rites <rf Mcrifice. There was the idea that 'what had
been solemnly offered to Ood was especially hallowed by
Him, and that the partaking of it united the partaken in
a special bond both to Him and to one another. In the
case of the bread and wine of the Christian sacrifice, it
was believed that, after having been offered and bteseed,
they became to those who partook of them the body and
llood of Christ This " oommonion of the body and blood
-of Christ,' which in early writing is clearly dutingoished
from the thank-offering which preceded it, and which fur-
nished the materials for il^ grodnally came to supersede
the thank-offering in importance, and to exercise a reflex
influence upon it. In the time of Cyprian, though not
lefore, we begin to find the idea that the body and blood
«f Chriat were not merely partaken of br the worshippeia
but also offered in sacrifice, and that the Eucharist was
not so much a thauk-offering for creatioa and redemption
as a repetition or a showing forth anew of the self-sacrifice
of Chrut. This idea is repeated in Ambrose and Augus-
tine, and has since been a dominaut idea of both Eastern
and Westenr Christeodom. But, though dominant, it has
not been oniversal ; nor did it become dominant nntil
SBVenl centuries after its first promulgation. The histoiy
of it has yet to be vrritterL. For, in spite of the important
ooitroversiGB to which it has given birth, no one has been
it the pains to distinguish between (L) tiie theories which
hare been from time to time put forth by eminent writers,
and which, though th^ hare in some cases ultimately won
a genenJ acceptance, nave for a long period remained as
merely individual opinions, and (ii) the current beliefs of
the great body of Christians which are expressed in recog-
nised formularies. A catena of opinions may be produced
in Eavooi of almoat any theory ; but formularies express
die eolloctive or average belief of any given period, and
changei in them are a sure indication that there has been
a gsnonJ change in idsas.
It ii ehar from th« aridenea of the early Western litur-
gi« tbi^ for •* liMt ill ocntnriei, Uw primitin oonception
of the nature of the Christian sacrifice remuned. There
U a clear distinction between the sacrifice and the com-
mnnion which followed it, and that which is offered con-
justs of the fruits of the earth tmd not of the body and
blood of Christ. Other ideas no doubt attached themselTse
the primitive conception, of which there is no certain
denoe in primitive times, e.g., the idea of the propitiatory
character i^ the offering, but these ideas rather confirm
than disprove the penasleace of thoae primitive conceptions
themselvea.
All Eastern liturgies, in their present form, are of Uter
data than the surviving fragments of the earlier Western
liturgies, and caimot form the basis of so sure on induction ;
but they entirely confirm the conclusions to which the
Western liturgiee lead. The main points in which the
pre-medinval formularies of both the Eastern and the
Weft«m Churches agree in relation to the Christian sacri-
fice are the following. (1) It was an offering of the
fruits of the earth to the Creator, in the belief that a
special blessing would descend upon the offerers, Imd
sometimes also in the belief that Ood would be i)ropitiated
by the offerings. The bread and wine are designated by
all the nantee by which sacrifices \re designated (KKrilUia,
hottue, l&ataiHa, and at least once KKr\fieiMia plaealionii),
and the act of offering them by the ordinary term for
offering a sacrifice (itunolaiio). (S) The offering of bread
and wine was originally brought to the altar by the penwn
who offered it, and placed by him in the hands of the
presiding officer. In course of time there were two im-
portant changes in this respect : (n) the offerings of bread
and wine were conunuted for money, with which bread
and wine were purchased by the church -officers ; (h) the
offerings were sometimes handed to the deacona and by
them taken to the bishop at the altar, and sometimes, ad
at Borne, the bishop and deacoos went round the church
to collect them.* (3) In offering the bread and wine the
offerer offered, as in the ancient sacrifices, primarily for
himself, but inasmuch as the offering was regarded as
having a general propitiatory value he mentioned also the
names of others in whom he was interested, and especially
the deported, that they might rest in peace. Hence, after
all the offeringi had been collected, and before they were
solemnly, offered to Ood, it became a custom to recite the
names both of the offerers and of those for whom they
offered, the names being arranged in two lists, which were
known as diptychs. Almost all the old rituals have
prayers to be said "before the names," "after the names."
It was a further and perhaps much later development of
the same idea that the good works of those who hod pre-
viously enjoyed the favour of Ood were invoked to give
additional weight to the prayer of the offerer. In the
Uter series of Western rituals, beginning with that which
U known as the Lamina SaeramaUary, this practice is
almost universal (4) The placing of the bread and wine
upon the altar was followed by the kiss of peace. (S)
llien followed the actual offering of the gifts to Ood
(uHmoIoftb muHs). It was an act of adoration or thanks-
giving, much bnger in Eastern than in Weetem rituals,
but in both classes of rituals beginning with the form
"Lift np your hearts," and ending with the Ter Banctos
or Trisagion.* The early MSS. of Western rituals indi-
cate the importance which was attached to this part of the
liturgy by the fact of Its being written in a much more
ornate wiiy than the other parts, t.ff., in gold uncial letters
1 Of tUi pttoMdlsg a •Itbcnta SMsssI oiati Is tin nrj Istv-
MUag doount prlntad bj If sUllai is hi* JTiunin AiI^iiM u " OrdD
RomNiiH L") Qm ansU phUla of *1d* which vsn brevgbl v«n smptlcd
into a Isrgs bawl, sod tb* Ibsvh a bntd wan coUKtad In ■ hig.
* Tha (lamtnta oT tbi ftna ira prenmd UEsatly Is th< litugr ot
Ihs Cbsreh «( b^Ml,
140
S A C — 8 A 0
npoQ a ptuph gioniid, as distingnidied from the vermilion
etaain letten of tbo raat of tb* HS. With this the
meti&oa proper wu coDctuded. (6) But, sines the divine
ugDnction hkd been " Do this in remembiance of He," th^
aaierifice was immediateJj folloved b; & commemonition of
the psBsion of Christ, and that again by an invocation of
the Hoi; Bpirit {epidttit) that He would make the bread
and irine to become the bodj and blood of Christ. Of
this invocation, which is constant in all Eastern rituals,
there are few, though safficient, sntriving traces in
Weeteni rituals.' Then after a prayer for aaactification,
or for worthy reception, followed the Lord's Prayer, and
after the Lord's Prayer the commniuon.
In tlie course of the Sth and 9di centariee, by the opera-
tion of eanses which have not yet been fully inveatigated,
the theory which is first found in Cyprian became the
dominant belief of Western Christendom. The central
point of the sacrificial idea was shifted from the offering
of the fraita of the earth to the offering of the body and
bkibd of Christ. The change is marked in the rituals by
the duplication of the liturgical forms. The prayers of in-
tercesaion and oblation, which in earlier times are found
only in connexion with uhe former offering, are repeated
in the course of the some service in connszion with the
lattw. The designations and epithets which are in earlier
timee applied to the fruits of the earth are applied to the
body and blood. From that time until the Reformation
the Christian sacrifice was all hut universally regarded as
the ofiTering of the body and blood of Christ. The in-
Bumenble theories which were framed aa to the predae
nature of the offering and as to the precise change in the
elements all implied that conception of it It still remains
as tlie accepted doctrine of die Church of Kome. For,
although the conncil of Trent recognised fully the dis-
tinction which has been mentioned above between the
Eucharist and the sacrifice of the mass, and treated of
them in separate seBsions (the former in Sesuon xiii., the
latter in Session xxii.), it continued the medissval theory
of die nature of the latter. The reaction agunst the
medinval theory at the time of the Beformation took the
form of a return to what had no doubt been an early belief,
— the idea that thd Christian sacrifice consists in the offer-
ing of a pure heart and of vocal thanksgiving. Luther at
one period (in his treatise D« CaplivtlaU Babt/latnca) main-
tained, though not on historical grounds, that the offering of
the oblations of the people was the real origin of the con-
ception of the sacrifice of the mass ; bat he directed all
the force of his vehement polemic against the idea that
any other sacrifice could be efficacious oeaidea the sacrifice
of Christ la tiis majority of Protestant communities the
idsft of a sacrifice has almost lapsed. That which among
Catholics is most commonly regarded in its aspect as an
(Bering and spoken of as the "mass" is usually regarded
in its aspect as a participation in the symbols of Quiet's
death and spoken of as the " communion." But it may
be inferred from the considerable progress of the Anglo-
Catholic revival in moat English-speaking countries that
the idea of sacrifice has not yet ceased to be an important
clemeut in the genenJ conception of religion, (l ha.)
BACRILEOE. The robbery of churches was " ~
taw punishable with deatL 'There are early ii
persons having suffered death for this offence in Scotland.
Xa England at common law benefit of clergy was denied
to robbers of churches. The tendency of the later law
has been to put the offence of sacrilege in the same position
aa if the offence liad not been committed in a sacred hnild-
' It k found, t.j^ In Ilia Hcond ol Hou'i muisi fma tb« Bck^houn
pdlm|>wt, uHl tn UibiUou'* J/wo/i OmkuHm, Ho. IS', tt i* »■
EhIt uniUoDwl b^ Ut<lon of SafUle M tlu (liUi tbaait in th<
hiriatlg nrrlia, Dt qfic Eedtt., L li.
n Roman
ing. Thus breaking into « pbee of worship at ni^t, mjs
IiOTd Coke, is burglary, for the church is the maosioD-
houseof Almighty Qod. The Larceny Act of 1861 punishes
the breaking into or out of a place of divide worship in
the same way as burglary, and the theft of things sacred
in the some way as larceny. The breakiog or defacing of
an altar, crucifix, or crnn in any church, chapel, or church-
yard is an offence punishable with three months' imprison-
ment on conviction before two justices, the imprisonment
to be continued nnless the offender enter into surety for
good behavioor at quarter seoaions (1 Hary, sees. 2, c. 3).
SACRO BOSCO, JoHAmrm oi, or John Holtwood,
astronomical author, died 1214 (or 1S56) as profemor of
mathematics at the nnivenity of Paris. Nothing else u
known about his life.. He wrote a treatise on spherical
astronomy, Tractatut de Sphera Mvndi, first printed at
Ferrara in 14T3, and leprinted, generally with copious
notes and commentaries, about uzty times until the end
of the ITth century. About the year 1232 he wrote De
tauU raticm* snt mt voeaivr mdgo eontptitiu «eclaiattinu,
in which he points out the increasing error of the Ju!isii
calendar, and suggests a remedy whidi is nearly the same
as that actually used under Gregory TTTT, three hundred
and fifty years Uter.
8ACY, AjiTonia Isaac, Basor Siltwtm* »b (1758-
1836), the greatest of French Orientalists and the founder
of the modem school of Arabic scholarship, was the second
son d a Parisian notary, and was bom at I^ris on 21st
September 1706. From the age of seven year*, when he
lost his father, he was educated in more than monastic
seclusion in the house of his pious and tender mother.
Designed, for the civil service, he stndied juriuprudence,
and in 1781 got a place as counsellor in tlie com da
taonnaiet, in which he continued till, in 1791, he was
advanced to be a commissary-general in the same depar^
ment De Sacy had a natural turn for bnsineaB and liked
variety of work, while be seems to have had little or no
need of absolute repose. He had snec<«stvely acquired all
the Bemitic languages while he was following Uie usual
course of school and professional training, and while he
was engaged in the civil service he found time to make
himself a great name as an Orientalist by a series of pub-
lications which, beginning with thoee Biblical subjects to
which his education and sympathies naturally directed bis
first Semitic studies, gradually extended in range, and
already displayed the comprehensive scholar who hod
chosen the whole Semitic and Iranian East for his domain.*
The works of these early years do not show the full
maturity of his powers ; his chief triumph was an effect-
ive commencement of the decipherment ot the Fahlavi
inscriptions of the Sasanion kings (1787-91). It was the
Frendi Revolution which gained De Sacy wholly for letters.
As a good Catholic and a staunch royalist he felt con-
strained in 1792 to retire from the public service^ and
lived in close seclusion in a cottage near Paris till in 1799
he was called to be professor of Arabic in the newly founded
school af living Eastern languages. The years of retire-
ment had not been fruitless ; they were in part devoted
to the study of the religion of the I>ruseB, which continued
to occupy him throughout lifs and was the snlgect of his
last and unfinished work, the Sxpoai dt la Seligioa da
Dnua (2 vols., 1838). Keverthelesa, when called to be a
< BIi (sther'i nune wu BUnstn, the tddltion I» Saer ha look u »)
jmafa Km ifisr > luhlon tHni coDUum vith tha Puiwx toHfycoiM.
* A KomiiuiicistJiiB to Ekabham on U» Puii US. of U» Ejk>-
BaupUr vsnleu of rV. EId^ tcvmad ttia bHla oT i p^pgl In tin
Inttar'a Rfprrlaritwi, vol. vli. (1780). Thta *u D« Bwr"! Utn«T
d^bnt. It HOI followBd b; t«t >Dd tnmiUtion of (ba Iitlan at O*
aamrltanK to J«. Scallggr {ibii., ml. lUL, 17BS} ud bf ■ aifla of
«H;t OB AnUu uJ PanUn Udorr in tbi StMtH s( tta* inaduV
Dt LuralpUcai* ud la tlu Jk'iKJMt <t jEiriraM. , > ' ~
S A C Y
141
tewitr, lie tsit that h« luut luDuctf much to leern. Siniw
the deftth of Reuke Arabic le&raing hod bwn in a back-
vnud Btkte, tha itand&rd of philological knowledge wu
low, snd the books foi studeata eztremfllj defective. Dq
tittcy aet hiraaeU vith cbaractamtic thoroughneea to com-
plete his own knovledge and supply the lacking helps to
others and he accompUahed this twk on such a acala, with
such width of range, precision of thought, and scrupnloas
attention to detaila, that he beoune the founder of a wholly
new school w>d Uie father of all aQhsequent Arabiits.
His gnat text-books, the GramBtain Arabt (2 toIi., Ist
ed. 1810, 2d ed. 1831) and the ChratomatAU (3 toIs.,
lat sd. 1806, 2d ed. 1836-31), together with its supplement,
the AnlAoloffit OrammalieaU (1829), ara works that can
never become oheolete; the luminous Mpooition of the
grammar and the happy choice of the pieces in the chrea-
tomathy — all inedita — with the admirable notea, drawn
fi^ an enormous reeding in MS. source^ make them
altogether diflerent from ordinary text-books. The whole
poweiB o( a great teacher, the whole wealth of knowledge
of an unrivalled scholar, are spent with absolute vngle-
neas of purpose for the benefit of the learner, and the
reault is that the books ue equally delightful and iostmo-
tive to the student and to the advanced scholar. A com-
parison of the first and second editions shows how much
toU and research it cost the author to rttise his own scholar-
ahip to tiie level which, thanks to his work, has become
the starting-plaM for all lubeequent ascents of the Arabian
royalty. He tendered his reeignation both as professor
and as member of the Institute ; but be was allowed to
ooutiBne to teecb, and i^oined the Institute on its re-
orfcanintiDn in 1803. In 180S Ife mode the'only con-
aidttable journey of his life, being sent to Qenoa ou a vain
aearch tor Arabic documents supposed to lie in the archives
of that city. In 1806 he added the duties of Psraian pro-
fessor to bifi old chair, and from this time onwards — as, in
spite of hia royalist opinions, he was ready to do public
service under any stable government — his hfe, divided
between his teaching, his literary work, and a variety of
pnblie duties, was one of increasing honour and sueceaa,
broken only by a brief period of retreat during the Hundred
Days. He found time tot everything : while his pen was
ever at work ou subjects of abstrtise research, he was one
of the most active leaders in i^ the badness which the
French system throws on the lavaru of tiie capital, especi-
ally as perpetual secretar; of the Academy of loscriptioiis
(from 1832) ; in 1808 he entered the eorpi ligitlati/; and
in 1833, when quite an <rid man, ho became a peer of
France and was regular in the duties of the chamber.' In
1615 he became rector of the uciveistty of Paris, and after
the second restoration he was active ou the commission of
pnblie instruction. Of the Soeiiti Aiiatiqiu be wu one
of the founders, and when he was inspector of Oriental types
at the royal printing press he thought it his duty to read
a proof of every book printed in Arabic and Persian.
'With this he maintained a vast oorreepondenca and was
acceesible not only to every one who sought his advice
ou matters of learning and busineee but to all the poor of
his quarter, who came to him as a member of the Imrrav
tt chanty. Yet hs was neither monk nor hermit ; he
o^oyed sodety and was happy in forty«tght years of
, married life and in the care of a large family. Though
small and to appearance of delicate frame, De Sacy enjoyed
unbroken health and worked on without sign of failing
poweM till two days before hia death (31st February 1838),
»bwi be anddenly fell down in the street and never rallied.
' Tht titls of boroD 1i« recdr^d from NAjtolm in 1813.
pcmbls in this place, irhil* hii lavi pspui uul nTiswa iu tbn
Ailg. Bib./. MHitcht LiUertUur, the iiinadt eOrint, the Uagaii*
Btuyelopidiqac, th« Jaanai da SavanU [oC whicli hs vat u aditw],
iiid ths JoMTnal AHaiiqiH an almoat innnioorsbU. Among Ih*
H-orka which he dfaigned mainly for Btudvnta may be tnninl his
sdidon of Hariri (ISS2, 2d «iitiou b; Btiniad, iei7, 18BSX ■'iDi a
•sleeted Arabic commentary, and of tin Aljltja (ISM), and bti
Calila tt Di«\na (ISIS},— tbs Anbit v^nion of that lamom coUm-
tion oF Buddhiil ■ni'mal tales irhich has besn in varioiu fomu out
of tba m«t popalar boots of the world. De &Kfi enquirj into
the woBderful hutorj of thsH Ulm [oimi one a( bis best urricua to
lattat* aid » racA eiampli of the iraj in irhich ha alvaya made
hia vciU for the beiieGt o( learners go band in hand with profoond
nsearch. Of hi* contlDued Interest in Biblical subjects hagara
BTidenca in bis momair on Che Bamaritan Arabic venion of the
Paotstiach (Mim. Acad, des Ituer., toL itix.), and in the Arabic
and Sjriac Hew Tertamanta edited for the British and Pordsn
Rible Socistj ; among works importint for Eastsra blaCory, bsdda
that ou the Dmses alreadj named, may be L:ited his Tonioa of
Abd-Allatlf, Sclatiat Ambt tut r£gyjitc, and his eaaays on the
Miitorj/ of tit Lnv (^ /Vspsrtji tn E^^ since the Arab conquest
"""'■"' forgotten that his
(1805-18).
eicept Ews
Ofth
brilliant series of tochera whi
s still a
10 went oat from his
I, and 1
. I elaborata note* and mmctiaos la tha Oranme
(.KUiiun Schrift-m, vol. L, 183E) ma; ha regarded as the latest
tribnte to tha memorj of the great master by s disciple who is now
the patriarih of living Arahiata. (W. B. B. }
SACT, IsAao Ixuns Ix M*1tm db (1613-1684), a figure
of some prominence in the literary annals of Post Botal
(a.v.), and after the death of St Qyran (1613) and Singlin
(1664) the leading confessor and "directs" of the Jan-
seniate La France, was bom in Paris on 29th March 1613.
He was closely connected with the Amanld family, bis true
surname being Le Maltre and that of Soci or Sacy which
he afterwards assumed a mcie anagram of Isaac, his
Christian name. He studied philosophy and belles lettrea
at the College de Calvi-Sorbonne, and afterwards, under
the influence of St Oyrsn (see DuvEBCiBS sz Hackannk),
his spiritual director, joined his eldest brother Antoine
Le Mattre at Port Royal des Champs. Hera he threw
himself heartily into the life of the place, devoting himself
specially to teaching and the preparation of school-books,
bis chief productions in this ckss being expurgated edi-
tions of Martial and Tenrooe and a traujJation of Fhsdrua.
In 16S0 he was ordained to the priesthood, and in 1654
he entered the field of theological controversy with a
brochure entitled EnlunuMvrtM de VAlmanach det Jiraitet
itttittili Ux Dironti et la Con/^uioit det Jaiuiitiiia, of which
it is enough to say that, if the Jesuit attack was in exe-
crable taste, neither was the reply in keeping with the
finer ethical tone of Fort Royal. From 1661, after the
Weoking up of the Fetites fcolee, ha lived more or lees in
concealment in Paris until May 1666, when he was thrown
into the Bastille, where he remained till November 1668.
During his imprisonment he occupied himself with the
completion of a new version of the New Testament, known
as the Jfomeatt Ttttament de ifom (166T), and the re-
mainder of his life was largely devoted to a similar trans-
lation of the Old Testament, baaed chiefly on the Vulgate,
with £cla%reuiemeiUt. These began to appear in 1672
and were continued down to the end of the minor prophets.
As De Sacy knew nothing of Hebrew, this version is of
no value as a contribution to Bchalsrship, and iu style it
is more artiflnal and laboured than tboee which had pre-
ceded it. From 1668 tih his death on 4th January 1684
he lived partly in Paris, partly at Port Boyal des Champa,
and partly at Pomponne, the seat of his cousin, the
marquis de Pomponne. He was buried at Port Royal dee
Champs.
In addition to the icorka alrexly mentioned, he fabliih*^ ondel
142
S A D — S A D
Iha Mendot^n of til* " Sienr de Seoil," s Fitscli tnuaJoHoa of tha
Ot Jinitatbmt OriM (1M2). H« ilra truuUted Clu^MMom't
Bmniliam ifaUita, Sw Suota-Bears, Pert Sayat, bk. n. cbtf*;
17, 18 (ad. ie78>
SASDL^Y embncee the industries coonected with
the Timiairing md contToUing of all heuSa at draught uid
burden. The materUla nied in harnessing the varioiu
creSitiiTM w emptayed and the modificaciona of homen
nec«aMr7 to emit their atractore, tempemusnt, and dutiea
are^ vf Conner exceedingly varied. In a reetricted lense
aaddleiT is ptineipaUj a leather iMde, and has to do with
the haraeesing of the horse. The craft has been recc^nized
and estabUalied in England as a Bepotate trade since the
13th century, when the London Saddlers' Company received
its charter of incorporation from Edward I. There is evi-
dence alao of its early prosperity at Birmingham, whare
it grew to an importance which it stiU retams, the princi-
pal seat of the saddlery trade being noir at Walaul near
Binningliam, which ia practically a saddlers' town. The
trade divideB itself into two branches, brown saddlery and
bteck saddlery, l^e former is concerned with saddle-
making and the cutting and sowing of bridles, t^ns, and
all other nncoloured Teether-work. The saddle is the
meat important article on the bromi saddler's list. It
eonsista of ths tree or skeleton, on which the leather is
etretcbed, the seat, the skirts, and the flaps. The tree is
cornmonly made of beech strengthened with iron plates.
Th6 whole leather-work ought to be of pig-skin, but often
the seat alone is of that material, the oUier parts being
imitation, cleverly grained by means of electro-deposit
copper casta from the auiface of real pig-skin. There are
many varieties of saddles, such as racing, military, banting,
and ladies' saddles. Sec A. racing saddle may wei^ not
more than two or three poonds, while a cavalry saddle
will be fo^ir times heavier. The saddle-maker has to con<
dder.the ease and comfort of both hone and rider. The
saddle mnst £t cloeely and evenly to the curvature of the
horse's back without tendency to ahift, and it ought to
offer as far as possible a soft and elastio seat for the rider.
The black saddler is concerned with the harness of carriage,
cart, ' and draught horses generally. The skill of the
tradesman in this department U displayed in designing
and arranging harness most favourable for the proper dis-
trtbntion of the load, and for bringing into use ue muscles
of the animal without chafing or froying the skio. Much of
the usefulness and comfort of a horse depends
rate and proper fit of its harness. The collar ai
the saddle are the important featorea of dran^t hamesB,
the former being the pieces through which the draught is
effected, while dead weight is borne through the saddle.
The portions of saddlery by which the horaaman controls
and guides the horse are the bridle and bit and tlu reins.
Into the many devices connected with these and other
parts of harness for curbing horsey for ' ' ' '' '
and carriage traveller,
evil habits, and for adding t^j the kecnrity of the
re cannot here enter (bompare
p. 198). Saddler's ironmongery
forms an important feature of the trade. It embraces the
raaking of bucklee, chains, cart-gearing, stirrupa, spnra^
bits, hiiunee, im. The ornamental metal-work of carriage-
harness is ^tber electro-plated in silver or of solid polished
SADDUCEES (n-^trt, i.A, Zadr^tn), the-par^ of tlw
priestly aristocracy under the later Hosmt
Saddocees were essentially a political party opposed to the
Fharisees or party of the Bcribes, and their poution and
history have therefore already been discassea In Israsl,
joL ziiL p. 424 «;. The common view that Boddnceism
was easantially a philosophioo-relifpous sdiool is due partly
to JoeephuB but mainly to later Jewish liadition. which
never could realiEB the diSjRence betwcEa a naiiOB wul k
sect,' and fonded that the whole history of Israel waa
made up of such scholastic controversies as engroesed the
attention of later times. The theological tenets of tbu
Saddncees as they appear in the New Testament aiul in
Josephus had a purely political bBsis. They detested the
doctrine of the resurrection and the fatalism of tbe Fbari-
sees because these opinions were used by their adversaries
to thwart their political aims. The ariatocraey Buffered
a great loce of position through the subjection of Jodiea
foreign power ; bnt it was useless to urge political
aes irf emancipation on those who believed -with tha
Fhariseee that Israel's task was to endure in patience till
Jehovah redeemed the nation, and the resurrection revraided
those who had lived and died in bondage. In m&tten of
ritnal the Baddnceea were naturally conservative, Bad thrir
opposition to the unwritten traditions, from wluch tii^
appealed to Scripture, is simply one phase of their oppod-
tion to Fharisaie innovatJons ; for the traditions were tha
invention of the Pharisees and the written Uw represented
' ' piactioe. When the Soddueees had lost all political
,ortance their opposition to Fhaiisaiam necessarily be-
came more and more an afBur of the schools rather than of
practical Ufe, bnt the Saddncees of tiie schools are only tha
last mrvival of what bad onoe been a great political pttr^-
SA DE IHEANDA, Frajioisoo »■ (1496-1668), Portu-
guese poet, was bom of noble family va 2Tth October 1405,
Bt Coimbia, where also he received his edneatitHi. He After-
wards travelled in Sp^ and Italy, and held for eome tima
a post at the court of John HL of Porto^ He died on
his own properl? at T^pada near Ponte do Lima on IGtb
March IS68. Besides eight edoguee (six in Spanish and
two in Portuguese), be wrote two comedies in Fortngaese,
— 0( EttroKgdrot and Oi VitAatpandoi. See Poktuoai.
(Literature), voL xix. p. 556, and Sexm (Literature).
BA'Dt, generally called HtTBUH-ucDlK, but more cor-
rectly MtraoAitiUF-UDslK B. ^usLiB-yDDfH, the greatest
didactio poet and the most popular writer of Persia, waa
horn about 1184 (680 A.H.) in Shlrii, where his father.
from early cbildliood
the great muTimH of doing good and fearing nobody, was
in the sarvice of the Turkoman race of tho Balgharldcs or
At^iegs of FAis. The fifth ruler of this dynasty, Sa'd b.
Zengl, who ascended the throne in 1196 (691 A.B.), con-
ceived a great affection for young Musharrif-uddln and
enabled him, after the prematore death of his father, to
pursue his studies In the famous medreseh c^ Begbdid,
the Nizimiyyah, where he remained about thirty year*
(II96-1234). Strict college discipline and severe theo-
logical Btudies repressed for a long time the inboni cheer>
fulness and jovi^ty of Ma nature ; but his poetical geniius
which rapidly developed, kept alive in him, amid all tba
privations of an austere life, the elasticity of youth, and
some of bis "early odes," in which he praises the pleasuroi
of life and the sweetnees of love, were no donbt compooed
during hia stay in Baghdid. At any rate his literary fame
had already spread about 1210 (60G A.H.) as far as Kish-
gar in Turkistto, which the young poet (who in honour
of his patron hod assumed the name of Sa'df) visited in
his twenty-sirth or twenty-seventh year. After mastering
all tbe dc^atic disciplines of the Uamitic^faith he turned
bis attention first to practical philoeophy, and later on to
the jnore ideal tenets of 9d£e pantheism, nnder the^irit-.
ual guidance of the famous eheikh ShUiib-uddln 'Umar
Buhrawardf (died 1334 ; 633 i..B.). Between 1330 and
]32S he paid a visit to a friuid in lapabin, went from
there to Damascus, and returned to IspaliAn just at tha
time of the inroads of tha Uongola, when the AtAbeg Sa'd
bad been deposed by the victorious niler of Kirmin.
S A D — S A D
143
Oliiyitli-addlD (1239). Sadly grteved hf the mufortima
of his genaroiu patron uid di«giut«d vith the miserablB
state (o which Fersa. had been r«dac«d, Sa'dl atarted in
laai « 122S on his way to India, thna entering on the
■eoond period of his life — that of hia wanderings (1225-
1255). He proceeded via Balkh, Qhaznf, and the Panjab
to Oi^jrit, on the western cAut of which he visited the
faraoua ihrine of Siwa in Pattan-SnmaiuLt, and met with
a remarlcable adTenCnre. Haring seen the statne of the
god lifting Qp its hands to heaTsn every ^noming at san-
rise, he diioovered that a priest, hidden behind the image,
wrought the mincle b; meaoi of a eotd; but, being
caught in the very act of watching the perfonnance, he
had no altematlTq bat to hnrl his pursner into a deep
well and to escape at full speed, — not, however, nntil he
had snutahed the detested atatoe. After a prolcoiged stay
ia Delhi, where he acquired the knowledge of HindOst&nl
which he afterwards tamed to account in several of his
poems— just aa a nombec of ezoelleot Aralnc haffdas bear
wituesa to his fluency in that idiom which be had leomt
in Baghdad — be tailed tor Temen. In San'i, the capital
of Yemen, the loss of a beloved child (when he had
mairied is not known) threw him into deep melancholy,
from vriiich only a new adventoroiu expedltioD into Aby»-
rinia on the oppoaito African shore and a pilgrimage to
Mecca and Medina could again ronse him. Thence he
diiectad hia iti^ towards Syria and lived aa a renowned
sbeikh for a conuderable time in Damascna, which he had
once ali«tdy visited. There and in Baalbea he added to
his liteiarj renown that of a first-rate pulpit orator,
Spedmeaa of hie spiritual addreaaea are preserved in
the five bomiliea (on the fngitiveiiess of human life, on
faith and fear of Ood, on love toward* Qod, on rest in
Ood, and on the search for Qod) which nsnally form the
MMnd rit4lah or prose treatise in Sa'dl's complete works.
At latt w«Biy of Damascos he withdrew into the desert
near Jernaalem and led a solitary wandering life, till one
day he was taken captive t^ a troop of Prankish soldiers,
brought to Tripoli, and condemned to forced labour in the
trendies of the fortress. After enduring countless hard-
■hips, be ma eventnoll; rescued by a rich friend in Aleppo,
who paid his ransom, sjid moreover gave htm his daughter
in marriage. But Sa'dl, unable to live with hi* quorrel-
■ome wife, aet out on new travels, first to North Africa
ud then throngh the length and breodtli of Asia Minor
sod the ac|j(»iung coontriei. Not until ha hod passed his
seventieth year did he return to Shlrii (about 1266 ; 6S3
I.H.). Finding the place of his birth tranquil and pros-
penMU under the wise rule of Abilbakr b. Sa'd, the son
Dt hi* old patron (1226-1260; 623-668 a.h.), the aged
poet took up his permanent abode, interrupted onlf by
lepMted pilgrimage* to Mecca, in a little hermitage ont-
nde the town, in the midst of a charming garden, and
devoted the remainder of his life to Qii£c contemplation
tad poetical compoeition. Sa'dl died at Shiiii in 1293
(691 A.H.) aooofding to HamdallAh Hostanfl (who wrote
only for^y years later), or in.Dooomber 1291 (690 a.B.)>
at the sge of 110 Innar yeara.
Tha aipgrimcs of tta« world gaimd during bii travelH, hit iotimite
Kquintum with ths viiioiii countriea hs had viiiEed, hii iuisht
into hnUD cbuacter, (ti gnndanr uid it* littlanna, irhich ■ th&lj
Wt' iDtaecaiM with men of ill auks sod of many nsHoDalJtJM
W liill; Bibued, togatlur witb u iiibsni loftinesi of thonght
pd tl» pdiwt monl •tandtrd, mids it faj ht Bddi to compaas
in tha (tort me* et thraa nan bit two msatdpiMca, which nsve
inuiKittiUmlliiiBSiDS, tlie ^a^H or "Fmit-nnlBD'' (12e7}uid
tlu AilUJa or •> BosMden " (lUS), both d*£c*t»l to tha njn-
ibala. Tb* fennvi abo called Si'tftadaM, ii a kind
a, whkh
,i«tioiu,
1^, sbS abounds with
„ „ ! tnmaoandanlal ^ecn.
pross waA at s rimiUi teadaocr ind^tt
talAtttxgAMhakr. _
MduUotia ajnpat ia t«D chapters and donblfrrh jmed vn
pu*M <B nnaw tba bigfasrt pMlosophicil sad rsligiaus
M tdlMB in Oe nrj aplnt of (Atlitlanl^aBd abo
cliaptcn, IMenpensd with Bnuntaa vsnaa and Dloatntad, Ilka
tha AaMda, bj a rich itdra of daitr tain sad etunning ananlotaa :
it diKDMOg mora or l«n tha aame tonica ai the laffnt icock, but baa
innlrad a much p«ttar populaiitria both tha Eaat and theVut,
ovliig to Ita aaajar and mora variad atjls, Ita attrastive leaona of
practical wiadom, and ita naniarou bon-inot*. But Sa'dTa DUrdK.
or cdIImUod of Ijrloal poatiy, ta aarnasaaa th*£iUftlH and OHliitan,
at aa; late in quantity, wbathar la qDalilJ alao ii a matter at
tait«. Other minor Totki an tb* Arabu t^Uai, the flnt of wblch
Umenta the deatmclion of the Aratrian ealiphatg by the Uongola
in laSS (US A.H.) ; the Pataiu fafkba, naitly nanagyricil, pertly
didactical ; theuuilMl, orelegieB, beginnutg with one on the death
oFAbdbakr and ending vith oue on the defeat and demiHe of the
Uit caliph, tloeta'ilni ; ths mu/amoui'iU, or poenia viib allsraate
Fenian and Arabic veraea, nt t, nthsr arUSciid character ; the
larjCdi, or refrain -poanu ; the gAatalt, or odes ; ths piikitijijfai
and maiaUa'il, or monl aphoriami B]id tpigmni ; tlie mi^iyjiia,
or qnatraine ; and the mii/mU:, or dliticln. Sa'dl's lyrical poonw
poaaeaa neither the cut grace and melodiooa charm of iiiti't
•ongi nor the oTerpaweilng Krandenr of Jcliloddin-Rtiitil'i dfrlne
hymna, hot thej ire novemidtaa fitU of deep pathoa and ibo» nicb
a ffvlan lore of truth aa ii aaldom ntet inth In Eattem poetn,
Evm hia panagjrica, although addrened in turn to almsat all the
ralan who in those days of continnalfT changlDg dynaaliea prealded
over llie bta of Vends, are teat from that crSiging gervilit; io com-
mon in the effaahma of Orisntal anemniasts.
The Rnt >lH eollaatad and anaaced Vt mrks was 'iJi h. Ahiaa4 b.
UbandumkabtHHl ki ui* tatndiieUan W Dr W. BaAer^ sjdtt .lrt<'»
ra. pp. M.)£a?dn gwinnm « eanMa woika ten imm crIRat W
HulaitDa, OiloatU, ITnw (a^tb aa bdM tnadatloB et aoBt of the iiaa
taeetlaeaaMer Dnkat Bhak^ notlea « Ibe peaL et wkld a Uenan lenaeB
lalDBadlBOrarBlgaMannLLriBal^lSe^&MKllCxtkaBnBtnaalllbe.
■ia|ibididUlaa^iaalil«'a Am^^^Ai&tt. Jtu.iLp. tM. thtatMU
La iMa prfatat Hi caieatU (UUI and UM), aa wdl aa ta Lafeaia, Cknrore,
IkMi, aeTia eriWal adltUB *ltk Fm<u etaaataiT na patAked^JL
B-Ontat tMbeb ta law Ahnaaa laiUlaal treaaletleiia bfthe bbl Am,
MMLaad hr teMmUm-ltmllai, Vlmt, lUl: W^yk Haaalallga W w!
geifce.La»jM, UTt j^fMgJiaaiU lluaV BaiMirSi Kinwd, FirK MQ,
tmHCtCa^^OtaCU the X.fi.JV.a, ta. p. M R.,ill.
p. ti ■«., lUL p.M» KiTT. F.UI it.,BA iTlll. p. »»•), da tha hia
ebaiaaUro(Ba'£^taariBb*itte^lLU>iidJiU]-ti4d<BlMml,Biiapltblk''Dia
SADLER, Sm IUlpb (1507-1987), English atateamin,
wae the son of Henry Badler, steward to the proprietor
of the manor of OilW^, near Great Had ham, Hertford-
thirty and was bom at Hackney in Kiddleeex in ISOT.
While a mere child be obtained a sitnation in the family
of Thranaa Cromwell, earl of Eoex. Through him he was
introduced to Henry Vlll., who conferred on him variant
appointments and employed him in coimeiion with the
diwolntion of the monasteries, in the rich spoils of which
he was a large sharer. So mudi was the king impreesed by
Sadler's ability and addrssa that he made choice of him for
his snbeeqnent important negotiations with Scotland. In
1 537 he was sent thither to strengthen the En^ish interest ;
in 1S39-40 he was ooramissioned to pertnade ths Scottish
king James T. to cast off the supremacy of the pope ; in
1G41 he west back to enforce the same connssl; and in
IC42 he was appointed to settle the propoeed matoh be-
tween Edward prince of Wales and Muy the infant queen
of Scots. Although not sooceafnl in any of these missions,
he continued to retain the full confidence of the kin^ who,
in recognition of his lealons serricee, conferred on him in
1543 the hononr of kni^thood. On Henry's death in
1547Sadler'snamewMfoundin the royal will OS ons of the
conncillota to the sixteen noblee who were entrusted with
the gnardianahip of the young king. In the same year he
was appointed treasnrer to the army sent against Scotland,
and for his great servicea in rallying the repnlaed cavalry
he waa crsatod a kni^t -banneret on the battlefield oC
Pinkie. Daring the reign of Mary he lived in retirement
on bis estate near Hackney ; bnt on the acceesion of Eliza-
betli in 1 556 he came once mora into s sphere of active
employment. He immediately became a member of psi'lia-
ment for tlie county of Hertford and a privy eoandUN'.
lU
A D — S A r
Kot hag •ftennwdn hia atniDg frotaahuit aympsthies and
liw uqiMunUiKo witb Bcottuh atttin nMnnmwded him
M&fitpenov tabeemplo^bjinistbeth in her intrigues
«iUi Ute Scottish lord* of tlie congreBation agaiiut Queen
Ifaiy. In 1584 he ma Af^Mtntcd keeper c^ Maty qneen
of Soota in the i!Mtle of Tntbnrj ; bnt on acconnt of "age
(tod tninnitr" he woB permitted to resign his oharge Hune
time befora the death of the queen, wa bat Berrice wu
to Tepttir to Scotland to pacify the king's indignation on
aocoontcrf Mary's dfalh. Eediedafterhijiretu-alioineat
Standon in Herttorddjire, SOth March 1687.
•nflMtnauiK^iali ' ~ - • • ~ -
nqf Sir Sc. ^ . .
Kr W«lt»r Boott, in 1809. Tin UemoiT qfAc Uft and Ti:
Sir Babk Sadttir, ig Ail DuttnAittt Uajor F. Sadleir Sloacy,
•pptared ta 1877.
&ADOLETO, Jaoofo (1477-161 7), Italian humanist and
drarchman, was bom at Modena in I .77, aod, being the
•on of a noted jnrist, was deeigoed for the same pTofession.
He gave hinuatf, therefore, to humanistic studies and
aeqnued reputation as a Latin poet, his best-knoim piece
being one on the groap of lAocoon. Passing to Rome, ha
obtained the patronags of Cardinal Carafa and adopted the
Bcclesisstical career. Leo X. chose him as his secretacy
.(long with Peter Bnmbo, and in 1617 made him iHshop of
^kipentiaa. Bodoleto luid a remarkable talent for a&irs
and approved himself a faithful servant of the papacy in
many difficalt negotiations nnder succeesive popes, eapect-
rilj as a peacemaker ; but he was no bigoted advocate of
papal aaChority, and the great aim of his life was to win
Wk the Protestants by peaceful peisuaaibn — he would
niivsr conntenaace persecution — and by putting Catholic
Aictrine in a conciliatory form. Indeed nis chief work, a
Contmaitaiy on Botiiant, though meant as a prophylactic
^(ainst the new doctrinos, gave great offence at Bome
sad I^ris. Sodoleto was a diligent and devoted bishop
and alwajB left his diocese with reluctance even after he
was made cardinal (1936). His piety and tolerant spirit,
oombined with liis reputation for Bcholaiship and eloquence
and his diplomatic abilities, give bim a somewhat unique
place among the churchmen of his time. He died in 1617.
Els collected works appeared at Mainz in 1607, and in-
clude besides his theologico-irenical pieces, a collection of
Spitda, a treatise on education (Gnt published in 1633),
and the Phtednu, a defence of philoaophy, mitten in 1638.
a£UUND. See Edda, toL til p. 6E>0, and I<aLain>,
vol luj. 624.
fiAF£S> A sate is any repontory in which valuable
property is guarded *gainst ri^ of loss by Are or from the
attacks of tUeves. Ae protection of valoable docnmanta
and poMenions was only imperfectly effected in the charter-
rooms of old mansions and in the iron-bonnd oaken chests
and iron ooKrs of the Middle Agee ; but these in their day
tepreeented the strong rooms and safes of modem times.
The vast increase in lealized wealth and the complication
of financial aod banldog operatioas necessitate in oar days
tha greatest attention to the safeguarding of secoiities
and property. The ingennity of inventors has, within
practicable limits, effected much in safe-making ; but tie
conning of thieves has increased in proportion to the
ohstacles to he oveicome and to the vatoe of the booty at
which they aim, No safe can be held to be invulnerable ;
for, whatever human ingenuity con put together and close,
the same ingenuity can tear down and open. An impreg-
nable safe would indeed be a source of greater danger than
of security to its owner, for, were tha key or other means
of aceais loet or rendered unworkable, the contents of the
safe would of necessity be irrecoverably. The efficiency of
a saf^ therefore, does not depend vn absolute impregna'
biliqri but on the nature of the obstacles it presents to
successful attack, and to the generally onfavonraLla eoA-
ditions under which snch attacks are mode. It id common
to make safes both thief- and fire-resisting, and the condi-
tions necessary for the one object to a certain extent con-
duce to the attainment of both ; but for many purpoaes
seetui^ from the one danger alone ia requisite.
The devices for baffling thieves are numennu. The
safe must in the first place he made heavy and tmwicldy,
or otherwise it must be so fixed that it can only be carrieid
away with the utmost difficulty. Next, the greatest
ohatecles to obtaining illegitimate access mnst be pnsentad.
To prevent fracturing a tongh metot must be used in Ilia
construction, and to resist penetration by drilling metal of
great hardness mnst be interposed. These concQ.tiona ara
commonly met by making the oater casing of the sftfe of
boiler plate, backed hj a lioing of hard steel, over which
is an inner lining of thin boiler plate, the three layers
being securely bolted together by screws from within. By
some makers a layer of hard metal is poured, in * fluid
state, between the outer and inner caring; others caaa-
harden one surface ; and there are numerous additional do.
vices for securing Uie combination of hardness and iiaaA-
neas. To prevent wrenching of joints, the two ndea mtli
top and bottom of the outer shell are somatinies mad« ont
of a single plate welded at the joints and the back and
front are then attached to that shell by angle irons screwed
from within. The fiame upon which the door hangs and
into which the botte shoot is mode of great strength, with
special precautions to prevent tie wrenching off of (he
door by means of crowbars or wedgsa. In an ivdinary
safe the massive bolts, three or more in number, shoot only
at the front, and fixed dl^ or sham bolts fit into slots at
the back or hinged side. This anangement is enlBcient
to keep the door closed independent (rf hinges, which ai«
merely the pivot on which the door turns. In all Chabb's
safes bolts shoot both to front and back ; and in the
higher quality of that and of every other good maker
bolts shoot on every ride, — front, back, tt^ and bottom.
Ordinarily the bolts shoot straight into the riot as in an
ordinary lock ; but, to defy wrenching, additional grip is
secured by Chatwood, who Tnakes a bolt with a etnteh oi
projection, which blls into a recess in tiie riot and thus
holds Bg^nst any direct wrench. In Chubb's finer mim
tiie bolts shoot tUagonally all round, so that in each (aca
of the door they go in two different directiona. Safe bolts
are shot not by the key, as in an ordinary lool^ but fay the
door handle^ and the key simply secures than in theb
pceition. By this arrangement, patented by Mr Cbatles
Chubb in 1835, a series of the most ponderoos btdts can
be secured in locked position by a small key which c«i be
carried in the vest pocket The lock of a safe most be a
careful piece of mechanism, not sulgect to derangvnent,
unpickable, and gunpowder- proof. The portion of the
door on which it Is fastened is generally provided with
extra precautions against drilling. A safe being well
made and securely locked remains vulnerable throu{^ the
medium of the key, which may be surreptitiooriy obtained
either for direct use or to foim a mould by i^ch falsa
keys can be cut. On tiis account, keyless locks and time
loi^ are coming into great favour in. Amwica. In keyless
permutation locks, such as those of Hall, Bargan^ Tals^
and Dalton, the bolts can be withdrawn only after an
indicator has been successively set against a comlnnation
of DombeiB arranged hefore uie closins of the door \ and
in the time lock of these inventors the safe can only fas
opened at any hour to which the time controller is set
b«fore cloring. Electrical arrangements have also beoi
attached to safes by which signals are conveyed to any
spot when a safe so guarded is unlawfully interfend intk.
It is much easier t* reader « «fa firfr-pioof than la
S A F — S A P
14S
• nlcolatioii of ths istonut; ana dumtioa of any Bra to
which it ia likclj to be eipooed, and the proviaion of a.
auffioent lining oif Sre-reuating mateiul. Whftt ii prind-
p*ilj n««d i* 0 miitnra of Kme abaorbant medium — auch
■« Mwdoat, powdared gypaoin or cameiit, or iofuaorial
oarth — with grDond aluiii. Aabaatoa, liUcate cotton, mica.
Mid oth«c non-oondocton an alio naad; and by khuq
maken aaaled tubea of alkaline aatts are diatributed
tiuoa^ the abaorbant mateiiaL Theae bunt irbsu sxpoaad
to hf^ beat and tbair coatanta aatarate tha auTToanding
■atwtaaee. A carefully packed abell of not leaa than 3|
incliea of the fire-reaiaCiag medinu ahould line the interior
of ersry fire-proof nfe ; bat in many cheap aafes a onantitj
of brick doit ii Uis only fire-reaiitiilg medium.
Whare an ordinary a^s pravidea insufficient accommoda-
tion the itronK room takes it» place. Soch an apartment,
bong general^ in the baa«ment of a building, preeenta
no fecial diScultiw to maka it proof against fira and
thioTea. Thickneaa of walla, built by prefereooe of hard
brick laid in cement, and liberal use of ctmeot within the
mill, aa veil as at the Soor and over the arched roof,
^re strength againit both fin and biirslan. The interior
id a atrong loom ii generally lined with boiler-plats, and,
in addition to tha mataive atsel and iron door, it baa an
innar wrought-iion grill-door, which lecurea the rault
during bnaineaa honn and perniiti the rentilation of the
apaitmant. Within nich a atrong room extra strong
ehambera or aaparate aafes may be placed, and in thia way
pncaotion* may be indefinitely moItipUed.
~ it SBiapkt' (ua^M <f uh ud stniiig-Rxnii tmagt'
^^^.. i_.i_ __!,._ __.. J -jareeud -
laptatectad b^a
Tb* pnmlHi
M taa Aattonal oaf* Uqmait ConpanTin LimdDn anuin
iaotalad bnUding in qiwan Vietoria StrHt Tha buildins,
B An-pnio( conn and ninoDiida tha gnat lafa lanl* —
which fa anak in tba sivBBd to a daUh of 15 fnt
itaal^ fimndgd on a bgdoT oosent* M (wt in thicknM
I fMt thkk, of baid blaa brink bid in nmsnL icllb
Eninc-af fin-brick, and Ea UnaJ iiitfinully vith caat-Lron plataa
U indMa thkk chiW owona dda, tha plitaa hariag ainlwldod In
tbiB aaitiraA oT strong latarlaeail imught iron ban. TbaTiolt
■a dirfdad lata fear tian or abviaa vllh algfat aapanta compart-
■Mita 1b aaih, whiok, aftsr bsalnaaa boan, ara cloatd with doon
raiaad and lowand br hydnnlk ponr. Tnasa docn. nhicli aach
■alkh taai tiaa, ara bDift m, 11 Incliaa thurk, of combinatioua of
hard and tongfc matal to raaiat fracMn and driUIng, and irben tha^
— — ■— ' '— ■ — ' -la tha antianea to lach compartmaDt
' ' a. grilL 'Within tba tbirtf
, ._. about JO.OOO nfaa of Tariona
itraa, which ara lat to ownan of Taliublaa, tacb nntir baring tba
aala eostnil of tha aafa hirad by Mm Additional aamriCy Is
ataiaad by tba patrol of amad vatchman, and gananlly it may
ha Hid that In tba inatiCatian pnoautians ban baen earriad almoat
to tha pjtcb oT paKNtion, if iudoed tba; hara iiol bocn pnahed to
aaedlaaa anaaa. (I. PA.}
8AFETT LAMP. See Con; toL tL p. 72 «j.
SAFfXrIDS, a Fenian dynasty of tha 9th canttuy.
See MogAmaDAMMit, roL zvL p. &86.
SAFFI (Aaafi), a seaport of Morocco, with 6000 inha-
Utants, srane conimarce, and a tamoua ehrins, the House
of the Sevan Sleepeis, frequented \fj Moslem and Jewish
pilgrims. See vd. zri. p. 831.
SAFFLOWEB, or Babtabd EUffkok {Carthamui tiiv-
toriw), belongs to the natoial order Cimpotitu ; its flowers
form the haaia of the safflower dye of comcDBrca. The phmt
is a natiTa of tha East Indies, but is cultiTnted in £gypt
and to aome extant in southern Europe. To obtain the
dyeing princiirie — carthamine — the flowen ara first waahed'
to free them from a soluble yellow colouring matter they
etntain ; they ara than dried and powdered, and digested
in an alkaline aotntioa in which piecea of clean white
ccMMt are immaraed. The alkaline solution haTing bean
neutralind with weak acetic acid, the cotton ia removed
and washed in another alkaline solution. When this
second solution ia nentraliied with acid, carthamine in a
pore condition ia precipitated. Dried carthamine has a
rich metallic green colour ; it forms a brillioat but fugitive
scarlet dye for silk, but ia principally uoed foT preparing
toilet rouge. In 1881 there wore unpoitad into the United
Kingdom 1T9-1 too* of safflower, valued at £7109. almout
the whole of which came from the East Indici
SAFFRON (Arab. ia*/<ii^») is maantactured from tha
dried stigmas and part of the style of the saffron crocus, a
cultivated form of Crtteui jo/ims, L., tha predue origin
of which is imknown ; for, though some of the wild forms
(var. Thomatii, Carturighiiaattt) ara also employed for the
manufoctura of saffron, they differ in character from the
collavated type and are somewhat restricted in geographical
range, while the cultivated form extends with little or no
change through nearly ninet; degraot of longitude (Spain
to Kashmir) and twenty-five degren of latitude (England
to Feraia). It is invariably sterile^ unless artLGcially
fertilised with the pollen of some of the wild tarietiet.
The purple flowar, which blooma lata in autunm, is veiy
Nmilar to that of the oommon spring crocus, and the
atigmaa, which are protruded from the perianth, are of a
chancteriatic orange-red colour. The Egyptians, though
arqntintwl with the bastard safflower (see preceding article),
do not seem to have poaaeesed saffron ; but it is luuned In
Canticle* iv. 14 among other tweet-amelling herbs. It is
also repeatedly mentioned {ipiiaK) by Homer, Hippocrates,
and oUier Greek writer* ; uid tiie word "crocodile" was
long suppoeed to have been derived from Kpixot and
itiivSi, whence we have such aloriea t* that " the croco-
dile'a tears are never trae save when he is forced where
aa&on groweth" (Fuller's Wortkitj). It haa long been
cnltivated in Persia and Kashmir, and is supposed to havd
been introduced into China by the Mongol invasion. It
is mentioned in .the Chinaae materia medica (iHot tKunt,
15S2-T8). The chief seat of cultivation in early times,
however, was the town of Corycus (modem Korghoz) in
CiUcia, and from thia cootral point of distribution it may
not improbably have spread east and west AeccM:ng to
Hehn, the town derived ita name from the crocu:: ; Rey-
mood, on the other hand, with more probability, holds
thA the name of the drug aroae from that of the town.
It was cultivated by the Arebs in Spain about 961, and
is mentioned in an '"^gl"'' leech-book of the 10th century,
hut seems to have disappeared from western Europe till
raintroduoed by the crusaders. According to Eakluyt, it
was brought into England from Tripoli l^ a pilgrim, who
hid a stolen conn in the hollow of his statt It was especi-
ally cultivated near Hinton in Cambridgeahira and in
Essex at Baffixm Walden (i.e., BtSttaa Woods, not Saflroa
Walled-in, aa the canting crest of the town would imply),
ita cultivators being called "crokera." Thia industry,
tbongh vei7 important in the 15lh centory, when English
safion commanded the highest prieee on the Continent,
appears to have died out about 1t6S.
Safion was used aa an ingredient in many of the com-
plicated medicinee of early timet. According to Qerard
" the modents use of it is good for the head and maketh
the sences mora quicke and Lvely. It shaketh off heavie
and drowsy sleep and maketh a man mery." It appcara
to be really a stimulant and antispasmodic, though ita
powers are slight. It is scarcely ever employed by modem
pbarmaciats unlera for the mere eoloratiou of other tinc-
tures, or at moat an a cordial adjunct to other medicines.
That it was very largely used in cookery is evidenced Vf
many writora ; thus LMrenbcrgius (.^pparalw PlarOamm,
1632) moke* the large assertion "In re familiare vix uUus
eat tellnris babitatus angulus ubi non sit croci quotidiana
uaurpatio aapeni vel incocti cibis.* The Chinese need
also Vt employ it largely, and the Persians and Spaniards
™•-■^■-
14«
, A F — S A G
■till miz it witli their rioa. Ai ft perfume it waa atrewn
in Qreeic ball^ conrU, and theatr«ii, and in tim Boman
baths. The itreets of Home were aprinkled with kU&od
when Nero made hia entr; into the atj.
It waa, liowever, moinlj Bsed aa a dye. It iraa a nytd
colour in earlj Qreek timea, though tfterwcirda perhapa
from its abondaat use in the hatha, and at a scented salve,
it MM eapeciallj appropriated bj the hetuna. In ancient
Ireland a king** toantle waa dysd witli laf&on, and even
down to the 17th century the "lein-croichi'OTaa&on-dyed
■hirt, wu worn by peraona of mnk in the Hebridea. In
mediieval illumination it tnniished, as a glaia upon bnr-
nishod tinfoil, a cheap aad effective auhttitate for gold.
Ttie sacred spot on the forehead of a Hindn pnndit ia alao
partly comptwed of it. Ita main nae in £i^{land was to
dolour pastry and confectionery, — hence "I moat haye
saffron to colour die Warden pies " ( Winter'i Tale, act iv.
BO. L), — and it ia still often added to batter and cbeeae.
One grain of saffron rubbed to powder with augar and a
little water imparts a distinctly jellow tint to ten gallons
t£ water. This colouring power is due ta the presanee
of polychlorite, a aubatance whose chemical fotmola appaara
to be Oj.H^O.p and which m^ be obtained by treating
ta&on with ether, and afterwi^ta eihaoBting with water.
Under acida it yielda the following reaction —
Oociii, according to Vatti, Did. of ChenK, has ft oomposi-
lion of C^H^,Ou or 0^,0^0^. This ciocin is a red
eolooring matter, and it i« surmised that the red colour of
the stigmas is due to this reaction taking place in natare.
i.t pnimt nSton is chigSf coltiimtcd in Spaia. Fcbdm, Sicilj,
on thfl low ipnii of the Apflimliua, ud in Pema and Kashimr.
Tfae groond bv to be thoroughly clAind of itoiua, manand, ajid
tnniSied, and the cermi are pluit*d fn ridgsa. Th* Sown* an
oithared at th* ODd of Ostobst, in tha aar^ mominff, Jntt >heii
taty an bwooing to opon aftor tlia night Tha a&maa and a
partofttHBtylaaiecaTeCDllf jiicked oat, and thawM MTon lathaii
■cattarKloD abeata of paper to ■ depth of ! or 8 iachaa i ow thiaa
doth la laid, and naxt a board with a haavy wei^t A atcorig beat
ti a haavy wei^t
aato maka the.
ibar pgriod of t«
tvwj honr »o that tnrj part „ _
id that th« (Ugmu ^abont 4800 floven
iittipUad-
■ndanntlartampaiatiiie lor a huibar pariod of twanty-fimr hoac^
tha ea£a bdog tdtned *^" ""■ ' '" "" ""'"
thoroughly
_. 800 flowen
an ivquna to nva aa oqhob ta aumm : hut Qia axpariaiaita of
ChapptUiet indicate a poaalbilil^ of greatly incraaaiog the yield by
the cnltintloa of moiutiDnB forma
The dnia lias naturally always been IlabU to great adnltoiatloii
la apita of penalties, the aererity of which anniiata tha snrriTing
tndltioii of ita Hand obaiactar. ^na in NDrmibeig a raguljir
ssflten inspection was held, and ia tha 16th centair n mad of
men bdng tininod In the marhet-plaos along with thtir adulterated
safl^ irhila on anotha Oocaalon tlim panoDS (onTietad of the
' a tiDilad allT*. Oreasa md batter an Mil] -nrj
fiHiMDtly mind «i^ tbe caka and dirsd* of be«f dlppad ia a
«a£n ate alia tued. Good ailDon ia dirtliiKDidud by ita d
orange-nd colont ; IT It ia lijfht yellow or bUckUh, it la bad or
niH T* ahrMllJ aIbA ti>*a ■ .^miliar •ti'1 T*fK«- tw.w
ntad wlta bi
JmVSifM
a bitter pungent taato. If ody it ia probably ■]
enu Crontr, irpon wUch tin pwfclln^
FanlTa, MaJrria Utdita, iDd tlje jihamuet
SAFFEON WALDEN, a market-town and municipal
borough of Esaei, Eagiond, is finely situated near the Com
ia a valley surrounded by Mlia, on a branch of the Great
Gaatem Railway, 41 miles north-north-eant of London and
14 Bonth of Caiobridge. It has a aomewhat ancient ap.
peaiaoce and poasessai good streela and a sjxtcious market-
place. Of the old castle, dating probably from before the
Conquest, the keep and a few other portions atill remain.
The chorch of St Mary the Virgin, a beoatifnl specimen of
the Perpendicular style, dating from the reign of Henry
VIL, bnt frequently rejiaired and iwtored, contwns the
tomb of Lord Andley, chancellor to Henry TUL lliere
ia an Edwwd VI. grammar-achool, for which new buildings
kare lecentlj been erected. Amongst the modem public
buildingsare the coca exchange (184fi) and tbe new tnwa
hall (1879). Hie town powewe* a mof«nm, » litoMj
institate, and a horticultural aoviety. lira benerolant'
institutions include the hoHpital and the Edward TI. alms-
bouaea. In tha Deighbonrhood ia the fine mouaion of
Audley End, hnilt hj Th□ma<^ firbt earl erf Suffolk, in
1603 on the rain* of the aobey, oonverted in 1190 from ft-
Benedictine priory fonnded by Geoffr^ de UandsTille in
II36. The town ia an important oentia.of egricultorol
bdostry and han lai^ com, cattle, and ^leaii markets.'
Brewing and malting are carried on. The iioptilBtion of
the mnnicipal boroii^ (area, 7416 acres) m 1871 waa-
GT18, and in 1881 it waa 6060.
The otiglital name of the town waa 'Vealdaiiliai^ and wheo It
-'— ' " of a market ia the time of Qeoffivy da )>IaiideTill»
..... ... ibatilntion of the prefix
la calhd C
ChepinB Walden. The
. .. -.jcouted for by tha former
In the neigbbooThood. Tha town has
Saffron Ii accoa
tha former enltnra of SArraoH (7. ■, >
Teatad ia a mayor, fiair
ra ea a guild, and the
SAOAN, a mannfacturing town in Pmssioa Bilma,
altoated on the BoKer, a l.ibutary of the Oder, lies 60
miles south-aouth-east of Frankfort-on-tbe-Odar and lOS
miles south-eaEt of Berlin. It contains the h&ndsomk
palacs of tha dukes of Sagan, several interestlog churchea^
a Boman Catholic gynmasiom, and a large Gothic hoepital.
named after its foander, the dachess Dorothea (1793-1862).
The leading industry of the town ia cloth-weaving, witk
wool and flax spinning ; it has also some ti^do in wool
and grain. The popolation in 1880 was 11,373.
The mediate principality of Sagan, formed in ]S(I7 out of apor.
Hon of the duchy of Ologaa, haa aencal tlmea changed huida by
purchaaa u well aa by iohOTitUMt Ob. «f ila m<at ftmnaa poa-
HMon «iu Tr^t.D.tef>i, who hebl it Ibr aena yean hdkm hfi daatb
ia 1931. Bought by Prince Lobkowita In KML tb* pAx^ali^
remained In hia lamilT ddUI ITSO, wboi It wu soU la Mer. dak*
of ConrUnd, wbcaa dwoaaJaat, th* duke of Tallaynttd-PariOTl
sad Valen«y ia Fianoe, aow owna it. Tba area cf tha priDdpality
ia about 407 sqnat* nilM, and its popolatko la aliont St,Ooa,
SAOAB, or BAU0OB,m ^tiah diatrict of India, aitnated
in the erlieme nortb-weat of the Oectral Ptovinces, and
compriaed between 23* 4' and 34* 97' K. lat, and between
78* 6' and 79* 13* E. long., with a total area of 400^
square miles. It is bounded on tha N. b^-tlie LAUtpnr
district of the North-Weetcm Frorincea and the natiw
sUtea of Bu&war, Fanni, and Chorkhiri ; on the £. b]c
I^nnu :uid Domah diatrict ; on the S. by Karsinhpnr dis-
trict and ths native atate of Bhi^ ; and on tha V. also
by Bhopai. Sigar district ia an eztaiaive, elevated, and
in ports tolerably level plains broken in plaoee by h>w
hilla of the Vindhyan sandstona. U is traveiaed bj
nnmerons streamy chief of whi^ ore the Snnor, Be4^
Dbupan, and Bina, all flowing in a noitherlj direction
towuds the vallay of the Q«ngm. In the aontkein and
central parts the soil la biack, formed by decaying tr^ ;
to the north and east it is a reddiah-brown alhtviiua.
Iron ore of excellent quality is found and worked at Hira'
pur, a smaJl village in the extreme norlli-east. ^e dia-
trict contains several densely wooded tracts, the largeat of
which is the Bamna teak foreat preserve in tha north.
Boads ore the only means of comuionication ; of theee the
total length is 131 miles, 60 being returned as first class.
The climate ia moderate ; the average temperatnre is 7fi %
and the average niufoll is about 46 iuchea.
By the canana nf 1881 tha population aiunbered M4.SE0 (SS4,7t)S
ipalei and 270,IEI» htualea). Hindos numbered 498,071, Htdisa-
medani ZE,39S, Buddhuoa and Jaina t«,«S£, Chiiatiana 10B4, aod
aborigiDuli i»,144. Tba only tora auept tha cq4la] (seaMo*)
with a population diccoding 10,000 b Garhakota, which oontitDS
11,414 mhaUUiili. Of tbo total area only ISM aqnan milea si*
cultivated, and of tha portion lying waata IXED an Ktnraad m
coItiTablc. Wheal forma tbo prineinal nop. whkh la pradnoed la
larsa qoautitiM all over tha dutriut : other prodncta at* lood
gnina, rice, oil-aeede, cotton, aud nnr-cane. CUCle and huihloes
are bnd to a lar^.-e eitint both for dnnght and canlsg*, and si*
. A G — S A G
147
y of ieS7 tho wholi iir*nct ni iu th< ponaBJoa of th*
kMi, •MBpting tilt town uitl (.•rt, in which thii Eoro[i«nj wen
ii]iiit npfor elpUt monllw, till Mlimtil ttiij in Iho following jfi
ij Sir Hngh Iton. Th« rglxla v>ns tot^T 'laluUd ud onlgr wm
i^n rHt««l ^<J Uirtli ISJS. 6il|{iir wu (onnod iuto ■ tepumla
iliitdct of the Ctutnl IToiiocei iu 1861.
tiAOAlt, priniHiAl tomi ftnd b«4dqnArt«n of the ftbove
diotrirt, »itii»t«d in 23' 60' N. lat and 78" *9' E. long.,
U irell built vrith vride itreetit ind standi on tlie bordera
of a Hnull but beantiful lake, and has military eanton-
msntiL Slgar id the eutrepOt of the >»lt trade vritli
It^jpntAns, anil carried on a larg« trade with Ulrztptir
di^iict in the North-Wattern Proniicee, importing sugar
and other grocery, beaidu English cloth. The jiopulation
of the town in 1881 wm 44,416 (malw 32,556, females
21,860).
tiAOE, Lk. See L> Saok.
BAQHALJIf, or Sakeuum, is ths name improperl;
given to a large elongated ialand in Uie North Pacific,
lying between 45* 57' and 54* 2:1' N. lat. and 141* 30' and
144* yy E. lonj,'., off the ooast of Russian Maachuho. Its
proper name i^ Karn/tu, or Sani/iUo. It i* separated
from the mainland by the narrow and shallow Strait of
Tirtary, which oftca freezes in winter in its narrower
part, and from Yeio (Japan) by the Stiait of La Pcrouoe.
This island (670 milM long, 20 to 150 broad, with an
■reaof 34,560 square miles), about equal in idze to Betsium
ud Holland together, must be considered as a continoo-
tion of tho mountains bordering the Uanchurion littoitLL
It* oragtaphy is still im[ierfectly known. The inedent
ma|ja rspresent it as formed of two parallel ridges, running
Bocth and aonth and reaching from 2000 to 4000 or 6000
feet (Mounts Bemiget and Etous-pal) high, with two or
wore iride depreasion^ not exceeding GOO feet aboxe the
sn. The general configoration of the littoral and the
island, however, reuden it more probable that there are
three diaiiii running sonth-weat to north-east, forming
continuations of those of the msinland. The geological
Btructnre of the island is olao imiierfecUy known. A few
cryitalliQe rocks are foond at sereial capes; Cretaceous
luDGstunea containing a rich and spocific fauna of gigantic
unmoidteB occur at Dui ; and Tertiary conglomerates,
Kndstonao, marlo, and days, folded by subseijuent up-
heaTals, are widely spread. The clays, which contain
layer* of good coal and a rich foasil Tegetation, show that
daring the Uiocene period BoghaJin woe part of a contineot
which comprised both north Asia, Alaska, and Japan, and
enjoyed a much wanner climate than now. The Pliocene
(tepoeitB contain a mollmic fauna more arctic than the
present, and probably indicating that the conneiton be-
tween the Bsinfic and Arctic Oceans woi brooder than
DOW. Only two riTen, the Tym and the Poronai, are worthy
of mention. Hie former, 250 miles long, and navigable
by raftd and light boats for 60 miles from its mouth,
flows mnlh and uorth-eoat with numerous (abont 100)
lanids and ihallovr*. in a wild ToOey suitable only for
Suing or linntinjj ivttlemonts, and enters the Sea of
Okhotiik at the Uay n( Nyi The Poronai flows north and
than louth to ihe Gulf of Patienca, a wide bay on the
•ooth-east ooaiit. Three other small stmoms enter the
wide semicLrcoloi Onlf of Aniva at the southern extremity
oE the island.
Owing to the cooling influence of the ScR of Okhotsk,
the clunats is rery cold. At Dui the avero^ yearly tem-
ixnton is only SS'-O Fohr, (Joniury, 8''4 ; July, Cl'-O),
^'■0 t Kaaonoi, and 37'-6 at Anira (Januair, 9''5 ;
'^'r, 60*-3). A densa oorering ot dooda for the moat
port shots out the njn of the ran : while the cold current
issuing from the Sea of Okhotsk, aided by north-eaxt
winds, in summer brin;^ immense ice-floes to the eoft
ooast. The whole of t]he inland is covered with deoiw
forests (mwtly coniteroua;. The Ayan fir {Alriti ajnmtiuit),
the Saghalin jiichta, and the Danrian larch are (he chief
trees; and the upjier ]>artit of the mountains haja the
Siberian roniijant cedar {Cemiini pumila) and the Cnrilion
bamboo [AmHrHnari'i Ivnlenie), 4 feet high and half an
inch thick. Uirch. both European on^ Kamcbatkan (£.
alba and £. Eno-tin), elder, jioplar, elm, wild cherry (/Vimim
padvii), Tiixui hirrnt-i^ and several willows are mixed with
the ConifcrK ; while farther soath the maple, the ash, and
the Mtk, OS al><o the Japanese Paivtx tirini/olivm and the
Amur cork {Philndtmimn amitrtnu), make their appear-
ance. The number of phanerogamous species known
reaches 590 and may reach TOO, of which only 20 ore
lieculior to Sogbalin, the remainder belonging to die Amur
and partly to the Japanese flora. The fauna of Segholin
clmcly resembles that of the Amur region, and in fact
the Siberian. Bears, foxea, and sables are still numerous,
OS oIho the reindeer in the north and the antelo|>e ; and
tigers are occasionally met with in the south. The avi-
fauna is the common Siberian ; and the rivers are ex-
ceedingly rich in fiah, ea]Mctallj species of salmon {Onco-
vliyitfhv), which make their way up the rivers in vast
numbers to spawn. The lower marine fauna, exjilored by
Scbrenck. is also rich, while numerous vholes, not in high
esteem\rilhir1]aleni,areD)etwithonthesea-coast Otoriai,
seals, and dolphins are a source of profit.
BaglisliD hu bHa iDhsUtsd idaM it iMn th* KMlIthie Stan*
Ago. Flint injnlimieaU, •iscUy liks thw* af 8ib«ris snil Euaais,
linvg btDQ teoDd ftt Dui snd Kuniui in gmt number*, ■■ well si
intiahtd hitcheti (of trsp, diorits, siid Drgillirgoiu scliitta)— slio
like the lJuropuD aii« — pritoitivu pottery nitli decontioDe like
tliDK o\ Olonati. mil stoos veislita for nru. Aflerwuda cam* a
iiopttlstion to uhoui brouie waa known ; thoj have left their train
~ itcheD-niiddeui (in tlia Day or AniTi). Tbe
10 Euxuaiii.
n-liD do not differ &oin those ortbeAn.1 .
of [lie island, Tlicy support lliamiclvea bj Gahing and gurlly b,
' ■" ' tbe Jsjisuew, who take
Tb* Gityikih
■ rnpM
litOroka, ofTuuguaorifiD,
ity lire hj huntuig. Th*
■ ' 'Knirioa amoni etlina-
T UoiRoliui neea bj
now Inbabit only the
poeHinDU of tbe boat fiahing-gi
raemblo tbe Orotcbona of tba ._ . .
Ainoa, who an atal the luliJMt of ao mutli diKnirioa amonj eUina-
logiala, are the sboririnM of the iiland ; tb»v i— -' — '■ -' — '-"--
Cutiliane, and, liko tlieM. differ fiom all otLci
their luiurLince of hair am) bcsld. They now ll
•oath part of the iiLsnd, and liare U-en bruugbt inti
alsvery by Iha Japane*^ by uliom they haie b«n drivtl
Ysio snd Kippon, in both of ^liich theytrerttbo aboridna
Jipanoe have leTenl coloniei on B>|[biliD and fore* the Au». »
£ili and to collect arawead tot exportation. They send their atalps
to tho touth part of the ialand and hsTo oolonin there, and alao
on the esat eiuit, at the moalh of the Tym. The Ruiaiana began
to aettle pcimancntly on SacbsUu in 16S7 ; and, thonzh next year
pasta wcra titubliihsJ in the aonthern jiart of tbe iidiind, it elill
contlnueil to belong to Japan, which definitely oetlid it to Rnasis
in lB7fi. A Bchenie having been lately fanned for roloniiing the
ialand with eonvicta, siTenl tboniands have been trsiuported
thither, eapecially to Dui (AlaiawlroTik), wlnre thejr an employed
in coel-miniug (annual ontpnt from 3000 to 30,000 cwta), or make
some attempt St agricolturg ; they an either kept in the Alex-
androT^ prisOQ, or permitted to build hooees and to settle with
their 'bmilies. These efTorti loirard^ coloniiatiou, honrsr, en-
coanter great difficulties from the qoaiity of the aoll, tbo cnltiTabl*
patohee orcuniDg hen and than in tho marthy valley of the Duika
-^—~, on the upper cottise of the Tyio, and iu th* hays of Pati-"—
■ ■ Ttronly ■--• -'-- --— -JIj-./^:..
(udAuii
lakiadiorki!
tOS sail
ly cnpa that tliriveanva
prodnce. The Ruiaisn aettlemeata are at D
Ualo-TymOTak and Rjkovak on the upper Tym, Eonskoff si
UnnrieS' on th* Bay of Aniva.
ifdloiv.— Sagbalin, irhlch naa under Chinese dominiop until the
pment century, became known to Europesus from th* travela of
Martin Oeiriti in the 17th centuty, and atill better from those of
U Ptninaa (1737) and Knaenstam (1805), vho diKiibsd 1u«*
parts of id ooaata. Both, boaoTar, lu^arded it as a mar* appsadan
'■•^ . it, end were nnawuvoTttwaiisbswsef the Stroll W
O"
S A G — S A G
TutU7, vUoli WH dlwonnd i ttw jtut ItUr bj- > Janueaa,
Uaui* Binao, wboN ditooraiy It cmbotUnl in Slabald'i Nimxm.
Tlu B<uv» nMTigitor ITcrtltlfol, in IHD, detnitlrtlr Mtabtuhed
tlw «iiit«m ukl B*TUkbilitir of thii itnit : riui^ tint tinu tha
Buiiu cindiUoni or Bnluydc (ISSl) au\ EimfklT-EamtofI
(1U8) ooDttnnad tha atplantiiHu, tnd in tb* latter nar ■ Eniaiui
pott mi ttmpomily eatabllabad at Anln Btv. L Schrcnck in
ISSS-BO, and HU. Selunldt, Glahn, Birlkin, aud Bhabnntn iu
IHO, axntorad Uia gaolon, ftnna, Stm, and aUmolOBT of tha iiland ;
ll.Li^tininlHfaipIand,oiilbi>t,tii«a>atcaaat; UU. Dobcot-
ronkj paUlahad (I^ and omratda) iotenttiDg data u to Ihs
inhaUtuili, and H. Foljakoff wai antnutcd in 1S«1-S3 wltb a
datdiad <K]^anttioD, and ntnnMd with rich ethnological and uo-
"-'naij nporta
(P. A. 4.)
lanjonttioc.
colMotkiu, with itgitd to which onlj- pralimlnarj
AaTt la vat baan publiahed. (P. I
&A.ODfAW, B city of ths United Statoa, capital of
Stgiuiivr county, Hichigan, liea on ttn elevftted plateaa
kboat 30 feet above the mter on the Jeft bank of the
Saginaw riTer, which falla into Saginaw Bay on I^ke
Huron, about 18 milea lower down. It ia a railvay jtmo-
tion of same importance, 100 miles north-west of Detroit,
b connected with East Saginaw by a street railway, and
can be reached by the largest vesseU tbat ply on the lake.
Hie tipper btanehea of the river are also avaUable for boat
trafflc throughont a cooaiderable district. Saw-milla,
planing- milk, and salt-works are the principal industrial
establiahments. The population was 7160 ia 18T0 and
10,636 in 1660. The city charter dates from 18S9, the
first settlement from 1832.
8A0ITTA. The name " Sagitta " was given by Martin
Slabber in 1775 to a small marine worm which is now
known as the ^pe of a distinct group, the Clmtr^naliia
(Leockart). llie groap comprises two genera {Sasiua
and Spadella) and a coiuSderable number of apecies ; they
are amall truisparent pelagic »"'""■'■. varying in length
from a few lines up to two inchaa, and are universally dis-
tributed. The body (aee fig.J Is stoDgated and furmsbed
with a tail and lateral fina, which are prolongations of the
diitinouB cuticle ; the head is provided with a great number
of Tarionaly sLaped chitinous aelte. The body is divided
by transverse septa into three distinct segments : the first
■eptnm is placed just behind the head («(), the second (ri)
about the middle of the body, separating the ovaries and
teateo. The body-cavity ia likewise separated into right
and left halves by a continuous verijcal moentery, which
iospends the gut. The alimenlaiy canal b a dmple
■traighf tube of uniform structure passing from the mouth
to the anus, which is placed ventrally and at the second
transverse septum ; the alimentary tube is ciliated and is
unprovided with glands of any Und. Tlia body'Wall is
composed of (1) an outer layer of epidermis, which secretes
the chitinous cuticle already referred to, — the thickness of
the epidermis varying from five or six cells in the region of
the head to a single layer of cells in the " fins "; (S) a deli-
cate structnteless anpporting lamella ; (3) a layer rf longi-
tudinal muscles, llieae last have a peculiar arrangement
and Btmeture : they are disposed in fonr bands, two dorsal
and two ventral, the action of which ia evidently favonr<
able to produdng the onward movementa of the creature.
The muacular fibres, which are tmnaveraely striated, are
arranged in a series of lomdbe whose dii«ctian id per-
pendicular to the longitudinal axis of the body. Projec-
tions inward of the supporting lamella bear on either aide
a single row of muscular fibres ; a similar muscular atmc-
tura ocean in the ITematoidta and in meqy OlisockmUt.
In the anterior region of the body the muscular layer is
differentiated into speciaLmuscIes for the movement of the
■etie. (4) The body-cavity ia lined l^ a delicate peritoneal
epithelium closely applied to the muscular layer of the
body-wall and to the gut. The nervous system consists
of a cerobral ganglion and a large ventral ganglion — the
two united t^ commissures which pass round the gut;
both ganglia are embedded in the epidermis. Tliia primi-
\S--r
' tive condition of the nervoni ^tem b retained In ot&M
lowly organiied worms {t.g., foly-
ffoiiiiui). The ventral ganglion '
connected with on intnt'epiden
nervous plexus which aurrounda the '
whole body. Eyee are preaent, be-
sides a number of tactile cells upon
the outer surface of the body ; aiv-
teriorly is a ring-shaped structure
(r) which is supposed to be olfac-
tory in function. The gentcative
organs consist of ovaries and testes,
which are united in the same indi-
vidual; the ovaries {tj, placed an-
terior to the testes, are furnished
with DvidnctE, which appear to ter-
Eiinate in a c«cal extremity. The
testes (An) are placed behmd the
■econd septum; thej are each for-
nished with a vas deferens t^aaing
on to the exterior and into the ,
body-eavity by a dliatod fnnneL /
For embnology, see Balfour, Com- i
parativt SwAryoloffy, vol i. p. S03.
In spit* of the dslailad kninrledge
which wa now fCMiia of tha Btraetnn
and davalopmant of tha (XM(«iMMa, the
ajitimatli: positiDn of the group nmiina
a nuttor otUia graataat nDcertainty. That ~
thav an an anhale groap la tbnm br
th^ h 1— Jiu— •- 1. ~i-tL,J.
aoTth
irodltian, by tha priniitln
■■ '— and br
among oUisr aharaclcta; in all theaa
potnla aad in otban thay ^oe with soch
OTiouUvs Amulida as Pnleiriiat and
/VMonifM. On tha othei band, thali i
£mtkiity to tha IfanaMiIia haa bsen (
dwelt upon ; the digpoiitdan of tha mnacles
ii tha lame In both groapa, and tho Oar-
diaetm have the gat anipaiided bv a donal
and vantial UMaotaiv in tfa* aama tutiioa ^"ultaa tefMt^lera
aa baa baan daacribed abovs in SagiUa ; (Boadi).
Ibe OhmlegmMa diffar, howavar, trom the st, RptadliUlnttedj-eaTlt*
ffemaMdn In tha inportant (act of their tmM«™«lr : »^ aanbnl
acgmanUtloii. On tha whole, it appsan 55fin'iMi'iMo!™S
tluE the Omlegiutlia are beat rraidad aa up^n Cat ikova la
a ipecial pb jlum eqaivalant to 10011 gronpa Sg.); ■*, nam naitlidF
u Aniulula, Plai^Mni<illut, K ' ' ' — — ' "" -'"■ — '
bat having no apedal ralatioa
laoyona £^;
InaiUawUliiiBal
^TiaJi irr, a
SAOO is a food-fltorch prepared SlTtitaSSSi (SS
from a deposit in the trunk of several ^^^^^f^ litaj^ '
palms, the principal aouroa being nidrtuiuiAAiatni
the saeo palm, Mdroxylom £u«^ii S^'-^ji',^,^
(Mart.), and if. bnw (Mart). These oMubiukdaubdUDd
palms are natives of the East Indian »»»"«'"' s^"*-
Archipelago, the sago forests being especiaUy extensive in
tha isLuid of Coram. The trees flourisn only in low m&rshy
situations, seldom attaining a height of thirty feet, with a
thick-eet trunk, They attain maturity aa Etorch-yielding
plants at the age of about fifteen years, when the stem is
go^ed with an enormous mass of spongy medullary matter,
around which is an onter rind conKiating of a hard denae
woody wall about two inches thick. When the fruit is
allowed to form anil ripen, the whole of this starchy core
disappears, leaving the stem a mere hollow shell ; and the
tree immediately after ripening ;ta fruit dien. When i^
the palnis are cut down, the stems divided into sections
and split up, and the starchy pith extracted and grated to
a powder. Ite powder ia then kneaded with water over
a strainer, through which the starch passes, leaving the
woody fibre behind. The starch eettlea in the bottom of
a trou)^ in which it is floated, and aft«r one or two
waahinp is fit for tiae by the natives for their cakta and
S A G— S A H
149
Mopa. n«t lirtndsd lor exprntetioQ b mix«d into a
pMte with watei and nibbed throngfa rioTM into tmall
gnin^ from the the of a oariandar Med and larger, wbenee
it U known aocoiding to tize ai pmrl lago, bullet aag^t
Ac A brge {KOportioa uf the la^ imported bto Emope
cornea bom Borneo^ and the increaeiag demand baa led
to a ktge ertenaoD of lago^ialm planting along the nuinby
TarioM nloM, in eddj
bat of u laTMiDr qoili^. Imout tL ,
OoBoti pelM [^rMos MoctarMn],!^ Eittol p*lB(ano(B inw),
BMt iDdian pilmt— «Bd McmrUimJhauia tai Oaiiitlma muttm.
t*o BooUi-AmnfaBB «padH. Ttia taporti ot tuo lata tbs Uoltid
Kiuadom l« 1SS4 uwutdl to Xa.lSA ewt., nlned it ZIftS,S80,
tlMwhol«<itw1udi,en*ntlng l*Mtbia30atDiii,is*nta«du<K«Biiu[
&DB tfa* Btnttt BMtkmmti.
SAGUNTIJlf, an andent eitj of Biipania Tarraco-
DenuH, vns utoated ncoi tbe mooth of the river Pallantiu
(IWncia). It vas tbe centre of a fertile district and wai
a rich trading place in early timei, bat owes its eelebri^
to the despoate reaiitance it made to Hannibal (aee toL
li p. 441). The Bomana reetond the dtr and made it a
colony; la^ writers apeak of ha fi^ lAich were esteemed
at Rmnei'md of its Mribenwan^ wbkh eigoTed a eerlaln
repntation, Tbe moat in^ortant remaina an those ot tbe
theatre.
Tbe modem Sagnnlo or Mnniedro (mnt* velem\ 18
miles b J rail from Talencia 00 (be line to Tarragona, is
now aboat 8 miles from the sea ; the p^inktion witlun
the mnnicipd bonndarie* was 638T in 1877.
SAHARA ie tbe great deeert region which stretches
Bcroee tlie continent of Africa eastwards front tbe Atlantic
for a considerable distance on both udes of the IVopio of
Oncer, and ii generallj distinguished bj aridity of soil,
absence cf running water, diToesa of atmosphere, and
comparative scarcity of vegetable and animal life. Th«
phj^vsl limits of this region are in some directiona marked
with great precision, aa in part of Uorocco aod Algeria,
where the sontheni edge of the Atlas range looks out on
what baa almost tbe appearoiv^ of a boundless sea, and
lorna, as it wera, a bold eoest-line, whose sheltered bays
and commanding promontwiea are occapied by a series of
towns and villagee — Tiigi, Figtg, Lagbouat, Jx. In other
directions tbe boundaries an vsgce, coaventional, and di>-
pnled. This is eapadaUy the case towards the south,
when tbe desert sometimes comen to a eloae as suddenly
as if it bad been cnt off with a knife, but at other times
nergea gradnally and iiregularly into Uie well-watered and
fertile lands of the Sodan (Soudan). Wbile towards the
east the valley of the Nile at Snt sight seems to afford
a natontl frontier, the choracteristiCB of what is nsually
called tbe Nubian or Aisbiao desert are so identical in
mnet respects with those of the Sahan proper that some
authorities extend this deeigaation over Uie whole country
to tbe abcoee of the Bed 8ea. The deeert, indeed, does
not end with Africa, but is prolonged eastwards tbroogh
Aiabia toirards the desert of Sind. As the Nubian region
has been described Doder'lbe headmg Nctbia (voL ivii. p.
610X attention will in the present artide be confined to
the dEaoct country west of tbe Nile vall^. Even as
Qios defined the Sahara is esttmated to have an area of
3,S6S,5C6 square miles, or nearly as much as all Enrope
minus the Scandinavian peniosnla and Iceland ; bnt, while
Enrope snppwts a population of 327,000,000, Uie Sahara
Erobobly d»» not contain more than 2,500,000,— a figure,
owevn, which is sufficiently startling to those who think
of it as an nninbabitabte expanse of sand. The sea-liks
■^ect o( certain portions of the Bahan has given rise to
""-^ *"|>Qlar misconception, and baa even affected the
i phiBsedii^ of Kieiiti^ imiea, Iiwt«d s(
Dnui t
being a bonndleea plain broken only by wave-tike moonds
of sand hardly more stable and little lesa dangHous than
the wavea of ocean, the Sahara id a region of (be moat
varied sorfaee and irregular relief, nugtog in altitude from
100 feet below to some fiOOO or 6000 or even it may be
8000 feet above the s«a-lBve[, and, bexides sand-dunes and
oassa, containing rocky vlateaus, vast tractu of ioona stones
and pebbles, ranges of hilk of the most disHimilar type^
and valleys through wliich abundant watercoorsn must
ODOB have flowed.
The culminating wnnts of the Sahara ace probably tba
iommitB of the Abaggor (Hoggar), a great monntaln
platsan, not inferior to the Alps in the area wliieh it
coven, ercaslng the Tropic of Cancer about 0' and 6* IL
long., almost midway between tlie Atlantic and the valley
of the Nile. In its central miss rise with red steep difi
two peaks, Watellen and Hikena, which Duveyrier believes
to be volconio like those of Auvergne. Tbe height of
this oonntzy has not been ascertained by direct European
obeervatioii, bnt may be gathered from the fact that
aoeording to the Tuareg the snow lies for three months
of the year, from December to llarch. To the north-
wsat, and separated from tie Atakor-'n-Aba^ar by a
wide plain, rises the Muydir plateau, lying nearly east
and west for a distance of about 200 miles, lu north-
eaatem extremity is extended towards Timawiinin by the
Irawen Mountains, which in their turn ore separated by
a narrow valley from the Tasili plateau (strictly Tuili oif
the Aqer or Asgar). This great pUteen stretdies soutii*
east for 300 miles paralJel with the Atakor-'n-Ahaggar
(from which it is separated by the Amadghor and Adaoiar
plains), and then tbe line of elevation is coatbued by low
ridges to the Tummo or War Mountain^ and eo onwards
to the hi^ilond country of TibeeU or Tu, whoee highest
point, Tnsidde, is 7880 feet above the ses-level, wbile its
sonth-eostem eminenccH gradually die away in the direction
of Wadai and Darfor (iWfur). About midway between
Tibesti and the Niger rises the isolated mountain moss of
Air or Asben, in which Dr Erwin von Bory ' discovered
the distinct volconio crator of Teginjir with a vast lava-bed
down its eaatem aide. By some this country is saaigned
to tbe Sudan, as it lies within the limit of the tropical
rains ; bat the districts farther louth have all the chantctor-
btics ot the desert. The low but extensive plateau of
Adghagh lies between Air and the Niger. Away to tho
north-east, in 'the country of Fezzim (^.v.), are the dork
mountains of Jebel es-S6da, wiiich are continued south-east
towards Enfra by the similar range of the Harqj ; and in
the extreme south-west at no great distance from the
Atlantic is the hilly country of Adior (Aderer).
Nearly all tbe rest of the Sabam consiata in the main
of undulating surfaces of rock (distinguished as hamnaiia),
vast tracts of wator-wom pebbles (lerir), and regions of
sandy dunes (variously called mnff/iler, ay or artj, iffidi
and in the east rhart), which, according to H. Fomel,
occupy about one-ninu or one-tenth ot the tot:! area.
The following is the general distribution of the dnnea.
From the Atiantic coast to the south of Cape Blanco a
broad belt extenda north-east for a diatance of about 1300
miles, with a l»eadth varying from 50 to 300 miles. This
is osually called the Igidi or Oidi, from the Berber word
for donee. Eastward it a continued to the south of
Algeria and Tunis by tbe Western Erg and the Eastern
Eig, sqiaiated by a narrow belt at Qoleo. To the eouth
of the Eastern Erg {which extends as far north as the
neighbourhood of the Lesser Syrtis) the continuity of the
sandy tract is completely broken by the HttPimada al-
Eomrtt (or Bed Bock Plateau), but to the south of this
region He the dunes of Edeyen, whidv, with slight Intec-
> AiCnt>Vt/llr&tttaM<^ ISSOb
150
SAHARA
mptiuBK. extend to Mnnolc (Moml);). To Oie sooth of
the hammads ot Jfurzuk the dune^ of tforzuk stretch
txtj Bontb-eait. Looked at in itn entinitj, this aenea of
tracts may be oalled the northern zone ; it f oriDE a kind
uf bow. with its extremities reupectively tt the Atlantio
and tha Libjao Dei<ert and its apex in the soath of Tunis.
In tiiB Boath are the Juf,> covering a vwt ana to the
■outh-eut of the middls portion of tha Igidi, another area
between the Adghagh plateau and tbe Tasili wa
and a third between Air and TibestL Awaj
in the lib^'on Deaert m a vast region of .dunes of unascer-
tained iimiti;. It must be borne in mind that the sanda
do not entirely cover the areas assigned to them in the
ordinary naps, which are of too small a acole to show the
interchange of different kinds of Buriace. In the Eastern
Eig especially die dunes lie in long lines in a north-north-
' west iiod Bouth-Boath-east direction, presenting a gradual
1 flloye to windward and an abmpt descent to leeward.
Hare they ore generally about 60 or 70 feet hi^ but in
other i)arts of the Sahara they ore said to attain a height
of npwardd of 300 feet. The true dune sand is remarkable
for the uniformity of its comnoeitioD and the geometrical
legnlority of its grains, whiii measure lees than "03937
inch.* While indiTidioally theee appear crystallinB or
reddish yellow (from the presence of iron), tliey have in
the moss a rich golden hoe. Accwding io M. Tusandier's
examination, anLnol organisms, each as the microscopic
shells of Ehiiopoda, so abundknt in sea-sand, are strik-
ingly alMent. Under the influence of tbe wind the surface
of the dunes is snlject to continoal change, but in tbe
mass tbey have attained sncb a sta.to <S comporatiTe
aqoilibriDin that their topographic distribution may be
considered as p^monent, and some of them, such as Gem
(Peak) al-Shilf and Oem Abd-al-Kader, to the south of
Qolea, have names of their own. The popular stories
about caraTons and armies being engulfed in the moving
Nonds are qnite apocryphal, but ^ere is abundant avidence
against the theory of H. Vatonue as to tha dunes having
tieen formod ut sifti. To understand their origin it is
necessary to glanoe at the general geology of tbe Baharo,
which, however, in this aspect, is only known in detail to
the south of Algeria and along the routes of the Bohlf ■ ez-
l>edition (1873-7 i, Dr Zittal) and.that of Dr Leu (ISSO).
Gnnlli^ nliich, tloag with gi^a uid mia Khists, kbdu to bs
the prsTUling rock In the highlstids of Air (Von But), coduh to
tha mrr&ce marc or leai ipomaicallj id the lieig}kboDAood of A]-
E^b uii) in the Adnr districU in the KDCb-«e«t Oii^n ud
Buci sdiiits tn praboblj tbe nuln mkterliils of the Ah«gg)ir
plMosa. TolcuiC RKki (Unit, be] form tlw moimtiln muna
of Ittul H-S&ls SDd the Hantj ; hi Air tbay bntk titrongli the
riita tad oQier todu in a veij erratic buhion, Slitei and ijonrtx-
[poMJbly mmiui, iccording to Lcaz), vhich play M gnat >
pvt In BenegamUi, app«r to the north of tlie Ssnegil, along the
tdgs of On daHTt, Ud crop out ag^ia in Adru, on tha cutem
bimen of ths Jtu, snd to the estt of 'Wad; Stu. An immense
tract tram Adrsr north-saat to the borders or Algeria iwrqs to be
MJOplod by DavMilsn and CubonUbroos focmstloiu, the cbutctai-
iltie lOMll* of whieh ftnqnsntly show on tbe surfsce ; tarthnr eait
vered Dy Cretieeoua and Qnntemary dcpoaita,
,1.. n.._i! A ^yjj; p[»te«ns(M.
)• c) the moat itiitiiiB r<satursi of Sabanm grologj. lu
.. .. _._.labeiMth8!!o«st«of thoAtknticBEdtbBEodSea,«nd
tbe are* oeenpied t? it In the Algcriir SehBrm alone bainc eqiisl
to the whole o[ fnnce. In the Algerian Sabva the CreUuoni
1 Deeert Tertiary
- .kuia oMnn, meaning tba "depreeaion,' huloog been in oae, bot
■I^MM* to be a mimomer ; the loireat point in Leu*! lODte, wbkli,
inwntr, only enMal the eaatecdotthaJof,wBil00l9eC above
theaes.
' Baa BolUad, in 3M dt L. Sx. jUL ie Frana, 1861, ud Stne
a^nHftae, 1SS1.
' CWfbK JiaubiM, Acfid. dn SatHttt.
jltogetharai
Eocene limeetonoe. rich in nommiilitse »ml oi>el-
cnliuus, nretcb aoutli and esat liom thr oosla of Siwa aniI am well
eetrx m the ditb enclosiug the 'lepnunKl oaaal eras wblcL sink
dona to the CrebiceuuB iwka. To tbe aouth of Puafreh eiwnds
a VBfll tract of Nubian landatonc.
In all parta of the Sahara tlioreiH eridonne oTdenn-Ution famed
oat on a scale of miiuual majmitmlo. The ]msent enrbca of tJM
deeert hu been einoMil to Ue proCnctcd wear and tear of tha
elements. But to deienoiue the exact method by vhich the els-
ments have dona their work baa hitherto pnveil beyonil the power
of adence. The sapeificLal oUierTei ia *t onoe 'emntod to accept
tbetberay of nchtwHiu denndalion : tiie Sahara la snil the "dried
bed of ■ sea " in even nuh tezi-bodia osi'rofesBar Hioley's F^ftia-
TrapftkandStanroTd'aCbnvmfHmtrQKWnQtIir, ThojonJ-dnne^
ths aalt affloreecaoce uk] dapoaitt. Mrathalo^occDmiKeafcsrlaiii
moJam marine moUiucs ali go to help the hw«ihesis of a dilBvial
aeo. Bat a more eiienaiTa acoQaioiance with Baharsa character-
iilica ahowB that anch a sea for the Sahara aa a Khole la impoodbla.
The denodation must probably be erulaineil aa doe tx> the combined
action of froih water a>d atnioephenc agenciee. Even at pnoent
the Sahart ie not so deititate aa baa been auppoaed of tnaii water;
Thongb rain is one of the rarest pbenomeiia of the lowlanda, Um
mounlaina on its northern border* and tbe central higUanda an
both ngions of precipitation, and disebuge thrir (nrplos watai*
bto the hollows. A elanoe at a good phyaical map of^ths Bohan
ahom in iact the akeleton uf a regular river-ajatem. From tlu
■orth side oT tba AliLkor-'n-Aha0|ar, fbr Instaooe, b^na Wady
Igharsliar, which, running nortbwarda batmen the TanU plataan
and the Irawen Uonntaine, anfiesn to lose itself fn tbe aands at
tbe Eutcra Krg, bat con be dlstinctb traced northwards fi>r
hondreda of miles. Its bod containa roUed hwinwDls of lava and
freohwater ehella [CVfixi and Flatterbii^ In a line almoot jamllel
to Wady IgharRhar Vftdj ifj» deeoenda from the pktaAi of
Tademajt, and ahowa the importance of Its encient cnrrent by deep
eronoD of the Cretaceoue rocks, in ii'hich a large number of left-
hjuid tributaries hare also left Clieir mark. Away in the &r aaat
□f the Libyan Desert Dr Zitlel diecorered stalactite
a, Wha
le of the abundant
water-enpply which filled the -wadias and hollow
Beceat diacoverice in tbe Algerian Sahara >nffi°*t that port of tbs
water circulation haa kecoa'e aiiLtemncan. Tb» itreoma from tha
Atlas which BC£m to be absorbed in tbe sands of tbe d»srt evidently
find a scries of audnrgrmuid rescrvoira or baaina capable oi being
lapped by arteaian wells over vaiT eitensive areas. As Olj'mpla-
dorus (qootad by PhoUus] mentions tbst the inhatritants of the
Sahara uesd to inake eicavotions from 100 to ISO feet deep, oat of
irlilch jeta of pure water roae in CDlumaa, it is clear that thikstot*
of matters is (bistoiically) of ancient date. Sin» ISM tbe French
engineers have carried on a series of borings which have nsaullsd
in tha fertilizing of eiteneive tnets; betiteen IBM and 1879 ICG
wells ware bored in tba province of Constantise alone. In Wody
lUr', nlilch runs for BO roila towards the aonth-weot of the
" " I water- bearing strslam Is among
lYBTVi to a dspth of KOO feet by
a kept n
The wells, varying mnch in tLeii dischsrge and "head," give ■
total of S'S cnUo metree per sHonil at an srersge laopeiamni el
JS*"! Fahr. A similar artesian lone cxiate between Heguasa and
"Wargla. Cosociions probably exist with subterranean watsr-sap-
Elies in the moontuns to tba north. Thsl in soma way the water
I the oiteeian reaerroin ie kejil aerated ii shown by the eiislenas
below ground of hebee, crabs, and freshwater mollaacs, all of wblofa
Ben ejected by tbe well called Maw in Wady Kir'. Hitherto
those lutiterranean baslna have been lerifed only 'n a compantiTely
limited area (tiie whole expanse of tha Sahara Being ccnsidered) ;
but tba same phenomeDa are probably rapcated to some extent in
other rt^uA* The oases an of coune proofo of the presence of
a itaidy supply of nndernonnd mcisture, for vegetation imder tbe
Saheraa climate is exceptionally thirstj.
Bveiytfaing considered, it may thenfore be estumed that the
desert farmerly possessed a snrlace circnlatioa of voter capabla of
aiding in the proceoses of diainlegistion, removal, and deudUon.
Since tha water disappeared other agenda) have been at iroik. Tbe
surface of tbe rocka, heated by Ibejun and suddenly chilled by
rapid radiation over night, gets fractarcd snd cramblod; elsewhere
the cliffs have been scored and the sand tbos^fomed is^atjinca
tamed by the wind info an sctivo instrun
plocea it has planed the flat rocka of tl
ice. Elsewhere it haa acorwi tie vertiL.. .. — . .. — --—
cnrioos imllationa ot glacial atriation, and helped to ondetCTt Ob
raliar or tablelike eminencaa which, under the name of ffWt or
"witnesaee," are among tha most tamilior products of liaharan
ercuon. Tbe softer qnarti rocks of the Qaaternary and Cretaeem*
la as smooth as
I A H — 8 A H
barm mad* to jidil iIm Had wUch, dnflail and dftod bf thg vind^
has tnkan on tha fimn of dunoa. Tho aliglitcat bnua i* onai'gh
taoka tba aaifiaia "oKiks" urith diut: and at tlmaa tha mini
""g*^ 0^ tl>a muU, wsxiag laoilac ami londn, UlU tha aeiaatifio
timvellar tliat tlia uotian ii not coufload lo tha anpar&cUl partic W
How iiaportaDt a [Wt tho •rimla mij pUy in tha tnliitnlMitlao of
tba li^Ur [lartivliH U probabl; abovn bjr tba donda of nd dost
irhkb waia naUneJ bf Cdiiil a* tMqMutljr abacuinit tha Atlaatio
iky botncD Otpc Vaid and tba AsNTwao eoaat^ asd irhkh hara
nmitly baon rofomd bj Dr OoMM Halknunn to tha Alrkan
Ralian, whauoa ProToaaor Tacchiul alao deiivaa tha iliiinn clouili
o( ilost obaenoJ in many parta of Italj (nimp. TeliJhatrhcf].
Bat CTan toch a rlTor-ii^tcin u that nmiaMil contbinad with all
nmcoiTablo atmoanharte agf noioa nubl otilj account for tha minor
I'hc^Dmou sf uneioB. J>r ZlCtol fa daalius i-ith tlia Libyan Dtaort
nniL* it nccnaoij to OHUuia violcut fraabirater floodi piococdEng
from ttia a-MLth, though, aa ho confoaani, thli only ahkfti tha dift-
cultj a ata;?! fnrthcr buk, la it inrolvaa an tnonnmu change at
climata. To render asch a cbanjia ot climata a probabia bjrnolbe^a
rariona recant apoctilatkiDa cumUiia i and Di Tuaobald FiKiiaruiil
Dr Oacar Fnaa a^roc In bcUarlDp llut tba ileaiccation baa markailly
inciaaaail in hiitmic timta. EruleoMi derived tnia ancient monu-
nnb eombioail vith tha ■tatameuta of Hnwlohu and Pliny aro
Md to proTo that tha alsphant, tha rhiaoceii)^ and tha cnie«di]o
■xtitnl In Horth Attioon RgioDa irbaia tlia aaTiroomant ia noir
attcrly alien, and on Oie other hand thai tho camel li a lata intro-
dnctiou. Humboldt aought to attribute th* Jeaiccatton or tba deiort
ngion at Aila and Africa to tha elTccta of tha north-aaat trade-win J ;
bat Dr leui, irho pointa Mt that in North Africa tha vind addou
Uom bo>n the norch-eaat but gcnarally (roia tha noiili or nortb-
it«at'(tha latter ofconno from tho Atlantic, in tha western paita,
but brthot eait tnin tho European rcgioni of imtipiCation), arguea
that one ot the nrinrirnl canica haa b«n the deatraction of the fomta
ID the hi^binds. The dty ninda from tha Sahara
Butom aa tha Seirooco and tha |i
Botanicall; tho Saharm ia the moetiiis-gioaiiJ e[ repi
ottho " Uoditarraneou " an J tho "Tropica 1" Soraa wbieb hara
agcil to acrofflmodati tbamaelTea to (ha peculiar climatic conditloni.
The tine dT denanation brtmen tlw tvo Boral araaa, almoat coin-
eiiliu'i in the Teat with thaTmric ot Cancer and in the aaat dipping
Boutli towanla thaniaridian of Lake Tehad.aiaigoa by far the greater
mot the area to ■■ Uedilemnean '■ infliienceL> Uni/oimil}-,
id aoit, ii
_,.. . .... coniiati mainly of
plantn with a tufty .dif itiff haUt of gionth. Tha oawa aie tha
■pedal home of tha dite-ptlni, rf which there are about 4,000,000
in the Algerian oaaea alone. In company with thia tree, without
which life in tha Sahan would b« practically impoaaible, ar« grown
applaa, pauheat onnn dtnn^ G^ papea, pomegranataa, - tc.
Doring tho moatha Dom Dacenbar to llarch wheat, barley, and
other nocthem gnin cron are ncceaafolly cnldTatad and in the
hotter aeaaon rbe, duk£n, dnira, and other tropical producta.
AIEogathar the oaaal Horn haa oonilderabla nriety; thirty-nina
apeeiaa am known fiom the En&a gmnp, torty-aight ftom the
Amila giwin.
Zoologically the Salian ia alas a dabatibta territai^, partly
Ueditemiuian, partly Tro^cal- Apart trom tha domaatic animala
(eamaU aa», kc, and Tery notkeably a blaek imei of cattle in
AdrarX the lilt of SItatn manucatacompriaea tba Jerboa, the leanek
or fox, the Jackal, the Mod rat (ARfliMMina etinu), tha hara, the
wild aaa, anil thnsapedea of antelopaL In Borkn, Air, Ac , baboona^
hyana^ and Bonntaln aheep are not nncommon. Wlthont eosnt-
taoo^ gackoa, ahinl^ tc, ot fiftaen difhrent
tnr tba ^tigt B^dib rapedilioa' of 1B7>-71j w< .uiniiu wmt
tha homal ngm, Fimim^it tiUiami, Ctofenaftia tanrtuu,
pTthaa, and nraral otbar ipadaa. The edible bog alio oscun.
Qarl»icb» rfte»r, a lUi not unlike Cmrinaiion alarilaiuu, la
toaad tn lU tha btackiah water* of north Sabai* and awarmx in tba
lake of the Siwa oada. Tha trtna-ahrimp haa baas daacribed In
the articla rxnAH.
- ladonofth
a trihet. Tha Berbcn (Tnarag o
Tnarik, ke.) oconry
appear aporadicairy . , _..
Uomcco and Algaru ; tha Ragro tribea ton
ally in the w
d itntch northwaida into
.„ — , „ I form « oompact block in
tba aaat eantial re^on uorthwiinlB and naith-eaatwuda ftam I^ka
^ Saa Laria'a chapter eo thia phenomenon.
* Comp. Derr^casBlJi, " La and da la prorlnea d'Oian," In XiA i* ta
Jht. A aiasri I*arta, ]87>.
* Ceoip, Draila, Flnrmrttrlit itir £rdi, 1884; and OoaaoD, Cam-
fUuiM fhrw AO-iiilitm, ia«I, fc«. , ,
ID of an tlia raat of tha oonntn.
roUtfcally tha Sahara balonga partlj to Horocca (Tafilat, Ac),
parti* to Algeria and ninia (ajul Ihna to Frum), and partly to the
Tnruah ampin (TripoUa, Ksypt, tt.). Fnoaa npeclally haa been
ataadily piubing aouth with tha ptiipoa* of (ormiDg a Junction
ultimately with her colony on tha 8«iegal. The auiiit ot in Jenend-
anca among tha Uobammedan populitlena haa bi:on cryiCallize'l
■nd atimnlatad bj the remarkable Gontntomily of Sidi liehammed
ban 'All «a Sennai, foandcd about 18)7, and now poaaeaiing abont
130 couTMita or aawiga (luoatly in the Saharan region), with ill
haadquartara at Jenbnb.* With thia organiiation the French hare
already coma into conRict in their aouthnaid progreaa. To eitali-
liab their influence they prcpoae tho conatrortion of a trana-Sahaitn
railway and the opening op of the region to the aouth ot Algeria
and Tnnia by tha conotracdDn of an inland eea. According to
U. Bouiiaira^ tho author and protagouist of thia achema, which if
familiarly bat deeaptlvely atyled tha "flooding of tha Sahara,"*
it 1* po^bla by proper engineering worka to create an inland aea
to tha aonth of Algeria and Tnnla with an arange depth of 73 feet
and an aiaaof 8100 Hinai* milea, a ahont fourteen time* tha lira
of tha Lake of Oauara. A Oorniitnaat eommiaaiea decided that
tha excavation ot the neceaaaiy canal would not be difficult, and
that In ap Ita of allting.np ptoceaaea, tha work would at leiat leit
1000 to ISOO TMia. IT. de Lcaeen U. Boadalre'a nriadral lop-
porter, Tiattad the dlatriL-t in IWS and reported that the caiial
woold coat flva yeaia' labonr and 1110,000,000 franca. Tba acheme,
which haa mat with paniatant hoatility on the part of U. Co»>u
and othen, la boaad on tha toUowIng Ikcta. Ilia Gulf of Gabea
iaaepanCed by a ridge 13 mOaa acroaa and lEOfaet high from Sholt
al-?ej4j, a depraaaion which ^eitenda aontb-woet Into the Shalt
Jerld, which in ita lam ia aenaTatad finm the Skott Rhana only
by a atlU narrowar ridg^ Shott Bharaa ia aacceoded weetwarda
a a aariea tj anullcr depreatiooa and beyond tlicm Ilea the Shott
!lTfr, wboaa nortb-wnt eiAl i* not lar from the town of Biikn.
'What wa know about auch ialawl aeaa aa the Caipiao and tha Aral
aaema to caat aenona doubt on tha probability ot any incnaae o(
the ralnUl in the Sahara by tha Ibrmition ot fiondairt'a aeo.
Tba eoDimatca at tba Sahain fa not loconaiderabte. Among the
more important tnde rootea are — (1) tram Uorocco to Cairo by
loMlah and Ohadantea, which ia foUowad by the pilgrim* of
Wertem Africa bonnd tor Uecra j (S) bvna Koka to lIuRak and
Tripoli*; <S)tiaB tba Sudan to Tripolia by Air and Ghat 1 (41 tram
Timbuktu to Iiaalab.QbadanH^ and TripoUa; (S) from Tlmbulitu
to Inaalah and thence to Algeria and Tonia: (S) from Timbnktu
to Uoroeca. The two great prodnda are datea and aalt Full
detaill ot tbm data trade will be fonnd in Flachar'a Du DatUlpalmt,
1S8I. na prlnelul aonrca ot anlt an tba lock-aalt dapoalta t^
the Jnf (aapecially iVndeui), tha Ukaa of Suba, and the rock-talt
and brin* of Eanr (Bilina}.
B*i,baiU« the woAa ilnwlT iiaeted, TiloBi*, VUiln <■ (ZtiKrawI, IW> ;
I>inTrlv,Ianurve4BMT4,UMi VlUikS^to-.iMHInil^ii ilti^ ir.,
im ; tamiLli SaiMTm, itn ; Ajhlh, H-mt imi Jfiiia (liyii Dm i/oHU
inSiXUMaL aSiiriMtaUtm,ttdt., Is!r*rilolbiul, "Le CrMaet «a
Salian tnta^Iim ' (Mlb leoloflcal wap ot the Ontaal lahaiaX ta »il(. iti
to Sn eM* naiai, tm ; Kodalie, Jbyert Hr i> 'mllri nJ. da CMft.
ini (aul athar raporta totbeiaiiia auttS^; Tehlhaleliet "«» Dwrti el
SAHAbASTUB, Ot SsBABimPOOB, a Britiah diatiict of
India, in the Meent division of the lieatanant-goTBmor-
ahip ot the North-Weatem ProTincei. It lies between
29' 35' and 30" 21' N. Ut., and between 77* 9' and 78" 15'
K long., and ia bounded on the N. bj the Biwilik Hills,
Bepaiating it from the district of Dehra Ddn, on the 3. by
the diatrict ot Mtaaffaroagar, on the K by the Ganges,
and on the W. b; the Jtunna. SahAranptir forms the most
northerly pixtion of the Do&b, or allavial tableland, which
stretcbea between the valleya of the Oangea and the Jnnma.
mneh forest and jnngle. Cnltivation generally in thU
{art is backward, the sorface of tho cotmtry being brokai
by wild and magnificent rames. South of this tract,
flanked on the east and west by broad alluTial plains, lies
tha Do&b, with fertile soil and good natural water-iuppl}-.
Thia portion of tha ootmtiy is diTidad into parallel tracts
< 8aa IM In DuTeyrlcr'a pqwr, Bvlt. dtlaSocdi Oiogr., 1884.
■ In thia conneilon it ia enou^ to mectlan Ur llackeule'a BchMn*
Ibr floating the Weatera Sahai* j aaa FlMdiny SiUiam, i877, and
AiTnaUli, "Th* Waatant Sahara," In ~
ntdtJtv ScAam
J. Mag., ISTft
152
S A H — S A I
hj nunerons streams from tbe SiwAliLi, whils the Eastern
JmnDft and the Oangea Caiub, which iraTerse the district
from north to wovth and issue from its north-irsit and
DOTth-east comers, cover the district with a network of
irrigation channels. The only large rivers are the Ganges,
vhich enters SahitanpliT ISO miles from its source, b;
a well-maiked gorge formed in the rock at Hardw&r;
and the Jumna, which debouches into the plain about
123 miles from its source, at a place called Ehiia.
The district has abundant meant) of communication : the
Sind, Punjab, and Delhi Railway traverses it for a dis-
tance of 42 miles, with stations at Deobond, Bahiranpur,
-and SarsiwK; and it has numerous roads, both metalled
and unmetalled. The climate of SahAranpur is that of
the Korth-Weatem Frovincee in general ; at one season it
is tropical, at another partially European. Its average
annual rainfall is about 37 inches. Wild animals are
plentiful, including the tiger, leopard, wild ca^ lynx,
hyKoa, and wolf.
By tba emma af ISSl tha poinilat
B7S,B11 (530,437 HI
««r« M3,27S Hindu
Fiva b»nu bad wpulntioai sicesdlnK 10>000 sseh, luuaflly, SAsis-
urrna (S-v,). Uudwir Union (38.1M), Daobud (13,118), Knrici
(18,8181 ind OsiiAh {ia,08ia Bdrid (ZoOfkn) b a town of con-
tUmblt importsnce, litnslsd in W Mf a' S. lit and 77* 56' tO'
E. long. Il ia tha haidijasrtan of ths Qun Ckul workahopa
and iran-fonnilr^, with tb* Thonuson Civil SnginMriiig Collc^,
for tha inatmctioa of natiTaa and othaia in practical anginaarinff ;
it containa aba an «>c«Ueat matewolo^cal obaarratorj. Hara-
vii municipality, vhioh liaa IS milaa nortli^Ht of Sahiraapar
town, on tbi right bank of the OaU|[M, ia tha moat ftaqaantad of
all Hindu I^aoaa of pilgrinuga, and is Urgalv vmi Ibr tba bathing
foititalL Svat; twalfth yaar, when Jnpitar la in Aijnarina, a gnat
tail or kambh-vUla ia hald, which actncts sn i"""""— nmnliar ei
pBapla ; aa many aa S,000,000 attaaded in ] B82.
Of a total ana of SSSl wjoare milas 1150 an enltlvatad and
8S1 ara onltiTable waata. Careal* form tha principal ptodocta.
Tha ohiaf spring crops an wheat, barlay, pnlaaa, and oil-aaada, and
ths *tsi>lcsof tba lain uro^ariricskiosr. Mi's, and vagetaUea; tha
onltivationofmttoBsiiduidigaiadMicsiTiadon, tha Uttar in much
gnater qnsnUtiai ainea tha intmdtutioii of oanal irrigation haa
readand its ont-tun Im jprecarions thsn bnualj. Tm oommai-
aial importanca of thsdiabiot dmnda mattly oD ita TSW matniala.
It maoubctures broad^elotlw jewalloiy, aad swaatmeata; anumg tha
artlclta prodacad at tha Bdrki workahiKia ai* atnm-anginss, pumpa,
printing preesai, lathes, and mathemaocal InalnmMuta. Tha gr«i
nvanDsor8ahiiaiipiu!nlBSS-S4aiiio<uited to£]71,H0, of lAioh
the land-tai contribntsd £118, M7.
Dnring tha latar years of the Uognl em^ra Bahiianjinr was
the acana of much Mmit and aaSaring on account of the perpetnal
nida of the Sikhi, bat in 1786 tha dlatiict nndar OhnlXm Kidir
enjoyed comnantln Irani] oillity. On hie death tha oonntt? Ml
into tlie bindt of the Uahrattaa, but it wa* for a tima occnpied bf
tha adTOQturer Qeorge Thames nnti] hie death in 1801. It na
aflarwarde oTsmin 1^ Sikhi and Hahrattaa, remaining waotloaUy
fat tlie bande of the fomer nntil their Anal defeat In Novambar
1804, when it puaad nndet Brltlah mla. SaTaral dletnrbanna
aobBaquentlT Cook place among tha native chieft ; hnt ftom 18E1
to 1857 nothing occDFTed to diatorb the peace of tha dietriot Tba
aiatiuj in thii part was eoon qoellad.
SAHAfiANFtTB, principal t«WD and administrative
headquartera of the above district, ii situated in 29* 56'
16" N. Ut. and 77* gS' 16" E. Ions., on a small stream
(the Damaula Nadi) in an <^>eo levU conntiy. Its height
above the sea is over 900 feet. The town poeBesses a &ne
botanic garden, whero early experiments were made in tea
and cinchona cultnie. Amongst its buildings are an old
Bohilla fort, used aa a eonrt-honse, and a handsome Mo-
hammedan moaqae. A considerable trade is carried on in
grain, sugar, molasses, and country cloth. The population
m 1881 was 69,194 (31,606 males and 37,688 females).
SAIDA. Bee Sukin.
SAIGA. See Aktxlopb, voL il p. 103.
SAIQON, the capital of French Cochin China, occupiee
an area of lOao acres, on the right bank of the Baigon
river or Don-nai (one of the itceami that inosculate with
tlu dellaie brudMs of th« M»4ong>, aboot SO miles from
the (Thtna ftea. In 188i it was connected by- rul with
Ujrtho, S7 uiilei> south-weet on one of the branches of the
Me-kong, with which it had obtained direct water-oommunL
cation in 1677 by the opening of the Canal de Cho-gon.
The present city ha:- 1-
been practically created
nnce 1861, and its fine
streets, boulevards,
squares, and public
buildings make it one
of the most attractive
towns in the East, as
it was well planned
and the plan not un-
worthily carried out
governor's palace
adel (coet 12,000,000
francs) with a grand ^">- 1. — Hap o[ aalgon Diatrict.
facade, a cathedral (1877; Mat 3,500,000 francs), ■ pAlaee
of justice (1883), a chamber of commerce, a large miiitArj
hospital, municipal gardens, and botanical gardens with
collections of wild beasts. Among the edueatioiial insti-
tntioos are the OoU6ge Chaaselonp-lAuhat and tha Col-
lege d'Adran, the latter in memoiy of Bishop Kqueaax
de Behaigne, whose tomb is in the vicinity <i tha town.
There is a large arsenal with upwards of 100 Enropeaui
employ^ and a special establishment for the artillerj
widi machine-ahope and foimdriee, A floating-dock was
conetracted in 1868; a much larger one (cost 3,400,000
franca) sank in 1880-83 at its first trial and became a
wreck. The popnlatiou ol Baigon in 1881 wo 13,34^
The Europeans, eidnsive of the troops, numbered 0017
96S (913 French). The Chinese element was the
strongest and next came the Anamite. Tba lanni-
cipali^ consists of fifteen members, of whom four an
Anamit«a, the rest, includmg the mayor, being FnndL
As a commercial centre Sugon is one of the principal
towns in the colony, but most of the trade is really dime at
Cholon, 4milesoff on the Arroyo Chinois and Kaob-lo-gmn,
bnt connected with Saigon by a steam tiamiwr. nioa^
it has its own local government and ofBdals, Cholon is
practically part of the capital. C3iinesa esiigiants from
Bien-hoa were iU fonnders in 1778, and tlw Ghinen still
form half of its population and almost monopoUie its
trade. In 1881 it had 39,936 in- r - -
habitanU (83 Europeans). Wide
streets have been opened np throngb
its original complexity of lanes and
substantial qnays constmcted for
miles along the Arroyo. Afinegianite-
paved ma^et stands in the heart of
the town. Rice is the great staple
of the Sugon-Chobn trade, finding
purchasers mainly at Eong-Eong
Java, and the Fhilippinea. Other
articles are black pepper, gamboge,
and bocoa-nut oil. Jn 1883 8,648,343 *"
piculs of rice, worth more than "* *■
£2,000,000, were exported. In 1884, leaving ont tba
Hessageriea Haritimes, 60S vessels (668,077 tons), of which
239 (253,871 tons) were British, cleared from Saigoo.
Fig. 2 shows the relative positions of Sa'gon and Singap<»«.
Saigon waa the netive capital of Lower Cochin China and tba
reaidcDce of the goramor of the eonthern raoiincea. In ISM <t
waa fortlBed for tha amperor Ois Long bv Colonel OlUviar. Tht
French under Admiral ffiganlt da Oeoonfilv es^red It fai I8H,
SAIL
1«3
aUt, BAZLCLOTH, BAILMAKINa. A nU U a
abMt of OHiTM (or other nuterul of the raqoiaite flezi-
biU^ and Btrength) bj the actioB dl tlta wind on which,
wlMd ipimd oat oc Bitended, a T«B(i ii moved throtigh
th« water. Sails are mpported and extended by meaiit
el mast^ ;acd«k gaSi^ booma, bowsprit — all tecAnkallj
t«nD«d"Biian'' — andataTior ilanting ra>ea. In thafint
e^Mrimeat* for inpeUing vbowI* br aula tlie leaat com-
plicated form, that of a idagle eqiWe nil eteeted on a
■fai^ Buwt, WW no doubt ad^rted. 3^ the anadrangnlar
the triangular nil mold eooa lie added : and nn^ nib
<rf both uiaae forme are known to have been need at Teiy
earlv perioda. BnbaequentJy the ti^wxifonB and tr>|«»-
■oidal aaU* also eanie into nae. Aa veaaeU inereaaad in
aii^ theml^ requinng a gneMr anriaoe of oanvu to impel
them, it became ■mjr to nae not onlv more aaila bnt
atao BQ iDcreaaed nomber o( maata : and ue uunbw and
diapoaition of the aeveral kiudaof nib ooold be almoet
indefinitelf-raried aooording to theideaeof naTintoca, the
aerrioes required of the Teieda, the plaoee in miich the;
were emptq^ed, and the dn of the cnwe. Thna a great
Tarie^ 01 rig natoral^ anee. I«amiig out of aocosni the
main noodeecript st;^ adopted m the can li boat* and
HaaD enft, all modem TMaeb mtcj, tor gneiml pnipoaea,
beeoiBderadaabdoii^og to one w other ot theioUowing
ntegoriee — entter, a^iooner, thieemarted tclwoiMr brig-
antine^ brig, barqoetiiK^ barque, or fntl aqnare-tigged ahip;
but the cardinal diatinctian ia that b; wfaidk th«7 are
the next abaft or onreel the middte of the ahip
maiD-raaat, and the third or that naareat the eteni aa the
miaaa»«ia«t. EmIl meat oonnata of aental aeetioa^ that
attached to the bnD being called the lower or atanrting-
oaat, the next ahora that the totNiuMt, the next tbe top-
nllattt-maat, above whkh may iln a pole or nnl^iiaet
On eacA of theee maata, and at right aoglea win i^ ia a
ward dejMminated " eonare," iriuch ia hnng (alnng) bj the
middle and balaneed. Hiaee yaida are named aooonling
to their Bitaatk)l^ thoae plaeed o;< the fore and main
etanding-maata behig called Te^ectirely the fore and main
loweT'jvda, that on the musen the croeajact-jard; the
Tarda on the top«iMte an caJled the tej^eail-Twda, thoae
on the t^«iUant4aaeta the top-gellaDt-jarda, and thoae
on the nml-maeta the roTal-TardB. ^ each of then
yards a ei^ is bail or attaehet^ lakins ita name from the
yard: thu the principal aail upon ue for»lowtr-jaid ia
called Ae foi»coaiM oi for»nJ ; the next above, npon
the fbre-top-aaityard, ie the f or»b^>-Bail ; abore which,
upon tiie rare-top^aUant-yaid, is the f ore-top^allant-nil ;
and ahffTe al^ npon the twerojol-jMd, ia the fore-royGl
In Uke manner on the maiiwnaat we hare the maitHwarae
or maloni^ nain-to^eail, naia-top^gellanteail, and Ow
main^royaL Smilar ^tpeUationa are pna to thoee on
the mixien-maflt : in large merchantdupa, by meona of a
iky4ail-pda^ a sail teemed "aky-seruer" ia eometimes aet
above the iCTala, bat not ao framiently aa fonnerly. Such
3uare nita can be plaoad at rigtit angles to the direction
the keel of the ahip, a pomtion given to them when
gmag bctoe the wind ; the aame sails can also, by means
of Imeei^ be plaeed obliquely to tha keel with a aide wind,
, _. gab (mit«lanced) m on stays, alao
othne beyond the extcemitieB of the ahip, extended prin-
dpellj fay means of the bowqtri^ which, in addition to
tapportii^ the foremast by a stay, alao mpptnts the jib
and flying-Jil^borans for extending the nili ttill firther
ter exteoding the aflweail an the
-boom *-^^ the gaff Baila »Tt*nHwl q^
on stays are called "fore^utdaft," and
are geikenJIy or apfooziniately in a vertdcal plane passiug
thtooe^ the keel ; but a cutain d^;ree irf obliqoity can
be giTen them by seeing off the sheet or eft lower emiMr
o{ the nil A ship fitted as above deecribed wonid be
termed " Bquare-rigged," the square aaila predominating
both in impartance and in number. A aqoan-rigged line-
of-battle ahip would be eiqtpliad with Uw foUowiug d»-
Fon-aaaiMaT *~n till
an-top-aaiL
, top-gallant-sall.
Saeaaiffb.
ly-aali-br* McraHMll).
apul
up-gallinL
In the for»«nd«h-rig the principal aaib an of eouiw
fot^andaft ; a entter (veaael with one meat) lAsn fully
"~'~"^ carries the foUowdng ^-
Bqiiaie«dl(aatllj
Bogm-uHun^dL
Otff-t<9-«iL
Ihe seretal sides of a nil have separate namee applied
to them, tite upper part or side being known sa the " head,'
the lower pert aa the "foot"; the aides in general are called
"leeehea, but the weather or side edge where tha wind
enten the aail, (rf any bat a sqw««ail, ia called the " ioB,"
and the other edge the "efterJeech." Ilie two top conen
an " earin0^'' bit the top corner of a jib, tc (triangular,
one comer only), is the " BecJ ' ; the two bottom eonien
are in genenl "dews"; and the weather clew of a fore'
aod-aftnil or of a coarse while set ia the " tack."
Hie relative importance of particular aaila in the working
of a ahip varies acooiding to conditions of wnlher, and ia
a matter for the judgment of the officw in command. Thn
f<dlowing tabl<s however, shows apfroximately what nib
are commonly set " by the wind," presuming that the eflbek
on the ahip u reMion to her stahili^ is safe . —
Li^aira
Light vindi...
Light brMiee
llodnst* bnov
Fnih bmui
Uodonta pica .
Fnah^lta ...
BwvygJu ...
( Cmuaia, top-aaiI% top-nllut-aaUi, n7*I
( tfvika, jib, fljing.jib, and all light wil
Koysli «i>d Hjing-Jib taken in, In s na m;
to two nth In t£a top-aila.
SLDgle-rMliBd top-aul), and top-pjlaiit-iul
ID much ■>, two iMh In th« tnp will 1
Doabla-mToI top-mlli to tnbla-ntlU to]
•kill, ntlei Mfinkn, ud Jib.
Ckse-nahd top-nil*. leclM ceunw, ts tal
isg in ipanksr. Jib, Son and ulam to]
BmM etumaM, cla»-ir«r«d main- top- Hi
fbn-itef-«itL minan-by-Hil, to takug i
Qoat-nebi] mun.top-iul, atona ataj-iall
to itonn itsj-aaili or cloae-nglsd m^-toj
IM
SAIL
To tiw eunftl obserrar aula when apiMd and in vm
uip««r manly u ao many large pieces c^ cloth ; but some
U them are of ver; cotudderable uie : it ia not at all Tm-
UBiul in full aqaare- rigged ahipa for a main -course or
main-Bail to contain 1000 jards of eanvaa (24 inches
^rids), and a main-topeail necu'lj aa much, — the single anit
for inch a veasel compriaing upwards of 10,000 jards.
Counea and top-aaila are made redocibie ; in the British
nary they are reduced by me«ns of reefs (two in coursee,
Jour in top-aaila), each fitted with spilling, alab, and reef
linae and beckst, and toggles on the jifird (reef-points
tbronghont being dow obsolete). In the mercbknt service
donhle top-aails — upper and lower — are much in nse on
acconnt of faandineaa in reducing sail ; there U also " patent
reefing gear," anch aa Cunningham's, which ^owa reefing
to be done aa much aa poasible from deck. The dimenaions
of maata and yards, quantity of canvas or area of aail,
centre of gravity of each sail (from which the moment of
sail ia obtained and compared with the moment of stability),
centre ot efibrt of the sails, and other important calcula-
tions necessary in relation to the body of the vessel are
made by conatructc^s and naval aichiteiTts.
Scaidoth ia obtwnable from any deecription of GVotu
material capable of bebg woven into cloth, having sufficient
oontpoctaeaa and closeness of tertnrt^ and pcaaeeaing the
requiaite atrength for sustiuning the heavy pressure which
aaita often have to bear in severe weather. Several de-
scriptions C& fitee might be enumerated which would to a
certain extent serve for ttdlcloth bat for the abeence of
qnality of endurance or lenstance ; hemp has been and is
now oecaaJonoUy naed, as also a mixttu^ of cotton and
linen yam, or cotton only, — eepectolly in America ; but
in the United Kingdom Fux (^.v.) is the usnal staple
material, since, when well monuiocturod, it poeseasee the
qnalidicti of flexibility and lightness, and, what ia still more
important the element of strength in a very Urge debtee.
.u. "Sot. 7 and e fn 40 jaidi in Isngth, b absat as bllows, via.,
Ka. 1, Mlb; No. 1, 41 ; No. I, 40 ; No. i, W; Mo. 8, » ; Ho.
7. a; ; No. 8, 26 Bl Tb« KBieht of eMh bolt ot n«Tow«
proportion. Tlu mrp (or Ua^tbviaB) should conairt
jpQrtiom of oldin luutaiched jam, via. : —
of tie foUoT
The followtng pointi may be niftarded ss of prinsry < ,
fbr seouring caucloth or canvis of a nperior qoalitT and dutability.
ThatormTlsi is ---■ " «- ->^ -'-'-' '^-' -
alatdv DseuaaiT Uiat thf "warp"
ut wholly fnnn uia "loogs," bs Irea
' diort flai, wall drMsed or bedJed,
avanly bhu and pioperly twiitsd.
lald bs twios bcoled with th* bort
Both warp and watt yani shonlil
ADMriaan pot and pearl ailus, and oaraiouj kdu udkuu^iiuj whuicu
and dsanaed. Ho a^ chlorids of lime or other pnparation of
oUariiH^ nw any dalatarlmia nbctaMe, ihaolil ba naad in as J atage
of tha pnota, othanriss the istsfirity ot the fibie will moat ^b-
aUybaintaifsndwith: tb> only advantan got is that Uu cloth
looks mneh wUtar, which for yachts and pIsMars-boats is peniapa
dninbla, but fbr naval sad mnoastilo osas is not at ill necsmiy.
Tha yama an Int boilad a loflldaDt langth ot time In a aalntion
ot me best Amsrlsan potash, in fixed pnportioDa of adus, gieen
yarn, and w*t«r, tbsn ndll-waaked (beatiiw prooias), and aabsa-
qoaaitlj cantaUy waidud In a coasidarabts abeam of dear nmnliw
water, and uraaa, Tbn are i^ain boiled lor a soDdMlt leng£
ot tliaa in a solirnDB oT American paaH a^M& in doe ptopwtlona
of ashes, grsen yam, and wats^ then carefullr rinaed, or nshed
In a dear atnam otwalec, canMlv dried, and fteqnently diaken
la the conns of drying, '■0 that the Bbna of the flax may be equally
■tntehid. Thaae repeated boilings, Hn., har* tlie eObct of cteaiu-
iag, bluafMna aoftadng, and lerooving all vegetable impurities
vluoh m^ bebai^iug about ; no ataidi, tallow, paste, or weaver's
of wr diacriiitiop aho^d be used, otiierwlBe the fabric
ta, mostly 24 inches wid^ but also
mi noniuaiia ftaoaantlv still len i , _,
better will
w if allowed to remain damp for si
, ^^-jsnytime. Seil-
doth is made in boha, mostly 24 inches wide, but also IB ijicha
wide, and- fiw yaehtiiig porpoaua fteqoently atill leea wide,
tha groond thai the namnrer the doth the flattar and bette
the aaU stand to its woA. It is generailr nude of eight ~
aoaiitiss In respect of thickneea, numbend 1 to B vaiiii.
Eaavier Eombaa—Soa. I, S, and S~-«re used fbr atoim
■aHa that have to do heavy work, the remaining nombi
U^UOdseeriptionBorMU. The wei|dit oteach"batt of
Inches wide, from Noa 1 to S induiive fbr SS ysids in 1
Ihair It^i eeHs ■!■> In two paiie, apper and lower at np trp will, an
snugaBsnt wbloh makn It •aalai to ladnce or •bortes sail ; tlie]rtl»
hare a aiKan ooona (aoes.l»k), and eanr leniat lUd •Uy-i^ ^
W to ««tdi (vwy breath o( wlodT
As a role about 41
avengd content of fiu
to tbe weavinK, that ths teitun be etmck luBciectlv cIoM, ana
the eelngei be iTenlj and well nunoEiijtnred ; what Is tanned a
■lack selvage (that ie, one selTan longer than the other} is not
only awlcHud (be the —'1"'°'^" nut nnsatiafactory boUi in wear
ind appearance, the elacK aide iboniaR itself pnckered. Saildoth
made upon thaie cdn^iitiDnB ie very likclj to be a good article ;
testa, howBTor, can be applied, neneially to stripa 1 iseh wide
tiom Noe. 1 to 0 inclnelte, snd 11 inch wide from Boa. 7 and S.
Weft snd wBip (S4 fnohea in length) in each caae are plaoed in a
amsll testing machine, which his a diid plsta with a apnng nnder-
neatb ; vicee are attached to ffrip tbe etnp^ one vice to tbe apring,
Uie other in conneiioa with i long Miew with a handle ; by tumins
ttiis handle the vicai
a until the strip h
The
It ii not at all nnnaual, howimr, to find aome sailcloth stand a
attain con^etablj la exeeta of thie. Freedom fttaa blacks, twiet
and spun of the yam, stifTaiiing, calendering, ka. , can be discovered
by ebservstioD uid a nugnlfying gUa^ ezceidTe drtaaing by a llttis
Uwtnio of iodine.
$aUmaking is a rery old branch of industry in
with tbe navy and commerce, and it still cont
important notwithstanding the enormous extent to whkli
steam is now employed in navigation.
The oparatians of tbe sailauks may be siKted as (bllowa. Hie
dimensions of mast and yaida and tiSi plan bung anpfdisd, ths
mjuter nilmaker is enabled to determine ths dimensions of each
ssil — after dne allowance for attetehiug — ia temis of dotlks and
depth in yardi — it a square ssH, the niunber of dotba in tha head,
number in the foo^ and the daMh in nida ; it a Ibra-and.aft u
(tibngnlai), the number of doUu in the foo^ snd the depth in
yards of the Inff or stay and of leech or after-lee^ ; Italon-and*
aft sail (trapadnm (brm)| the nomber of clothe In the head, nnmber
in foot,aiKl the depth of mast or toff and of altar-leech. Thas
particalars obtaine<C there la got est what fa tschnleally termed a
"castiofc" whjob simply means ths shsp^ length, ftc, et aadi In-
dJTidnal cloth in fbe eall. Theas Egnne an nvan to the cottar,
who proceeds to cut out the ssU oloth by doth mmnaeentfra eider,
■mmberin* tham 1, 3, 1; 4, te ; the •aries of clotha thns cnt cut
are handed over to the wothman, wlio Jdna them together by eata-
fnlly made double flat seams, sawn with twine apecially aswred
Ita the purpose, with about ISO stitchea in a yard. In the heavy
a^ the seam is about in inch and a half in width and in the
British nsvy stack or stitched in the middle of the Beam ^ 0**
additional atieagth ; the Beams in the lighter sails are about an
inch wide. Tha wtiole of tbe dotbs are then bn:n(d>t buethCT.
sod spread out, and tbe tabling (or hemming ao to ^taklb lnnad
in and finished offwilli about 71 atitoliea to a yard.
ing pieces or "lining" are affixed where conddsred
courses and top^sails such pieces as reef-lianda, middle-bandsi not-
bands, Itech-llniogs, bonfrlino cloths: in top-saila (only) a top-
lining or brim ; in other and ll^iter mIIb audi piece* a* masHlnlnp
clew and haad. tack, and comer places ; holsl, SBCh a* hea^ nsC
■lay (lutF), maat, ctinRie, bunt-lme, fee, an alao mad* when n-
qoiiBd, a grommet ot Una ot anltable sin beinf wmksd in tban In
pravent theli being cat throDgiL Th* next ding to be doDe late
secnie the edges of tbe aail, — an important oparatieii, ss ■MK$
depends upon this whether the sail will stand well sad do its
work effidutlr. Bolt-rope, a compaiatively lOlt laid npe maoa
(ram the finer hemp yam (Italian) Is uaed for thia porpose ; In tb*
British navy it nm^ from 1 inch (increamg in sIm by quartM
incheaWp toS ini^hcs incluaire, the ela selected loreadi parlv
a lail be^ig determined by the amonat of strain it will bar* ta
bear ; it is then neatly aewn on with roping twine spedallyim-
pand, tbe aeedle and twine paaaing between and dear tf avMy
two ttranda of tha rope iu roping. "Wben dack sail baa to be
taken In, it Is the pnu^c* to leave it to tha Jodanwt «( tllf nU*
S A I — S A I
155
of k tH^toai£ito>n»aU«wtatowlHititwfllbT«'ta Uu
vliBi in Di^ ud wUM o> tlw itntelk muk it off in nidt, u tlo
' ill ntiy tba
tlM •>)■• of tiM ail l> judi, w that 1i* briuiiu vu n
pthw In niFii« Iha ■!! will stud feat. In tSa BriUili
lugaC dw of rofi* nm on to i mU li fl iiKlu* i rimt t)
n* gaod A> feat and clow nipd of tap«ula uhI eoonii, baiag
«onn«4 ponaUod (tlut 1^ >«nnd Tsoad wiUi itripo of iroro can
tHnd, and Mmd ont with nu wn ; thi dot of Uu xU i* thui
MonndtaitbjbiiiigDIuJadtn. whan two riHaafboit-ropoaaid
thimbU in
, *■ at tha
tb«r in nqaind ajthor
■band of bMVi«{«, uoNl; hiTlng a adruistd iron t
than w a nntaotiin. in thn itgBk w)wa mcmtbij,
csnui^ lidoa or loaclu^ naot or luff ; tb«r in nqai
o«tals port! of tb* nil wion In hh^ F«ca«vl-afl Hill, nch u
niankn% off-vQ^ and itonn tnr-MUi, an ndand in liio hj mS-
polMi DU>d* of (tout tin* U to 10 ft), «TOW-bo«>d in tlu middle a
hols brfag pianad thiriii^h amy mu> ; ow-btlf of tho soiDt U
janod tlmigk and tha onwlM aiwa flmlf to Iha idl ; Uia
nnmte of nia dapaudi npui tha iin of tha n>L and ths nm an
pluad pcnUal to lh« foot Tko wlh now flniAcd in nipaet of
maUw-JiaTa to ha Ittod, t^ ^ Moh r^M haia to ha aMachod
toMoEof thai ai an itiiiwmrjtm ptvpat wm; •achMpaanuj
ba (oamaril; iWad aa (bllowi : — haad^oaiinn tobandL naf-aai-
inn naf-linoi, aoillins and dah UlM ntf-uokla pendant, reef-
pwil% bnt-lina firidlaa bant-Baa togpaik bBnt-bsokat, laaoh-Una
atrana anj togdoa, teggba in «!■•% diaat lapaa, dowB-haal, ladnp,
head and Mav/taik-i^a (|aff top-aail), taok '"^'"j. *'*~""ii itic^
...wi.- aadoikata
Tha iMa and appUaneaa of a aaHiaalnr an not my nnnHrana % —
a beoeh abaot 7 liat long and 1 1 inchaa Ugh, apoa which ha ^ to
parfonn tlu anate partof hk work ; inhiii fiii aaaiiilliii mil iiiiiliii,
to 11 tha hand. aadTaf hUa Unad with laathtfT^ prapvlT
tampand Mag liad in it harin* chamWa to catnfi tha baad of
tha iiaailV thao lOtiBg aa a tlunibla in Jbniiig it tbrongfa tha
nmal parta of oanvaa in mmlinL and balnaau tha itnuda and
Qun^ tha oanna In Rising ; naadlw tt nriooa liaa, tliat be
aiiaiiiliia liiiiaa tha —'"— * : and Ad^ ^lolu avrin^ and itntch-
w kaiN^ nUibar, ■aS-bool^ bobUn for twUl^ and ■nndn- anall
aUKTOIH (OMbrjdU* tHim) k » Icnr-^nniing per-
ominl plant wiu & woody I«ot«tock, iritmce proofod ths
vrarad whli fliw bnira ud bearmime]
long pinnate Imto^ tlie MRmeDU <d iridcb. va elliptic
^e flowara an bKne la aoM pjnnudal or eyliiMbical
doattti on tha end of kn^ itelka. Eadi Hover ia tixMt
half an beii In kiuti irita knoecdato ealjx4eeth ^urtar
tlmi the corolla, wEich latter ia p^ulioaaeeoiia, pink, with
daikar itripea (d the nme ooloor. The indehiaoant poda
or lagnmei are flkttened from aide to lidc^ wmU«d, aonie-
what ■i^»«haped and created, and contain aaly a uncle
Med. In Great Bntaia tlie plant ia a natire of Uie
ealoweooB dwtricta of the aoathccn oonnliee, bat elsewhere
it ia eonsideced aa an escwe from coltnation. It ia
natna thtoo^wat tha whole u oentral Eoiopa and Sberiaj
bvt U doei not teem to hare bean cnllintad in Qreat
fikitam tin 1651, when it waa inttodnced from Ftaoce iv
Read nandai^ ita Ftmek nsma being retained. It ia
cnnm aa » fdiage [daiit, beiiw c^eeiaUy well adapted for
on lilMetone anl^ It hac aboat the Mme nnfaitrTe nine
aa loEenieh and ia neliMiml ice milch cattle ami tot ihmp
in winter, ^inelur ^walx in high taima o( ila value for
thb lattn pmpoae.
SAIHT. Th« Naw Teitaniflnt wriUra haremnch to any
•Inat the ralatiaaa of tbe "tainta" <aa membere of At
nrioM dmrdhaa are xmuHj atUed) with thcot lini
i regard
nt/tha
bear linDgeoO'
on their dntiea
departed Ir
my deAuta pmdma in the way of oonBumotatiiia ai^
■broeatiin had nning i^ whidi -*" — '-"- »— ' '--
tonal a^warion m tta anfli
tha Ea««n and of tha WMt«
ndMM. — Under FunaaL Bim, Hairae, ke., alhuiaa baa
afaeady bam aade to the anoient cnatom <A Tinting the
toaba td deewwed relatirea at eartaiB period* awl there
" originated hj tradition,
d by faith," Tertullian (De
Caa., n) mentjons "the
Witb oertain uodiiicati'me, thu
irl; Christians ; thsy cele-
or near uie grmve, laid oblaticiiui
on the altar ia the name of the departed, and in the pre-
oonunimion prayer made supplication foe the peace of vitii
aonla. Hios among tha ntagea " c
strengtbeoed Ly custom, obe^Ved b
Cor. Mil., 3; camp. De £xA. Caa., U) n
ofleruigs we make for tbe dead as often as the annivonaiy
comes round" (oomp. &^CEinc^ p. 139). If aacb com-
memoiatioQ waa usual in domestic cirdea, it-woe little likely
to be omitted by Chtiatiau congregations in the cue of
thoae who had " spoken to them the word of Ood," leut
of :J1 when the bishop had also bean, aa waa lo often the
cas^ a mar^. In the Tery InstnictiTB document of the
2d century, preaerred by Ehuebius (ff. £ iv. IS), In
which the martyrdom of Foltcjlkf (q.v.) is describa^ we
are told that the follower* of the martyr, having taken up
the bone^ deposited them "where It was proper that they
ihonld be." " Then also, a» f ar aa we can, the Lord will
grant us to aaaemble and celebrate the natal day of bta
martyrdom in joy and ekdneas." Qyprian (Sp., 36) eX'
borta that the days of death of tboaa who baTe died in
priacm dioold be carefully poted for the purpose of celebrat-
ing their memoty annually ; and all the earliest extant
litOTgiea contain commcmoratioiiB of the departed. The
names to be commemorated were written on the diptycbs
(see Dipftcb). (2) /hkkh^vm.— It is not diiBcult to under-
stand how a belief In tbeafGcacyo! the prayers of departed
sainla-'eqkedaUy of martyra — abBuld at an earlj data have
taken a practieal ionn. Uar^n ware bdisved to paas into
the itnmnrli^toi presence of Ood, and the simpoeed nature
of their daimi there ia not dimly indicated in the docu-
ment already referred tix which once and again qMaka of
Polycarp as "a noble victim salectdd from the flock," "a
rich and acceptable saoifice to Ood." The readers of
<>prian are faroiliar with the use made of the interceaiion
of living "martyrs" by the lapsed to secure their reeon-
dliattoa with the dunch; but podlive evidence of tha intar-
eeaaionof the dead bdng invoked for obtaining favour with
Ood is not ftsthccnnlng so soon, fohi^ Ltdea^ Cyril
of Jeruaalem (& 3M)iauieeailiestaiitbor to make eipieea
alhuiaB to the praedoa (Cat MftL, v. 9} : " we commemo-
rate . . . patriMchs, prrahets, apostles, martyrs, . , . that
God at theii {ftavera ana interceasionit (wpm^loM) would
reeaiva oor ■application*.'' In the litotgie^ however, the
oUation still continned to be offered " for all martyra and
confesBors" as well aa for others and Aoguatine was the
flrst to deolara (Ii^etmit^ Tract. 84) that "at the table
of the Lonl wa do not cocnrnmotata mar^rs In the same
way that we do othen who reat in peace so aa to pray for
thmn, bnt raiJher that thsy may piay for id that w« may
follow In their footsteps."
TW tlw adHOtraant danlapmant of Oatholle pcactlca aaa tha
vaibea ehnnh hutoiiM ; oompn also CuroHiunoM, LrTAjrr,
iKiaaWokanir.ka. PrariaDa t« tha B> ~
Ilka poljUw^ "na Tridanttna doetrliH
'~ along with Ctariat an to ba hononnd
, 'prafOT tot iii,uid that their roUoi ara
to be Toaaratod." All tba duudua of tha BafonnatioB, on the
ethor bund, whfla in ona finm or another oommomoiatiog " all thy
aamnl* dnaitad tbi* bft in tii7 &f th ukl har," pnctkally concDT
in ths lasting of the Cksrdt a pt^titi {Att. uiL;, that "tlia
Bonddi doetiina conoaming . . . inTocaUon r' —:-•-" -■- ■■- '^— •
ST ALBANS, a d^ monidpal borough, and market
town of Hertfordshire^ En^and, is fineW aituated on an
eminence above the river Ver, on the mam line of the Mid-
land Baifway and on laanchee of the London and North-
and the Great Northern lina*t about 24 milea
156
S A I — S A t
Dortb-wect 4^ Loddon And S mika wart tnm HatflokL
The ftbbef or nthedrol chnreb, in tome nspeeta om of
tbe moel nnuvkable eeclwiMtical bvildmgi in En^uid,
U described below. Bt Hkhftel'a ehxaisb. to the «wt tt
tbe town, within the site of the ancient Tembuninii^ WM
original!? oonitraeted in tbe 10th centorj pturtl? out of the
rains of the town. Considarable portioiu erf the Nonnail
boildins remain ; the obnrch conbuna tbe tomb of Lord
CbanceOor Baoon. 8t Stq^ien's chnrch, dating from the
same pmiod, oontnins tome good examples <d Norman
areUtectnieL St Peter's chnrch hat been in grest part
rebnUt, but the nara of Earljr Perpendicular remains.
The (restored) clock-honso In the maAet-pUee was built
bj one of tha abbots in the rMgn of Heni7 vm. There is
an Edward TL grammar-schooL The principal modem
butldingB are the com exchange, the eonrt-hooM, the
prison, the pnblic baths, and the pnblio litnT?. lliere
are a nnmber of charities and benafolent institntions, in-
ckding the hospital and dispensarr, and the ahnshonses
fotmded in 1734 bj Sarah dnchess of Marlboroo^. The
principal indnstrias are tbe manofactore of silk and sliaw-
S' iting. There are also breweriea and Ironfoandries.
e popnlation of the manicipal borough (araa, 9BT acres,
extended in 1879) in 1881 was 10,931; the population of
tbe pame area in 1871 was estimated at 8239.
Not onlj ii ths oathsdial " *. tsit-book oT nwdianl nehiUc-
tura Enim its '-)g''—l"fl to its •mling," but it " ii still in itjli^
BUlarU, ud. fMlDg tb^ ons smong DOT gnat chuKha whlsh mint
thoroDgnly csrria DS bsok to Okt P**ff^«^ ud svsn to svlier
(Isys' (Fratman). Sbortlr tHa thscieeation of Britain's proto-
DMrtTT, Bt Albant-pcobsblrln lot, s ehmch was boilt on tha ipot.
Is 7M Ob of UsKis. vbopnftsMd to hsrs dimmrBl ths nlla
of Um msr^-t, fMuded in h& hoBODi « MensstsiT ftr SsnsdictlBn,
wUeh bscsms cm of ths licbast ssd most iiDHitsiit honaas of tbit
oidat hi tha UnsdoD. Tba abbota Kaldisd and
_. ••!.- .A.I. — 'TiTbagaa to brM'
siiunln matsikl
ucction ns ddsjwi tOI tha tims •( Tllllsm tha ConqncrDr, when
Tnl of Caen, * nlatiTa of ArchUdon laofrsno, was in 1077
s{ipsinted aMot Csnlarbni? as tnllt or I^nftanc wsa alnost s
rapradiicUaa of St BtapbmX Oasn ; tot Ruil, wblla adopting tlia
asms nu)d«l Im 8t AIdui^ baUt it to an imnMoaalj lamr acsls.
Tb* ehnich was conaacratM In 1111^ but Lad baan Bnlmwl aoms
jasnbefbn. Of tba origljial IToiiBsn dinrA tha principal portiani
now nmainiDg an tba aaalan bafa ef the nan, tba tomr, and Iba
tnnisptL bat tba main ootUna* of tba blUlding an still thoaa
plumed hj Paul. It it that ooa of the ntoat importaat spadmCTia
portiaiu at peculiarly ban and atan. Ilia wastatn lowars woe
polled down in tha ISth oontqrr. ikboot 11» Robert da Ooham
repaired and beautified tba aailr ahiina and labullt tha oliapter-
liauae and part of the doiatar ( bat noUiing of liia work nov rn-
maini aicept piit al a yttj Mantiftil doorwaj latalj diacoTered.
Abbot John da Cells (llSMSll) pnllad down tba voat frant and
portliiai of tlia north and acQth ualaa " '' ~~ "
w and aniiobed ftirai.
and bia wprfc vi
aodbatvaan tha iniildls of tha 13th and^ebeglnniiigof tha lith
cntnrj- a ■nctoaiy, anta-chapcl, and ladj ch^l wera added, all
ramarkaUj Bna spaFiaMtia of tlw anbiteetan of tha psriod. In
intS two araat (ulnmns en tha sonth Me anddanlj HU, whioh
naoaaaitatad tha rabnfldiug of En baya of tba aoDth slda sod tba
Ronnan doialan. Tariona incoogrnona addltlona wars made
during the PerpandicDlar peiiod, sM mock dsmaga was also dona
during tha diaaolution of tlw abbajra to tba Bnar wo(k In tha in-
lattarl; to a much m»tn aitaot ssdar Sir Edmund Beckatt Ita
Htraina leugtli aal£da ia ESO laet, wUoh ia axcaaded bv Winobiator
ly e feet. The Dave (281 leet) ia the longaat Oothlo nara in the
world and snwo'li that of Viniiheatar br about iO feat Tba tangth
of tba tranaepts b 17S feet iodde. The nonaatle baOdln^ bars
all dlasppaarad with tba aiuptlon of tiis great gateway.
To tha aoutb-waat of tha preaent oitj of Bt Albans sloodjba
ancient FimtoiBiaw, ona of
h grtv Bp anmnd Bt Albans chi
osDdetdjdaatnTsdtTthsSszaDsbstawsaBWtadltaab Dnlag
Tat TyWa losomotioa tba nonairtaj was kiiligiHy As tamw
paopKtsanrofwhemwsnamcBtadiBoaaHaqnanea AtStAlbana
ftaliucastriatia rnia daltatad OB 31at ■» IMS, their Isadv, Iha
duka of BoiBasat,baing klilad, and nannTL taken priaonar; thata
too Qnaan Uttfaiat debated tba aarl of Varwiok on 17th Tabraaiy
Un. Dnlinx tha dril wan tha town waa ganiaouad tor the
pBiUamant. On s printing fnm, one of tba aarUast in tha Un*-
dom. Bet up In the a^ihay tba Int Kn^h tianilation of tha BlhU
waa prlntad. A dkarMr of iBcorponUon wm gvintsd to tba town
by Edward TL It tetaiBad two mtoiben to nrllanHiit «ntil
iisi, whan it was dlAsnohiaad. It bsoamss Uahop'a sas In 1817.
Hldidsa Bnakspear, tha only Ei^lah paps (Adttan IT.), waa
bnnuHrBt AUu^ and was abctad Itsshbotin lltT.
iral SJtd ill kflUrallDa, IB8L
ST ALBAKS, a township and village of (Im United
States, tho capital of Franklin connty, Termont, at the
jnoction of several diriuons of the Central Terrmmt
Railroad. Tha Tillage lies on an elevated pitdn about 3
miles east of Lake ChampUin, and baa its ptiDcipal
bnildin^ arranged round a public park. Besides being
the seat of the extennre workshops of the railroad com-
panj, St Albans Is the great cheeee and bntter market of
the eastern States. In the neighbonrliood, which ia cele-
brated for the beantj of ita scenery, are qnarriea of calico
stone and variegated marble. The population of the town-
ship was 18U in 1860, 3637 in 1860, 70U in 1870, and
7193 in 1860. Being only 14 miles distant from the
Canadian frontier, the Tillage has more than onoa been
the scene of political disturhaneeat In 1866 a band of
1200 Fenians, on their letuni from a fruitleas inTaaion of
Canada, were disarmed th^ by the United States troops.
ST AUAin)-LE8-EAUX, a town of France in the
department of Nord, at the Junction of the Elnon with
the Bcarpe (a left-hand tribntai7 of the Scheldt), 71 miles
by rail nnth-weat of VsleDciennes and 29 sonUt-esst
of Lille. It has numerous industrial establishments, lint
is better known from the mineral waters in the ricinity.
llion^ from Boman coins found in the mod it is en-
dent that these most hsTn been frequented during tbe
Roman period, it is only two centuriea since they begsn
to be again turned to acconot. Ilere ar« four distinct
■pringB ; the water (7B* Fahr.) contains snlphatM of lime
aad sulphnr, and deposits white gelatinous threads with-
out amell or taste. Hie black mod, which eonataatly
gives out snlpbnretted hydrogen, is composed of three
strata — (1) a clayey peat, (3) clay, and (3) a composition
of nlicB, carbonate of lime, oxide of iron, and alonuBium.
Numeions small sulphurous springs oon through the lowest
stratum and, soaldng those above, form a slough in which
patients sufferiug from rbenraatiain, gou^ and certain
affections of liver and skin remain for hours st a time.
The population in 18S1 was 7B81 (commune^ 11,184).
fit Amand owes ita name to 8C Amand, Uibop of Tongna, wbs
(oandad a moaaateiy hern in tba reign of DagolHrt. Tba '
'■■ ■ bytha Mormana inaaaandhyth- ■-•"
» abbey
iainaBU
1. Tba abbey baa been deatroyed, with tba
my fluked l<y two octacond pavflloBi, bow
' '" ~id of the abbey duuxk tltaa la-
Ligns, C
in iDDi by tho Frencfa
eieeptlon of tlie gatai
occupied by muuiti^ol uuiL«i
maiua only tEia Ijth-oentury la
BADfT-AMANT. Haso Antoiki Gikud, Ban* m
(1694-1661), tha most eminent of a curious faacdkanalian
school of poets ia France during the 17th centnry, was
bom at Rouen in the year 1694. Tory UttJe is known (rf
his family eioept that it was of some podtion at Battel^
and the myaterions deaeripijon which all his French bio-
gtaphen give of his father — thst ha was a ailor "qid
conunanda pendant 93 ana nn escadre ds la rona £liia-
beth" — does not greatly assist an T^ngUA i—ng'"'*'"*'
tt appean that Saint-Amaat hinaelf haunted tartma and
S A I — S A I
187
otlM* rMOrti <d gt,y ucifl^ a good deal during bi« 7011th
ud BUtcdiood, that ha attached himoBlf at diffarent timca
(o diflismU graat noblamsa — B«ti (the doke, not the cai-
diaal), Cri^m, Eareoort, Ac — that he lav aome militarr
(terrice, and aojounied at different tiuea in Italy, in England
(a aoioam -which proroked from him a violent poetical
attack on the conntry, only printed within the last thirty
jeara), in Poland (where he held a court appointment for
two jeara), and elsewhere. But details on all thew points
are boUi few and vague. Baint-Amant'i later jean were
apent in France; and ha died at Paha in 1661.
Sunt-AnuDt bu laft > act bcouidinbls badi of poetry u
Tvioia in wijie u Herrick't. incl eiLhibituig ■ oecided po«tia]
bcolty, hudlT It all united by rdnation. Of ona elu of hii
Boatiy thaohltfBwaiuwBt ittlM JfMx Sayti, poblbhad in lass.
nHuthoT call! this by tlia odd titli of " idylls btoiiqiH"i bnt
it ia to all iutdnti uiJ porpoau - ^ ■« • • ^
ii not bj lay mowii wit>-"* "'
fnit a Saint-Aouif t -
h vigaar utd a
■ gnat nrM* of nbjsct*. Th« bMtof ths* tn Buebuuliu,
IDS aft.qiiotad la Dtiautit being ods of the moct nmuliible
coDririikr poem* of ila kiod. AU throogb hii vork fluhei of
itrm^th ud tra* poatinl fmiginitisn occar; bnt b* wu nnly
hippj in ha ehoic* of nltjscti, and hli emntini it eoiutuitly
miind by waat of polish ud fonn.
■nm nuduil adlUcn <^r BUnt-AauBL villi IIHl, BstM Ae., [1 Uit in Uu
- BiUlotMqsi Banrinu ' bj H. 0. L Unt (I KlLrFHU, MM).
ST ANDREWS, a city, royal bui^ umTenity town,
and Mi^iort of Scotland, in the ooonty of Fife, il situated
OQ a bay of the Qennan Ocean and on a branch oE the
North Britiah Railway, 9 mike east of Cupar and 11
•oath-aoDth«aat of Dundee. It oceupiea a platform oE
wndatone rock about IK> feet in height, running east and
weet and presenting to the sea a precipitous wall, which
has been much encroached on by its action cithin recent
years. The principal streets (North Street, Market Street,
and South Street) direrge from the cathedral and nm east
and west, and Queen Street nma south from the centre of
Sooth Street Man; new honses and villas have been
Flu ot 8t Audnwt
recently erected towards the south, north, a:
The
prosperity of the city depends primarily on its educational
institutions, eapeciiUIy the nniveraity. The golf links,
which ar« considered the beat in Scotland, and sea-bathing
attract many residents and risitora. In the IGth century
St Andrews was one of the most important ports north
of tile Forth, and is sud to have numbered 14,000 inha-
bitants ; but it fell into decay after the Civil War, and,
although it has much increased in the present century, its
tnda has sot revived to any extent. The harbour, pro-
tected by a pier 630 feet in length, affords entrance to
TOMsls of 100 toos burden. The principal imports are
wood and ooals and the principal exports agricultural pro-
duce. The herring and de^-aca fisliiiig U carried on
by about ITO fishermen. The eridences of antiquity in
the dwelling-bouses are comparatively few. The city was
never surrounded by walls, but had several gates, of which
that called the West Port still remains. The moot pro-
minent ruins are those of the cathedral and the castle (see
below). Among die modern public buildtngii ore the town-
haU (1898) in the Scottish baronial style, the go![ club-
house, the Gibson and fever hospitals, and the recreation
ball (1884). The population of Bt Andrews in 1801 wa*
only 3263, but by 1881 it had nearly donbled, being 6406.
The parliamentary burgh in 1681 numbered 64S8.
Tbe eatbnlrU ori^init*! putlj in tfae prioiy ef CanoDi Regolsr
.»„j_i .„ ,1.. _,.i. — . „r .1.. . — , by Bithop Robert (llSi-llSJ).
._ ,...L ---itofT, jtsta tbst in
lA tfut FODeidenblfl
Usitiaa, who wrote in the end of
bis time hidb ot Ihe buiidin^ v
remaine of othgn uin^J , but nearly ill tracahsTe now dinppeand,
witk the exception of portion* of the abbey wall aad llie anhmjs,
now known aa the *' Fends,'* forming the main antrauca from the
city. The wall is abont thrH-qnarten of a mile Ions and bean
tunet* at laturrala. The cathedral waa toonded bj Bishop Amohl
(llSfl-lie2), to ispplymors ample accommodation for the canona
and for the calcbrit'on of the wonhip of tha >» than na afforded
by the chnrch of St Kiwulua. Of thia older building in the Roman-
escjue etjle, probably dating from the IQth nntuiy, there muain
the aqnare tuwer, 108 feet in height, and the thoir, (^ very dlmlna-
tire proportion*. On a plan of the Uma i. lUO a ohanee. appiiars
beyond, and on eeala a^ed to the city and college charter* there
are repreaanta tiona of other buildings attached. Tha ealhadral whicb
iucceeded the cliunh of St Bi«nlua ia npnaantad in full outline
in the plan of the town of 1B30. It na coimtmcted in the torn
ot a Lalia cmsa, tha total length of the boilding iniida tha wall*
being 35S feel, the lengtb of the nare 200. of th^ choir and lateral
tialea Bl, and of Ihe lady chapel at the eaal*ru.eitrBmitT 60. The
width at the tnnaapta na IM feet and of tha nave and choir 81.
According to fordun the building waa founded in IIGR; but baton
the coniecratioD taking place in tha time of Biabop I^mbartiw
[1297-1923) in 1318, when the ceremony waa wilnaaaed by Robert
the Bruca. WbnB entire il hail, beaideaacentnl lower, aii tumt^
tretnity rialDg to a height oT 100 feet itill nmain. The building
waa partly destroyed by flre in 1378, and the rcatormtjon and further
embelliahmeat were completed in 1440. It wu stripped of Ita altars
and image* in Hit by the magiBtrateii aud inhatatanta of tha city.
It la bc^ered that aboDl the end of the ISth century tha centnl
tower gmt way, carrying with it the north waU. Since then Urge
Dortiona of the mini hare been taken amy far building purpoaee,
id nothing waa dona to pnaerre them till 1630. The principal
' ' ig, partly Norman and partly Early EDgliab,
tr part of the so
are the eaatern and weatern gables, the f
wall of the nave, and the weitem wall 11 loe eouui iraoaepi.
Cloaely connected with the fortunaa ot the calhednl an those of
the caatie, the pictuns<^ue ruin* of which are dtuated about ISO
yarda north-west of tha cathadtal, on a rocky promontory now
much worn away by the ««l It i* *uppoaed to hare been erected
by Bishop Roger about the beginning of tho ISlh eantury as an
episcopal residence, ind waa ittongly fortified. II waa freqnently
taken by the Encluh, and after it had been captured by the Bcot-
lish regent in 133G-37 waa deatroyed lest it should blf into thair
hand*. Toward] the closo of the century it w>i rebuilt by Bishep
Trail in the form of a mauive fortiBcatloo with a moat on tha
■oulh and west sides. Jauie* I. amnt aome of bis aaily ysan
within it nnder the can ot Bishop Wardlsw, and it is lupposed to
.._ „ tin
: of the gsle, and ahorlly alterwanle be waa murdorsd withia
' ■ ' droom by a party of RrformBn. Tho caatie was taken
nspttatat* by the French, among the priaonars captured
Knox. Some yeara afterwardj it wa* repaired by Anh-
lilton, bat in a leia mauire and lubstaDtial form. It
fallen into anch dierepair that the town council onleraa
pier at the harbour. The principal
outh wall eneloaing saquars *
irth-west tower, the kitchen
the bottle dungeon
Tha town church, fomierly the church of the Holy Trinity, w«s
originsay handed in 1112 by Bishop Target Tb* early boilding
wa* B beantiful Norman stmctur^ bnt at the does of tha IStE
century the wholi^ with tha eiception of little elae than the Iqnan
towBT and ipirs, waa n-meUd in a plain snd nngsinly atyla.
Within tha church Kdoi pnacbad the aaimiM which led to th*
■tripping of the csthedrsl and the dastnotun ef the DmtB^k
S A I — S A I
MtMj fgondtd >boat IISO by BUum KMOcdy ban diwiiiHand,
■mpt tha mU. nw chncn of 8t llTf on Um rode anctad b;
th* CnBdM* ti nppond to ban alood on the UJj'i Cnig now
coTHod by tha m t ud the loDnditioiu o[ uathor, du dnlicatsd
to tbe Tirgin. to tb* wat of tba birbour irsre diuawred ia 1860,
giring tho hll oatliiu of th* araanil-pUD of the building
Tba nninaitj wu laMnUy ft dsrelopnumt of th« "Kbooli"
vMcb «N« ia uMinc* u srl; w ths bsglnning of tha !2th
nntaiy, and mn gudorsd by ctrt«ln "nntu *ud Eud*" pi^sble
to thorn from Uods In tha Deigbbourbood. Ita Immadlata origin
vu doe to 1 (ocietr Ibrmed u 1110 hj Ijwnnca of Lin^om,
abbot ol Senna, Richud Comnll, archJaaooD of Lotbian, Williiun
8t«ph*n, afCanrardi archbiflhop of Dunblana, and a few othem, for
the Inginiisiion of all wl'O rhoaa to attend their iRturai. A charter
was gnnted in 1*11 by Biahop Wanllav, irho ittractwi tha IDO«
leannd man ia Scotland ■> profaacon, and bulls vera obtained
from tba pope in 111ft confinntng the charter and eonatitoting it a
itiitfiutit gtitraU at uniTanitf. Tho lactam were Jelirered in
farkiaa farti of the tawD ontil 1430, whan a buElding called tho
" prdagogT " to tba Faeqtty of Art* wu gnmiad br the foaodac
of the nnivenitT. 8t Salrator'a College waa fonntfed and richly
•ndowwl by Biidiop Rennadj In 1410; twalva yean later it waa
grantod the power to eouferdegnaa in theology and pbiloaophy, and
by tha and of tha century waa regarded ae a conetituBnt part of ths
mlnnitT. In lEIl Uia nnlrars^ raccired a Further addition by
tba fboudaUon of St Leonard'! Oolle^ie by Prior John BepbDm
and Arehbiihop AJeiacdar Stuart on the aita oT bnildingi which
-* — "■ re need aa a ho*tdtal for pilgriaiB. '- "
nart nominaUy "^
„ nd aonaiad to it
Turret ; but ita utoal erection into ■ collage did not take plac*
OitU 1B8T. By a boU obtained tttm PaolllL It vaa dadicatad
to tha Bliwad Virgin Uary of tba Annmptian. Tba outline of
tho anciant atnietnis fa proemd, but the gHurtl character of the
hiildingi haa been mnch altaisd b* TarioDi natotition*. Tboy
larm two lidea of a qDadrmn^e, the bVary and piindpal'l niidanoe
bring on tha norlli and the lactora-roomi and old dining-hal! on
the w«at Tho nniTanlty library, which now {ncladei tha older
collen libraries, waa fonnded about tha middle of tha 17th caatnry,
rabnilc in 17St, and ImpnTed in 1S29. The lower bait in the older
part of the hnQdin? haa b«ei] osed aa a prOTincial meeting-placa
for tha Scottiih parliament. When tba canilltution of the coll«es
was Temodclleil in 19!9 St Uarj'a waa Bet apart to tbaologj ; and
'"■'■'■ d 8l Leonard were formed
The coUoge chipel ia In
„ ... 1 lita of BtSalfator'aCol-
lega, bat the old bolldings have been remcred. with tha eicapUon
of the Mllen cbapel, now need aa the nDtrenity chapel and the
pariah church of St Leonard's, a flna Ootluc atmcCure contuning
an alahoralo tomb of Bishop Kennedy ; the entrance gateway with
tha aqaare clock tower riaing to a haiffht of Hi feat; and tha
janitor's houje, with agmo class-rooma afcua. Tha modem bnild-
tug, in the Eliiabcthaa style, forming Iwondeaof aqnadraogle, waa
trrclcd between the years 1827 and 1B<7, The Ua<&aa Colfige wa«
founded and andoned by Dr Andrew BalL It is attended by abont
700 pnpila. Tliera are also several large boarding and day achoola,
St Andrews (tea Scotluid) is said to have been made a Insbopria
in tha Bth century, end whon iu SOS the Hctiah and Scottish
Chorchea wtrs anited tba primacy waa transferred to it from Dun-
keld. Its bishops being henceforth known aa bishop* of Alban.
Tnrffot, who wu appginted in 1109, waa th* Hnt bishop who really
filled tho sea. It becama an archbishopric during Ihs primacy of
Patrick Crahani(l<gS-7aj. This ceased in 1638. It was created a
roya! burgh by Darid 1. in II24. Th* St Andr*w* district of
burghs ratnnii on* niamber to tba Houia of Commona
SritltiMau In srirflawl.' fn 'Pnc. ivt. Avi,, &a., 'isei«; auuna «r et
AzKi™«sb)rIo™i(l»ll)«MlHa»mpM»); BkaiM, CfJllcicodsuJ. p. F.H.)
ST ASAPH, a city and partiamenUry botongh ot
Korth WoJm, in the cminty ot Flint, ia situated on an
eminence in tha Vale of Clwyd, near the junction of the
C\yrji and Bwy, about 6 miles south-«)uth-eaat of Ehyl
and C north-aorlh-we«t of Denbigh, It ie aomewhat jire-
giilariy built and has an antique appearance. On the
brow of the hill u an encampment, SruH-j/- Wylai, anppoaed
to have been occupied by the Boinan forces under Suetonius
Faulinua. According to tradition the cathedral occupies
the site of a chnrch and monastery founded b; St Kenti-
goni abmit 660, whan Iw fled from Sttatbdjde. It «m
od^mlly calM Uan-Elwr, tba cfantdi «a tlw Etwj. It
ii tuinHaia whMlier tbe fint bishop waa Eentigen) or
Aaa{di, to whom Keotigem committod the charge erf the
chnrch and monastery when he tetttraed to ScoUand. n*
ancient wooden structure was burnt down bj tbe Engliih
in 1245; and a«ain in 1378 the Mune fate befell tba
building. A thml edifice waa in great part destroyed
during the wan of Owen Qlendower in 1402. Hie
greater part of the preeent btiilding was constraeted hf
Bishop Redman about 1480 ; the choir and chancel imdw>
went restoration from the designs of Sir Gilbert Beott in
1867-68, and the nave in 1S7S, when a new roof wu
added It is one of the amaUest cathedrals in Britain,
its total length being 183 feet, while tha breadth acroaa
the traiiaepta ia 1 08 feet It ii a plain cruciform stracture,
chieflj' Decorated, but with some Early English portion^
with an embattled tower, 97 feet in height, rising fram
the intereectioD of tbe nave and the transept. In tha aonlb
transept there ie a library of nearly SOOO Tolnmae, inchid'
ing some rare and valuable booha. The bishop'a ptJace is a
comparatively modem stnictnre. Tbe town has a grammar-
school {1882}, county court offices, the union workhooas,
and almabousea. The poptilation of the borough (arei^
US5 acres) in 1881 was 1901 and of the pariah 3177.
BT AUOUSTIXE, a city of the United States, capital of
St John'* couQ^, Florida, haa the distinctioii of beug the
oldest city in tbe States built by Europeans, and has re-
cently become a popoUr winter watering-place. By rail
it is 36 miles eouUi-east from Jacksonville. It stands on a
narrow sandy peninsula, cot more than 13 feet above the bbs
formed by die Matanms and San Sebastian rivers, and is
separated from the ocean bf the northern end of Anastaaia
Uand. The streets are ver; narrow, the principal thorough-
fares being only 13 or IS feet wide, and the balconies of
the old houses often project ao aa almost to meet overhead.
Along the sea-front for nearly a mile extends a granite-
coped sea-wall (1837-43), which forms a fine promenade.
At its northern end etanda the old fort of San Marco (now
Fort Harion), a well-preserved specimen of Bpaniah military
architectare (finished 1756), with moat and outworks,
walla 31 feet high, bastions at the comers, heavy casemate^
dungeons, and subterranean passages. It is in the form
of a trapezinm, and covers about 4 acres. Ulce most of
the Spanish buildings, it is constructed of coqnina, a curious
shelly conglomerate from Anaslaaia Island, which waa
easily qnatried, bat grew very hard on exposure to tha
atmosphere. The eaue material was used for paving the
streets, which were thus kept extremely dean and firm.
At the southern end of the sea-wall is the old FranciKan
monastery, now used as United States barracks. Of the
Spanish irall which ran across the peninsula and defended
tha city on the north side there only remains the so-called
city gate. In the centre of St Augustine is the Plata de
la CoDsUtucion, which takes its name from the monomeat
in tbe middle, erected in 1812 in memory of the Liberal
Spanish Coiutitation. On ttiia square stand the cathedral
(1793), with a Moorish belfry, the old governor^ palace,
now njsed as a poet-office and public library, and an Episco-
pal church in modem Gothic Other buildings of note in
the town are the convent of St Mary and the convent of
the sisters of St Joseph. Modem villas and hotels have
recently been erected in various parts. Palmetto straw
goods are largely manufactured in St Augiutine, tbe
palmetto being one of the cbotacteristio featuraa ot the
surrounding Undscape, to which orange and lemon trees
alao contribute. The climate is remarkably eqnable, tbe
mean temperature for winter being CS', and for the other
seasons 68*, 60*, and 71* respectively. Frosts seldom
occur, though that of 1835 killed many of the orange-
S A I — 8 A 1
■ 1b IBII.
trMk !■ IWO tb to4d popnktioB of die eitjr ms
S393, bat in winter Mrthani vikitMi awell tbe number to
7000 cr 8000.
H*HBdadi ArilM vriTad oT tba eout irf FlocUkw Ua An«t
(St AigBrtbw'adajJlHl, udMewdiagij )Mnn UuBUMof that
MiAt to tin city wldcli bvahortlf 4fl*rinrdi nnndtd. Hn Bnt ut
n to Bttkck tb* Pnneh attluuBt «D 8t Joki'i linr, Ukd two
jnn Utw tbs Fnooh ntoliat^ oa St jLiv»li>* (■« FlobiDji,
ToLix.*4lhuidKiunLi), Id 15M Dcik* kttwkid ud nlmndaail
tba toira, >Dil Ibroi^ioat lb* 17tb catorf it ft^tMntl; loAitd
tnm tb« nick ot UdiU* pinti^ ud tli« EnotUb nttin of Boath
CuolinaaniiaeargU. Occn]^ bjtha Bril
it nitiutd; jmmJ to lb* United ""
Ciril Wu it c&ugwl budi thna tima.
ST BUtTHOLOHBW, or Bi BABTBduMT, k Fnadi
nbuKtirf tbeWeet Ixliei, in tbauchtpeUgooftbe AatiUee,
is Bitnated in 17* D5' 3S" M. kL ud 63* W 1S~ W. bog.,
IDS milei nwth-DOrtb-WMt of QoMUonp^ ot which, poll-
tioU;, it is ft d«pendenc7. In farm it ia rttj icn^okr
nnd the mr&e« ia noontunou. The toil, in ipite of a
•earcitj of mMstora, ii not nnfertil* ; txti in eome of the
Tsllaja tba growing of vegetable* U an imporluit indiutrj.
Banana^ caaaia, tamarioda, and naaafraa are exported.
In ntodem tiniM une and Imd orca have been found b the
island, bat tba^ are not wo^ed. Boefca and shaliows
maka 8t Bartholomew difficult of koceo^ and ita port (La
CardnageX tboo^ Mfa dnring the Kreatar part of the yMT,
ia Mp^ile of receiving only the largM claaa of ooaiting
Teaenk Ttw diief town ia Onstavia, ami the port. The
popolatioa was 3943 in 18S3.
St ButbaloDnr, ocent>l«d bj tbi FrMcb la 1MB, was o*d«i to
8v«daiial7U; bat it wu mlond to Jnac* bj tbs tnatv ogud
»t FuiL Angnit IBIT, witb tlw Mt appniTal ot tba iubiblUDtL
who bad feiuJnKi I^tvch in lunuga uid auuiDcn. ITniTtnu
nCnga na latrodnnd la ISM ui3 tUnrj aboliAad in 1848.
8T BRIEUC, a town of France, ehef-liea of the depart-
ment of CUea dn Nok^ 395 miles weat of Faria by the
nilwaj from Brett, *t the jnnctioD of a branch to Vannet
hy Pootivy. It atande 390 feet above the aea, between 1
and S miles frmn the Engliih Cbannal, where l^tgu^ on
the left bank of the Oonet, serves as its seaport. About
800 reaaeh, with an aggr^ate of 37,600 tona. «jSr or
dear per annum ; the local shipownen Ukt part opeci-
ally in the Newfoundland and Iceland Baheriea. Bt Brieuc
is an old town with a eoasidentble niunber of enriona
house*. The principal articles of trade are grain, flax,
hemp^ Tegetableii boney, cider, butter, and eggs, which are
dasp^ched to England, and fiah and game, which are sent
in eonudetable qnaatitiea to Paria. At the fain in bjgone
daya the Breton women aold their hair fur trilling stuns.
Noiaeriea of some siie eiist at St BricQC, and in the neigh-
booihood are quarries of bine granite^ giring employment
to 300 workman. St Brieoo is the seat of a bishopric in
the province of BeniKa, and bas a cathedral dating from
the I3th eentary, bnt partiaUj rebuilt in the 18th, and
eztansively restmed recently. The tombs of the bisbopa,
the modem but delicately carved organ-loft, the Uqieatrie*^
and the atained-glaat window* deserve mention. The old
moiiMtsrj of the Otpnehin* is ooeapied by the civil hos-
pilaL Tbe monastery of the Oordelien oontains the lyc^
a libnry of 30,000 vtdnroe^ and * museum of arduBology
and nataual history, and Uw convent ot tbe Ursulines has
been tumed into barracks, Tht epnoopal palaeet the pre-
fecture and the town-house wete fonneriy pnvate mansions,
a das of (dd buildings liUdt is steadily being tednoed in
nnmbec by the opening ot new atreets. A cdosaal image
of tha Virgin looln down upon the town, and the Dugnea.
din boalevnrd, aa tbe dte of the ramparts, has a statue
of that hera. Tb* popaUkn in 1881 wh H,86B (com-
mmia 17,833).
ai?tr«3r^ sttncted a
la IWl nvagad ^ tba iduin, asd in 1616 ini
ofwhkb ao ttaea masw. BMwmd I«»um1 I7M tl
Brittaof wmnl tfmn nat at St Briaas, asd daring tfaa Baign
of TaRor Cluauii ud Plna carricU an > ratblni conflict wilh
ST CATHAHlNES, a dty und port of cDtry ff
Ontario, Canada, and the capital of Lincoln .county, \*
sitoated 12 mile* north-west of Niagara Falls and 3h
south of Toronto (by water), on the Welland Canst and
the Grand Trunk and Welland branch of the Qrand Tnink
Bailway. It U cctebialed for its artesian mineral wells,
and coDtuos a convent and a marine hospitaL The mann-
factnre of flour ha* long been a staple industry, and the
abundant irater-power is also utilized in cotton-mills,
machine-shops, agricultural implement works, d:c. In-
corporated as a town in 1849, St Catharines had in 1861
a population of 6284, in 1871 of 7664, and in 1881 of
9631. A city charter wa* granted in 1875.
ST CHAMOND, a manufacturing town of France, in
the department of Loire, 7} miles east^north^ast of St
flieone, at the conSnence of the Janon with the Qier (an
affluent of the Ehone), and on the railway from Bt £tienno
to LyonL Beside* working a considerable nomber of
coal-mine*, St Chamond employ* twdre mills in Ihe rilk
manufacture, and from 12,000 to 15,000 looms (mostly
driven by hydraulic machinery) in lace-meking, and baa a
variety of o^w manufacture*. The ponulation wu 14,149
blSSL
8t Chsmond, fonndad la tb* 71b eanttur b7 St Knuemosd or
CbuBODd, arebbiibop of Lyoni, bacsma tba ebief tmrn of ths
Jurat, ■ little priadpdity rornwd bv tba vslley of tba Oier. Silk-
millinK m bitradncsd in tba town k tba niddla of tba Iflth oan-
tnry by Qajotti, s naCira of Bolonu, uul paiTactod tovudi tfae
baginBuig of till IBth bf Hichird Cbunboral. Rimains an foond
at 8( Chaiaond of ■ Rooian aqneilnct, wblcb conrejtd ths witan
of tba Jum slang tha vallay M tb* Ohr to Lyona.
ST CHARLES, a city of the United States, the county
seat ol Bt CSiarlea connty, Missouri, is situated on the
left or north bank ot the Missouri 20 miln from its
month, and 23 from St Louia by the St Louis and
Omaha line of the Wabash, St Louis, and Padfic Railway,
which eroaaes the river by a great iron bridge 6535 feet
long, erected in 1871 at a cost of 11,750,000. Beside
one of the largest ear-factories in the United Stat^ the
industrial establishments oi Bt OMrles comprise tobaceo-
factorie*, flonr-miUs, hominy-mills, creameries, woollen-
factoriea, and breweriea. St Charle* Collie (Methodist
Episcopal), chartered in 1838, the Lindenwood Female
College (Presbyterian), the Convent of the Baeted Heart,
and the Roman Catholic pnUie library are the prindpal
institutions. In 1850 the inhabitanta numbered cmly
1498; by 1870 they were C>C>70, and in 1860 50U Cm
the township S417).
Kabllibed .,„, „ _
.tjfroDi 1B4S. Tha Ont Stat*
town la 18Z1 ^izd St Cbvie*
oontinnad to bo tba Btita eaplts] till lB3fl.
ST CHRISTOPHER, or St Knn, one of ihe Leeward
Islands, West Indies, situated in 17' IS* N. lat and 62'
48* W. long. Its length is 23 miles, ita greatest breadth
S milee, and the total area 68 sqnare miba. Moostains
traveree the ciintral part from south-east to north-west,
the greataat height, Mount Misery, being aboot 4100 feet
above sea-leveL On the se«board is Basteterra, the capital,
the ontlet of a fertile plain, which eontaina the cnltivated
land. The thermometer raoesa from 78* to 84' Fahr.
St Otriatopher is united with Nxvia (;.*.) as one colony,
with one executive and one legislativa council (c^cial and
Bominatad) for the nnitad presidency. In 1883 tha revenue
and eapenditnta were £^,000 and £33,000 respectively.
160
S A I — S A 1
«i>d the pnUis debt ma £2500. Ths tonnage entering
tod deanng ms S07,000, and the impoita and exports
were nlned «t £190,000 and £240,000 reapectiTel; per
taaaaa, TbeangHezportsamountad to 10,000 tone. The
popoktioD of the uland waa abont 30,000.
8T CLAIB, a borongh of the United States, in Schnyl-
kill county, FeansjlTania, 3 miles east of Pottsvilie on the
Beading and Philadelphia Bailroad. It mainly depends
on its ooal-minea. The popolation was ST26 in 1870 and
iH9 in 1880
ST CLOUD, a. Tillage of France, on the left bank of
the Seine, 7 milea neat from the centre of Paris and 9J
by llio lailroad from Paris to Versailles, forming part of
the canton of SAvres and of tlie arrondiasament of Ter-
■ailles {Sein»«t-OiBe). Fictoresqaelj built on a hill-slope,
it orerteAs the river, the Bois de Boulogne, and Paris ;
ftod, lying amid the foliage of ita magnificent park and
munerons villa gardens, it is one of the faTonril« resorts
<d the Parimona. The palace of St Cloud, which had been
• Runmer residence for Napoleon L, Louis XVm., Charles
X, Lonis Philippe, and Napoleon HL, was burned by
tbe Prussians in 1870 along with part of the village. In
qiite of tbe damage inflicted on the park at the same
period, magnificent avenues still make it one of the finwt
rural haunts in the neigbbonihood of Paris. It occupies
a varied tract of 960 acres, and abounds in picturesque
views. Every year in September a great fair, lasting
Ibree weeks, is held in the park ; and within its precincts
are mtnatad the new national Bivrea porcelain maonfac-
tnte and the Breteuil pavilion, the seat of the intema-
taosal metre eommissioa. St Cloud poeseases a church,
erected about ISSS, in tbe style of the 13th centory, with
fta elegant stone mire ; and here too bos been eetabliahad
tiie upper normal school (science and letters) for the
training of teochera (mole) for the provincial normal
aebools of primary inetmction. The popnlatioD in I8S1
WM lOf I, and 4126 in the commune.
Clodoald or Clond, anndion of Clovit, sdoptad tb* manutie lib
and left liii nuns to tKe ipot *here his tomb «u dlsDOTvnd iftsr
tba Upae at laOO jieit, in a crypt neu ibt prMsnt chimh. H*
bid mutai the donuin to th< chureh of Fsrli, which
. ■*£? LI
• church of nrit, whiel
At at Ooud Ueory
«s ■ llsr till the ISth caatiuT. At at Ooud Ueory III. and tha
Ung at Htvam (Hanrv iV.) eataJjUihad their amp during tha
'nimofor t"--- »il— ;- —J .v.__.l_._ ._.^..
antiyhon ., ... _ ,
via Xiy. bought it Tor hi> brothar, the dake of Orleua, who
S^
for IIm liega af I'arii ; and there
toTiT^v!''?. „ . . ..
wia tha originator ot the paUca which periihed id 1870. Pater
Orast of Bnaaia naa Kctived then in 1717 bj tbe tagent, whoaa
giandara nld the palsi'e to Maria ADtoineCte. It ns in the
onsgny at 81 Cloud tbiC Bomparte eiecated tha amp Utat of
ISth Bmnaira ; and after ha bwuna emparor the palaca wu hla
ftvonrite teaideuca, »Da there ha celebrated hi) marriaga with Uaria
JIaaiae. In 1815 itwu the Mcno oftha ■igning of theeanitnlatioii
of Pkrii i and in 1SS0 rront St Cloud Chai^ea 3E. ianed the oidera
which brought about his Tall. Napoleoa III. wu then irheo he
receired the aenatuaconault which reelornl the ampira In hb brau
(M Docembn \K51\ Spi»d b^ tbe Pruaaiaua at Iha conuqence-
nwDt oT the inveatmeDt <£ I^ria iu IBTO, St Clond wu sacked
during tha tiege.
ST CROIX, or BAIim CftOIZ, one of the Danish Weat
India Islaodsj is situated between IT' and 18' N. lat.,
abont 40 miles south-soutb-east of St Thomas. Twenty-
three milee long, and with a maTimmn width ot 6 miles,
it has an area eetimaied at 61,168 acrea. Blue Mountain,
tbe highest peak (1100 feet^ lies in tbe range of hilU
running parallel with the coast in the we.steni half of tbe
island. The narrower eaatem end is also hilly. In the
centre sttd towards the west the suriace is imduktiog,
and towards tbe south flat with brackish lagoons. With
the exception of about 4000 acres, the soil is everywhere
prodactive ; but only abont one-third of the area is de-
voted to sugar-growing and omMixth to pastureland, the
peater part of the remainder being either worthless brush-
wood (the bwint (rf «n^ deer) vt acutty timber. Beddo
little N^ro hamlets there are two ganuoa town*— Chris-
^iansted (ot popularly Benin) on the north ooaat, with a
small harbour IS to 16 feet deep at the entrwce^ and
Frederiksted (popularly Weat End) on tha weet coast,
with an open roadstead. Tbe population* of the ialand
was 23,194 in 1660, 22,760 in 1870, and 16,430 in 1889.
This decrease is dne to the compantire failure of the
sugor-cropa. Destruction of the forests (or some unsus-
pected cause) baa brought diminished rainfall (from SO to
31 inches per oimum) ; and the belt of abandoned cane-
ground hsa been steadily increasing To help in checking
this decay tha Oovemment constructed (1876) a grcst
centrd factory, to wbicb the juice is convened from tha
plantations by a system of pipe*. Apart from tha (rfBcinl
element (mostly Danish), the white inhabitants of 6t Crtox
ore almost wholly British either by birth or deacsnt,
St Cnfx was diaeorared by OolonibuB on hia laaoDd vojage. la
lOSl Fianca antrastni it U. tha Knighti of Uslto, and ia ITSS it
wu pnichasad by Denmark for TSO,0<!» IItih (ia7,tH)0 rudoIlars>
SlavBry wu Pushed In IS48, snd coohea began to be emplorea
InlMll.
ST Cnt, Miwwtat. (1764-1830). Bee Souvioir Sr
Cm
ST CTBrL'fiCOU; a village of France (Seine-et'OiaeX
SI miles west of Veraailles at the end of tbe old pork
of Louis XIT. It had only 2713 inhabitanti in 1881,
and its importance is solely dne to tha funoos militMj
school now established in the oonvent whidi Uadama im
Maintenon founded for tha education of noble yonng ladies
in indigent circumatances. It was here that Sadne^ A(A«r
and AUialu were flrat acted, having been written expressly
for the pupila. Madame de Muntenon^ tomb u atill
preeerred in the dinpel. Tht oonvent was snppieased at
tbe Bevolution, and the gardena are now partly t
are utuated at St C^.
ST DAVnyS, ■ Tillage of Fembrokeihite, South Wales,
and the seat erf a bidx^nic, is situated in tbe valley of tbe
Alan, 16 mika north-west of Haverfordwest, tha nearest
railway station, and 1) miles east from the most westerly
point of Wales. By soma it is suppoeed to be the Boman
Men^ia. It consists of sttaggling and somewhat mean
booses, oeenpying the crest of the hill above tbe ntbedraL
It was the birthplace of Bt David, the patron nint of
Wales. Tbe see, which indndea nearly the whole of South
Wales, was founded at least not later than the 7th century.
Till the middle of the 13th century tbe bishopa bad
archiepiacopal powers. The existing catbediol was begun
in 1180, Its tower fell in 1220, ciasbing throng the
choir and trwiaepte ; whan it was rebuilt the old western
arch was retained. Abont tbe time tbe choir and tran-
septs were repaired St Thomas's chapel was added. In
1 248 on earthquake caused tbe walla of tbe nave to balga.
The chapels east of the presbytery were begtm about M»
period, and the lady chapel between 1296 and 1338.
The aisles of the nave and ot the preebytery were raised
by Bishop Qower (1328-1347), who set np the beantifol
stone rood screen. Tha great wiodow in the sontfa tran-
sept in liie Perpendicolar style «-as erected in 1384, and
the roofs renewed in the Lata Pwpendicular between 1461
and 1S23. The weet front was rebuilt by Nosh about
the end of the lAth century, and in 1862 exleudive
rastoiaUonsi including the rebuilding of the two western
piers of the tower and of tbe west front, were b^^
under tbe direction of Sir Q. O. ScotL Tbe cathedral
contoiiu the tomb of Edmund Tudor, father erf Henry
VII., and tbe Rhrine ot 6t David. The total internal
length of the building is Z98 feet, tbe breadth of the nave
(with aisles) 70 feet, and the breadth ot tJie transepts 27
feet 3 iocbea. Farts of the ricb interior decoration ot the
S A I — S A I
161
» pictoreHjufl ntina of the chapel of
St Hut's Collcige, foundad in 1377. On the other aide
of the Alan are the TomaiDs of the buhop's palace, a
li)Mt«rpiBce of BUhop Oower, paiticnltu-l; notaworth; for
the hean^ul arcMle and parapet ranning round the whole
building. It ma partly nnroofed bj Bi^op Barlov in
153S. In the centre of the Tillage stande ths ftncient
croes, 2S feet high, the Btepe of which were Teatored bj
Bishop Thirlwall in 1873. The place is withoot mnnicipd
gDTenunent, its aajot being the ofHcer of the biahop'a
manorial coait. The population of the pariah in ISAl
was 2053.
8T DENTS, a town of France, in tiie department of
Seine, 4J miles north of I^ria bj the Korthem Railway,
which there diridea into two branches leading rMpeetixely
to PoQtoiae and Creil, is now a great manufacturing centre
for machinery, boats, tailway c«rmg«e, chemiial products,
printed goods, candles, beer, leather, and flour. Many of
the works are supplied with water from the Cronld and
th« ItotuUon, which there fall into the S^e ; and a canal
ettsnds from the Seine to Ia Tillette, tho great inner
borbonr of Paria. In IB81 the popolation was 43,137.
The name and taae of the town are derived from the
abbey fonnded by Dagobert on the spot wher« Bt Denis,
the apostte of t»ia, was interred (see below). The went
front was bnilt between 1137 and lUO. The right-hand
tower ia almost pure Bomaneaque ; that on the left was
Gothic, and its spire was earned to a height of 2S0 feet,
bat it was struck by lightning in 1B37 and its Tscmstrue-
tiMi effected in so clumsy a manner that it had to ba
taken down till it was on a level with the roof of the
n^Ta. "nie nae window, now occupied hy a dock face,
datea from the 13tfa oentory. Undsr one of the tliree
Towi of arches above the main entrance rans an inscrip-
tim lecordiog the erection td the chnrch hj Soger with
ftbbatial fonds and its conaecretion in 1140. Tht porch
formed by the first three bays of the chunii contwns some
lemaina of the basilica of Pippin the Short The nave
proper {335 feet long and 67 wide) haa seven bays, and
data*^ H well as most of the choir and transepts, from ths
reiga erf 8t Lonis. The gallery of the triforinm is of open
work and is filled in with ^aas. The aacoodaiy apse (road-
paiat) and its nmicircitUr chapela (consetrated on 11th
/one 1U4) are considered as (he Gnt perfected attempt
at Oothio. The transepts have fine 13th-cantnry fafadea,
■Kb irith two unfinished towaca ; if the plan had been
folly carried oat there would have been six towera besides
a cantml fltehe in lead. In the ehapela of the nave are
tha lomha of Loais XH and Anne of Brittany (1^91) ; of
Heaij Q. and Catherine de* Hedici, a masterpiece by
Oernain Pilon; of Loais of Orleans and Talantine of
Uilan, from tha old church of the Celestinea at Paris } of
Fianei* L and Claude of France, one of the most splendid
tombs <rf the Renaissance executed under the direction of
Hiilibert Delonne ; and that of Dagobert which, though
cousideiably dilapidated, ranks as one of the moat curious
irf mediMval (13th -century) works of art. In the apae
acaoa stained glaas of tha time of Bnger still remaina
The crypt datea partly from Charlemagne and partly from
Soger. In the centre is ths vault where the coffin of the
dead king osed to lie until, to make room for that of hia
■occeasor, it waa removed to its final resting-place. It is
at pteesnt ocoapied by the co£n of Loi^ ZVUL, the last
sovereign whose body was borne to St Denis and the only
'one wlMf» ashes have been respected. Beaides soma fine
statnea, tha crypt contains tha Bourbon vault, in which
wera depositad the remains of Loais ZTL and Maris
Antoinette, ta at least whatever of them was recoverable
frect tha cemetery of t« Uadeleine where the Chapella
Expiatoire now stands. The treasory of St Denis boa been
despoiLed of its richest posaession^ including the books
now in the National- Libnuy ; but it still conUins ciMses^
altar-pieces, and reliqnariea, notably those of St D«us
and bis two companions, Rosticns and ,Eleutb«rins, the
tliree patrooB of the basilica. The chapter of St Denis is
usoally composed of emeritita bishope with ths titie of
canons ; but the inatitution is abont to be abolished
(188G). St Denis poasesaes a fine town-house and a poor-
house (300 beds). Its three forte formed part of the
Parisian enceinte in 1870-71, and from 33d to 26th January
1871 the pkce was bombarded by the Pmsaian^ who did
considerable damage to the basilica.
St Dtnis, ths inclimt Catnlliicnm, «u a town af no prctenrions
till tha fDnnding oF iti abbcf. The pnKnt ot raboilding bs^on
In tha Vllh cantiuy b/ AbM Hnnr was eompletad undar Philip
.1.. 1..1T .. .1 ^-_. g(^(ji, csaaw nu — ' '- "-
Kted 1
-iscta alnadf bnriad in the sbbaj ;
u u> Hanrv IL aTtrj maDanh in sae-
Lonii XIV. ndDMd tb* abbey to tha
MdoD had hit moi
lank otapriorj; „ ._.
tombi being TioUlod and tha churah ucknl (178!). Two yean
later til ths remaing and tngmeota that could bg racovared »irs
coUectfd in the miueam of the Petlti Angnatinai at Parii ; but tha
brant* tombi bsd twen melted down, the ataintd-^SM windows
ihatUred, and lane nnmlNr* of intarislang objaeta atolan oi lost
NapglHia eetablished in tb* monaatcrr a Khwl tor daughttn of
'1-- *--— -' '^- T._'._ .* Ti. ....„, _i.:-i. 1... »...tT....^ «..
lUblished in tb<
>en of lb* Legion of He
flonriih. Louli XVIII, cauMd all tb* article boloi
Dadia to be broagbl back tma th* mnaMinis
med to
ling to 8t
paal lit*,
mpimsBed abbajt.
ntalligtBt direction
SPJ™!
bym
. repaired and tb* badlica racovarad it* erlgiaal
Charlea the Bold Inatitated ths bmoea bir of l^ndlt,
truiramd (roni tb* MJ^bomiu plain le 8t Denb
- ._.! :_ _..ii i.i . :_ .!._ . Bnoepand pai
nd paicbmel
J waa pUtued by ChtTlt* th*
I* BurgMninaDi and Homings
itaeir in 1 &£% and is atUl held
Bad, kin^of NiTUTB, in 1358, bj the
In KIl, and bj the £ngliah in 1480. a euninary oaiua, m
which th* Catholic bader Conatabl* Add* de UoDbnoraocr foand
Tiatorj and death, vai fougbt bttKoen Hngnenota and CathoJlca U
tha ntigbbourhood on lOLh MoTembet 1fiS7.'
ST DENIS, the capital o/ R£u»iok (g.*.).
ST Dl£, a town of France, chef-lien of an arrondiste-
ment and a bishop's see in the department of Vosges, is
situated on the right b«nk of the Heurthe, 1030 feet above
the sea, on the railway from Lun^ville (32 miles north-
west) to Spinal (38 miles south-west). One portion of the
town was rebuilt after the fire of ITST in the regular and
monumental style of Nancy ; the other has a somewhat
mean appearance. Several Alsatian nwntifaettirers having
emigrated to Bt Did on the annexation of their coontiy
to Oermany, the town has made great progress since
1871, and now possesses weaving factories, bleacheriea,
hosiery foctorics, engineering works, a tile work, and an
extensive brewery. The cathedral has a Bomanesque nave
(lOth century) and a Qothic choir; the portal, in t«d
sandatone, dates from the 18th century. A fine cloister,
recently restored and containing a beautifnlly ezecnted
stone pulpily leads to the Petite £gliae or Notre Dame, a
well-preserved specimen of early Botnanesque. Other
points of interest are the library, the mnaeum, belonging
to the BocidtA Fhilomathiqne Vosgienne, the large school^
and the public fountaina. The town commands an exten-
sive view of the Vosges and is a convenient centre for ex-
corsioQs. Tlie population in 1861 was 13,<77 (1S,312 In
the commune).
It Dli [Diedaliim, Thtodala, 8. DtodMi Amm) graw an ronnd
nonaatarr fooDa*d in tha 1th antory by tt Daodatos cd Havi
10 gav* ap hia apUoopal fiuHitianB in or
lonaatarr fooDa*d in tha 1th otntory by tt Daodato* ot Hi
- 0 gav* ap hia apUoopal fondtianB hi ordar to radn to this pitoa
In th* 10th e*ntiii7 the MmmnnitT bacam* a -*— ' '
ik of proToat or
Medicf (aftorwsnj Pop* Leo X.) sad WT*ial
prince* of tha bonaa of Lonaim. Among tba axtaasive priTila^
:ijo;ed bv them waa that a( coining moaaj. Thoosh tbey DO-
-■■ ' ■•'■ -'-■ " -' one and the dukca of
XIL— »i
ojiatatod in building ths town wsUa, die a
8 A I — S A I
WL Tin inkltDtion ol
I bidu^iriB irhieh appropriitsd
oontiltratsil.gnitl7 to -<"" '"'»>■
witfa tha Bmoladiin thejr wars
tuBPt niidtt Kiiu stuiialiai of i
Ijlrt afdulT qdittiul joriwliotiini,
Eh* ialauiM ot tb* euwm ; and
GOnpirtd; fwcpt (nr. Daring Um 17tb ttatarj tha tovD wii
nptalsdlj nckdd bj tbs Buvnndiaua luular ChirlH tha Bold, bY
tha French, ud bj tlu Swedo. It «u iloo nitdillf dtatniyBd
b; flm in lOOS, 1 IGS, 1(M, and irB7. St Di/«u tha ant of ■
T«iy eail; priating proa.
SAINTE-BEUTE, CaiKLB Aoousmi (1804-1869),
the most nolable critic of oui time, was bom at Boologna-
■dt-Mm on 33d December 1804. He yrae a poEthomoaa
child,— his fbther, a ootive of Picardj, and controller of
town-dacB at BonlognQ, having married in this same Tear,
at (he age of fifty-two, and died before the birili of his boh.
The father vae a maa of Uterair tastcB, and iiBad to read,
like his son, pencil in hand ; his cop; of the Elzevir edition
of Virgil, oorered with hia notee, waa in his son's posseaaioQ,
and is mentioned by him in one ot his poems. Sainte-
BauTe'a mother was half F-Tigliph^ — liar hthor, a mariner of
Bonlogne, having married an Englishwoman. The little
Chulea Angostin was thought up 1^ his mother, who
never Temarried, and on aont, Ms uther's sister, who
lived with her. The}' were poor, bat the boy, having
leomt all he could at his first adiool at Bonlogne, por~
maded hia mother to send hiTn^ when he waa near the age
of fourteen, to finish his education at Paris. He boarded
with a M, Landr;, and had for a fellaw-boanier and inti-
mate friend Choriea Neate, afterwords fellow of Oriel
College and member of parliament for the city of Oxford,
prom H. Lond^s boarding-bonse he attended the claaaea,
first of the OolMge Chailemagne, and then of the College
Bonrbon, winning the bead pri« for bistary at the first,
and for Latin vene at the seccmd. In 1623 he began to
■tody medidne, and continued the study with diligence
«nd intercBt for nevly four years, attending lecturw on
anatomy and jihyuology and walliing the hospitals. But
meanwhile a Liberal newspaper, tha Gl^ibe, was foonded in
1827 by M. Dubois, one of Sointe-Beuve's old taacheta at
the CcJUge Charlemagne. M. Dnbois called to hia aid
his former pupil, who, now.qnitting the stndyof medicine,
contributed historical and literary ariiclea to the Globe,
among them two, which attracted the notice of Qoethe, on
Victor Hugo's Oda ami BaUadt. These artides led to a
friendship with Tictor Hugo and to Bainte-Beuve'a con-
nexion with the romantic Kchool of poets, a school never
enthely snited to his nature. In the Globe appeared
also his interesting articlcfl on the French poetry of the
16th oBntnry, whiuk in 1628 w<re collected and pobliahed
in a volume, and followed by a second volume eootain-
ing Mlections from Ronsard. In 162B he made hi« first
venture as * poet with the Tie, fattiet, tt Ptiuiei d« Joeeph
DeUirme. ffis own name did not appear; bat Joseph
Delorme, that "Werther in the shape of Jacobin and
medical student," a> Goiiot cidled him, was the Sainte-
Beuve of thoee days himself. About the same time was
founded the Beeut de Pane, and Bainte-Beuve contribnt«d
the opening articles >'ith Boilsan for its snlgect. In 1830
came his eeoond volume of poems, the Coiuclatioiu, a
work OD iriueh Scunte-Benve looked back in later life
mth a apecial aSedaon. To himself it marked and ex-
preesed, tie auA, that epoch of his life to which he could
with moat pleaanm return, and at which he could like best
that others should see him. But the critic in him grew
to prevail more and more and poshed out the poet. In
1831 the Seme de* Dm* Monda waa founded in rivalry
with the Btme de Pant, and from the first Bainte-Beuve
waa one of the moat active and impcoiant contributors.
He brought out his novel of Vob^ in 1834, his third
and last volnwe of poetrjr, tke Penafc) ifAoOt, in 1837.
He himself thought, that the activity which he bod in the
meanwhile exercised as a critic, and the oGTence ^hich is
some quarters his criticism had given, were the cause of
tha less favourable reception which this volume received.
Ho had long meditated a boot on Port BojaL At the
end of 1837 he quitted France, accepting an invitation
from the academy of Lanaonne, where in a aeries of lectures
hia work on Port Royal come into iU first form of being.
In tbe summer of the next year he relumed to Varis to
revise and give the final shape to hia work, which, how-
ever, waa not completed for twenty years. In 1840 M,
Cousin, then minister 6t public instmction. appointed him
one of the keepers of tbe Mazarin Library, an appointment
which gave hiin rooms at the library, and. with the money
earned by hia pen, made him for ^e firoL time in bis life
easy in hia circumstances, so that, as he aftenrords used
to say, he hod to buy rare books in order to spend bis in-
come. A more important consequence of hia easier cir-
cnmstoncea was that be could study freely and krgely.
He returned to Greek, jf which a French sdioolboy bringa
from bis Ij/de no great store. With a Greek teacher, M.
Pantasidea, he read and re-read tbe poets in the cnigiuol,
and thus acanired, not, perhaps, a philological Echolsr'a
knowledge of them, but a genuine and invaluable acquaint-
ance with them as literature. His activity in the RimiM
da Deux Monde* continued, and artides on Homer, Theo-
critus, ApolloniuB of Rhodes, and Meleager were fruits of
his new Greek studies. He wrote also a very good article
in 1844 on the Italian poet Leopardi ; but in geuend. his
sabjects were taken from the great literature which he knew
best, that of hia own country, — its literature both in the
past and in the contemporary present. Seven volumes of
" f ortraits," contributed to tha Seme de Parit and tha
Setue dee Dna Honda, exhibit his work in the years from
183:1 to 1843, a work constantly increasing in range and
va]a& In 1844 he was elected to the French Academy
as successor to OaEunir Delavigne, and was received ther*
at the beginning at 1S4S by Tictor Hugo.
From this settled and prosperous condition the revoIl^
tdon of February 1848 dislodged him. In March of that
year waa published an account of secret -•orvioo money
distributed in the late reign, and Sainte-Beuve was pot
down SB having received the sum of one hnndred francs.
Tha Bmallnesa of the sum would hardly seem to suggest cor-
ruption ; it appean probable that the money waa given to
cure a amoky chimney in his room at tha Hazorin libraiy,
and was wrongly entered as secret -service money. But
Sointe-Beuve, who piqned himself on his independence and
on a punctilious deliotcy in money matters, waa indignant
at the entry, and thought the proceedings of the niinister
of public instruction and his officials, when he demanded to
have the matter sifted, tardy and equivocaL He resigned
liis post at the Mazorin and accepted an offer fiom tbe
Bel(^ Government ot a chair of French literature in tbe
university of Liige. There he gave the aeries of lectures
on Chateaubriand and his contemporaries which was after-
warda (in 1801) published in two volumes. Ha liked Li^
and the Belgians would have been glad to keep him;
but the attraction of Faria carried him back there in the
autumn of 1849. Louis Napoleon was then president.
Disturbance was ceasing ; a time of settled government,
which lasted twenty years and corresponds with the second
atage of Sainte-Beuve's literary activity, was beginning.
Dr Viron, tha editor of the Coiutituiionnel, proposed to.
him that he should supply that newspaper with a.literaiy'
article for every Monday ; and thus the Catueriei dM
Lwndi werfl started. They at once succeeded, and "gave
the signal," as Sainte-Benve himself says with truth, " for
the return of letters." Bainte-Beuve now lived in the amall
honse in the Rue Mont-Pomaase (No. 11) which lie occo-
SAINT E-B E U V E
163
HtklM
pM Idr the NOHUDto of Ui lff% uid lAm In 18S0 Ut
tnoUw. f HUB vbon Iia mmm to haTC bbvitMl Ui eDod
MMCh tact, Mid fiiMM, died at thaa«aa(u^^-aiz. For
thrw 7«Mi In «ntiiined writiBg arcrj Hondftr fo* ^
CoMftMiawMf ; tbra k* pMMd, with a riuiUr
Bsnt, to the Mmib^. In 1867 U» Moad^
bmn ta b* pnhUalwd in TolnnM, •ml by II '
ttAtcHau in IftMn vohwM; Hmj aftwwaidi
ondcr tbe title of JToomms ZMiA^ wUck
coOaetiaii of thirteen Toloine* mora. In 1894 H. Foctonl
nombBetod him to the chair of lAtin poetfj at tbe Odlege
d FnacaL Hi* firM kctnra thara waa reotived with iater^
tnptWM and nMrka of dii^tjmifaation bj many of the
•todaoti^ displeaMd at hit adlwrenoe to the ampiie ; at a
■aoond Icetora the tutemptioa wai roiewad. Bainte-
Berne had no taata for pvUie ^leaking and leotwing;
toMfivHti* maUilU*, he vid, nnfittad him for it. Be wu
not gMng to canj on a war with a partj of tnibnlent
■tadenta ; he propoaed to rMgn, and wb«t the minjitw
would not accept hia nalgnatioB ot hit profeaonhip he
raeigaed its emolnmeata. Tbe iltiJt mr Tiryilt, a ndimi*
C' liahed in 1607, amtaina what he had meant to be hit
eonrae of leetnna. Be wai itUl a titular official ot
pnbtlo initraction ; and in 16M hia Mmoaa wei* called
hthjM. Rooland, then miniiter of public inatmctioD, ai
a brtarer (MtKnt dt tcuftrMem) on f^anch liteiatnra at
the Soola Nonnale Sopfaienre. Thii work be diKharged
with waiduitT and mcoea for four yean. In 1859 he
waa mads commandar ol the Lagi<m of Honour, baying
twica pranonaly to 1S48 tefoied the ckmb. During tbe
jiean (d hia offlml eog^naeot hit Monday eoatribvtioiia to
tbe MoniUmr had no hwiger been eontinwrnt ; but in 1862
an arranxeineot waa propoaed by which he waa to retnn
to the CoMtitiiituma^ and again supply an article there
vrary Monday. He conaented, at the age of fiftj-asTcn,
to try thit laat poll, ■• he called it, this "dernier ooup da
coWer "; be realigned hit office at the £(.:>le Kormale and
began tlie e^es of his J/otaoma XtoKJu, They show no
Uling 1^ in Tigoor and teaDorce from the Caiurrut.
" ' "le ttraia upon him nf hit weekly laboor was great.
"he writes in 1S64,
"bat a workmsji by the piece and t^ the bonr.
look upon mynlf as a player forced to go on acting at an
age whan he ou^t to retire and who tan see no term to
bis enwameot." fie had reason to hope for relief. Ex-
cept lin™!*, the foraraoat literary men in FHoce bad stood
aloof bom the uipire and baatsd it with a hoetility mote
or iMa bitter. He had not ben hoetile to it : be had
accepted- it with MtiiCtetion, and had bettowed on its
oS«U joona^ the Momltar, the luatta of hi* literature.
Hm prince Napoleon and the princeaa Mathilda were bis
wann frieoda. A aenatotahip waa mentioned; its inoMoe
of .£1600 a year would give him opnlence and fieedom.
Bat ita oMuing waa delayed, and the strun npon bim oon-
tioMd for eome time looger. When at last in April 186fi
ha waa made aaaat«r, his health was already serionaly com-
pfOfltited. nie disease of which he died, but of which
the doetota did not aaoertain the proeenea until bis body
waa opened after hia death — the stone — began to distress
and diaabla bin. He could seldom attend the meeting
of the tenate ; the put he took then^ however, on two
famoua oocatioaai when the ^tominatioo of H. Benan to
tbe Oollege of Fnmoe came under diBcuBai<m in 1667 and
tbe law on the preea in the year following, prorokad the
indignation lA the great m^ority in that cmserratiTe
astenUy. It delighted, bowerer, all who " belonged,* to
me hia own pbtaae^ "to the diocese erf free thought'; and
be garo farther pleeaui* in thit diooeee by leanng at the
be^niog d 18S9 the Jfowtw, iiiiadicioatly managed
bj tb« Oorenment and M. Boaher, and oontribnting to a
Liberal joomal, the Ttm^ Hi* litcmy activity tnfTeied
little abatumtnty bnt the attacks of lus malady, Uiough
bona with conraga sjid cheerfnlneu, became more and
mora aevare. Pun made him at last nnable to sit to
write ; ha eoold only stand or tie. He died in his boose
in the Boa Mont Fkruaaee on the 1 3th of October 1869.
He had inherited an inoome of four thousand francs a year
fioa bia mother, and he left it six tbonsand ; to the extent
(A ei^^ pounds a year ar.d no further bad literature aud
the ten^mahip anricbed him. By bis will be left directions
that hia funeral waa to be without religious rite^ quite
timpks and with no speechea at the grave except a few
woidt (rf thanks from one of his seciet&riea to thoee prteent.
Here was a great concourse ; the Paris students, who had
fonneriy interrupted bim, came now to do honour to bim
at a Uberal sjid a champion of free thought — a senator
tbey could not bnt admit — ondeniably, alas, a senator,
but oA, SI pea / Tet bis own account of binuelf is tbe
beat and trueat, — an account which laye no atreu on bis
liberalism, no stress on hit championthip of free thought,
bnt says simply : " Devoted to my profession at critic, I
have tried to be mot* and more a good, and, if poasible,
an able workman."
Tbe work of Sainte-Benre diridea iteelf into three
portions— bis poetry, bis criticism before 1S46, and his
criticism after that year. His novel lA Fofaplj may
properly go with hit poetry.
We have eeen hi* tender feeling for his poetry, and be
always maintained that, when tbe " integrating molecule,"
the foondatioQ of him aa a man of lettete, wat reached,
it would be fonnd to have a poetio ehataeter. And yet
he dedaro^ too^ that it is never without a tort of aurprise
and confntion that be tee* bit varaas detached from their
context and quoted in public and in open day. They do
not seem made for il^ ha says. This admirable cntio
knew, indeed, what a fVancbman may be pardoned for
not willingly perceiving and what even aome Englishmen
try to imagine that tjiay do not perceive, the radical in-
adequacy of French poetry. For na tt i« eitremety
intereatuig to bear Bainte-Benve on this point, since it \*
to -Knglish poetry that he retorta in older to find his
term ci comparison, and to award the praiae which to
French poetry be refuses. " Bince yon are fond of the
poets," he write* to a friend, "I ahould like to ree yoa
read and look for poets in another language, in ^"g'"'*
for instance. There you will find the most rich, the most
dukel, and the meet new poetical literatnra. Our Frendi
poela aie too Boon read ; they are too slight, too mixei^
too corrupted for the moet part, too poor in ideas even
when thsy have the talent for strophe and Una, to bold
and occupy for long a serious mind." And again: "If
yon knew English yon would have treasures to draw
upon. Tbey have a poetical liteiatnra far superior to
oiua, and, above all, sounder, more full. Wcmitworth it
not translated ; tbeae things are not to be translated ; yoa
taott go to the fountain-head for tbem. I>et me gin yoa
this advice : learn English."
Bat, even at Fren(£ poetry, Bainte -Beuva't poetry had
faults of ita own. Critics who found much in it to piaise
yet prtmooQCed it a poetry " narrow, puny, and ttlfied,"
and ita s^le "slowly dragging and labcnious.'' Here
we touch on a want which most no doubt ba racogoiied
in him, which he recognised in himself, and whereby he
is separated from the spirits who succeed in uttering
their moat highly inspired note and in giving their full
measure, — tome want of flam^ of breath, of pinion.
Perhapt we may look for tbe cause in a confession <rf his
own; "I have my weaknaasss ; they are those which gave
to King SolomfHi hit diignst with everything and bit
ittiety with life. I may have regrettod tcanetiniaB that
164
B A I NT E-B E tJ V E
t WW tlins Tf.ingiii.liiiig my tiia, bat I did not tnr
pervert my heart." It is enonj^ for us- to taka luBoon-
feenoti tluLt he extingniahed or impuied hk fire.
Yet Ml poetry ia characteriied b]r merita which make
it readable still aaJ readable by foreignetB. .Bo far u it
flzhibita the endeaTonr of the nmuintia echool in Fiance
to enhkige the vocabolary of poetry and to give greater
freedom and variety to the alexaiulriQe, it hai inteiest
chiidy for readera of Ids own nation. Bnt it azhit»te
more than thia. It exhibits ah-eody tiie gennine Sainte-
BeDTBt the author who, as H. Bnvergier de Haaiaiina
Mid in the Ghbt at ^le time, " sent lb m ntanitee ct Acrit
comme il eent," the man who, even in the fonns of an
artificial poetry, remains alwaya " nn pensenr et on homme
d'espril." That hia Joseph Delonue was not the Werther
of romanee, bat a Werther in the abape of Jacobin and
medical atndent, the only Werth«c whom Sainte-Benre by
hie own practical eiperieace really knew, was a novelty in
French poetical literatore, bnt was entiiely characteristia
of Sunte-Benve, All hia poetry has this stamp of direct
dealing with oonunon things, of plain unpreteoduig reaJity
and sincerity ; and this stamp at that time made it, as
Biranger said, "akindof poettyabeolutelynewinFrance."
It found, therefore, with all its ahortcomings, friends in
mm so diverse as B^ranger, Lamartines Jooffioy, Beyle.
Whoever is interested in Baint«-Bente ahonld turn to it,
and will be ^ad that he has done so.
It has berai the hahion to diapaiage the orilicnEm of the
CritijiteM et Poriraita LitteraireM, the critjciam anterior to
1848, and to saniGce it, in fact, to the criticism posterior
to tluit date. Bainte-Benve has himaelf indicated what
oonaiderationB ooght to be present with oa in reading the
Critipia et Porfraiit, with what reBerrcB we ahonld read
thsm. They are to be considered, be aays, "rather as a de-
pendency of the elegiac and romoneaqne part of my work
than as express critidsma." "TbeBemet&tDeiaMoiidet,''
he adds, which pabliabed them, waa young in thoae days,
"mixed a good deal of ita wishes and ita hopea with its
criticism, sought to explain and to atimiilate rather than
to judge. Hie portrait^ there of contemporary poets and
romance-writers can in general be considered, whetUbi as
reapecte the painter or aa respects the models, as yonth-
fnl portraits only; Jtmrnit jiaetietn piitxiL" They have
Ou copionsneea and enthusiasm of youth ; they have also
ita exuberance. He judged in later life Chateaubriand,
lAmartine, Victor Hugo, mor6 coolly, judged them differ-
ently. But the Critiquet et Portrait* contain a number
of articles on personages, other than contemporary French
poets and romance-writers, which hare much of the sound-
ness of faia later work, and, in addition, an abundance and
toronr of dieir own whieh are not without their attraction.
Ibny of these are delif^tfnl reading, nio articlea on the
Gredc poets and on Lec^iardi have been already mentioued.
ntoeeonBoilean,Holito^t)aunou, and Fauriel, on Madame
de la Fayette and Hademoiselle Alas^ may be taken as
samples of a whole group which will be found to snpport
perfectly the teat of reading even after we have accnatomed
onraelvtB to the later work of the maater. Nay, hia aober-
nesa .and tact show themnelvea even in this earlier stage of
his criticism, and even in treating the objects of hia too
fervid youthfnl entliuaiaam. A apeeiBl oliiject of thia
was TictoT Hngo, and in the fliat article on him in the
PortraUi CatttamporamM we have certainly plenty of en-
thusiasm, plnity of exuberance. We have the epithets
" adorable, " aablim^" " supreme," given to Victor Engo's
poetry; we are told <A "the nuyes^ of ita high and
sombre pbilceophy." All this is in the vdn of Ur Qeorge
Oilfillan. Bnt the utide next following this, and written
only four yeara later, in I8S0, ia the article of a critii^
Dad takes Um pomta irf otgectKin, seises the weak side of
TictOT Hngrfs poebry, how aach it has of what is " eMox,*
"sonMB," "artifioiel," "vonlu," "thAltral," "violent," as
distinctly aa the author of the CoMteritM cottld seJM it
" He Fnnk, enorgetie and snbtl^ who has mastered to
perfection the tetmnioal and rhetorical resources of the
I^tdn literature of the decadence," is a description never
to be forgotten of Viator Eugoaaa poet, and Sainte-Benve
lanndhee it in thia article^ written when he waa but thirty
yean old, and rtill a paintee of "portiaita de jenzkeaBe"
only.
He had thus been steadily working and growing; nsver-
thaleea, 1848 is an epoch which divides two critics in him
of very unequal value. When, after tiiat year of revolntion
and his stage of seehuion and labour at Li^ge, he came
back to hiis in the autumn of 1849 and commenced in tb»
CoMtiMMMMl the Gamaerita thi Zwwft, he waa astonish-
ingly matured. Somcdung c€ fervour, enthnsiaam, poetry,
he may have iort, but he had become a perfect entic — a
critic ^ measure, not exuberant ; of the centre, not pro-
vindal ; of keen induatry and curiosity, with " Truth " (the
word engraved in En^^iui on hia seal t for his motto; more-
over, wi& gay and amiable temper, ids manner as good as
his matter, — the " critique somiant," a^ in Charies Uon-
aelet'a dedication to hini, he ia called.
Uerely to say that he was all thia ia lesa convincing than
to show, if poaaitde, by wrada of hia own, in what fashion
he waa all uiis. The root of everything in his criticisni
is his single-hearted .devntion to b^ith. What be called
" fictions " in literatnte, in politiia, in religion, were not
allowed to inflnence him. Borne one had talked of his
being tenacions of a certain set of literary opinions. " I
hold very little,' he answera, " to literary opinions ; liteiaiy
opinions eecnpy very little [dace in my life and in my
thoughts, what doea occnj^ me asrionsly is life itsdf
and the obfect of it." "I am aocnstomed incessantly to
call my jndgmenta in qnestiou anew, and to T»«ast my
opinions the moment I suspect them to be without
validity." " What I have wished " (in Port AiyaO " i« to
say not a word more than I thought, to stop even a little
short of what I believed in certain cases, in order that my
words might acquire more weight as historical testimony.*
To all exaggeration and untruth, from whatever side it
proceeded, he bad an antipathy. " I turn my back upon
the Hichdets and Qninets, but I cannot hold out my band
to the V^uillots." When he was writing for the Monttevr
he was asked by the manager of the paper to review a
book by an important personage, a contributor ; his answer
is a leeson for eritaea sjid painta him exactly. " I ahoold
like to say yes, bnt I have an insnrmonntable difficulty *a
to thia ai^hor ; he appears to me to compromise whatever
he touches ; he is violent, and has not the tradition of the
flungs hs talks about Thus his article on Condorce^
iriiich the J/omftur inserted, is odious and fslae ; one may
be severe Ttpon Oondorcet, bnt not in that tone or in tiiat
note. The rnan has no nuight~», defect whjch does net
prevent him from having a pen with which at a given
moment be can fiouriah marvellonsly. But, of himself, he
ia a gladiator and a deqteisdo, I most tell yon, my dear
nr, ^t to have once named him with compliment in some
article of mine or other is one of my self-reproadiea aa a
man of letters. Let me say that he has not attacked mo
in any way ; it is a case of natural repnluon."
But Sunte-Beave could not have been the great critic
he was had be not had, at the service of thia his love of
truth and meaanres the oonaeiantiona industry of » Bene-
dictine. " I never have a holiday. On Uonday towards
noon I lift up my head, and breathe for about an hour;
after that the wi^et dints again and I am in my priwn
cell for seven days." The Cauteriti were at thu price.
The;f came cnoe a week, and to vrite one of them as he
S A I-S A I
165
Wrote it «u indeed a week^ work, nio " iireipoiuibli
indolont TTiawer" ilioiild read hii notea to hia friend and
providar irith books, H. Pan] difron of the Kational
Librarj. Here ia a note dated the 2d of Januarj 1853
" Qood-daj and a happj New Year. To-day I let to work
on Qrimm. A little dry ; but after St Fian^ia da Salea"
(bia Mondaj article just finiihed) "one reqairea a little
relief from nwei. I bare of Orimm the edition of his
Cont^aondeHee by U. l^acberean. I ha«s alao the Meirunri
of Hadame d'fipinaj, where there are man; lettars of hisL
But it ia poaaible that there ma; be netieei of Vtth men-
tioned in the bibliographical book of that German whoee
name I have forgotten. I shotild like, too, to luiTe the firtt
tditioiu of bis Ccm^iMdtne* ; they came ont in sncceasive
pttrta.'' Thus he prepared himself, not for a grand re
article once a quarter, bat tar a newspaper review <x
Hie adhesion to the empire canaed biTu to be habitnallj
represented by the Orleanists and the Kepnblieans a«
w'thoat character and patriotism, and to be charged with
baaeneaa acd corruptim. The Orleanists had, in a great
degree, poeeeedon of the higher preas in France and □(
BjngTljh opinion, — of Liberal English opinion more es^eci-
miij. And with English Liberals his iodifference to parlia-
mentaiy goTemment was indeed a grierons fanit in hiin ;
"jon Whigs," as Croker happily aays, "are tike quack
doctors, who have but one specific for oil constitationB. ~
To him either the doctrine of English liberal*, or tb
doctnne of Republicaniam, ^plied abaolotelj', waa what
be called a " fiction," one of tboae fictiona wlueh " always
«nd by obacming the truth." Not even on H, de Tocqae-
ville's authority would he consent torecuTe "les bypath ises
ditea lee plus honoiablee," — "the sappoeitions which paas
fw the moet respectable." All snppoeitioDs he demanded
to uft, to see them at work, to \ium the place and time
and men to which they were to be u>plied. For the
Franca before his eyea in 1849 he thou^I that aomething
"solid and stable" — km mur, "a wall," aa he said — was
requisite^ and that the goremment of LonisNapoleon sup-
plied this wall. Bnt no one judged the empire more inde-
pondently than he did, no one saw and enounced its faulta
mme clearly ; he deacribed himself as being, in hia own
aingle person, " the ffoicht of the empir^* and the deaerip-
tion was juat.
To these merila of mental bdq)endenc«, indostcj,
meaanre, lucidity, hia eriticiBm adds the merit of happy
temper and disposition. Ooethe long ago noticed that,
whereaa Qermans reviewed one. another aa enemies whom
they hated, the critics of the GUA* reviewed one another
aa gentlemen. This aroea from the higher social develop-
ment of France and from the closer relations of literatore
with life there. Bat Sainte-Benve has mors, as a critic,
than the external politeneaa which once at any rate dia-
tingaished hi* countrymen ; he ha* a pereonal charm of
manner doe to a eweet and humane temper. He com-
plained of aa peu dt durdS, " a certain dose of hardness,"
in the new geaeratioa of writeia. The personality of an
anthoT had a peculiar importance tor him ; the poetical
side of his subjects, however latent it might be, always
attracted him and he always sought to extricate it. This
was because he had in himself the moderate, gradoos,
amiaUj AwnMit inatineta.of the trae poetic nature. "Let
me b^ of yon," he says in thanking a Teviswer who praised
' him, " to alter one or two expreeiious at any rate. I can*
o have it said that I am the firtt in anything
as a writer least of alt ; it is not a thing which
calk be admitted, and these way* of claseing people give
^baoe.* literary man and ]o;fal to the Frendi Academy
aa ha wa*^ he can yet write to an old friend after hu
eketkn: "AU thase Madamiea, hatwaea jon and met are
piec« of childiabneu ; at any rate the French Academy
ia Our least quarter of an hour of solitary reverie or of
eerious talk, your* and mine, in our youth, waa better em-
ployed ; but, as one gate old, one falls back into the power
of these nothings; only it is well to know that nothinga
they are."
Ferhape the best way to get a tense of the value and
extent of the work done in the lest twenty years of bis
life by the critic thus excellently endowed is to take a
single volume of the Cauterui du Lundi, to look through
its list of subjects, and to remember that with the qoali-
tiee above mentioned all these subjects are treated. Any
volume will serve; let us take the fourth. This volume
conaiste of articles on twenty-four subjects. Twenty of
theee are the following: — Mirabeau and Sophia, Montaigne,
Hirabeauand Comte da la Marck, Mademoiseile de Scud^,
Andri Chenier as politician, Saint-£vreinond and Ninon,
Joseph de Maiitre, Madame de lAmbert, Madame Necker,
the Abbt Maury, the Due de Laurun of Louis XVL'e reign,
Marie Antoinette, Buffon, Hadama de Maintenon, De
Bouald, Amyot, Mallet du Pan, Marmoutel, Chamfor^
Rnhlitoe. Almost every personage is French, it ia tme ;
Sainte-Beave had a nmiim that the critic ahould prefer
subjecte which he poesesaea familiarly. But we should re-
cognise more fully than we do the immeobe importance
and interest of French literature. Certaiu productions of
thia literature Hr Saintsbury may miqudge and over-
praise ; but he is entirely right in insisting on its immense
miportance. More tlian any modem literature it baa been
in the moat intimate correspondence with the social life
and development of the nation producing it. Now it so
happens that the great place of France in the world is
very much due to her eminent gift for social life and
development^ and thia gift Frentm literature ho* accom-
panied, fashioned, perfected, and continuee to reflect. TUm
gives a special interest to French literature, and an interest
independent even of the excellence of individual French
writere, high as that often is. And nowhere shall we find
such interest more oompletely and charmingly brought out
than in the Cauteria du Lundi and the Jfouveavx LwtdU
of the consummate critic of whom we have been si
Aa a guide to bring na to a knowledge of the Frei
genina and literature he ia unrivalled, — perfect, so far aa
a poor mortal critic con be perfect, in knowledge of his
subject, in judgment, in tact, and tone. Certain spiriU
are of an excellence almost ideal in certain lines ; the
human raoe might williogly adopt them as its spokeemen,
recognizing that on these lines their style and utterance
may stood aa thoee, not of bounded individuals, but of the
homau rape So Homer speaks tor the human roce^ and
with an flseellence which is ideal, in epic narration ;
Plato in the treatment at once beautiful and profound
of philoaophical questions; Shakespeare in the preeeut-
ation of human character ; Voltaire in light verse and
ironical discussion. A list of perfect ones, indeed, each
in his own line I and we may almost venture to add
to their number, in his line of literary c^ticism, Sainte-
Beave. (k. a.)
SAINTE-CLAIRE DEVILLE, fiTiim™ Hshbi (1818-
1881), French chemiat, was bom on 11th March 1818 in
the ialand of St Thomas, West Indies, where hie father waa
~~ ch couHuL He was educated in Paris along with his
' brother Charlu at the Gollige RoUin. In 1844,
having graduated as doctor of medicine and doctor of
adence^ he was appointed dean of the new faculty of science
at Beeanfon by Thenard. InJSSl he succeeded Bolard
in the £ct)Ie Normale and in the Sorbonne. He died at
onlogne-sut-Seine on 1st July 1881,
SaJnte-Clura Davills begui hia eipcrimeutal work in 1B41 with
iVtstigitiDns on oil of tarpmtine sod biliun of tola, in th* cause
166
STE-CLAIEE DEVILLE
["qflhsni.
of vliieti III dtKOTcnd tba hjdro-urbon tolaaaa. But Im loaii
abuidanwl arnnie chimEitrj, ud hii tcoat importut mrk m in
iuM^uiis ma tbinatl rhtmiitry. In ISm h> diicDTtrait wihj-
iiBBM nitric uAd, • mbitinci intaratdDg not onlj in ItMlt but u
t gnuip, tin toMllod "•nhy-
. ... _ I ISSS he iDCCHded is obtaining
Tbii in«ta], of whith cUy ii tho hrdntsd
rfUcata, b of eonna ouv of tht noit ibandunt at metmli, but vai
not obUinod In tha nutallic atata natil Wdbler is 1827 deraiupomJ
itaehlolidabrmeuiaaf potunais. Tbs ■lamintsm tbiu priparcd
«u in tba lona of i Sua powdar, ud, itthosgh ths iKUtion of
ILo natal wa of gmt tboontic*] importanca, tbcr* did not tKtm
smch proapoct of a practical applintioB of tba diacoTarj. In \US
Wablar latnnwd to tba anbteot and bj nnng brga ^untitis of
matari*! obtained anuU globi^ca of an obrloniiy niata11i<i chuvtar.
DarQla, "bo knew only Wohlar'a paper of IS27, aet to »ork to
Kpu« ihtminioiD, naC for the itka of the meCal itaelf, bat with
liew of procnrinc bj the action of dnminiam on chloride of
cotnapoddisf ta the ferroiu aalta might be obtaised. Ho did sc
iqccseil in tbia, but he did 'oaetiBd in prodncing globntea of alum
niom of oomiderable aixe. Tbiiled bim to perfect '*
nltimatelj he daviaeil a method by which alnminiom conld be pr^
pared on a large Kale. The fint oae to wbioh ba pnt the metal
WM to make a medal with the name of Wiihler and the '
in connexion nith tbe prepantios of tJui
Deiille'a inreatigaCiDni, partly witb Wdhler, into tb* allottopic
Cms* of ailicos and boron.
Along irith Dehray, Derille atndied the plalinsm metali ; their
atyed nu on the one hand to pnpir« tb« lii metali in a atata of
{nrity and on the other to obtain aioitable metal for th* BtaiMurd
mitre. In the coune of thaae inTtatigationa large qnantitiaa of
pbtintun and of the a1lo;> of platisnm and iridium were ftued and
oast,' and the methoda naed for obtaining tJie necaoaarT high
tamperatnrea were applied to the fanon of Dthar retaotory metau,
■oeh as cobalt, nickef, cbromtura, and manganeae.
Along with TnvMt, DeTi]le deriMda nwtliod for datimjiiisc
ttadmijlty of laponre at rery high tsmpaattin* and uipUcd it
to tlH «*!(■ of anlphur, aelenium, tellnnam, nno, cadminD, and
Bi«iy other iMbatancea boiling at temparatnrM np to llOVCL Tbt
fntereiting and important reaulla hare been already daaeribed (loa
CauinnT and Uolecitle). Deiille made ■ large Dunbor of
IngMkloiu experimenta on the artificial production of minerala
Among tbeaa may be ipecially mentioDed the fonnation of apatite
and iiomorphosa miserala and of cryatallized oxidea. DeTilie and
Csron fonna that when the vapoor of ■ metaltio flnorfd* acta on
fbiad borado acid the fluorine and the oxygen change places a
DHtallio oiido lamijni in erntali, while the gaMOoa Bnoiida of
boron eacapea. In thia way uey pnpared oomndnm (oyatalliiod
oxide of ^nminium) and uppbire, mby and emerald ; colooiod
Itema of conindam were obtained by mixing email qnantltiea of
Bnoride of chrominm with the fluoride of alnmiplain. Anotfaec
mathod diacorerad by DeriUe for the pnpatatlou of eqratalliied
oxidea ii of great intereaL When an amorphona oxido— aseb a*
i> haat*d to rodnea* and aipoaed to a alow
■droohlori
" eatalytio
hBtnatita. tinetona, periclaae, and other cryataluas oxidea. Thia
couTeraion of an amorphona into a cryetaJiiae aabatance without
chauge of compoiitiiia, by the action of a na (is thia caaa hydro-
chloric acid) which itaelf nndereoea no change, '- • -'
myaterioni proceoea which naed to be referred
force" or called "actiona by contact"; like many tai
thia haa bean ahown by Derille to belong to the Nma cla« of
Thia leada on to DariUe'a greataat coDtrlbntion to general
chemiatry. Many (hemical actiona hare bean long known which
take place either m the ona or the other aenaa aoeoraing Is certain
conditiona. for inatance. If a tab* con taining metallic iron ia heated
to radntat and ataam caaaed throng i^ water ia decomiiaaed, blach
oiidBDflroniarormed,ai]dbydro«ent*capaa. It on the otlwrluiid,
the tube la filled with black oxide of inn and hydroset '
throngh, the oiid' -- — ' — -■ -' — '- ■- '- — • "---
opponte chaogaa
aofution of aalph
txide ia reduced ai
eriifiumad, Botk
oTthMO
Again, a
hy^nita of potaaainm li complotair dacomnMed
lut of carbonic add pa through It Air a iDBtident
maitiiiig in tolatioD. But
aolntion nltimatel]
la oTwhioh
Italy
tla&el. , .
lie aubject in a loctnie daliTereil
-iainlSM.
few caaoa aa diflerent &om one
e of lim
eraporation and oondonaation. Thia be did by hk «i|iiilMaalal
work on " DiBOciation " and hie theoretical dlecnaaion of tbe but*
in papan publiabed in the Can^la Jiuif u. He nre a Terr eo
_i illnatratloaa .
another aa poaiible.
It haa lODS liaen known that carboi
when boated la decompoaed into quicklime and carbonic acid gas,
und that thia decorapowtion takea place the mora quickly the nior*
Ihoronghly the carbonic acid produoed ia remoroiL Sir Jamae Hall
ahowed that, if the carbonate of Ume ia hcatod In a clOMd fowl
■tiong enough to luist tlie.preuuie of tho carbonic acid gaa. It can
be fuaod, only a imall port undergoing dfcompoaition. DeTilie
ainminad this reliticn qui iitilati rely niiJ ahoirtd that, if la adoaed
the preaanre of the oirAiniii] aciil gai depeiiili on the b>mneratun
onli, and it quite independent of the nnnnlity of the i|uirklime or
of ilie carbonate of lime, oa loni; aa tliere la tome, bowover little,
of both, asd ia aleo qnita oiiinllBcncnd by the pnaeuce of oUicr
gasoa. It will bo aeen that tliii caae exactly reacmbloa that of the
eTauoratlon of rater. In a doeed Tcatel contiiiiiug Uiiuij water
temp«ratu™ only and ia independent of the quantity of liquid water,
.. i^n^u there ia any, and ia not Inflnenced br tbe proacnn ot
laei; In both caae^if we diaturb tbe equilibrinm and tbrn
iraie uiingi to Ihemaelrea til* equilibrium ia natorcd. If in the
lirtt case we dintiuiih tbe proaaure o! tbe carbonic add gaa, (omo
carbonate of lime decompoece, yielding carbouic acid gaa until tho
preanin ia raised to what it waa; if we inereaaa the preieun, aonia
of the carbonic add combinea with qnickliDie nntil the preaaure ia
todnced to what it waa before. In the second eaia, if we dimiuieh
the preasan, aome of tbe liqoid nalec evaporates ; if we inereaaa it,
some of the water-Tapour condensea, and ao the presBun it tetlored.
Siae of temperattite canaei in the one eeae eiaporation of water, iu
the other deoompoaition of oarbmato of lime, — in both inereaaa of
— T 1 . »to» cauaei in the one caaa condenta.
_, — other combination of quicklime and
oruuiuE Kiu n» — IQ botli dimlnoUon of praaanre.
Aa a second inatance wo may take tl»di«DciatlDn of water. Jnat
It watar-Taponr c«adans« Into UqiM watir luder certain eondi-
tioBa, but alwayi with tba wolntion of bsnt (latent heat of Tanoni),
so th* miitDn ot oxygen and hydngen la the proper proportion to
form waler combinea, nndar certain conditioiia, tof^ water-Tapoor,
but always with th* erolndon of heat (beat of oomblnatlon). In
both caaea w* bare ohange of atata bat no elmnge of coupodtiDn,
and in botk w* ban erolation of heat. In the firti ease w* c*u
Tvrerse th* Iwoeeaa : heat the liquid water, heat becomea latent,
Uqidd water changes Into water-viponr. There it a certain dcflnit*
. .. Dont both diangea
were equally physical, that iu the second case tba proceaa ahonld
be reveliible alao,-.-tbat on heating tbe watar-Tapour it ought to
decompoaa Into oxygen and hydrogen, heat dlaappearing hen alao,
and tut, aa th*re Ii a definite preaann of water>T*poqr correspond-
ing to the tamparatnra (oftan called the l«niion of watar-taponr), to
thai* ihoold be a definils latio of Ibe pisssiiis of bydti:^*h and
oiygentothatofwatar-Ttnonr(tha tentiouitfdiaaociation}. Derlll*
ahowed in the most cosclnsire manner that this is th* ens* and
deriaed ingenioot altuigunenti for proriig tbe actnil Meumsce
of iron. Be shown] that, for a fixed tempo-
... -, . - and hydregeu are In squllibriamln presenoe of
lion and oxide ot inn when the pnmanm of the two pasa, hydn^en
and water-TapooT, an in a eaitain ratio quits ludepmdent of tlie
quanUtyof tbe Iron wot the oxide ot iron, aa long aa then ia som*
of each. If the latio la diannd, aay by ineraasing the pnaoin ot
tbe watOT-riMor, ckemiDal acHoa take* ]riaa : water is deeompoasd.
otth* walar-Tapota ia '<''"tt"''i^. part of
of iron, radudiig it and forming water, in oom case* in* laaa oi
piesoin* 1* restored. Tbta glTca an easy ex^janation ot the appa-
tmtly anomalona renlt* mentioned above. Whan a cnnant ot
hydrogen 1* pamed OTtr oxido of iron, th* water ■ nponr pcndoceil
ia awept away a* hat IS It is formed ; tba ratio of the preaann ot
hydrogen to that of wtter.Tapour is therefore always gnater than
that required for equilibrium and teducdon of Iron, and formation
of waUr goes on oontinuoaily until all the oxide of iron is ndnced.
In the same way. a corrcn t of water-TapODr carrieaaway tbe hydrogen
aa fast a* it ia ptodnced { th* ratio of the p ' '^-' "-
that of watar-Tapour ia alwayi leaa than U
10 matsllio inn n
1 gM an nlntjon at lulpli-
S A I — S A T
167
tiyitnUof potudmn. Mid af mlnbnnttcd hTdranB en tolutlon of
bicvbdiuta ot poEuBanL Equilibrium nnill* vbeu tha nifurti
ot th« gun kn in ■ certiln ntia ; If the •quilibrinin ii diitnrbed
cbcmicd ution tnkM pUc« ia tha dinction irhioh tandi to roton
tba Hiulibnain bj nprodaciuf tba ntia of pnnnraa.
Th* ijiiitntiu dcTuad bj Denlla for detacliDB ud mumring
dinodMiOD illustnUi hii nnuibbls ingmnilj. We ihill inituio*
obIt ova cxuopla in ulditioa to thoaa urmdj nMotioned.
una of tha naat diflUnltiat in ofanrring duaodatioii dc|inidi on
it* nranibla chamlar. A oampocnd maj ladaad daoaopoaa wbio
nJMd to ■ bigfa tempeatnn ; Iwt, If. u wa eaol it again, nuuion
oeenra, it I> not eu; to nroTo tbit anjtlicmiol ehuigataok ptaca.
OHoftbamjain wfaicE DaTitlg got dtbt tbia diAcaltr Via br tbe
nag of hii "hot and cold tnba." loiida ■ pmebin tniM ba pttcad
a matal taba of amallar diamatar, ao tbat tbMi ana coincidad. leaTing
sn uunlar ipaea batwaan tbem. Thia ■Dnnlu apace wai doaad at
idi, bat, by mouu of lida Inbei naat tba audi, eontd b
both
Sllad with inj ni, or ■ current of^ could ba puaed thronsh it.
Tha porccUin tube waa raised to ■ hub tampentura bj being placed
in ■ hrnaea, irhila theintarnftl matkl tnbe wubapt cold b; rannlog
watar throuh it Bj thia meani ha provad tba diaaociation
- "-- ' ' rbonio Diid^ and - '-"- u — -
linv depoaitsd on
lod thiu iapt at a tempantun below that at which
could take placa.
■mtioni on diaaociation and hii ganaralintiau trom
la genina and aonnd ^dimmt w
netiiaioni, ia parhapa nuaad wban «
1 ID tha flnt not biavad in tha i
^^^9!!,!u£X
a bet of iuteraat in t^ hi*toi7 ot nanaa tbat Dai
niiia tha Taliditj ot tbat thauT- Onr eatimata of tha inge-
1, and palioncs ibown in hia aiparimantal work, and ot
— ' ' •-' 1 which diraetad hia thaoratioal
_fn wa tacoUact that ba wu naitbar
n tha •aoond hj ideaa darifed from
tha kinatio thaorf, and hb boatila or at leaat nenttal attitnda
towaida it givaa perbapa graater Taloa to tha arldenoa tbat bia work
baa eontribntad to ita nondnaati
n.i<na'i.nA.itn palilbbal la tba Jmiriii * CMad « dt ntelfH ud
o^u. BifUTtkar pnbUikadaniliiH, nUlM £H P^Int-
(a- O. B.)
STE HABIE-AUX-HINEa See Maxkikch.
SAINTES, ft towa ot Fnnce, the cbef-lien of ui arron-
diasement ia the department of Cborente-InKrieiue, on
the left bank of the Charente, 88 feet above the sea and
45 miles aoDth-eut of Ia Bochelle bj the railway from
Nkotee to Bordeanx. It occnpies a delightful position
and ia ot interest for ita Ttoman remains. Of these the
best preserved is the triumphal arch of Qennanicos,
although it has been removed and rebuilt stone by stons.
The amphitheatre is larger than those of Nlmes, Bordeaux,
and Pomp^ and in area ('89 of an acre) is surpassed only
by the ColoMenm. The ettemal ellipee wa* 436 feet long
andSfiibrood. Babbleembeddedincemeotia thematerial
of the bnildin^ which dates probably from the dose of the
1st or the beginning of the 2d century. Ueasurea have
been taken to keep the nuna, now tnade picturesque by
trees, from further iqjary or decay. The Capitol was
destroyed after the capture of the town from the English
by Charles of Alengon, brother of Philip of Talois, m 1 330.
An ancient hjpogmun is still preserved, as well as nnmer-
oos traces of the channels by which water was conveyed
lo private hooaes. The antiqnarian masemn contains 7000
medals and nnmeraoi sculptured piece*. Saintes was a
bishop's see till 1T90; the cathedral of St Peter, lebuilt
at tha close of the 12th centnry, was almost destroyed by
the Bngoenots in 16fl8. As rebuilt between 1582 and
1 586 the interior of the church has an unattractive appear-
ance. The tower is 236 feet high. The church of 8t
Entropini (which was founded in the dose of the 6th
centory, rebuilt in the 11th, and had its nave destroyed in
ths Wan of Religion) stands above a very interesting well-
lighted orjpt, the lai^eat in France after that of Chartreo,
adomad with richly sculptured capitals and containing the
tomb of St Eutropins (4tb or Sth centnry). Notre Dame,
a splendid axample ot the architectnre of the 11th and
1 2th centuries, with i noble round clock-tower, is unfortu-
nately occnpied by the military anthoritiea, who have
divided and Bintil^ed the interior. The town, which was
at one time at the head of the department, is still the seat
of the courts of assiie and has a court-houaa. Other public
bnildings are a town-hoose (Bcnaissaoce), a hoepiliJ, and
a library. Small vessels aaoend the river as far as Saintes,
which has an advantageous situation between Angoal£me
and Cognac higher up and TaiUebourg and Bochafort
farther down, and is the seat of iron and copper f onndriea,
factories for agricultural instruments, cooperages, and skin-
dretcing establishments. The population in 1881 was
13,341 (15,763 in the commune).
SaintM (U adiolannm or UadioUnium), tba capital of tbaSantonis,
wai a floaiiabing town btfera Ckiiar'i conquaat of OauL Chria-
tianitv na intiodoced bj St Eutropius, iu Gnt bithsp, fa tha
middle af tha ltd cantnry, ChulenuiKne rebuilt ita catheibaL Tha
Nomiani burned the ton in BIS and SSL Rjchiid Cwir de Lion
fortiAadbimaalfwithinitawaUaagainit biaralbar HanrjII., who
(apturad it after a deatnctiva aiage. It m* not till tba nign of
Charlea T. tbat Baintaaoaa parmaneotlT recoveied rrolD tha Eugiiah.
The Proteatanta did great daiaaga during tlia Wan ot Raligioa.
ST &TIENNE, an industrial and mantifacturing town
of Fraikce, chef-lien of the department of Loire^ 312 milaa
■oath -Boath -east of Pmm and 36 miles sonth- south-west
of Lyons by rail, wi& a branch line to Le Pny. The
ccal-field of St £tienne is the richest in France after that
of Talenciennee and Pas de Calais, giving employment to
12,000 miners and 5000 workmen at the pit-heads. There
are 64 conceeaiona worked bj 38 companies, extending over
an are* 20 miles long by 5 in width ; the mineral is of
two kinds, — smelting coal (stud to be the best in France)
and gas coal ; the yearly output is between 5,000,000 and
4,000,000 tons, but with a tendency to decrease. In the
metallurgia establishmeBis of the arrondissement, which
extend all the way along the railway from Finniny to
Rive-de-Oier, 5540 workmen are employed, and in 1882
61,127 tons of cast metal, 68,446 tons of iron, 10,616
tons of sheet-iron, and 131,663 tons of steel of all
kinds were mann-
factnred. The taat-
named bdoatr;,
carried on accord-
ing to the Besse-
mer and Martin
processor yields i
nearly a thud of
the whole French
production of steeL
Military and naval
materi^ nulwi^
plant, and articles
of general mer-
chandise are alt
madeat 8t ftienne,
and its name is
espedally associ-
ated with la^e
castings, bomb-
proof plates, ship-
pieces of machin-
erjr. The national
gun-factory, nndor Plan of Bt Btlanna.
Uie direction of artHlerj officers and employing 4300
workmen, ia almost exclusively devoted to the produc-
tion of rifles and revolvers for the army. A certain
number of gun-makere not engaged in the factory turn
out from 80,000 to 90,000 firearms (hunting- pieces,
revolvers, Ac.) per annum. Hardware ia manufactured
by 60 firms, employing 7000 workmen (who are not, how-
ever, exclusively occnpied with this department) ; leading
articles are locks (known m Fotos locks), common cutlery,
files, nail^ bolti^ anvil^ vices. Hemp eables for mint^
168
S A 1 — 8 A 1
liaU, potl«t7, and lime are among the miscellaneous manu-
factured. pimlucU of tbe town, vhicL ia besides & great
centre of tlio ribbon tnule, with a twting-liOQso (cwt.jfi™)
for oxauiiniu); the ailk. Fcora GOO to 600 tons of silt,
■valnml at £1,200,000 to jei,400,000, ore [Vod ,«raaniim,
and the manufoctiiKKl <ij-tk'l«i renuli a. valiio ranging from
je2,H00,000 to £3,300,000. Tht ciLiIioqh I'wwr, trinuuiogs
(in ailk, oottoii, and indin-mbliur) piodooKl in the arron-
dihuoiainit of HI Ktiuiino are vplned al £4,000,000, and
form {cpr-fiftliH of tUo total French imxlnction. With the
oiceiitinn of a tow fuctorien whore ninchinery is employed,
the nkolo ntaiiiifacture in carried on by pcmotu with Kniail
meaoB. Aliont 5000 luoniii (Jac([riard'H i«nuittEny thirty-
lux iiiocfifl to In n'ercn at once) mid 10,000 worlcnen are
t)iu{iloyed. ItusidoH tlie oM nbley church of Yalbenolta
Sootaiila of tbo town) with ibi nave dating fron) the
.3th coutnr}, the [mlilic bmldiugs comprise a ProteHtaat
chnrcb, a uynngogiio, a town-hoiuie (finished under the
aecond emi>ire and decoratul irith statues of the ribbon
trade and metallurgy), a school of oiineH (1H16}, with a
mineialogical and geological eoliectiua, and a "palace of
tiiB arts," n'ith a iKiiwuin and library ricli in old USH.
and ooUectioiin iu couaoxion with artillery and natural
hiatoiy. Near Vallioiiotte in tbe wooded gorge of tbe
Fnrena is the rmwrToir oF Qouffre d'Enier, formed by a
^m (1U61-1866) 308 feet long, 131 high, and 131 wide
at the bane, aud caiiable of storing about 70,000,000 cubic
feet of water. The |joiiulation of tbe toirn waa 38,000 in
UU; by 18T6 it tras 136,019, but it had decreased to
JU,Se2 (133,K13 iu the cooimuue) in 1S51.
At Uic clow of tbe IZlU o-iiturr St Eiieuue vu only ■ pBriih of
tlw Fsjiils Oitr helonyii'S to th« sbbov of Vallnnolte, By lbs
uitliDa of tliD 11th coiitory ths cca! tnule hu\ readied 1 certain
d*Talot«u>ut, «ucl by tliB cloM of tlio teutury tb* lown na nir-
RHUid«l B'itl. wslU iiiil livl can>uil« A hupiind yeart later it
bad lhr» groiving niLurlb. The ^Va^ of Bcligioa stbnulatKl tliB
niaiiuDictnro of inm^ Bud jliout tbe siiue period tbe ribbon trade
qinuR Inlo Biutuiicc. It mig not till tbe iSth contarj, hoserer,
tlwt the torn mitered ou it« ar* of jiroaparity. Tbo royel maun-
L,._,._, 'alia. ' ■"" "- ■-
llI 100,000 wi
lOeone
bdocy of sniu mi oatabllslisd
dndsgattbii rata ofl2,OOOmuBtola per annum
17M aud May 17M tbej delivered 170,858 ;
annml svan^ tbrouRhout tba nhole i>trlod i
Snt nllnya openvd in Franoi were the line
and Aadraziaii on tld Loire in 1828 aud tbit mulocfu oi cuciiuu
nod Iiyous iu 1831. In ISaS 3C fitiauDS liecauie ths sdmiuistntics
eoBtn 9t ths ditnutRunt initoad of Uontbriaou. Among tbe loal
««labritiBa an nanoii Oamicr, vho oonquemd Tongklng iq 1873,
■nd HTtnl CDgravnrt who hava pnu smiuonco to tbo 3t Etienne
Khool of angnTing:.
6T EUSTATIU8, or Br Eitbtaobk. one of the Datcb
Ifeat India Inlands, a dependency of Curasao, lying north-
wert of 8t Kitta in 17' W N. kt. and 62* iff W. long.,
coiviiats of two volcanic cones and on intervening valley,
and contains the mnall ton^i of Onmgetown and two forts.
The population, which from 76lXt iu 1786 bad decreased
to 1741 (about 1000 Negroes), was again 3247 in 1SS3.
Between 300 and 100 voweU visit the island annually.
Yams and eweet potatoes are exported (filB7 and 3010
tone iu 1862). The Dutch oocnpied St Euelatins ia 1635,
and, after frequent French and English irruptions, were
conSnned in their possesaion of it in 1811.
BAINT-6TBEM0NI), OaiULES db JUaonffriL be
RiiST-DBifis, Skiohbdhde (1613-1 703), was bom at Saint-
Dem»-I»ODast near Cuulances, the seat of his family in
Normandy, on lirt April 1G13. He wom a younger son,
lint took bis deulgnatioi] from one of the smaller estates
of the family and appears to have had a suEBcient purtiou.
He was a pupil of the Jesuits at the ColliSge de Clermont,
Cariii, then a student at Caeo. For a time he followed the
law at ths Coll^i-'o d'Uarcourt. He soon, however, took
to arms and in 1629 went' with Eanompiorre to Italy.
He served througli great ]>art of the Thirty Years' War,
chiefty in Qennan j, and, meeting Oaisendi at (Wis, liecame
strongly imbued with his doctrine*. He wu prencnt at
Rocroy, at NiJrdlingen, and at I na. For a time ba waa
attached to Cond6, but is said to have offended biffi by
some satirical Hpeech or speeches. Onring the Fromlsi
Saint-li^vremond, unlike most of his contemporariefl, nover
changed sides, but was a steady royalist. The duke of
Condole (of whom he hoa left a tuiy severe portait) gave
hiui some apjfointments in Uiuenue, and Saint-Evromoud
is uaid to have saved 00,OOC livrea in le^ than throe yeam.
He was one of the numeroos rictims of the fate of Pouimet.
.Bid letter to Criqtii on the peace of tbe l^eneeo, wnicK
is said to liave beeu ditjcovercd - by Culbert's agenta at the
seizure of the superintendent's jiapors, scenia a very id-
ado<|imte couae for exile, and it bas been auppooed tbat
there wes mors behind ; bui nothing ia known certaunly.
Saint- ^vremond went to Holland and England, There £e
was received with o\iea arma by Charles II., and waa pen-
sioned. He found himself very much at home in England,
and though after Janieu II.'s Bight to France Saint-
tlvieniond was invited to return he declined. HortenM
Klancini, the most attractive of Mazarin's strangely attrac-
tive group of nieces, came to England and set up a itltm
for love-making, gambling, and witty conversatioo, and
here Eiainb-flvremond n-as for many yean at home. He
died on Michaelmas Day 1703, and nas buried in Weat
minster Abbey, where his monument stiU is in Foefa
Comer close to that of Prior.
Baiut-Kvremoad ii iieibaia tbe most mmsrkabbi iailaaee of the
mrioiii 17tb-cautiiry ftacy for di-eulating litsrary work in mano-
■crlpt or clandartinely. Ha Darsr himnlt anthorind tbo printiu
of any of hii norka during bia long lifetime, tbongfa BarUn in 1688
ynblialied an nnautborl»d cotlMtion. Bat he entpomrad Da*
llaizeaai to pnbllsh big worki after bis death, and tbay duly
appeared, the earbeat form and date being S vols, <tD, 1T06. They
irare often reprinted in rarioni forma during the fint half of tlie 18ta
centnry. Saint- Evri^oiid, however, had mad* bia aurk and eatab-
liebed iii* influence long belbre tba earlist of tbna books aj^Morad.
He was an oli.jr man tbso Pascal, a very moch older Uaa fliaa
Anthony Hamilton, and be probably j^reoeded lh> Ant, aa br
certainly long preeeded tbe second, in tba evpktyiasDt btatttttj
pnrpoiei of a nngnlarly light, poliabed, and ma«Ail traoy, •mbim
t.ught a great dwl to Vollairn, but nbich Voitiir* ini aantabl*
to imitate with iiuilo the air of geod companr which dtUlngnlAa*
hid teofher. The masterpiece of Saint- Evremond'i djblo ^
tting re
lefam
■abtle good-btimoored irony,
oaini-fjvremond'a vorica are deaaltory in tiie extreme, bobh aia-
borata lattars contain tbe axpoaitioa of an ^canau phfloaodiy
of life Tbich bad a very great infinence on the polite aoctety ofhb
day. Others, and the most important of all, eihihit tbe writer ai
'of Blngnlar diacrinibiation and luls. Hh ooai-
neille i
ire, all
I, bti remarfca oi
i), hi* iketchai of critkiai
.rlcable nnioD
the menlj ae
lamicinirit
Llto^Ow,
orderly gene
which Jiad in bii tima already be
Saiut-Eiremond may Ih nid vith gnater light b
phrase which uied to be applied to Sir William Temple. He i*
the firat maater of the genteel atyle in French litaraton, and tba
hvely pnignancy of hi* irony praventa this gentility fita ntt
becoming mujod. His inflnano* mdasd «*■ lUMdly less b U*
adopted than in bia nstire coontrr, and it maybe traoediiD lb*
Queen Anne easayiatu to a not mnob ItM dtgre* than In Hpfilll™
and Voltaire.
■Bll/lo
ippean, GtnOd, and eti
ST OALL, in area the sixth (780 aqnan mileaX in
actunl population the fourth (210,491), and in relative
deruity of pojiulation the tenth of the Swisa canton^ woa'
formed in 1S03 out of the two ind^Modent eommimitiea
of the " (own " and the "abbey" (incloding Toggeabnig),
RappecmryL Umocb, Qastei, Sargana, Qama, Bbwrthnf,
Sox (with Forsteck), which behmged to ZuriiJi, and Wv-
deobec^ whidi belonged to QImiu. It nnnloaw tlia ohmb
S A I — S AI
of .^pautl^ cBtendiaff betmen Qm Lake of OanttuM
and Um Lftko of Zorii^ on the west, And ^™"ff bocndttd
by tbe BhiM on the eMt, whUe inO* aoath-iNat Ik* tlw
mUej oecD^tid I7 the WaUenstUt I^ke tad the Lfndi
OunQ. ' The Rhine H[»ateB St OaU from Tnol. «xt (>»
nrt of its frontier is contenninons in iinnfuyi"" viUi
Gtiion^ Qluua, Bchwyi, Zoiich, aod ThugML In alti-
tode tha canton nngea from 1306 feet above the m* (the
heif^t of the I«ks of Oondance) to 10,860 feet En Oe
Bingelapiti of the Sardona gronp. The Aiable area ii not
anffioeot to enpplf the kcal demand for grain ; bnt ths
atock-braeding and especiallf the majiufactnring indiu-
trie^ to which a large port of Uie populatiott i« devoted,
make &p for any agricnltmal deficiency. Borsehaeb and
Bu^enwj] are lake porta ; Wjl, lichtautei^ Altatatten,
ana Umaeti markets of aome importanoe for local pro-
ducts. Ironstone ia worked in the Qonien district, and
Qiere an qnarries at Bonohac!) and BoUigen, Hals and
Degexiiuim. Bagafc^ the veU-known mtering-plaoet is
•applied widi minenl mter from Fttflen. The pM^ of
St Oall an three-fiflihi B<»nan Oatholio and two-fifths
ProtoEtant (130,164 and B3,U1 in 1880), bnt, b spite of
tids and oonridwahlB diTersitiea of cnlture and disiactor
froa distiict to district, a bur degres of bBrmony bas olti-
male^ been secured sren in the treatment of educational
qoeatatnia. The considtntion datea from 1861 and was
paitially leriaed in 1S7S. Alter being abolished for maujr
yean, ue death-p«nal^ waa t»«iiacted in 1883. Bendes
tho cil7 of Bt Qall there were in the canton in 16S0 three
comnumea with upwards of 6000 InhaUtantaeacJi, — Tablat
(8093), Wattwyl (a seat of the cotton tnaanfactnre, 5383),
and Straabenaell (tS026).
ST QALL (OetmaD Scmit OaUtn), capital of tbe above
canton, oooopiea along with its subons St Fidsn, Neudorf ,
and T^-nggv (to the east), and lAcben and Vonwil (to
tile west), an are* 4 milea long by I broad in the hi^
land vallcff of tte StMnach, whidi descends north-east
to the I«ka of Oonatance. On a pillar in the market-
plnca an the foUowing details. — IaL IT' 25'36'K.; bng.
7* y ar E. from Paris (9' SS* 41' Oreeo.) ; height above
the sea, 3196-6 feet; mean annual temperatore, 456; an-
noal ninfatl, 00 inches; aii-distanca from Znrich 39 mile^
tram Genera 174. ^leonlytowa — not village — inEor^
irtoeh has a higher poAitiDn than St Qall ia Madrid, lie
chid bnilduig in Bt Oall is the abbey, d whi(^ (as it
was oii^nally arranged) a ground plan and description
are given in vol. i pp. 12, 13. The abbc^ church, since
1646 the Boman Catholic cathedral, was entirely rebuilt
in the latter part of the 18th centniy in the roeooo s^le.
Partly from the desire to inelode within the dudr the
tombs of the two fonndeis and partly bom the hostility
wUch long existed between town and tonsore, both tb«
towers (217 feet) are placed at the east end and the main
entrance is in ute north side. The whole chorch has a
length of 400 feet (with the sacris^ 454 leet), and a
tntadth in the nave of 90 feet, a disproportion which is
consderaUy disguised by the anangsment of the interior.
Among the int^nal decorations are two colossal sintnea
of St Deuderins and Bt Hanritins, the original patrona
of the duDch, wbose relics wese bronght from Bcotland.
Othw boikUngs of importanee are the (Protestant) dmidi
ot at Iftwreno^ parbalfy rebuilt (ISOI-OS) acccmling to
plans by the Swiss post Johann 0. MOUsr, the Qonrameot
aOoaa oil the east ride d the abbqr-eotirt (wfaero ScbaU's
famona relief of the cantons of St Oall and Appenzell is to
be ieea\ the townJioiias^ the offices of the Mercantila
Directwimn (a ITQi-centiiry institntitm to which the town
owes mnoh of its cosomsicial pra^KH^), the great cantcmal
BC&wl — eompiising a gynmi^nm, a twlmta.! si^ocd (pre-
paratofT to ua pohrte^nictun at ZixA^tX and a »nftr^^"*'^*
.school— tbe cantonal nformatmy of St Jacob, die hospitals,
■ad the in^tiT and cavalnr faanacks. In the town park,
part of which la oooqiied by the botanio gaidens, stands
the public "■"»™'"t cAitaining natural history coUectdoos,
the mdnstrial collections and industrial drawing- school of
the Heroantile Diiectorinm, the picture gallery of the Art
Socie^, mid Ae antiquarian collections of the Historical
Society. Us moseom of the East Swiss Qei^raphical
Commerdal Sodety is located in the cantonal school
Besides the abbey library, famoos fw its ancient MSS.
(origiaal oi the Ni/Mmgailiid, Ac), there is a town
libruy (Bibliotheca Yadiana), founded by the reformer
Joachim de Watt oT Vadianus. In spite of its position
and climate^ St Qall is the seat of extensive indnsbies and
bades. About 4S,000 persons in the snrrounding cantons
are engaged in the msjiutactnre of embroidered goods,
munlj muslins, for the St Qall capitalists, who also em-
pl<nr some 6000 or 7000 women In chain«titeh and hand
embroidery. In 1873 63S4 machines were at work in this
department in the town and vicinity, and in 1883 14,883.
The vslna ot teitilo falnics and embroidered goods annu-
aUy exported from St QaU U £3,600,000 to £4,000,000.
All round the town the meadows are used as Ueadiiiig-
groonds for the webs. In 1870 the p<qralation waa 16,67^
in 1880 31,438.
Tha ibbaj of 8t Oill wu nsmad sfttr Iti finndar, • fidlovai cf
St Cohunba, who akiig with Cfdombu I«tt Intand m tha datnK-
Hon of Bsi^ sad InsUv attlsd down in ths midst of th* grast
thoe stntcbtd from th* ItHu at Ooattsncs to ths
' wnvntiiig ths Abmsnna On
■ tpostt* 3 CMa Cbristis^ty
was borisd ia hi* iHstorr, snd la tits Sta eantniy tha spot thus eaa>
Ncr^ad bscaiw the litB of llw moDutli boUdiogi ancted I7 Abbota
Goibert and Otisuald. The liiaiKUtiaa ns slissdv a waslthj
mu^ and tt sooa bacama s gmt ccBtn or litaisiT uid srtbHe cnltnrs,
sttisetins Danwrom pn|Hb and iMairiBg tlw homu* of dokia and
Is ths lOtb oaDtmr ths sbbey snd its eliHtar of honsas
larromMlad with ■ nil. Which is »M hsd to dated tha aanlo-
meat sa^st sn sttack hj s bsnd ot Sincans. Ia th* irign of
BoddiA ot Hsoabnre; Uia town obtaiasd s roeognltioa of its com*
mmurindapandanc* Iran Abbot Dltkh sad from tha anpvor UiB-
ialt ■ niia^ at Importsnt privJlMas. An ■lUince dsMulTo and
oflbudva mi fennd la ISIS with Zmieh, Constsnoa, snd Sohsff-
haoaia ; sad, slthon^ tha nmtpaillT of ths totm iwdml ■ laTaTa
cliack ij a gnst coiinafpitMl in 1S11, ths vigonr with which tha
baa^ara pnssontad ths nawlj {alTDdiued Ibun insnbEtan soon
ma&itonaof tbamost BonriiUngtawnsot SwitserisD^ Abovt
tha Biiddls otUia 14th osatniT tbsbatriien baon to Asn In tha
aovammsnt of tha town ; snd In 1U7 Ihsr ooo^t np all tlia
claima of Q» sbbotB tO tsnitorial lotisdiotksL In 1U4 8t Oall
Mnad ths oonlsdantiin of tho Mm tovna, Zurich, ka. Abbot
Uliloh Till, dataimhud to lamov* tha sbU^ to Konohsch | but
ths iabsUtauts of St Osll, Appannli, fe«^, comUnnl to destraT bis
naw buildtngii and, tbou«h Bt (kfl was bMl«nd by tha abbot's
SBppntarssnd hsd to pav piaTPoa dsmaM (lUKO, tha tisstj wMch
It rignad bonnd ths abbots nerai to attunpt to nmoTS tba ralics
at tM toandaT. Tha abbay, vUoh hsd punbssad tha oonntahfp of
Toannbiu& psaed St tha BebnsstioD Into tha hands of tha town
i\Ka\ bat it wia iwtotwl to tlia abbota in IGBO j and, whMi In
171B in tha " Togganbnrg 'War " Zniioh and Barn dsvartstad tha
abbay and Iti poaaaastona, tba toni£>Ik ramsined naotrsL Ths
final diiaolntiaa of tba abbay ocenrnd in 17M. DsdN tbs franch,
St OaU wsi tba ohiaf toim of tha canton of Sbitia
SAINT-OEBMAIN, GoK9 si (d. 1780X a eelebnded
adventurer of the 18th centnry who by the assertion of hia
discovery of some extmordinarjr secrets of nature ezerdsed
considerable influence at several Enro{Man coorta. Of his
parentage and place of birth nothing is definitely known ;
the eommcn vcssion is that he waa a Portognese Jew. It
was also oommonly stated that he obtained hia mone;
from i<i»/'bvging the twictiona of spy to one of the Enro-
psan courts. He knew nearly all Uie Eoropean languages,
spoke good Owman and Wngii.li, excellent Italian, French
(with a Piedmontase accent), and Portngoeee and Spanish
with perfect purity. Grimm affirms him to have been the
of the beat parts he had ever known. Bis knowledge
and minute, and hia acoom-
170
S A I — S A 1
plighmenta u > cbeaiiit, on vblcli be baaed hii reputation,
were nndonbtedlj real and considerable. The moat re-
markable of h)B professed diBcoreiiea was of ft liqTiid which
Gonld prolong life, and bj which he osaerted he bad lived
2000 jeaiB. At tbe conrt of Louis XT., where he ip-
peared about 1718, he exercised for a time extiaordiiuuy
influence, but, having uiterfered in tbe dispute between the
honsei of Austria and France, be was compelled in June
ITSO, OS account of tbe hostility of the duke of Choiseul,
lo remove to England. He appears to have reeided in
London for one or two Jbbib, but was at St Peterabu^ in
1763, and ia tseeried to have plajed an important part in
connexion with the conspinic? against the emperor Peter
TTT, in Jnlj of that year. He then wont to Qermany, where,
aeoording to the MiBunra avlhmiiguet of Cagliostro, he was
the founder of freemasonrj, and initiated Cagliostro into
that rite. After frequentiog several of the Qennan courts
ha finally took up his residence in Bcbleswig-Holstcin, where
he and the landgrave Charles of Hesse pursned together
the stodjof the "aecret" sciences. He died at Schleawig
in 1760.
Baint-GernuEn flpirra Jirominentlj In th« corrmpondenca ot
Orlmin uid of Toltain. Sea ilio Oettingtr, Ortff Smnt-Oemafn,
ISIS ; BiUsn, Otiuimt OmMMtn mid r&Oudhafl* JToucAm, ToL
6t GERMAIN-EN -LAYE, a town ef Fiance, in the
department of Seine-et-Oiscs 6 miles north of Teraaillee
and 13 wut of Paris by ruL Built on a bill on the left
bank of the Beine, nearlj 200 feet above the river, and on
the edge of a foreat 10,000 to 11,000 acres in extent. St
Qermun has a healthy and bracing ur, which
favoorite place of summer residence with the Pa
had 1C,S4S inhabitants in 1881 (10,790 m the commone).
Tbe terrace of St Oermaia, constructed b; Lenfitre in
1672, ii 7900 feet long and 100 feet wide, ia planted with
lime trees npwards of a hundred years old, and affords an
extensive view over the valley of tbe Seine as far as Paris
and tbe surrounding hills; hence it ranks aa one of the finest
promenades in Europe. It was also after LenAtre'i plans
that the " parterre " promenade waa laid out between tbe
castle and the forest and the " English garden " (bj which
it is approached}. The histoiy of St Oermtun centres in the
castla, now occnpied by a museom of national antiquities.
A monutaij in hononr of St Germiia, blabop of Puia, wu built
In the forwt ot Lsye by King Hobsrt. Loui« VI. encted ■ csstle
clou bj. Bomed by thft Enffliah, rabuilt by Loms TX, snd igsia
by CbsrlM T,, tida cutla did not rauh it* foU daTilopment till
the tiioB of Frsncia I., wbo msy b« ■Lnat ngudsd as tbt nst
toundor of the bofldiDK A nsv cutla wsi srectid by Hanry IL ;
bat ft VH dHngliabtd by tha rannt of Artola, and then nmiiiiB
enly ths n-aslltd Hsnij lY. pavilion, niw u«t m an hotel, and
fcunrn a* tba place wb«n Tbien di«l, 3d Ssptember 1E7I. The
old cutla, on th« cantrtry, ta being completely reetond to the
■lata in which it wu nnder Francij L Tbt cbapal, dating from
\ua, it aldei than the Elaiiite Chapalle at Parl^ and ia irortby of
note for Its roae and other vludova. Tha muHDm, which will
OMupy forty room*, contalna a chronological aeriea of artietio and
indaatrial prodocta from tha cacliost prehiatctio times.' In the
ohureh of Bl QemMio ti a maoaolenm etwjtsd by Qoeea Tietoria
to tb» mamory of Jainea II. of England, wto found in the old
caitle (now demolished) an aajlBm aflar tha Earolntion ot 1*88.
In one ot tha poblio aqoana i> a atatno of Thiera. The town ia
the Beat of one of tbe caraliy ganiecnB which aoTround Paris.
At so great dlitanoe fa tlie fomt la the Couyent dea Lwei, a
it of the La^Mi ot ^oa
tirancb itf the t
iond (atabliehmt
(St Danis). The IHe dea Log« la one ot tbe moat popular in the
nddiboorhood of Paris. Henry IL, Charlea IX., and Uargaret
ofllaTaiTeweraboRiatStGanDiin, aa wall aa Lcnia £IV., icho ia
aald to bare nmoved from thie place to TenalUe* lo gat away from
Uta driit of tba dock-tower of St Deals, the chunk wbeia ha wu
ST HELENA, an island in tbe Atlantie in IS* 5S' 36"
a lat. and 5* 43* 30" W. long. (Ladder Hill Obaerv»-
tocy), lie* 1140 miles from Africa, 1800 from America,
700 lontii-eMt of the ialand of Aaoenaioii (the nearest
land), and 4000 from Great Britain, of which it has been
a dependency sinoe 1661. ^is area li about 46 squaro
miles, tbe extreme length from sonth-west to north-east
being lOJ miles and the extreme breadth 8^. The island
ia a very ancient volcano, greatly changed by Oceania
abrasion and atmoepberic denudation. The northern rim
of the great ciatar still forms the principal ridge, with the
culminating summits of Diana'a Peak (3704 feet) and High
Peak (3636); tbe southern rim has been altogether washed
away, thougb its dAbris apparently keeps the sea shallow
(from 30 to 50 fathoms) for some 3 miles Boutb.eaBt of
Sandy Bay, which bypothetically forms the centre of tha
ring. From the crater wall outwards water-cut gorges
stretch in all directiona, widening as thay approach tiie
aea into vsJIeya, some of which are 1000 feet deep, and
measure one-eighth of a mile across at bottom and three-
eightha across the top (MellissV Along tha enclosing hill-
sidea caves have been formea by the wsshing oat of tha
softer rocks. High HiU (2833 feet) and High KuoU (1903)
are lateral conea. Hany dykes and mBsaea of basaltic rock
seem to have been injected " aubeequently to the last vol-
canic emptiona from tbe central crater." Among tbe more
remarkable instances are the Ass's Ears and Lot's Wife^
pictureeqne pinnacles standing out on the south-east part
of the crater ridge, and the Chimney on the coast to tha
south of Sandy Bay. In tha nughbourhood of Uan and
Hoik (south-west corner of the island), throoghont an
area of about 40 acres, scarcely GO square yards exist not
crossed t^ a dyke. On the leeward side of St Helena the
sea-face ta generally formed by clifia from 600 to 1000
feet high, and on tha windward side tbesa heights often
incraase to full 3000 feet, as at Holdfast Tom, Stone Top,
and Old Joan Point. Limited deposits of calcareous tand-
stouee and stalagmitic limestones occur at certain pointer
as on Bugar-Loaf Hill ; th^ probably constst of particles
of aheUa blown bj the wind from acme primeval beach,
long since deetmysd.
As regards ita vagetatfan, St Helena la divided into three asata,
— (1) the ooaat nms, astanding inland for * mile to a mile and a
bali^fiHinerlyclotliadwltbalimiriantTei,-etation, but now "diy,
bsrnn, aoHleo, Ibban-eoated. and rocky," with little sara pricklr
pes)^ win gfuiv and JTHfinirvanJAflnun ; (S) the middle lone [100-
ISOO feet), extending about Uree-qnartBTB ot a mile ialand, not B>
iDcky,wlthBhalIowBtnlteTBandgraiKeriilopes,~tha£oitllab broom
and goree. biamblax, willows, poplan, Scotch pinea, fca, being the
pnTsiling tonna ; aud (t) tba cantisl lone, about > nftca long
and S vide, the Isat rafiwe for tbe moat put ot that aarvalloas
I A I — S A I
171
flan kUcK hu b«M for ctBtntldBt Aa idnlMtloD and rarow of
tba botubt Aaoanilag to Mr W. B. Halnul^ (wbo hM nm-
mwiiad all that ii koon oa Um nuttar in ki* nport im tha
botany cf tha Atlutio Iilasda),> tha eatunlj isdlAn '—
3i, and tlM
i an •$, tha pmbaUj iDdinnona 3i, and Om donbtAillf
wt; total >£ OftLa tS llowaiing plaota 10 an thniba
<v a^ui tnaa. With Oa aiaaplioQ if ftimia uAmit, all Uia t8
an p»-M" Is tha khod ; hmI tha Mma k troa of 11 of tha 27
TaaealBr anptogaiBa (a irinrtalili pcDpcttlaa). ainoa tl
ba^M to ba atadiad, two apadw— JMkuia auJaMtyb
jao^gate ratut ■ an kaown to hato bacom* 'aitiDct ; am!
a now raduead
__ _, Taiy nn, toot haa bacoma Ptlargenium
atyttdmUt, calUd " Old Patbo' Ura-lot^rar," bom ita ntaining
TitUi^&rmoofbiwitboataDilcirwatar. Ommidtitdnit nhatiaii
( " mmwaad "X atna abcnt 10 bat huh.
B tha iaiukd, w
M iaiukd, wu nmaaatad in IMS b; about ISM or 1400
iplaa ; ud OtmmiaadnM mgmm ("acrnbweod"] ii canflnad
nHwhat limilad nglonB. Both tkaaa plaata ara ehanotartiad
Dja dajay-er aatar-Uka bloanm, which ioiA» Taty attaun ob a
tiae. In aonanl th* afflnitiM «r tha indlnnou Bora of 8t BaUna
wan dwdbad br Sir Joaaph Hookai a* iLHean, bat Hr Bantbam
noiata oal that tna Impntaat alanuat ot tha OMctOm ahow^ at
laaat In Ua oldar Ibrmi, a oonnaxion ntbsr with Soath Aiuriea.
Tha aiotia flora iatndocad hon all farta of tha world ^raa tha
ialand alnoat Hna imact at a botank gaidan. Tha oak, tbotoogblj
probably intndDaeJ from Africa aboat lT7t*; BmtimrU'ludliata,
which abon 1600 hat ftima tha dandalioB id the ooontrr ; tha
baaatiM bat aggcaaaJTo Buddjaa madagattOTtmiit ; Phj/mHiptnt-
flaita; tba eommoa caator-oll plant; ud tha piUa of India. Tha
paapol b tba priudpal ahada tcae in Jamaotown, and in Junaatawn
Talby tha data-palm grawa ftwij. OnsfB and lamon trao^ onoo
eomntOD, an now acana. Tha attempt (ISflS-Tl) to Intndnca
eiaehnu enltlTatloa lUlvi. Potatosa an pnbably tha itapla pn>-
dOction oTtha St Halana brman, iiid ai maujr aa thni eropi par
anniun ua aomatirafla obtainad.
Tha biuia of Bt Halana ia only taeond In Intarett to Ita flora.
nt^ and Blia^ tha nta balng lainciallT abnndant and bailding
a in tha U^net treea. ProbaUy tlu only andamio land
ttii« ; tha iiwdaTat, Jari
thair n
Unlia tha win bird, jS/iaiait la .... ....
■panow, *«"<■"«<, grooad-don^ partridga (poaatbly tha Indian
rtiihrr), abaaaant, and gnlnaa-liiirl ara all common. Tha pai-fewi,
at OBO tbna not nncomncoi in a wild itita, ia 1<»8 ainea oitarmi-
nalod. ThoQf^ ftaah watar aboanda in tha idand in tha torm at
Mptiofm, rlTalat^ and atnaaa^ than an no freahvatar flab, beatlt^
or iholla. Ofotety-flT* apKioa of ato-fiih eanirht off tha idand aaran-
tean an p™'*" to St Etstana ; oeonomiouly tba mon important
Unda aia gmnard, aal, ooil, maokaiel, tonny, bnUaaya, tarallay,
floondar, lifB-aah,iBnllet,andakDlpin. Kr VoUaaton, m CWtijKm
Sam^M BtUum, IBTT, ihon that oat ot a total liit of 103 apadia
of baatkallB an ptobabty aboriginal and lis pecnliir to tha ialand,
— an indlTidoaU^ paAua nnaqnalled In the worid. Hon than
two^Urda an wwrua and n Taat m^oilty waod.borara, i hct whkh
boon oat Uu tndition of feioata UTing onca corarod the laland.
The Sim j/hyg and tba famd-ahalia alao ahow a atrong naidunm
of r*—"" ganara and qioidaa. A Sonth - American white int
(Taraiaa InM^ Huan.), introdnoed Ihnn n aUra-ahip In 1S40,
aoon biaami ■ noT pbigaa at Jonuotown, when n ooaidderabla
portion of tba pnbUoUbniyUl a pray to ib rondty. The honey-
bee, which thiOTa lot aoma Uma after tta lutiuduation, again diad
oBt. (Comp. ToUaaa, MukI LIf*.)
Tha popaUtiiHi of St Helena wia SU4 In IBTl and BOBS (SS17
■ule^ SMI lamaloi) in ISSl ; it condala of Gorammont offidali,
of old aatahliohid rarijanta (" yamatalka ") of oranawbat oompoaita
orinn, Bor^aoa and Aaiatli^ and of tha deaoeodanta of Htgnn
laodad from the Teat Afrioen Blara-diipa oaboeqaant to lUO. Tha
onlf town— Jomoatawn (3000 bboUtonta)— liaa in a daap nllay
on tha Borth-waot ooait, and thara la a THIan in tiia nai^iboaring
Boparf a Tolloj. Ittldar Hill, tha awt of the ganiaon, ia ao callad
froa tba abDoat pracipitoaa laddai^Uha woodan itoir by whkh ite
height «f MO bet oankaicalad. longwood, whan ITapobon died
is mi, k a bmhonoa in an alantad plain <3000 kat'UghJk abont
Si mOar Inbnd ftwn ' '—
known inhabitant in Itlt in tha panon of Tamondai Lopai, i
> Vatf rfa.MJ. OlfBmgw, AMbk <«L L
FortagDMo of pod tmOj, who proftrraj bsiag marooned to re-
taining to Eurapo afiar tlia barbarou* motiktion to which hu lu<l
been oabjectaJ lor oeme mladanManoor. CaTeudiih (IGSSj, Eendall
(1191], and I^ncaatn (ICID) wen the earikat Itugliih vigiton.
Tb* Dateh. who hail fbr aoma Ume been in [n mm ■inn of the idand,
wilbdnw In ISSl. bat on two oocadona (IMS and lfl7t| managail
to eipel tha foioea of tba Bn^leh Eaat Indk Company, which hwl
at once Kued the abandoned prlie. The company, naring procniej
I a aeeand charter of poaaaaaion on llth Daoamber ie73. remained
the gorarniugaatht^lytillXtrl April ISSt.Kbeo Bt Bf Inia notaed
into tha banda ot tba Bntitb cnwn. In 1831 it had notehioad
tlu (Madom of tha darai «II4) for £1S.0<X. Aa a yon of all tha
laland ooatinned to ptoiper till the optnlng of the Suea Canal,
which, bT altering the roata to the Et>t India, doprirwl tht people
of their maua of anbalitenca. The nTiona haa dacnawd Dvn
£11,181 in 18T4 to £1U,<1I in 1814, the eipndilon tnm /14.tll
to £10.80a, tha Tolna of importa ^m XS3,874 to £41,810, and of
axporta from £4000 to £1434. HoUey the iBtTonotuer in 1070 left
hk name to Haltiy'i Uoaat ; and lUtkBlina and IVaddington
Tldtad thg klood tn ITOI.
Bm hala. owaaiir tf gMat Mtoa (Mia BlalaX I*M ; Bnoka, fflitary nt
ImiM Sabao, 1 A aad UU ; Balaoa. faO^ *•., W*; Duirta, Omlttial
WtlfltoM •■ ribnli /dH4l, IM4 : MtUlM MU £•!«->, Mi.
ST HELEN'S, A iD*rk«t-fanni aod tDonicipd ud parli»-
mntary borotigb of watli-WNt I^Dcachire. EngUod, i>
(ituntad on t, h^nch of the London nnd North-Wsatera
BailwKj, 31 milw wast bf NUth of UttncliMtw Mid 10
«ut-DOrth-CMt of [JvorpooL . It is tb« principal Mat in
EngUnd for tha mannlnctnre of crown, plate, and oheet
glaaa, and has extenaive copper nuelting and rsGnin];
vorb, •« well *■ chemical worb. iron and braod foondriei,
and potteriea. There are coUieriea in llie Deigbbonrbood.
Tlie town, wliich ii entitel; of modern ongio, obtained a
charter of incorporation in 1868. A town-hall was erected
in 1673, and there are also a unblie library and Tarioua
inititntaB tc* aftvding inatmction aod Mnnaement to the
worUilg-claaa population. ExteoaiTe drainage worka hftTo
been carried ont nodA a local Act. The corporation are
the ownen of the waterworks and gasworka. Enfranchiaed
in 188S, Bt Helen'* retunu one member to the House of
Commons. The popolation of the borough (area, 6966
tent) in 1871 waa 49,131, and in 1881 it was 97,103.
ST HELtER. See Jnarr, toL ziiL p. 630.
SAINT-EILAIRE See Oeoftrot S^iht-Hilaiu.
BAINT-EILAIRE, AiraDen di (1799-1S93), French
botanist and trareller, wa« bom at Orleans on 1th October
179S. He bt^an to publish nemoin on botAnical sulgectB
at an earljr age. In 1816-33 and in 1830 he tiaToUed in
South America, eapaciallj in south and central Brazil, and
the result* of his peraonal study of the rich flam of the
regions through which he passed appeared in seTual books
and nomerona attiole* in ocientific jouimala. Theae works
are most valoable from tha copious infonnatiou they afford
not only abont the plants and other natural products but
also abont the native rac«s he eucountered. Those by which
be is best known are the Flont BnuUim Meridimdtii (3
▼ols. folio, with 193 coloured ^tee, 1830-32), published
in coqjonction irith A. de Jussieu and Cambess6de, SUloiit
da plaiiUt la pliu rtmar^abUi (fx Sriiil it tit Paraguiji
II ToL ito, 30 plates, 1834), PlcmUi hmmUm dtt Srtmlimt
(1 *oL 4to, 70 platM, 1837-38X also in ooqjnnction with
be Jossieu and Cambesside, Yejagt dant U diitriet da
PutMOHit tt tur U littond iftt Britil (2 vols. 8to, 1633).
His nnmerooB articles in jonmals deal laiigely with the plants
of Brazil and the general characters of its vegetation ; bat
Saint-Eilaire also aided much in eatabliahing the natural
system of claeai&cation isa the firm basis of atructnial
«Jtaiactarsin theflowenaudfraitsi and that he recognized
tha importance of the study of anomaliea in this view is
shown in anon than one <A has writings. His Lt^mu dt
Baktm^ut, eomprtitant priiteipaltm<nt ia XorpMo^ Vigi-
ttUt, publJabed in 1840, is a very oomprehensiTe and dear
expoaitiMi (rf bottuiical morphology up to 1840 and oi its
application to ^stematio botany. Ho died at Orieau m
30th S^Umbn 1809. , ^ . . . ^^ . ^
173
S A I— S A I
ST IVES, a Mftport and bcmngli of weat CDnnnOI,
Engliuul, is ritnftted at tl]8 ireat snbanM of the beactiful
St Ives Bay on the Bristol Chanoel, 7 miles north of
pemanm. The older Etreeta are narrow and irregular,
bat on the alopea above tLerB are modem terrac«« with
good honaegi. Ilie town tokea its nams from St E;a or
I&, dn Irish virgin who is said to bavo arrivod in the hey
in the Stb century. The parish church of St Andrew is
in the Eariy Parpendicnlar atyle of the IStli century. In
the churcli)«rd is an ancient cross reeeatly reeti»ed. A
town-b&U was erected in 1833. The town is the head-
qnarters of the pilchard fiaheiy. Ttte port has suffered
greatly from the accumulation of sand. A stone pier was
bnilt by Smeaton in 1767 ; a breakwater was commenced
in 1816 but abandoned; and a wooden pier, which was
commenced in 186S, is still unfinished. Formerly the
town was called Fendenie or Pendnnee. lu charter of
incorporation, granted by Charles I, in 1639, was forfeited
in 1685, but was renewed by James II. in 168$. From
the reign of John ontil 1632 it sent two memben to pac>
liomeot, and one from 1832 until 1885, when it was
merged in the 8t Ives division of the county. The popu-
lation of the municipal borough (area, 1890 acres) in 1871
was 6965, and in 1881 it was 6445.
ST JEAN BAPTISTE, a suburb of Montreal, Canada,
under a separate municipality. It lies north-north-east of
Uount Royal Park and is hardly a tnile from the centre
of the city. The population in 1881 was 5874.
ST JEAN D'ACBE. Bee Acee.
ST JEAN D'ANGtLT, a town of France, the chef-lieu
of an arrondlssemsnt in Uie department of Charente-InfA-
lieure, on the right bank of the Boutonne (a right-hand
affluent of tho Qiarente) and on the railway from TaiUe-
bonrg (12 miles soath-west) to Niort (30 miles north).
The town, which is badly planned and built, contains tlie
remsins of a Benedictine abbey, destroyed in 1568; the
exiting church corresponds to but a part of the large old
abbey church erected in the 13tb century. The harbour
admits vessels of 30 to 40 tone burden, and wine and
brandy are exported. The population was 6538 in 18S1
(7279 in the commnne).
8t Jan omt Iti origin to ■ eutts af the Tth ccntiity, irhich tha
dnkaa at Aqtdtuns UMd u a lod^ for boar-haatiiiE m Uis neigh-
boaring forat of Aogeri. Pippin, son of Loais Is Deboimurs,
turned it into i moniiaterj, wtere he deponted tha hetd of Jolin
BftptisC This relic ittractsd hosti of pilgrimi ; s toirn grow up,
took the name St Jean d'Angeri, ifttrvsrdi d'Angdlj, mt fortifiod
in 1131, uid in 1201 receired tnm Philip Apgnitni ■ communel
chirtur. Tho pOHesdon of th« pl£ce wm dispnted between French
and English in the Hundred Ycen' Wu-, snd between Catholio end
ProteatantB Bt s Uter date, LooiiXIII. took it IromtlieFrotntinta
in 1629 and depriTed it of ita fortificatioDi, it* priTiIw««, snd iti
TOty nuDB, nhicli ha wiihed to change into Boorg-Louw.
ST JOHN, capital of St John county aod the largMt
city of the province of New Brunswick, is strikingly
utoated at the mouth of the rifer of the same name, in
45° U' 6" N. lat. and 66' 3' 30" W. long (see vol zvii., plate
17.). It stands on an elevated rocky peninsola which
projects into the harbour for a considstable distance. The
latter, which is protected by batteries and never fr«ezes, is
well equipped with wharves and docks, and is capable of
accommodating ships of the largest size. Ita entrance is
guarded by Partridge Island, lying S mika south of the
eity, and containing the quarantine hospital and light-
house. About 1} miles north of ttie lighthouse is situated
the Beacon, and below ti>e town east of the channel is the
breakwater, 2250 feet long. The St John river enters the
harbour through a rocky and sharply defined gorge, 100
yards wide and about 400 long, having a total fall of
about 17 feet, which is passable to ships for forty-five
Binntw during each ebb and flow of the tide. Tha river
liM alternately an inward and an outward fall twice
every twenty-four boon, the high-water tide level taima-
diately below the gorge being 6 to 8 feet higher than tha
average level above the gorge. The river is here spanaed
by a stanch suspension bridge 610 feet long and 100 feet
above low-water level, and a cantilever railway bridge,
2260 feet long, with a river span of 826 feet, was opened
[Hui of St Joim, Kav Brunairick.
in 1665. The city, approached from the sea, presents a
bold and picturesque appearance, and, next to Quebec,
possesses more natural beaut; than any other town in
Canada. There are three large public squares, and the
streets (lighted with gas and the electric light) are regularly
laid ont. The water supply is derived from Little river, 5
miles distant, and brought to the city by three separate
mains with an aggregate capacity estimated at 10,000,000
gallons daily ; the present daily consumption (including that
of the city of Portland) is 6,000,000 gallons. The works,
which are owned by the city, cost €992,326. The water
supply of St John (West) is derived from Sprues lAke.
St John (East) has ^so an admirable sewerage system.
On the 20th of June 1877 two-fifths of St John (about
200 acres) were destroyed by a fire, which in nine hours
burned over #27,000,000 worth of property. The city
was quickly rebuilt, and on a much grander scale, many
brick and stone edifices taking the place of the old land-
marks, which were principally composed of nood. The
chief buildings are — the Boman Catholic cathedral, Trinity,
St Andrew's, the Stone, St David's, the Centenary, Ger-
main Street Baptist and Leinster Street Baptist churches,
the custom-house, post-offic^ city-hall, savings ban^
Wiggins's Orphan AJylnm, Victoria skating-rin^ lunatic
asylum, Victoria and lladras schools, the ilosonio and
Oddfellows' balls, the yonng men's Christian association
building, the geneml public, the epidemic^ aod the marine
hospitals, the court-house, jail, police office, and meehanica''
institute (with a reading-room, library, and museum).
There are thirty-three places of worship (Church of England
6, Roman Catholic 3, Presbyterian 7, Wesleyan llathodiat
5, Baptist 6, Congregationalist 1, Methodist Episcopal 1,
Christian Brethren 1, Disciples of Christ 2, and Christ-
adelpbians 1); the «lucational institutionB consist of a
grammar-flchool, a Uadiaa Mbool, Baptist seaunaiy, and
S A I — S A I
173
wrcnl poUio tad print* adioda utd «adaDiM. Bt Joim
bM abo ft fraa jmUw Hbnrj, DnnMnnu nligioa^ diwltKbla^
•oiaDtiAo,ftndliteni7«ocietiM,aiid thraB itOjurBinpapm.
Ouleton, oa tlte oppooite Mde ol tha riv«r, utd oMumtod
with dw eut dds t^feny, i* inolnded within (lie oorponi-
tioo limits Mid ia npnMoted in the o<nmoa eooDciL Tbs
popvlalioo in 1871 ww 38,S0(f, in 18S1 it w 9S,1S7
£n>leB 13,368, fauftlee 13,604), the deoreue being aeneed
J the BiMt fin ol 18TT, when nmij panooa left the dtj.
Bt Jclu li tlM aitiepAt tf a Iwg* oteit <f meatrj, tkb tn
iiuDAnl% urknaltnnJ prodiu^ tai tLmbflr. Jt ta tha nt of an
■itmilT* wiriDiM mnnoilaii, tnd ]m*m*m fint-dua mHU of
conuniuikatioD both bf ■tuinchip uhI ■■Uliig *«mI* ud b; tsU-
■■jm. Of late jMn U> multtass md nun&inuiiH tnUmti li»«
baan Hiaatly ottoidad. Tb* oU«( attkto of Dtaaafiaton er* iraa-
faatinga, ataask aagSiua and knoniotiTaa^ railny can, coacbaa aod
caniapta, mvtUoerj, adga-toola, sail* and tacka. coHab and mwllaii
pooda, (oniltiiTa, inwdan limn, laetlMr, boot* tad tbctt, aotn and
candlaa^ igrknlEnni implooaitB, hnnbar, aggai^boia^ papar, eoata,
HJla, Ao. Tb* Bahtili* lAtd anplc^WMt to (bout IDOO iimb,
and abed. aaluiB, bolUnt, sod, hariln^ alnrlna, itannoaa, and
baddockoompttaatbtchiafniMiaatakaB. Tbeaipurta (94,310,^70
in ISSIl oonabt of lab, lombtr, vooDtB and eotton ftoodi, muia-
bitnnd artlcla^ ko. ; tha impoH* (9t,Ul,SI)l {a IBSl) aia tobuso^
•agar and Boiiaaw, qdrit* tad malt Uqeon, dii*d frnlti, coOw,
taa, rilk% nli>«l^ ha. Tb* (nliowiof Bgnne laynaaat tba man-
maet of tha ""■^ji tnda In 1SS4 ; — Ttaial* amrad 1864, tonnaBa
117,500, man 7S*0i TMali dotted IMl, toenail lOB.OH^ mao
SSrt. Tb*Diimbeti>faBtranBaB%«Blaid9initan*lft04(tS<,471
braa), o( daannoa* IMl (017,411 toatX Tb* thiiIi ob tb* »-
Biatn took* (Slat QacoDbar 1B84) nunbarad 077, vith a tonnaga
of SG1,1U i U T***al( T«ra bnitt In that jtar with a tooiugB of
18,Mft nialaiBblairoMrtTliilBSSwt*— nal«a[a(ata,12Z,000,
panonal tt.^5S,>00, lnii6ina«a,BSS,M0, total fS110«,200. Tb*
cafponttni abb* tie managtd bj a DUfor, *l*ct*d hi the paopla
ananallr, a>d ■ ril^ooanoil if aigbtaan mamban. A John city
and ooon^ ntnin thno mamban to tb* Hon** of Oommona at
Canada, Bid all mamban to tb« Hoaaa of Aaaamblj of Kew
Bnuiawiok. Tba olimato, tboo^ hnlthf, t* cbaogtabK tb*
aaST rahr., aedtbatomat-XTF^tho
. [• for niiig, tummtr, aatuun, and irintsi raipact-
iRlrbaluIO*'«,te',U',aodaO*'<. Tb* Dambuofachaala uBl,
with 4171 popO* (anns* daHf *tt«iidaiio* S7SS). Baalda* tha
libmka ^-'^jf-e te tha rfty and tlw -— •>— -'-^ [naUtola, than
■» laiB* eoUHtlau of booka mta to mamban of tba Toung man'a
Chrirtun awxdatioa and the Church of England inatilsta. Karl-
ution <«i Bt John ilnr opana on Uth April and dosea on Kith
Da Uimta rUtad St John In lOM, bnt It na not nntil 10(0 that
it of tba plaaa wa* mad*! wh«n Charl** da la
nrjJiw brtonca, nntil 1708, whan It Bnallj pawd nndarBril —
■ontnJ. b 1704 tbi ftnt SsotUnh a*ttl«n anlTad In Ntw Bran*-
•ink, and In 178S tb* Lonllata landed at 8t John and aataUiahad
tha litj. it waa tailed Fan Town, la boDoni of GoTamiv Pan,
nnta I7U, whan it m* incorwatad with OoBmf (CaiUtoD)
nndar nnl obaitat, •• the dtj of 8t lobn.
Sr JOHN, Chaslk Wiuuii Oiobob (IBOS-lfiSO),
natnraliat and ■p<7tsiiuD, wu Qm eon of Qenaral the Hon.
Frederick 8t John, eeoond eon of Frederick, leoind Tiaooont
Bolingbroka, and waa bom 3d Decembei 1809. He was
educated at Uidhant School, Biueez, and ftbont 1838
obl&ined n derkahip in the trettaarj, bat, ftfter joining
■ome frienda in vanotu ezpeditioiii to the THjiMniul. of
Scotland, be fonod hia dntiea ao irkaome tlwt he reaigned
in 1834. Tbe Huna year he muried « bOj with aome
fortune, and wm thna enabled to fftiStj hia taste for
the life of a ^nrtsman and natnraliat. He ultimately
settled in the "Ijaigh* of Itonj, "within euj distance
of monntain apori, in the midat of the game and wild
animala of a low eoontry, and with the ccast indented b;
baT* of the aea, and studded with fieahwatar lokee, the
hannt of all the oommon wild fowl and many at tbe rarer
Borta." In 18S3 a paralytio etdrore permanently deprived
him of the nee of hie limbe, and for the benefit of hi*
health he removed to the aonth of England. He died at
Wooaton near Bontbampton on 32d Jnly 1806.
~ ' ' on apor^ whioh iword the nantt* of
a hd^ta and paonliarftiaa of tha Uid*
and vDd animala of tiw Hl^lauda. T^oavrittan laapltaiaat
andgnpblc iijli, and UlaatnUd with lagntinn, nuwT ot tham
from pen-and-mlE ik«tchoa of hia oim. ia which the traib and
fbaCnrea of tha auim&la ard d^pioted, though in rouon oatlina, jet
vith almort tbe niidneaa ot lUa. Hia w^ An tTiU SjhtU and
i/attiTal SiHoTT/ t^ tJu Bighlandl {la*t,U ml 1848. 8d cJ. IBBl);
Tour ia:SiXA<rla>"' (1818, ad ed, Willi noollacliona bv CiplaiB U
Bt John. 1R84J ; Aod. ^ Jfalvral Sila-g and Sunt Hi ilmnalUr*,
with U>moir by 0. Innaa (1803, id e>L ISOi;.
BAINT-JOHN, Hbsbt. Bee Bolihqbboeb.
ST JOHN, Jakm AtJotrarne (IBOl-1876). traTsUer
and author, waa bom in CarmBrtheaabire, Walea, on 31th
September 1801. After attending a village grammar-echool
be received private inatruction from a clergirman in the
daaaici^ and alao acquired proficiency in French, Ibahan,
Spaniab, Anbic, and Feralnn. At the a^ of aeventeeo
he went ta London, where he obtained a connexion with
a Plymouth aewapaper, and, along with Jamea ffilk Buck-
ingham, became editor of the Ortenlal Htrald. Xa 1827,
along with D. L. Richanlaon, he founded the London
Wmily Mniae, which wae aubaequently purchaaed by
Oolbtun and tranaformed into the Court Journal. About
1829 he left Loudon for Nonoandy, and in 1630 pubtiabed
an account ot hia experiences there under the title Journal
of a Sttidtnce m jfomattdg (3 voU.). After apending
Bome time in I^ria and BwitxerUnd he set out for Kubia
and Egypt, viaiting the eecond cataract in a small veuel.
He made important diecoveriea in regard to volcanic
agencies on both aldea of the Nile, and found traoea of
volcanic agency in the Libyan Deiert He also explored
tbe antiquitiea connected with the religion of ancient
Egypt. The results of hia journey were pnbli^ed under
the ^tlea Egspt ""d ttohammid Ati, or Travett in de
Yalley of O* JfiU (3 vols., 1S34), Epypt and Nubia,
(1844), and ItU, an Egyptian Pilgriouige (3 vols., 1863).
He died on 22d September 1875.
St John wit alao tha autboi of Liva <f OUtnlti TTamOtrt
(18S0), ^Mdmy ^Axu<y(1881), Bittorn, Uatrntn, and OtalcTiu
If Oa BindMt (1S81), JfaryarH BmnntnA, er Saomd Loa (8 toIl,
1800), Tlu EiUnn, or Jfoinir* tmd OaUmi ^ Aueitiit CfrtKi
(1843), Btr Oatmo Difl^. a noTel (1844), Fine* in Bonuo (1847),
nirrt mdBaik Again in StanA ifBtautu (18MX Tta Smuni if
Pirwtr (18G4], PkiiiiK^v at On FbU if On Orcm (1804), TS4 PnaA.
tug ^ amM (1800), Tki Ring and Ou Vitt, a novel (1S08), L^
(fLixcit SafUmn {\Wt\ Binary if Ou Penr Omfuml* ^ A«JaHJ
(1801), WngHtd lit Ou Baiana, a noval l1Mt\ and Lyfi if air
WalUr Sal4t^ (1808^ Ba alao aditad, vith nota^ vaiiona Engtith
Of h^ foor aona, tH of amna Iltanty diattnotlon — Pun Bolino.
bnka, Bajla, Spenaar, and Honca Boacoa tha aacond, BiTU Sr
Jonv (ISaX-ISeS), pradaoaaaad htm. Ho mt adncatad priTataly,
and bapn eoatnbutlng to tha pniodiea]* Khan ool* thiitaan. At
tha ajn ot twenty he wrote a aariaa of papen tn Aair nndar the
tItU Da Ba Tehlmlan. " To tha ama maprina h* contribntod
Boyut, a AofrqAy, in 4 TolDmea.' In 1840 ha faaaad through
.m..^ and Italv on hia way to Egypt, vban^ dnnng a raaidaneo
: two yaan, ha wrote Tin Libyan Dmrt (1M«> Cb U
t aattbid tc
m Arai Mtrdiant
and tb* SiOalpint fliudon, or Smriiiua and Sludim in Sam)/
(IBM). He waa alio tba author of IVooifa or m '--" —— '— ■
in Ou Soudan (1814), JTunKtRS, a Stvry if Aimt
Mtnairt if Vn Alia if aaint-aiaon n (if Jf
(4 Tola., 1807).
6AINT JOHN OF JEBUBALEM, 1
Okdeb or (left Kkiobthood). In tha yeai 1033 oertain
merebanta of Amalfi obtained penuianoa from tbe caliph
of E^ypt to eetaMiah a homital m Jernaalem for the om of
" poor and aide Latin pilgtuna." The hospice proapered far
beyond the hopes fA its foondeta, and grateful travellve
uptmi its fame throngboat Snrope and eeot offerings to
174
ST JOHN, KNIOHTS OP
its taa3», ■mtale ottwn Tolontarily renwined behiiid to
aadst BcdTsIy in ita piom purpoeea. With its uicreaeed
ntilit; orguiizstioD becune uecaaauj, aod la this organiza-
tion is to be found th« origin of the Ordat of Sftint John.
When Jenw»lam wm taJien by Godfrey de Boniilon (see
CainuDB), his wounded soldiera were tended by Pet«r
Oerard, rector of the AjnalS hospital of Bt John, and the
more weaithy of the enuaden eagerly followed the example
of tlieir leader in endowing so useful and so practical an
institution. Many of the Christian warriora sought per-
nlesioQ to join the ranks of the fraternity. At tiie pro-
posal of Osnrd a regoUrty canstitnted religions body vaa
formed ; the patriarch of Jornsalsm invested every approved
candidate with a black robe bearing on the breast an eight-
pointed white crow and received in retuma vow of poverty,
obedience, and chastity. In 1 1 1 3 Pope Paschal IL formally
sanctioned the establiahment of the order by a bulL Five
years later Oerard was succeeded by Raymond du Puy, and
nnder his aospieea the monastic knights took a fresh oath
to becooie militant defenders of the cause of the Cross.
Daring the Erst century of its existence the fraternity thus
acquired a religious, republican, mihtary, and aristocratic
character. The rules introduced by Raymond du Puy
became the basis of all subsequent refulations ; the lead-
ing members of the hospital or master's assistants were
formed into an all-powerful (onncil, which divided the
order into knights of justjce, chaplains, and serving
brethren. There was also an affiliation of religions ladies
(datmt) and' of donalt or honorary members. The income
of the body corporate waa derived from landed property
in all parts ef Surope. To facilitate the collection of
rents, commandenes (first called preceptories) were formed.
. These gradually acqmrSd the character of branch establiah-
menla where candidates were received and the same obser-
vances practised as in the parent oonvent. Haymond du
Pay twice repulsed the advancing Turks; and Hugh de
Payens, fired by the successes of the Hospitallers, founded
the sister order of the Temple. In 11 60 Raymond dn Pay
died. The rale of his immediate suceesaora was anevent-
ful; Gilbert d'Ascali greatly weakened the inflaence of
the order by joining (1168) in an ill-fated expedition to
Egypt. Roger DedmonUns, the eighth master, was killed
fitting against Saladin before Jerusalem, while his suc-
cessor. Gamier de Napoli, died of the wounds he received
in the decisive battle of Tiberias, which led to the surrender
of Jerusalem to the Moslems in 1187. The seat of the
order was now transferred to Uargat, a town which still
remained in the possession of the Christians, and it becomes
difficult to trace the frequent changes of the mattenhip.
The dangerous enmity which arose between the Eospitallen
and the TempUn neoessitated the enei^etio interrention
of the pope. In 1316 Andrew, king of Hungary, was
received into the order. The brief occupations of Jeru-
salem by the emperor Frederick II (1328) and 1^ Richard
of Cornwall (123-1) had little appreciable effect on the
waning fortunes of the Hnapitaliera. A mvage horde from
tlie borderaof the Caspian advanced against the Christiana,
and in the final stmggle with the Chorasmiaos the maatera
of both orders — united before the common enemy — fell
with nearly the whole of their followers (1344). William
de Chateannenf, elected to the mastership by the few sur-
rivora, repaired to Acre only to take part in the fmitless
cruaade of Louis of Franoe. The tmce between the rival
orders was doomed to be of short dnratioii. In 1369 their
armies met in a geaeral engagement, and Tict<»7 rested
with the Hospitallers. A brief period of soocsm in 1261
was powsrless to avert the bll of Uargat, and in 1289
Aore alone remained in the hands of the Christians. John
de Villien, a man of singular ability, became at thia criti-
cal juncture master of the order. Aii OTerwhelming fivce
was sent from Egypt to bemege Acre, which only fall after
a desperate rewstanc«. Under cover of the arrows of their
archers the knights sailed for C^nu (13911. Repeated
acta ot prowess by ae* still served to remind the Moslem
corsain of the survival of their implacable foes. De
Villien died three yesjs later and was socoeeded by OdoD
de nuB, who tried ineflectually to restore the porely oon-
ventual character of the order. William de ViUaret
{elected in 1300) shared the dangen of an exiiedition to
Palestine and prepared for the conqnest of Bhode^ which
was effected in 1310 by his brother and succeasor. Tha
revenues of the Hospitallera were now augmented from
the confiscated estates of their old rivals the Tempkra.
Fulk de Villaret was attacked at Rhodes by Osman, rnler
of Bithynia, but with the assistance of Amadeua of Savoy
he defeated the invaders. A sefioos difference which arose
between De TiUaret and his subordinate knights enabled
Pope John XX IT. to appoint his nominee John de Villa-
nova (I3I9). It was at this period that the order was
divided into the seven lanffua of France^ Praveuc^ Ao-
vergne, Italy, Qermany, England, and Aragon. In 1346
De Qtoon became grand-master. His adminidtiatioii and
that of his immediate snooeaBon are only remarkable for
a perpetual struggle for supremacy with the papal oonrt.
In 1366 Raymond Beianger captured Alexandria in eon-
cert with the king of Cyprus, but the victora contented
themselves with burning the city. Philibert de Ifaillao
had no sooner been elected grandmaster than he was sum-
moned to join the European crusade against tha sultan
Bajazet, and took part in the disastrous battle of Nicopolia.
The Greek emperor unfortunately invoked Uie aid of Tunnr,
who overthrew B^ant, but followed up hia meceM by an
attack on Smyrna, the defence of which Dad been entrusted
to the knights. Smyrna was taken and its brave garrison
pnt to the BW(H^ In 1440 and 1444 De Lastie defMted
two expeditions sent against him from ^jrpt. Nine years
later Constantinople fell at laet into tha hands of the
Turks. It was evident to the knighla that an attack on
their sanctuary would follow the tnamph of Islam, but it
was not till 1480 that the long-drettded descent on Rhodes
took place. Fortunately for the order, Peter d'AubusBoa
was grand-master, and Uie skilfully plmined attack ol the
three renegades was valoroosly repulsed. The heroic
lyAabassoa recovered from his wound^ restored the
shattered fortifications, and survived till 1603. Newly
twenty years passed away before tha sultan Solyman de-
termined to ctiub the knights, who had just elected L'lsla
d'Adam as their chief. After a glorious resistance, D'Adam
capitulated and withdrew with all the honoura of war to
Candia (Crete). Charles V., when the news of the disaster
reached him, exclaimed, "Nothing in the world has been
so well lost as Rhodes," and five years later (1530), with
the approval of the pope, ceded die island <^ UalU and
tile fortress of TripoU in Africa to tha homeless kni^ts.
Peter Dupont succeeded D'Adam in 1634, and in the
following year took a prominent part m the emperor's
famous expedition againat Tunis. The position in ItipolE
was (torn the firat precarious, and it was surrendered to
the corsair Dragut in 1661. In 15S7 John Ia Valette
was chosen grand-master. The construction of fresh forti-
fications was hastened and every precaution taken against
a Burprisa On the ISth May 1S65 tha Turkish fleet
under the redoubtable Dragut appeared in sight and one
of the most celebrated sieges in history b^an. It waa
finally raised on the 8th September after the dsAth of
Dragut and 26,000 of hia followers. The city of Taletta
afterwards roae on the scene of tMs desperate sbnggls.
La Valette died in 1668, and no events of importanca
mark the grand-mAStershipa of De Monte (1668), De la
Casdlre (1672), and Terdala (1081). Daring their terma
8 A I — S A I
(/ offioe the catlwdnl, the oiabrrgtt, tiw hoapitkl, tod ;
nun; lamarfcable sdificei were built. Another city gnwln-
klly anae on the oppoiqte aharw of the graiid htrboaT, 4iid
the ones burai iaJAnd beoBue klaoet imperoeptiblj tho
■ite of one of the AnsagUt foitHMa.] moA inaet flonruhiug
commercial comtniuiitiw in the HeditemneuL Teidal*
mu locceoded bj Uartin QuoM (f 5BG}, bat it wu reMTTed
for Alof de Vigiuoonrt to nvivs tor a time the mtiitw;
reputation of the wder. VMooooallca, De Fftoh, wid
Lucmris tren all tf^ maa when, one after another, tbej
were called to the uiprame power, vid their alectirat (with
« Tiev to aecnra freqaant Tmcanoiaa) oontribnted to weitJuii
tho vitality of the frateniitj. La«c«ri« lived till the age
of Dinetj-MTen, built the fortifioatioDa of Floriaoa, en-
dowed Valetta with a public litnary, and nusted the grow-
ing encroechineiitd of the Jeanita. Martin de Badin and
Baphael Oottoner ruled each for three yean. Nicholas
Cottooer waa elected in 1663, and tha kaighta of St John
once again diadngniahed thamaelvea in the aiege of Candia.
The loBsea which the order anatained in the npulae of the
alJiea before Negn^Mnt (1069) wu the indireot cauae of
tha death of Ouaffii, who wm •nsMaded by Adrian ds
TignaoouTt (1690), Baymond Per«lloa (1S9T), Zondodari
a720V De Vilhena (1723), Deapnig (1736), and Pinto
(1741). Emm.nniil Hato WM ft Duui of no mean ability
and rS conaidanible force of character. Be steadily reaiit«d
all papal encroachment* on hia authority, expelled tha
Jeeuita from Malta, and declined to hold a ohaptor-generaL
After the hief rule of Francis Ximine^ Emmanuel de
Bohan became grand-maiter (17TS). Hs assembled a
chaptar^netal, erected the Anglo-Bavarian fnn^tu, and
aent his galleys to relieve the aufierers Imm the great eaiih-
qoake in Siinly. Tlie c«der never perbape seemed to all
outward iqipaarancea more proaperoua than when the atorm
of the French Revolution broke aoddenly upon it. In 1792
the Direotory decreed the abolition of the order in Fiance
and tha forfeiture of ita poaaaeaions. Five years afterwatds
, De Bohan died. He had taken no pain* to conceal hia
; sympathy for iLe losing eanae in Ftanoa and hi* court had
beooiaa an aaylnm and home for many French refugees.
Hjaanceeaaof Ferdinand HcmpMch was padwf the weakest
man evw elected to fill a tesponsiblajNBitKm in critical
times. On the 12th April 1TB8 the French Government
resolved on the forcible seimn of Malta. Wamingi were
sent to the grand-maater in vsin. Within two months
' from that date the island was in the handa of Bonaparta,
and Hompesch was pernutt«d to retire to Trieote with
aome of tha moat cherished relics of the order.
SatMnsDC ta tha dipartun of Hompaach s nimib« of tha kslriit)
who had tikoa nfags at Bt Petanburg slactad tha amnror Paul
grmod-niuttr. SotwiUutsnding tha pMrat Uliigalilj of th> pro-
eaaiting tha rtoSand honour n o^iir accaptad and duly ui-
BOuBosd to all Ihs aosrls of Boropa (Octobai )7W). Hompach ma
indocad to raaiga in tha (oUaviDg ygai. On the doath A Paul an
smngnnaot wa* anlvad at which nstsd tha ictnal DonliutioD in
tha pops, tvaa IBM to 1S7S ooly Uaatanaota of tha ardw mra
anomtad, who taaUad Int at Catania, than at Fwisn, and Bnally
stBoma. la 1S7> Ida XIIL maila ffioraiul Battfata Cwbignod-
nuatw, and ha afltnaHy nilai ovar poitiona at tha Italian and Ctormau
Ibhimi and aoma othar Ksltarad groapa of tha anciant ftvtaniEj.
Two othar aaaociationB alio traea thalr ori^ ftoto tbg auna psnnt
■took— tha Btaodanbiug bcsach sad tbs BtuUih lamgiu. Tha
ronoar cu claim an anbnkca ailjtanoa linaa Ua aatsbliabsunt in
1160. In ISM the king of Pnu^ (in whom tha riftht of nomlaa-
tioQ iud baaa nstcd nics 1S13) nalored tba oiiglDid balliwiok of
Bnndm bore and tha MacmbUd eanimaBdara daotad Prisoa ChariM
of Pnuria Birru MtiiUr, who DetiGnl hk aisolion to tba Hautanant
of tha eraad-niiatar tC Boma. Tha " Johamdta " did cood aerviee
lDlliaGnnianouiipii«iHori8Muidl870. Aa Tinrda tlu KDjtllih
la>Vm, 1 BUnbalfi c 34 innaiad to Um Drawn aQ tlia prapart; of
tlia ordar in En^nd. Aftar tha natoiatiou of tba BonrbDaa tba
aminlndoD, wliicli mia oSdallj TacoguinJ
and CaatQii agraad to tha rasoadtation of the donnant luajiu of
Sngland (ISaT-lSSl ), and 8b Bobeit Fast wa< appolutwi lord iirior,
talung the aDatomary oath ii JliMi nAniwutTaHatM In tba Court
_, tbc median knigbta — no
Oata, Clarkanwall— can ho
died^ at thair pndacaaaon.
Jamaalam ia daa to *'
note looatad in B'
lunhly ooBipara with tha mimoiabli
Tha aaCabluhinant of (ha faoinlra s<
- ----- - i^\am
which tha oidar ess boaat
la MM. J-, — . . — -
hkto7 witk tin nar ITM. Hh
pubUAiil D i^lak wltStta «
aHtiHT aon to ■!■ aiipanaea ot I
Mwamiaa at paMWllnM sa (U
noMTaditiaB «
VHsIOionln' liEalla a nWnt UrMrii M Ortt Uatirl lij
nnln lh< anhiH>lotT IT tka onWr uhI Ihi utl«iilll« or
rtoiaf W kS> In Ulik and Olulu^ Ualdi IlhiSnfa, mniw. ■> aio.
FWtD la ITTt I to ItacAHl Ouuaaa'i CoUvIni ii «■■■••« i UfUl n^lmill
tfiunMOWMllMHat a^bBtlwA&aOMniialOIalla.lHS-IQiUDaBDta.
ftUa^ UtUm (9 Tsb.) ; aad la I« UuuHi Jm OmniM Ualtrm, 'if TUoMn-
Iluitaiiiatfnula. ias»V !*• hat-atrnd wrllar liu, bomTtr, AaralBiJr
<■ Ua swi tauumiia a* tSa larlUr part of Iba InlnmaQa lia wiaiui la
aln. Ia ^f&h Iba Biiat aoUwoiIki tnaUM manias tba talifcli an
JriiaTMat-atfW>FTa/fll0r4n-VJ'a''aP«'Ii>n,lUl,4 »iil».)miiil Oaanal
rocWa aUnrv^Ut laUli if UtlU if IM Ortir ^ a /o«ii tf Jtnualim
[LoDdOB. Ha», Tin ItaT. W. B. BnUOnl liB iwanllj pobUdiaJ a TaluMa
KODUt il tba nat bowltd ■! TalHla. A luifut ntda t» tba aoatBta a(
tha Malta BtaaS OtDaa fe t« bt taaai la IL palaiiUa La Bwli'a JntlM
*r0r4TT*«/iaadiJn'ual«i(FarU.lM3). (1. X. B.)
BT JOHN'S, the capital of Newfoundland, is utnated
on the eastern shore of the island, 60 miles north of Cape
Boee, in 17' SS* 33" N. Ut. and 02' 10' tCT W. long, (see
vol xvu., pUt« T.). It ia 10* 62* eaat of Halifax, and
Btanda on what ia nearly the moat eastern point of America
— Cape Bpear, C miles south of St. Jabn'i^ alone projecting
a litUe farther towards the Old World. It is 1000 mile*
nearer than New York to England, aod but 1640 from the
coast of Ireland. The approach to the harbonr of Bt John'*
presents one of the most picturesque views slong the coast
of America. In a lofty iron-bound coaat a narrow opsn-
ing occurs in the rocky wall, guarded od one side by
Signal Hill (520 feet) and on the other by South Side
Hill (620 feet), with Fort Amhent lighthouse on a rocky
promontory at its base. The entrance of the Narrows is
about 1400 feet in width, and at the narrowest poin^
between Pancake and Chain Eocks, the channel is not
more than COO feet wide. The Narrown are half a mile in
length, and at their termination the harbour trends suddenly
to the west, thas completely shutting out the swell from
the oceaji. Vessels of the largest tonnege can enter at all
periods of the tide. The harboor is a mile in length and
nearly half a mile in width. At its head is a diy dock,
reoentiy completed at a cost ot |fi50,000 ; it is 600 feet
in length, 63 in breadth, and 26 in dn>th, capable of
admitting the largest steameis afloat, llie ci^ i* built
OD sloping ground on the northern side of the harbour,
OD the sou^em aide of which the hills rise so abruptly
from the water that there ia only room for a range c^
warehouses and oU-factone*. Three principal streets^
winding and irregular, follow the sinuosities of the harboor
and of one another the whole length of the city, and theee
are intersected by a number of croea-streets. Wster Street,
the principal biuineas locality, presents a very substantial,
though not handsome, appearance, the houses being of
stone or brick. Shops, stores, and eoitn ting-houses occupy
the grooiid floor, while many of the merchants and shop-
keepers live in the upper atones, flsh-storea, warehonses,
and wharves project Irom behind on the side next the
hsrbour. The city, three-fourths of which at« still q(
17ff
S A I — S A I
wood, Ii i^ndlj atatkfing b MT«nl dinetioni^ and in
rwent ynn auuij diraUiii^onMf of wi improved deacrip-
tioa hne bwd ttaettd. Tiutt k ui ftbniiduit anpply of
exnUent mtar, bran^lkt in p^es tnca • lake D miles off.
^idemiea an nn, ud lita d^ ia Tei; bealdiy. Of ths
pnUie bnildinge tho moat important are Qoremmeat Eoute,
a nMaulia] and qadona building erected in 1S26 by the
Imperial Oortmment ; tha oolonial building (1M7), cdq-
*fliwifi» Qui chamboa cd tlia Ingiihturft an^ QoreRimoiit
offleaa; Hie athenniim (1877X oontaioing a pntJio liall,
libmy, raading-tooni, nvingg bank, muMom, Ao. The
tonndatioD of a Ofw poat-office was laid in the muw year.
Hm drarchea ue — the Cbnich of England and Bomon
Catb(^ catlwdraU, St Thomaa'a and 6t Haiya (Oiuidi
of Ikigland), St htridi'a, thraa Uethodiat dkuicbea, St
Andrew'a i^ealiTterian dmrd^ and the Oon^vgataonal
church, nie mannlactuie of aeal and cod oila haa loog
been carried on upon an extenaivs scale. Of lata jeais
other mannfactDrea haTS been introdnced, and have made
conaideisble progress. There are thres iron-foundries,
two large machine -shops, two boot and alioe factories,
a nail-factorj, three fomitme-facUaie*,' two tobacco-
factories, soap-works, two tannoriea, and a large and
well-equipped factory for the manufacture of cables, ropea,
twines, nets, wines, 4& The azport trade in fish of
Tariona kinds, fieh oils, seal oil, and aeal akina ia very
large ; the greater port of all the imports into Newfonnd-
knd also arrivea at St Joho'i. Hie city ia not yet (1886)
incorporated, the Colonial Board of Works having charge
of all civil affairs. The popnlation, which in 1780 was
1605, had in 1601 increased to 8420, in 1813 to 7076,
in 183S to 16,000, and in 1874 to 33,890, and in 1S84
it was 38,810 (Roman Catholics, 17,693; ^iscopalians,
6741; Methodists, 3715; Presbyterians, 973; Congrega-
tiooaUsts, 4G9 ; other denomination^ 33). He censna
last mentioned aUo ihowa the po^iulatioa of the whole
island and Labrador to bs 197,589, being an inereaae of
86,309 since 1874, or at the rate of about 33 pet cent,
in t«n yean. The popolation of the Atlautio coast of
lAbrador, which ia under tha jnriadietion of Newfound-
land, was 4211,-1347 being Eskimo.
BT JOHN8BTTBT, a township of the United Btateci,
capital of Caledonia county, Vermont, on the Paaanmpsic
river (a tribatary of the river Gonuecticut), about 60
milea sooth of the Canadian frontier, and on tho railway
between Boston (SOS rail«e) and Quebec St Johnsbnry is
the seat ot perhaps the laigeet scale-factory in llie world,
which employs abont 600 hands and worka up 4000 tons
of iron per annum. The township containa an athennmn,
Enblic library (10,000 toIb-X and art gallery. Ilie popn-
htion has increased from 3758 in 1850 to 4665 in 1870
and 6800 in 1860. Tho three villagea are distingnishad
aa St Johnsbnry (3360 in 1880), St Johnsbnry Centre,
and St Johnsbory Esat Founded in 1786, the township
received its name in hononr of Bt John de Criveccenr,
French consul at New Tork, and a benefactor of Vermont.
ST JOSEPH, a city of i<ie Uoitad States, capital of
Buchanan county, Hiasouri, on the right bank of the
Uinouri, S60 miles west by north of Bt Lools. It is an
important railway junction, poeeeBsing since 1873 a
great rood and rulway bridge over the river constructed
of iron ; in the extent of its wholesale business it ranks
as the second city in the State ; and among its mannfac-
tnring establishments are flour-miUs, atarch-worka, boot and
shoe factories, pork-packing CBtablishmenta, waggon-tao-
tories, a distillery, ^. Beoidesacity-hallandmarket-honae,
it contains a court-bonae (1870), an opera-houae, a State
lunatic asylum (1874), an agricnltoral and mechanical ex-
position association, a Boman Catholic cathedral, and five
public libraries. The popnlation was 8933 in 1860, 19,066
1 1870, and 39,431 (3SS7 ocdonnd) in
e jaus pcTiaody ■* a trtdn',
3t Joigph la IMS was Bads tha mUDty aaat, tad bafat* 18G7,
whsn it reraiTsd its fint city clurtar, bacsms nil known at tb*
gnat paint of dgpartiir* for «migruitt boind for CklifanU ud
tfag W«L Doriag tba avil Tar, vhan it na lortiflad In ths
Padanla, ita utnnl dsrskipDMDt was eonridosbly cbeckst^ bnt
SAINT-JUST, ANTOon (17S7-1794X TrmA teroln-
tdonary leader, was bom at Dedn in tbe Nlvemaia on SOtli
August 1767. He was educatad at Soiaaona, and showed
bis character at acbool as ringleader of a plot to set
tho achool buildings on fir& SaintJust was caught red-
handed in the act of incendiarism, and, refuting to exhibit
any tokens of snbmisuon, was ignominioosly expelled.
His education, however, does not appear to have been
neglected ; and the reports and speechee of hia short and
stormy political career exhibit not a littls scholamhipv
and in particular «ODtiderabl« acquaintance with ancient
history. Intoxicated with republican ideas, 8aint.Jnst
threw himself with enthusiasm into the political troubles of
hit time, had himself appointed an officer in the National
Qnard, and by fraud — be being yet under age — admitted
aa a member of tha electoral assembly of his district.
Ambitioot of fame, he in 1789 published twenty cantos of
licentious verses under the title of OryaiU, and this work
was aftMWards reissned under the tiUe of 2fy Patliwia ;
or Tha Sta Organt. From that year onwards, however,
the open tnrbnlence of his youtlt gave place to a rigor-
OQsly stoical demeanour, which, united to a policy tyiao-
nicaj, uncompromisingly thorongh, and pitilessly severe^
became tha marked and atartling characteristic of his life.
He nor entered into correspondence with Bobespienv,
who thenceforward became hia hero and ideal. Sobes-
pierre invited bim to I^ris, felt flattered by bis worships
aaw that he anited bia purpoae^ and in a short time the
two became hand and glove. Thus supported, Saint-
Jnst became deputy of Ae department of Aiane to the
national convention, where he made hia first apeech —
gloomy, fanatical, remorseleaa in tone — on 19th November
1793. He bad but twenty months to live; but into these
he seemed to crowd the life of twenty year*. In the
convention, in the Jacobin Club, and among the popu-
lace his relations with Robeapierre became known, and
be was dnbbed the " St John of the Uessiah of tlia
People." Hardly a week passed without the attention o(
France being arrested by his attitude or his utterances.
Both were anxioosly watched, as the unfailing indication
of the trend of Bobespierre's designs. Hia appcdntment
as a member of tbe committee of publie aafety now
placed him at the vwy height and centre of the poUtical
fever- heat. In the name of thia committee be was
charged with the drawing up ot reporta to the couTontion
upon the absorbing themes of the overthrow of the party
of the Girondcs hereafter, when even the " Uonntain '
seemed to have fallen in pieces, ot the Hjbertists, and
finally, as the tragic sequel to the mptnre between Bobea-
pieire and Danton, of that denunciation ot ths lattar
which consigned htm and bis followers to the guillotine.
What were then called reporta were fa teas statements tA
Isct than appeals to the passions ; in SaintJnst's hands
they tumithed the occasion for a dispUy of fanatjcal dar-
inj^ of gloomy eloquence, and of imdoubted genius ; and
— with the diadow of Bobespierre behind thana— they
served their turn. Once a fla^ of cruel humour lighted
up hia angry rettnla, and it became memorable. Dea-
moulin^ in jest and mockery, said (rf Sunt-Juat — the
youtb with the beantifnl cast of coontenance and the long
fair locks — " He carries bia head l^e a Holy SacrameBt."
),Google
ST. La
aw:eence
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S A I — S A I
177
"And T,' MTag«ly replied BftintJiut, "vill make him
carry Ilia like « Sunt-Uenis.' The threat wu not Tain :
J>esmoiiliiia accompanied Dautoa to the ecaSbld. The
nme ferocious iuHeiibilit; animated SaintJuBt with refer-
ence to the axtarnai poHey of Fnkbce. U'e propoeed that
the national convention ahonld itsetf, throagh its eom-
mittees, direct all militaiy novementa. This was agreed
to, and Sunt-Jost wiu despatched to Strasbnrg, in com-
pany with Lebaa, to BQperintend opertttiona. It vas sus-
pected that the enemy \ritbout W4i being aided by treason
within. Sunt-Just's remedy was direct and tenible : he
foUowed Iiis eixierieuce ia I'Bris, "organixod the Terror,"
and soon the hoids of all stupects were falling under the
guillotine. Th? conspiracy Was defeated, and the atmiea of
tlie Rhine and the Moselle having been inspirited by anc-
ceaa — Saint^Just himself taking a fearless pai tin the actual
fighting — and having effected a junction, the frontier wu
delivered. Later, with the army of the North, he wron^t
similar - magical changes in the aspect of affiun. Before
the generals he placed the terrible dilemma of victory orer
the enemies of France or trial by the dreaded revolution-
atj tribunal ; and before the eyes of the ailny itself he
organized a force which was specially charged with the
sluighter of thoee who should seek refuge from tile enemy
by &i^t. Success again crowned his terrible efforts, and
Belgium waa gained for France, lleanvhile aff^ira in
PbHb looked gloomier than ev«r, and Bobespterre recalled
Sunt-Just to the capital. As the storm was gathering
Sunt-Jnst gave it directioD by mooting the dictalotship
of his master as the only remedy for the convulsions of
society. At Isnt, at the famous sitting of the 9th Tber-
midor, he ventored to preseot as the report of the com-
mittees of general aecurity and piiblic safety a document
expressing his own views, a sight of which, however, had
been refused to the other members of committee on the
previous eTening. Than the storm broke. He was vehe-
meatly interrupted, and the utting ended with an order for
Itobeepierre's arrest (sea RoHKSPixaAB). On tlie follow-
ing day, 28th July 1794, twenty-two men, nearly al! young,
were gnillotiued. Bobespierra was one, aged thirty-six ;
Saint-Just another, aged twenty-aii.
']en wm publishwi mt fitr&sb
Bstitlod tya^aaUi m Bepub!
i of ilia ojumcoi od bociaI sod political tapics-
ST KILDA, the largest islet of a small group of the
Outer Hebrides, Scotland, 40 miles west of North Uist, in
57' 18' 35" Nj Ut and 8" 36' 30" W. long. It measures
3 nulea from east to west and 2 from north to lonth, and
has an are* of 3000 to 4000 acres. Except at the landing-
place oa Uie aontb^aat, tin cliA rise sheer ont of de^
water, and on the nortii-east aide the highest eminence
in the island, Con^^er or Conua-Ghur, forma a gigantic
precipice, 1 220 feet high from aea to summit. According
to Professor Judl Bt Kilda ft probably the core of a
Terliaiy volcano ; but,- besides volcanic rocks, it is said to
contain hills of sandstone in wliich the stratification is
3 J distinat.> While the general relief is peculiarly bold
picturesque, a certain softness of scenery is produced
by the richneas of the verdnre. The inhabitants are an
iuduBtrions QaeHc-spealdng commanity (110 in ISSl, and
77 in 1881). They cuEivate sbont 40 acres of land
(potatoes, cats, barley), keep about 1000 aheep and 50
West High land oows, aod catch puffins and other aea-fowL
Ooarse tweed* and blanketing are mannfactnied for home
use. The house* are collected in a little village at th6
head of the East Bay, which contains a Free church, a
manse, and the factor's honsa. The island is practicsjly
inacceasible for ei^t months of the year.
11 to hsva *Ul*d flu UUnd ntnquat
St Kllda, or. aa It «w oriEinairj callad, Hirt (Hirth, Bfrtha),
aams to hiT> been in th« pOBnion of tbs Mulcoili Sat 4(H) or
<van GOO yaara. In 1778 it changed haoda along nith Hattia,and
again in ISOl and m 1871 (lo Uacleod of Uuleod}. The hodsl
auparior ia Lcrd Donmon. who receive* use tliilUng at fea-dntv.
From ir»t to 1712 IaIj Oimnge wat confined on St Kilda by com-
mand of her high-handed huaband (•» PrtxtaL Sac Sect. AaNq., j.
■ud iL). David Mallet makea tba inland the accne of hia Anyniai
aad Ttitaien, er tlu HtrmO. S« vorka on Bt Kildi by Kav. K.
Uacaolaj (17S<), L MacLean (1838), i. Bandi [187a and 1B77),
and Oeonn Salon (1878).
BT IQLDA, a watering-place in Victoria, Australia, on
the eaat ahore of Hobson's Bay, 3^ miles south of Mel-
bourne, with which it is connected by a railway. "^^
1. of 1
nof
n,66Sin 1661. The sea-beach is bordered by an nplan-
ade ; there is a large public park ; and portions of the sea
have been fenced-in to protect bathers from sharks. A
town-hall, an assembly hall, a library, and the large Episco-
pal church of All Saints are among the public buildings.
ST KITTSl See Sx Chbibtopezk.
SAINT-LAMBERT, Jbut FRAM^oia j>8 (1716-1603),
French poet, was bom at Nancy in ITIS, and died at
Paris in 1803. Daring great port of his long life ha held
various employments at the conrt of Stanislaus of Poland,
when that prince was established in Lorraine. He also
served in the French army, and then betook himself to
literature, producing among other things a volume of de-
scriptive verse. La Saitoiu (wildly overpraised at the time,
and now never read), many articles for the SitcgdopidU,
and some misceUaneona works in verse and prose. Saint-
Lambert's chief fame, however, cornea from the strange
fate which made him the anccessful rival in love of the
two most famous men of letters in France, not to say in
Europe^ during the 16th century. The infatuation of the
marquise du (3iltelet for him and its fatal termination an
known to all readers of the life of Voltaire. His snbee-
quent oonrtship of Madame d'Houdetot, Rousseau's Sophie^
Uiough hardly lees disoatrons to his rival, was less dis-
aabons to the lady, and continued for tbe whole Uvee of
himself and his mistress. They snrrived till the present
century as a kind of irr^^ular Baucis and Fhilernnn, illus-
trating the mannars of the vanished rt^ime, which had
been not unjustly celebrated, and vindiiating its constancy
from a very general opinion.
BT LAWKENCE. The livar St I^wrenoe * in North
Americ^ taken in connexion with the great lakes, offera to
trading vessels the most magnificent system of inland
navigation in the world. Ita total length from the sonrca
of the Bt Louis river, which dischargee into Fond du Lac
at the head of Lake Superior, to Cape Oa^ is 2100 miles.
The river St Louis springs from the same spacious plateau
in Uinnaoota that gives birth to the MisMsaippi and the
Red River of the North. The intermediate distances be-
tween tbe source of the Bt Lawrence and its months are
shown in Table I. According to the moat recent surveys
the appaoximate area of the hasin of the St Lawrence Is
510,000 square miles, of which 322,560 belong to Canada
and 187,440 to the United SUtes.
Lake Superior, the most westerly of the lakes, is the
largest body of fresh water in the world. In addition to
the river Nipigon, wfuch may be regarded aa the chief
source of the upper St lAwrence, and the St Louis and
Pigeon rivets, which constitute the international boundsiy,
it receives ita waters from 200 riveia, draining an aggregate
of 65,000 sqnare miles,' including its own area of 32,000.
anded the lirw in
■ Tie name giren dt Jacqnei Cartiv, i
IMS ubxu IloDtreaL
* Tlie magnKndH Isd sHttndsa of llH gnat lakea ira derived from
ttM R^ioH at the Canadian Canal OmmdHlan, Pebnury 1871 i (ha
thasomuiiii
npnrU of tba ahScf Dt eo^aean, Cniled Stataa amy.
178
ST LAWEENOE
Tisixt—Diilaiic— ijf St^iau if SI Laiermci.
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is
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""
Ita length in S90 railea, its greatest breadth 160, and iU
mean breadth SO. ItemeAD depth is 900 feet and its altitnde
above the Bear^level 600 feet Its coast i» genetaUy rock-
bound. NnmerauB ialands are tcatlered about the north
side of the lake, many rising precipitously to great heights
from deep water, — some piesenting castellated walla of
basalt and others rising in granite peaks to various eleva-
tions up to. 1300 feet above the lake. The Laurentian
and Hnranian rocks to the north along the shore abound in
nlvcr, copper, and iron ores. TIio United States side is
geoendl]' lower and more sandj than the opposite shore,
and is also especially rich in deposits of native copper and
bedj of rod lueniatite iron ores. Both these minerals are
extensively worked. Unfossiliferons terraces occur abuo-
dantly on the margin of the lake ; at one point no fewer
than seven occur at intervals Dp to B height of 33 feet
above the present level of the water. Lake Superior is
mbjecC to severe atonns and the effect of the waves npon
the sandstone of the " picture rocks " of Qrand Island pre-
■enfai innnmerabls ftntsatia and very remarkabla forma
The lake never freeiei, but Cftnnot be Davigated in winter
on account of the shore ice. At the west end of the lakf^
at the mouth of the St Louis, is situated the dty of Duluth,
a place of considerable importance as the eastern terminns
<d the Northern Pacific Bailway, and of the St Paul and
Dnloth Railway, which runs to St Paul on the MisUBUiipi,
las miles south of Duluth.'
St Mary's river, 66 miles long, is the only ontlet from
Lake Superior, and its coarse to I^ke Huron is but a
■Qcceesion of expansions into lakes and contractions into
rivers. Bt Marys rapids, which in a distance of half a
mile absorb 16 faat out of the total fall of 23 feet between
the two lakes, ara aroided by a ship can^ constructed
in 1865.
Ai origiiull; bnUt, th* cuiil wb* 1 mile loDg, hid i width of 100
feet St the vit«r lbs snd i depth of 12 foet. The luske were tno
in nnmlnr. combined, escli 350 [tet in length, 70 in width, with
a lift of R feet. At the time the cuul wu mida tbn« dimenaioiu
ware iaffldoat to pus snj Tcaul od th* like* taHj laden, bat bv
1870 it becuiH uocoiur? to provide for mow rspid looksgo ■od
for tho pUHp of Urg*r vmeli. Accordinglj the old cuiil nu
■ Tb* dlitiUKt tna Bdls Iila to Uverpool is 2231 itstots or 1B4Z
ingrapblat dOh.
' Uk* Hiplgon la rituttd BO all« to the north of Idke Snptrlor,
failo whlob it dnini hj the river Nlpifon ; It ii itill verj lltU. kaova
•xoept tma tbt laport oC Proftoor BbU oI ttw 0«al<)(icsl Burrer. It
wMoooJ and doopeohl. and n new lock conttnicttd, IIB feet long
and 60 wide.— tbe wiilth at tho ealcd being «0 feet, the lift of tht
lock IS. and tho deflh of water on the iftitre lilli 17. There is
now OTirywhsrs a navigable deutb of IB feat ftom Llka SnperiOT
tluxjDgh St Uary'i Fall. C^nal aid St Harj'e river to Lake Honin.
Is 1833 tho ngiMtared toooage fining tlia canal wai 3,041,21111
lotu, — tho BUtiual increaaa of tounago during tha pravlooa flftqa
joan having averaged 107,813 tonn. Tb« Unilid Utata Oovem-
mcnt eiiginooni hsto alreaily preaeutoil a ^iroject for .till ftuthor
imp rove men U, oamolj, lo replace the old locka ^^J one onlj with
a length of 700 feat and a T.-iilth of 70, and nith a depth of 11 letit
on the lia
Lake Huron is 2T0 miles long and 109 broad and has
an area of 2-'l,000 square miles (the area of its baun,
including the Lake, being 74,000), a mean depth variotuly
stated at from TOO to 1000 fast, and an altitude above the
sea of E74 feet. Geor^n Bay on the north-east lies
entirely within tlie region of Canada, whilst Thunder Bay
and Saginaw Bay on the west and south-west are in the
State of Michigan. The north and north-east shores of
Lake Huron are modtlj composed of sandstones and lime-
stones, and where metamorphic rocka are found the surface
is broken and hilly, rising to elevationa of 600 feet or mora
above the lake, unlike in this respect the eouthern shores
skirtiog the perunsulas of Uichigaa and south-western
Ontario, which are comparatively flat and of great tsrtility.
As in Lake Superior, regular terraces corresponding to
former walar-levels of the lake ron for miles along the
shoresof Laka Huron at heights of 120, ISO, and 200 feet;
and deposits of fine eand snd clay containing freshwater
shells rise to a height of 40 feet or more above the present
level 0: the water. At several places tlieae depoeita extend
to a diatanco of 30 miled inknd. The chief tributaries of
the lake on the Canadian side aro the French river from
Lake Nipissing,the Severn from Lake Simcoe, theMnskoka,
and the Nottawasagtt, all emptying into Georgian Bay;
and on the United States side the Thunder Bay river, the
Au-Sable, and the Saginaw.
Lake Michigan is entirely in the territory of the TTnited
States. It has a maximum breadtli of 84 mile« and its
length is 34.^ niiles from the north-west comer of Indiana
and the nortli part of lUioois to Mackinaw, where it com-
municated with Lake Huron by a strait I miles wide at
its narrowest part. Its depth la variously stated at from
700 lo 1800 feet. Its altitude above aea-level is 578 feet.
Its basin is 70,040 square miles in area, of which the lake
occupies 22,400. Five of ita tributaries are from 136 to
316 miles in length. The country round Lake Michigoa
is for the most part low and sandj. The rocks are Iim«-
stones and sandstones of the Sub-carboniferotu gronp^
lying in horizontal strata and never rising bto bold cliffs.
Along the south shore are Post-tertiat; beds of da; and
sand lying a few feet above the level of tlie lake, tha watera
of which probalnly at one time found their way by tbe
valleys of the Illinois and the Mississippi into the Qolf of
Mexico. I
ChiogD (populetion, fiOS.lSS in ISSO) a dtuated at tbe •enth-
west angle of the lake. In tho receipt and ihipment of vraia and
pork it u tl.e l.rgMt market in the world. In 1883 12,I)U VMwls
with a tonnipi of 3, 980,837 lorn claarrd fnm tli« harbonr. Com-
paring the dKadci of 1864.73 and IS7(-S3 the total aipott in
heat and com from Chicago wa> aa followi : —
19, 970, 177 I41,8ia,S18
In 1B8S the export of grain h; the lakes emannted to 8.8M,7SS
qoarten (of which 88-1 par cent, wera >hi]iped direct to Buffalo snd
only B-3 par cent- to Kingston and Montr™!) H a«in»t 8.11«.000
sent br nil The £nt appropriation for the harbour of Ctaioaik
war^ of 500 feet in
oui Indenbtlona itt
Dcaiurs eao Ulta.
ST LAWRENCE
mid> In 188^ «» apsadail in mtUng • itni^t ontltt hom Uh
CbkMO linr into Um Ifka, Ths iniUbl* dspth ni oulj 3 f»^
botiiDM tkaa Ik* haiMnr WMnuDodatlan hn bam «iHmd*d, Iw
■ lannb
H ot[mi^ dndcinft ud * bmkwaMj,
c< 14 fMt diught
Uh harbiiDi wiriu it Chkuo, u nU m »t othsi' Uka ud rirar
n coDftnwMd dnplf i9 crib* M bouB, mnpond <rf loa 11
--'— '"-'-'tbiKmaiudjcdimltcauhallMr, kftoUwr
^Uin
On tUi plu hiHk-
ura faara bau bnllt
t tha miMt Importuit polnta dona ths
a BniUf Mttltd dni, ,
niied > bw ftat ibor* tb« l*nl of tha nl_.
wntai^ pian tt tha moathi of ilran^ and wbama faai
within tna liit nitj jaui at tha moat Impwtuit poll __
dicna o( tha St Lawnnca ]tknj a* mil ai at moat of tha ^Tfr
harboon commnninatlaf with tha AtUnUo ; and axpailauoa haa
■nurad that no chaapac and bettar ^fatam oonld hara Data dariaMl
The St Idwreuce iMvea lAka Horoa by tha St Clair
rivw nt Bnmia, nnd after a ooane o( 99 miles cnton
I^a 8t Clair, SS milea long, and terminatiiig at tbe
heard ot tlis Detroit livei, near the cit^ of Detnut in
Hkhigan. Eight«ea milea tarther on the St Lawrence^
with a descent of 11 feet, eatea I^ke Erie.'. The naviga-
tion throngb the Bt Clair rim u tuj thror^lToo^ bat in
lAke 9t &aii there are exteodve aandbanka ooTerad with
a depth of water vaiTing from 6 to 10 feoL ^*iotu to
1858 mach ineoDTeiusaM waa ezperianeed in Bavigating
the lake owing to its inaufSdent depth ; but at tha ana
of that year die Qorenuneiils of the United Statea and
Canada dredged a eaual tlirongh the bei of tha lake,
which ii of soft material, to a mininnnm depth of 13 feet,
with a width of 300 feet, ^lia channel haa since been
deepened to 16 feet ovec a width of 200 feet, and works
axe now in ptogress to deepen the rocky dioal called the
" Lime-Eiln Crosung " in the Detroit river to 16 feet, to
enable veesels drawing 15 feet to pan with aafe^ from
lake to lake in atonnj weather.
The peculiar featores of lAke Eria are ita ahallowneaa
and the dajey natore of its diores, which are generally
low. The wnth thore is bordered by an elevated plateau,
through which the rivers, which are withoat importance
ae r«^mls lAke Erie, have cut deep rhannela. Tae mean
depth of the lake is only 90 feet ajid its tuaiiniain depth
204. Owing to its ihatlowneas it is easily disturbed by the
wind, and is therefora the most dangeroos to navigate of
all the great lakea. Ita length is 350 mUee uid ita
greatest breadth 60. ^e area of the baain of lAke Eria is
39,680 eqnare miles, inclndiog 10,000 square milea, the area
of the Iske. Its waten are &61 feet above tha sea and
330 above lake Ontario. The extreme difference observed
in the level of tha lake between 1819 and 1838 waa D feet
2 inches, bat tha avetage amioal rise and fall (taken on
a mean of twelve years) i« only 1 foot 1} inchea. The
mean annual tainfall is 31 inchea. He navigation of
Lake Erie usually opens about the middle of April and
cloites early in December. Besidea the Erie and the
Welland Canals, the lake haa two other great canal oyateni*
on its south shore, — tha Ohio and Erie Cana^ from Cleve-
land to Portsmouth, and the Miami and Erie CkmaJ, from
Toledo to CioeinnatL
BoBUo (population^ 171. COO In 1688) la litoatad at ths north,
tut an^a of I^ke Eria, and ti thsnfora mach aipoaed to tba
rlolenca of •onth-wnt vinda, In whidi dlraction tha Uka hu a
"IMch" of SOO mllH. Tboa more than ordinarr cm hu bMD
tak«n to provide safe lutrboar acoommodition for too laroa flaati of
Ttnelt cauitintl^ urinng at Buffalo trma tha af^t MM. Ths
Boltalo river, nhicli bu Imbd made Davigible tor man ihtu a mila,
ii protectad at [ta moath bj a bnakntsr, 4000 faet long, bnilt at
(boat half a mila trnm the ahore. The harbour thus formad alloin
of ths nitTaacaofT«wlaori7I«t dniiRht *• against 1) in ISM.
Not only is th* port litiuted at tba baad of tha Eria Canal and
within an boor'a nil of tha 'Walluid Caul, bat It la tha Vntam
trmlniu ot tha New Tork Cantral, £ria, and Mvanl other nflmyi.
-"-- ' adTantina haa con>tltnW
- ■ ■ ■ ■ la of Sorth
Canal, sad by isll from alsvitors wm S,ESf,000 qiurtan by """1
■nd S,Sm,000 by rail, or TD-20 and £9-80 par ceut. reapaoClTdy.
Than an 88 slflvaton in tha dty, compriaing atonaa, tT*Pffftr.
and SoaCmgalaTitoii, w!thacomlHnBdatorasacapultyari,I2S,000
Sxtan ud a daily truuTar capacity ot 333,000 qiurtn& During
tes yeara mding 1888 tha aunnal ivsnga nnmbar of lake
vsMsla arrlTing and departing from BaSala C^k aumband 7US,
thaaggrerata tonnigs irai I,1W,0S8 tons, and ths aTaitga liss <rf
ersit MO lona.
In 1883 the enrolled tonnage ot the United Stetea
veasels for the northern lakeit, and the enrolled r^;istered
tonna^ of ataam and wiling vessels in the prorinoa of
Ontani^ iadoding tugi and barges on .the Ottawa river
and bargaa at Kingrton, were as follows (Table H) :-
DnltHlatota.
»..,.
Ha.
asx
Ha.
fflS:
SasS:;::::::
iS
S!:S
:;;
sa
tm
ela,HB
mou
Frei^t propellers are now rapidly doing away with
■ailing vesael^ or causing them to be convetted into bargea
or oonaorta, The Apid ioerease in theb tonnage capadty
has been remarkable. In 1841 there was only 1 freight
propelter with a tonnage of 128 tons; in 1830 there were
,50 with an average of SIO tons, in 1860 there wen 197
with an average of 340 tons, and in 1880 there were 303
with an aveiage of 689 tons.
Tha Xrla Canal cosnecla Uke Eria with tba Eadaon ilvsr at
Troy and Albany and with Lake Ontario at Oawwo. Th* mova-
mant of fnighc of all kdnda by tha canal was 8,8[)2,53B tons In
tB73, ud S,t87,109 In IBBS, and ths avangB anDoal movamsat
thnnl871 to 1888 wia 8,117,181 tana, llila canil was conatrncloil
in ISU by tbo Stats of Vaw York, for Ow pSMga of vwmIs ot 80
torn ; but by tha yaai 1881 It wu nfflciBnay sniuged to allow of
tha paMaga of vaaaela of SIO tona. 'Hie dimanaionB and cBHrity
ot ths canal and Its two priniipsl faedera an given in Tablo IIL :—
Oaven to BmciHe ■
lU I
II
ipto) .
A project has nv soma tiina bean nndar aeriona conaidaratloa for
the enlargsmant of ona tier of thapnaaat looka and the deapnlng
of the canal ao that batwsan BuSUa and Albany then would no-
whan be a tan depth than 8 liwL Tha aatlmatad coat at this woik
la about £1,800,000.
The Walland Canal Sink* the S'iigua river and la 27 mOea in
langth bom Port Colboms on Lake Erie to Part Dalhooaia on Lake
Ontario. It was opaned In 1838 for the navlgstion of amall naaat*
and wu fint enlarged In 1841. Teaaela, however, contlDtied to
■• 311 with an aggngata
w in sin nnfil in 1S80 tbare
1880 to ISO, with an icgregats tonnage of 287,
1S83 (ootwlthituding ths completloa of tha a>
In 1881) to 087, with an ifengite tonnage ot 388,808 tui». lu.
cut of tba eand tnolading ita maintsnanca nn to 80th Jnne 1888 waa
$30,888,806. It* dunaaeioni an now a* followa :— nnmbsr of lilt
looka, as ; dimennona, 270 by IS faat j total riaa ot lockage. SW|
fnt : depth ot water on ailla, IS ftet Th* movament of tnigfat ti
an kinda bj tha naal waa 1,1S0,83B tona in 1873 sad BS7,1H In
1888, and the iveraniiunulmDvenMnt forth* dacada ending ISSS
wa* 988,411 tona. Thia atriooa (ailing oft in tnfflc is ptruy da*
the nnnmona competitor* by Iske *nd isU which h*Taa;7sagep
darina th* last tea yesn for the trsnsportsUon of prodncts to ths
aaA Int piinoipally to ths deepening of tbe channel* and haibonri
of th* appsr lik*% a wnk that ha^ eDooanged ths oooitraotioa of
180
ST LAWEENC:
la ^(UiuJ Citut tTtt
lh« itroiiE compMitioc
1 wn nlinl npon itill
a eliM of maali thit puutet id«Im On ol
mItBT itt last vnkrgenjBnt. Id onler to mci
tW OMcnmimt of the DDminian of Cir
titfthn to iWpen ths cu»l » u to allorr
•liitiiig lak« TnKli withont liglilfriag ; aocl in 188S contncti
w*n ODOclDcltd for dHpeniiig it to H f«t
ihe Ni«gat« river flam from I^e Brie to L&lce OotJirio
in & DoHherlf direction. Its width between Buf^o and
Fort Erie (the ailo of the iatem>tion&I iron-tnuaed rail-
mj bridge ; see ikctch map of Niagara river in vol. zvii.
p. 472} ia 1900 feet and iU greatest depth t». At ttua
point the normal entreat ia 5^ milei an hour, — the ei-
treme variation in the level of the river when uninflu-
enced by the wind being only 2 feet During aouth-west
galea, bowever, the water occasionally riiee as much aa 4
feet in a few houra, and at lach timei the current attains
a maximnm velocity of 12 miles an hour. Two miles
below tbe bridge tbe river is divided into two arms by
Orand Island, at the foot of which they reunite tuid spread
over a width of 3 or 3 miles. ,The river then becomes
studded witb islands, ontil about 16 miles from lAke
Erie, after a total tidl of 20 feet, it narrows again and
begins to descend with great velocity, lliis is the com-
mencement of the rapids, which continue for about a mile
with a total descent of 53 feet. Tbe rapids terminate in
tbe great cataract of Niagara, tbe fall of wbicb on the
American aids is 164 feet and on the Canadian side 150
feet. The falls are divided by Ooat Island, which rises
40 feet above the water and extends to the very verge of
&e precipice, where tbe total width of tbe river, including
die island, is 4750 feet. Tbe HoraoSboe Fall on the
Canadian <hore is 2000 feet bng, and the dnitb of water
on the crest of tbe fall is about 20 feet. The American
fall is only one-balf that length, and dischargee less than
one-fourth the volume of the Horae-Shoe Fall. United,
they discharge nearly 400,000 enbic feet per second or
41,000,000 tona per hour. The upper layer of the escarp-
ment down which this enormous mass of water leaps con-
aiata of hard limestone about 90 feet thick, beneath which
lie soft shales of equal thickness, which are continuallj
being undermioed by the action of tbe epray, driven
violently by gusts of wind against tbe base of the preci-
pice. In consequence of this action and that of the frost,
portions of the incumbent rock overhang 40 feet, and
often, when nnsnpported, tnmble down, so that the falls
do not remain absolutely stationary in tbe earn* spot.
Sir C. Lyell in 1843 came to the concluiioa tliat tbe
cataract was receding at an average rate of 1 foot aunoally,
"in which case it would have required 35,000 years for
the retreat of the falls from the escarpment at Queens-
town to their preeent site." From the foot of the falls to
Qneenstovm, a distance of about 7 miles, the river descends
104 feet throngh a gorge from 200 to 300 feet deep and
from 600 to 1200 feet wide. Midway in this deep defile
the turbulent waters strike against the clilT on the Canadian
side with great violence, and, being thus deflected froui
west to north, give rise to &a dangerona eddy called the
'^Whirlpool" 'Tbe eacaipments end abruptly at Qneens-
town, where the waters suddenly expand to a great width,
and finally, T miles farther on, tranquilly flow into Ltke
Ontario.
Abont one-third of a mile below the cataract a carriage-
road anspenoion bridge (built in 1869 by Hr Samuel
Keefer) spans tbe river witb a single openiog of 1190
feet, at a height of 190 feet above the water; aud 2
miles lower down Roebling's celebrated railway and load
enspennon bridge (completed in IS55) crosses the river at
a height of 346 feet above the water with a single span
of 800 feel In November 1883 a double-track railway
thrse-sp«n iron and Bt«el cantilever bridge, situated about
100 ywds above Boabling'i bridge, was completed for the
New York Central and Michigan Central Jtoilways. The
total length of the briiljia ia 910 fcvt and that of the
centre sjiaD 470 feet The height from the water to the
level of the rails ia 239 feet
Lake Ontario is the eai'temmoet and smallest of tbe
great lakat of the St Lawrence nystem. Its basin drains
29,760 square miles, including the lake surface of 6700
square miles. The length of the lake is 190 miles, its
greatest width .12 mileii, its mean depth 412 feet, and its
elevation abovo the rca 234 feet It never freezes except
near the shore. Ita chief tribntarien are the Trent on the
north shore and the Oenesee and the Oswego on the south
shore, and its chief ports, Toronto, the capital of Ontari(\
32 miles north of Fort Dalhonsie. at the foot of the Welland
Canal ; Odwego, at the wuth-ee^t aiiylo of the kke ; and
Kingston, at its north-cn^t eilrumity, 52 miles north of
Oawcgo.
Tnnt riTor uaT{(!<it.iaD ia s term S[iplinl to ■ ttria of mtbu
which ilo uot, hGwdfor, form ■ cODnecttil Bycteia of eiTigitloD, uul
ohldi iii tliiir pmoot couiLition tn tUcimt onl; for local uu.
Tho isHn u Foiapoud of i chain of Iskei and riTera eitenaing from
TnuCan, >l tfae mouth of the Tnnt on thv Bi; of Qsint^, norlh
■hon or Laks OnUrio, to I^ka Hunn. The new no^t (which
will have lDi:ki lit f»t b; 33 feet n-ith i iltpth of E rest on lilt)
will give rommimintion lietweeii UkeGeU, 9i mila Inm Filer-
totil of about ISO miiee of di
The port of 0«wego hu het t
■ •• l&ii, hy m
B .JlUOL.
ipeoug op
fir u SfTMOW, uil thenni bj tke Erie Cua) to Troj tod Albany.
It is Dow proposed bj lh« United Stttm Govonituent to enUrge
thii roate nnder tlie name of ths Oneiilii Ship Caul, so that vokIi
irriring from tlio Welland
hoIOiiiK 3S,{X» biuheli
ofZS.OOObiuhsIa. Th>
L^ks and Darbam villi
' ilad cut, including
ile^u
tacks (each ]
of the Domiuion
ing proiscta to Ci
thsOttioiandC
and Idke Nipiwi
Ba; Canil, b; w
s.siir.
nd 17 di
™:!
b7Sireet),i>$!ii,ll3,8Iir. TheGoni.
iknada hat also nnilrr coaiidcnCion tbe (buow-
■Kt tho St Lawreurewilb I^ka Uoran ;_(]]
■gian Bay Canal, fiom Montreii, bj the Ottawa
to Franch river j (!) the Toronto and Gtorgian
WIT of Leke Bimcoe ; (J| tlie Hnr-Ontario Canal,
iiDoi namuuja to lAka Huron^ not Port Ftsukik
Kingston, being the port of transhipment for Uontreal
of three-fourths of tbe grain that arrivea from the upper
lakes, is a place of some commercial importance. Formerly
lake veenela were sent from Chicago to Uontreal through
the St Lawrence canals without breaking bulk. But it
was afterwards found cheaper to transfer grain at Kingston,
and to aend it down the St Lawrence in bargee, the cost
o[ sucb transfer being ooly half a cent per bushel. Kings-
ton is alio at the sonth terminue of the Ridean Canal,
which connects it with the city of Ottawa.
This canal, IZS mOu long, haa SS locki sKtnillng SSI feet aid
II deecsnding lit, anri aJmiti Teneli 13<. by 30 f«C drawing 41
f«l orwater. It irai conelnicted In lElfi-SZ % the Dritieh Oovcra-
meii t at a net of ihont ttiOOO.OOO, chieay with a view to the iletenea
of the proTiim, but linc* the opening of the St LawreDC* a
it has bocorae of com
. livBli little iiniMrtauc
tnuport, — the dtitance tmm I'outroal to kingiton Itcing t
. .. „.. .... _ . . 0 .. g^J^,
ana of
longer by the Kidean and Ottawa Onali than by tho 81
Almost immediately after leaving Kingston that part of
the St Lawrence comroences which is called the Lake of
a Thousand Islands. In reality they number 1693, and
extend for 40 miles below I^e Ontario. At this point
the lAnrentian rocks break through tbe Silurian, and
reach across the St Lawrence, in this belt (^ islands, to
unite with the Laurentian Adirondack region in tbe State
of New York. Near Preacott, a town on the Canadian
side about 60 miles below Kingston, begins the chain of
the St Lawrence canals proper, which were constnicted to
overcome a total ri^e of 20S1 feet, — the number of locks
being 37 and tbe total length of the six canals 43) miles.
Tbi caoala in eilUd, in the order of their dnotnt, the ^Gilope,"
•Bajid Fist," end ■Fentn's Fdnt," witb an iggr^sti Inglh of
ST LAWRENCE
181
'.«"
on tbair ^111 at uMptuumSy low witar, i
of tha "Gilot»" uxl "Coninll," which
g vitli thrir iatcmning IB milet of
■ uTJnCion whit ii aUtJ ths WiUunuburg Cuuli), tha
"CornwalC* ijJinilEa long, the " Bcaahtmoii," CDnnactiog Lokia
St LoDii mi St Fnmcu, lit <d1Io 'odSi '"'' 'bs "Uchinc." 8)
mila* kog. Tha locki of Ihs Gnt fire cuiU, coutnictad in
1BU-1S, an SOD feat in ^*'tfi', with ■ Qipth oT from 7 ta 10 fHt
'ienaBy low water, »nJ, with tb» tieaptioB
■Cornwall," which an ii Sect wiJe, their
Tha Whine Canal wu began in 1321 and com-
jilgtaj iu 1814 for tha narigition of Tea»li drawing 4] fact, hot
It wu net nntil 1 843-48 that it wai wiUanol and dnpeml to tha
tlimamioni of tha npptr caula, it hai latalj baca atill furthar
cnkisad, inj ia alruJjr gircTiJad with loclu 270 hjr 40 fatt, witli
aalTailabledoptliorMfBat. The canal wia clowl od latD««tnber
1883 and opened on lit MiJ 1S83,— the narwitioD haring be«n
iDtomptad 11 niDit bj tha lc« for a petiod of fivi mnnthi. Tin
coat to tha praTinirial and Donuaion ChtTemniarit of tha ill ewaU
ioetaliag their malntaDUCa to SOth Juua 18SS, wu (14,4S4,S08.
Th» Sia upper einik m now being enlargad to tha dimeouoiu of
the iaproTud '"*''■— CuuL
Neai Comw&U, on tbe left b«nk, 60 milu belatr Fr«a-
cot^ the inteneetion of the pantUel of 45' determinea the
point where the St lAwrenM uwl its lakes (I^e Uichigan
cxoapted), having been an intematioaal boonderj from
tha head of Lake Superior, become exclaaiTslj Cuuuiian.
ImmediAtelj below Cornwall the rt*er Sows throngh Lake
St Fiuicu, which hu a length of about 30 mile* and •
iridth Tatring from 2 to 5 milea. la the long nacb of
tho river below the lake it has been calculated by the
nmiaJian canal eoDuninicmeta that the mean volume of
watet dieeharged ia 610,000 cubic feet per iscood. Ten
mike below t^ foot of Lake St Francis, near the head of
the iilaiid of Uontraal, the river flows into Lake St
Loni^ which leeeivea tha main bodj of the Ottawa river,
a imall fraetioa of whoae vratera ii dtlivered into the St
I^wrence at tbe foot of &a island 39 miles lower down
the abeun.
The Ottawa river, iriiich ia 600 miles lon^ diaina
50,000 aqnare mili^ and oontributM a volume of 90,000
cabio feet per second to the St I^wrence, of which it ii
the largest tribuUry. Between Lake St Louis and the
citj of Ottawa, the capital of the Dominion, and perliapB
tha largest market for lumber in the world, the St Anne's
kxk (23^ miles from Uontraal), Carilloa CaoO, ChQt«4-
Blondeaa Cknal, and tbe QrennUe Canal (63} miles from
UoDtre*l) have been CDnstmeted, and are now enlarged
to 200 by 46 feet, with a depth ot 9 feet on their sills,
except the Chnte-L-Bl<mdeaa Canal, whose single lock
has atill it* original dimensions ot 130 by 32 feet with
only 9 feet on its silt The total locksge between the
La^iine Canal and Kingatoo hf the Rideaa Canal (ihe
entrance to which is 119| miles from Montreal) is 609
feet ^346 rise, 161 fall) and the number of locks is G5.
On the apper Ottawa — the Colbate Canal and L'lalet
rapids — there are two locks 300 feet long, 43 wide, and 6
deep, with a lift of 18 to 30 feet. Ths coat of the Ottawa
ranftl.j inclnding tbt Bidean Canal, to SOth Jnne 1883
»aat9,l3«,136.
After learing Like St liouis the Bt lAWrence dashes
wildly down the Locbine rapida, a descent of 43 feet in
2 miles, and 6 miles farther on, after passing beneath the
25 spans of the Victoria Tubular Railway Bridge, which
has a length of SI44 feet, reaches the quays of Montreal
196 miles below Kingston. In the beginning of the pre-
sent eenlury vessels of otot 300 tons bocden were unable
to reach the city, but by deepeoiag Ltke St Peter and the
shoals in the St Lawrence between Quebec and Montreal
the latter has been made accesaible to vessels of 4000
totu bntden and drawing 35 feet of water. Work is being
•t«Adily continued and will not cease until a depth of 27^
feet is attained, so at to enable tha largest vessels afloat
to reach the long stretch of new deep-water quays. In
1S63 the tonnage of the 660 sea-going veuela which vistted
the port *
_ leJept..
I, ud ilrawiag S^
664,263 toup, of nhich 603,805 bclongtd li
ips, so that only 9 per cent, of llie freight
arriving from sea was ouried in Bailing vessels. Tlio Bt
Lawrence has an average width of 1} miles for 4S milet
from Montreal down to tiorel on the ri(^t bank, at which
point it is joined by the Richelieu river, a tributary that
drains 9000 square miles.
Tha Riclulieu river ii ma.tii naripibla from ha month to Lak>
Chimplaia, a diiluin ot 81 mil<i lo tUo UuitcJ Statv bonnilarv,
bj a dim mil lock it Rl Our.. Lilf a mile long (14 mila ibore
Boni\ ind a esiul of 12 milii in lcn;^h 33 mila firt'
rirar known u the Chiml.l;C*nid. Thew liTeinivii
of 7 het, lUowing thkIi 114 tctt lonj;, !3 broad, ud
f«t al witer, to )»B through the ciDal from and to end
of tha worka to SOth Juoa 1867 wu 8758,349. Tha total length
of niTimtion between UoBtrul id.1 Kew York bj tbe £irh*&n
Caul, L>lii Chunpliin, tha Lbimpltio anJ Erie Cknil, Albanv
and tha Hndaon rixr u 458 niilo. Tlie Ridielieu CiDal, which
already tarrin a biigbt of SSO.OOO loni lunnillv, ii to be enluind,
and 1 caul is to be conitructed from Lake St Lonii at Cbinsh-
uingi, ibov* Lacbina, to St Johni on th> Richelieu Htct in con-
Deiion with tha Chimbly Cual, to cDDnert tLe St Lawrenca with
Lakt Cbampliia bj i na* cbmuial, which it ia propowd ihonld
hare the lama dimeuioua u the improied Welluul Caul. Tbe
coat of tha propoaed Cbiufibnivagix Caul, which would have a
length of 13 mUat uid a &kiEe of onlj 29 feet, ii citimatad at
»5,&)0,000.
Immediately below Sorel the river flows bto Lake Bt
Pster, 20 miles in length by 9 in width, through which
prior to 1851 no vessel dtaiting more than II feet could
pass. Since then a catting 300 feet wide hae been dredged
to a depth of 35 feet At Three Rivers, 86 miles beW
Montreal, the St I^wrence firat meets the tide and receives
from the north the waters from the St Maurice, which drains
about 16,000 aqmre miles. Nearing Quebec, the river,
which maintains an average width of 1 j miles from IaIu
St Peter, narrows into a width of threfrqoarten of -a mile
at Cape Diamond, on tha left bonk, 1 60 miles below Mont-
real. The depth here is 128 feet and the rise of spring
tides 18 feet
The lower town of Quebec, which has extensive harbonr
accommodation, is built on reclaimed land around tbe base
of the cape, one of it« sides being washed by the river St
Charles, which here flows into the St Lawrence. At the
mouth of the St Charles tbe Princess Louise embankment,
4000 feet bag by 300 wide, enctosea a tidal area of 20
acre^ having 24 feet of depth at low water. Coimected
with it i* a wet dock, which ia to have a permanent depth
of 27 feet witit an area of 40 acres. On the oppoaile
ude, at Pointe Levis, the Lome graving-dock ia nearly
completed. Its dimensions are BOO feet in length, 100
in width, and 35} feet depth of vrater on its silL During
tha year ending June 18S4 the departures for sea of
veasels from Quebec were 698, with an aggregate burthen
of 686,790 tons.
Tha Cansdiin aovtnunaDt hiv« tsmrttoned the pnpoail to con-
atmct a railwij bridge icraai tbe St I^wrenca within a lew mils
of Qnebac, al s point whei* tbe river urron to a width of Z400
foot at high water. The ana ot the witerway at high water ia
200,000 Kgnire feet and it low water 160,000. Tor a width of
about 1400 fert in the centre ot the channel the water ahelvM
ra^udlv from either shorv into deep water, until it attiina a mskl-
Jnoin depth of nearly 200 teet Tba proposed bridge, u dedfned
by Uenn Bmnlesa, Light, k Cluton FiOler, vill cooairt of tkne
priaripil apau, entirely ot itsel, mting on miionir piera foundad
on tha rock. The antral ipauwill biTeadeirwiUth of H*! het,
tha underside ot tba loparstracturs bdug ISO feet abors highwatar.
Seven miles below Quebec the St Lawrence is 4 mile*
wide and dirides into two channels at the bead of the
Island of Orleans, nearly oppoeite which, on the north
shore, are the celebrated falls of Montmorency, with a
perpeodieular descent of 340 teet and a width of 50 feet
At the foot of tbe island, which is 22 miles long, the river
expands to a width of 1 1 mHei. This width inereaaes to
16 miles 90 miles farther on, at the mouth of tha river
Bagnenay, which drains an area of 23,716 square miles.
182
1 A I — S A I
About 260 mile* below Quebec, between P(niit« del Uonts
CB the north and Cape Chnt on the south, the St Lawrence
Itwi a width of 30 nulea, and, oa this eipauae ii doobled
80 milen farther seaward. Cape Chat haa been considered
bjr manj geographers as the soutliem extreioiCj of an
imaginaiy line of demarcation between the Bt lAwience
river and the gulf of the tame name. It ma;, however,
be aasiimed, with more propriety perhapa, taking the con-
figoratioQ of the gulf into apecia! acconnt, that Cape
Gaap^, about 400 mile^ below Quelrae and 430 miles from
Uie Atlantic at the east eod ol the Straits of Bells Isle,
ia the traa mouth of the St lAwrence river.
It has been eal^nlated by Darby, the American hydio-
grapher, that the mean discharge from the St Lftwrence
river and gulf, from an area rather largely estimated at
085,000 square milex, must be npwards of 1,000,000 cubic
feet per aecoud, taking into account the mean discharge at
Niagara, which is 389,000 cubic feet per second from a
drainage area of 237,000 square miles, and bearLDg in mind
the weQ -ascertained fact that the tributaries of the lower
St LAWreoce^ coming from monntainous woody regions
where now folia from 4 to 8 feet in depth, deliver more
water per square mile than its appet tributaries.
The great prcapenty aod growth of Canada are owing
no doubt to its tmrivalled system of intercommunication
h; canal and river with the vast territories through
which the St Lawrence finds its way from the far-off
regioiu of the Minnesota Vo the seaboard. This great
auxiliary of the lallways (by meana of which trade ii now
carried on at all seasonf) mnat therefore be prominently
taken into account in considering the traoaport routes of
the future, their chief use being, as far u the conveyanre
of traffic over long distances is coacomed, to augment, in
the ihape of feedera, the trade of the river, as long as it
keeps open, and when it closes to continue the circulation
of commerce bj sledges until the ice breaks up and restores
the river to its former activity. By the published staUstica
of the harbour commiwioners of tlontreal it appears that
during the tan years 1870-79 the opening of the oarigatiou
at Montreal varied between 30th March and let May, and
the close of the oavigatioa between 2Gth November and
!d JaDliai7, and tlia^ whilst the Brst arrival from sea
varied from 20th April to 11th May, the last dep&rture
to sea only varied from 21st November to 29Ui November
dnring the ten years. (o. a. h.)
Anoniing to ths cblDf gHfrcaphar of tlie United Statsi fl»logii?iI
SarraT, the foUairiiig mn tlii prindpd dsti for tba Bt Lavrinca
Ilka ID ISag. Area of buia orBC LamenM 4(7,000 uuan inllea,
of vhich U0,00* bclang to dnvli ind 127.000 to tlie United
Bbltta. £n£« Siipcrior—irtt 31,200 BQuan milu, hnglb Hi milei,
maiiniDm brMiIth 117 milos, miiimnm daptli 1006 f«^ iltituda
■bo™ Ma-leral Ml fmt Zati ffaroJi— area 21,000 ■qiure railns,
St3 mils long, 101 bnul, maximam depth 701 feat, altituda E81
■- ■^■'- ■■ n breadth
m deptb
depth SIO feet, Liigbt ibovi
OnUrio 3M feot. Latt 0,iU
IM mill*, bniadtb
breadth SO silo, muimaoi
i 573 faat and abova I^ka
1 7310 aquira milea, IsDgtb
,_, io>, mmiimnm depth 788 feat, eiava^on
M7 h«t. Id 1385 th* tanfled Te«la on tba St Laimnca Ukae
bdongiDito thaUDiladStateaDombanid 2497 (steam 117S, HilLsg
1 tai) ■ith an Iggrcgata boitlien of 848,988 tons iat«aiD 33j,Se9 tODi,
lilliDg 318,129 bmi).
ST LEONABDS in the name given to the western and
more modem part of EABTnros (;.«.}, a watering-place on
the coast of Stissei; England. St Leonards proper, which
formed only a amall part of the district now included
under that name, wt« at one time a teparate township.
Xlwpmulatdon of Bt Leonards in 1881 was 7165.
St LEONABDS, Edwids BiTBTznxaAW BDoOEir, Lou>
[1781-1875), lord chancoUor of England, was the son of a
DurdrfSHT in Dnk; Street, Westminster, and was bom in
February 1761. After practicing for some years as a eon-
vejancer, he was called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn in 1807,
having already published hit well-known treatise on the
Laif of Veiulmt imd Pvrrhtun-t, In I6I23 he was made
king's counsel and ehoeea a bencher of Lincoln's Inn,
He was returned at different times for various boron^u
to the House of Commons, where he made himaeif pro-
minent by hia oppoaitiou to the Beform Bill of 1832.
He was appoioted eolicttor-general in 1829, was named
lord chancellor of Ireland in 1834, and again filled the
same office from 1841 to 1646. Under Lord Derby's first
administration in 185S he became lord cbaocellor and was
raised to the peerage ad Lord St Leonards. In this posi-
tion he devoted himself with enei^ and vigour to the
reform of the law ; Lord Derby on his return to power in
1868 again offered him the same office, which ^om con-
siderations of health he declined. He continued, however,
to take an active interest especially in the legal matters
that came before the House of Lorda, and b^towed his
particular attention on the reform of Uie law of property.
He died at Boyle Farm, Thames Ditton, 29th January 167 5.
Lord St Laosards invi the antbar of virlooi impoitant lagil
publicatlDni, manj of wblch hare paiaed through aavaral adltlcma.
Be^«fl Iba treatLia o^ pnrcbaaan siready mentioiied, thaj iDctude
J'ovrri, Owl ditidid by &4 Smut id Zerili, OUhtrt m Umt, X<u
Sal PrsjrTif La^n, (od Bandyba')* if Proferi^ Lain,
ST LO, a town of France, chef-lieu of the department
of Uanche, on the right bank of the Vire, 169 miles weat
by north of Paris by the railway which hers breaks np
into tiro branches for Contances and Vire respectively.
The old town stands on a rocky hill (110 feet high) com-
manding the river ; the modem town spreads out below.
Nutie Dame is a Gothic building of the 14th century,
with portal and two towers of the 15th. In ^la town-
house is the Torignj marble, commeraorating the assem-
blies held in Qanl under the Bomans and now serving as
a pedestal for tha bust of Leverrier the astronomer, who
was bom at St LO. Tiie museum haa aorae good picttuo^
and in tha abbey of St Ccoiz there are winuows of tfaa
14th century. The Champs de Uara is a fijie treo-planted
place. Horse- breading, cloth and calico wearing, wool-
spinning, currying and tannmg, are the local indnstries.
The population in 1881 was 6889 (10,121 in the commnne).
St U, fonnded in tba Qallo-Konua parlo'1, *h origiDallr oalleJ.
BrioTin(bridggoQthe Vtre), and afterwarda St Stienne, the preaaot
name being from one of Iti biabopa (Lo, T^ndiia), who livaif in tb*
6th cantuiy. Bj the time of Charlemagne tbi town was alrttidv
■ abbey, which majadud
itlvtoFn
ought npoB S
at tha Edict of
ludnatnal csntrg. ~'ln tfae middla of tha 14tllOBntnr7 IdwudUC
of EoglaDd oaptonid tha town and aoconllDg to ProisMrt obttlntd
immenaa booly. It waa again takm by tM bi^iih in 1417, bat
tbaTictoi7otTonDi^j<lJ£a) rertorad it psrmaiMntl* to Fnnca,
Tba heartT welcome it pre to tba Rrformatlon ' ^ ■
LS new diaasteci and new aieges. The rerocatii
Nanta led to the emigration of a part of the inlubltajita.
the town waa made the csntn of tbe departmeu^bnt bj
orden it wu delved et its fortlBcatiDns.
ST LOUIS, the capital of Seoegambia or Senegal,
West Africa, and known to the natives as far as Timbuktu
as N'dar, is built on an island 10 sea-milm above the
mouth of the Senegal river, near the right lia-nV, which
is there a narrow strip of sand — the Langue de Borbarie-^
occupied by the villagea of N'dar Toute and Quet N'dar,
Two bridges on pilee connect the town with the villages ;
and the Pont Faidherhe, 3133 faet long and constructed
in 1863, affords communication vrith Bonetville, a suburb
and the terminus of the railway, on the left bank. The
houses of the European portion of St Louis have for the
most part flat roofs, balconies, and terraces. Besides the
governor's reaidence the moat prominent buildings are the
cathedral, the great mosques tha court-house, and the
ST LOUIS
Tuions faamcks and offices C0DDe«[«d vith tLa army.
The town alao coaUini tlis Senegal l»nk (1 s;>5), a Qoverti-
meat printiDg-office (lS5S),a ch&mbec of izommerce (1869),
» public library, and an a^colturol society (1374). The
roand beehire hnts of Oust N'dar are mainly inhabited
by native fishermen. N'dar Toute consists of Tillas with
gaidens, and is frequented as a sommsr natering-place.
There ia a pleasant public garden in the town, uid the
neighbourhood is reodered attractiTe by alleys of dat«-
pAlios. At there are no natural wells on the island, and
the Artesian irell at the north side of the town ^ves only
brackish water, St Louis uaed to be dependent on raon-
tanks and the river (and except during tfas rainy leason
the water ia the lowirr jnrt of the river is salt) ; but in
1879 1,600,000 franca were appropriated to the constmc-
tioa of • reservoir at a height of 300 feet above the te*,
7^ milee from the town. The mouth of the Senegal beiog
doMd by a bar of sand with extremely ahiftiog entnuicee
for amall vessels, the steamships of the great European
lines do not come np to St Louis, and pasiengera, in order
to meet them, are obliged to proceed by rail to Dakar, on
the other side of Cape Verd. Ordinary fsssels have often
to wait outside or inside the bw for days or weeks and
partial anloadlng U often neeeasary. It is proposed to
construct a pier opposite Ouet N'dar. The population
of St Louis was 15,980 in 187G and 18,924 in 1883.
Though founded in 1G62, the town did not receive a
mauicipal govenunent till August IBT2. See Senegal.
BT LOUIS, a city of the United States, chief city of
tbe State of Missouri, is utuated on the west bank of the
Mississippi river, 20 milee below it« conftuence with the
Hlssouri river and 200 miles above tbe influx of the Ohio,
ia 38' 38' 3"-6 N. lai and 90* 12" 17" W. long. It ia
distant by river about 1200 miles from New Orleans, and
729 from St Paul at the head of navigation on the Missis-
sippi, and occupies a poaition near the centre of the great
basin through which the mingled flood of the Hisaissippt
and Missouri and their extensive ijatem of tributaries is
carried to the Oulf of Mexico. The aito embraces a eerie* of
DDdulaCiona extending weatwarda with a general direction
nearly parallel to the river, which at this point makes a
wide curve to the east The extreme length in a straight
line ie 17 miles, the greatest width 6'60 miles, the length
of river front 19'1S milea, and the area (iueluding con-
siderable territory at present suburban in character) 62}
square miles. The elevation of the city directrix above
the waters of tbe Oolf of Mexico is 428 feet, that of the
bighest point of ground iji the city above the directrix is
203 feet ; the extreme high-water mark above the directrix
is 7 feet 7 inches, and the extreme low-water mark below
tbe same ia 33 feet 9] inches. The elevated site of the
city prevents any serious interruption of busioess by high
water, even in seasong of anusual floods.
The plan of the city ia rectilinear, thp ground being laid
ont in blocks about 300 feet square, with the general direc-
tion of street lines north-south and east-west. The wharf
or river front is known as the Levee or Front Street, the
next street west is Main Street, and the next Second, and
thence the streets going north-south are, ivith few excep-
tions, in numerical order (Third, Fourth, Ac). Fifth 6ti^t
has recently been named Broadway. The east-west streets
bear regular names (Chestnut, Fine, Washington, Franklin,
and the like). Market Street is regarded as the middle of
the city, and the numbering on the intersecting itreeta
commences at that line, north and south respectively. One
hundred house nambers are allotted to each block, and
the blocks follow in numerical order. The total length of
paved streets in St Louis is 316 miles, of unpaved streets
and roads 427, total 713 milei. In the central etreela,
subject to heavy traffic, the pavement ia of granite blocks ;
wood, asphalt, and limestone blocks and Telford pave-
menta are alio used. Thsre ais nearly 300 miles of mac-
3t Loiiig [ClDtnl Put).
I t! FInt Fro^uriu CkBEh.
*. Temple of Cbi OiUi dC Tnth.
I 10. et Ttttr iBd hnl Ckuch.
adamized streets, including the roadways in the new limita.
The length of {uved alleys is about 66 milea. Tbe dty has
an extensive sewer system (total length 223 miles), and,
owing to the elevation of the residence and business dis-
tricts above tbe river, the drainage ia admirable. The
largest sever, tlill Creek (20 feet wide and 15 feot high),
runs through the middle of the city, from west to east,
following ^e course of a stream that existed in earlier
days. Tbe water-supply is derived from the Mississippi; the
water is pumped into settling basins at Bissell's Point, and
thence into the distributing pipes, the surplus flowing to
tbe stonge reservoir on Comptoa Hill, which baa a capacity
of 60,000,000 gallons. The lengUi of water-pipe is nearly
250 miles ; the capacity of the low-service engines whii^
pump tbe water into tbe settling basins is 66,000,000
gallons in twenty-four hours, and that of the bigfa-servioe
engines which supply the distributing system 70,000,000
gallons. The aversge daily conaiunption in twenty-fonr
honre ia nearly 28,000,000 gallons. Tbe works, which are
owned by the city, cost over f6,000,000. Among the mors
184
i T LOUIS
important {wUic buildings ue the Jieir costom-hooae and
poet-office, erected at • coat of over (5,000,000 ; the mer-
cfunta' Biclunge, which contftinB a gnuid haU 221 feet 10
inches in length by 62 feet 10 inijiea in vridth and 60 feet in
h^bt ; the coott-boose, mhere the civil courta hold their
sesdoQe ; the (onr conrta and Jail, in which building ore the
headqnartere of the police department and the ch&mbeiB
of the ciiminal conrta ; the cotton exchange ; the new ex-
poeition and muaic-hall building on Olive Street, erected
by pnblic Bobscription ; and the Crow llusenm of Fine
Aria. The preMnt city-ball is a large bat hardiy orna-
mental edifice. The mercantile library, on Fifth and
LocQst B^«Bta, contains nearl; 65,000 volumea and aUo a
valuable art collection. The public acbool library in the
polytechnic bnilding has about S5,000 volumes. There
ace KX handsome theatres and various other amaller places
of amusement. The public scbcol system of St Louis
tnelndet the kindergortea (for which St Louis has become
somewhat celebrated), the grammar-schools (bcludiog eight
grades, of a year each), and a high school, besides the
normal school and a school for dee^ mutes. The public
schools naturally absorb much the largest mmber of pupils ;
but the parochial schools and the private schools gathered
about the Washington university are also much frequented.
The number of pupils in IS83-81 was in the normal school
64, high school T83, grammar-schools 62,280, total in day
schools &3,12T ; total in day and evening schools 66,366.
The total number of public school buildings is 104, and
the value of ptoi>erty used for school pniposes (3,229,148;
■11 the school edifices are Bubstanttal and convenient, and
many orchitectorolly attractive. The receipts of the public
school system for 1881 were (941,333, and the total ei-
penditure t93<,609, the amount paid to teachers being
(632,873. Of parochial schools there are about TS. The
Washington and St Louis universities are old and well-
established institntioos. There are also the Mary Institute
and the manual training school, both connected with Wash-
ington nniversity, the college of the Christian Brothers,
convent seminaries, and numerous medical colleges. In
addition there are art schools, singing and gymnastic
societies, (ind other similar orgoniEations and establish-
ments. There ore published in St Louis four daily news-
papers in English and four in Oermon, and also a number
of weekly publications.
There are 16 Baptist churches, 8 Congregational,
13 Episcopal, 2G German Evangelical and Lntheron, 6
Hebrew congregations, 18 Methodist Episco!>al, 8 Methodist
Episcopal Church {South), 25 Presbyterian, IS Boman
Catholic, and 3 Unitarian. Many of the buildings ore of
imponng proportions, built of stone, massive in character,
and with lofty spires. The Eoman Catholic cathedral, built
in 1B30, is the oldest church now in use. On the high
ground in the cenbol-western portion of the city (Stoddard's
Addition^ will be found most of the costly church build-
ings, whilst in the norther and southern portions of the
4ity there are ver^ few indeed.
The parks and squares of St Lonis number 19, covering
nearly 2 100 acres. Tower Qrove Fork, in the sonUi-westem
suburbs, containing about 266 acres, was presented by Hr
Henry Shaw. The smaller p^ks are situated to the east
(rf Qrand Avenue, and the driving parks in the suburbs,
— O'Fallou Park (1GB acres) at the northern extremity
of the city. Forest Fftrk (1372 acres) west of the central
l)OTtion, Tbwer Qrove in die south-west, and Canindelet
(180 acres) in the south. In the immediate vicinity of
Tower Qrove Psik are the Missouri Botanical Gardens,
c^blished by Mr Henry Shaw, and containing the most
extensive botanical collection in the United States. In
addition to the parks, the Fair Orounda in the north-west
■honld be mentioned, where the annual fair is held, and
where there is a permanent coological department. An
amphitheatre, capable of seating between 30,000 and
30,000 spectators, and a iBce-oourse with a most elabo-
rate grand stand, are among the other features. Iliere
are various beer-gardens in the city, krgely frequented as
pleasure-resorts. There are about 1 20 miles of street rail-
ways in operation.
The foUowiiig table shows the x>opnlBtioi
at different periods : —
of St Lonia
1S40.,.
..7l,lit
ISSO SfiO,EI8
The figures of the United Stat«e census are strictly eon-
fined to iQunicipd limits, and do not include the residents
of East St Louis and of various suburban localities, pro-
perly a {lart of the city population. In 1880 the popula-
tion (179,520 males, 170,998 females) was divided as
follows: — native, 245,509; foreign-bom, 109,013. Of
the latter 36,309 came from Oreat Britain (28,536 Irish)
and 54,901 from Germany. The death-rate per thousand
in 1662 was 19-6, in 1883 it was 204, and in 1885
(population being estimated at 400,000) it wss I9'7.
TtiB polics force, indadiog detsctiva ud eDiplovb, number*
tbont 600 mgn. Tba fin bri^e uiisib«t ZM men, mth 22 tn^fine-
hoiuea. Tb» city tuu three pablie hoipitili, . u ujlum for th«
iDHue, ■ poorLottso, ■ norkhouie for the confinBmont sad emploj-
niest of piisoDen c!iirg«d with petty oBgncea, ud ■ houH of
nfage nhich ia * tefonUBtory inilitoUon * ' - ~ ■
for tn« education of children thrown npo
ibindonmentot otiorwiBa. Thonomboi . , , . ..
other ioititulions Bunported by priTite chaiity ia very lurge.
Oatcmminl ond f\na^ia.—St lonis ii not inoinded in my county
ortlieStsta, bnt eiiiti a> sKjxntemunicipililT. It vis fonnerlr
embnced in St Looli coun^, ud wu ■ttliia the Jariidiction snd
liiing powar of * city «ad couuty goTemmont. The Stiite con-
chirter. The city laTioo sod colled*
inanidi«l ud 8Ut« revnaes wtthia iti limiu, ud muign it*
own ifffiin. &ee from mil ontnde control, aicept th*t of th* itpM-
Utnre of the Stat*. The voted of the city hsio the right to UDead
thecbirterst int«tTlle of two yeui it ■ geaenlor aiiecial elcctioD,
— provided the propOBtd ucendmenti have been dnly unctioned
the people by the
bly. ^elegiaU-
bly. Thecouocil
ben, elected for
four y™ by
ind the house i^
dclsgstei COD-
*iBt* of on* mem-
ber &om each of
the twenty-eight
nirda, elected for
two yea™. The
following offleera
comiitroller, i
Togietrar, col-
of deedi, inipector of weight* ind miasarM, *]MriS',«)
Fsa. 2.— at Lool; and ec
brator, president of the bwd of aiwssor^ and pre-
ST L O D I S
185
MtoJ by th<
AppointmeuU in mada at tbs Ix^nn
uu^or't UniL VD u lo nmoTQ tha <li>t ^ ^
u* bwn ttaa influnoa of k gitwnl ritjr (Wtun. Th* ponr af
Ii nbjact to c«Ttiiu ndprocd checki.
Tha bonJed debt of St Lcuu >t tlio cId» of th> bal jtai, 13th
AprU IMS, vu.t£2,0IS,00O. TLis debt fa ndund Hcb jm bj
tlu opvmtioa ot tha ""^^"g fniuL Tha ci^ hu do Aoatisr dabt.
Tha neaipti foi tha final ynr andisg ISth April ISSS, dadnetiiig
piuccnli or raTaaaa bonJii uid •iwcul depoait^ wan IS,S59,08S, or
with baUnnin titamejaX opening ofyMr t<l,5I<,ST7. Tha totil
aipcnditan vu t5.S81,GSr. The dtr tu rate for th* year ISM
ma 81-IS on tha IIOIX During Cb« iaal fair ^aan tha rata of in-
tatnt o>i (he Umded debt baa b«s radnad frgu S and 7 par cast.
to S par tcuL. and man nceotly to « per cent Koal of the oat-
ttaoding bondi an bald in Englnnd aod Gennuiy. All apnropria-
tiona an rigidly Umitsd to tba anilabte maana, and tba incnoae
of the boodod debt ia forbidden by U«. Is ISAO tba taxable
lalaatioD «u t«>,S4S,g4S, in 1370 it vaa tl17,»«S,M0, in 1880
$I0O,49S.DOO, and in 188S $£07,810,150.
COmBuire. — Subjouiedan a Haw of tha more Important facta and
figaiia mpecting the ccnunarce of St Loui*. In ISSl tlitre were
0,440,787 tont of fniftbt receired bj tail and 120,390 by rirar,
loajciiif ( total of S,M1,137 tooa. In the «me yoar there vera
ahipind by nil S,S11,41S tona and by rim SK.SIO torn {total
tHuhela in the ,
>naDiifacturcd irma 1,060,'
kindi 4,7S7,0i» bamli ;
of tobacco,aad 118,484,220 tbofiu^i
mractoria, with > pioitnc
lOUnt that cbangrd
I, li.ae hogibeada
^ id; and 1»5, 875.470
ipped. Then an tbLrtden tobaoco
In 1884 of 22,031,104 lb. In liya
icrearing. Eiteutlia i
I alas in
ock-janli.
nmditiea the liniini
Tarda are eatablithad ^
£ant St I«au, when thay ate kaown ai tho national t
ud csrer ■ ipaca of orar 800 acni. In 1884 then wen l_
cattle, 4 M, 717 ; aheep, S80,BM ; piga, 1.47*, 475 ; hotwa and mult^
41,870. The ahipmanta tn tha aame year were— cattle. tlS 433 ;
ahflep, 148,541 ; piga, «78,8T4 ; hones and mulei, 39,84*. There
aiw rrelre ffnin elaraton, with a tctai carttcitj for hoik ffraiu of
10,»S0,OO0biuha!i and 415,000 ucka. The c«l tKvi'KTdimna
tba year amDuntad to 52,849,100 buahela. The fonifn ralne of
inporta for tba j«*r waa (2,188,378, and tha coUtctioaa it Iba
nutom-boua win S1.4«S,<B5.
Abuhik the more iaportant nuuuDictiina may bo tnentioned
tbco* of inn and ateal, glue, floor, angar, beer, bagging, preparvd
foodJ^ lobaoei), bootaud ahoea, hraitan, planad andnwedlaniber,
Tin and vliw-work, camagea and wiggona, foundry and machine-
ahoii {mdncta, hardwue, igricnltonl implemaiiti, Ac Meat pack-
ing 11 alio an iinpottant indnitrr. Tha lununary of miDufactarts
in tha United BtBt« cannu of 1880 »bmt ZKi establiihmenta,
luTing a eaidtal of $50,832,881 1 Unoont paid in wages daring the
nw, |l7,7i>,133 ; valae of matniali, r 5,37i>,8«7 ; ralue ofpro-
doct^ |114,33X,87S. Tbaae flgnna ought probably to be lat^l^
increaaed now (18M), In tha wholonle grocery tndo St Looia ii
ahoid of nurlj all the Inland oitiea of tha Union. Then in be-
tween twenty and thirty wbolnai* hona
th* aonnal aaloa eicaad $80,000,000.
L200b*n ■
__ ..taildiT,
batwoan $1CLOOO,000 and $12,000,000, and tha annul
bniineia at |3i,00a^000 to $40,000,00^ Tha brewing boiinw ol
8t Lonia haj had an aitooiihing dar^pmant; and ita piodDct ii
ahipped to all paita of th* worll It implori orar $8,000,000^ol
cgfdtBL and pap ont In wagoa over $1,000,000 per i
ale and beer abipnunti diring 1SB4 nnmbe^ IgBMi'
The brick-making indoatry ha* noentlybMnmaimpoi .__ .
hard tad brick for boildiag and tha flio brick gwodnoad in Bt Loni .
are among the beat to be found in the United State*. In IB84
than wan eighteen State banka and lix national bauka RpT«*ent-
ing — capital and mrjilua, $14,742,128 ; laTingi and time depoalti,
SII,ial,Osl ; ninuit dapoait^ $M,00O,«fll ; arcnlatian, $071,150 ;
total, $53,518,985. ThecIraHngi tor 1884 amount lo$785,!Oa,177,
and th* balauc** to $125,280,045, making a total of $010,413,122.
AulBsyi.— St Lonia ii one of the m<wt important railroad
eantna in the Unit*! Statei ; the ninatwD linaa which n:D tniua
into tha Union depAt npreaant neatly 20,000 milea of nilwiy.
Tha Union paateager depU, oontiguou to th* bniinria centre of
th* city, i* connected with the bndgo orer the Uiuiuippi by a
tnnneL The boildlnp are of a tempanry character, and an not
adeqnat* to th* anermoqa borinaa tranautadj a now dapSt of
impoug pBinrtioiia ia bow in ocmtemplatunu Orer ISO paaan-
I 1,Im,B» MckagcL
1* importas^ ud the
ger traini anin and drparl diflr. The tunol alnady labmd to
caBUnanoa* a few hundred yud* eait of the Union dipOt It hai
double tracki Ihroughont ita length, which ia about 1 mile, andia
■opplied with electric linhti, Tenliloliu'- IhiHi, and the beat ap-
pbanna tor lafely and eon«Die,i™. It ie laiaed by the 'Waboati,
St lAuia. and Pacific and tha Utoouri Padlle Rallniid Companiei,
which are alao the leHati of (lie brid^. The bridge acnna (ha
UiHMipm ri*«r at St Louii ia one of the moat nmarkabia atrae-
turea in the world in chancier and tnignitode. It conilitaaf thne
archw, Iba two aide apani being iO-i feet in the cliar and lb*
centn apan 820 fat, and carrici a roadway for ordinary traOe U
feet wide and below tUa two line* ot tail. Tb* diminuou ofth*
abutment* and picn are a> follow* ; —
Ln(lh.|rklelcH*L Lnttk.'Ukikii^
■nDi>sa*t I HiIimTi
tup. Irrciiu hia- a
-r— — -| j.itoB to ,
two [Hara and tha wut abutment wen annh by maani of pnanmatie
ealHma. Tha greeted depth below tha nirtace at which work
waa done waa 110 laet, the air-nraaaur* in tb* caiaaon being 49 lb.
Each arch conliiti of four equal ribi ; each rib i* eonipcwHrof two
circular memben, 12 feet apart, which an connected by a lingl*
ajatem of diagonal brmcea. The circular mrmbara coniiat of atetl
tsbea, which an 12 feet long and 18 inches in diameter ; each tuba
is compoaed of 8 ateal staiaa, Tarying in thickneaa between 1 ^ and
:i inchea. Tbaae atavei an held together by a ateel enrelop*,
a qnarter of an inch thick. The tnbes an jaincd logether br coop-
liDga, and the end tubes are Hgidly connected witli nrought-iron
akewbacki, which are BieJ to the naaoBiy by Ions bolta The
arches nere erected aithoDt naing any falia work. Vork on tb*
bridge waa commencedMarch 1X88, and it wasopened for traffic ontth
July 1374. Tha total cost of hiiJse and approacbej wiaM,S3e, 730-
Tbe trafflc acroas the bridge ii rapidly developing. In IB78 the
grca aamingi wen $Mg,l47 (loaded waggon*, 45,027 ; tailway
paoengan, 498,888); in 1884 the groaa aaning* wen $UI30,1W
(loaded wa^goni. 172,730; Tail say paaHngen, l,833,380Ji a total of
1,339,904 toua wu carried ; and Uie total number of can which
croRied tho bridge warn 472, Sit
B\tto7y.—The &itt iiermanaut aettlement on th* aita of St Loda
waa made in February 1TS4, and was in the natun at a ttading
poit, eitablialied by F\em I^clede Ligutat- Lang prior to thu
erent there had been soms eiploration of the Tait ngion* ot the
tiisaiasippi and ita tributaries by Uarquette, JoUet, La Salle.
" ,nd othen; but, ilthongh a tew iridely leparatad mili-
t*T7 and trading poets bad been established, then
mledge of the character and re
.peditior ■ ' '
countty. I^clede'a
tha treaty of Pari*,
'•lley of tha
west of (be Uianiaippi, and Eneluid of aU tsrritoiy
178S, b; which the Ulle of F»Bq«
lUaaiKippi waa pnctically eitinm
eastot thatri
north of the Ohio wen uominally anrrenJcred to the Eogliah, in-
cluding Vincennei, Cahokia, Kuiiaikia, and Fort de Chartna ; hot
there wai no inrniediate formil aeiertioa at English control, and
French aentimenta and mannen and cnitomi renuin*d nndia-
turbed. In 1771 St Lonis nas formallir occnraad by a amall body
of Spanish troops, commanded by Don Fedro Piemas^ and a period
of somewhat oret thirty years of Spaniih nla Ibllowad, dnring
nhich few local aTenta of noteworthy chaiactac oceund. On !Su
Uay 1780— the fastiral of Corpna Chilati— tb* post, or villBB, waa
attacked by lodiani, and aboDt Ihirtr of tha citinni were killed ;
but the saTigi* wen beaten off and lUd not nnew the attack. In
1800 Spain ceded back to Fnncc all her territoiy of Louisian*, ud
three years later— 30th AprU 1B03— Pmaca ceded to th* United
Stitae all her right, title, and Intanat in the territory for dghty
million franci. AC thii time St Louji and th*a<^ao*nt diairicta
had a papulation ot not oier 3000, and the total popnlatlon of
Upper Loniaiina vai between 8000 and 9000, inc1udingl300 Kagroaa.
There wen not over 200 honsei in the embryo city, which oon-
•iited mainly of two atniel* panllel to the rirer. For fifty or ni^
ya*n after the landing of Idclede the progr*** ot tba town wa*
neceiaarily *low. In 1310 the popnUtion wa* lea tlian 1100, and
in 1830 it bad not reached 8000. From the latter dat« pcogrta
became steady and npid, and the real growth of tbe dty waa com-
preaaed within bait a century. An aitenaiTe oonaagratlon oocomd
in 1S4B| which daatroyed most of th* boaine** hon**a on tbe Lerm
and Mam Street Dming tha Civil War tba oommetdal adTauci-
ment of St Louia waa aerionaly ntarded ; bat the city continned
to etpand in papulation oning to ili adrantageoo* geographical
pontioB. (D. H. H'A)
XXI. — 14
186
S A I — S A I
ST LUOIA, ft Tert Iiidi* Uftnd, diMOTered b^ Colmn-
Ihw in 1503, u utiutad in 13' SO* N. Ut. and 60* S8'
W. long., uid lui aJengtli of 43 milsK and a, mazimani
breadth of 21. I^geon Island, fornierlj an important
nilitarj port, Um at its noiibem Bxtremitj. Origioally
inhabited b; Cariba, St Lucia wu tattled hj the Engli^
in 1639, and, after manj alternations of Englt«h and
Frsnch pouaaaion, ttUTeadered to the Britiah antu in
1T94. Sir John Moore wa« goTernor till 1797. St Lucia
waa ■nbaequsntty in Franeh poiaenion, bnt waa finaU;
natored to Great Ibitain in 1803. The «cene]7 oomnsta
of mountain, vallajr, and foreat; two eone-ahaped rocka
riae oat of the tea to a height of 30O0 feet, and near them
are ciater* of eitiuct Tolcanoeii and a aolfatata. The
island ia conaidered a good coaling atation for mail-ateamen
and var-ahipt ; there ii a good harbour on- the west coast,
below Castries, the capital (papulation, SOOO). The total
l>opnlation was 40,S32 in 1883, of whom 1000 were
white, mostlj French. St Lucia forms part of the general
yoTBmment of the Windward Islands (from which Barba-
doa is exclndad) ; it has a legisIatiTS oonncil composed of
officials and crown nominees. The n""""' revenue and ex-
]ienditure were £43,026 and £36,602 Teapectively in 1883,
the debt (principally for Central Sugar Factory) being
£32,400. Tlie tonnage of Tesaela entered and cleared
was 438,688 ; the total importa were Talqad at £191,191
and the export* (angar, T600 tone; oocoa, 307,130 lb) at
£213,833. The Uaine or Central Factory system baa
been estabUahed with Oovenunent aaaiataoce.
ST UALO, a aeaport town of France, on the English
Chaiuel, on tiie right bank of the eatnory of the Ranee, is
titnated in JS* 39' N. laL, 61 milea by rail north-north-
west of Bennei. It is th« adminiatr^tiTe centre of an
arrondisaement in the dep«rtniei)t of Ille-et-Tilaine and a
firat-cUaa garrison town, surrdnnded by nunparta of the
13th, 16t^ and ITth centuries, which are atrengtheiied
with great towers at the principal gatea. The granite
island on which St Malo atanda communicates with the
mainland only on tbs north-east by a causeway known as
the "Biilon" (furrow), 650 feet long, and at one time only
46 feet broad, though now three timea that breadth.
This caoaeway forma part of the dte of Rocabey, an in-
duatrial aaborb more eitensiye, though leas populona, than
the town itaelf. In the aea round about lie other granite
rocks, which hare bfen turned to aoooont in the defences
of the coart ; on the ialet Of the Qrand Bey i« the tomb
(1848) of Chateaubriand. The rocks and beach in the
circuit of 8t Halo are continaally fh^nging their appear-
ance owing to the violence of the tidea. Equinoctial
qiring-tidea aomatinw* riae 00 feet above bw-watec Level,
and during storms the sea sometimee washea over the
tamparta. The harbour of St llalo Ilea aonth of the town
in the creak aeparating it from the neighbouring town of
St Serran. It has a wet dock with from 30 to 35 feet
of water (30 feet in spring-tides}, and a mile of quays.
AdditionjJ works are projected, to make the area of the
French seaports 8t Ualo stands twelftl
in^Mirtaiict^ bat first in the number of seamen on its
roister. The annual importa and exports together amount
to 184,000 tons, and 3000 tons of shipping an built
yearly. Beaides fitting out fishing-boats for Newfonnd-
laod, St Malo exports grain, cola-seed, cider, butter,
tobacco, and various kinds of provisious to the Channel
1 Blandly with which it is connected by a legalai sieamboat
service. The noaatjng vessels have a tonnage of abont
30,00& Communication between Bt Ualo and Bt Servan
id maintained by a revolving bridge. Bt Malo ia htgely
frequented for urn bathing, bnt iwt eo much •• Dinai^
on the oppoaite side of the Banoc Fanmi, to tb» wt of
Bt Halo, has recently apntng into importance. Tbe interior
of St Halo presents a tortuons maze of narrow atteeta and
of amall aquarea lined with high and aometimea quaint
buildings. The old house in which Bngnay-Trodin waa
bom deearvee to be noted. Above all riaea the stone ^lire
which since 1859 terminates the centml tower of the
cathedral The castle^ which defenda the town towards
the "Billon," is flanked with four towers, and in the
centr« rises the great keep, an older and loftier atiuctiu«v
which waa breached in 1378 by the dnke of lAoeaster.
St Malo has stataes to Chateanbriand and I>DgQay.Tronin.
Thu museum oontsjns remains of the ship "1m Petite Her-
mme," in which Jacques Cartier sailed for the diBcovefj'
of Canada ; and the natoral history mxuenm paaaeasM »
remarkable collection of from 6000 to TOOO Enn^tean
birds. The population of St Malo in 1661 wa« 10,891
(commona, 11,212).
oantDTj tbs gruICs fslsad on which 3t Uslo now
■ ntrast of Xbbot Asrou, who gin ujluia la his
" 1o (UscloTini or UiloTiiu), a Cambriu priat, who
In tha <
to Si
l[>lo only is tha lith caDtory. JmIou at tbaii iiidapiBulnies^
the iah4bitanti of St Ualo plsjeil off mgaiiut aacb othai tha dukaa
of Brittuy and tha Liogi ef France, who sltamatalj aooj^t to
bring them niiJar loibjactiaii. During tba tnabtia of tba uagna
thaj hopnl to BitabliuL a rapnbUcan BpvanuiHBt in tbair dtj, sad
on tha night of 11th Uanh ItM thiy aitarmiiialad tha royal
girriwa anil impcixuMd thair bishop and th* canona Bnt foor
i'san Utu thay aarranilarail to Baoiy IV. of Franca. Dnring the
oUDiriDg eantoty tha marjtima povar of St Ualo sRainad ioiiib
importanca. In HoTsmbai ISM the Engluh vainly bombaldad 8t
Uuo for fcnr conaacutir* d*y>. In Jmy ISSG thay nnavad iba
attampt, but wars aqoallj nnsucceierul. Tha paopla of 8t Malo
had in Uia oonna of ■ un^la war i-aptund nirinids of 1500 vaeala
[•eTtral of thai " ■
coDiidenbla m _ , ....
wealth they drew fmn Pani, tha abjpownna of tha torn not only
Hi)<p1iad tho king wtth tba maSD* naceMary for tha Cunooa Bio do
Janeiro axpaditini condodad by Dngnsy-TToain In 1711, bol also
lant him /l,!(».aO0 for earrrin^ on tha TTar of tha Spsnlih Sne-
ceadon. In Jons 1TS8 tha Eogfaah aant a third axwdinoD agunat
Bt Uilo oadar the command of Usilboraogh, and inflicted ■ kaa
of £4S0,000 in tha harbour. Bnt anothar aipaditloii nndBrtaka
in the folloiring Saptambar raoaind a eompleta oheck. In 177S
and dorina the ware of tha ampiro tha 8t Udo prlvslears raaoiaad
th^ wiiTl^. In 17W SI aarran ma aaparated from 8t Ualo and
bi irw 8t kalo lort Ita bishopric DoHng tha Balgn of TanoT
tha town was tha acana of sanguinary eieouCiona Among tba
calabiitiea bora fa St Halo are JuHinea Cartlv, Ihigiiaj-TrDiiin,
Surconi; and Haht da Is Bo<m]oDnaia--4ll foor of nanl fame —
Uanpartni^ Chataanbrland, tha AbU da Luoeanais, srd Bionaaaia.
BT MABTDf, one of the Lesser Antilles (West lodiea),
part ot which (20 aqaare miles) belongs to Franoe and
form* a dependency of Quadeloupe, wMb the remainder
(18 square miles) belongs to Holluid and along with Saba,
J(c, is a dependency of Curasao. Situated in 18* N. laL
and 63' W. bng., it ascendd to a height of 1380 feet above
the sea, and has a comparatively small cultivable arta.
The gnat saltpaoa of the Dutch portion piodacad in 1883
276,434 tons of salt, and there are simitar saltpans in the
French portion. Sugar and live-stock (horses, cattle,
sheep, goats, and pigs) are also exported. The chief
settlement and anchorage in the French portion ia Uarigot,
in tbe Dntch Hiilippsburg. The population in 1883 wau
7088 (French portion 3724, Dutch 3359). Occupied by
French freebooters in 1636 and by the Spaniards between
1640 and 1646, St Uartin was divided Utween tbe Fiencli
and Dutch in tiiis latter year.
SAINT-MAKTIN, Locw Clatoi db (1743-180S),
known as " le philosophe inoonnn " from the taot that all
his works were puhlisned nnder that name, was bom kt
Amboisa irf a poor but noble family, on the IStli Juoary
.1713. By his father's deaira ha tried fliat law and than
the army as a profession. WUle in garriMn at Boideata^
Iw fluie udat the influanoa of Uart!»t Ittequlli^ k Tvtt,-
B A I — S A I
18?
gaew Jaw, wlio tenght « BpoeiM of myiticum Antra from
cabbftlutie ■ources, tad MidMToaml to foond thBnMn k
««cTet cult with nugicAl or theargiaU rites. In 1771
Sunt-MKTtm left the army in ordtT to becoma > toeUI
pi«wh«r of mjsticum. HIi eonTarmtional powtm nutde
Mm welcome in ths moat aiistocntic and poluhed Ptruian
nloni ; but hu miaaionuy teal led him to &iglftiid, Italj,
and Striturland, as well as to the chief towns of Fnnce.
At Stnuborg in 1788 he toet Chorlotta d« Boeeklin, who
initiated hini ia the writin^ri of Jacob BoshstB, and at the
saiao time iutpired in hia breast a tenu-romantie attach-
ment. Els later yeais were devoted almost ectirelj to the
romposition of hi* chief works and to the translation of
those of Boehme. Ha died at Aunay, near Paris, on the
23d October 1803.
Hii chtcrimrki i.n~LeUn i ua imimria R/nlmlmnunfaUe ;
Abiiriur rmnnaftBH tioilntiu ; Dt Ii^tU KhcAmm; UinitUrv
lij rMwrmu-a^rit. Other tnatija Appeand in hu fEttvra pctt-
Aiinui I1B07X iunt-Mnrtin rtgti4al the Frtnch HeTolution u m
Kimaa is ■clEon, it oot iodnd b minitttm of thi Uit Judgaant ;
it! noalt T1A to bt tha nf^nsntion of VKivtj bj a dstmction of
in abnan. Hii idsil aacitty vu " * nitonf uiil apiritiul tiwo-
cncj," in wbick God mdd iuh op nun of nuirk uid cmlawmant,
-' <t voiUd lagud theniMlns rtrictljf u "diiina '— ' "
to gsid* tha p»pla thmigli tlw triaas of their biatorj. Thia
:Utonlup wsa to tttt antiial; apon panoaiiaB, la
al organiatioB WM to diaappaar, giriDK
Djitical dicUtonI
t pujdj apiritnaZ ChriatiaDit^rp tha i
a apeciaa of thnaophy. Tbail philMophial
tia ii the uaartian of a bcultj anptrior to t[
calla tha moist aesae, and from >hich ire d
lofGoO. .Ininan, andnotelaavhen, iatobs:
vbich
knairledga of (
kaytotiodi.
and tha creatipo ia an oierfloiring of tha dirina loTa, which waa
nnabla to contain itielf. Tha hamia Kul, ths human intaltaet or
ipiriC, the apirit of tha nniTena, and tha elamants or mittar ara
the four itagea of thi* ditina (nuu»tioii, man being ths immadiate
refleiion of God, and natnrs In turn a nflaxioQ of JOMO. Ifan,
hmrarer, haa fallca mm hii high eatay, lad matter la ana of tha
conieqDencae of hli falL But tlie divins loTe» united to hamaaitf
ia Chriat. will work the final regeneratian or mtontton of all thioga.
CoBip-0«n«i Nolfn blDfmpJilgu* (Itii}; Chr^ Eirti nr la wid ilItM Jaelrtim
ST lUlJR-SUR-LOIRE, fonnded by St Uanrus (see
SJauxus), was the first Benedicttoe monastery in QajiL
It was sitoated on the left bank of the Loire abont 1 5
miles below Saumnr. About the middle of the 9th century
it was reduced to roina by the Normans ; shortly before
the erent and in anticipation of it the relic* of tLe saint
wero banafeired to 8t llanr-les-Foaete near Paria. St
HaUT-sur-Loire was afterwards restored and fortified, bat
the oiJy extant remains consist of a part of tha chorch
and a few shattered colomns.
ST MICHAEL'S. See A2011HI, voL iii. p. 171.
ST NAZAIRE, a town of France, in the department of
Loire Infirienre, and a port on the right bank of the Loire
near its mouth. It has capidly grown since tha new docks
rendered it the ontport or detached haibonr of Najttes
(g.r.), from which it is distant 29 miles weat- north -wwt
by water and 40 by rail. Begun in IS-IJS and opened in
1657, tha first basin has an area ot 26 acres and I mile of
quays ; and the depth varies from 30 to 2S feet. To the
north of the first baun a new dock (Penhoaet), 56 acres
in extent and with I| miles of quay, was constructed be-
tween 1864 and 16S1, at a cost of nearly £1,000,000. It
communioitea with tha older basin by a passage 83 feet
wide and 673 long. The harbour can admit Teasels of 23
feat draught at every tide, the depth of water on the sill
varying from 26 to 30 feet at high tide, and never being
lea* than 13. The town is the terminns of the General
Transatlantio Company, whoea steamers connect France
with Mexico^ the Antiiiea, and the Isthmus of Panama.
The total imports and exports amount to about 1,600,000
t«u annually, valued at £24,000,000. The sUple articles
imported ara ooals from Great Britain (600,000 tons),
grain, sugar, coffee, lice^ timber (from the North), phos-
phates, and guano. Pit-props, iidt, and preserved food*
are exported. The town being of recant origin, its indus-
tries are only in process of development ; Ixit it already
contains shipbuilding yards, large ironwork*, artificiaJ fnel
factories, sawmill*, a flonr-miil, and extensive commercial
warehouses. There are no edificeeof historical or architect-
ural note with the exception of a gianita dolmen, JO feet
long and 5 broad, resting faotisontally on two other atones
sunk in the soil, above which they rise 6^ feet The
population was 16,3U in 1881 (19,636 in the comsKUi).
According to certain reinaina diacursrsd on emTatina tha docka,
by Stnbo among ths more imporUnt maritime toima of Caiu, tud
' ■ ' founded hy tha Fhciniciuii. It vaa in tha harbour ot
la by Cmar'i orJft buUt the ilMt hy which, in
Lted tha 220 Teasali of the Venetian inaonenl*.
4th scDtory ths aha of Corbilo waa oectunad by
convsraion to Chiiatianity hsiiig sETectacl one or
later by St Feiii of NaDtoa, tlis plua took ths
e. It iraa atill only. littTs "•■
robably fa
luona, and, thai
iro liundraj yaw
ame of St Nan
onlya little "bouif" of MOO
tbs site of tha usw harbonr for
Kastaa, bacsnaa tha aacent of tbs Loirs was bscomins mar« uid
moia difficult. In 1888 tha asb-pnliKtars ma tnuafirred to 8t
Kaiairs from Saransy.
ST NICOLAS, a town of Belghun, in the district
of Dendermonde, in the province of E&at Handera 191
miles from Ghent by the railway to Antwerp. It is a
well-bnilt, modem-looking plac^ with a very spadooi
market-place, famous as the spot where Philip the Fair
•wore in 1197 to maintain the privileges of A^aaland, of
which St Nicolas was the capital From a comparatively
smalt village, with only 5000 inhabitants in 1661, it ha*
grown into a large mannfacturing oantte, with wool and
cotton mills, needle -factories, Ac, vid a population (in
1876) of 34,729. The more conapicuou* buildings are
the town-hall and two of the churches.
ST OMER, a town and fortress of France, ehaf-lisu ot
the department of I^j-de-Colais, Ntuated on the Aa (which
flows into the North Sea), 177 milea north of Paris l::^ the
lailway to Anas, Hazebronck, and Calais, at the' jonction
of a line to Boulogne. Befot« the modifications made in
the defensive system of the frontier the place was a fortress
of the first clau. At St Omer begins the canalized portion
of the Aa, which reaches the sea at Gravetbea, and under
its walla it connect* with the Neuffots^ which ends at the
Lyi. There are two harbours outside and one within the
city. St Omer has wide streets and spacious equarea, bnt
little stir of life. The old cathedral is the moat eurious
church in Artois; it belongs almost entirely to the 13th,
14 th, and 15th centuries. Of it* four portals the finest,
dating from the 1 3th and 1 4th centuries, was decorated
with statuettes, unfortunately mutilated during the Raroln-
tion. In spite of the spoliation* of the 16th century, the
content* of the church still comprise interesting paintings,
a Virgin in wood of the ISth century (the object of numer-
ous pilgrimages, and solemnly crowned in 1875), a colossal
statue of Ckist seated between the Virgin and St John
(13th century, originally belonging to the cathedral ot
nidronanne and presented by Charles V.), fine stained glass
and mosaic*, interesting tombstone*, the cenotaph of St
Omer, and numerous ex-votos, distinguished by their an-
tiquity, originality, and delicacy of workmanship. The
dealing of the church from the encroachments of other
building* ho* led to the reconstruction of the apsidial chaiiel
of the Sacred Heart in the purest Gothic style. Of St
Bertin, the church of the abbey (built between 132S and
1 520 on ths site of previoiu churches), where Childerio III.
retired to end his days, nothing now remains but soma
arches and a tower, 190 feet hi^, which serve* to adorn
tke public gardens (once poasessed by the monks). Several
J8S
S A I — S A I
other eliQicliea or convent ehepels ue of interest, bnt it u
•dough to mention St Sepulchre's (llth cennu?) for the
nke of its beantifnl atone spire and ^tained-glau windows.
A. fine oolleotion of records, e picture gallerj, end a theatre
are all aooommodated in the tovn-hall, built of the materials
of the abbey of 8t Bertin. Among the five hoepitaU the
railitauT hoapilBl ia of note u occupjing the college opened
by the 'i^g''«'\ Jesoite in IS92 bjuI Imomi as the place
whoe O'Oonaell nceiTed hie edncatbn. The old apiaoopal
pahtoe ia oatd as » Mxut-hotiae. Sereial learned eodeties
exist in the town; the pablio library eontuns 20,000
f olomes and' 1000 HSS. The anenal is an extenriTe series
of bniUinge. Besides 30,000,000 to 40,000,000 tobacco-
pipea exported to America and the colonies, St Onter
manofacturee cloth, honeiy, and tulle, cambric, and mntlin
embroideriea. Its trade (tmd it is the seat not only of a
tribnnal bnt also of a chamber of commerce) is mainly in
proriiioDa for England, the products of the local iodnstry,
and those of the paper-mills, fiotir-mills, diitilleriea, and
sogar-factories in the vicinity, especially along the banks of
the Aa. The saborb of Eant Pont to the north of St
Omer is inhabited by a special stock, which has remained
faithful to the Flemish tongoe, its original coetome, and
its pectdiar cnstoms, and ia distinguished by honesty and
industry. The ground which these people ealtivate has
been reclaimed from the marsh, and the ligrea (i.e.; the
square blocks of land) commnnicate with each other only
by beats floated on the ditches and eanala that divide them.
At the end of the marah, on the borders of the forest of
Clairmarais, are the rains of the abbey foonded in 1140 by
Thierri d'Alsace, to which Thomas a Becket betook himself
in lies. To the south of St Omer on a hill commanding
the Aa liea the camp of Eelfaot, often called the camp of
St Omer. On l&th Jane 1884 a statne was erected to
Jacqueline Bobin, a heroine who in the time of Louis XIV.
saved St Omer from foreign occnpation. The population
of the town was 20,479 in 1S81 (21,556 in the commune).
Ktai * CHtIa nimsd SitMn, Omer, bitheji of ThtroiuiuiB, sncted
chonhpe KUd ih« mouka of Luieuil oatabbabed maeisterieB in ths
Tth nutoiy ; ud in ths Sth centiuy ths vilUgg thai arigiiiat«I
took tba lumB of iti founder St Omer. Ths ^oimuis laid the
pine* mat* in Ml sad 831, bat tin y«ui lafr foond town ud
moaiotarj Bdrrouiidsd by villi and nft fnim tbftij attack. Bitn-
at«d on tba borders of tarritDrie* freqncatly diipnted by ITtnch,
Flamiih, Eagliah, aod Spaaiardi. Bt Omer long continniid nttjaet
to am and inilitaiy diauler. In tOTl Fbilip I. pat *)1 to iwoid
and flam*. Bnmed in IISS, captond in 1198 ij Sidiard aod
Baldwin IX., attacked in 1211 by Fensad of Portnnl, in IMS
ud 180S In; the Flgoiiih, in 1337 and 138B by the Eogliih, ud
ia 1177 by Lonii XL, St Omar at laat fell in 1487 into Qi* huda
ol ChariM Tin. Tno yean liter it ma recoyersd by tha arch-
dnks Uaiimilian ; and Chulea V. Mnngthaned iti ramnrts with
baationi. The French made Gt« fntlla aCtempCa igainst it betwsan
IHI ud IGBS, ud hiJ no bettfr laoceea in 1SS8 (onder Biciulien)
or in 1647. Bnt on setb April 1S77, after BSTeDlMRi days' aege,
Lonis ZIT. forced the Icwn to cajntulata ; and the peace OT
Nimegoen permanently «mGrmed ths conqaeit From time to
tims Ihe people of St Omer (Aodomara.) atill oelebrate the en truce
Into the town of Wllliim Cliton, count of nuder^ tnna whom in
1127 they obtained a commonal chuter gnntin« them nnmsiona
piivilegw St Omer ceased to be a bishsprio inT7(ID.
SADfTONOE (Sanlonia, SantoHftuit traetui), an oM
province of Fiance, of which Saintes (q.v.) was the capital,
was bounded on the N.W. by Auuis, on the N.E. by
Poiton, on the £. by Angoumoia, on the S. by Guienne, and
on the W. by Guienne and the Atlantic It now forms a
■mall portbn of the department of Charente and the
greater part of that of Charente Inf&ieure.
ST OUEN, an industrial district in the outskirts of
Paris, on the right bank of the Seine, 1 mile above St Denia.
It had 17,718 inhabitants in IS81. Tha docks (6 acres in
area), where the boAts firom the lower Seine discharge,
are connected by rail with the Northern and Eastern Hnes
at IWis and with llie dreiUar railway near BfttlgnoUea.
The importance irf St Ooen ia mainly dne to its industtial
eitablishmente, — foundries and forges, steam-engine fac-
tories, dyevorks, waxcloth works, potteries, &c. ; it has also
the steam-pumps for supplying the upper quarters of Paris
with water from the river, a racecoune, and a fine castle,
occupying the ute of the building in which Lonis ZTHL
signed (3d May 1814) tha declaration by which he pro-
mised d charter to Fiance.
ST PAUL, a city of the United Statee, second city of
Minnesota, a port of entry and the capital of the State and
of Bamsey connty, is situated in 44* 62" 46" M. lat. and
93' 6' W. long., on the Mississippi river, 2150 miles from
its mouth, 10 below the falls of St Anthony, the natural
head of navigation, and 360 north-west of Chicago. The
ground on which the dty is built rises from the river in
a series of terraces^ the ascent being in many placea pre-
cipitous and not easOy adapted to urban uses. The city
is mainly confined to the second and third terraces, but ia
gradually spreading over the elevated platean beyond. The
difficulties of the sitoation have much increased the cost of
erecting large business stmctnres, circumscribed the busi-
ness quarter, and impeded tha railway companies in secur-
ing convenient and adequate facilities. The city site is
underlaid with a thick stratum of bluish limestone, which
comes near the surface, and which, while it renders excava-
tion expensive, famishes nnlimited rapplies of building
material of a fair qnality. The streets of the older portions
are nncomfortably narrow, bnt the newer sti«ets are better
BtaCapHoL
.S'CnitDni-Hr
Plan of Bt Pssl
a c»T-Hin. I a ch
4. Cllr-Mutat. I. Bloc no.
laid ont. The chief public buildings are the State eapitol
(built in 1882), the United States custom-house and post-
office, the city-hall, ai^d tha dty-market. A handsome opet&-
house and a chamber of commerce, building are conspicuous
features. In 1860 there were seventy-one church organiza-
tione, — 9 Episcopal, 7 Preebytarian, 4 Congregational, 12
Methodist, 12 Lutheran, 2 Jevnsh, T Baptist, 11 Boman
Catholic, 1 Unitarian, 4 Bvangelical, 1 Bwedeuborgian,
and 1 Disciples of Christ Besides the charitable insUtn-
tions connected with the chuivh organizations there are
an orphan asylum, a home for the friendless, a Swedish
hospital, a womeo's Christian home, and a Magdalen borne.
Of periodical publications there were issued in 1885 6
dailies, 17 weeklies, and 7 monthlies. The city has (1886)
eleven banks, of which six are national with an aggr^ate
paid-up capital of $5,200,000, and five Stote institntions
with a paid-up capital of |I, 150,000. St Paul is an im-
portant railway centre, dividing with Minneapolis the ter-
minal and disUdbuting business of no less than fifteen lines
owned by six different corporations and having on aggre-
gate length of 15,818 miles. The navigation of the upper
MissisBippi aeta as a check upon the rates ehuged by the
I A I — S A I
189
rulwaj compMiiei. He tnffie at the port of St Ttnl in
1884 WM— tons laitded, f5,800; tons ilupped, 13,300;
puMDgtn csnied, 34,626. Two Udm of Bteani«n plf
betraen St I^ol tnd St Louis and intarmedute poiuta.
Ths ftrertge mmoo of navigation lasts six and a liaU
montlia. The eitj has within its corporate limits, but i«-
moTod wme miles from the dtj proper, two collegM —
Macaleatet (Presbyterian) and Hunline (Methodist) — both
only partiall; endowed or supplied with buildings. There
si« twenty -two public school baitdinga, built at an iggrs-
^ta coat of $665^000. There are alao several academies and
seminaries under private or denominatiooal managament.
The public pork eastern of St Paul is ai yet undeveloped,
bat an an* of 250 acree baa been secoied near I^ke Coma
to be laid out aa pleasuie-groonds. Rice Park and Smith
Puk *n public squares in the central portion of the city,
tastefollr adorned with walks and ehrubber]'. The popuU-
tion of St Paul, according to the United States centut, was
810 in 1850, 10,600 in 1860, 20,300 in 1670, and 41,(73
io 1880 (main 22,483, females 18,990). According to
the SUte e«nsa^ it was 111,334 in 1S85.
St Ful ii a eoBmaRiil nltan tbin ■ muii&ctiirtag dtv. ' The
Jobbisg bvb for ths j«ai 1B84 nuhed s tetal at sbout |«S,000,000,
-- 'noease olM pBremt. '- *■ ' "'
m vilned it (90^000
ig agrieoltBTal ImpUa
ibtry, • .
, , . .._d cairiwa Th*« li a lw>* Oovr-
Bin, eafkbla <d jirodaeug TOO bwili dulv. TI» lack of nt«-
[unr BDd th* njah eoM oT tUal ira dnwbaeki to th* growth of
muiibctiini. na miin tbonnigb&rM h>vs rgnatl; Man pav«d,
for the mart part with blockf of vhila sidar, ud atona ndawalka
an i^idlj raptadoB modan one*. Tha wataT-rappI; ia obttintd
ffem a groep of nnul lakaa tjing aoTth of the citf limits ud tha
works an oamad and nunuBd by tha city. Tfaa dralnaga ia
aiallaat For aovtranwBtal poipoKi the city coiuiiti of riKht
wda each of which alacti thna membsTi at conocil. The chid o[
' all aabradiuta mambeia of th* force an appotntod by
i*d by populw vota in Utj of <acb altaraata
aw I III ml Taloation of raal and MTSonal prO'
8t Pud was |tO,l«t,000 in ISM. Th« total bonded debt
lb* majrar. who Is olscled
par^iaSt___ _
of the d^ oa Ilrt lUnh IW vaa offleially ataled U •8,017,111.
na frit aattlsBMDt OB tha rit* o( St Paid *ai in 1^ whan u
it trading .poat was tstibllahad than br adx
leaait mfiwoDary built a log chapel and dedical
at Fanl (whsnco ths name of th« bamltt).
eJ^wMSOTTeTtdiadlaidoat lulSlS-BO. AMat tUa time nui )
tha Bionx ladian* oadad to tha DnitAd Btatea all land* bfdd by
them hetwaan (he Ulariaaippi and Big Sioux nvera. Prior to thu
corion th* whila popalatua in tha then Territorr of Minneaota
had not nachod a total of SOOO, bnt tha remoral of th* aborvica
WH pwnptly bdhtwed by a notable Influx of whit* aettlera. lA'lth
a popiilstlDa otBDSM S800 in ISU tha town obtaioad s fully orgaa-
iiad ei^ gSTanuBmit Upon th* admixiou of Uinneaota to tha
Union m ltS8 St Paid was doMgnaled aa the capital. The city
was otiglnslly amlnsd to the tut bank of th* rivar, bnt in ISTl
by popolar rot* a pottfon ot Dakota oonnty waa ttaodatred to
Banseyooonty, and WiatSt Panlon tha weat tankofthaUliait-
aippi, then containing tusa tOOO tnhabitanta. becani* a part ot St
Paul proper. In 1894 aa Act of the Ststa lagitUCon *itended the
pograpucal boandirls* of th* dty ao H to embiaca all tarritory
n KsBuay ocau^ weatward to ths lin* of Hennejte eaoBty, and
victially to th* oorponts limit* <f tha ■ aistar " aty Uimuspolia,
10 milaa distant.
SS PAUI4 a remarkable volcanie island whicb, along
witli tlie island of New Amsterdam, is mtnated in the
Indian Oc««n about midway between Africa and Australia,
a little to the north of the ordinary route of the steamers
frmn Plymouth (vta Cape Town) to Adelaide. Its exact
podtioQ as determined by the Transit of Tenus Expedition
in 1874 is 38* i? 50" 9. Lat. and 77" 32" 29" E. Li^.
Thon^ the distance between the two islands Bt Paul and
New Amsterdam is only 50 miles, they belong to two
aepanle emptiva areas characterized 1^ quite different
podocta ; and the comparative baieness of St Paul is in
linking conbwt to the dense vegetation of New Amstar-
dun. St I^nl ia 1} miles long from north-west tosouth-
esstuid its coast-line is estdmatod at C nautical miles. In
Aapa it ii almost an isowelea triufjle with a cinle Inscribed
tangentially to the north-east ude, — tlie circle (3940 feet in
diameter) being the volcanic ctater which previous to 1760
formed au inland lake, but whisli, since the eea broke down
its nstem barrier, has become practically a land-locked bay
eoteied by a narrow but gradually widening paessge not
quite 6 feet deep. The highest ridge of the island is not
more than 820 feet above the tea. On the south-west side
the coasts are inaccessible. According to U. Tilain, the
island originally rose above the ocean aa a mass of rhyolitbie
tnchjt« similar to that which still forms the Nine I^
rock to the north of tbe entnnce to the ctater. Next
followed ■ period of activity in which basic rocks were
produced ly submarine eruptions — lavas and scorin of
anorthitic character, palagooitic tuffs, and basaltic ashes ;
and finally from the crater, whicb must have been a rut
lake of fire like those in the Sandwich T«lnTiiT« poured
forth quiet streams of basaltic lavas. Hie island hu been
rapidly cooling down in historic times. Dr Qillian (Lord
Uacartney's visit, 1733) mentions spots stitl too warm to
walk on where no trace of beat is uow jferceptible ; and
the remarkable lone of hot subsoil eitendiag westwards
from the crater has lost most of the more striking char-
acteristics recorded by Hochstetter in 1857, though it is
stiU eaaUy distingoished by its warmth-loving vegetation,
'■^AajpMtm ladeolun and Lycopodi'um rrnmnnt.
n* gtntnl flora of the iiland ia exceedingly inaagrat If *•
■va ont of view tha potato, csiTOt, psniay, cabbage, ftc., Intio-
iced by timporarv inhsbitaata, tha list compdiea Umttlli/trm,
: OamfdUM, S ; PbalafinaoM, i ; Cyfnatm, 2 ; Orvamaam,
; Lymodiiteui, 1 ; tarns, S ; and tiaa SB to ID apedta of motaai
id Uchaaa li* only planta really abondant are an ItUtptti
ludaaa ICmmiM) and on* or two graata. Kona ot the trees
Cik, BppK mnlbeny, nb^ tc) inmidBud at diB^rmt periods
r* anccaeded. The cabbage, whicb gron netty IVeely in aoma
puts, ihow) a tandeDcy to become like the Jeiier variety. Tb*
ra^ ud mice (01
birds and flah, lii
th* rata Houw-fGu, blosbottlas, ilaUra, kc, litenlly awanu.
Bnt nothing ia b characteriitic of Bt Fa'it u the niultilucle of Its
aea-lbwl, — ^baticaets, prtnla of many kiad^ naKni, penguins, kc
^e ne^Bihbonring water* teem itith li/a, and, irliUe th* rarioua
g*n«fao7tb**eal bmily ara do longer a lontct of vtslth, s nnmber
of wel* (M to SO Isnaj from tha llaacarene Iilanili adll yearly
CSTTT on th* flaheria* ofl th* coaata, when CtriladactDliu /atdatiu
(ia anoala), ZoMa ilecaina {caict OTpnMKiiife/Qnd),ViHf<iuloKBia
4laifattiM alTord a rich barvnt The atoriea told about gigsatie
' cnriouily confirmed by th* Ventka l^ipedition
. ^ .. r* a Cephalopod (ainca named llmukaia aaneti
paiiK) which meaiored upiratda ot £2 feet tnim th* *ad ot it* body
to th* tip ot it* longest aim.
Tb* iaUnd now kaoitn a* ITew Amiterdam ns probably that
aighted on ISth Uanh IBZS tnr tha csmpaniona <J UageDan aa
tMy niled back to Europ* tmilBr ths cociDand ot Sebastian del
Cano; and la Ifl7 tha Dutch ship "ZanKdt" btaa T*iel to
Bantam diaconnd the iiland which, uutead ot th* nam* " Z**irolt"
then baatowed on it, aoon after bapn to be called on th* charta St
Paul. Tha deaignation "Daw AmiCerdun" ia derived from tb*
tesKl in ithich Van Diemen sailed betwea tha iiUndi in IMS.
The Gnt narigalor to aet foot on St Tanl waa Willem van Vlarain^
in laWL t^rd Macartney spent a day ex^oring it in 17B3, bia
guide being a maroaned Frenchman. Captain F^ron, «ho*e usnatiT*
ot hia *oJonm from lit September IW to ISth December 17BS ia
a docmnent of ([mt ralue (J/i^aun'ru i£ti Capilaim Pinm, ToL L,
Paris, 1824). In 1S13 the governor ot Beuiuon took pasession of
the ialanda with a detacbment ot manneiT — atal .catch ing and the
Gaheriaa having attracted to them a connderabls floitbg papula-
tion. In June 1871 tha BriU.h friKat* '■Megma" waa wrecked at
th* month of tha cnt*r and moit of the (00 aouli on board had to
reaida on the ialand tor npwarda at three montha, luiding on
I3rd September 1B7*, a French Traniit of T*ana aipedition
remained on St Fanl till 8th Jannary 1G7S, and a visit of macb
importance was paid to K*w Amaterdam.
BMTllaEa, DtmrtpHim sM. dilo irnnUi tAin, cTn
fmd, ka.(^iU, lib), aad lik iai>ni Ir •-"—^-•- ■
lS)T,as4laOMUKIBlM<1H, Jcc(.dB&.
foal. Op., in»te
ST PAUL DE LOANDA. See Loursa.
ST PAUL'S BOCKS, not to be confounded with the
island of St IVul in the Indian Ooaan, are a nnmber of small
ialandi in tha Atlantic^ nearly 1* nortli of tbe equator aal.
li; Bnnisoatai Sabaabiitna.
190
S A I-
640 milas from Sotitli AmericA. in 39* IS* W. long. Their
outlina u irregnlar, and u thej aie onlf leparated by
nuToiT bat deep chaema they haTe tbs appeftranoe of being
one island. The irbole ipace occupied does not exceed 1 400
feet in length by aboat half m much in breadth. Besidei
■aa-fowl — tvo speciea of noddy {Anotu ttolidvt and Anovi
wiAutogmgt) and a booby or gaonet (Svla leueogaMtir) —
the only tetreatnal inh&bitanCa are inaecCa and Kpiden.
Ileh are abundant, wTen apeciee (one, f o/oivnfniiH uatcti
ptttdi, pecoliar to the locality) being collected by the
"Challenger" during a brief itay. Darwin (0» Toleatuc
Tiliutdt, p. 32^ decided that Bt Fanl's Socka were not
of Tolcanio origin ; more modem investEgntora — Benatd,
A. Oeikie, and Wadaworth — maintain that they probably
are eruptive. See Report! i^ the Togagt of BM.S. Chal-
lenffir: Ifarratiet i^tht Crvit, ToL L
ST PETER POST, the ca^atal of the island of OuKBiraiT
{q.t.)-, itap^nktioo was 16,6S8 in 1881.
BT PETGBSBTTBO, a gorenmieiit of north-weatera
Runia, at the head cA the Qnlf of Ilnland, stretching
along ito BODth-eaetem shore and the soatbem shore of
Lake Ladoga. Tt is bounded by Finland and Olonetz on
die N., Novgorod and F^koff on the E. and B., EaChonia
and IJTonia on the W., and haa an area of 30,750 square
mile*. It is hilly only dd iti Finland border, the re-
mainder being Sat and corered ivith marshy fonuti, with
the exception of a platean of about 350 feet high in the
■oath, the I)nderhof bills at Krasnoye Selo reaching 550
feet. A great number of parallel ridgea of glacier origin
Intersect the goTemment towards Lake Peipua and north-
wards of the Neva. BUurLau and Devonian rocks appeal
m the south, the whole covered by a thick gUeial depoeit
with bonldera (bottom moraine) and by thick alluvial de-
poaita in the valley of tbe Neva. The government skirts
the Onlf of Finland for 1 30 miles. The bays of CroDstadt,
Koporye, Loga, and Narva afford good anchorage, but the
coast is for the most part lined wi^ reefs and sandbanka ;
to the east of Cronstadt the water becomes very shallow
(18 to 20 feet). The chief river in the Neva^ which
nceiveM onl; a few small tributaries ; the Lnga and the
Noiova also enter the Ciulf of Fioland. The feeden of
lAke l^doga^the Tolkho^ the Byass, and the Svir, the
last two forming part of the system of canals comiecting
the Neva with tbe Volga — are important channels of com-
merce, aa aldO is the Narora (see FezoPF). Uarshea and
forests cover about 40 per cent, of the anrfoce (70 per
cent at the end of the ISth century).
Tl» population (spsri
857 per cont being Bimi . .. _,
-t GeruiiD eoliKiiita who hivi immigntsd til
■nPrutotsnti; thiremalndermaitlr belong to the Omb
; but there an alio mon than 20, 000 Nancanformuta, abont
0000 Catholici, and IGOO Jen Agricultun ia it s loB etsea and
wry nnprwiuollTS ; tbe Oonnanj^ howBtw, get advutags from it
The Finna rear cattle to aoms sitsat. llaoabcCunt an «p«ially
deTelopadln Ihediatrlclaof TMivkoreSeloind Yambutji— cotloaa,
•ilka, papor, irenwsre, and machinery (nt KolnlDo) being the ohiof
prodocli. Several larj(* manufactonng enabliibmaBla— aapBciallj
■t CranatadC — an njaintuOBd by tbo itate for milituy purpone*.
The gOfonmimt \i mbdiTided into eight diatricts, thi chlof to™
of *Klch are 81 Pelenburg (eee beiow), Gdoff [BISO InhaWtwitl),
Logs (18S0), Rovaya I»doga (410O1, Petorhof (79M), ficMOiHlbaig
(10,4001 and Yimburg (3250). Calchina (10,100), Vtm (BfllOV
Onnienbatini (SSOOl, and Farlovik (StOb) bave do di>trid& Cron-
Btadt and the capital rorm eepmts govern onhipa. Okhta, Kolpino,
I^Uko'a, ud Enunoye Belc^ thongSiritbont municipal iaititaaona,
are worthy of mrition.
EFT PETERSBUIta, capital of tbe Boasian empire, is
aitnated in a tiiinly-peopled region at the head of the Qulf
of Finland, at the mouth of the Keva, in S9' 66' N. lat
and 30' iV E loog., *00 miles from Moscow, 69S from
Warsaw, 1138 from Odessa, and 1338 from Astrakhan.
The inty corera an area of 21,195 acrea, of which 13,820
per cent an
the capital) was 63S,7S0 in MBi,
■0 Finns, D'S Eatbonlana, and IB per
-S A I
belong to the delta proper of the Keva • 1330 aeraa are
under water. The Neva, which leaves I^ke Ladoga at
its south-weat angle, flows in a wide and deep stream for
36 miles aonth-west aod oorth-weet, denribing a carve to
the aoath. Before entering the Oulf of Finland, it takes
for 21 miles a northerly direction ; then it suddenly tnina
and fiowB south-west and west, forming a penitunla on
which tbe main part of St Petersburg stanihi, itaelf sub-
dividing into several branches. It dlacharges a body of
remarkably pure water at the rate of 1,750,000 cubic feet
per second, by a channel from 4(X) to 650 yards in width,
and so deep (maximum depth, 59 feet) that large vesaela
approach its banks. The chief branch is tbe Great Keva,
which flows Bouth-trest with a width of from 400 to 700
yards and a maximum depth of 49 feet (discbarge, 1,267,000
cubic feet per second). Tbe other branches are tbe Little
Neva, wbidi along with tbe Great Neva forms Tasilyevski;
Flo. I.— Esvlnni of
(Basil's) Island, and ths Great Nevka, which with the
Little Neva forma Feterburgakiy laland and sends out
three other branches, the Little Nevka, the liiddle Nevko,
and the narrow Earpovka, enclosing the islands Elagbin,
Erestovakiy, Eamennyi, and Aptekarskiy (Apothecaries',
laland). Bmaller branchea of &e Great and the little
Navaa form the islands Fetrovskiy, Qoloday, and nnmeroua
stnaller ones ; while a broader navigable channel forma the
Gutueff and several islands of less aiis in the south-west.
Two narrow conaiized channels or rivers — the Moika and
ths Foatanka — as aldo the Catherine, Ligovakiy, and
Obvoduyl Canals (the last with basins for receiving the
surplua of water during inundations), intersect the main-
land. All tbe islanda of alluvial origin on very low, their
highest points rising only 10 or 11 ieet above the avenge
level of the water. Their areas are rapidly increasing
(972 acres having been added between 1718 and 1864^
and the wide banks which continue them towards tbe sea
are gradually disappearing. Tbe mainland is not much
higher than the islanda. At a height of from T to SO feet
(seldom so much as 29) tbe bw marsh land stretches back
to the hills of the Forestry Institute (49 to 70 feet) on
the right and to the Fnlkova and Tsorskoye Selo bills on
the left. The river level being subject to wide oscillations
rising eeveral foet during westerly gales, eitansiva
poTtiona of tbe islanda, as also of the mainland, are flooded
every winter ; water in tbe streets of Vasiljevskiy Island
is a common occurrence. In 1777, when ths Neva rose
10-7 feet, and in 1624, when it rose 13-6 feet, nearly the
whole of the city was inundated. But, owing to the con-
atntction of canala to receive a large amount of aurplni
water, and still more te tbe secular rising of the se»«oaat,
no similar occorrenoe has since been witnessed.
Broad sandbanks at the month of tbe river, leaving but
a narrow channel T to SO feet deep, prevent the antrane*
of larger ahipe ; their oorgoes an diaoharged at OronMadt
ST PETERSB0RO
191
uid bfoo^ to St Petosbiug in imallw tcinU. A ship
canal, completed in ISU At « co«t of 10,363,400 lOublM
(£1,036,000), ii mtended to maka the <»pit4l ft aeaport
TUgtnning at CroDitadt, it tanniiuitM it Ontoeff IiUnd in
ft hftibour cftpftUs of ftccommodating fifty Ms-going Aipt
ftt ft time. It i« 22 feet ie«p, 171 milca in leng^ ftnd
from, TO t« 120 yudi browl kt tbe bottom, and i« pro-
tectai b]P huge tnbmftrina duni.
Commnoication betweon the bftnka ot the Nera li main-
tained by (Hily two permftnent bridge^ — the Nichoka ftnd
the AJenndecorLiteinTi, tkalattei 16T yftid* long; both
ftie fins Bpecimeoa of ftnJiiteetnre. Two other bridges —
the Fftlace and the Troitski}' (720 yardd)— acroa the
Oreftt Neva connect the left book of the mainland with
Vaailyenlur loland and the fortred« of St Peter and St
Faol ; but, faeiog bnilt on boati, they are remojed during
the antamn and ipring, and inteiconrse with the islanda
then becomes very difficult. SeTeral wooden or floating
bridges connect the i»l»nH»^ while a number of stone
bridgea span the smallei channels ; their aggregate niunbar
is ninety. Ill winter, when the Neva u C0T(a«d with ice
3 to 3 feet thick, temporary roadways for carnages and
pedeEtrians are made, and artificiaUy lighted. Numerous
tioatB also maiutftin conunuaicfttton, imd unftU (teamera
ply in Bommer between the more distant parts of the
cftpitaL A network of tnunwaji (about SO miles) inter-
sects the city in all dii«ctioaa, reaching alao the remoter
islands and nibarbs, and carrying about 45,000,000 pass-
enger* yearly. Omniboim and public sledges maintain the
traffic in wtater. In 1 S82 hackney carriages numbered
7930 in vimmer and roae to 14,780 in winter, when thou-
sands of peasftnta come in fnan the nughbooxing nllagea
with their small Finnish horaea and plain sledges.
T1» HaTi conUniiea rnuen Ite u sring* of 147 dsjrs In the
jeir (£Sth KanmlHr to Slat April). It u ouuTlgabl*, bowiTBT,
for *MBe tiuH longer on tocoiuit of the k* tma I«ko I^ofie,
which is KimAtuiiH driTia bj Hstnlj winds into tho Kata dunug
■crenl dap st tb* and of April or in th» bcgiDniu of Usy. Tb*
climsta of St Patanborg is rary ehui^esUe ud DnMslthf. FnMs
, _ ring with Ibnu oeatnk moiitni* sod
■oil n melt tha oocnr batm ssd sftar hsrd fresta. Ha
■ud wiatcrlj gsln
iitiutail on tht msintsiid, on th*
Tld bulk of Bt Petanbnrg is aitutad on tbi
Isa bulk of th* Dan, fnelaaing tba boat ud
richaat sbf^pa, the great bftzaara iiid msrkata, tba palscas, esthedralii
aiut Ilieetn^ as wall as alt the railm; aUtian*, aicapt that at th*
Finluid BailwsT. fioa tba Utain^ Mdga to that of HlchoUs
I. a granita aEDbankiiHot runs along tho laft bank of th* Kav4,
bordared bj palu«a and luga pinta hoaaa. Aboat midwiy.
iKhind ■ IBDB* of Una houses, atsiida tba •Jmlnltj', tha Tarj i
apitd. Ponnarlj a wharC on which Pat*r L csuu ..
find Balbe iliin to ba bollt In I7M, It {a now tha aaat of tba
ftj BtanJin„
broad aqnart, now partlf a gniilan, murannda tha admiralty
wait, aontb, and aaaL To tha wast, opposita ths sanata, aanoa
tba ftnamamorialMPatart, sractad in ITSa, and nowbacktdby
plh^.*" - -
w a bog* gnnil* monolith, „ _ ..__, -~a~,
braufat train I^hta. a nll^ on tha ahw* of tha Oolf of Tinlaod.
To tha ainth of tha adminl^ai* aavanl bulldinga of tha iniaisbj
bids its bn|a dlnunalaDa. It coomvBieatM b]
Haimitaaanns £
tgr tb* ^uandar
■ OallMT.
tgr tba^axandar L colaain, sapatslaa the palio* train th* Koncnl
au and tbrtiga oiniatrT bnlldiiia ; the colnnui, th* work ot
Unttamnt, is ■ t*d graolt* monolith, 81 feat high, supporteJ bj
a hnga r~'*"*' Baing ot Finaiib mpa-Mri (Item Pitarlaki), ft
dirintegiatea ni^dlf, and baa bad to t« bound with naaalTa iron
rinp CDDcealed Oj painCiiig, The rasga ot palacss and prirata
bonaia being ths smbaukmant aboT* tha blouralhr ia iutannpted
by th* Isiga T"^"- ■<""!-■' " Fiald of Uan, " foraitrl j a manb. hot
trandonoad at incnOibla utpensa iuto a mnilagroand, and tha
LyftuiyS^fsiininiar-ptdaiitofPctar I. Tha Hers aoibankmaut
is continaHl lo tba weat to a little below the Kicholaa briilgr nndar
t^o naoM of " Eiisllah (isbankraent," and bithar down by tho
now sdmiiaJtj bulldinga
TIh topography of St Petersburg ij rary Amp]*. Thraa long
■tnata. tba main artsKa* of tba capital, radiata fiom the aJiniraltj,
_tha froapakt Narakiy (Nara Ptoapccl), the Oonkbatiyt (Paai'
"■ ■■' ■ "- Pnapakt Vomeienikij {A*Mn»ioii Projpcct).
thne
nrdlaa of calial^ roughly apcaking <
itrsala,— tba Uoika. ths Cathuint. a
1 tba Fon
Uorakaya, tb* Kaiaoakara, tba Sadoraja (Oaidtn SCraat), and
lbs Utainaja, oontinnsd «'sst by Pmpikta Za^todnyi and Biih-
akiy(Riga). Tbo Proapakt Kemkij u a reiy browl atitot ruuinj
straight aast-aontb-aast tor tW> yardi from tha admiraltj to th*
Uoscow nilnj station, and tbcnca 1S50 jarda tattber, bending
a little to tha aontb, to tha Bntolnji conrant, again naching tha
KiK at KalaahnikolT harbour. Th* yjt firat manlianad owea its
picturaaqua aapact to ita width, ila neb rhopa, and still mora ita
animatJOD, But tba booasi wbioh border it architactunllTleaTa
wT much to ba dtairsd. And neither th* oatbadral of ths rirgio
or£amB (an ugly imiutioo ou a sniill acale of Bt Peter'a in Soioa),
aor the still ngliar OoiAinyi Dior (■ tVD-it<Hi*l qnadrilatnal
building fllad ntk aacond-nta ahepi), n<a ths Anltcbkoff Paiica
Kiich looks Ilka immanas buncki), nor eien tha Catholic and
tch cbnrthea do anything u ambelliah it. About midway
between tba poblic library and tha Auitchkoff Palace an el^ant
anai* conceali the old-hahionad Alsiandn thaatra ; a iiraTualj
orned msmorial to Cktharis* It doa* not beautifT it much. Tb*
Gwokboraya is a narrow snd bully paied straat bttwaaa gloomy
hoUBH occniuaJ mostly by srtiaana Tha TansMnakly, on tha
contniy, though •* nsirow ss the lait, has battar bouaea In its
B«th part it pssaes iuto t oariea of largs sqnaraa ceonacted with
that on whiidi tha mouumsnt of Petat L atsada 0ns ot tbem la
accused by tba atbedral of Bt Issao (of Ihlmatla) and another by
the manorial to Hicholaa I., the gorgoonanew and bul taste of
which strangely contraat with tha aimplidtr sud ilguilcues ol
thstefPstarL TbsgeiMral aaptctof thBotliadralianDdoobtadly
imposing both without and within ; id »d gnnlta colonnades an
not daToid of a certain grandiowi character ; bat on the whole thli
aRbitacninlmonamen^bQilt between ISIS and 18SS according to
a plan of Uontfemnt. undar the pcraonal dirertion of S'Icbotaa L,
doea not cotrcspond either with ita nttlinesa (23,000,000 roubiHl
or with tha aflbrta put forth in ita deoontion by th* beat Bnasian
artiata Tha pictima of BriiloS', Bmnl, and many otb«n which
earar ita wills an ileteriorating rapidly snd their plane is being
taken by moaalca. Tlw eutiti bniliUn^ notwithstanding ita Tarl
foDudaUons and pile-work, ia aobaiiliBg nnoqnally in tha manhy
ground, and the «alll thmten aoon to giro way.
Th* eaatam extremity ot VaailyeTakiy Taland ia tha cautze d
commercial aotirity ; the stock exchsng* ia '" "'" ' '^
aa tha qnays and stotehouae*. Tht rema---'-'
pied cbuBy by sciaatUo and adacetiont] :
of sdeaee, with a small obserratory Iwhare ao
aarradoM are carriaJ on, notwithatandiDg the tremoi* of the earth),
the anlTorily, tb* philological inatitnla, th* academy of th* trat
corpa ot cadat^ the academy of trt^ ths msrins scademjv th* min-
ing instituts, ssd lb* onitnl phjdcal otxerratofy, all being th*
Not*. Psterbnigakiy Iiland mutuna the rortrea of St Peter and
St Psnl, oppoaita tha WLiler Palace, aepaiated by a channel from
Ita " kronrerk, " the glecia of which ia used sa a nark. The fortnas
is now merely a etate pn»n. A cathedral which atanda within tfae
fortrea ia tba burisl-pla-> of the emperora and the impsrial bmily.
Tbt mint ia alu litnated within the foitioaa. The remainder ot
the ialand ia meanly built, lud ii the niagt ol the poorer oSciale
{liiiimmik,) and of lb* intsUectual proletariat. Its northern pap^
aapamted from the main ialand by a narrow channal, bean tbe
name of Apothscarlaa' Ialand, and ia occupied by a botanical prdan
of great acientiAo vslns and aanral Due priraU gudeua and parks.
Snstonkiy, Elaghin, and Kamennyi Islands, •• also the opposits
right tank of tha Orvat Feika (Staraya ud Noraya DaraTnya),
ara occupisd by public gtrdena and parka sud br anmmer banaea
(datdtiM). Owinf to tha heat and duat during the ahut anmmti
tha middla-claHmbatdtantt and th* nnmaroos offlciala and clerki
■mignta to the daltAlt, tbe wealthier fhrsilits to tha lilanda, and
tha poonr to Staraya ud IToraya Darenya PoloattOTO, Eiuhe-
remainder of th* island is occu-
-thasadsmy
192
laT*. mi u fir u th« fint tva or three nilinT ititiani of tlu
priDcdpsl nilnTi, sspecull; that of Finland. Tha muulaad on
Uii right buk of the Nafa ibova ita dislu ii known u V^borg-
■kaji Starona fTibaig Side), and is coniiMted with tha ouua city
bT tbft liteinyL l^dge, closely adjoiiiing vbich are the buildinn
of tha military acjidemy of medicma and gpaciouii hoapitala. TEe
honaei, ara iubabited by atudent* and voilcmin ; tarther north ara
gTwt taitiie and iron &ctoriea. Vail orohaida and tha yirdi of
the artillary laboiatory (tntch north -eaatnardi, nbile tb« nilnjr
and tba highroad to Finland, numing north, lead to tha park of
tba Forestry luiticuta. Tha two rill^|as of OkhU, on tlie ligbt
ST PETERSBDEG
nburbi ; nighcr nn, on the left baiik, in HTanl tacloriM
»ak) nhich formerly balongad Co tba crown, vbtn
bank, arc laburbi ;
ft?S;°S
>ttoni, glan, c'
boundary at St PaUnbnrg o
: but wide trarta o ^ ~~"'
Ibax
alb n tba ObTodnyi
hard., o
ludedinthacityintbit
vtred nitb bnildinga.
fcqtoriea, or eyan nnoccupied ipacea, an included
direction, tboagb tbaj are being rapidly •
Of the 21, IBS acrra eoversd Ey St Pctenlrarg IIBO remain on-
occupied. The garden* and pirkg. pnblic and prirata, take np 7B8
acres, to which must be added Aptoku^kiy, PetroTtkiy, Elighin,
and Kreatovekiy Islandi, which are almoit quite covered with parks.
Nearly SO p«T cant, of tba total area of tba laoit denatly popokted
?ia 2.— Plan of at Petanbnr:^
T. Ffaraieal OlHerTatay-
0. 6aiut* trti 8nod.
1. OeueraJ Hlair BuDdVoga.
i. a*miCa(( Oallei) at ait,
CI are aqouea and itreeti, the ugnigate length of the latter
^ SS3 mile*. Uora than half ofthetn are lif;btcd by gu, the
nouundep vitb karoHne. Sicspt in a few principal atroeta, nbicb
are wted with wood or aiphalt, the pnvemoDt ia uaoally of granite
banlden, and la bad and niy difficolt to keep in order. Uauy
■treat* and embinkmania in Uia luburba are nnpaved. Kearly aU
tha mora papDlciia parta baTe water led into tha hooMa [1733
koiUM in lUSk audrtha lania bagini to extend al» to the right
bank of the Nan. In 18S3 7,091, 600,000 gallona of water, moitly
from tha Neya, Tary para on the whole,' were aupplied by seven-
teen (taim^nginDa to the left-bank portion of the dty [9*2S
I^Uont per inhabitant). The nnmber of boiuai in ISSl wai 22,226
inhabited and ie,BS3nniDhabited. Of the former 18,816 belonged
to priTats panont and 3118 to aodatiea or the crown. The hauM
i« moatly very large: of tba pivota hooM* do fewer than 199
had tram 400 to 3000 inhabituti aaoli ; the oontniy bolda good
br«.l]«a.eHj<h
. Oathsdral of Thiln ot&aan.
mSf^ntOOoe.
l»d fewer tbtn SO In
of the ont-tying part^ when lOOE h
bitanti each.
On !Tth Decamber 1S81 the popolatlon of Bt Petenbnig wm
8fll,303, aicluiiTe of the nharba, and 929,100 inclndina tham, thu
■bowing an increase of 29 par c«aC. nnca 1M9. The oanna ol
1881 having been made with great aocaiacy, tbe followtiij[ intanat-
' ir iXSlS aq
from I inhabitant per 93 ■qnara feet to 1 per 17,318 eqann
(on pBte;burg»kiy Ijland) ; (be aTeraga ii 1 par 1088 aqiura
Leie than a third of thaiggtBgate popoIaEian {29'3 per sent)
bom in the capital, tba nmaindar aoming from all parta df Bnad^
□r bttng Ibtsl^an. Tha malea an to tba famaU* in tha pnpotloB
La time the mairiad men and w
d H and G for «
ST PETE
H°'**r^ T-tfMMBt I Wnm MtsHr>in,.U>ipa'aBt.
rron a b> »!■■■.. s-T . „ I „ nioM „ -.»i , „
„ UtaU _ .. t-e „ . I AtonMjma. W4 , .
Tlu Borldttr U Bt FetMAOB baiu nn hWl (U-S in ISM,
ban W7 to SB-« ia ISIS^a). ullh* niuatnr orbinht oalr ll'l
pu 1«M, tlu dnthi >n in noM sT tha Urt)» br 9KM) toMOO in
sranet Ton ; in 1S8* thn mn M,SSO Uitlu (1161 ttflMtom}
and K^IU daatlia. It nuM mt ba infviad, he<iiraTw, thn tbva
flgnm Uat On populatian at Bt PatmlMK would dia oat IT not
ncraitad (km withaaL na lugac nnmbar of tb* ■iiitia«i wbo
<nas eTKT nar to tha capltil 1mm tbsir faalliaa in tba prerinoa^
aod tba bfrOa wbkh aaeur do not appaar tauaog Iba UA> oTtba
o^OaLwUlathadaaAaTaiyanaKlo. Tba eUri'mntaUtyiadna
to lAaat diMMti^ wbiob wora btal on tha aranga to MOO penoM
■nnanl^; diina«a of a» jiguattia omna alao pcanil iHialr:
arecaga of 8700 d«^Bauiaallj batos dua to Ibla oaoaa. li^sttoaa
dinaaaa waeh aa tfphua (from 4SM to flOO daatba diufav th* hat
fa* rian), diphtiiBHa, «sd Hiriat bra (SKO daadia) an <
Owiu to a notabl" ' ..•..-. .»-.. ._.. .^ _. ...
iBortality Igutaa fit- . .,.. ,
MtSlS ilMb naarij two-Utha (ia,H«) w
Sn. AMiUieaetillealaMaaawitobstbatbatwaaaSlasdSt.
■nmbaeor BairiMH U lS8t >ia SIM (odIt 71 par 1000 Inbabit-
Bnt4; ortotalola]afM,>10blitka7m(MpaToa*t.)waallli^
matv; and no bvec than SI Hc oant of all eUldia, botb ligitlBBta
■nd maritiiaat^ bam at St Fatanbnia an nnnad in tba bondlinsa'
boft AlohaaadamiatofthaintobaDraBglitaptntillaaM. Una
than 100,000 panona antar tba publio baaulala auBnaity.'
Ad tatataatti^ baUn of tha SubImi aapital ia tba nrj Uffk
pn|)artioB of paopla llriaff on thair own aatnlugaarineauMC'u-
dapentlant "), aa compand witb tboaa who lira on tba aandnga or
■ -nw ono otaaC'dapaodant"). WharaM at Pai*
4 aod to par sant. napaotiTaly baloog to tba
eatagoiy, tba nci^ottlaa to lavacaad at St Patanbaif : onlf SS par
oaot, 182,478 panona in all, hara not thair on iiHaui of^anuioTt
(IS nr cant af tha nteu aad Bl of tha woman). Tha ptoportiou of
■mplDjan to amploTad, ia alio tba aiteiit of lUr napactiTa bmillaa,
(IS nr cant af tha mail
aiaaa Mlowa;
•SSSm
M.1H
^m
Onlr a law IndaatiU
talliu halo* Ira. Tha gnat
FstanoBH, -J-=->- — •-' — -
iBduu
nplorm;
i*awn batng laaa tban ton *M ttw tgiat m
ra. Tha gnat botoriaa an bajend Iba llndta
wbub cobUu a hin popolatton of ai '
iporoona of — '
Bwortilwpa. Tha
!hapnuon
fclbwa<-
-idtaaf St
imia'toSIa
— woitunan, 1 in K ; aimnta, 1 in
10; icnDlan, 1 in II ; louur^ 1 in 2t ; crfOcial^ I U 41 ;
" radian," 1 in 70 i Iniule tiasbBa, 1 in 180 ; mala taachan, 1 in
391 ; polioanan, 1 in ZOS ; anigaoBi, lin 008 ; adTocati^ 1 in 1S81 )
■podiMailaa, 1 tn ISSS ; painibn]ni% 1 in 18M i totmit (V WW-
tmtB^t, 1 in 2111 i Uwyan, 1 in »0a In n^act of olaaM, a-J
par cast of tba aggnpt* p^nlatlak balmg ta tha "paaaanto,"
20-0 an mwrnMum (bninaaaa) and aitiwH, 13-8 an ^'noUaa,"
1'4 "nWRninb^'' and S'l fonfanin. Tba Taiiona nligiona an
rawnaantad br Sl-O par oant. OcAodox Onaki, B-O Pratntuita, 88
BonanOaOuilie^ and !■• varfawa (18,e» Java). On tba whDl^
ii pariodically
ta (ess in phfrica
cat kcnUj Ibima ■ at^anto aoadamj', udar mUitan iariadietton,
withaboatlSOOatodanta. ^len an^ nMnaorar, a ^lUoIogical inati-
of tha popnlaUon abora riz yean
non mot ba ooimtad aauuiK tba meal inl
niilalllialiiiiliiig &a haidaUpa and proa ,
^l^aelad to, tha nniTani^ aianiaea a pranoouoad '"On*-** on tba
"b of St Patenbois. In 1SB2 it bad ai^itr pnftaaon and 21<(
-'— *- ""° 'nphTAaandmathama&^779uiUw}. Thamadi-
S S B 17 R Q 193
Ml BOndiny of ai^ Bra mOttur Midatniat. a Ug^ adibol of law
and a lyecam. Highv (natneUon fur womra ia npnaantad by a
madical acadamy (now atdatad to ba doaad). by a Aae uninnitr
with tli atndata In 1SS% tba ataodarda of uutnuiioa and anni-
■atian in both bahig aqatt to Aoaa of tba oOir orltniritlia, anl
by bigbar padaoDgieal eoonea. For aMeadaiy adncation tbaa an
*— '- -'—'--'^gjmnaA br boya and ntaa Ibr gitb, with tnr
land tbna pcomuiaata, aiaht "nal BdM(il%'' tn
■aii*, and fin othat aiioola. Tor prinary adooaliou tbara inlH
Binnidpali^ aabooU (TSIS acbdan in ISSS), IS aaboob of the
•aaub^ and aboat 4M otban maintalnad attbw by pablie inatllv-
tlona or by prirata panona; 1S,«00 boyi and giria MccJTsd inatme-'
lion In 411 pabUc aaho^ is 1884, tha agmnia ooat bring £24,788;
aboot 70 inatltntloaa br ncalriM tba youngar cUldnn of Iba
poonr alMaaa aad aannl ptinia ''kinda^artana" mM ba addad
to tba abon. Tha adBamo iuatltuliona an numnooa. Tba
acadamy af adeMM^ "ei!<^ ^ I7™< ^** nadand Inmann nrrln
in tba Bxnlontlon of^nartL* Tha oft-npaaiad nprouh that it
kaaiia ita do«n abut to Riuaiau aaaggitt, whib maning tliam too
wi<U)rloOannanonaa,lanot)ritboutbaadation| bntlha nrrion
nodamdto adanaa br tha Oamanaincoanaiionwiththaacadimy
annudaaMadlytMygnat Tba Pulbora aatronomlaal oboana-
tory, tba sUaf ph««icar(nMtaon>loeical) obMrratocy (wllb bcaochw
tbranghoDt Buaak and Siberia), tha aatmoomlcal obaanatory at
aroityaarimuicationaattbahlghtatadMitUtGnhia. Tba Bodit*
of Natonllata and tlia Pbyalcal iwl fSuwloal Society, thougb laia
than twan^ yaan old, ban alnady Innad aatt vatuiUe pnblioa-
tiani, whifh an not ao wall known abroad at tbay daaarra to ba.
Tba atill mon noaotly fimndad gaobgical eommlttaa ia ably pnA-
is{{brwaidtkagidiwii:alHtrniT«ftb*«a<uitryi tba Uinaiala^tal
Sodaty wai buwlad b 1817. Tha (JaograiiLieal Sodety. with bai
•acUoaa (V2S mamban) and branch aodaUaa fur Waat and lait
BibariB, OaooaMia, Ocaabing, tba norlh-vaalan and aooth-waaleni
pcoTinoaa of Buropean BoHla, all liboally aidad br tlw aiab, ia
wall known far ita Talnabia work, aa b alao tba tCntMndo^l
Sooiaty. Than an bar madical aodatlM, and an AMbBolwkil
floEiaty (duea IMS), an Elataticnl Soda^, u Eomomica] Bodety
(ISO yaan aid), OaidaniUB Tomtiy, Tadmieal. Narigation Soda-
tii^ and otbai^ aa alas aanral adMitifie oommitlc«a appointad at
tha miniitrba: Tha adantUo woifc of tba bydragniUoil dapart-
niant aad of tba gBnanlataffia wall known. On tba whola, than
b aaoaaa to all tbaa aodatiia, aa call ii to thdr nmniimi and
Ubratbi. AX Bt Fataativg elaniral mode alnya finda flrat-nb
parbnun and atlantira liiMiiia Tba oouanatory of mode gina
a aopiriar amdtal iMtneUoa. Tba Mndcal Sodety ii alio wniby
of notua. Alt, on Oa olbai hand, baa not fraad Itaelf from tba
old aduilaatie mcthoda at tba aiadsioy. ' Bennl indspandant
artbtb aociatba aaik to i«nady thb dnwbaok, and an &e InH
ondb nf tbn Ifnrian jjiia jttntnri
na impacial poblfe library, vam fraa br 147 dava in tba ytai,
thoo^ Or bdkind tha BritiiliUaaaiw and tha BtbUodikqiw
Katioaale la tba nnmbar of Tdnmaa, nantthaleai containa nch
ooUaetiona of hooka and )U& Ita Ant nnda« waa Iba Ubnir <rf
tba Follah tapnblb adnd in 17te (3(1840 mlnmaa and 14,t7t
nlnliit eoUacbd meMj by Ai^lUop alnnkl of »»«* It laa
baa loncb anriclud doea than by nuchaaca and doMtioiik and
now (1884) oontaina mon tban l.MO.ODO Tohmaa, a nmaikaUo
oollaatlon of H,000 " Boaaba" (aTMytiUng pobliibed in Bnada}, and
40,000 MBS., aona of idiioh an van nlaabb and Dniqna. Tbo
Ubrary of tha acadamy of adanca^ alao opan arary day, eaabina
mon than E00,000 Tobonaa, 11,000 USa, lieh ooUadioBa id waaka
on Oriautal langnun and TalnaUa oidlaotiooa of pniodbal Dobliea-
tiona from adanti&aodrtiaatbmu^unt tba world. ThaUbniyof
thaooundlofatalebaboopantottapabUo; iriifla laranl HbtMiaa
of idanljfc aodatiM and dapartananb of tba minlabiaa. Toy ri<^
In tbdr yaoial hraanbaa, an aadly accaailbb. ^Mao of tba hydto-
mftiau dnaiimeut, ttu aoadann of att, the mnalcaT conacm-
tiny, the nnlTaidty (1K,000 vola.), an aipaoblly nJmble to tba
atndant. Ktady Uiii^ printa dienlatliK Ubrarin, which ha*e
to contud with many naWctfana, aapdy Aa atDdonla br a amall
ba with erarythlna; printed in Bniab, If not prohibited br Ooreni -
amt Tba muAJoa of tha Boiiian captal bars ■ tnaAad i^aca
among tboaa of Eoropa. That of tba acadamy of adance, witli
mat* than 10(^000 CTatomatieally cbud&ed nabinl biatory aped-
nana ; that of tb* lunarakgbal Boda^, giring a fnll pcton if
tiugaologfofBoMiai the Adatb moMOm, with ib tich oollectioni
orArfatwlISB.aiulccini; andaaranlotlunanrfgnatadanlific
nine. Tba Httmitiga Ait Qalbry oontaina a fint-nb coUMttoa
^thent«iiibi^ool,aoma jdctmaa of tba Bomian achool (tha ra-
mdndar bdng at the aoadsmy of atta), aoma good apedmena af tbi
bJEiS
■ as
194 STPETERSBtJRG
Ijrlsnlubla
Ilalln, flptnlih, and dd Trgnch M^iooK and •qNcUHf Isnlu
tnaioiiw oTQndiDdSmrthkii uitiqniCtet,ualiBkeoodoiiUaot
ofaOOhODOiwiTla^ Tb« old Chriitiui ukd old RiiMUn uti
mD mowaltd at th* muMun of tba icadoar of artL Bad<
ttan lb«n a» naajrotW nianuB* — pcdi^opcal, modioa^ «Dg
Mrinn ^itnnltmal, fimlir, maiiiM, tochaical
Tb« prm b ngnamtti br abovt ISO paifodictl^ luclutliiig thoaa
of tba ■denlUaaocUtiMi Uw ijeU of pnbliahiiig poUticsl [«ii«n
ii a aoaofiij In tba bailda of tha my faw adlton who an abls
to praou* du Bteamtrj antbortatiini. Tfa* pnbUcatloD of Utanir
aad adeollflo woriu, aftar tiarliu daralopcd rapidly in 16M-M, &
DOW gnatlj on tlw dacnaia oviug to Ua oppnaalra mtanra* of
tba mnaoiabip. In tba darelmniant of tba Bnssiui dnina St
I^tmboig baa [^T*^ ■ '■' laaa Important part than Uoacaw, and
tba flag* at flt Fatanboig baa narar nubad tbe ibiim lUDdwd of
auaUana aa tbat of tba oldar capital On tba other band, Bt
ratanbaniatbaeruQaofBoadaaopanandRDaduniiuic Tbars
an onir mn theatrta of importanoe at Bt Fatanburs— all imparial
— tro &* tbe opon and ballet, ona (bf tba utiTe druna, and one
Jbr tba Fnucb and Oarman diama.
Bt PManbarg k mneb I«m of a manntutoring dtr thmi Mneov
or BetUa ^la annual pndnctioo of all tba aunnfactiuija In tba
It £19,e00,(MW In tba
Ha bbrfaa (dlog^tbai £l,7«S,SO0], machinair {£i,i6tfiK). raUa
(£14*^001 tobaoco aod apirila (abont £1,100,000 tacb), laUwr,
anw, ataarina caBdlea, coppar and mm waroa ((ran £86<^000 to
£160^000 aacb), and a nilat7 of amallsrarticlei. Tbe ndnor tndaa
an 0*atlj daralnnd. ITa aiaet alatiftlaa of tba inlamal tiade aan
ba eran, aiaapt ibr tba Import and aiport of artiolaa of Ibod. In
ISU •1,170,000 cwt& of nain and flour wai« importod br nU or
riT«r,o(»bwbI8.S80,WOin» ra^ipottad andiaot.MOaantto
tbaintarior. Tba anortain I8S3 waravalnad at£l,BM,980 ftom
Bt Mnbanand at £4,5ST,017 tma Crmatadt, tba ^gnKata thoa
baing iS, l3f,MT, in irbieb articlaa of food, cblaflf com, repiaaantad
<^aIl,8U,niraiidb>lfTawpradiraa£l,0Oe,14e,andinanDbetand
«ana anjiaO. Tha ralna of tba - - -
«g,na,S83 and to Oosatadt <eiia,>H- Amrag tbo total importa
arUsIaa of foodiraiaTaltiadat£l,M1,3M, tawaudbalf rawnddnaa
at£«,00t,0M (diaflrcod), and nannltetiirwl warae at £1,08!,698.
Ctonatadt and St Fetanbnn vara nated in tbe wna Tear Iw SIW
ahipa (^ M1,000 tooa (7W abipa, 153, 7S0 Com, Iram Great Bntain).
Tha ooaating trade wai rapraaentad b; 703 Taaael* (116,800 tana)
■stared. rBa eominerdal Seat mmbraed only 18 atauien (11,1100
toni) and IB lailing naaale (8100 tana).
"■ ■' . . ~. . . — Fortwaida along
1 and to Fort
_ _,,^Mltaaonali~
d Tunkoye 8ela (with FaTlorA) wltb tbo capital ; and i
■t trank -linee run aontb-wnt and aontb-aaat to Vacaaw (a
ncbaa to Bisa and SiMilanik) and to Hoacow (vitb bnlMbea t
>d and BjUnik). All ara conneetad in Oa c ' ~
} and IB lailing naaale (8100 tana).
I railwiT* meet at St Peteiaburg.
1 baoki of tbe Qolf of Finland I „ _
a abort tioee oonnaet Onnlantamn, tnnalta (honatadt,
:oye 8ela (with FaTlorA) wltb tbo capital; and two
sreat trank -linee run aontb-wnt and aontb-aaat to Vacaaw (with
biancbaato Bisa and Smolenik) and '- " ._..». i 1— ^-
NoTsond and Brbluk). All ara go
tba FIiOMid Balfwar, which baa It*
tba Nara. UoraoTai, tba Kara la tba neat diannal lot the Inde
«r St FMerdnm wilb tba mt of Bna2a, bj meana of tba Tdga
and ita tribntanaa. TbalmmrtuwaoftbeMBonuir bat baaean
a, abowing in owta. tba amount importad
brdiftiMtdiu:^-
— o
o™^_.
r„™i
ssi
"•as
ES':;:;;;:
Vd Itaa tban l.ie^SSO idaoea togetbei wltb 7,937,000 ewta of
timber were anpfdiad in tba nma jear ela tba Hera. Tbo aggra-
fftn export* hf ran and tba Hera amoutad to 11,881,000 aS
The aTange tnooma of tbe Bt Petarabom mnnidpalitr wia
£SSl,ia in IMO-n (£BT7,BH in 1S81),— tbal ia, 137B.(a«l ronbia)
Ii*rinbaUtant,uaalnat3t-8a.atBer1iaaadSB-Si.atP*ifa. Tha
bdinot taxM yiald^bat la per inhabitant (B'e. at Paria). The
•nraga eiponae* (br the aame yeaia nacLed £671,170 (je57i.lt9 in
lUQ, dlatribatad a* folknn ;— 30 per cent of tba wbola Ibr tba
r^ce (10 It Pari* and 17 5 at Berlin), 8 for adminiatiation, 1«
Ibr paring, 7 Ibr U^itinK B for paMic inatmction, 1-6 for duritv,
and S Ibr tbe debt (7 at Berlin^and 87 at Pari*). Tba mnnidHl
ilbin are in tba huida of a mnnicipalitj, elecUd b; tbrae categi^
of pWtota (aaa Rdmi jt), and la piaelifally a deiautraent of tba chief '
of tbe police. The dtj it nn<1er a aeparata gortmoi^gBnerBl, whoea
antlioittT, like that of the chief of police, ii all the num nidlmlted
rince It baa not been leanntelj defined by lav.
St Potenharg it anrroonded bj aareial Sne taaldeniiaB, moatlr im-
perial palooaa with large and bsntlfDl parka. Taaiakoye Belo, 18
mUea to tba (Ontb-aa
paifc% open to tha pnUk, wliero aomnwr conoerta attiart tbonaanda
ofpaopla. Onnienbaomta now a rather ne^ectadplaoa Pnlkora,
on a SHI 6 milaa (Mm 8t Faterabnn, I* w«Il known for ito obacr-
Tatorr; vhIleBtTer*lTill*Beanorthofthacapita],>achBahrgDlovo,
u_^.. ... !^.^! _ >~">-'-iBwaalthTinbabit»nt»
__ ,. ._. .^ itm and tbe Gulf of
Finland waa infaaUtad In the Mb centnr; by Fiuia and aome
inr), aod OlToIi^k
jf™ i»De. from
I^e Ia]o^ Tbn- (bond, sowarer, powerful oppoDenta in tha
Bwedei, wbo ereetad tba fort of lAndakrona at the JuDction of the
Okbta and the Nera, and in the liTDolana, who had their fortreaa
at Haira. Norgorod and Hoeoow aacoeaiTcl)' vera able by can-
tinnooa flgbting to l"*'pt*l" thair BDpnmicy otct tha r^on aouth
of the Nara ttuongboot tba 18th tmtarj ; hot early id Uie litli
centnry Hoicow wu oompelled to oeile It to Sweden, which erected
a fbrtraa (NyiSnachani) on tha Net-a at the month of the Okhta-
In 170O Peter L began hit vara vith Sweden. Oryuhek wai Ukeo
in 1703, and next yiu Nyitnacbani. Tvo monthi liter (29th Juno
170S) Patn I. laid the fonndatiana of a cathedral to St Tetfr and
at FmI, aod of a fort which receiTed hia own uame (in iU Dutch
tnnaoription, " Fitarbnigh "). Kaxt year the tort of Cronalolt va*
araotedon thaiilandof Kotan, aa alao the admiralty on the KcTa,
<^poaito tba (brtiaaa. Tba emfaior took nioat aarere and almoat
baibarona meaanraa tat incretang bie newborn city. Thonaanda
of people froni all parte of Boida vet* removed thithtr and died in
necting tbe tbrtreta and building tha bontt*. Oraat nnmben of
artitana and workmen w%ra brooght to St Fetenbnig to tonn the
UnhcbaoAara village^ which ralaed tha popnlatCoD to 100,000
inhabitant. All propriebaa of mora than "SOO aonla" were
ordaiad to boild a home at 8t Fetoraborg and to atay there in the
wlnlw. Hia enatmetlon of atone-honaaa throughont the raat of
Boada wa* prohibited, all maaon* baying to be aent to St Petara-
bar^ Atler Peter 1. 'a death the popnlatien if tha ei^tal rapidly
deenaatd ; bnt foreignraa eonUniiM to aatde there. Under Ellia-
hath a new aarica tf compnlaory naaanna nl*id (be popnlation
to IN^OOO, wUdi Bgnre waa nearly doubled during the reign of
(ktbNina IL Since tbe be^nning of the prreent century tba
popubliMI ^M ataadily inereaaed (H1,000 in ISIT, 408,800 in
18i7,«Bl,000bllSt<,and«<T,000inI8«0). The chirf embeUith>
menu ^ Bt Fattnbnig ware cAbctod during the nigna of Aloonder
I. (1801-15) and Hkboli* L (ISie-Sfi).
when Peter 1, deainraa of ^Tint
ampint laid tbe flnt fonodatinu it .. _ „ _..
Iduida of tbe Nera, in land net fallT conqnered end remoto fr
the oentm of Bniaian lifb, it ia hardly potable that ha could hi
fufaaten On rafld darelnpment it baa (dnca nndergone i Ithia h
ai^oftba foSnMae and
-f tKt, tban ia no — ^' '- --
itk ngaid to tta 0
ew* bifln at it* ,^
to tba noftt and CMt To the aonth it bu tba Tarif thinlj peopled
ngloa* tf NnfTandHoTgorod,— Ibe manby and woody tracti of
tbeT^daia4^iik. Fba 100 nilea tn each irf tbiM three diioctiona
then la not a tin^ ctty of aw impinlanca ; and tovarda tha
weat, on bob iboraa of tba Oolf ofrlnlMd, an foreign people* who
baya tbrir own cenbc* of gnyitatian in dtiaa on or nearer to the .
Baltie. mtb tbo pnrtncaa of Bmria the cajdtal it eonneded
only by canak and rallw^^ vUeh baya to trayem rait tncti of
inbo^lnble eonntiT bema nacblng tham. Bat Bt Petaiaboig
pooataa^ on the other band, one immaue adrantage in Ha tlbt
which bla prored <d gnat nomaBl, aqwcially in the pment cen-
baj of devel^ment of international trafflo. Bnled b; tbe idea of
craatiiuanawAniattrdaa— that ii,anieeting-plaee tor trader* of ill
naHctialiBta and a gnat export market for BoKia, peter L could
baye adaeled no be&r place. Bt Fetarabtng baa baen Ibr nearly
160 ytui tba chief place of aiport for raw imdaco )hnn the mo^
prodnetlnparta of Kuala. The great oantral plateau which forma
the upper haainaorall tha chief Bnanu riTen had no other outlet
to tlMBeathan theialnarTof tha Kara. The nataral outlet mi^t
indeed baye been the Black Bea i bat the rireia to the eoothnrd
an either Interrupted by ra^da like the Dnieper, or an abaUow like
tbe Don ; while flteit nMufhi aod the entin coaat-rtgion reniainad
tnitbeendof tbelStbcantarylnthalMOdtarTDrkej. A* for the
Caa^an, it Ikoed Aaia, and not Europe. The eonuntrdal outlet of
tha contral platan waa thua the revene of tiie phjiicnL Tmai
Oie earlieat veaiB of Knaiau biatoty tnde had taken thia nortluni
direction. Norgorod owed ita wialtb to thia bet ; and la (ir back
aa the lltb century tlia Rnadana had their loft* on I^ke I^oga
uid tha Sara. In the lltb and IGth centnriea they already cr-
ihanged thair ware* with tbe Danttio inercbant* at fin or Nil,—
S A I-
UMthBDiMfirwUkMwVitfTnAlrldiiid. ^fMmdtns
St FMnboig F*te L <alr iMbmd tb* tnde to tti cJd bat dk-
cardid thihiwlfc Tb* mUu of cuuli for muueliu Uw opwr
Totp ud Uw Dafapw wjtk th* nwt bkw of Uu tunt£ tompliW
(b« wdA ; th* eoBBKdal Doota <rf Um Tol^ na tnittftmd to
tba Oolf df Hokad, ud St hlanbui bMwo* tba aipott hariioat
I tluu hiir BMda. TmUmn hMlMwd tUtbac i-- -'-
u of tbasmwiu oaoit faada, to th* ncIoiioB
) tud to OJi dnnmMUN tha Hoiriin apitd li li
.^ apitd to lBd«bt*d
, ^tit>FrMaBt«tt*BiiT*tnd WMt-
EoKmui metbH not bHA ■oUncd, nor fa it naiatiaMd, witboot
■ nJt d^aiilitan of tb* uliMul raoora*. It ooit baudnd* of
tb*anad*ar hamui Htm b*l^ tb* mmb; idudi it tbenuntb
or tb* Hon ooold ba nodarod St to rasdr* s mllUon luboUlwt*
kul b* bmulbt into anaaxioa wttb tb* Koaiiidtr oT Siaii ; ud
mr mtnT aun an annodlj McriSotd bt lb* nainUiMiiwi of tbfa
cuital on it* anbHltbr dia, audtT Um Mth ;anll*l, hsodndi of
luk* dtotant &om tha ontn* of Snniui lift.
Tha donlopmaat of tb* nilwif Iritna and tb* rapid oolaatn-
tion of aiDtbem Boida now opartia, homnr, adranalT to St
Prtnabnn. Id fimin tnda ia not actuiU; diCTMaiiig, tnt tba
TUT luidgTawtbin tk««ipact(arBiUBia<rittilu tbatnntrnan
bdbralBWm* tntinlT to Uw b*n«fit of othar port* mora Ughl;
bmued br nabirat nub *■ Uga and aapsdaOr Ubao, wbil* '
nsid ineniaa «t popolattm in tba Bla>± 8-1' ngion ia '""-
abill Oa Banan eantn tS anTitf i now oaotna of n
indaatrial, and lnt*l]*otaal I& an b^ dlTalmad at Odont
BoatoC TbanrlnlofUttlaKaialatoaDotbarbBnBnoacQafBtiig
In A* an* dinetion.
Aaa^K impoTtuit betot in ^ ptmtk of tb* inOMM* of St
Patanlian on Koanin UA «a* tba coneontntlni of aU p^tioal
power in tba baoda of an abaolat* OoTomnant and in tb* nanow
drclM wioondiH ^ cUtf of Oa ahit*. A* f^t DoboraU;
bit th* oaeMd^^ emoting Ibr a naw pbaaa of aattooal hfiloiy—
itar fut tha naoaaat; of a^lu enatlBg a froah a^tal br a
iid ^aa* of tha ooBBt^'a fngctm,-~m cultal wbar* tba ildag
_lpaiU Bowar woold ba fraa fMm tb* oonW of tb* old bmr
bmiHoa. St Pitacaborg bUr uania to tbfa n**d. Formontban
a cantmr aad a half it waa tho ml oaitn or political lift and of
pi^tfaal Ihon^t impngnatad iritb tba conoaptioB of s powarfol
urirfwuiillij lliii iiiaiiil II nl filal Bntthw
an at p wiantttnda»goin<t a ebann. Kno* tba aboliti.
and In conMoanco id tha impidaa tfron to Boaalaa tUoAt b^
Ada lafiirm, Qia prorinoea art eoinitig mon and mon to diajmb
tb* rig^t of St Pdaiabmg to gnid* tba poUtieal lilk ortba coanbT.
it baa b«n often i^ Ibat 3tT>tanbarg to Uw hiad of Rnaafa and-
Uoaaaw ita baaK. Tha flnt paH at loait of thia aa]^ ia tna.
In tb* danlmaant of thoD^t and in DaturalMng & Kiaaia tb*
naolta of wHtBnnpaan nflaeOon St PetarabBig Laa pland tbnogh-
out tbaBtaaenteaMniTapnaiiBentMrt. Attractbatoitaelfflram
tb* ftvAmem tb* beat lulallaati of Uw eoanbr, it lua powarftaUy
costiibiitad toward* f.m""T'*'"g tba nading pnbllo win tha
t— ^>'i"g' of wnt Eontpaan adenoa and phikaophj, and tomida
HTing to Buaian lltaratnn tbat llboalltjr of mind and freedom
bom tbetaamnHli of tradition tbat baTO *o otlaii baan notisad by
wstEoriHieaiK St Manbnig haa no traditioua, bo Uatwf bagrond
<jiat of tba [slica coDiplndaa, and notbing in it* paat can attnct
tba writer or th* tbiAer. BaL t» am ca&tna of intallactoal
movamant and new cnnanta of thon^t daralap again at Uoacow
and KitA tx *ii*e anew at Odaaaa nd in tb* (BMnn vorinse*,
tb*** plaoaadaki th* liriit to their own ahara In Oa (utbarde-
nlapneottfiutallMtaallibinStwda; and it wonld not ba anr-
ptUu If the aOndaiatratiT* and intelleetnal oantn of the •man
after ft* sdgi^loaa aaoeoMiTalr ftom Klai^ Hornnd, and Fikoir
to Uoaeinr, and tbano* to St Patarabn^ WR* ap& to ftUow a Daw
KTanwBt towaida tlu aontk. (P. A. S.)
ST FIERfiE. See Bfnnov, vd. xz. p. <93.
ST FIERBE. See UivanaUE, toL it. p. 086.
BAINT-PIEBRG, CoAJUn Ix^Nix Cinn, Ani in
(1638-I7i3X ■ Fre&di writer of mneh qigennitT ud mfln-
enee, lAo i» net nnfrequently confounded with the wriboc
of Paat tt Vir^imt, ma boni ncM Boifletir on the 18th
oC TtbrxuuT 16S8. Hi* fktiter wu tuilH of the Ootentin,
ud Saint-Fiarre, who wu edotMAd bj the Jeanita, apptmn
to ten had an aaajr eutmice to the beet Uteiaiy and
fotituMl lociety of tba c«pit*l He wai pnwntsd to the
-S A I 195
Mbkiy ot Totm, wUch a ceatoir More the poet Dea-
pcntea had held, and waa elected ta the Acftdemy in 1 6&9.
But in IT18, in conaeqnenn of the political oflence given
bf hi* tVmrnxiit, he mffeied the tbit rai« penalty of
— itor7)an almo^entinljroc--,-.-
aoata and inTantiT*, tlroogb Banerall]' Tidoaan, otitidiB of pdlitioe,
law,andaoda]iutitntioDB. TbeyhailagiaattnllaeiKaenBeowB,
who baa lift alabotata axaminatlona of iOBM of tbao, end haa Rpn-
dacad not a few of thato Idaaa in bfa own wo^ The Utlaa are
■ - - TbechlaranrrqfKAAite
t atriotnnoo the OaTemiBeiit of LooIaZIV.,
pngecia lor tba aduiafatntion of Franco hf a tjtima of reondlii
nir each departaMot of gerKOBait), tontber with a craml of
maiaorial* and pcqjeota far atoppiss daaUlaK for eqDallilng taia-
tioD, lor tnatiag laendkancjr, for nfonuiiiB adaeatiou and apellitiK
*a^ Dnlike tiEe lalar nftrming abMe oT tb* ■Jkilrwp*! perioJ,
Sabit-Phn* waa a man of rarj uworldl; ehaiaoter ana noito
oftha Frondanraplrit. Ha waa alao a man of not a Bttla
— -_ — jalpowv, aDd,Bab tbeoaaeaf a*ai]rBachnuD whogiTra
hto %m tm oonrae in the eonatnietioa of twUtioal Dtoplaa, not *
hwcf bfa wiaba* and Idaaa baT*b*Mi laaliMdincoiiraatf lima. But
it ta diOonlt to gin Um modi cradit tor prattled giaap of johtim,
BAINT-FIERR^ JACwna Hknu BnxABDni db (1737-
1814), Fieoch man-of4ettMi, waa bora at HaTie 00 I9tli
Jannuj 1737 and wai edneaied at Caen. After a faahion
imaiHWr with EngUah tban with I^ench bc^^ ha took
I early fancy to tliB ita, and hi* tmcte^ a lUp captun,
gan Um the ofipottnni^ of giali^ring ib Btit a uD^a
hiaparaot^ wka had prabaUy taken the meaanre ol hi*
anthoaa^u from hia lea ezperieneee, olijected, and he
ecujneer. He aerred in the umy, but 1
!or uaabordinatjoo, and, after qnamlling with
hia family, waa in aome difBenl^. Bot in 1761 lie obtained
appointment at Halta, whiA also he did not hold Long.
e moat rolUag of atonea, tie appears at St Petetaburg,
at Wateaw, at Dreadaii, at Berlin, holding brief commia-
aiotka aa an engineer and iqjoidng in romantic adtentarei.
Bntbeeanubaok to hria at the age of thirty eten poorer
than Iv aat ont. He than paMea two yean in literary
imk, anpporting himaelf in an unknown faahion, and in
1748 (for he aeema to have bean aa aoMeaafnl in obtaidng
■ppointinent* aa in loaing then) he est ont for the lale of
Tnaoi (Hanriliiu) with a Ootenanent commiation and
remained thenthreeyean,retnnunghonKin1771. Then
wanderinoa aof^ed BemardJn with the whole ol wiiat may
be called hia etock-in-tiadc^ for, though he lived more than
forty yean longer, he never again qnitted E^anoe^ He
waa nry poor, and indeed it it not ea^ to diaoorer £com
hia iHO^iqihera what he lived npcm, for, thon^ he wat an
nnvrearied toUcitor of employments aiid " gratiflcatlona,"
he received bnt little, and hit touchy and seoaitiva tempera-
ment frequently canied him to quarrel with what little he
did receive. On his retom from Mauritim he was intro-
duced to the society of D'Alembert and hia friends, and
cmttinued to tieqnent it. Bat he took no great plcasnre
in the company of any literary nun except Routtean, of
iriiom in Jean Jacquei'B last yean he saw moch, and on
whom he fmnad both his own character and still more his
itrte to a considerable degsee. Hia first work of any im-
portance, the Woyofft & rlU ih Prance, appeared in 1T73
and gained him aoma rspatation. It is the soberest *and
thereftm the leartdiaiaetaristic«f his books. The^fw&i
d» la Satmt, ^lich made hia fame and asgnred him of
titeniy nKCcat, did not ^tpear till ten years later, his
illaat«^iieea Rttd tt Vtrgmit not till 1787, and hit other
maateipieee (which, aa much leas aentiment&l and showing
not a httle humour, tome petaons may be allowed to prefer),
thaCAmiMttD/wfiflM^nottilljrW. Inl799heBaj^
i9er
S A I — S A I
A ■nry yoang eirl, F^cit^ Didot. For a short time in
1792 ke was rapeTintendent of tbe Jardin des Plantes aad
ugaiii for a abort time professor of morals at the Ecole
Sormale in 1794. Next year he became a member of tbe
Institote. After his first wife's death ha married, in 1800,
Trben ho was sixty-three, another young girl, D^irfa ds
Pelleport, and is said to have been very happy with her.
Ho still coDlJDDed to publish, and waa something of a
fATOurita with Napoleon. On the Slat of January 1814
ho died at iLraji'ay near Fontoise, where ho bad in bis last
years chiefly lived and where ho bad a hous^ so that be
cannot have been ill off.
It bu been hinted tLiat iWiiBrdiii Ae Soint-Pierrt'i pomnal
cbAnctfir ^u Dot entirely imiable ; it miy be added that hi»
litsrarr cbinctar liai not io uUEagliihejatuBiced to along for it.
Eagliidimen, and not EDgliBhmea only, iuve been Tound to pro-
nounco Aiuj il Virgitiii gaudy in ttylo and anhealtliy, not to say
Bnnbolsaooie, in tons. Ferfaiiie -fiemardin ii nat fiuclr to In
judged l:^ thii lunooi ttoir, in whicli the einborant Hnsibility of
the tina finds eqoaUy eiubenDt iipressian. The Chaumltn and
1 tbB Auda dt la ft'alun proi*r may ba thonglit
style to greatsc advanU^. Tlie
, . .ta tbst is of milch worth in ooni-
itiro lileniT triticism) M once disengage] the qneilion from its
leposura'
u:bibit the
histi
dmenlties. Wh
breaking away from the dull tad irid vocabulary and pbnse i
more thin a eentnry oT classical writing had brought upon Frini
liii gennine ami vigorous preference of the bcaatics of nature t
mere charms of drawing-room sodely, and in tbe attempt »
lie made, nitb as much sincerity sa conld fairly be expected fr
uau of bis day, to reproduce the aspects of the natnral i
failhMly. After Rous
and.
9 in French litcratnrs Iha apostle or the
j^h in bim and bis immediate tolloire
ia 8tJl ninch mannerism and unreality, b
itlacl
le credit due.
Irtft. poMllhHl a compltto Rlltlon of hl> work! In IS Tolum« (Pula, 1S18-W1.
BT PIERRE AND MIQtIELON, two islands 10 miles
off the Boutb coast of Newfoundland (seo voL ivii. pL V.\
at tbe entrance of Fortune Bay, are, with £to lesser islets,
tbe last remnant of the North American colonies of
Fiance. Both are rugged masses of granite, with a few
amall streams and lakelets, a thin covering of soil, and
■cant; vegetation. Miquelon (area, 45,542 acres) consists
of Great Hiquelon in tbe north and Little Miquelon,
Langlade, or Langley in the south; previous to 1783 they
were separate islands divided by a navigable channel, but
they have dnce become connected by a dangerous sandbar.
6t IHeire (6420 acres) has a good harbour and roadstead,
the latter, protected by tie auz Chiens, affording shelter,
except in nortb-east storms, to the largest vessels. Tbe
■mall but busy town of St FLerre climbing the steep hill
above the harbour is mainly built of wood ; but it has a
cathedral (of wood), an English chapel, a governor's resi-
dence, and various administrative ofGces, including the
American terminus of the French Atlantic cable. Cod-
fishing, to which the settlement owes its prosperity, was
prosecuted in tha five years 1878-83, on an average, by
45S0 fishermen (mainly from Dunkirk and other French
ports), and produced 3876 tons of dried and 157,7S4 tons
of nndried cod, with 460 tons of cod-liver oil. The total
exports and importa were valued, respectively, at 9,218,278
and 4,441,817 franca in 1665, and 17,164,153 and
11,062,617 francs in 1&83. The foreign trade in 1383
was valued at 10,318,473 franca. The population of the
islands was eS64 (town of St Pierre 4365) in 1883 ; but
the number is often above 10,000 in th« fishini
8t Pierre and Ifiqnelon, vith 3000 iahatdtants, irere ceded t
'"-iglind along iritb Ifewfouudlaiid in ITIS ; but on tbe Engtis
aqacstof Canada they were asaigned to France ■*_• fluitr
ST PIERRE-LiS-CALAIS, a snborb of Calaii (7.F.},
with a population of 30,786 in 1S81.
ST POL DE L^ON, a town of France, in the arrond-
isseoient of Horlaii and department of Finist^re, not far
from the shores of the English (Aarmel, 13| miles north-
west of Morlaix by tfaa railway to Roscotf. Tbia quiet
episcopal city, old bnt modernized, is mainly of interest
on account of its cathedral and tbe church of Notre Dame,
though it also contains an episcopal palace (1713-50), a
seminary (1691), and a hospital (1711)- The cathedral,
classed as an historical monumenl^ belongs largely to tbo
13th century. Beside* tbs west front, with its portico
and its two towers with granite spires 180 feet high, the
principal i>oiQts of architectural interest are the traccried
ivindow of the south transept (nitb its glass) and tbe rect'
angular ajBB, and in the interior the stalls of the choir
{16th century) and the fascicled pillars and vault-arches
of tbe nave. On the right of tbe high altar is a wooden
shrine containing the bell of St Pol de IA>n (6 lb 10 oz.
in weight), which has the repute of curing headache and
diseases of the ear, and at the side of the main entrance ia
a huge baptismal font, popularly regarded as the stona
cofBn of Conan M^riadec, king of the Bretorts. Notro
Dame da Creizker bos a 15th-centary spire, 252 feet high,
which crowns the central ton-er. The north porch is a
fine specimen of the flamboyant style. The population of
the town in 1S61 was 3739 and of tbe commone 6659.
8t ?ol de Uoo, or Fauum Sanai Pauli Lemini, na fonaetly a
place of considerable importance. Tbe barony of L^n, in the
poneasion of the du)iei of Roban, gave tlism tbe right of presiding
m the provincial states alternatively with the dnk* 0! U Trimouiile,
baron of Vitri.
ST QUENTIN, a manufacturing town of France, the
chef-lieu of an arrondissement and in population (45,697
in 1881) the largest town in tbe deportment of Aisnc,
stands on the right bank of the Sonune, at the junction
of tbe Somme Cwoal with the St (jneOtin Canal (which
unites the Somme Canal with the Scheldt), 95 J mil&j north-
east of Paris by tbe railway to Brussels and Cologne, with
branch lines to Quise (on the Oise) and Ep£hy on the
Flanders and Picardy railway. .Built on a slope, with a
southern exposure, the town ia crowned by the collegiate
church of St Quentin, one of tha finest Gothic buildings
of the north of France, which vras erected between 1114
and 1477, and has, like some English cathedrals, the
somewhat rare peculiarity of double transepts. The length
of the church is 436 feet and the height of the nave 131.
The magnificent clerestory windows are supported by a
very elegant triforiom. The baptismal chapel contains a
fine stone retable. The choir hu a great resemblance to
that of Bheims, and, like the chapels of tha apse, has been
decorated with polychromic paintings. Under tbe choir
is a ciTpt occupying the site of an older crypt constructed
in tiis 9th century, of which only the three vaults with the
tombs of St Quentin and his feUow-martyre reniaia. The
town-house of St* Quentin is a splendid building of the
15th and 16th centuries, with' a flamboyant fa^e, adorned
with curious sculptures. Behind tbe central gable rises a
bell-tower with chimes. The council-room is a fine hall
with a double wooden ceiling and a huge cbimneypjeco
half Gothic half Benusaance. The old buildings of tbe
Bemardines of Fervaques now provide accommocUition for
tha courts, the learned societies, the school of design, the
museum, and tbe library, and contain a large hall for
pnblic meetings. St Quentin is the centre of an indns-
trial district which employs 130,000 workmen in 800
factories, and mannfactures the fortieth part of the cotton
imported into France, producing goods to the value of
about £3,600,000, mainly calicoea, percales (gland cottons),
cretormea, jacona^ twills, piques, muslins, oambriiSs, gauzes,
wool-muslins, Scotch atshmeres, and merinos. Other i^
.._.. .... „ ^.-
S A I — S A I
197
dmtriea an the maldiig of embrmderiea t^ nuchinerr ud
b; band, tnrmn^ biUiard-boUs, and engine-bnildiog.
at Qucntio, tlm Aiiyu^ Fenrauaduontm ot th< Bomuu. ttood
it tlu mcctiog-pUro of Rtc roodfi of militATy ImportLiiefl. In tlia
Id cMitnrj it wm tho iwne of the martpdom of Ciiug Quintiniu,
*ho bid como u n pmclicr ot CUriilMnitT, inl in tht nigi) of
Duobert tbo neatp't tomb becune nndw tlie iaaaincc at St £Iai
■ pUc« of pilgrinugv. Alter it had bc*B thiici nTiged bj ths
Nonuns tbo tann vu >nrTounil<J by wiJIi In S83. It btcun*
nndv Pippin, grsnJBU of C'ti>rlen»ena,ona of tbo priDcipddomiini
of lb( connty of VTmundou, and in 1103 iru coDititated ■ com-
mune. In 1195 it in* incorporattd with CLa lojil donuin ud
■boat tha SLiaa tima receiTad u Lncre«H oT ita pnTiiegBa. From
1120 to 1471 St Quciitia wu ocenpicd by tha Surgundiuu. Iti
nptorebT tha S{HniaK!i on tbe dijpfSt Lawnnca, 1SS7, ns (bs
nfnwnhich Philip II. of Spuiti commemorated IwbuUding tha
Ei«n^. IVo jean Imtar tha toirnnurutored to tba French, and
in 1S60 it w» U9ign«l u the dDirry of Jtary Stuart Tha forti-
fiations erected nuder Louis XtV. icaiv demobihed bet*eea ISIO
■nd 18Z0. During the Franco -Praniau W»r St Quenlin npnlaed
th« German atUcks of Bth October 1870 ; and on 19th Jannair
1871 it irai tbe «ntn of th* gnat battle fongbt by Ganeral Faid-
berbc, on* of tha lut apiaodea of tbe campaign.
ST SEBASTIAN. See Sab SKBASTtur.
ST SERVAN, a cantonal town of Frwice, in the depvt-
ment of Ille-et-Vilaine, on the rig^t bonk Ol tbe TUnce to
the anith of St Molo, from vhjch it is ,Mp*nit«d by a creek
It least a. mile wide (see Si ILkUO). In population (10,691
inh^itants in 1881 ; 12,867 in the commune) St Servan
ia ilightlj tL; unaUer town of the two. It ia not Enclosed
t^ mills and '*ith its new honsee, etnight wide streeti,
ind nmneiotis gardens fomu qnita a contrast to iti neigh-
bcmr. In atuwner it attracte a number of eeaiide visiton.
The floating dock will when finished have an area of 27
Kits and one mile of quays. He creek on which It opeot
ia Axj at 1a\r water, but at hi^ water is 30 to 40 feet deep.
Aoodier port on the Rance^ to the aouth-wett of the town
at the foot of the tower of fiolidor, ia used by the local
goud-ahip. This tower, erected in the close (rf the lith
tentury by Duke John IV, for the purpose ot contesting
the cltdms of Joaselin de Rohan, bishop of St Halo, to the
temporal soveireignty of the town, consists of three distinct
towus formed into a triangle by loop-holed and mochico-
lated enrtains. At the north-west point of St Serran
ttuids the "city fort" and necr by' are the mins of the
cathedral of St Peter of Aleth, the seat of a bishopric from
the 6th to tbe 12th century. The church is modem
(17*3-1812).
The noitbeni qnsrt«r of St Serrm, eilloJ " tbe Citj." occnpiea
the Dta of tlia city of Alatb, which at tha clow ot tb* R^man empirv
nn^antsd Conaul la tbe capital of tbe Corioaolitea. Alatb waa a
baliratlc of Dnidiini in thoM regions and vaa not Cbiiatianiiad
tiU tb* 8tb antnry, Than St Ualo became ita fint biahop. On tha
mnoral of tha biahoprio to St Ualo Aletb declined j bnt tba
hoiuet that remained atanding became the nnclsua of a new com.
mnnitr, wblcb placed itaalf nnder the patronage of St Serran,
apoatja of the OrknajnL In 17G8 tha placs waa occupied by Uarl-
botongb. It waa not till 1789 that St Samn bscame a aeparaCs
onmane tnm St Ualo with a municipality and polic* of Ita own.
SAINT-SIMON, Claode HiNBi, Comti dk (1760-
1825), the founder tii French socialism, was bom at Paris
on ITth October 1760. He belonged to a younger branch
of the family of the celebrated duke of that name, His
education, he tells ua, was directed by lyAlembert At
the age of nineteen he went as Toluoteer to assist the
American colonies in their reTolt agMnst Britain. From
his yoQtIi Saint-Simon felt the promptings of an eager
ambition. His yalet had orders to aw^e liim every morn-
ing with \h.t words, " Bemember, monsienr le comte, that
yon hare great tfaingi to do " ; and his ancestor Cbarle-
magne appeared to him in a dream foretelling a remarkable
(ature for him. Among hia early schemes was oce to
unite the Atlantic and the Pacific by a canal, and another
to OMutiuct a canal from Madrid to the sea. He took no
part of any importance in the ReTolntion, but amassed a
little fotttow by land speculation, — not on his own aec«nnt,
howerer, as he said, bnt to faciUtate his future projects.
Accordingly, when he was nearly forty years of age he
went tbrou^ a varied course of itndy and experiment, in
order to enlarge and clarify bis view of things. One of
these experiments was an unhappy marriage, which, after
a year's duration, was dissolved by the mutual consent of
the parties. Another restilt of bti experiments was that
he found himself completely impoverisbed, and lived in
penury for the remainder of his life. The fitsl of his numer-
ons writings, LrUra tTwi Baintant dt Getitie, appeared in
1803 ; bnt his early writings were moatly scientific and
poIiticaL It was not till 1817 that he began in a treatise
entitled L'lnduitrie to propound his Bodalistic views, which
he further developed in X'Or^^onuotnn- (1819), DitSytlimt
IndMttrid (1831), CaUchUnu da IndiuirUU (1823). The
hut and most important expression of his views is tbe
youvtan CAriitianume (IB25). For many years before
his d^th in 1825 (at Pftris on 19th May) Satnt'Simoa bad
been reduced to the greatest straits. He was obliged to
accept a laborious post for a salary of £tO a year, to live
on die generosity of a former valet, and finally to solidt
a small penKon from his family. In 1823 he attempted
Huicide in di;spajr. It was not till very late in his career
that he attached to himself a few ardent disciples.
As a thinkiT SaJnt-Simon was entirely deficient in
system, clearness, and consecutive strength. But his
great influence on modem thought is undeniable, both as
the historic fotmder of Frendi socialism and as suggert-
ing much of what waa afterwards elaborated into Comtism.
Apart from ths details of hia aocialistie teaching, whieh
are vague, inconsistent, and nnaystematic^ we find that
the ideas of Saint-Simon as to the reconstruction ot
society are very simple. His opinions were conditioned
by tha French Revolution and by the fendal and military
system still prevalent in Fiance. In opposition to ths
destructive liberalism of the Revolution he insisted on the
necessity of a new and poeltive reorganization of society.
Bo far was he from advocating fresh social revolt that he
appealed to Louis AVlil. to inaogurate the new order of
things. In opposition, however, to the feudal and military
system, the former aspect of which had been strengthened
by the restoration, he advocated an arrangement by which
the industrial chiefs should control society. In place of
the medieval church the spiritual direction of society
should fall to the men of science. What Sunt-Simon
desired, therefore, was an industrialist state directed by
modem science. In short, the men who are fitted to
organize society for productive labotir are entitled to bear
rule in it. The socuil aim is to produce things useful to
life ; the final end of social activity is " the exploitation
of the globe by association." The contrast between
labour and capital so much emphasized by later socialism
is not present to Saint-Simon, but it ia assumed that the
industrial chiefa, to whom the control of production is to
be committed, shall rule in the interest of society. lAl«r
on the cause of the poor receives greater attention, till in
his greatest work. The Jfew Chriaianiiy, it becomes the
central point of his teaching and takes the form of a
religion. It was this religions development of h's teach-
ing that occasioned his final quarrel witit Comte. Previous
to the publication of the Novvtan Ckriotanitnu, Saiot-
Simon had not concerned himself with theology. Here
he starts from a belief in God, and his object iu the
treatise ia to reduce Christianity to its simple and essential
elements. He does this by clearing it of the dogmas and
other Bxctescences and defects'whidi have gathered round
both the Catholic and Protestant forms of it^ which be
sulijects to a searching and ingeoious Aiticism. "The
new Christian organization will deduce the temporal insti-
tationt (S well as the spiritual fMm l^e principle that all
igs
SAIN T-S t M O N
men ahoold act towuda one anotlisi U brethren." Ez-
|ireeEuig the Bune idea in modern Unguage, csaint-Sunon
propounds u the oompreheDsivs formula of the new
Chriitianitf tkia precept — "The vhole oC society ought
to itrive towaida tho amelionitioa of the DionU and
physical exiatetice of the poorest cUas ; society ought to
organize itself in the way best adapted for attaining thia
end." ThU principle became the watchword of the entire
Bchool of Sauit-Simon ; for them it waa alike the ewsnce
of religion and the prqgrsmme of eocial reform.
Daring his lifetime the views of SaiatSimon had very
little iuflaenM; and he left oaly a very few devoted
disciples, who continued to advocate the doctrines of their
master, irhom they revered as ■ proi)het. An important
departure itbb made in 1628 by Bazard, who gave a
"complete expoution of the SaintSimonian faith" in a
bng course of lectures at Paris in the Rue Taranne. In
1630 Bazard and Enfantin ivere acknowledged as the heads
of the school ; and the fermentation caused by the revolu-
tion of July of the same year brought the whole movement
prominently before the attention of France. Early next
year the school obtained posseaaion of the Globe through
Pierre Leroui, who had joined the school, which now
numbered some of the ablest and most promising young
men of France, many of the pupils of the Ecole Poly-
technique having caught its enthusiasm. The members
formed themselves into an association arranged in three
grades, and constitating a -society or family, which lived
out of a common piuse in the Hue Monsiguy. Before
bng, however, disaensions began to arise in the sect
Bazard, a man of logical and more solid tempenuneat,
could no longer work in harmony with Enfantin, who
desired to establish an arrogant and fantastic sacerdotalisiQ
with lax notions as to marriage and the relation of the
sexes. After a time Bazard seceded and many of the
strongest supporters of the school followed bis example.
A series of extravagant entertainments given by the society
during the wiater of 1832 reduced its financial reoourceii
and greatly discredited it in character. They finally re-
moved to Manilmontant, to a property of Enfantin, where
they lived in a communistic society, distinguished by a
peculiar dres^ Bhortly after the chiefs were tried and
condemned for proceedings prejudicial to the social order;
and the sect was entirely broken np (1832). Many of its
membera became &mous as engineers, economists, and men
of business. The idea of constructing the 8aet Canal, as
carried out by Le8sepi>, proceeded from the school
In the Khool ot adnt-Simon irs find a grtat aJvinoe both in ths
breidtli uid Ermiun villi which ths Tigac inil coufiiMil Ti«us of
thainuterui ileTgtopeJ ; sail tliii progrsn is doe chisflf to Bizird.
In tha {iliiliaoph; or hiitor; tbcy iKoqiiiia epoch* of two kinJi,
thg criticjj or ncjpitiva mid the orgiiiio or oonrtrnetive. The
tovacT, in whicli philosophy ii tha domiaatia^ force, ii chiinc.
tnized bj nr, egoCiHin, sad uuiichjr ; the litter, wliich ii controltsil
by raliBTon, u nurkad by the iiarii of obediouce, dovotion, ukkj*-
boo. The two ipirits oT sntagouiiin miJ usociatioD in Ihs tiro
ipendi the cbirai
iciples, iBd 01
in epoch. The >[i
iiuiu Kill luuuy Ml uie cur, irom tua city M tne uatK
the nmlion to tlie redentioii. Thii princmle of uewii
the ksynoto of tha Kcijtl deToIopment of the rutun.
UiT of bumaniEy hu beeu ttia "FiploitatfoD of man hj
e f'lti
lyitam the indaatrial chief idll axploila
s of vhioh, thongh nominally fne, miut
of narratiim. Thii state of things ii
nlieritance, itherabj the iiMtramenti ot
Koplrty, and all the ittesdsnt social
out regard to iienonal merit Tho
itdgea being slao timaiaitled, - ' ■■ '^ —
social fand, which ituU be aiploitsd by aaociation, Socia^ tho*
scrspt hia I«nas ondoi
oonMlidited by the Ui
pndDctum, wluch ara i
bocuma. aole proprietor, Intnutinri to Acial grenna awl eOLiil hnc-
tiooarie* the nuua^iueut of the rarioua propapfleA The right ol
succaanon in trauHfumd tram the family to iLe sULa. The iihool
of Saiiit-Siiuoa InkiaCa rtroni{lj on the daiina of merit: thev
adirocalo a eocinl Lioi»rcliy iu which each man ehall be plicea
Kwr-linp to bi, oapacity and ro>.irJ«l acoarflng lo hie work*
Ihisi^ indeed, a moBt ipocul and pninoimoed feature of tha Saint.
Simon ■ocialimu, wlio« llieory of goTeruinent ia t kind otauiritiial
or Kientific ""«™^y, degenerating into the fantuitic aacerdotallm
of tuliutm. With regard lo ths femily and tho relation ot tba
BsiBe tho Bohool of Saiqt-aimon wlvocatal llie completo emancipb.
tiou of woniM and her entire enuoJity with min. The "looS
uidividnJ ■■ a men and wemau, w^.o a» aa««i.ted in tha aurclas
of the tnpie funcnon of religion, the ptal^ and the family. In its
official dei^larationi the Mhoo I maintained the lanetilj of the Chris-
tun law of nurrlago. On this point £ufintu) fell into • imrieiit
and fsRtagtic latitudinariaDlum, wbtcb made the achool a scandal
to France, but many of the moit prominent mcmben besides Biarvl
refiued to follow hiro. Connected with theae doctrinei waa their
fomonii theorf of the "rehiiiilitation of the flesh," dedncvl fhmi
tlio philompliio tlieory of ths achool, which waa a species of F»il-
tlici.m, ihouah th»y irpudioted the nam*. On thia tbeoiy they
rejected Ihe dualiiin »o much emphaaiiBd by Calholio Cliri<tianity
in ita penancea and mortiBcatiDtii, and held Ihtt the body ahould
lie raatored to iU due place of honour. It ia a Tagne principle oT
which ths Ethical character dspendi en the interpretation i and it
wn. Tarioualy interpreted iu the achool of Baint-Simon. It was
certainly immoral u held by Enfantin, by whom it waa dSTelopnl
into a kind of eenanal myiticinn, s eyitem of free love wi^ a reli-
An Roellent tdlUon of tkewerki of fWnt^lmop and EnfUtJa m b«*i Iqr
Hirvlvon of Ihc leet lo P«i-U 0«6). "nil now enmljiia Ibrlj Tali See Birllin'r,
f.ltdit inr III NMmaltan nu'irin Uti ed(tkia, Full, 1M4): Janet. Salnl-
SiauilMII SaltlSltanlnu (Pva, teri); A. J. Bootk, SUInl-^iH* sod fetal.
SlMonltK (London. 1S71), (T. t]
SAINT-SIJION, Louis de EotrTB*Y (or Routeoy),
Deo DE (1G75-1755), was bom at Versailles on 16th
Jaaoary 16T5. He was the son of Claude de SaintSimon^
who represeated a family which had been established for
many centuries at La Fcrti Vidame, between Morlagno
and Dreni, and which claimed descent from Charlemagne.
Claude de Saint-Simon had been a page of Louis XUL,
and, gaining the king's favour aa a sportsman, had received
various preferments and was finally created dm ft pair.
This peerage is the central fact in Saint-Simon's history,
and it ia impossible to understand him without under-
standing it. To speak, as one of his few biographers in
English boa apokei), of " a young duke of recent creation,"
and of the apparent absurdity of such a yotmg duke taking
the aristocratic views which characterized Saint-Simon
through life, is to show the most deplorable ignorance of
the facta, The French peerage under the old j-iffiau was
a very peculiar thing, difficult to comprehend at all, but
quite certain to be nuscomprehended if any analogy of tho
English peerage, such as is implied in the observation joat
qtioted, is imported into the consideration. Ko two things
cotild be more different in France than ennobling a man
and making him a peer. No one was made a peer who
was not ennobled, but men of the noblest blood in France
and representing their houses might not be, and in most
cases were not, peers. Derived at least traditionally and
imaginatively from the douie pain of Charlemagne, the
peers were supposed to represent the chosen of the noblesse,
and gradoally, in an indefinite and constantly disputed
fashion, became associated vith the parlemeat tf Paris
as a quasi -legislative (or at least law -registering) and
directly judicial body. But the peerage was further com-
plicated by the fact that not persona but the holder* of
certain fiofs were made peers. Strictly speaking, neither
Saint-Simon nor any one else ia the same case waa nude a
peer, but hia estate was raised to the rank of a duchi pairit
or a comti pairie as the case might be. If ail analogiea
were not deceptive, the nearest idea of a French peerage of
the old kind may be obtained by an Engliah rtftder if be
takes the dignity of & Scotch or Irish representative peer,
then suppoees that dignity to be made bereditur, and
then limits the heritablenesa of it not merely to deaotnl
SAIN T-S I M O N
bat to Um tannra in direct
It mart of oohtm be tindentood that the peen wera not
elected bat Dominated. Still the; were in ft my ■ ituid-
ing cimmittea repreaentatiTe of the entire bodj of noble*,
ftod it WM Saint-ffimon's lifelong ideal and at time* hia
pnctical effiut to convert them into aaort of great eonncil
of the nation. Theae remarks are almoat indiap«aMUe
to ilhirtrate hia life, to which we may now rotnm. Hia
mother, Claude de Saint-Simon'i seoood wife, wm Charlotte
de I'Anbespinc^ who belonged to a bmilj not of the
oldest nobihty bnt which luid been diatingniahed in th«
pablio aerrice at leaat unee the time of Fiancii L Her
■on Lonis waa well edncated, to a great extent b; her-
«elf, and he had had for godfather and godmother no
lees penouB than Louis XIV. and the qneen. After KHne
tuition hj the Jesnlta (especially bj Sanadon, the editor of
HoraceX he betook himself in 1693, at the age of MTenteen,
to the career of arms, entering the wumtquefaim grit.
He was present at the siege of Namnr, and next year his
father died. He still continned in the army and was
present at the battle of Neerwinden. Bot it waa at this
Tery time that he choee to begin the cnuade of bis life by
inati^ting, if not bringing; an action on the part of the
peers of France against Lnzembonrg his victorious general,
on a point of precedence. He fought, however, another
campaign or two (not nnder Lmembonrg), and in 1S95
married Oabrielle ds Durfort, daughter of the ntarichal
de Lorges, under whom he latterly served. He seems to
have regarded her with a respect and affection not fery
Dsnal between hnsband and wife at tbe time ; and she
sometimce succeeded in modifying hia ariatoctatie crotcheta.
fiat as he did not revive the promotion he deaired he
Sang up his commiaaion in 1 703. Loni^ wbo waa alread;
becoming eensitivs on the point of military ill-atutee^ and
who was not likaly to approve Saint-Simon's litigionaness
on pcHnIs of privilege, took a dislike to him, and it was
onlj indinctly and by means of eatablishing interset with
the dokw of Bnrgnndy and Orleans that he was able to
keep aomctiung of a footing at court He waa, however,
intoMely inteMated in all tbe transactions of Versailles
and by dint of a most heterogeneoos collection of instra-
uenta, ranging from dokea to servants, he managed to
obtain the extraordinary secret information which he baa
handed down to ns about almost every event and ever; per-
sonage of the last twenty yeais of the "grand monatqne."
Hia own part appears to have been entirely aubordinatfc
Ha was appointed ambaasador to Borne in 1705, but the
appointment was caooelled before he started. At last he
attached himself to tin dnke of OrlesLS and, though this
w«a hardly likely to conciliate Louis's good will to him,
it gave bun at least (what waa of tiie Srat importance in
thkt intrigoing court) the status of belonging to a definite
]Mr^, and it eventually placed him in the position of tried
Mend to the acting chief of the state. He waa able, mor«-
mtr, to oombine attachment to the dnke of Burgundy with
that to the duks of Orleans. Both attachments were no
doubt all the more rincere because of hia undying hatred
to "the baatards," that ia to say, the ill^tiniBte sons of
Lonis XIV. It does not appear that this hatred was
founded on moral reasons or on any real fear that these
baataida would be intruded into the aueceadon. The trae
emoM of hia wiatii waa titat they had precedence of the peers.
The death at Lonia eeemed to give Saint-Simon a i^iance
of realizing hia hopes. The dnke of Orleans was at once
acknowiadged regent and Saint-Simon wai of the council
of ngpaej, bat no steps were taken to carry out his
bvonrite vimon of a France ruled by the nobles for its
good (it most always be nnderatood that Saint-Bunon's
Idtal waa in no leepeet an aristocntio tyranny except of
the badoent kind( and he bad little rtal influeuDe with
the regent. He waa indeed gmtUiad bf the degradation of
"the baatarda,* and in 17S1 he waa appointed ambaasador
to Spain to arrange for the marriage (not destined to take
place) d I/mia XV. and the iiSanta. Hia viut waa
Slendid; he received the gnndeeahip, and, though ha
10 can^t the smallpox, he was quite satisfied wiUi the
business. After his retnm he had little to do with pablio
a&iiB. His own acoonnt of the cessation of his innmaoy
with Orleans and Dubois, the latter of whom bad never
been his friend, is, like his own account of ai>me other
events of his life, obscure and rather suspidoos. But there
can be littie doubt that he was practically ousted by the
favourite. He survived for more than thirty years ; bnt
littie is known of his life. Els vrife died in 1713, hia
eldest son a little later ; he had other family trouble^ and
he waa loaded with debi When he died, at Paris on 3d
March 1766, he bad almost ntirely outlived hia own
generation (among whom he had been one of tlic youngeat)
and the prospurit; oi Ui hoose, though not ild notoriety,
'Diia last waa in atnnge fasbioi, revived by a distant nia'
tion bom five yean ^ter his own death, Claude Henri,
Comte de SaintSimon, the sal^ect of the preceding articia.
It win bsvo bwn obMrred that tbs wtul ennts of EUnt-flincD's
lUa, long M it wu ud lii^ sa waa hia pcaltlon, an aaithar tity
Dnmaretu nor vary notavorthj. If nothmg mon hid bsaa knowa
about him than waa kooini at tha tina ot hia daatb ha voald
ceittinlf not haVB deaarred mantion at langth hen. Salit-Sliwm
ia, haTtvar, as almoat uniqiu azampte of a man who hai acqnind
gnat Utatsty Tama sotinlf bj poathnmona pahlicatlaiia, Bt vsa
an indefadgabla writar. and not marel; Ih>m tha tlma hs lad tha
■rmy bat mncb asrller ha bcni to sat down in black and whita
ail tha gcaiip he coUectad, aH hia lutatninable laf^ diapDtea of
pnodBDO, and ■ vait maaa ot nndaaiBad sod aJnost nncUaaifl.
abls matter. Uoat of hia manuicripts cams into tha poaeaioB of
tha QoTammenl, and it iria long bafoia thair ecmtanls wan pub-
liahad in anything like lUntaa. Eitrscts and ababadi, howevsr,
Wkad out and parte ot tha mannacript war* sonntinMS bat to
privilagad paraona, ao tlut aoQM notion id th* iuiqs>nl»«(8alilt-
Kmon got abnad within twen^ n thir^ jeais of bis death.
Partly in tha form of oeti* on Daagean's Jmriat, partly is that of
original and indapanJsnt mamoin, partly in sesttuad and miltl-
f . — ^ ._» -"—liaitiona, be hadcommilta"
haa probablj narar baan ai
nathn
a prpfeaaiDnal JDumiUat.
Tbenew«dftionnowpnbllahing<.
IhingHn^ la eatimilni to conbiin thirty
noaidad by any
panlldwlllhdd
the Ktmetn with
.■* tbl*. U. Dnimoti H. Pangtrs,
Jspandant vorkera an bringiDg out aariaa of (Aiina InUila of a
leia goadplng and njon tachnical chanctar found in dUbrat la-
ceptaclaa of tha jmblic arthivaa. Bat the mne maa of thcaa pm-
dectloaa la their leaat notaworthv hatnn, or latha it Is nest
ramaikaUa aa mntraating with thair chancter and a^tat Tb»
Tolomlnana writii ia DaaaJly Ihonght ot ss lasst Ukalj to ba
chanctaiiied by an orit^nal sod apsrUing s^la. Saint-flimon.
though cUBleaa and aciDietiDiea arau angnmmatical, ranks smoDg
tha most atriking mamoir writers o( mnoe, tlu ccnnliy fidun
id laamoira of any in tbs world. Hia patUoa^ hia ahaolDta
iqjnitice to hia piivsta anamias and to tbcaa who aspoosad pabllii
partiea with which hs did not anas, Am btttwinaaa which allows
bin to giro bvoanbla nrtrslta oi hardly any obs, Ub oi
appatile fi>r ^cwipt liia lack of propoitian and panpectti
loat aight of in admiration of hia eitiaordinaiy ^nios Ibr hMoiiasI
nsmtiv* and chanotar-dnwiDg of a csttaia sort. He baa been
comparad to Tadtos, and for on» the compariaon, aa oRan mada
and geoanllf ao tudicrouelj oat ot place, Is jnat. la tha midat
ot Ilia enotmoas maaa of uriling phnaea acarcelj Uarlor to tha
Boman'a occur franDsotly, and ben and thara paaasgas of laataiaad
deanifitloa equal lor intanae eonoantratiDii of light and lltk to tboss
of Tacitoa or of any othsr hiatoriaa. Am miy M eipaotsd bma the
raat aitant ot hia work. It ia lo tin hi^iat dagna ODaqBaL Bat
1. ;. .. .1 ,j ,j^j jj^ I writarwho can ba "asmplM" asally.
Bonch as hia moat char
d'asaUy.
icnrbitba
midat of long atntchea of qoita onhitaroatiL^
haa bean ana ainoa hia rliacoTary mon pniaad than read, and
better liked by crilica than bj tbe niHral nadti. A few critical
atndiea ot him, capecIallT thoae of Sainte-Br it<>. ir« In (act tbs baala
of moch, If not moat, that has been writtsn [boot him. Tat no
ona la M UttJa to ba taken at aaeand-hand. Snn bis moat hmoua
paaaaga^ inch aa the accoout of tha death of the daophln or ot
tha bed oF jntlce where hia anamv tha dnka tl Usina waa dc|Fad«l,
willnotgiTiaUrldeaof Ustalaiit Tbaaa an his lallsr; piacei.
soo
S A I — S A I
„ — , — "nadk irt iIuMF adb flum. Uncbiion
Belawortb; ■• wall b non fraqiunt an th* Midd*n toactu* whkh
bagiTM. Th* bittupp* m "cntatni lioMa' ; U. da Cunurtin
" pert* aoM un iBMitM> tMta k btidU qna X. da YiUarn ttila
MI Mm tandiiar"; aoothm politlciaa halt "mjm d* cbatlkehf ";
• tidniia hit off at "comptant &ica" ("li* wonld itUl bsd^g,"
fluvgh Satot-ffimaa Mrtaiulj did not know that phiaae). In ihor^
th* mtiwit of tlw JfoMim Indapandaot or th* Urgt (dditiou of
poaWra faiovhdga which tbn makt^ b ana of cooituit inqiriaa
at ttaa noFal ud admit um ofirord aud |dinaa. It Ea not lapor-
Baana to Ldbm tha Kaglwli nadar that aoois of lUaalaj'* tuoat
biilliiBt portnlti ud ikatcbM al JBcldant an adapted and aome-
tbaat almoat litenlljr tnnalatad fram Saiot-SiiDoii.
pgaAk kr miaf yn hi nlu a Mmidrti i
Smnr.ht^SlMth^ l£* uula o&ir ttu tbtJfnHInliitaKcwUv
lafefkr UktarHt lad bmt Th VHttr ■■ktj ■■■lict»d br uv ma hut wirfMaad
MUnHtaD iBd blitetlal i&lnitL 1^ crllldnii <m bbl^moa Oun !•
■Hm n«r t^ (knua (Oiltnl ud Lomliid. laut Hi. U.1
8TTB0MAS, one of the Daniah Wert India Idtuida,
lies 36 milsB eut of Porto BIco (SpaniA) ftnd 10 north-
north-vaBt of St Croix (Daniih), with its principttl town
(Chulotte Amalie) in 18' 20' 27" K. Ut. snd 61* 65' 10"
W. long. It is 13 toiles long from east to west, witli t,a
average breadth of 3, and is estimated to have an area of
S3 square miles, llie hi^est point, West Honntain, is
1566 feet above the sea. Prsvions to tbs abolition of
slavery in 1 818 the island was covered with sugar planta-
tions and dotted with substantial mansions ; bnt now a
few vegetables, a little frail, and some guinea grass are all
that it produces. Onengroceries are imported from the
United States, poultry and eggs from the neighbotiring
itlan'1*. Nor is the exceptional position which 8c Thomas
has hitherto eitjoyed as a commercial depAt any longer
secure; the value of ^e imports in 1880 was leas than
one-hajf of what it iras in 18T0, and the merchants of
Tenesusla, Poito Rico, San Domingo^ Hajti, &a., who nsed
to purchase in St Thomas, now go direct to the maiketa
of the United State J and Europe. The Royal Mail Com-
pany, which at an early date chose the island as the princi-
pal rendeivona for its steam-pockets in that part of the
world, and whose example was followed by other important
lines, removed its headquarters to Bubados in 188C.
He harbour lies about tba middle of the south coast and
is nearly landlocked ; its d^th varies from 36 to 18 feet.
A floating dock, 2S0 feet in length, was completed in 1875 ;
there is in addition a steam-slip capable of taking up a
vessel of 1200 tons. Along the nordh «de of the harbour
lies Qtarlotte Amalie^ popularly known ak St Thomas, the
only town on the island. In 1880 the inhabitants of the
Island numbered 14,389 (males S7S7, females 8632), of
whom about a sixth are whiter of variotis nationatitieB ;
ths rest have nearly all more or less of Negro blood.
BngliiJi has gradually became almost the exclusive lan-
guage of the educated classes, and is used in the schools
and churches of all the various communities. The curious
Creole speech of the Negroes, which contained a mixture
of broken Dntcb, Danish, English, Jcc, though it was re-
duced to writing by the Moravian miesioaaries subsequent
to 1770, is r^Hdly dyiug out.' About a third of the popn-
latioa are R<»ian OathoUcs, and the reet mainly Protestants
of the Lutheran, Dutch Beformed, Horaviao, and English
Episcopal Churches. Tile Jewish community, GOO or 600
sfronfe 1ms a synagogue. There are in the town two
ahnA, Bariin, IHl.
>r & FontoppidSB, in Zbatr./.
bo^Ub, a pnbUo reading-room and library, a Govenunent
college (1877), a Roman Catholic college (St Tliomas), «
Uocavian acbool, and a small theatre. A quarantine lan-
letto is maintained on Lighlhouss or AInhlenfeldt Point.
The general health of the town is good. Ths climsta
varies little all the year round, the thermometer seldom
falling below 70* or rising above 00*. In the " hurricane "
months — August, September, and October — south winds,
accompanied by sultiy heat, rain, and thunder, are not uo-
coromon ; throughout the rest of the year the wind blow*
between east and north. Earthqoaked are not unfreqneut,
but they do little damage in compaii<on with cyclone^
which sometimss sweep over the island.
St Themaa wm diacoiend by Colau.biu Id IIBS, and at that
timn wai iuhabitnl bj tno tribo, Uu Ciribi and the Airanaka.
Id 1S57 it n* wlonizKl by Uia Dutch and aflor tkEir drnrten
fur X«w York It wa> hald \rj tUc Engluih io ]S«T. Ths Dauiih
IVait IdJIi and Guian Comnany took i>awa.«iaD in 1871,
•om* nipht VBui litir TcgaD thi intmlucltou of nlavc Ubgnr.
iccwdcd in 1S8S by Ihs ao-catlHl bni ~ ~
vn^lienvd' b? Fnincb refu^a
ale. In 17fit the king of Deiim
bnnilcnbnrdi Conipanv,
I PiitvL tEo colony was
1 St Chri..
. le neutrality of IkDtiiark led
a the prim of the variaui hplligBtcnti bcin); brouelit to iu port for
Btrality of Denmarl _ _
it in the war of USl ; and it 1«eanie tha ouly loarkot b tbs ^Veat
Isdits from wblcb th* prodndi of the mlonlea could be convejed
to the north of Eunipe. In 1801 tbs jilaad trai hild by the British
Ibr tan lODatbi, and it ku inin in tbeii noiaeMion bom ths latter
part of 1S07 to 18IG. At that time the harbour inu tht» or (out
tlmea a jear the Rndetvoiu for hoineiranl-baund Engliidi ihip^
fromSOOtolOOae the caaa might be, wliidi wailed tbem for thdr
convoys. Tka South Amariean War of ladepaDdcnce ledanamber
uf Spaniard! to aettle it 8t Tholnai. A great but tamnoraryBtimnlua
Tas given to iti eommeree dnring tba AfiioricMl ditU Var. In
1871 the Danish Oovarnmaut mnovad the head(|najlm of theix
Weat India pcaaeaaions from St Osii to St Thomaa.
ST THOUAS (Portuguese, Sdo Thome), a volcanic island
in the Golf of Guinea (West Africa), lies immediately
north of the equator and in 6* 10* £. long. From tha
Gaboon, the nearest point of the mainland, die distaaoe is
166 miles, and from the Cameroons 297. Tha extrems
length of the island is 32 miles and the breadth from weat
to east 21 ; the area is estimated at 355 square mile*.
From ths coast it rises pretty uniformly towards the lofty
and verdant mountains, in the midat of which ths peak of
St Thomas towers to a hsight of 6000 feet At least a
hundred streams great and small rush down the moimtain-
sides through deep-cut ravines, many of them forming
beautiful waterfalls, such as thoae of BIn-bIn, kc, on the
Agna Grande. Tlie bi-seasonal climate of the tropica ob.
tains a comparatively normal development on the island,
which, however, has a very evil repute of nnhealthiness,
probably owing to the fact that the chief town occupies a
peculiarly malarial site on tha coast. The first object of
European cultivation in St Thomas was sugar, and to this
the colony owed its prosperity in the 16th century; but
now it is quite displaced by coffee and cocoa, introduced
in the beginning of the 19th centuiy. In 1879^ the
export of coffee was 3,778,580 tb and of cocoa 1,026,716
n. Vanilla and cinchona bark both succeed wel^ the latter
between 1800 and 3300 feet of altitude. Though nearly
the whole surface of the island is fitted for cultivation, only
about a fifth part is really turned to account. Along with
Principe, St Thomas forms a Portuguese province, to which
are attached the little island of Kolas and the petty fort of
Ajuda on the Guinea coast.
The town of St ThoDias, the capital of tlu provjnoe, is £tDstad oa
the north-east coait of the iiland, and th* aeighbonring district*
fonn Cha only waU-uopIed ngion. In 1S78 tha population in ths
island was lg,!H, of wham 1200 were whit*. Tha grist bulk con-
stated of a mbtnn st ITaKroaa from variooa parte of the West
Coast, m^nlr inlndncad aa itaves, sad now all ndng a ITigio
fortsfntaa "lingBsiea. TkaaL' On tha aoath-wwt wast at*
I A I — S A I
301
„ , _„ ■ ibipliMd at AseoUaUTH
wnckwl tt BfU PBdlH is ISU, vho itill ntiin thtir Bnndk tpMoh
•nd pHolkr cOMtoniK
BtThoniM wu dlicdTvnd xhaai the eloH nt ItTO bf Um Fortn-
nHB nari^tnn Joto 4« Bu)tu«m ud Psra da Emibar, *bo in
u* litnaniDg of thg feUmriif jou- dinTand Annsbaa (" Good
Y«r"i. Tlw)r fennd " "" ~ . .
DUnd, UM
.bdd*ot
, te b* ti^tbid ■*!• Mst lo tlM
L ud tha imnt cMdtal «u loudid br Aln» da Cundnba.
ioanbt* prograM bid baaa mad* to tba IMb cmMaj ; bat io
tbt ntllennit **• attaiskcd bj tka rnaeh, mi fai 1574 tba
ABCDlma bens tboaa nidi wbieb onlj andad «itb tbair mbjaga-
tioa in lasa. In 1»» then wu a lUn larolt ; a>d flmin 1011 1«
1844 tba Datdi, wbo bid ploiihRd tba eipJM ia 1600^ bald poa-
nBinofUMuIud. Tba Prencb did gnat dm^i In 1709 ; and
in tba ooone of tba ooitiiiy uAonal aurcbj ndaoad St Tbomia
BAINT-VICTOR, Pahi di (1827-1883), one of tie
chief maiten of n vtrj omkta itjk in recent French liten-
tnre, ms born at FwU in 1837 and died there in 1883.
He ns of ooble hitHi and inherited the title of coanl, but
rudj used it, hia political principlie being demomttie.
Baint-TietOT began as a dnmadc critic on the Fajfi in
1851 utd Hnbaeqnentlj wrote in muijr jowiMla. In 1870,
daring the last days of the tecond empire, he wu nude
inipector- general of fioa »xU. Atmoat all Saint-'Victor'a
work conaiats ol reprinted Artidea, the beat known, and on
the whole the beet, being the collection entitled Homma
tt Dieux (1867). His death interrapted the publication
cf an elaborate work, partly reprinted, partly deaeloped
from fontterl; printed papers, entitled Xei Dtux Maiqw*,
in which the author intended to ■orrey the whole diamatic
UtefatoN of ancient and modem timea. Saint -Victor'a
actual critical faculty was oonsiderable, though rather one-
aided; but hii position in French literature is likely to
be, in an interior d^ree, something like that of Hr Raskin
m Engliili. He owed a good deal to ThAophile Qautier,
but he carried omatonea to a pitch far beyond Oantier'a,
~a pitch which may aometimes deaerva the epithet
ST TINCENT, an islaad in the W««t Indiea, discoTered
by Colainbus in U98, is (itaated in 13' lO* N. lat. aod
60' S7' W. long^ 100 milM to the wut of Barbados ; it
i» 18 miles in length, 11 in breadth, and ha* an area of
133 sqoBre miles. Tolcanio hills cioss the island from
ncETth to soatb, intersected by beantiful and fertile Talleys,
Id the north-west is the BoofMere, a Tolcanic mountain
(3000 feet), of which th^ last Tiolent eruption was in
1813 ; the crater is 3 milea in eireamference and SCO feet
in depth. The climate ia homid and tolarably healthy
(iTeiage rainfall nearly 80 inches). In 1637, when Charles
L granted St Vincent to the earl of Cariide, it waa peopled
by Cariba ; in 1672 it was giTen to Lord Willon^by, and
in 1722 was granted, along with other islands, to the
duke of Hontaga by Oeorgfl L After hoatilitiea with the
French and Canbs, it paaeed deflniCiTely to Oreat Britain
in 1783. Immigrants were afterwards introdnced and
plantations cnltirated ; the chief prodncta are sngar, ram,
mnltirmra. and arrowrooL The capital is Kingstown (popn-
lation, 5593), the total population of the island being
43,200, bclnding 2700 Europeans and 30,000 Africaoa.
Ibe island was formerly nnder the general goremment of
the Windward Islands, Barbadoa bung het^qnartera; bnt
m 1885 Barbados waa made a aeparate goveniment, and
Orenada, St Tineent, Tobago, and St Lucia ^nnp!
noder a gonrnoc. The le^^dve coondl erf St Vti
ia oompoaed of offidal membera and otlian nominalad by
the cnwn. In 1883 the rerenne and ezpeoditon wen
rvpMitirdT je34,609 and .£32,963, the debt being £2840.
"Ou tonnage entered and cleared TCs 172,989, the imporU
and exports being valued at £148,286 and £160,TC3 re-
apectirely (sogar exports, S2CK) tons).
ST VINCENT, Sa Johk Jbrtw, Eam. (173t-1823X t.
distinguished naval officer, waa bora at Meaford, Stafibrd-
sbire, on 9th January 1734. His father was connael and
aoUcitor to the admiralty aod treasnrer of Oreenwieh lua-
pitaL Young Jerris was dwtiaed for the law, but miiy
showed anch a ilrong predilection for the sea that he ran
away from achool in order to become a aailor. Accordingly
in 1748 he w%s placed on board the " Gloucester" under
Commodore Towniond, Six years later he rose to be lien-
tenant, and in 17S9 he distmgnished hinuell so much at
tha siege and capture of Qnobec that he waa promoted to
the rank of commander. In the following year he waa
made s poel^caplaio. He commanded the " Foudroyant "
in July 1778, when the memorable rtncaUrt took place be-
tween Admiral Keppel and Count d'Orrilliera, and bote a
very distinguished part in that action. In 1 782, while in
oomnuod of the same vessel, he captured the French ship
" P^gaae," of 74 guns and 700 men, off Breet Harbour, and
was rewarded for his exploit by beiog made Knight Com-
panion of the Bath. In 1784 he entered parliament aa
member for Launceaton, and he afterwards sat for Ysr-
mooth. Ooiyointly with Sir Charles Qrey, Jervia waa
appointed to command an expedition sent out in 1703
against the French Caribbee islands, and, though the rainy
season and the yellow fever prevented the full sticctss of
tha British, they were able to obtain poesenioD of Uar-
tlniqne and St Lucia, and to hold Qnadaloope for a short
time. In 1795 Jerris became full admiral and succeeded
Lord Wood in command of the British fleet in the Hedi-
tetranean, where he rendered imixirtant service in blockad-
ing the French fleet in ToqIdq, and protecting English trade
in the Levant. On I4th February 1797 he won his moat
celebrated victory. With only fifteen ships of the line,
seven frigates, and two sloops he encountered off Cape Bt
Tineent a Spejiish fleet of twenty-six sail of the line, twelve
frigates, and a brig, and completely defeated il^ capturing
four of the enemy's largest ships. For this great tnomph,
which had a most impottant effect on the prosecution of
tha war, Jervis was created a peer by the title of Earl
St Tineent. He atill further distingoished himself some
months later by bia resolute and sagaciona conduct in re-
pte^ng a mutiny in his fleet when off Cadiz. In June
1799 he resigned his command in consequence of ill-health,
but was shortly afterwards placed at the head of the
Channel fleet. On the formation of the Addington miniatry
in 1801 he was made Erst lord of the admiralty, and in
that important office, which he held fix three yean, the
great capacity for bosiness with which he was endowed by
nature shone fortii in all its Initre. By meana of tha cele-
brated eommisuon of naval inquiry he waa enabled to ex-
pose a vast extent of corruption in the public aerrice and to
lay the foundation of a system of economical administration.
He grappled boldly with the monstrous and deep-roobed
abuses brought to light, and by his vigour, honesty, and
energy succeeded in rectifying them. In 1806, at the age
of seventy-two^ Lord Bt Vincent was again called upon to
take the command of the Channel fleet and to head an
expedition to tha court of Portugal, in which he displayed
great talents and address. Advanced age and impaired
health led to bis final retirement from public life in 1807,
but ha snrvived till 13th Maich 1823, when he died in hia
ninetieth year!
a« Bnnton, L^i ef Barl S nuenU ; Loid Broai^iui, BUOn-
«■*■ ^ Ou Tina tf Ottr^t III.
8T VITDB'S DANCE,' or Chom*. a disorder of the
■"' TbH Mnm wa* orlgirallj fuplojrtd ta conoaiion with thoaa
imuriubla epMemlo ootbunli of comtitoad montil ind pbrilsil m-
dtemant which hir ■ Uma pnTsTlciI imoog Iha InblbHimti of aome
putarfOanouT In tha Middle Agia. It Ei ititad thst nihm ft«
ST VITUS'S DANO:
nemnia qvtam oocnning toe the mort part ia children,
and chancteiktd Boialy bj mTohnitaij jerking mOYe-
menta of the miudea tbro^gihotit ahnoat the enttra body.
It it to be i^jarded aa a ftmetional nerroiu diaoider of
wide extent, the nuutifeatadoiu of which appear not
BMTel; in diitarbauce affecting the motor apparatni bat
in Tarion* asaociated morbid phenomena of cerebral origin.
Among the prediipoeing cansea age ii important, chorea
being eiBBntmlly an ulment of duldhood and more par-
ticokrly of the period in which the second dentition is
taking place. The greatar muuber tA the caaea ocenr
between the agea of nine and twelve^ It is not often aaen
in very young children nor after puberty ; but there axe
many ezceptiona to thia rule. It U twice aa freqnent with
^la aa with boyi. Hereditary prediapoaitioa to nervoiu
trODblea ia apt to find eiprosuon in this malady in yonth,
mora eapecially if the general hcaJth becomea lowered. Of
exdting caosea Etiong emotions, ancfa aa fright, iU-nsags
or hardship of any kind, inaofflcient feediog, overwork or
anxiety, ara among the moat common ; while, ogiUQ, aome
diatant aonrce of JititAtion, anch aa teething or intestinal
worms, appean capable of gjving rise to an attack. It ia
an occaaumal bat rare complication of pregnancy. The
coonexioa of chorea with Theomatiam is now uaiTereally
recognized, and ia shown not merely by ita frequent occur-
rence before, after, or during the course of attacks of
rheumatic fever in young petsona, bat erea independeatly
of this fay the liability of the heart to suSer in a dmilar
way in the two diaeaaea.
The symptoms of Bt Vitua^ dance ara in aome inatoneea
developed aaddenlj a« the reenlt of fright, but much more
frequently they coma on inaidioualy. Thay are usaally
preceded by changaa in the temper and diapoeition, the
child becoming sad, iiritablc^ and emotionaJ, while at the
same time the general health is aomewhat impaired. The
firat thing indicative of the disease ia a certain awkward-
neaa (? fidgetiness of manner together with reatleeanesa,
the child being evidently unable to continue quiet, but
frequently moving the limbs into different poaitions. In
walking, too, slight dragging of one limb may be noticed.
The convulsive moscular movementa osaally first ahow
thenuelvea in one part, snch aa an arm or a Ug, and in
some instancea they may remain localized to that limited
extent, while in all cases thera ia a tendency for the dis-
ordarly symptoms to be mora marked on one side than on
the other. When folly developed the phenomena of the
disease are vei; chancteriatie. The child when standing
01 sitting is nerer still, but ia constantly changing the
position of the body or Umba in consequence of the suddeu
and incoordinate action of mnaclea or greupa of them.
The shoulder ia jerked up, the head and trimk twiated
wiui grimooeSi frowning and fwnih'ng imgnlarly,
symptoms are ^(grav^ad when pnipoaiva mo
are attempted or when the child ia watched. Speech is
aSectad both from the incoordinate movemeDts of the
tongue and from phonation sometimes taking place during
an act of insptiation. The taking of food becomes a
matter of difficolty, since much of it ia lost in the attempts
to convey it to the month, while swallowing is also inter-
fered with owing to the irregular action of the pharyngeal
muscles. When the tongue is protmded it comes oat in a
jerky manner and is immediately withdrawn, the jawa at
'"■ ■-— e oJosiog anddenly and aometimea with con-
DTcodiig than. Hw Id
coEildentlaa ma a rninlfW ifriit. but » slcady Im Sh ■
BOW 1»com> thst tka odglaal spplkiUoB ol tb» tna baa t
fathtlj olaonnd.
siderable force. In locomotion the nmscles o( the Umba
act ineoordinataly and thera ia a marked alteration of tha
gai^ which is now ti«.mng and now leaping and the child
may be tripped by one hmb being suddenly jerked in
front of the other. In short, whether at rest or in motion
the whole muHcmlar syatem is seen to be deranged in its
opetations, and the term " insanity of the muscles ' not
Inaptly expresses the condition, for they no longer act in
haiioony or with purpose, bat seem, aa Tronaaean ez-
preasea i^ each to have a will of its o\m and to be exercia-
mg this for dlfTarent objects at one time. The tnoscles of
organio life (involuntary muscles) appear scarcely, if at
all, affected in this disease, as, for example, the heart, the
rhythmic movements of which are not as a rule impsired.
Bat the heart may suffer in other ways, eepecially from
inflammatory conditions similar to thoM which attend
upon rhenmatism and which frequently lay the foundation
of pramanent heart-disease. In severe cases of Bt Titus's
dance the child comes to present a distressing appearance
from the constant reatUesneas and disorderly movement,
and the phjucal health declines. Usually, however, there
ia a remission of the symptoms during aleep. The mental
condition of the patient is more or less affected, aa shown in
emotional tendenciea, irritability, and a somewhat fatuous
egression and bearing, bat this change is in general of
transient character and ceases with convalescence.
This diEease occasionally asamnea a very acute and
aggravated form, in which the disorderly movementa are
ao violent as to render the patient liable to be iqjured and
to necessitate forcible control of the limba or the employ-
ment of BURsthetica to produce nnconsciooanesa, Sud
cases are of vary grave character, if, aa la commcHi, they
are accompanied with elcepleasnesa, and they may prove
rapidly fatal by exhaustion. In the great mcgori^ of
easea of 8t Titos's dance,' however, complete recovery is to
be anticipated aoonei or later, the symptoms oiual^ con-
tinning for from ons to two monthly or even atHnetimea
mnch longer.
The natnre of this diaeaae has given rise to much dis-
cussion and there still remaina conaidetable difference gf
opinion aa to ita bue pathology. The fact that the vast
majority of coses recover woi^ seem to show that tlLsra
conld have been no profound change in tha stmctural
integrity of the nerve-centres, while in those inT*^iifi
where a fatal result takes place pajf-morfem eiaminatian
reveals no constant morbid condition. A theoty aiqiported
by high BUthorit; has referred the cause of tha malady t*
the plugging up of minute blood-vessels in the motor
centres of the bnun (a condition not unlikely to occur in
rheumatic inflammation affecting the lining membrane id
the heart), and such a change hoa been seen in a few
instances. In a still larger number, however, no appaar-
ancea of this kind have been observed, but simply vascular
changes of a congestive character widely diOnsed throng
out the central nervous system, accompanied with evidences
of slight inflammatory action. Dr Dickinson, whose views,
founded upon carefully conducted investigations, are those
most widely accepted, concludes as follovrs : " We see in
chorea a widely distributed hyperemia \i.«., congestion] of
the nervous centre^ not due to any mechanical mischance^
but produced mainly by canses of two kinds, — one a
morbid, probably a hntnoral iuQuence, which may affect
the nervona centres aa it ofllecta other organa and tissues ;
the other, irritation in some mode usually mental hut aome-
timea what is called reflex, which especially belongs to and
disturbs the nervona system, and aSecta petsons differently,
according to the inherent mobility of their nature."
For the treatment of St Titus's danca the remediea [mo-
posed have been innumerable, but it ii doabtfol whether
any of thnn have mnch ccmtrol over the diseasi^ wMdi
S A I — S A L
203
mdcr niitabla hntieiiia mnditioiw tantU to tcooTer of
itnlf. Hun oHiditioiu, howaTsr, an Kll-important, and
smbnce ths pwv faading of tho child wiut Datritioiu
li^t dial, tba UMDoa ot ail woazetu of excdtmiwit utd
aoDOjaaee, raeh m bring lan^ied at or nocked bj other
ehildrau, and the mtifieUioa of aajr tMuaa of iniboion
■od of iTTegnUritiM in the genml be*lth. For » time,
and eqwcddij if the iTinpkian en nren^ ecoflnement to
the home <» otmi to bed m«]r be necMHiy, bat •■ looii m
poaiible the child dionld be taken out into the <^Ma kir
md gently ezweiMd br mJkiiig. Of Mediriial iwnediei
(be moat eervieeable ^p«u to be rino, enani^ and itim,
especially the bet tvo^ wfakh act aa tonus to Uie afatein
aiid in^QTe the condition of the blood. They ahoold be
amtinned daring the whde eoorie of tbe diaeMe end con-
Tsleacence, if the; do not diMgree. Aa aedativea in eaaee
of ilM^letanMi, bromide of potasBOm end ohlonl are of
me. MmnT other agenta, sack aa eoninm, belladonna,
■ \ti»
atijclinia, Um Mita of eilTsr, &c^ baTs been n
e diiiaaB mncb benefit will
be obtained by • change of air •• well m by the employ-
ment of modente gjrmoeatic eurdaeB. Bearing in mind
the weakened condition of the mmelee aa the reeult of the
r and that other nerroiu dieordera
■till mora eeriooa may be developed from it
Id the rare ioatancea of tba acete form of thia malady,
xhore tbe coDTnkiTe movementa are nnogaiing and riolent,
ii» only meaaoieB available are tbe u*e of chloral or
cklarofoim inhalation to produce inaenaibility and mnacnlor
laluatioo, but the eflbet u only paUialive and doea not
iinrent (ho fatal remit which in nw«t inch caaea quickly
Mperrenen- (i. o. A.)
SI UBES. BeeSmrBU.
SAIS. See Eotn, toL vii p. 768.
SAlAOm. Bee Sam, toL viL pp. 7S3-TH.
SMAMANCA, a prarinee of Spain, which nntil IS33
Formed part of that of Leon, ia bonnded on tbe N. by
Amora and Talladolid, on the E, by Avila, on tbe a by
Ciaerm, and on the W. by pMiogaL It lua an area of
1910 aqnare milea. Hie popniatioa in I8T7 waa asO.ItOO;
bat by the y«ai; ISSeit waae«(imat«d(hat it haddecrouod
ta about 270,000. Salamanca bekinp almoet eD(irely to
tbe badn of the Doorot i(e principal rivere being the
Torma^ which followe the general uope of the province
towarda the nortb-weet, and after a cooree of 1 36 milea
Sow* bto the Dooio, which forma part of the north-weet
bonndary ; the Teltea and the Agoeda, alao tributariea of
the Donro ; and the Alagon, an affluent of the Tagna. The
Dortham part of the province ia fiat, and at ita lowent
point (on tbe Uount) ia 488 feet above aca level The
hi^Mat point (in the Sierra de Pella de Francia) ia 5692
feat above the aea. ^e raiofall ia irregnkr ; Int where
it ia pleatifnl the toil is productive and thoe are good
harreatii of wine, oil, hemp, and cereala of all kinda. Tba
cOTnharveat iaalwaya good, rain or no lain, IlMprindpal
wealth of the raovince oonaiata in die foterta of eak and
i^eatuat. which cover the hilla in ita aonthem parL Sheep
and cattle olao find good paatnroge then; and wool and
nwrino of "tilinTn qnality are grown. Ckdd ia foond in
tha itnain^ and iroa, lead, copper, bdo, eoal, and rock
oyilal in the ltill% bat owing to the difflcoHieB of trana-
port and other canaaa the mioaa are cndy partially de-
veloped. Hie mannfaotnrea of the provioM are fmr and
moatly of a low claaH, intended for home couauniption,
sQcfa oa frie^ coana cbth, hata, and pottery. The cloth
manofactoriae of B^jar tun out a niatarial of aaperior
qnali^. Tba tanning of hidee ia carried on pretty ezten-
■ivriy, and cork and floor are exported wia Santauder and
Barcelona. The province in traveraed by a railw^ line to
FWto^ paaaing Medina del Campo and Qudad Rodngo to
l^igoeira da Fox. AdmiDistiatively tbe province ia divided
into eight partidoa jndicialeu, and it boa 3e8 aynntamient4N;
of tbeae lut only (no be~idai Salamanca, the capital, have
a popolatbn aiceedlng 5O0O,— B^ci (11,099) and Ciudad
Rodngo <6856). It ii repreoented in the oortea by three
aeoaton and aareo deputiex. Apart from that of Leon
the province ha little hiatory til! tbe Peninaolar War,
when the battlea of L'iiulad Itodrigo, Fuentea da ODoro^
and Salamanca war« fou^t on iU aoiL
SALAMAKCA (Salatantini, Slmaniiai), the capital of
the above oroviuce, liea on the banka of (he Tormea, 173
milta uorth-waat of Madrid by rail. The river ia hws
croeaed by a bridge 600 feet in length built on twanty-aix
archer fifteen of which are of Roman origin, while the
remainder date from tbe 16th century. The town waa <4
importance in timea aa remote as 332 1.0., when it waa
captured by Hannibal from the Vcttonea; and it aftet^
warda becune nnder the Iloniana the ninth station on the
Via Lata from Merida to Zamgon. It {waaed vncceadive^
under the mla of tba Qotha and the Mooni, till the latter
were finally driven out about tOSO. The city u atill much
fhe eame in outward aiipcarance aa when ib tortooua
atreeta were thronged witb ittudentii, The nniveraity waa
natoially the chief aource of wealth to the town, the popu-
la(ion (i which in (he 16th centnry numbered S0,000.
Ita decay of -oonrae i«aeted on the townafolk, bnt it
fortnnately also arreated the iirooaaa of modeniiaatlon, aa
that the city retaina moat of its old faaturea and ia now
one of the moat pictureaqua in Spain. The ravagea ot
war ahme have wrought aariona damaga^ for (lie French
in their defenaive opeiatioua at the niegs almoet deatn^ed
the western quarter. Tbe mina still remain, and give an
ajr of daaolatloo which ia not borne out by the reaTcondi-
tion of the inhabitant-s however poverty-atrickoi thcjmay
appear. Tie magnificent Plan Uayor, built by Andrea
Qarcia de Qoibwiea at tbe begiiming of tbe 18th centnnr,
and capable of holding 20,000 people to witnea a boU-
fi^t, ia one of (he finset eqoorea in Europe. It ia aor-
rounded by an arcade of ninety archea on Corinthian
calamus, one aide of tbe aquare being occupied by IIm
mumcipal building Tbe decorationa of the fafadea an
in tbe Renalsaance atyle, and the plan aa a whole ia a
fine aample of platareiique architecture. But the old and
new catbediala (aee below) n tba chief olgjecte of interwt
in (ho ci^.
In the Middle Agee the trade of Salamanca waa not
inaignifleant, and the atamped leatber-work prodnced there
is atill Bou(^t after. Ita manufactures are now <rf little
eonaequence, and conaiat ol china, cloth, and leather. The
transport trade of the town ia, howavor, of mora import-
aiKe, and abowa aigna ot increasing. But any grcMI revival
can only take plai^ when oommnnicatioa with the coast ia
eooaiderably improved, a reault which irill no doubt be
promoted by the recent opening of the line to the ocoat of
PortogaL The population within the mnnicipol bonndatiea
in 1877 was 18,007, and in 1886 was estimated at aboot
2o,ooa
The old catfaedial fa a cnoifocm bqQdiw ef the Uth cnlmy,
bwm byBlabop Gwtelmo, th* MoltaMir «( tka Od. Ili tjU ot.
aKhltntan ii that Lata BomiMaqDa whhi prevailad in the eooth
of rruice, but tb« bnOdM ahowod mndi origbalin In tba eoDitiae-
ttoD of tba doma, which Mvan the cra^J^ of tba nav* and traa-
■apla. Hia isDar diniH ia mads to qiriuA not (han hnimdlatalT
nan the snthia, but faam ■ Uf^ur atagi of a doaUa areata jiweaa
S04
.S A L — S A L
vlthwlDdowi. niOnitgf tbamaltiDgblwnwbrriiuDUMin
j(n~l«iS •nd om tl>* i"'" d«B* )• *° ™f poinM eue coravd
with tllM. Tbt whoU bnot ■ neat (Ibctin ud gncsM gioiip.
60 tlu nnlt of th* al
• T«*du, wUi^ hu ths
flWu <^ (om of tlia fm emtdu fiflr-trs pud* iriUi jitfot-
Ing. moMlr b]r dw «BH ■rUrt. IWauB mtaj tia BtvaaDtott
loH moMlT b]r dw Mm irtirt. IWauBnuoTl
InthsMiaUi tnsMpt udclirfittfclunl*. Anadj< „ „
th« Oipflla da 1U»««, ii nisd •■ a ehinl for ntrica ■cecnling b>
bnfltfiomda^mibjJauffildaOntiSoii. Begun in IGIS nnclar
BUup nuunw de BobulilU, but not fliddied until I7St, It ii >
DOtiUa ouipl* «f tlia lata Qothio oA PbtnaHoa i^hi. It*
Wth b »40 fMt ud Iti bnidtli ICO IML Tb* interior it Urif
OoWo in ehuiatw, bnt on tb* ostrida tba BntilMUie* niilt dun
itiiltnwndaul7,aidiaftillrdair«kf*dliitliadom«. Smywban
flu Bttampt at man nordlr or riehuMi loalti in feeUeDgM. Tha
ndn aich tf th« gnat podil ocoditi of a dmplg tnfoll, bnt tbs
labal aboTC takea an ogoa Um, and the inim irehta ara alUpticaL
Abora tbo doon an ba*-nli«&t foUl^ fed., which in Kubaiuca of
dadgn and qaaUtf of mrkmaiuhip an good oxampha of tin latMt
aftrtaofSpuddiOoaito. Tbit ohnidt cantalna patetinga ly Warar-
aBacam, and UtoJt^ and aoma ovonttd ataltua bj Jum de
Tha traanuj isTtry lich, and amonort othoi aitlolM tma-
nnn a ooatodi* which li a iDMtar^aca of g^damith'i woifc, and a
bmna* eredA^ of undanbtad anthanUd^, whkh via bono bafen
OaOdinbatUK Tba toww ia too uwA to allow of tha tlng-
iiwcf ttignat bal^ whiob walghaorai tS toiw. Thaintanatof
nJ.»mm-« santnd In it* nnlTam^, fimndad ^ AUntao IZ. about
ISaO and Ibr tua oantuiaa ana of tba aliia aaato of Bnnpaan
lianinfr Of Am nnirani^ boildlBn ^ bead* of tha IDnan
(80,000 volanM^ aidn^Ta of HBB.) la ■ pasnUadr ikL anmpb
of lata IStii-omtBty OotUo. Tha dabtet an IMtt and al^t ;
fdbwa and Bgnna. T^ Camib da NoUaa Irlandna*, fonnoilT
Ool^ de eanfiUgo Apoatol, waa bolU in IGU bom dodgn* br
tbana. Tha doobl* wcadod dditar fa a Una Dteoa of wod of the
bHtpariodofauRanaiaaanoe. Tha Jaavlt Oollmiaanl
-'—^■-—- — nabnOdinghap
TMo. alaaiialli. __,
aa tba nracDor'a mlaca. Ttti
caBod San Salaban, abowi ■
oTldp,al
inlbalBth
mlztiDa id B^laa bum
Oothlowitha pkttnaoaa baada of sraat Hgtihiaw and d^icac*.
It 1* tf panr dadgn dian tlut of tba ealbadral ; narmthalea It
dKnn tSa taodanar of du pailod. Tha randoi, ana of tha flnaat
Bardaaanf* woifcain Spain, oontaint itatwa ij SalTador Canaona,
'-' a ouioBa hconaa itataatte at tb* Virgin and Child on a thnua
nod aampicB o
Baeolelu, began
ot latai woA.
IT Foutana in UIO, ia in
building In th* dtf. 1
fisast BXampk of it* pertod in fipain ; the Cwa da t* 8ai
magniScant cotu-Qpard and aonlpRiTBd gallatj ; and tha j
UalaoDado. Uoutonj, and Eapmoaa. (H.
of tha AwaaHDat
„ . _..,. lU dumb b lich in
aontalna nranl So* pietnnatf tha KeapoUtui
. ., ._• OoDC*ition bjrBIboa orar th* Utar. The
aotiTaataitbaSauU8[lrtt(ib«a*noddora'brB«nnniata. Then
b alao a nttar alfectin portal to ua eon*ant of Laa DoaKaa. Tlw
dkmoh ot & ItaiMB b a omloiia drenlar building with thne (astern
qaaa ) and tha dimralMa of 8. Kaitln and B. Uatteo lute good
aaclr doorwaja; Hanr of Iba prirate houaaa ara untoachad ai-
amuaa of tna domeaHa anUtactnr* ot the pnapaiona Onioa in
«Ueh thar wan Imllt. Swih an tb* Can da laa Conehaa, tha
" " la Sal, with a
tlia palaoe* of
(a B. B.)
SALAUANBRA. In the nomancktara m (oologj this
nune dooigufttea k genu of animftb belongiiig to tlie vert*-
btato olaM JowAtiM. The geona «» flnt de&ied under
tbia nune hj lAtuoitL' It will }» sun on refening to
the tazonnma aTiiopsi* at tbe dan given at the end of
tha •rtkle Akfhibu thnt the gauiM Salamamb^ belongs
to the flnt tnbe UteodoKta dl Um fifth divinon SalamaM'
drida. Tb.*' diagncm of the oenna ia u followi ; — no
bant»«ianma«d ardt in thaikdl: tongue large, adherent
hdow, fi«e &t the dd«a and sli^itiT m behind ; tou five ;
tail ejrlindricaL Tbere are three qtedaa,. diatingniahed aa
follow* i—(l) S. maeutoia, I^nrenti, tail not so long m
mt of body, colooi black with jeUow spota ; (3) 3. atra,
Lanranli, bul not ao long as reet of bodj, colour nnif orm
blaok; (3) £1 eaucaiiea, Waga, tail longer than rest of
a, ko, TtaBB, 17«&
body. In all tha qteeiBa the bodj ia plump and ronnded,
and there ia no doraal crest or fin ; the hud U depreaaed,
its greateat width being at tha angle of the jawa ; the' anoat
is Toniuled. Die Tent ia a longitudinal slit, the baden
of which in the male aie slightly swollen. The akin ia
smooth and "l''"'"g ; at the jnnctioii of the head and neck
ia a pionoonoed told of akdn called the gnlar fold. Th«
Bwollen patdiaa of akin behind the tympana, caused bj
tbe pteaaooe of laigs cntaneona ^aiida, and known aa
paiotids, are well dBTekqied and uhitnt the opening ot
the glands aa diatinct porea. Similar gland^peaiDgafmn
a seriea aki^ either dde of the body. In ths fint two
mdem there is also a kmgitndiiud serie* of warta on eadi
aide ; thratt are wanting in S. atucatica. DepreationB of
the ddn between tbe vertebne are present, and are known
aa coatal grooves. The palatine teeth-series ore &4haped,
and the anterior ends of the two seriea do not meet.* 3,
wtaadcM b the largest of the three ^eciea, attaining tt
length of T to 8^ inehea. S. gtra ia abont 4} and S.
eautcaiiea abont 6 inchea in length.
His genus ia Gon£nbd to the western aub-tegion of tha
pabearctia repoo, extending over almoat the whole of
Europe, eapeoally ths eenbal and aonthsm parts, and
occmring aiao in Algiera and Syria. The spotted speoiea
ta the coonooeat and moat widely distributed, being found
in nearly all parta of Germany, Fmnce, Italy, and Spain.
"Rie genua ia antirely abaent from the Britiah Jalauda.
The black salamander, S. atra, is confined to the Al|>a erf
Central Europe, and there only occurs between the limita
of 2C00 to 10,000 feet of altitude; it ia found in tha
mountains of Sooth Qermany, Fiance^ Swituiland, and
Austria. S. ixtucatica ia only known from one apedineD,
which waa obtained from the Caucaaos and was sent to
tha Paria UuBSum by Dr Wa^*
Tha food of Salamandra conairta of worms and insecta,
and, like Britdah ings and toada, the animala can only
exist in damp shady localities. Aa in all SaianoMdrida,
the process of rqvoduction b commenced by a true oopU'
lation, which t^tea pUoe in spring and summer. "Rm
BoniDal fluid is paaaed into the female cloaca, where it ia
receiTed into a tube-dtaped receptacnltnn aenuiua. The
tggt are thua fertiliaed in the oviduct, bnt the development
takea place under aomewhat different conditiona in the two
oua; fn t^ former thirty to tatty egga undergo develop-
ment in the oriducta at one time, and tiiey are brought
forth and depoMted in stagnant or sloggiahly-fl owing water
when they have reached a itage similar to that of adult
Parmmbnatduala, the newly-born larvs having long
featherlike eztenud gilla and a length trf 13 to 15 mm.
(one-third to one-half an inch). After a period ot aquatio
litc^ tha lama paaa through a metamorphoaia ; the limbs
appear ; the (pll alila doae up ; and the young animab,
having reached the adult condition, leave the water for a
terrestrial life. In S. atra only the two lowest egga which
paaa into the oviduota, one in tha duct of each aidt^ under-
go development The rest of the eggs foae into a man of
yolk material and are devonted fay the two developing
lame. In this way the laim are provided with nutriment
during the later stages of development, for in tbia apeciea
they are retained within the body of tha mother until
they have reached the air-breathingcoodition and are in
all respeda nmilar to the parents. 'Raa peculiarity in the
proceas of reproduction beara an obvious relation to the
phyaical conditiona of tha babiUf of 8. afro. In the
elevated regiona tbat.4ie apeciea inhabite atagnant and
■ for a t^an of K auwdna, aee Latrdll^ BiM. XoLdiaaLiU
Awua, Palla, 1800, Id. L ; THniin, SiM. Jf A d. Bntilm, fL BuO. t,
L For X ^n, an Laor., «.»(., pL L C 1.
■ Baa V^a, An Mtg. MtL, IITS, p. BM,
8 A L — S A L
SOS
■higguh nUan ar* wantLo^ aad tlumt(»e the proe«M ct
reprodnctiim tlut ocean in S. mcKilota b tsuwmI in-
pOMiblD. Hie bUck Salaauntdra hai bccooM •dqttod to
)ta enriionmaat (1) b; the slight chuigH in taknt uad
rtrnetnra whicH diitiiigaiah it {nini the qnttad, and (S) In
» TOoiiietSioa in ita f«irodnctire proceae^ which etimi-
nttea the aqnatio tUgb o! exiitenee trom the life-hiitorj of
the indiridoal. It i« to be noted that the ita^ chaiaeter-
usd bj the pretence of pinnkte aztcrnal iplla i* exhibited
by the larvA dorinc ita develepment in the ai?idect, and
the giUa doDbdsM Aete perfonn their fnnolioD. VWbilein
laanchiate comlitiaii, and placing then in water to aee if
thcT would mrriTe anid paw thrmigh their metaiiMtplwda
nnder thaao drcnmrtantee. Ou co« oocaaioa the axpari-
ment wu perfeetlj laocaBtnl in the eaM of one specimen ;
the reit of the Imtb died.
<iv. bn-i >ai..uwa of Swm hiTC Atm the tw; ouUHt tinu*
__ ^ , iMn •Inuiiit DntmMlly kuora in popnlu
■■ Klunudan, ud IdmtlflBil in tha popolir miad with
'b gf mrtta and bUb' ShUm dw ipaefM of Sila-
tn, MOOnUu to BodIuh <»« JAui OU., im\
m qMdM of Vndila in EDnpt, of which toortwB
Muu TUMX (}■■■)■ CMiy&HB hr»aamttt, Boe^g,
^ 3 by baring > tm^w npportcd antaiiarlj dj »pni-
bmctilt madian psdlula uid tMt aTaiTWMra alw, ud bj lining iti
lail^liBditealaitbobaMbati
Spdaand PartaaL
iiltdT: UktOKiv' ^ --
isahad Of th* foUaviag duncUn : — longaa Iirgs, ralitriangnlar,
tnx erwjwbsn oxeapt on aitarior nwdiui Una i toea fbor | tall
illghllr compnaad i a ttnina boor tronto-aqiamnaal areh. li^^trjHi
/aiEvii Strancb, ocBina In Itjy and in rnnoa in th* AIpM Uaiitiani
fUT.AMlH, in modem times called bj the people
SoAnipt (n ling^haped eakeX and bjr pnriita ^a^ofUt, it
u idwd in ^ Saronio Gulf, off the coait c^ Attka,
GnecA It ia eaid to have been called in ancient timet bj
odiet name^ — Seiiaa, which aMOciate* it with the wonhip
of Athenn Sdnw ; Cychrei*i which conaeet* it with the
"""iTtTBT* coltni and the Bcred eeipaut (Kv^fpilStp S^t)
of Dameter; and H^nna. There waa a imall ibvam,
BcManu or Bocalia, in the iaiand. Hie dty, which bore
ihe maa» name ai the iaUnd, wae oTiginallT aitnated on
the amtb eoaat (^poaite ^-g"*! bnt wu af terwvde tiane-
faned to a prataoat^j on the eaat aide dmibt Athena.
The tranaferance ooR«Q>onda to a total change in the
■ Ariitatk {H. A, r. II) dUa tbs lalaiBaiidar, wbkh ■■ wbcs H vaUu
mtt^ In ottogalAB it," aa a pnot that aoaM animal Asms ara
inaiwhdamila, and Alan (JTaf^a., IL ») win hat* It Ihtf Ihoaa
«hii laafe with taiaa aia AwdUar with thb laal and ifImi tkdr brilm
Oil to loiakw tha SaoM kaow la look for a ialuandH and pet tUan
li^^kmij^lt AoooidiagbithlalbniiafthabUathaailuiander,
•> AUaB aapnalr aja, ianot bon af tia, nor doaa It Itta thwaln.
Ob Ob oooIibt, aowdlnf ta FUnj (A jr., i. tj if., nb. 1} It la of
, aomnllnf ta FUbt (i
« and aoU* a oold ni
h of Ha aalli* ma on th* foot, aa^i
PHDT.aBMthababloUloat. Bo DioaaorlteipaakaofalaaiBidar
praparad la oQ aa adapOatorf i omp. Paboalu, b 107, and Banaaa'a
notai, and fiiT laM aantnla tn Iwopa of Iba bilW ta a dadlT Umd,
nat tha nlaaandw aitlngDlAaa li* appaan alao la tha PsraiOLMiii
(f.*.), and ao haeana a onmaa part of sadhnal mlmal Ion ; but
tba Aiahla ntfridfrn (lend, Ame. Bfr., K. ISO) apaaka iaataad of
a rtoH that qerik In. lUa atona la aabaatoa^ th* aalaoandw of
Mam FnU «. Silt Tola), of irin** thn* a tort of inaoabaatflila doth
n* wi^ wUi* «** riiiiiiiHd In tha Evt aa mada rf tha hair of
"" '' 'w attS Uaphmafi; tat tha Ai^ba mind np tha mU-
Iha nUla of flat alaoHatb Salan
w aahwtoa ooaan In Baaoa and oi
political rela&ma of Salaaia. ItwaaorigiDallrooniucled,
not with Attica, bat with ^gina and with Megaia, the
ooo^MtitocB of Athena in the atinggle for anprenuic; in
tha Saronie Onii The most prominent heroes of the
ialand, Telamon, Ajaz, and Teacer, were .£acidn from
JB^^ji^ _ Bat about tha end of tha 7tii canturr B.0, the
war between Athena and Hegaia for the potMaaion of
Salami* waa, nnder the gaidnnce of Solon, determined in
faTODE of Athene A line of the Iliad (ii. 668) ia aaid to
hare been interpolated by' the Athenians in aapport of
their elain to the ialsnd, while the Mt^arian rertioa of
tha pUNge wM qnito difFerenL Tha priertcea of Athena
Poliaa mif^ not eat AtUa cheese, but it waa lawful for
her to eat foreign or Balaminian cheese. ^'""'■. having
c«D« iO late into the handa of the Athenians, retained,
like Beosis, more local independence than the otiier demes.
nia island remained subject to Athena in later hiatMy,
exo^t during the period 31S to 333 B.a., iriien it was
abandoned to (he Maoedoniaii rule. The name of Salamis
isfamonsdueflyon acooont of the great sea-fight, i80i.a,
in which tha allied Qreefcs defeated the Peruana onder
Zsfxe*. The battle took place beside the town of Salamia
and the island of Pajttaleia, at the aouth-eastem end of
the straits.
A ci^ on the east coast of Cypnia, near the river
Psdisns, said to have been founded by the H^lnmitiiaii
Tencer, eon of Telamon, was alao called Salamia.
BAL AUUONIAO. See AiixoiiiAt^ toL L p. 741.
BALDANSA, JoXo CABLoa Baiaahba di OurxmA i
Dauw (1791-1876). See Poxtuoil, toL lii. pp. E53-&64.
HAT-P^ an urban sanitary district of Cheshire, England,
■on the Bridgewater Canal and the Meraey, about 6 milea
sonth of Uancheater. At Uie begbming of the 19th cen-
tury tha greater part of the township was still waste and
nnencloeod. It owes ita increase in population to Uie
neighbourhood of Manchester and contains a number of
handsome villas belonging to the wealthier classes. He
Moonland pleasure-grounds in the neighbourhood eorer
lOJ acne. Here are national aad Bri^ schools and a
litetary institute. Market gardening is extensively carried
CO. The population of the ocban saaitar; district (area,
2006 aciee) in 1871 was &C73, and in 1881 it was 7916.
SALE is one of the forms of ConrRAOt {q.t.). The
law of contract is accordingly applicable as a whole to the
law of sale. But the importance of the contract of aale
demands a fuller treatment. The law of the United
Kingilnm txA of the United States is baaed i^Nm the
Boman law in ita later stagey s* modified by the pnetota
and by legtBlation. But there are some oonaideiable dif-
ferences. In Boman law aale originally meant nothing
mwe than barter ; but tits iotrodoction of cmned mcawy
0(>ttV(nted the contribution of one of the ct ' ' '
a), as distinguished from article of sale
(■sstjf) oontrfboted by the otter (see Boiun Iiaw, toL
TX. v^ 700-701). Sale fell imder the head of eonsenaoal
cou.mcts, Kc, those in which the e
mwle the asntnct enforciblB i
tnete of thia class (ezo^t noM
noted valuable consideration. The law in the o
movables and immovablea was aa far as mi^t be the
same. The price must be definite^ Bednetioa <d tha
terms to writing waa optional; if a writing was aaed,
eilhar par^ was at liberty to withdraw before the com-
pletion of the writing. If earnest or deposit (artia)—
often a ring, sometimea a part of the yn» — waa given, it
waa by the l^ialation of Jnatinian made the msatnre ol
forfeit on reaeimion, the buyer losing iriiat he bd givon
as orrAo, the asQer restoring doable ils value. 33ie seller
did not wamnt title ; his contract was not reaa dart, to
gin the thing; bnt p ' . • •■
206
SALE
gnanntM tlie bofw poweiwion ; tbe truufw ira« of oocwa
pommio, not of property. The buyer was aecuTed by &
comtut dupiti Hipidalio Bgaimt eriction by ft tnperior
title, limited to doable the price where thsre wm no fnod
by the seller, ^ere wu ft frananty of qiuli^ by the
■eller. He -ma boond to eaSet readasion oi to give com-
peiiMitioii at the option of the buyer if the thing sold had
nndBcIoaed faalta which hindered the free poneauoa of it.
~ a to which he was liable differed aooording
he waa gulty of bwl faith (iMw) or not If goUty he
waa lialue for all couaaqnential damage, if innonwit only
for th* dimimitioa in the tbIiw of the thkg aokl by reMon
of ila nnaonndnaia. Thna, if a aeller knowin' " ~
infeoted iheep and tiie whde fiock sanght the
died, be wmhl be liable for tlie nloa of the flock; if he
^na ignonvt of the defaet, he would be liable only tot the
diffoience in Tftlne between a Mond and an miammd abe^
Mere OTerpnuae did not amount to dolta ; nor ^e made-
qnacy of price b itaelf a ground rf leaciarion. When the
agreement wm complete it wai the dnty d Uio «ellor to
delirer the thing edd {nm tradere). In OMe of ft nle on
credit, the delivery moat be made at the fane ftppomted.
Prior lo delivery the s^Iot moat take doe care of the thing
sold, the care which a teaeonably prudent hooaehalder
{boMu paterfianiliat) was expected to ezerdae. DetJTwy
did not pan property in the full aenae of tiiB wn^ bnt
rallior vaeaa pomtno secored hj dapUe dipulalio. Kak
of lo«B (prrievltayi ni wndtta) after agreement bat before
delivery fell npon the boyw. On the other hand, he waa
entitled to any advantaga aacmiag to the thing tcdd be-
tween tboae dfttee. It waa the duty of aome <hm to pay
the price ; the obUg^on waa diidiaiged if payment were
made by Uie debtor or hj any other person, irikatber
anthcriied or not by the debtor, and even against his will
The dntiea of Imyec and aeller might be nried by agree-
ment, the only rsetriction b^i^ that the seller eoidd not
by any agreement be relieved from liability for dolut.
Sale in F"e'''>'' lav maybe defined to be "a transfer of
the absolute or general property in a thing for a price in
uaDay''(Baqamin,0»&i^p. 1). The words "absolnte
or general" are inanted bet^use there may be both a
general and a special property in certtun cases, and a
tianafer of tlie special properly wmld not be a sale. The
ftbore definition, diotigh applied in tin wwk dted only to
Hdea of personalty, seems to be tally qiplioable to nles of
any Una ot proper^. The mles as to kgality, capadty
of partis^ assent, and fraad depend npon ue law of Oov-
IHAOI (q.v.), of which sale Is a particular instance. In-
aspadW ii eitliet abeolnta or relative, the latter bung a
bar OD^ in the individnal case, t^., tlie inomdty of a
person In a fidoeiary posititm (see Taxaa). "ae eapad^
of partiee tends to become more azteodad aa law advances ;
thns in T^*fti*fui the Rirtnin Catholic^ Ilia alien, and the
mairied woman bave all been relieved within a compan-
tinSj nemt period from oertain disaUlitiM in hIs and
por^ase irtiidi fixmeriy attached to them.
In En^and, for historical reasons (see Rial EnaTs),
there is a coosidecatde difference in the law as it afic '
real and peraonal satate. The m^ principles ot law
perii^a the same, but the sale of real estate is a matter of
greater
sod depi
and intricacy than the sale of personal
inds to a large eztcoit iqwrn lagidation
in^^iiicable to the latter. It appears, tlienfbra, batter to
treat the two kinds <i sale sntaiately.
St(J S^tatt.— At etnunon kw it was not neosMary that
thcoa shoold be written evidance of a contract of sale:
"Btt pnblid^ of &9 feoffinent obviated the necessity of
witting, iriiich was not essential to the validity of ft feolf-
mcot imtil tia Btntnte of Frands ^see Faarwtoan). The
a sale appears to be the Statute of EnrotaneDts (S7 Hen.
Vm c. 16). The bargain and aale operating under the
Btatute of Use*, and enrolled under the Statute of Eniol-
menta in the High Court of Justice or with tlie cnstos
rotulorum <d the county, is no longer in use ; a baifiun
and (kle at common law is a mode of conveyance some-
times nsed by execntora exerdaing a power of sale. Such
a bargun and sale must be by deed mnce 8 and 9 Tict
c 106, bnt need not be enrolled. Tbere was no eompra-
bennve l^i^ative enactment deftUng with ftU cftses of sale
of real estate nntil section 4 of the Statnta erf Frauds. Knca
that date a conbact for the sale of real catale mnat be in
writing (see Fxacs, where tiie prorisiona of the Act sm
set out). Salsa 1^ aoetion are within the statute, the
aaotionMT being the agent of both parties (see ATtonon).
In an onUnaij case ot the sale of real estate tbe contract
IS formally drawn op on the basis of particolats and eoo-
ditions ol sale, iriiich ought fairly to repreeeot the actual
Aate of the [ropArty. The statute, however, is satisfied
hr informal agreement, sack as letters, if they contain
the means of determining the property, the parties, and
the prioe. Hie price most be a sum of moneys If it u
another estate, the contract is turn of exchange ; if no c(
eidstation pases, it is a gift. The price may be left to be
detertnined by a third person, as by arUtiation. For the
way in wtucb payment nf the price may be made, see
FATifxvT. Tlte formation of a tnnding contrsrCt of sale
is the most important stage in the tranafer of ml estate.
Yma tiie moment at which the parties are bonnd by the
contract the Bale is made; the pnrohaser hss the equitable
estate in the Ro^eet-matter of the contract (see fimrrr),
the vendor hddiiw in trust tot bim, snlgect to the p^-
uMiit ot the pnwnaao mc«^, for wUch the vendor' baa
ft lien, nw price beccoies petsonsl estate <rf the vendor
and the land reel estate of the purdiaaer. "Die latter has
the ri^t toaoddentftl benefits and the burden of accidental
loeaes accming before oomjdetfon of the purchase, tba
ri^ts defined by tlie eontiaot descend to the rqireaenta-
tives ot a deceased vendor or purchaser. In nu»t eases
tiiB psrsonal r^ireaeniative of a deceased vendor may
convey the proper^ under U and 4S Vict e. 41, s. 4.
After tbe oontiact it becomsa the duty of the vendor
to deliver an absbact of title, to mS^ the purchaser^
naaonable lequisLtiaaa as to ttDj qosslioD arimng on tbe
title of thepurchssar, aodto pay a depont, usually ten per
cent, of the price fixed, within a cerbun time, the reminder
being paid on completion, — that is, the execution of the
convt^ance and payuient ct tlia balance ot the price.
Healso praparoa the oMiveyftnee, which dnee 8 snd 9 Tiet.
c 106 must be hj deed. The costs tA ezeculion of the
conveyance are pud by the vendor. Any of theae duties
m^ be varied by nieaal agreeuMnt. Tlie nie is not m
orduiary cases avoided becaase the puwhasw is in default
in payiMDt of the pmchase montry on tin day anxunted.
The purchaser does not forfdt his rights if be m react?
to complete within ft reasonable time after the day fixed
tor ccanpletion and to p^ interest on the sum overdue.
This rule is an iM doctrine of eqni^, and is generally
expressed by iqrlng that time is not ol the essence of the
contract As a general rule, any real est&te is capable ot
sale, unleas it is ^together ertro oomnMmom, as a churdh or
public bnilding. Then are, however, a few ezeeptions
introduced by the legialatare, auch as estates tail not
haraed, estatea which hj Act of Parliament are inalinnftble
(see Bui, En Axx), sod crown lands, of whidi all grants fw
mcfe than thirly^ne yean are in gaosnl vtnd hj 1 Anne
St 1, c 7. Bales ot pretended titles to land are void by 82
Hsa. TCL c 0. Hm Mle el liad to In heM in nMrtmun
mold b« void M emtttuy to tba polkj oC tte Hoctmun AcU
(iM CHunm, CoBPounoH). Tte rigbU ud likbtUtiM
of Tendon umI pon^nMn iMve been eooddenUy iffeeUd
bf raeent Ici^iktioii, tba principkl Acta daftling with ths
tnbject being the Vendor and Porcboser Act, 1874, and the
Comtjtatxag Act, 1881. A period of forty jam has
been aubatitnted for the period of uxtjr youn previouilj
neceaar; u the root of title, — that is to say, in moat caaes
an abatnct ahoving title for forty yean la mfficienL In
u abstNcl of title to leaseholda, tho title ia to commence
with ths lease or nnderleuc^ in ku abatnct at title to
coifrwkchiaed luida, tinder a contract to aell the freehold,
with the deed of eofraDcbisement Reeitab twenty yeua
old tn erideuce, except ao far aa they can be proved to
he inaccnn^ Hid recitali of docnmenta dated prior to
the commencement of the abstract uie to be taken as
lUTect, and their pntduction ii not to be reqoired. ^le
eipenaea oE evidence requred in anpport of the abatract
and sot in the rendor'B poeaeeuon are thnwn npoo the
porahaaer. litis Conveyancing Act, 1881, farther protects
the parchaaer by implying in a conveyance by a beneficial
owner on aale for valuable eonaideration covenants for
right to convey, quiet eiuoyment, freedom from encom-
bnnces, and fvther tmmnce. L) a conveyance of loue-
holds a covenant for the validity of the lease is implied.
Thtae Govenanta protect the purchaser much in the same
way a* the impued vrarranty in the nle of personalty.
The Act alto givea the mortgagee, where the mortgage is
by deed, the power of aale genecaUj inserted in mortga^
deeds (see Hortoaoi).
The romediea of the vendiv are an action f<» the }»ice
or for q>eciflc performance according to drcnmstancea.
Tliera ia also a remedy by mandamaa ajpinst public com-
panies refoaing to complete. Spedfie performance ia a
recnedy introdnced by the Cotut <rf Chancery to enforce
contcaota for the sale or pnTchaae of real eatate, it b^ng
consideTed that in such caaea the common law action for
damagai was an insofflcient remedy. BtHstly, it ia only
an eietciM l^ the conit of its jnrudiction over trustees,
the vendor being after the oootiact, as haa been said, a
traslae for the pnrcbaser. By the Jodicatoie Act, 1S7S,
actions of apedfic performance are qwciaJy assigned to
the Chancery Division. A county coort has joiiediction
where the purchase money does not exceed ifMO. In
^dle of the Statute of Frauds, specific performance may in
some cases be decreed where a parol contract haa been
fallowed I^ part performance and where the position of
the partitts has hem materially attend on Ae faith of the
coDbaet Aedona for the price or tor q>«eifie perfonnanoe
are mlgact to the pnrchaaer'a li^^t to ooanpensation for
deficiea^ of quality or qnanti^ or <rf the vendor'a interest
in the property, ^e qoeation whether in a particulai
case the parchaaer is entitled to leadnd the contnct ot
only to compensation is often a very difficult one. The
remedies of tiie poMhaeer are an action for qiedfio perform-
ance, tor reacisaion of the eonttact or for damages (in ease
of fiaod), for a retoni of the deposit, or for expenses. On
the principle ol aumf emptor, the aale ia not avoided by
mere Mnmnendatory atatamenta, stotemenla of opinion, or
Doo^iiseloaDje ot patent defeots. N(Ht-di*cIosnre of latent
dclecta or material misRfnesentation of facto, on the faith
of which the purchaser entered into the contnct, will aa
a rule be a ground for reodasion or for damage^ and thia
irreqiective of fraud, as a eontnwt tor the mIb of land is a
eoDtnot ateTMM^W. TOmtb the mIo goes off or the
vaidor without bud faila to make a oDod titles t^ V-
eraser can only tecorer the depoail^ it any, and any ex-
psBses to which Ite m^ have bean put ; he cannot iMOvei
oamafm for tlw loaa of hii bargain. Otttain tmoda by a
L E 207
Teodor or bis solicitor or agent In older to indue* the pa>
chaaer to accept a title render the offender guil^ of a
miadameanour, as well an liable to an action for damages
(33 and 23 Vict c 35, a. Si). By the Vendor and Pni^
chaaer Act, 1874, either a vendor or a purchaser ot real
or leaadiold estate in BngUnd may obtain on a (nunmaiy
application tha daeiaion of a judge of the Chancery Diviaiaa
on any qneation connected with the contract, not being a
qneition affecting It* existence or validity. (See Sugdeo,
Veutort a»d ISirAatr* i Datt, TaiAai and /VrtAowrti
Fly, Sptei/le FnfonmaiK*.)
Pentmai XlaU.—kt common law, as in the case of
ital estates writing was not etsential to the validity U a
contract of aale. The common law is thus stated by
Blackatone: "A contract of Mle imidiea a bargain, or
mntnal nnderatanding and agreement between the parties
as to terms ; and Ue law aa to the tnuumatation ot
proper^ under auch contracts may be stated genenlly as
followi. If ths vendor aayi the price of the good* is £i
and the vendee say* he will give £i, the bargain is struck ;
and, it the goods be theraou delivered or tendered, or any
part of the price be paid down and accepted (if it be but
a penuy), the property in the goods is thereapon tiana-
mated and vests mimediatefy in the bargainee ; ao that
' in the event of their being labseqnently damaged or de-
stroyed he and not the vendor must stand to the loss.
llis rappoeea (it will be observed) the casa of a sals tw
ready money ; out, if it be a sale of goods to be delivered
. forthwith, but to be pud for afterward^ the property
iiainns to the vendee immediately npoa the -rtiiking of the
bar^tin withont either delivery on the one hand or pay-
ment on the other' (Stephen, Comvuntana, vol. ii. bL
ii. pt it ch. v.). Earnest may have been originally the
' same as the Roman arrha ; it waa never, however, part
payment, as arrAa might have been, — in fact, the Statute ol
Frauds specially distingniahex it from part payment. The
of earnest baa now fallen into disuae. The prico
be fixed ; if not fixed, a reasonsble price will be
presumed. Though writing was in no caw necessary at
common law, it haa become ao under the provisEona of
of Ibliament, prominent among which is ''
tOTy conbacta of aale by Lord Tenterden's Act, 9 Geo. IV. r.
1 4. The sale of hones in market overt must be entered in
a book kept by the toU-keeper (3 and 3 Fh. and 3L c 7.
31 t^i«, c 13). The sole ot shipa mu»t by the llerchont
Shipping Act, 1864, be made by bill ot sale in a certain
form. Contracts for the sale of shares in a jointstock
banking company ore void unless the contract seta forth
in writing the nnmbera of the shares on the regiiiter of the
company or (where the shores sre not distinguished by
numbere) the names ol the registered proprietotB (29 and
30 Vict c S9). Bills of sale of goods moat be in writing
in a certain form and registered under the Bills of Sale
Acta, 1878 and 1883.' As a general rule the prooarty in
goods pesau by the contract ot sale. This genend rule is
subject to the fallowing important exceptions : (1) where
the vendor ia to do anything to the goods for the pnrpoeo
of patting them into that state in which the purchaser is
bound to accept them, the property' does not pass nntil
performance of the necesaary acta; (2) the same is tho
case where the gooda are to be weighed, terted, or mcMured ;
(3) where the purchaser is bound to do anything a" "
condition on vhieh the passing of the property dep
the proper^ does not pass until the condition is fulhiieu,
even tboQ^ the goods may be actually in the poeaeseion
of the bi^er; (4J where an axscatory contract for the
giving 0
pends,
■titf OA
j;z3dbyG00glc
208 S A
nb (tf good* is mada, die t»o|ierty doea Dot pMi until
•{iI«opri«ti(» (rf apacifio good* tj tha nndor in completioii
ot tbs oootnst ; (6) when tiia randor rewrrw to BiniNU
tlw >iM dinmanU or f ntnre power of dealing with the
goodi, M hj makiiig m bill u lading deliverohla to his
Oder, tbs OTopsrtj does not pus until the>M JuponamU
is ezerdMa in hToor of tiie pnrchMer ; (6) where there
is tmd oa the port ot the Tender or poTchaser, the nle
is Toidabk^ not void ; it may be affinnM and ei^orced or
leaciiided. In mim ot pmooeitj, unlike sales of reel
estate tame is aroally erf the esMnce of the oontncL A
mIb of goods roay be aooranpanied by an express warranty
cr coUater«l contiaet as to the title to or quality of the
goods. No special form of words is necessaty to create a
wairanty, nor need it be in writing. An implied wananty
of title — that is, an affirmation that the vendor has a right
to sell — exists certainly in eiecntory contracte of sale. It
most probably exists in ezecnted contiacts,' tbe exceptions
to the mle having in recent times become by judicial
deciBion more nnmeroua than the catee falling under the
old mle, that there was no such warranty. Warranty of
ooali^ exists uther by statute or at common law. The
Merchandise Harks Act, 1862, implies a warrant from
the existence of trade-marks on chattels that the trade-
mark ia genuine, and from the eiiatence of any statement
leapeotdng number, quantity, weight, place, or country
thi^ such statement is not in any material re^>ect false,
Tb» mles as to warranty of quality at common Uw cannot
b» bettw stated than in the language of the clear and foil
judgment of the Court of Queen's Bench in Jones >. Just
{Lmo. BtporU, 3 Qneen's Bench, 191).
" WiA, vbsn goods ua At ■■■ snd may b* inspected by the
bajsr, sod thsrsbno ftiud ga tiia put oF ths isller, tbs muim
asvtal tmflor apellM, srm thoogh t£e dsfoet which uiiti in Cham
b latent and sot dbiMTaiabls as "■■"'"■t'"", st Utst whcrs tha
. ssUtr ii nsitber the pomr nor fbe msnnfsctorar. Tha bnyar in
BBoh eaas has As opportunity of aiscdiing bis judgmaot upco tha
msttsr, «nd if tb* naolt of Um iupactira be nmatiifmrtoij. or if
hs dlstmsti his own Jndpnont, h* may if ha cfaoosn reqnira &
WBiTsn^. 1b SBcih a ess* It is not ■> ImpUad Istm of tha eontnct
(f Bla tmt tha geodi ara of *aj psrtisalsr qssH^ <n sra marehant.
Mm. So In tha can of tb* nb in a market of ntest which tha
bi^er bad inspacted, bat whiBb vai in tut diasaaad and nnfit for
fJMd, althmigh that tut was not appsiant on snimination and tha
ssUlt «M Bot awara ot it, It was held that Uura was no trnpUed
wsnan^ Ast it «ai fit for Ibod, and that tb« ntuiia oaaB< nvfn-
andiad. Sscandly, whare tbno is s nla of s deflnita axi^iiw
ehattal mofSoslly dMcribed, tbs actual eonditiaa of which »
oapsble otbedntt »,-■••
lOimpUed
is ndand of a Dtsnnbstnrat, althengli It ia itatad to be nqnhvd
by the pmchiiaar for ■ partuular nuposih still it tha knows da-
scribed ud defined Uiiog be sotnsl^ ni[f>uMl theis is do wsrraiity
ttst it ihsll aniwar fbr tha patttralar psrpoaa intended by Iha
bnyar. Fourthly, where a msnnfsctanr or duler oontrscti to
sn^^ *a sitida vbieh he mainbetutes m prodocos, or in wbir.'i
he diali, to be applied to ■ parttenlar pmpose, so dkst tlie buyer
niowssrily Inuti to tha jadgnwnt or ifcill of tiw munbotnnr or
dnler, then la in that case an implied warrant that it dtsll ba
wasenahly fit tbr the pnipoee to whiob it is to be aralled. In
BWk s esse a* biqret tnuli to tha loann&ctunt or dealer, and
rsUes apen liia Jndnnant and not npon bis own. ^fthly, vhara
a manActarer nndertakei to niiply ooodi muD&otnnd by hlm-
sslf or la vbloh ha deali. hat which &f Tcndoa bis not bad the
epportnol^ of inaneetintt it is in implied term in the contiaet
tfiat h* dull aDjiply a .maicbantable article. And thii doctrine
has been held to qiply to the lab of an aiiitlng bene by the
dialv lAish was afloat but not completely rigged asd fatnisbed ;
tbeM, InaRoneh as the buyer bad onl; seen it rhen bollt aad Dot
during ths odnrao of the bnildin^ ba wae conddarad aa baTing n<
Had Ml the Judgment and eklll of the boilder tlut the barge wia
Ijfi&uee."
mpla is peooliar to personalty.
In sndi a sals tha vwdw warrants the quality of tb* balk
tobeequ^ tothatof thesampla Thera are certain kinds
of sale-which are governed liiy special legidation, chiefly
on gronnds of pnUic policy. A sale oontniy to the pro-
visions of any of the Acts is generally void in the sama
way as thongh it were ille^ at common law, on the
Cn[Ja of the maxim Ex turpi cau*a non oritur aelio,
■ala of certain public offices ia forbidden by 5 and 6
Gdw. TI. c IS, 40 Geo., m. c. 126, and other Acta
dealing with special offices. A sale by a ttadesman in
the way of his ordinaiy business upon Sunday is illegal
under 29 Gar. H c 7. The same is the case with the aalo
of intoxicating liquors during prohibited hours, whether
on Sundays or week days (31 and 38 Yict. c. 4S, s. 6). No
action can be brought to recover any debt alleged to be
due in respect of the sale of any ale, &c, consumed on the
ptemieee where sold (30 and 31 Tict. c U2). The sale
of game in the close season or by an unlicensed person
is forbidden by 1 and 2 WiU, IV. c 32. The sals of
spirits to a person apparently under the age of sixteea
is mads peoal by 3S and 36 TuA. o. 94, a. 7. These cases
are only given as examples; there are nnmerons other
enactments dealing with, tnicr alia, sale* of anehoia and
chain cables, adulteiated food and iragp, explosiTe^ and
poisons. Every sale by weight or meaniie must be accord-
ing to one of the impeiiai wei^t* fx measoraa ascertuned
by the Weights and Measnra Act, 1878; if not so made^
the sale U void (41 and 42 Tict. c 49, a. 19).
The remedies of the vendor are of two kinds, judicial
agwnst the purchaser, extra-judicial against the goods.
Judicial remedies are either by action for non-acceptance
where the property has not passed or by action for the
price where it hsa passed. The extia-judicial are (1) a
lien tor the price, so that, in the abasnce of agreement to
the contiai; or assent to a subaale, the vendor need not
deliver the goods until the price is pud; (3) tha right of
stoppage M trauitu. This right is universally acknow'
lodged by the commercial law of civilized natiooa. It
arises on the insolvency of Ute purchaser before the goods
have reached bis possession, and is defeasible only by
transfer, whether bf way of nle or pledge, of tha bill ot
lading or other document of titls to a baiia^fidi indoieee
for value. Ihe protection afforded at common law to the
bona fidt transferee has been extended by the Bills of
Lading Act, 1866, aad by tha Factor* Act, 1877. There
is no general ri^t of reaale by the vendor on de&tult tA
the purdMser. The remedies of the buyer are an action
for damages for non-delivety, for eonvendos, for breach
of warranty, for misrepresentation, Ac, according to cir-
cumstances. He has also a remedy analogous to specifio
perfurmanoe under the Mercantile I«w Amendment Actf
1866. The Act gives pewer to the court or a judge, in an
action for breach of contract to deliver ipecific goods, to
order execution to issue for the delivery of the goods with-
out giving ths defendant the option of retaining them
upon paying the damages assessed. The buyer has further
a right to rqect goods where they are different in kind
or quality from tiiose which he had a right to expect. He
is entitled to keep them for a sufficient time to give them
a fair trial It i^ould be notioed that the effect of mis-
representation in the sale of real hnd personal proper^ is
not the same. As a ruls innocent misrepresentation of
facta does not give a right to rescind the eals, since a
representation is, like an express warranty, not an int^^l
part of the contract. A repreaeutatiDn may, however, if
so intended by the parties, become a condition a breach
of which will avoid the sale. See Story's, Blackburn's, and
Benjamin's treatises on the sale of personal property,
especially Beiuamin'^ whidk is now the recc^nind text-
book on the sntgect
SALE
It BMy ba aarinl to Teoqatnkta Mhartij the ntia poinis
of diAnDM betwMB Bomu and Engluli hw. They ban
■U bsMi Dotiotd ia tha praoKUiis put of lU» ixtiel& <1)
JmbwMMrttluMmauMnint. (3) Vrittan DOOtncli
MMn Uir under anj -!—— — *-~—
IB^ of title in Bonimn l»w : UiB
, imimio, not (< owimhip i Id Eng-
intj <rf titb (udImb tlta partiM othar-
wiM intend) DB mIm of p«miNMl^, bat not oo nka of imI
jirmiwtj, tboag^ the eoronnnn for title practicallj unonnt
to n mmntj. (4) Ibera «•■ a wananty of <imlitT
extending to imdieeMMd dtlaete in Bomaa kw beTond
tortUng iMooifed hj Eoglidi law. (S) By Boman law
the utowity did DOt |im» until IratHth ; even tbea it waa
pimmia warned hjAftm HipulaHoi
promrtT in apecilte aaowtainad good* Ti
(S) A Mle bj a penon mbo waa not tha
ownac wa« not good in Boman law; U ii good in oertain
lam in Engliili law (aae below).
71m B* emrttin Uni* at mim whiA ft ii inpoMd to canddn
■mnMr <n 1000011 of th( «K*ptiaad oiKinutuicn ia vfakli
tlnitud.
OmfiiliBrg BHt.—At ■ gnwal rnk «1* li > Duttar of contnet
MwMD tbt futi^ ind no oo> an be Ibnsd to hU iffiaa U«
vilL Botltt th^ulnotlwriiiattm, tlwilghtf/tbactBtaooaH
iB. UndM th« pomn of tlw ImmIi QuMa and olk«T Aola tW
tt^toKMag tt> ri^ f< omiant dcoal^ mar fcm u onw
to adl (in tlu porpcn tf pobllc taiyMiiUMt^ iBen m nilwaja
Tha nnw of coddbImct ab i> laN bobbco wko* tba inlanati
oTllMilatsannol biTdnd; u euapl* oeeaa b thi FwUtian
Act, IMS, OMda whkh tb« eoart an «rte a ■!• iaatnd el a
<iiUoa, aras dn^ nw of lb* mrlla IntwMlid diMDt
/■Ucfaldak— {Jadtr thto hwT m^ b« DMMd lU Ibonnln
r th* aothoiltj and lir Vm
k^ froa
ObanonrlKTWin.
wlgiBal ^nMktlBa vt ti*
at owttlaifliof Firikaaa^ noh ■
isn, tb* FntHloa AoL ISA
!ba Sittlad Und id, \m (mt amor
CniT*ruMing Aet, IBSI, Jiamim fer frooisc any
Tbt Act iL. ____
gidw br Ml* soDolndTt la tiTva ct a iinrehiMf In ibncat «
BB. Tba abrtnet of titb in a lala brtba eoort ia aubmitlad to
m ef tb* coanjanefng HKiiaal of tba Ohaur? DIHalin, and tha
firtinalata and eooditiona an atttlad in Jodf^' ebambn Tha
"; br public aacUm, iha aacttoimr bnag molntod
tia nntatlaDa for tha ooDdaet of nlea bf tha
» Bolaa <f tba Bnpnma Comt, I8SS, Otd.
hj A> iodg*. nu nntatlc
mart iriU b* iHind ia t£a Boll
i. r. ML
Tha Bankraplor Act, 1S81, flraaHnnr to a tniataa actliu| nndar
Iha aathoitf of a anrt of banbvpfiiT to aaU aQ gr any part of lb*
pnpwty of ■ lanknnit br pablia auctMo or prirat* omtiact, Simi-
Inij^taaT»BfT*aS*&aBM«tihBaakniptcrAc^lSB«, Judicial
■iHorUM snpatTiita dablot in BooUand at* nnlatad br »
adKTktaM Tb* tarn -Jodicial aala " doaa not aaaia to ba
aiad ai a taebnkal twrn la ^llah a* it la In aootch lav. In
alaiialtT actkna a ruaal may b> add andor a ocnuDdadoa of ap.
pcalaaaant and nl* twDad l; tha court. Tba pcaetica ia now
ngnlatad by Ord. U. r.
inanaotianofaatt la Sootland.
nlab tbonlo tradiariff of an oi
jrilofjIartA' '
Whan tha ahaiiff baa nlMd and a .
•nhabynaUioi
by tatalnUada la aat an, tba eonrt nay crdw a aala rf A* wbob
crpartiirthagDi>di(Riilai of tlw Bnpnma Oonrt, U81, Old. ML
I. U). noana inlaa (Ord. L t. t) gfra a nlnabb powir to Qm
°>irt or a Jadga of oidwiiw a ala ^ any Boda of a poriabaUa natma,
K aicb aa far any naaoa it nu^ ba daAabb to ban aold at OQoa
Ml bg Armu ma Qmura.— InribJk Inr in aananl aana* with
Ihi nla in Dif. L ir, H, "Kono dIm Jmfa ad aUnin tnn^m
FoM qiiam ipaa habMot," and a pnoUaw takta Ua pitnbaaa aniijaet
Is inliraalitia In ttu title. To thia tab tbv* an aaraial axoap-
tioDa. ia wUch titb Bay b* finm by pataooa lAa an Hailed
miMB or not ownen at aU. Aa azn^Ia of ab by a Umitad
■"ur ia a lab by a tenant for Ilia nndai tha pomn g[**a by th*
Mtlad Uaii Act, IMS. Undar th* aam* bead inold tall nlea by
pBnia hartni a qnaliSad ilf^t of aala ni|der partloalar drcain-
Maon, aaeb M a abaalli; flk* naotai of a lUp in a fbrtlen pvt, «
a. actnal or implied, <rf u
_ _. . the prineipl* that equity (am uii )bikk
of tlM lepd Btat*. In tbt caai of pateeiul uvjieny ,
Utle mar b« paaad by a ]>*ood not mmw on.lir tba Facbn Act*
and In Wa laae of atolen good.. Tbs effaet of the Factor* Acta ia
to *aaU* tltl* to be glTwj by tha venJor or raudae or any petaim
oa hk behalf wbOa he k in pcmalno of Ibe docamaula ol title
(aaa Fa«I«ia> Tb bw ai to the lala of itolao gooua will b* Ii>rd<1
andacTaKrr.
Pn-(MfMim.— Tbk ii a li^Iit of ponliaiiiis aoma tiartloalar
puitiiity glTan to aome wrticuW penou in pilorlly to the pobllo.
It ti ooaiiRwi •tthet by aar-emont between jiaitiea n 1^ bw.
Thoaby tliB landa Clouia* Act. 1B4S, b*fiin tb* pnaaotn of an
■T^T^aj^ dinoaa of niiaiflsone land* Dot t*(|nfi«d br tb* por-
po*** of tba nntetaUod they moat (vitb oenaia axoeptleu) hat
oUrn to adi tb* mm» to tb* nenon then «Dtltl«d to the landi fron
wUeb tb*Bme«*narigiiiellyaT*c*d. In the Doited BtatM pn-
opption b Toy imwrtant in In oouiia^oa vith tba honuiEe»<l
b« (ioe HoianwJkP^ In intanutlooal lav tbc ri^bt ii airrcUabb
In a balUgennt nation ovir prorerty not atrlotly coumbind, bnt
wUoh mdd atm be of B>lTaiitaB* to the nieisy. The goodi an
not atlMd aad rondamnad. bot imRbaaad by the oaptaring nation
at a naaonaUe compeoaatiDn. Tha Tigbt of pnHmi.tion ia glTin
to tb* adiDinlty by Z; and SS Tict c. U. a. U (■•* r'oxntA* ucd).
Tba old cran pmogatiTo of iaiT>Tance and pn-giiiilian mi a
if^t of lading ap proriiunu aul oiber naceaaarioa lor Ihr royal
biia**liiiM at a TaliHtion eren rllbout lb* coUHnt at the 1
aad abo of impr*aaing bonca ao'l carmsFi tia tlia king'i aerrica
•n tb* pobUo roadi npon paj-ing a irlt>J ytko to t|- '-"—
Tb* right «ae nliajniihad by tli
,.-, „ pnTplleto..
_ ilwliaaing tba leuilal tonoita
<U Oar. n. c St).
AtOoadL— Th* b« at BootLinrl ri.Uon the Boman bv niu*
th* aontnot of ale St callej a couwnaDal nntiaot j the lala ta not
oomdela nntil dilinry, and nutlet artit 'let* Dot afltad any pn-
taetfcm. Writing b eaantlal to the lah of hiritBUa prmrty, not
a lay itatat^ aa bi EntfauJ, hat liy th* anclaat nnvrfltsn b«.
tefarwalw may, honrTer, In toar mf, like palt performaoc*
In gngl.iJ anpply tb* pkc* of vridng*. Tba 1 andor la boaod
on eaa^latioQ u aapp^ a nBcieut iirograe of titlea. In id Jltion
to tike pcotactloB ttBaati to tba uinJuuer U tb* nrograia of titlea
tb* itAntocy (brrn of vanandire in 81 and S3 Vict c 101, a 9
implies mil aw qiadally qnalifled, abwlDt* nmniiica at ngaida
tba land* and inita and arideoli, and viiran'Uri Crom (art and
dead aa ngarda'tb* nuta, — that ii to My, that a good title to tbo
land baa been conTajed, and that th> ^ntrr hit not don* and
will not do aaytblng contruj to tb* mtt aa rcoanla the rente (aaa
Wabon, Lam I)iif,,LT. " Wairandice "}, In tbe caat otawTabla*
viiCing la not ntrieeaiy for a good coutract oT aale, eicept vherr
tba aalg b of a ihJp, or Ibe rutiei *ra» to tcluro tba Mnoi to
Tiltlnr The Uarsantile Uv Amandment (iVotlind) Act. ISH
(19 and !0 Tlct. c SO), hu mado iiapoHaQt cbangta in tba lav of
ft""""' " The itatuta na iiaiaed for tb* laipaaa of aalmikHng
tba kv of Scotland to that oTEnMuid " (LanlVitaan, la U'Bain
«WallB0L.bwJi4«rtLa Appeal Caae^GBB). Byaection 1 goode
after ada bat before daHTecy are not attacbabia by tba cnditon ot
tba adlar. By aaetlon 1 tb* tnb-paitbater may demand that dalimy
be made to blm inataad of to the original pnrcbaeer, iritbont pia-
Jadic*totb*ilgbtofratentianafthaBelleT. By eection ) the aaller
of good* may atbicb the good* vbile in hla own poaaeatlon at any
-" — prior to th* date vben the eala of 11'^ __ .j- -i... i.— i.—
__i*t*d to hiffl. By aectioa 6 th( "'
lifter b introdooed : "«h*r« goode ._ ,
tbo tiow of the eale b* *aa vithoat knovlcdgi that the aene van
of dabetin or of bad qoality, ahall not be babl to ban nttanted
Ibeit qnality or anlBcfeacy, but tbc gooJa, vich all riolla, ihall b*
at tha rtak of lb* pnnbaaer, imlMi tba leller ahall haia given an
aapr«a wamnly of the quality or anlBdency of lucb good^ or
onkaaa tba gaode baTa been eipnaJr aold for a apeciflad end par-
tionUr pnrpoa^ in which caar the lallcr ahall be masdand, vith-
oat BDcn vanu^, to varraDi that Iha name an fit for anoh psr-
C" Tbt rlgbt vl ntentjon cormtwpde rioaalj to tbr tl^t of
In Kndand, but teeta upon the aunplec gnmnd of nndiT*tl*d
BapBty(*eaWatBon,ZaHj»cf..aT. -Sela"). Criminal IbbUltr
for nand iaami to ba oarried fartbw in Sootland than in England
{Wlat AaCo.— Tbabvaa to tbeHJe tf realagtateagnaagner-
allynilb Sn^iab b*. It b couaidrrably rimplifiad by the i^atem
of SaoviaAIToa (f.a). Tba eoTenint of warranty, nnknovn In
England, b tha prinolpel coTeoent for titb In th* United SUtta.
It coiTacponde aeBcrallyto th* Englleh coTetunt for quiet enjoy-
ment The right of Judicial tab of bnlldinga nndar a machanlo'i
IbD Sv bbcnr and materbb b glren by tbe bw of many Slatta,
SIO
S A L — S A L
J8-3I7S). Is the Uv of Bb of
*•—*'"■' lav ii ilio buid npoB Buglnh Uv.
w that Uw lur af market onrKn* '
r. Tba pdD^J dif-
, ....TanrttanoE Tteog-
ated t7 tin UnitB] StatM^ and that uk nnuid Tdidor li ~
ofttinadM toitnll on noD-pqriiHii^ aod laautltled
ths dBBaanea b«t«««n th* cnotnot pnc* and di« prira
TlwUvori
lot pric* and di« pric* of iwali.
■naiaiia (CMMI Cbdi, |SlH}atTM tlu unpaid VMidor
tight In hii pnbnotUl dum to tin pdca uniut
M MBhamr, If thapn^ntr:
lattw'i III '■■■ ^arraBtr of titls fa iwt mnitd ai &r ai is
T^J*~^ DnitadStatwdeaUoiiadmradiatinMiaDlMtwaaBaooda
in UM pMaeaalon and good* Dot fn tlw poaNarion of tlu Yotdarat
tb* dmoofnk. Tbn ia do vamntr rf tltla of tlU lattti; I)h
Btatots of Fnnd* baa bsen conatnwd Id aoma itajneta difltaaotlT
from th* Kngltih daoUoDa. Tha diSnama will be fbnsd in lb
BeajamlD'a mrk. At to milawfal Mlaa, it bat lieao bald tbat a
■lo in > State whan tlw aals ia lawful la valid in a State when it
li nulawfttl bv itatnte, aroi thouji tba gooda are In the lattsr
Stria. ' (J. Wt.)
SALETTEB ^ 'Wnni'iuinBrmr Sii&yara, in BnginsBs
SiUia), bIm mUm Tima^otttivig (" Land of Bhrimpe "), ia
A Dntdi iiland a^Mntwd from the south coast of Celebes
(Ewt Indiea) I7 k ttxtii 8 niilM wide, irhich ia tlie wwt
moDtoon u used, hj Tenela bound for the Molnccas, the
Philippinw, and (Miia. With a. length of 46 milee knd
geium bnadth of 9, the ana ia estimated at 315 sqaare
mileB. ' Along the east aide of the ialaod ia a belt of
Tolcania rock ; the wnt tdde is of limestone or coralline
lormatifflL Ilie bi^iBst point seema to be Hara on the
ewt coait, but e«tJmatca of ita altitude Tar7 from 1000 to
3000 feet, latere an no naTigable riTen, and many of
the ilieKinB dry up in the weat monwon. Beoidea moat of
the ordinary tnqiieal fniitB, the coltiTatad plants OompriM
Indian com, bailej, potatoea, tobacco^ ooSee, and indigo^
and BiuQng the tieee are coeoannt and ueng palma, hmiri,
ebony, and teak (the laat oonaidered the propw^ of the
Dbteh Qorenunent). Hones, bo&loe^ Eoats, and ilteep
ara kept, md pias and deer eziat in a wild state. The
pqmlaliaD ol Sueiyer and dependendea, mainly a mixed
noe of Hancaaaat^ Bogineae, and nati-rea of La-ni and
Bnlon, ma in 1869 65,117, and in leeo 66,376. Ih^nae
the MlanTiwiftr langoage, are for the most part nombialltr
Uahanmedans (thon^ many heathen cuatoms nirrin),
and anpport thamielTes by agriotdtnre, flsbing Mafarin^
tnde, uie prepaiatioa of salt (on tho aonth coaat^ iwd the
maving of clothing materials. Field work la lai^y
performed by a serrilo cloaa. Itaw and prepared cotton,
tobacco, trepoDg, tortoiae-Hhiall, Eoooanata and coeoannt
oil, and talt are the principal artidea of export
Tlia iiland ii dlnded into nue r^iBnciei : — luetta, Batammata
~ nnar r^m£7 of Onto), BdU, Uaie-
north-SootobaiunDK Bella- bi|K
LayMo, ana Barambaiasg — In the eon tb. I^ns^iTaDg or Beutaig
on the vaat coaaib oflaa called alao Saldjer, S^the capibd of the
idaiid. It itanda in «" V S* & lat. and l«r 81' IS" & long.-, and
■ the beet haibaoi on the wbcde eoaat, being protected hj
„ ...._. ,.,__ »__. „^,j B^iJj^ .p^ (^j
.id anohor-
ithaDntch
_ rfTM
pAT.BMj a ftttiih diatrict of India, in Madraa preu-
dency, lying between 11' 1' and IS' 5T'lf. lat. and 11' 32'
and 79* S^ long. It embnkces an ai«a of 7653 equate
miles, and ia boiuided on the N. by Mysore and North
Arco^ on the S. by Coimbatore and Tricbinopoly, on the £.
by Trieliinopoly and South and North Arcot, and on the W,
1^ Ooimbalore and Myiore. Except towards tho aonth,
Uie diatrict is very hilly, with largo plaina lying between
the MTBial nugea. ^em is described aa conaiating of
throe distinct tracts of country, known aa the Tilagut,
tbeBiiamahil,andthaBiUghAt. The Tilaghit is sitnated
below the Baateni Ohata on the lerel of the Cbmatic genar-
aUy ; the BbamahU includes the whole Balem face m the
Ohata and a wide tract of coontry at ULeii base ; and the
situated alxm the CHiali on tha taUelnd of
Hyiore. The western part of the diatrict is Tef7moantaiii-
eos^ some o< the laugea attaining an elemtioi) at between
5000 and 6000 feet Amongat the chief nugea ara the
Sberaniya, the Eafaiyana, the Mel«giriB, the Kollimahda,
ttta Faehamalai^ and the Telagiria. Tlie chief riTen aia
tha Oanreiy with its nomerooa tribntaiiea, and the Pennar
and Mar; the hati however, only flows throng a few
mike of the ^nrapotikr t^ik, sitnated in the north-weatenl
comer of the district. The forests an of considerable nine
and their aieK is realty estimated at 2251 square milee.
The gedogicsd stmcttue of the district is mostly gneissic,
with a few imqiliTe rocks in the form of bap dykes and
granite reins. Bagne& iron on is common in the hill
regions, and comudnm and diromate of iron are alao
obtainable. IHie qnali&a of the toil differ very moch ; in
the country immediately anmnuiding the town of Salem a
thin layer of ealAreoos and red loam generally preTaik,
through which quartz rocks ai^e&r on the surface in many
places. The climate, owing to the great difference of
elevation, variea conuderabty ; on tha hills it ia cool and
bracing, and for a great part of the year Tery salnbrions ;
the aTeiage rainfall is about 38 inches. Salem has about
1400 milea of road, and the length of railway line within'
tJie diatrict is 134 milea,
InlSSl the
BS1,1I2); ein
and Chriitiaoa 1S,HT.
diatrict
10,000
lam (aee below), tho otpltaf, tlie
towns with a popdatian eireedinc
"-'".STSiliS
Daiingambadi (lG,43flX Tiiapatdr (11,!T8X
(I3,67e> Of ttia tntal area of the district <
nn uui^Bt CDl^TSticm in 1883-81 ; bat of i
The chlal
eruj largo town
vorkmanutp are
ide, bat only
^S8B,1S0
Si/a acres
; other lmp<»tant etoue an pnliee
latlT ia whtIi^ which ia caiiied on in
and Tilli«. Carpata of great beauty and aatwri
made in the Salem Jail Good iion and gteal
on a mall acala The groas rertuue of tbe district in 1888.84 waa
£3M,Se4, tiie land-tax contribatiDg £311, 0«a of the amount.
noii^i Sabm haa bo connected biitory, there ue few parts (J'
SootlunL India that contain more spots of intereat br "■g"-''
atadiata. Aa'st pnant BHupoaed it waa acqnind by the treaty
of pease with lira Sultan iu 1701 and tbe partitiDn traa^ of
ICwe ia 17M. By the former the TUasUlt and B4ramaUl wmw
eedad, aod I7 the latter tha BUtghi^ bt what ia DOW tha Oadi tiltut
HAT.tilfj chief town of the above district, situated in
11' 39' 10" K lat. and 78' II' 47" E. long., ia a busy
trading plac^ with a considerable weaving industTy. It
is tolmbly well built an(L ia prattily situ^ed on the river
nmmanimDttar, 900 feet above i««-levd, in a long valley
enclosed t^ tbe Shevaroy hills, which are 6 miles distant.
The population of the town in 1881 waa 50,667 (males
31,584, femaln 26,063).
SALBM, a city of the United BtalM, capital of Eascx
county, Msasachosetts, is baitt on a peninsukk between two
inleU of the sea rtforth river and South river), in 42'
31' 18" N. lat and 70' 53' 53" W. long., 16 milM north by
east of Boeton, on the Eastern Railoiad. In the latter
part of the 18th and the early part of the 19tb century
Salem was the seat of a flouriahiog formgn commerce,
eepedally with theEast Indies; but, its comparatively shal-
low harbour failing to accommodate the larger veoels of
modem times, it baa been supplanted by Bostoa*nd has to
content itself with a good shue of the ooasting trade. Its
indnsbrial activity has, on the other hand, increased, and
it now posaeasea steam ootton-mills, jute-factoriea, extensive
tanneries, and various minor manufactories. The main
interest^ howsver, of Salem connsts in its historical and
litenuy associationa and the institutions by whidi they
are repreaented. Best known of theae institutions is the
Pcabody Academy, founded in 1867 with funds provided
by the well-known philanthropisL The academy at once
purchased and reStttd the £aat India Marine H^ n^tin-
.8 AL — S A L
Sll
aQr InOt in 1824 lA »M tttf Lidk IfariiH Sodet7 (ITW),
whidi ooDBried of auWu ud nparaugoea w&o hid
a or Oa Oipe of Good Bopoj
hip fl<
doiiU«d oiAer Cbpe
■nd the biuhfi^[ now
tho teaAmy tha eoOeetioM of thadd EHt bd» Hnaram
■nd tiMMs of tha Amp lattitota, iUnabatiiig tba soologf,
natural bistoi;, lod aiduKdogy of the ooqsty. Hie cthno-
gxfluxai GoUectimi^ ndi aa Uiat dealii^'iiU Oonai an
Bqwdallj TafauUai. nio^awrMMAaCMnifiifMabaaa tha
0(paortheaMd|>a!^iiiKel867. The Poabodj Infti^
DO* to be aonfoondM witl/.i|fe academy, ia in ua vilhige c^
Peabo^ (Danven^ abont S miles dia^it f nmi Bdem'and
about midwajbetwaan the hoose in which the phiknthiopiit
waa boni and the giaTe, in Hannonj Grove oemeteiy, in
irhidiheirasbiiried. ^einstitataomtainavarioiiaMnonal
TeHca of the f oonder, soch aa die bmooa poitaait of QtMOO
Viat<Hia. Flummer Hall, a fine bsilding in Bmex Stre^
erected oat of fundi Isft to the Salem Albentenm bj
ifiae Hnumer, contains the llbnriea of the Athenmmi,
the Eases Institat«, and the Bonth Eaaex Medical Society,
uiokins an aggregats of 00,000 Tolumea. ' Behind tlua
hall U the fr«ni» of the oldest chnrcb edifice la Nev Eng-
laad,<srTCtedio 1634 for Bogeriraiiaina. Other bdldiiun
of note in Salem are a State ncomal achool, the dtf ball,
the court-house, St Peter'a Epiaeopal ebmdi, the cnstom-
hooM^ in which Natbaoiel Hawthorne once acted aa cle^
aod Beveral of the private houses (auch aa " Dr Qrinuhawe'i
hooa^" the dwelling realty occupied by Dr Fsabody, Via
Eawtiiome's iMher) which, wliile not cnrtly proto^pea,
have lent mnch of their TeriaimiLtude to the localttiea of
Hawthorne's fiction. The hoose in whLeh tha novelist
waa bora is 21 tJnion Street. Salem bad 24,117 inhsr
Utante in 1870, 26,063 ia 167G, and 37,063 in 1880.
■ Fsamkaag (Eel Luul) wh ths Indiui dun of tha diibvi In
which Stlam Btuds, uid it AiU BNd bmiluil; W tb* [nhsbitanta.
Th« bit hooaa WH baOt It BMtr Oonant* frgoi Cipa Ann iD IflSt.
n^ two nan Utarisettlemant was Guaiidbjr John Bndieott anil
ealbd8*kD,"&omth(Fncalbvrh*dudhmddilt" InlSM
Gorcnor John Vrnthi^inbodncedalaittD boay of ralonisti fhn
big^ud, fnclading th» hOT* sad bnntifd] AnlMDa JobMpn,
da^^tsr of tlw eail of Uncdn, who ditd abortly iftomidi. In
laattM Quiksn w«r* penBCDtad it Btlun, and fn MM lh« town
«w tba ■«■!• oTOottaa Hathcr'i tnrUtteptocMiluin a^init witch-
enll: niiiBt^ panoo* wan haund on OaDon Hifl tod Gila* Oory
vu nmaed to teth. It wm in Balam that in 1774 tba houa of
nmnitatiTM at Haaaadiaaetia laaolvad thamnlTaa into ■ mmgiiga
ptlitieal power. TIn town obtuned ■ ntr cbular in 1SS6. Faw
dUo of tba ITnitad Statm bara RiTen mora aminaBt ttu to tlia
world— Timothy PiakarinK aacntaiy of ctsto (irH-lSSD), Gananl
OiuuaiiB th* utn^iat, V. H. Pnawtt tin hlitariui, and Kathanlel
SALEli^ a d^ of the TTmled Btatea, the ocFonty seat of
Balem eoonty. New Jeiaey, on a small stream of the tuae
Bune, by which it has steam communication with' Fbil-
addijiia (on the Delaware), U miles distant to the north-
Docu-eaat t? nil. While Salem dqwnds mainly on the
agricnltnral prooperity of the Kurotinding diatrict, it also
containa fbnndrisH and machine^hops, truitcanning estab-
Uahmenla, glass-ware factories, oil-clodi factories, &c. The
popnlatioa waa 3052 in ISfiO, iOCS in 1870, and 50B6 in
188a
A edonr Mttled on tha nta of Silam In 1611 w
BvadiA fort, and thia pwad thnnigb tha Dutch
Onaaftba Qiukara who in 1«TS bon^t Laid Bi
If«w JtagT p-n tba placa its pmnit nima and nSHnu uid ntiw-
■MDt, which in ICSa wti dMlwad * port otautiy. In 177B tba
tovn was planduad by Colonel Uanbood.
BALEM, a dty of the United States, the o^iilal of
Ongon, in Haiion county, on the east bank of Willamette
river, S3 miltt south of Portland by the Oregon and
Califmiia Railroad. It lies in a fertile prairie district,
adoned iritb cop■e^ and possesses a good sonree of water-
powniaUillOiw. The capitol, a nthetimpoiiag edifice
with a tower ISO fieet Uf^ ensled in 187ff-?6, ocaqtiea a
fine lite above tha city ; other public buitdinga are the
WiUanMtla TJnivenity (Bfetbodist), which gianbs O^rMa
ledkane, aoieiK«, and general literaton^ the opeia-hovse,
Lumber, wmdkn gooda, flour, leather, hraaa ifntingii. ftnni-
tve, liiMsed (Ml, and bulding materiab are the chief articles
of DMumfactnra and tiadak Hie popnlaticm was 2638 in
1881. Settled in 1834, inoorpoiated in 1863, Salem be-
CMM the Slate e^iital in 1860.
SAI^EP (Arab. m^IO, Or. SpxK), a drag ertenaivaly used
in the East aa a nnvine reatoiatire and fattener, and idao
mncb preacribed in paralytic afiections, probably owed ita
original popularity to the belief in the aCHMlled "doelriae
of aignatorea." InEaTopeitischitdynsedaaadematoeat
drink, but is abo aoppoMd to poasees nutrient ptopaiiea ;
it may be cmplc^ed with advantage in inflammatory oondi-
taoDS of the mucous ^MmbIan^ as in bronchitis, diarrhoM,
^stiti^ and other urinary diaorden. It connate of the
taberooB roota of various spedea of OnkU and Bulnphia,
which are decorticated, washed, heated until homy in ap-
pearance and then carefully dried. The moat important
conatitueDt of Wep is a kind of mndlage which it yields
to cold water to the extent of 48 per cent. This nmcilBge
in its chemical reactioos is more nearly dlied to eeUoloae
than to gum, since when dry it is readily soluble in
BTpmnniHiftl solution of copper ; when boiled with nitric
add it yields oxalic but not mndc add. Salep also cm^
tains sugar and albwnen, and when fresh traces of a Tolatile
oil ; dried at 100' C. it fields 3 per cent of ash, chiefly tlte
phosphates and chlorides of potassium and ealcitmi.
■hewed how It mi^t ba
UGeoffivvdiK
[nptrad tram
„ _ ueSin GansuT ii obtsinad thnai^ts
gmwiu wild In tha Tannu Hoontsini, the VealarmH tba Sha&
the O&imld, aod fnneonia. Oredin Blap la chiafly eollaeted
in Mli*-^'"^* In Aiii Hinor the tnbara an ccllaotad near UdaaM
sod Hv^il*, tnd aboat SSO loni an annnally aiporlad (Mm
SmjiMT Tike adap of the Bmnbaj marint wUch li hnported
princ^EillY from Pen!*, Oabol, and nottham India, oceors in three
una, L., 0. aoae^Arn, Brongn., ud 0. emofiii, L, alee tflord pal-
mete tabs*. The apeciea known to jield ants Blap an 0. waimla,
ft Mmie, O. fgnmidaliM, O. luMata, 0. tnHiiani, 0. eoriapSonL,
L, and 0. ImaiermU, Link. All thiae apedas an natirn of the
gmtcT part oTcsntnl and loatham Eunpe, Turiur, tba Oaiiicuu,
■nd Au Minor, ft U^rMta eitinding to weatam India sod Tibet
and 0. waapaM to the Amnr, in be extreme aast of Alia. Salwis
not (Uily ledDoed to powder, bdng bote hard and to*^ and la
therefare nsullj Eroond between millitones. Tbia dilEcnlty is
aaid to ba leaaaned if tha salep it first lOaked In cdd water nntil soft
and thni npdly driel Aa the powder doea not mix readily with
water, the anthon of FKarmaagrofliia (Sd ad. p^ AH) raooDnoasd
that it abonhl ba first mixed with 1| parts of nctifiad n^ta ot
wine (brandy or otber ctrong; spMt would answer eqaslv wsll)>
10 pvla of cold water being then added qnicUy and U« ndxtBra
txdled. Id Iheae [mportions aalap afforda ■ thick JaUy.
SALERNO, a dty of Italy and the chief' town of a pro-
Tince of its own name (formeriy Principato Citeriore), ia
baantifally utuated on the west coast 34 miles south-east of
Naples,' and pteaenta a fine appearance with the ruins of its
old Norman castle on an eminenca 905 feet above the sea
and ita background of graoefnl limeatone hilli. The town
walls were^atroyed in the beginning of the 19tb cen-
tniy ; the seaward portion haa given place to tfae Oorao
Oaribaldi, tlie ptindpal promenade. Among the con^
apjcuouB buildinga are the theatre^ the prefMtnre, aod fte
S12
S A L — S A L
cathedral of St U&fthew (vhoae bones were brau^t Irom
FMtnm to Balemo in 9B4), Ugaa in 1076 by Robert Qiu»-
cud and eoiuecnted in 1081 bj On^rj YH. In front
ia a beantifDl qiudrangakr court (113 bj 103 feet), boi-
rooitded I7 arcades formed of twenty-eight ancient pillazB
moatly of granite ; and the middle entnuce into the choich
ia eloeed by a remarkable bronze door of 11th or 12th
oentoiT Byzantine work. The nave and two ualea end in
^>wa; Two magnificent marble amboe, tbe larger dating
irom 1176, Heveial specimens of ancient mosaic, and the
tomba of QngOTj TIL and Qneen Margaret of Dniazzo
deaetTe to be mentioned. In the ciypt is a bronze ertatne
of St Matthew. The lofty aqueduct, one of whose arches
is now need by the railway, is a building of 1320 ; the
preBentwater-anpplyiii proTided by a canal formed in 186B,
A fine port conatmcted by Obvanni da Procida in 1260
was destroved when Naples became the capital of the king-
dom, and remained blocked with Band till after the nnifica-
tion of Italy. A serieti of works, especially Uioee decreed
ia 1880, have provided on inner harbour of 40 actea (depth
12 to 22 feet), an outer harbour (23 to 26 feet), and wharves
to the extent of 446S feet. In 1684 180 vessels (39,078
tons) entered and 173 (38,069) cleared. Silk and cotton
spinning are the princiiial industries. The population was
ie,906 in 1870 and 22,328 (conininDe, 31,245) in ISSl.
A Bomui mlon J vru fouuded it Sdeine (i^BterDmii) In 191 B.a to
kHp tliB Piccntines in check, but tbe citj uukes no Bgan In lii)tory
till iftoi th« Lombuil coniaont IXnnajitled bf oitlec at Cbjirk-
migoc, it becuiie in tbs Sth century (lie apitol ormn indapondent
priocipalily, tha liir&I o{ tlt.1t o{ Bcnsmnto, tad via wrronnded by
itiDDK fortiaontioin. TI18 '-- ■■ — ' -- ' ■■- *--' *- "-
dflieaani tlioir city uiinftE
Oniacard, wbo took the cast
apita
ud tt
hUdin
aiclt o( Iho city bj
positioa which
i called it»If on in aMli}
m doscribed under HBDicre^ tdI.
BALEC Fbakcou db (1667-16:
BALFORD. Bee Uanchxsteb, toI. xv. p. 469'*;.
8ALICIN, the bitt«r principle of willow Wk, was dis-
covered by Leroui in 1831. It exists in most apedee of
StUix and Popvlvt, and has been obtained to the extent
ot 3 or 4 per cent, from the hark of S. Mir and S.
paitandra. According to Herberger, the bark of the
yotmg branches afibrds salicin in larger proportion than
that of the trunk and contains lees of the other ingredients
which interfere with its extraction. Salicin is propved
from a decoction of the hark by firat ptedpitating the
tannin by milk of lime, then evaporatiDg the filtrate to a
kA extract, and disoolving out the salicin by alcdioL
As met with in commerce it ia usually in the form of
^ossy white scales or needles. It is nentral to test paper,
modorous, unaltered by exposure to the air, and has a
penostently bitter taste. It ia soluble in about 30 parts
of alcohol or water at the ordinary tempeiatore, and in
0*7 of boiling water or in 3 parts of boiUng alcohol, and
more freely in alkaline liquids. It is also soluble in acetic
acid without alteration, but is insoluble in chloroform
and benioL From phloridxin it ia distiugoished by its
ammoniacal solution not becoming coloured when exposed
to the air. Cold snlphnrio acid dissolves salicin, forming
a bright red eolation. When salicin is heated with sul-
phnric acid and potassium bichromate, salicylic aldehyde
(C;H,Oi) is formed, whi^ poeseeses the odour of meadow-
sweet flowers {Spirma Ulmaria, L.J.
SaLcin is chiefly used in medicine as an antipyretic in
acute rheumatism, for which it * ; given in doses of 6 to
90 grains. Its action is less powerful than that of Bus-
OYUO Acid (g.v.), and its depressing effect on the ciicnlatioa
is Jess marked. It is alio given for headache aud for ague.
Sslldn b a daoodda, havfais tha eomposlllon QbHuO^ ndia
not ptacipitated bv tks alkaloUBl T««eiita. It bs* bsan nauied
artUudilly tMai haliciii, lyittbMiad tma sodinm, nlicji-ildslijda,
and acete-ehlorhydroa btfitg tha fiatglneoaide that has beoi aiti-
fldalljr pnfsnd (Johtil CSam. Ak, 1884. p. 4SB). AccoidinB to
•*■ — "■ •■ "- — •- J'—— ^,J -mil''''' or Hllva Into
glncoati heating it nlly
Km; it may ba split np by lUntiaa wl
nll<7lio alcohol {lalinnd, CrHA) and glncosa j boating it nlly
with dilate solphnno add prodncM a rimilir ttttct SaUcjlie
aloohol ii eonnrted by "'"'■'■■ff ^snla into nticylio add- flii*
acid ii Ibnud whtn nlidu la Uen intanially, ilnco Balidn ia
alimiiuted from the iTitam partly in tbe loim of Mdicylio aud
aalkylnrie adds, ind partly aa nlisBnin.
SALIC LAW, Aim OTHiBBianiMAif Laws. The(l)
£tx Saliea is one of thoea Teutonic laws of the eariy
Middle Ages which are known as %« bai-bartyrtait, among
which we also reckon the (2) Leu Ripvariorvm or RUmari-
onan, (3) Etna (Itx) FraiKorunt Ckamawrum, (4) Lac
Atanuauioram, (6) Lex Bt^iaariontm, (6) Ltx Fruionum,
(7) Lex Anfflionim tt WtriitiwBt, Le,, Thvringonan, (8)
Lex Saxomim, (9) Le^ei Angli>Saxonvm, (19) Lex Dvr-
gmtdionian, (lOiO Ltx Ronana BwgimdionMtn, (II) Lac
Wi*igothorva, (11a) Braiiarium AUtrid, (lib) SdktuM
Theodonci, (12) Leget Ltrngobardorum, and to a certain
extent (13) Lega WaUia. All these hiws may in general
be described as codes of procedore and of rights, wbicU
regulated for some indefinite period the intenuil aSairs of
the several Teutonic tril>e8 whose names they bear.
(1) The Salic Laa originated with the Salian Franks,
often simply called Salians, tbe chief tribe of that con-
glomeration of Teutoqic peoples known as Fbanks {q.v.).
The latter fiist appear in history about 240 (Vopisc., Fit
Hi^ of Balic and otbor Barlarlaa CooIitfie&
Awd., c 7), after which date we find them cairyiog on
an almost uninterrapted struggle with the Roman empire,
till 486, when they finally established a kingdom <A their
own in provinces which had previously been considered
Roman. The Salian Franks first appear onder their specific
name in 358, when they had penetrated westwards as tar
as Toxandria (Texsndria, now Tessenderloo, in limburg,
the region to the south aiid weat of the lower Meuse),
where theyweie anbdned by the emjierot Julian (Ammian.,
xriL 8). As r^arda their previous history nothing is
known with certamtj, though it seems probable that the
Franks who occupied the Batavian island c. 290, and were
there conquered in 292 by Constantins Chlorus {Pantg.
iaeerti oati., 0. 4i and Uksuce transplanted into Gaul,
vere the SaJiwt ^anks. We find, moreover, sadi on-
SALIO LAW
313
• onimioD betman tbe Sigunbri
and the Bilii > that the kttei ue by Nme Togarded h the
dEscendaiits of the Sigambri whom 'nberiiu remored in
8 B.C. fiom theii honw on the ri^t iMok of the Bkine ;
4nd it ii aigoed that ha did not tnnrfram them into tho
Qngemi, nor place them on the Uerwede, a atreMii Bud
localitT near D(»dredit end Zw^indredit, but tnu^luited
them mto the region now callaa the Telnw^ betiraen the
Utrecht Vecht and the Eaateni Tiael, when the Bomau
probably made of tbem what the Batavi had been for
jean post — tbeir allies — perhape on the wme condition m
the liitter, who merely furnished the Romani with men
ami arms. This accannts for the Sigambrian oohort in
the Tbracian War in 36 4.D. Some think, howerer, that
the Salians were a separate tribe of the Flanks who merely
coateaced with the Bigamlni (comp. Wotterich, Dit Otr-
Mmek det Skebu; Waits, Ytifim., a. 24). In 431 the
Fiankiah (Salic) king Chlodio (Chlojot Cllogio), mii. to
hare been a aoo {ot the father) irf Herorech, the founder
of the Merovingian dynasty (Or«g, Tnr., ii 9), took Cam-
biai and advanced his dominion as far a> the Somme
(Greg., t6. ; ffid. Apoa, t. 211 iqX thon^ still acknow-
ledging Hcnnan knpremacy. Oiilaerich reijped from 457
to 481, and resided at Tonnal, where his gi&re wai di»-
Mvered in 16S3. His son Clovis (Cblovi^ Chlodorech)
in 48S aztonded his empire to the Beine (Qreg. Tur., ii
43, 2T). For an accoont of him, eee toL ix. pp. 028, 539.
We have very few means of . ascertaining when .the
Salic law * was compiled, and how long it remained in
force. Our knowledge of the code is derived — (i.) from
ten tsitB, preswed in a oomparativdy large nmnber of
msnoacripts, chiefly written in the 8tb and 9th centuries ;
(ii) trtim alliuions to a Salic I^w in various charters and
other documents. Bat the Latin texts do not contain the
original Salic Law. This is dear (a) from the allusions
we find in tbem to a "Lex Salica" and "Antiqaa Lex,"
which can hardly be anything but referencee to another
tod earlier I<ex Salica ; (i) from a certain pecoliarity and
tnkwardness in the oonstruction of die lAtin, which,
thoD^ it is BO-catled Uerovingian, and therefore very
cDrmpt, nodld have been different if the texts were original
oimpilatious ; ie) frcan a number of words, fonnd in nearly
every paiagrapn of certun gronpe of the MSS., and now
kuowQ as " Iblberg gjoeees," which are evidently the re-
mains of a vernacular Salic Law, and appear to have been
rEtaiaed in the Latin versions, in some cases because the
tranalattHs seemed doubtful as to whether their Latin terms
cnreetly rendered the meaning of the Miginal, in other
cases becaose these words bad become le^ terms, and
indicated a certain fine. We do not know whether the
oiiginal Frankish law-book was ever reduced to writing or
moely retained iii, and banded down to posterity from,
the memory of some persons chai^^ with the preservation
of the law. AU that we know of euch an original is con-
tained in a couple of prolognea (^patently later than Ihe
texts tbemaelves) found in certain MSS- of the ifri^ting
'■DttoBtM Taelallm ftba riw Wul] bllmt 81c*m1i*r'' (Rid.
ApoIL, OnL, illL ai). " Dt BsUu ^un ran colli IgnwiiH Bioimhrl
la dkwn eamat gUdin" (CUndlu, B* IomIi ablic, L 222).
Aaxndiiig to tlw Qmia Fnmc, & I, the Pnnki at ona tliu Inlubited
lb ton of ScambriL "Oa nrilst FtukEdi kfaifm who -nn
■nAoobtodlT Ungi of th* Buliu Anki, m ofm ollad S^bd,
ud ilnji wia Um oltiKt of hOD«Dii« Uhul Bt Rmilgliu. wliBii
la bkptlBd Oorti, ubortad Un, "Jllth d*pOM colli Btoinihw"
(Qnt'F<ir.,U.tl). Yuaatitn RirtiniatiB (il. 4) ht) to King Cluri-
*Csn lis tngmltoi a]
arigbi of tba suna Baliev, Sdnu. k D
Forli
It Ii D
d SallaBd, tlwi«h it k
Latin nniona. One of them states that font men "in
villia qDM nltn Rennm rant per tree mallos (judicial a»-
twnbljes) convenientea, onnes causarum ori(rin«s sollidte
diaeotiendo tmctantes, jndiciimt decrevemnt." which most
nfer to a period befbre 398, as in that j'ear the Salian
flanks had already creased the Bhine and occnpied the
Batavian island and Toxandrio. Another prologs says
that the Salio Iaw was compiled (cZirfurr) wlule the Franks
were still heathens (therefore before 496), and ifterwardu
emended by Clovis, Childebert, and Chlotor. Nor can it
be stated with certainty when the Latin translations irhich
we now poness were mode, but it must have been after
Clovis had extended bis power as far as the Loire (-186-307),
as in chapter 47 the boundaries of the Frankiiih emi^
are stated to be the Carb<maria Silva (in noathem Belgltun
between Tonmai and Li^ge) and the Loire.*
There exist five Latin recensions, more or less different
^l) The earliest of the code (handed down h\ four MSS.
with littJe difference, and very likely compiled shortly after
Clovis extended his emjiire to the Loire) consists of sixty-
five chapters (with the .Malberg glosses).' In tbe conrae
of tbe Gtb century a considerable nomber of chapters
appear to have been added (onder the title of "edicts"
or " decrees "), some of which are ascribed to Clovis, and
the remainder to his successors before the end of the cen-
tury. Ona of tliem (cbap. 78) may with some certainty ba
ascribed to Hilperic (e. 574), Some others seem to have
originated with Cbildebett L and Chlotar L (nhose joint
reign lasted from Oil to S58), and are known collectively
as "Pactus Childeberti et Chlotharu." From internal evi-
dence we may infer that this first veraion datee from a time
nhen Christianity had not yet become general among the
Franks, (ii.) Two MSS. contain a second recension, having
the lame sixty-five chapters (witli the Ualberg glosses) a^
the first, but with numerous interpolations and additions,
which point to a later i>eriod. Especially may this be iid
of the paragraph (in diap. 13) which pronounces fio^ on
marriages between near relatives, and vrhich is presumed
to have been embodied in tbe Lex Salica from an edict of
Childebert U. issned in 696. In chapter 00 paragraphs
six and seven speak of a "basilica," of a "basilica sancti-
ficata," and of a " basilica nbi requieacunt reliquife," bnt
it is more than doubtful whether we have here any evi-
dences of Christianity, though a later recension (the fourth)
altered "basilica" into "eccleeia," the "reliquiu)" into
"reliqnis Banctomm,' and thereby gave a decidedly Chris-
tian" aspect to the clause, (iii.) A third recension is con-
tained in a group of nine MSS. (divided into two classes),
three of which have the same text (with tbe Malberg
glosses) as the MSS. of the first and second recension!^
divided, however, tgrstematically into ninety-nine chapters,
while the other six MSS. have the sanie ninety-nine
chapters, with very little difference, bat without the Mal-
bei^ glosses. This text seems to have been arranged in
Kppin's or C3tar]emag^e's reign {c. 765-779). The clause
on marriages between near relativea mentioned above is
not found in this recension. On tbe other hand, we find
in chapter S5 ( •- 77) fiuee prononnced on tbe murder of a
presbyter and deacon (no bishop yet mentioned), while the
six MSS. of the second class do not contain chapter 99
(" De Chrenecrada "), but merely say that the symbolism
described in that chapter bad been observed in heathen
times, and was to be no longer in force, (iv.) The fourth
version (banded down in a great number of MSB., and
embodying in seventy chapters substantially the whole of
the previous versions) is usually called Ltx SaXica Ebu»-
daia, as the text beam traces of having been emended (by
Charlemagne), which operation seems to have consisted in
214
SALIO LAW
nliminatine the Molbe^ slossw from the test correcting
the Iiatin, omitting a certain namlrar of paragraphs, and
inierting ioms new onee. In dupter G9 tha bishop ia
msntioned with the preebjter and the deacon, (v.) Finally,
WB hare a fifth text, vhich seems An amalgamation of the
prerioiu Tecenaioiu, more eopociallj o£ the second, third,
and fourth, bnt here and therewith contdderable differences.
it was pnblished in 1SS7, at Besd, hy Ban. Joh. Herold
(Oriffiiuim ae OtrmamoojuBi Antiquitatum LSiri); bnt no
ttaee ot the Fulda and other MSS. vhich tha editor sayi)
that he nsad has hitherto been (ound.
The Salic code coniiiti of cnuCmoiits TeesnlinR pncsdnni la
Iswidita (ch^iH. t, IS. 2t, S7, Ifl-BS, 611 C7, iO), jndioAl flags and
MUltiBrDr rarioui kinds of theft and ludnapping (2^8; 10-12, Sl-
23, 2T, 2S, SS-35, 33-40, 56, 61), Tor ofTanon, a^uiiea, &c., to par-
mhu, ankiu:), and [iropBrty [B, 16-17, 19, 20, 24, i^ 20-32, SB,
41-18, 84, eS); it resulitea the "n-ergehl" (a vord found onlj in
tha tsxt pabtiihed b; Henld ; all tha other texts hBTa Itedis,
Inidif=p«pls, anooiateof thap«opla)irfaIleU»aotperM)nsliTinR
nitder the a^c Imw (41-43, E4, U), tha ehan of tb Undred in
the compoiition for homiclda (6fi-KI}, ths darolatkn of property
and inheritance (Gil], mlfpatlon from on* Tlllig* to another J4G), ^
TheSalicldwapeakiot— (a) inborn penone ({n^nuw fViiB£W^
Saliaa Frmicut), nitb a niwld of SOO eolidl, which was tripled
whan nch a ponon aeired in the army, and lbs latter amonnt again
triplod vheo tlia person killed mm an officer oT th« kins ; (i) eeift
(Ml or titi), who er^ojsd penanal ^vedom Hion^ belonging to
tstioD, not y«t plued on Ue seme foatiiis irith [he Fnncns*(n»-
■BiDruirith a vergeld of 100 solidi ; trUnUarii, pechBpa^M&il,
with a wergfild of 82i wtlidi) ; (n) alara (Krci), with a n-eigeld of
to Bolldi ; and a variety of other penoue uolon^g to aim or other
of tboae claaaeB Ipuir ci^niiuir claen a ; jwrvrirua, fabcr fernxrva,
ttittifa, Ik., dssi ej. An ariitocracy is not mentioned. The
people lirad together in TUligea (chap. 46) ; they exercised asri-
rultnre and rouod cattle (2-5, 27, Ac] ; thay hunted and flabed
(S, 33); Tineyards scd gardens won known to them ^7, S, Ac.) \
and gold work and inn work are mentioned (10). The chief of
the s&tg was a kini; ; hia olfii'ers included the greflii, who wss chief
ef a 1X1)7111 [ibire] i taaiian, chief of a hundred (both with a
wergsld of 600 solidi ; the Utlcr conld also be s fver tvgli, in
wtijch case be Lad a veivrld of 800 solidi) ; ihungmut or eenien^
arhu, cliief of a hundred, but probably elected by the people from
smanstbemselTes, as bis wergold ssemB to have been the ordinary
om. ThsjadidalaaMmblynascaUedmafliu, theplaoewhereltas-
asmUodmoIMcro, the party inasaitfomiillui^ the oonndllor of ths
aasetnUy rachhMntiipa, an officer nho bad to adiLie npoa the sen-
tenoe to be pronounced, and to value the proprty in qnestion,
nie famone clause in the Balic Law by which, it is
conunonlj said, women are precluded from euccession to
the throne, and which alone has become Imown in course
of time as tA/ Salic Law, is the fifth poragtapb of chapter
69 (with the mbrio " De Alodia "), in which the succeaaion
to private property is regulated. The chapter opena with
(onr (five) paiagraphs in which it is enacted that---(l) if
a man died without male issue, hie mother (so in fitst
teoensiDU ; the second toflfth have "pater ant mater")woald
succeed to the inheritance (in hereditatem tnccedat) ; (2J
failing her (the father and mother), his brother (brothera)
or eiater (sieteis); (3) failing these, theeiaterofthemathsr;
(4) when ther« wa* no sister of the mother, the usteie
(■ister) of the father; and (S), failing these, the neantt
relati**. After thia the fifth paragn^ reads aafoUowa: —
Isrtgwaan"i»miit««f
It eeeros clear that the fint four para|p«pha of the
chapter, which admit women to a share in the inberitance,
refer to privatt, mowiUi pr(^>ert7, and that, by the fiflli
paragraph, the inheritance of land was excluaiTely coefined
to malee. We know that thia ezclusian of women frtm
landed property was hardly a rule anywhere in tlie
Fi&nkish empire, and certomly not in the 6th centoi;,
but it obtained more or less afterwards, especially during
the feudal period, when all the owiiere of landed proper^
(i.e., the tenant* of fiefs) were liable to military eervica.
We do not know when this eiclnsiou of women from
landed property began first to be applied and extended to
an exclusion from tiio succession of thrones, as we do not
read of such a notion nnttl the middle of the 14th centurj
during the contrOTersy between Edward UL and Philip
of Valois, when it waa alleged to be derived from the
Salic Law. It will be obaerved that the word Saliot is
not found in the oldest existing recension, but appears
first in the second text, which eome would aacribe to the
end of the Gth century. Nor is the word found in tha
eorrespooding paragraph (66,4) of the Lex Eipuaria, which
was based on the BaUc I^w. ThIa addition (retained in
all the other recensions, also in the ao-called Lex Emen-
data) wee no doubt made for some ptupoae, bnt we do not
know whether it was made by a scriw^ nor what parti-
cular notion it was intended to convey, nor whether it woa
this special word which gave rise to the idea of women
being precluded from the succession of thrones.
The TariODs texts of the Lei Salica, arranged in paiallel columns,
Mdth a commentary on the llalberg cloases, nere pabliihed in
IBSO, under the title La ealica : iXi Tm Tail m& Ott Qlima,
and tit Ltt EmmidBia, ed. J. H. Heg«li. with notea on the Frankiah
tvoidi in tha Lei Salica In- H. Kem, 4to, Loudon, 18S0 ; comp.
also Geo. Waiti, Dot alti Bttht der Mfifcim Fmiikn, 8vo, Kiel,
1849) ^a/iSiibm, DUfrSMk. Bcicht- iind atrithU-Firfaaung, Svo,
fTdlnai, 1871 i Fsidneus, Loi Ealiqtu, 4to, Paria, 1843.
Having treated of the Balic I^w somewhat minutely,
^■D need only say a low words abont each of the other
le;jet ior&anniim, as they all preeent aomewhat similar
features, and hardly differ except in the time of their
compilation, the amount of fines, the number and nature
of the crimes, the number, tank, duties, and titles of tha
oScets, &c
(2) The Btpuariat Law, <a I«* of the Kljiearian Franks (Zee
fiipvaria or JMlcariOf L. Btptiari^rvn or Rtbvariontmt X. R^pii^
ttritatit 01 BUniarieMu), or inhsbitanls of ths ilrer-benka, was
ia force among the East or '>*T"1''' Tianks in the Prorinefa
Biboaria, also called Ducatus Or ¥ama Kbosrios (sN voL iz. n.
723), of which OoliHna was the ctliar towiL It has much m
common with tha SaO) L«r ; in bot, ohaptaH IS-M sn, wlfli the
exception of »ma mceanrr modiAcitlani and additioDS, DNnl; a
npetltion of the cotresponung ebaplen of tha Sella Law, and ersn
follow ths Bme amagement, ao tbat tbia part of the code is hardly
anythhiE but the Salio Iaw rsTiasd I7 order of tha fclw of
Anstiaaia. FrofsMoi Bohm(whoaa edition, pnljllihed In IsSs in
i/on. Ana. Bid,, Lagg-. vol. v. pert S, ia baaed on nssrlr for^
UaS., written between Oe Sdi and the 11th century) diridss tbs
■igbty-nine chapters of thia code into fimr distinct portiaiii, aacrib-
ing the fltet portion (chapi. 1-31), wMob eonlatas ensotmants not
met with in the Salic Iaw, to the fint part of the Sth eentorj, the
Mcaed(ehaBa. S2-S4) to the aeoond put of the aame oento^ (&
in\ the t^lnl (chape. SS-7a; to the 7lh century, and the fourth
(ehan. 804S} to the b^^nning of the Bth ceutnr^. This leeiJt
pnoneallTBgreca nithtbestatemaotsronDdinaproIiHUe in certain
SI8S. (whii£oaQtBin soma of the barbatiss codes), wbeie It is aid
that the " Leges Pianoomm ('Lex mpuarionan), Alsmannanim,
et B^nratlomm " wen eompilad at Ch&lona-mr-Hanie at the diets'
tionoflblsrnl. (tll-S34£byiriaamenleeraed in the bw of bis
kinodom, andtluit the 00^ were aftemnb leviaed and aonwied
by Childebeit L,GhlotarL, endDagobert ChsrlemagM pomul-
giiled aome additional cbapten to 6a Bipoaiian Law La SW (JTei.
0irm. Bid., iMg., L HT). We may here obesrva tbat tha Bslic
and Bipnsrian Sin were to some eitent introduced into Knglsnd
by the Norman Conqeest, as appears from the Laws of Ueoiy L,
where we find Bnactmenta "BecnndnmI^en>8sliitam"aiid'Baoon-
dnm Legem Bipnariam " ; oomp. Leg. Bni. L, capp. S7, B >, 10,
11 (cord for word^I^ Bol., tit. O), 89, ftO f 4 [=1. Hip., TO),
and SI I 6 (^U Bal., til » S 4J.
SALIC LAW
315
intisAtdjcoDDKted. -Th* tvo HBO. in whidi It It pnMrrtd nil
it "J(otiti»'rtloomiBMii««tlod«iU»»w«{Uw)qiwM«dAin<imik
habaL' Amnr ii th* diatriet oIIbI Huuulut, Uuulut, Hun-
BHUat Uamnluiil, in thi tth eantniT. TUa uih wu dnind
bom Uw Chanuii, t Oenun itata mutionad bf Tidtu (^iul,
liiL G5 ; Gwth., e. U, 31), vhicb tfttnnnU cmiMtaUd ■ put of
tht Fnckiili empin. Ib tha Ml oamtarr Hamalmt wu t i«rt
of ths Fagni Eibiuiianam. Tba wbols aids caatiMa at onlf fartj-
aight abort nangnpbi, which u< ujjuutly nolhiiw but -•■'-
manti nuds m uiawer lo th* '' miaid dowiiiici^ vlioin Oiarlai
duapktcbad to th« TuiDoi utioDa or bii •msin to ini
HHuiition and to oodi^ tiidr napaotin Uwa. It
luj thanTon
ba ucribad to tha bmniunc of tha »th oaDlniT (BOS or SOS).
r Sohiu hia pnUiahail it u to appaadii to th* Idx Bipouia
ina. BuL, Lagg., ToL T. put S, ^ 3(W>.
Proloaaor Sohiu hia
<jrm. Otn -■
W Tha
!uL, Lagg., ToL T. put S^jTsW).
JlamoJUtomm vaa (aoconUiw to tha nologM mas-
Ent anopUad bjr the Eaat-FnnUah ki» Thianr
(ail-934], uti aftenraidt iapioTad ud naawad brChUdabaRL
(IlI-SSSX Chlotu L (UB), and Dagobart I. («24a81 AlthoBgh
not nmcn nlianca can bs pl4C*d on thia itotanwnt, tb* naaanhaa
ct Ptottan HsTkaL who adital tha nida fMm fof^-aicht HSS.
(JTo. atrpt.Bid., La«.. ToLilLXahowlhttaomaUDd of ooda
cillad Pactu (of whkh ha pnbllabad thca* faHnnanta) wu eou-
mlad rot tha Alamanni in tba reign of Chlotnr L (537-661 V ITndat
CSttotar IL [dll-SSl) a man compUta ooda, eonaiatins of aavanty-
fira afanpton, «M compilad, which wm rartaad andn Dasobert
(833) Bsil angmantad irith clupteta TA-9T ; it wu tg«fD utarad
and muxmentrxl nndat tha Alimannla dnka LindMd [d. T10\ wboaa
work Meikal calla £ac .(laiiimHnim I/Bitfiidatia, ud finally aog-
meatad in tha CaroUiigiui pariod (boisa callad Lix Alaauimiuinm
Zanliaa aiM f^arnBla), parhapa aaHr In tha Bth Mntut;. Tha
coda connata ot B7 (in aoma MSA. M, M, lOG, ud lOT) chnptaT*.
(G) Tha La Sai<tvari»r»m, or Pa^iu Bawaronim, had tba lama
oruln u tba l^tx jUamannomm, if wa aooapt tha i
laliablfl atatamant ot tha prologna apokan of aboi
pnbabia that aoma kind or coda vaa oompUad for
duiag th* reinia U <^oTia't aona. Thoaa puwrapb* wldeh trtat
of acelaaiaaticu a&in and tbs pwitiol of tba BaTtriBO dokat to-
winla tha Jiankiah kings (tit u. chap^ xz. | B) hare daarij liaan
huenadinDagobarfaUnia, itnotlatar. Tbaniaamatalnukiitr
m cartau ptOTUMu of tits Btniian and tb* Alamannic
and alao aoma paagraplu of tba fomai hara baau dafirad
iwhat
. .. It aa .
ipilad for tha BaTariaoa
from tlw aadiaat raoanai
. *-77S),
« bf King Loni* (a. Mtl tad.
--■■ -'-""^ --_-_ — * nia,— -
bjCharia-
ahaptar^ aMb «ralabuBv
diitingaiihaa Ihn
mtKiM (808), Sana bj King Loni* (a. M
Ddu HeniT II. (sad of lOth oantorrV
fa alleged to hara gianlad ths law of th*
liam* in 1044. It oonsiata a'
aareral pBiao^iha. Pnlea
iecenaia&a of to* ooda and Tuion* »ddition», whiefc ba tditad in
IS03 bom tbiit7-fiTa KSa lor tb* Jfoa. Gtrm. Sid., Li«g., Hi.
p.lWaf-
(«) for tba £<a AWmmm, as* toL ix. pi 78*.
(7) Tha £<■ ^nf Uoniot tf W'triaontm, iacni, TtuHiiinrwii, erai-
- Uantbal with thoa* of Ji '
ith tho** of Jad«Wl*m*ra* in
D (L. And. Jnd. Winn., I, t, t,
ddit, LIB), from wbkb dmuu-
>*(80S-80B). B«t
. 1 th* work in JTo*. Otrm. BM. (L^g.,
T.n-lOt), Nkd who iqaeta thai* knldadaooatfWlenwniB
balon^Dg to thia aoda at all, ia of o " "
diSarad
Mcribs it to tba Angtl _ _ _
Sclilstwig lagioii*; otban
bunk ,
ai{;usd that lb* coda
^ _ , , (p. 116) that
writtsaaraaat tb**nda(tbeBtheai&u7- OpiafcnabaTa
alao a* to tha ngloD wbeta tbs law oiia^natad. Soow
it to tba Angtl and Warinl, *ho InhaUtad th* Holatoln and
" " ' " to Tlinringia piopar ; and
ad to Tbmingia on th* laft
tha Shin* (-Sontb HoUtnd, Biahut, Iw.}. Itvaaalao
~'~'~tttod in BwloB wbar* Fllalan
Bixaii both in Ungoaga and
law, aikd whara tba PnmkiBh pnpondanted. That tb* ooda
soma nnecia with til* Lax ChaiaaTonun, which original
n^onoftlia lowar Bhlnaand tba TaaL And tba law maf bava
«oaM to b* to lima amnig tba alUad bibM on tba Elba in northam
Thorin^a, onn thongfa it Origlnatad in Banth Holland. It it
eri^natod in Ttaniinf^ it mnit havs bt^ tnn«plant*d to tbs
BoUain and Sehlaawig ragbna ; and it was naad bj tha Dana,
aa la daar from Osnato brining It onr to Kaalaud whan h< un-
hand tha aoontrf In 1018.* Bnt in England tba coda waa
Mnqdr callad ' Lax Varinanui, h.a., Thnringonun,'* bat no longac
"A^jloniw," aa the Danaa aJlad tha whols Anglo-Saion popnla-
■ad LexDanonuu
tbn which Ihaj bad eonqlund " AngU," and tha law w
fo«wilnB>i<9a''LaxAnglomm''(LegK-Ed'.Conf.,e. SO). Han
It ha* bten ooDcliulad that what waa ailed iu Eui;' ' "
la nothing but tba Lax Warinonun- Wbrnlhsl
had mlfpatad
ad to EbdlaDd iu aailiar tinjait, wvra praatlfiallT ona and
Hanoe WiUiam L, docUling that the (lopiilatuai which
brongUt ovsr with him [rem Normand; vara alao orlgliiallj
Horvagiaui, naolred to ibtogata tha AdsId-Sudd lawa and to leaio
only that of ths Danea in Ibna (Lagg. Edv. CouC, e. 10),— a plan
-ihicb oaW tba moat petasTering antraatm of tha Anglo-Saxoa
anna oo^ indoo* bun to abaudon. Tha Utaat edition of thia
eod*(lSTI)_itbj K. r. TDD Rlchthoftn, who la dei:l<le(UT ajtainat
tb* Sooth Holland origin at tb* law.
(8) Tb* £ai Sammm oonoata ot niu*t«*n cbaptan or dxty-aix
•ctic)** or pangiB^ and appaua to ha compoaed of tbna aaaan tlal
parti, th* okttrt dt wbkb (art*. l-SS)te*ma to hare aiiatad balW
tb* later additiaoB known aa tb* (^[lilnlar* P*d*rbom*iu* (da
partibot SaioniB} of 786 (or 777) and tba Catrftnlara Saxonienm
of 707 (in wbicb a "Lax Saioonm" and "Ewa Sazonam" aia
reAtnd to ; eoiap. ahtpa. 88 and 7, 8, 10) ; tha aecond part (aria.
Si-M) moat hara baan aomfUed attar tUt datoj and ths tbiid
(aita. SI-M) waa probablr addtd in 7M, when CWlamague had
ramovad a part of tha Suoa nobiUtr a* baMagsa from thairown
roontrr ; vbile tb% wbola was nnitad into on* ooda at tha diet of
of tba baibariaa bwa, and it often InUcta capital pniiiab-
for erima* wbkh th* other lawa DBstab with mere pemmiarr
u, ht laBtanea^ tbeft and inoandiatiim. Thia rigour Charle-
aaarrlng to himaslf ths tight of aajlnm and
preaalj retained and granted anow bj (ionraj
a coda was edited in 1876 by Yon Blcbtbofen
magna soitanad bj
paraon, tat it vu e_
IL (lOlt-lOSB). Tbs
in JToa. OtrtL. "'^ -
m Ths Ltgi
AD^o-Saton, ai
la promolgatiil t^ tb* Tanooi kings (aoi
inliiah <u<tnlaila*X with tba eo-oparatiDB of
I7 ot leading men C'sa^otaa," Bada, B. £, iL 6), and
itical lava. Some-
rhat lik* tha Pranliiah ci
aaamblyot lading men (' ... ....
JDsnllT also ot ths c!ei:gr (oiaeiJiiiia. lyiudt
Irided into two claiaea,— aecnlar and ecdeeiai ..
timea ther tra mera Jndkial aentancea {dMl or trtatiea of paaca
IJriS). Tbo earlieat Ibts vb haTS an thoae of £tbalbart, kma of
Kant (e. 681) ; then fbllov thoae of HIoAaer [e. 876) and E
■"■>■' ' '1 8B1), laa (after BSS), f"—' '-"■-
£thelatan (after fiZl), Ea<
Edgar (altar tit), ^theltad IL (aftar >78X tl
(after 1017), William ths Conqnarar (aftat 10..,
two eollsctioiuot lava, tha ao-called 'Lagta Edwatdi Confeaaoria"
and "Lagta Hsnrici L," which, diaving from the Anglo-Saxon
Lav, rapnaant tha modifieatioDS which bad bean inada in ^a
earliaat lava during the Norman period, and tha introdoettou of
D*w *lainsnt* derired froni tba Salic and Slpnarian I^w*. Baaidaa
these tbere sr* a good manj canona and other eccleaiaatlca] (vdi-
nanoea enacted nndsr Ui* uthbiihopa Theodore and Ecgbart and
King Xdgar, ke. ; oomp. EMOLaxD, voL vliL up. 286, 6o£ Then
la an edition of theu lawa br B. Thorpe (ToL, London, 1B40V
another brDr Beinh. Schmldli'u Omla dtr Augii- SaduttL, Sd
ad., Sto, Ldpa
oribed to Onndoliald (d BIO), wbuiea it 'la also called Xw^iMd^
tods (eonaptod (TomMi, Pr. Zoi OmMCa). It consists, according
to im Bnt prologne, of 1 coUeotiMi of eonitiUtiaBB enacted paitlT
by tb* earlier king* of Borgandr, partlf V Qnndobald, and nriaeJ
I^ a oanaral Borgnndian diet Tbia agreea
^ Uon or edict to the oonnts and jndgea »-
gaidlng tb* introdootiaa of tha law. In th* mbria which it bear*
b tba 1133. It ia aid that it was piomnlgatMl it Lyons on Uth
Uaieh in tbs second year of Gnndobald (aoma USS. read Bigia-
nnnd). Aa the yar of Oondobald'a acceanon is aujipoaed to be
486, tlie promnl^tian must hare taken place in 167, or. If ve
aanims thst the year ia meant in vhlcb Gnndobald became sole
klneotBDrKDndy(478), tbedaUoftbslawvOBl<lbe480,vhlleit
vonld be 617 it we adopt the leading " Sigismund " ot soma ot tha
USa Bnt aa the law in Ito preaent atota oontaina dacreea both
of Qnndobald and of ffigiimnnd we an only ncard the vbola u a
compilation effected by tba latter. In aarlj editians ths law was
diTided into eighty-nine ehaplsrt, wltb two addttamanta, the firat
of which [conaiBting of twenty cbaptan) was aacribad to iH^amnnd,
tbs second (ot thirteen cbaptsra) to hia biotbar and mccaseor, tbs
laat king ct tba BuvandiBn^ Godomar. Bnt ProtbaiOT Blnhma
(who paUlsbsd tha hw ii " ~ — - -
407) plaea chap. L (IDa canaia iDnsiooa <
obap. ilx. (D* libMill «*wa) Of tU Ant
w in 1888, in Jfoo. Oim. Bid..
216
1 A LI C LAW
Wpun IxxiLc U> CT. ThB
^crii.,tlis old chop, li
(a decree of SigiBmand
xriL and ilii. _ .-,.
^Dt) aad it> nmimiiig chiptai
meoBi ■dditamatiun is placed u
n ehap. criiL, ind ■ mw chiptei
' conMSa" of Elfi) kddwL It wu Gundobild'
hw ikaald didds all cues betwun BnrKnndUna and betrreea tie
uti SaoMU ; in *U otliar euea the bttor n-ould onl; nee Romi
law (em>p> tetond pn&co), of which the Lsi Bur)(nndJoniui) co
taini mui7 tncti, ud nen tlie Bnrgundbns acre alloned to n
Bmui 1*7 (eom^ C Sarg., titt 43, 60, 55 i 2). The LetiDlty of
tha BdrgQUdka Lav ia purer than that ol ill the preceding bor-
.__, 1 1 — •_*,_ .. .-..._ . t„njgmjr (g (p^( Ronans
ia purer thai
BniT in it a dJ
wiUi gnMar lenieiKj and to lOBke th^rt
..._.,. gat prorpul-
e>t*d in 813 a Capitnlan AqaiSKntmm (ifiiiL, Legg., 1. 817) n-
■ndillg th* Jmi BDi;gsiidiaDDni, thoogh tha text ria not allerad.
IgolMrt, Inabop of LTmi. complained to Lonii the Pious respecting
ccrtiin abosa naaad b; tho Burpuidiui Iak (BoaqDet. vl SKA),
bat BO nmsd; ma aflaeted. On the other huid, towards the end
of tlu Mieaiitiiij the lav had gndiully hllcu inladisoM like all
tb» othar bavarian la«^ thongh it La nid that the amperor Conrad
IL rarlnd and confmud it Bae, beildeB Proreaaor Blnhme'a
•dltiai, HdM, MiM. lb Is /</maiian di la lai Baarjtiignmnu,
(Ida) la tha Noond pntace to tlw Lot BnTgandlonaiD (pnUiahed
in SOS) tlw Boman UQfecta of tha Borgnndiaii king vera pTontised
a codiAcalioa of their own lawa. Tbis work appeui to hira been
Hompthr enonted and wu pabUihad imder tha title Lex Jiaaawt
AnwMfvaiaN, peAau bdbta the cain|dlitlan of the BrerisTuun
.AlnSct (SU). TtoM oollaotion is aln known aa Pmiiunu, of which
Mid* (twnd aliaadr ia USa. of tha Bth cartnrT) no aatiBhctar7
•qIautioB baa hitLatto been offend, eome, periiaps wmn^, sup-
p,.^!^ that it is a cormpHon of the name of Aidnlano^ tba Boman
inrist It was pabliabed bj Fiobaaot Blohms a* an nipaudii to
tLe Lax Ba^prndioDiim (ifn. Arm. Bid., Ugg., liL p. Wn
(11) la ngatds the la tristeKfanim (sIki called Anim J^iuft-
' aim, JmHciimLibir.nnmJtuUelale, tc), we know with certsintr
from laldoca of SariUa {BiiL OKA. Si^, G04] that Enric {ieS-iSS}
vaa thaltit qntbln king who gars written lam to th< West Ooths.
It would flxnfiin ba enoneona to ascribe (with Uaiisns, BiiL d*
SpcMi, T. <} th^ first written Uws to Znrie'a am, Akrie it,
thoogb ft aaams probabla tlut the latter, bjr addii^ his own laws
to thoaa it hla bther, was teally tbo first anthor d^a Weat-Oothic
he coDeetion of laws (as It had been
d ira to the raid of the fith and flu b«iniiing of the tth
lasflie Urn ol P— '- "^--^ ' ■" ■ -
ofOM khuiwbo
to bis collection. Isidore aba tdla na (SU. OitiL £W, S0«-a24)
eenlorr) as ttia Lava of Enrii^ thooj
that Lao^gUd (d. A») tnised ftuie'a lawi. At
bldMo of asfiUa from CM to AM, and but thep«ite be ssid to
bats MM •'eontempcniT of Leoririld, Ua teatlmonT miy bo
ToTLMTi^d, li
■ecaptad aa eondndT^ tbongh a mBch lat
tiadltfoa Ktnid hara it that the leririon w^ _^
■ib]'s eon, Beooaiad L (tha flnt CaAolic kdni of the Qotbs), who
died In 401, wherabr Os irti^ pcnlation ef Bnain was eqnaliied
in pcint of law. Aeerading to Spanish liadAions of th* 13th
oeatoiT,'tba Teat-OotUa coIlaotiaD of laws.was aga^ nrised,
■ndsr Sisansnd, bj the foorth ooancQ of Toledo (etS), a rarUon
on which Isidore aeema to haTO enrdsed eone inflnance. It la nn-
oertain, lunrersr, whether tbo code waa then eratematicallr ansnged
•od dlrided into twain booka, aa we now hare it, or whether Sda
" «r his son Reeeminth
divided (In imitsdon
waadone ander OliindaawiBtb id. 8GS) ornnder his son Becerwinth
(d. 071). The aeVsnl boiAs of th* cod* an divided (In imir "
of A* codes of Thaodoslna and Jsstinisiins) into titnli, snd
a^n into ehapten or cmwtitatianB. From Leorigild down to
Igiea (d. 701) and Us son and etaegent Wltiia (d. c 701, the last
kfig of the Oaths jefim the Inmfam of the Uoors) sverj eoDstitn-
""" V Q^ name of tlie king who paomolgated It, while thoaa
n befoi* LsorWld have the word "antiqiB" prsflied
-^' -' '>-- name of a king. Thb dnlgbatlan is said
id br Br^ (tW-e87), who thanhy wlabad
--im daiming the code aa their votk.. Of the
■ riiieh olatad before the fomth oonncil tt Toledo oalf one
11 ftagmsnt baa oone down to ns, In a palimpaeet pnaarred in
the lUa Vatloaal libtan (No. 1278). Some iwd Ob •■ Oa
tsmalndsr of th* aoiFposed tesouion of Beccsnd L ; others reglid
it aa a fragment of tte laws of Eoiis, thon^ It conld in nocaae
ba the l^wa ot Xniie themaalna, but at most tlirir aodiScatloa bf
Alacio IL Thf fngmant wu known to flu Baoedletlnae (Mw«l
TtmiU <b npimt.. E 4»S, liL GS, IfiS, note IX and wu publisbed
fn 1817 by Proftaaor Blohiaa (iK> WmtfoOL AnUaua odir dai
fitaiUwA ataarvTi I, Halle). The toit b nndoabtodlj^ older
than thoae enacbnesta which we find designated u '' anticraa," so
thrt It coold hardly be piaoad latsr than tb oonunsnoewtait ti ths
Bth eenhnT, Lt.. ahorlly sflxr the eomt^lBtion of th* Brsrlntml
Alarid (SOfl). Hence Aa text callad 'antiqna" aaj b* K^idad
as a modillcatlan of that of flu Pails pallmpMB^ and wsa prabablr
dy be trac«l in tbit ot the palimpsest C^en (Mn the
m Alarid), and also In th* '^anHqna" eonstitatioD), la
I find STsn tncea of Jnsflnian's bw. The I<s n^at
msj sbeady bt
Brerisrinm A*
which we fin_ ...
gothormn (flia first code in wUdi Boman law and Tantonio bw wi.. .
lyitciDitically combiDsd) was no donht lapnlcd, sfter Lemiglbl
and Baoeared L, u a cod* fcr tlu Gotba u well M Ibr the Somxan,
withont aboliduiw the Brerisriom amoaa tbo Bomans. But King
Chinilsswinth oidsined that the Lax TiidgothDnnn dumU b* the
sole code for both ustlons, priAlbitiag at Uts sams time the iMa of
the Bonun Isw, tlieraby matarially promotiuiF the amslfpBHlIoa at
the two nations. It remained in raree in Snain throagboat the
Uiddle Ago, and wu tnnalatad Into Spanish (Caatilian) nnder
Ftnlinanirill. (13U-12U, or 1241) nndet the title Asrtt Jbijb,
or JVsroda Oerdota.
(lis) Hare sbo we maj mention a LecSomana eompileil tot the
Bcnnan population, just u in Bnignndj. It is aba known u Liter
Legum, Libtr Ltgum Somanomm, and u Xa TJuedatii or GirfHi
Theadotlaiui-m, II recelTed th* Utter nam* becanAs ths Caitm
ThtadonaiHa serred ss its haaia: It indndsa ala« eioerpts booL
nataUm ot Theodosins, Yalentinian, Manrian, Ufjoiian, Barani^
and from the JfuMlHliMM of Oaina, tha ^MbnMa of Fanln^ tha
Codlm artaoTiiaia mi BemescKiamiM, ke. In a US. of tbe 10th
CBDtaiy It is called Brrviariiiai, and tlu titb Bntbrimm Alarid or
..^Jonnaaumhsslieciime gensialainc* thelSthoentmy. Thaeoni-
pliers of the BrsTlsrinm an not known, bnt it wu published in
thatweatj^Bcond Teari^ AbriolL, <.■.. ouBthFeb- '" '
Aim (Atnna] In Gaaoony.
Tioces of the Roman t'
altered in other plaoea.
Hseuel, Ln Boaana Wingoltim
a imitated, exnrpted, aul
n, Brohably dating from tha
I where the KS. wu fbund)
best edition b that of O.
, _ ., wiL Berlin, 18*T.
(lib) We han also a cods (or the Bastam Qotbs compiled by
command of Theodnrlo after M9, bat befon ESS, and known u
KUimm JlitadBTici. It condsta of lES ehapten [with a (ew addi-
tions), which an In reality an epltoma of Boman bw. It wu
Sblished in 1S7S, In JTom Am. Bid., L^g., T. p. 145 i;., ed.
ProfeeMn- Bluhm*.
(IS) Liga Zovnionfonni. — The fiitt Inee of Lombardio bw b
an sdjct ot Bothar, consisting of 3SS cbuteis, and pramnlnled at
a diet held at Faria ou S2dKoTemb*r tiO. lUe wu followed by
bwa of Grimoald (<fla),-Bine ehapten; lintnmad aii-nS), al
i.„i_ - =-■-■-=- (7«), nine chaptoa j Ibtnliias {*. TBB" ' '
1^ — -»^^ — J- ^ Cbariemwni
manttteiipta'&L
> duaxdo^cal, eon* in a systematical <nd*r.
ntbalf**dyfirondlnall8.ofthenhcantary.
The qratematie eoUaetion, wbieh waa aaad cbidh' tn Boleoa at
Isctniu and fiir qnotitim and wu known aa Issriasnls (£<Air
Lemfetmdm a. ZtwtoiW*). appean to han been made in the Ullt
ceuluiy. nu text » It adsta at prsssnt b mr onnpl^ aa a
nombn of dosan (asm* of great antlqol^) and nrmnhe, added
in the first ^^— *** by thoaa who had. to ase tha eods to onilsin
— ,_■ 1 ._ .j{j„ 1,,^ df 1- 1 — J •!— > •-■.: ■«.-
hsidn made the^ upeanuiM The flietoo ,_._
of Ailpraid and ot^Albertaa (aecond half of ISfli aantaryV He
btar cDniment*tois(OsrobudeToMo,«llDOj Aadieu ^ Banlc^
tltSO; Bbdns deHorcone of HapK before 1888 [ Bohariu and
Johsnnaa ITenns of Bsii, c U40) telte fteqnoitlj to Boman law.
Of tha Edlotmn Bolhaib a Oraek banaklicai na mads, cf which
only fiagmenta ha*« bean piuauind (eemp. C. & Zachailll, JVnv-
mjHta ssrt<aBi> Chmcm Lmm BelAarlt, Langai. ngii, ex. cod.
Parb. Onee., No. 1E4S, HddelbeiB tSSC).
■dJtIOH 1 m a Bs^os s TiBSL SHela iHM IviffitaidiinM, Tnrla. ISU,
>atlIiladl7>:F.HdlBteBr,II^Ui,lS&L UUS; (I)iriiii.OiniL llM.7lw.,
1^ (laav bv Fikiir^ime udAifr. aomiiii : a\ ft. Biuhiu uiSu
MUrm^ InytfdMM l» BSBCTO, linii ncp. Mvfail, fiHaifam Jn
ots offhs bw, sflsrwaids foand tbdr way into tha
flu end of the ISth and down to ths b^bming of
^, TsrioDa gioaes and oomras^toriu am flu lom-
bsidn made the& upearanca Tha fliat oonmentaji
of Ailpraid and ot^Albertaa (aecond half of ISfli aa
08) Tl
compaiatindy «p>wkiu no great dbtsnca of time between the
Ugtt tertararvM and O* Laws of Webs, while tbe soatenta of
thebttsr showaaimilar, n y-almoat the aame, ideaof bwu the
It ftam flu bet fliat Vabs bscsBe permaaently
and of ^ ISth centmr with a Tsntoaio pa^b,
I, it baa been notioad that in Talea Boman sod
S A L — S AL
217
tiuV<Ua>aa.> Id tli*p«Cu<tUb«taMthitHo««I,-'Milu
As Ina ud eatOBM at th* Manbr riolitod witk lapui^, ntt-
mowd th* aiehbUM HbmK •&« UAvp ud a> dMdf th*
dMr, tk* bqUm rf Wili^ ud ^ fMMM (fear Ihbm (^ t«o
clarin) lk«a «Mk amo^ to MMt >t ■ pke* oOlad T Tr a«7a u
Hit, IK thi «Uta boon on thi liTV Tn, nuind lUthv iB DMM^
idoeM ftw dw wboh MMMUr tnlT* ^dw mat npiriiBBA
woDM, iddid to tUi BMW a «brfe «r daalar tf )«w% B«*d
BUnw^d, ud to IbM* Iktatoa sordid tU toA cf •anU^
ntaUif, moaadtu mA •ln|*liBs, ndt ««inpiktla» w>%
wba ompIaM, mdto tlw unmbljr, and, aRn harua Iimb coo-
finaad, fnelainad. Hani oauad tbn* «vpita «f iMm to U
wiitta^ OB* «r lAk^ «M to aannpanr tU gooit fbi daflr on,
anaUw vw diporitol la Om oowt at IfaMftav, aad a thM at
DiBwwr. n* MAMdiawwd -^
■pIiHt lU luiMiiiiiiia. aad ■»■ after Umnl UbmU
Boas attoadad ^ tk* anhUahop tt St DaTid'^ dw Ui
btihm of
Basgw and Bt Aauk, aBd tUctMD Dlh« pmoaaH Tlu
win radtaJ babn lb* papa and oonlnud hr Us aalBori^,
whkk Howd Md hk oonpudanh latwMd koaa," •Mil tUi
Bot kara bna itftetad bafeca Howal had HiUactad Walw to ua
Mm tabt dtgnfcn Dot Mbr* SO. Talun* thnadillknntnMB-
(iooa of tha ead% ooa lOr Tanadotk at ITntb ytiim, asothw Rir
Diootia or Sonth Talaa, a tUrJ in Onnt <r VKth-lMt TalM.
Ta do not knav h»« br Umi* taaaiMtoM waa nlfen) la tba
''*g'""'"|[ I bat a TariaBOu bdM bar* oeoonad AottlT aftar, fci
tha aiaaiiaHpta tn vbkh the «ad** at* ftaaanad mm nwtlr
bom aaA olhn. n* coda waa oiUndlT csBidlad 1b Valib, bat
M hnt* M Mm MSa Oaa ti» Ittt va&Tj, and ami tba
•adiwt COM (MHdaUr thoaa of ^ TsBadotia iiiimi^iiiiI aootalB
■any Inhtjal'""- Tba latU tawulatlMH sf lb* odd* woald
aacm to ba ranr iHl thoo^ «t« Iw* «a bar* bo Millar USB.
(MaoalBff to tha J>^atia laoaBdoi) tbaa ^ ink ontmr. Tha
Idtiii laxt la mwh Aacts' thaa Qm Tdih, bM W* do not knaw
vhatbar thto ateldnmt waa Buda' ob poinaa or wbatbai Uu
tnndatloB la an ImilatiDD at aa (aiUw Wi lb*
mitotiDD U aa (arilw toxi n* tncto Maal
only a hnr Izacaa of BomaB law, vhieh, howona, an andaad;
adatioBi of a latar ptriod. Tha vbob body af Wabb lawi ni
M toIbbu br Ab. Owan OBdar-tb dlnetbn of tlw
a the pablla naotda (toL, LoDdoo, U41).
aiaHtoitwteoD«M.iHHd ~
<J.M.
6AIJ07IIC ACID, bh orguic add fonnd in Baton,
in tlia frae atatoy in tbe flowen of the nuHl(^^«w«et
(5,pm«> ITJiKtrM, L.) aad, oonlHDed with matlijlio otlwr,
in tba IWTH of tba wintognan (O^iMima pnettmitiu,
L.) and JwfrMMia LmUmaum. in tha liaA of the
■woat tnick (Afula laifti, LA and in tannJ apa^M of
Ptofa. It via diaomand in 183S by Piria, wbo mparad
it artifieiallj "bj tha deoompontioD of Sauciv (^.k). It i«
wwiaAahla aa baing tha bat organia conpouid ooootring
in Batnrairiudi baa baan pnpand artafidallj On tha laqia
aalt. Foaaeaaing powarfni antiaiptio pt^wrtiea and baiog
pcHBtntooa onlr in krga daaaa f tba madwrnal doae being from
0 to 90 graina), it ia e^iabla « ]Btanif^ uaain thearta and
nuwrofaetnwa. Lithaprc^ortuaaffimDl to lOpetoent
it prevania tha davalopaMDt <rf baeteiia in flnida containing
than, and if addad to the extant cj 1 part in 60 U will
destroy their life. It alw kill* Tonla, and pnrenta the
willing of beer and milk. '
about bj tba action of n^etabla fannenla oi
ancb aa anijgdalin and ■innigrm^ %nA conaainiantfy
can pment the formation of awential lul of »i««™-<« or
of (ul (4 ninatan^ Ac Fknta vatatad widi ito ac&tion
ipeedUj dia, Dka additioa of a little of the acid to ^ne
randan it nun tanaeioQi ; akini to be naad for 'rtafcinj
laatbar do not nndargo daeompooition if ttaapedinadiliila
' Th»* te >a totealMlJttuailaUou hr tha iMadny kwi iiT a jltm»
Dfi^ (or Drnwd) Had Und, nac fur tha Lawi ot Karia, whioh
ua aid to baloBg to a iwisd bdn tha Boaw IbtmIbb, avB la
aolr M 400 jaan bate* OiM. Ia bi|Jlih tnadiUoB hj th* «U*
*r tha W^ toat of tb* ■HBllad triad! of Drwnl Ha*) Had li ittwi
br«*i% »* .iM<aM j«M> V ratat LoadoB, lui, p. na
k^ laaet for mmtha e
alaopntanta tha nmililiniBa of preawred fmito and baa
baan fonnd naafnl in tha mannfacton of Tlnogar. Dnles
pennia being paenUai^ atwoaptOile to ito action.
SUkjlia add la nat with in ooauoaca* iB twv Ibnna " natual '
and'aMUdiL" Tba hnv occbi* aa bandHn* ptioaatia oratala
nNBbliBg thoaa of MrjehBU. bat oowidmbly bnnr. aRMllr
aboDt hdr an iaoli ia l^tb ; tba lattN ia Bat vith as UJAI ninato
n* aatDial and <a ptapaiad hj daeomporing tba TolatO* oil (f
wiotaipaiB «r of th* awaat Idiili lij a iliian iiilalliii iif iiilaarfiiB
hrdiato, and tnatlu ttw moltiBc potaidBB nttnlato wb hrdn-
ohlarie add, which Bbmlaa tha idi^lia add. TU wtlBdal add
I 1 awordlag to Babb*'* pataot prDcwa ly paaii^cafbeak
tbraoj^ cadlBiB phaaoxid* (sarbolato) luatad ia a ntort,
■^^-^^^d. Tt
natian o< aBn-bidnayb* __, ^
and ■-■J**^"'— " An fanpronaMnt baa ncaBll* baaa
a* iriwk of Om Bhawd bdng in thtaeuo eonnrtad b£
aoid Tof^^ this add «aaD«t with tnomBawR»aiiBt__
wtthphwiiL w«olkiaBdBata.oijb«Matoadd^bBtlsBOWBrsjarsd
ia a psdkeUr par* aoBdlHoB. Ti» irnwti of tha Bnt-aatosd
inpqAtjp n^btdetaotad bfUs odoai and brlhsBtdtlBg-poiBt
balu lm> Oas whaa pon, ths ssooad bv tb* ^nk Hub ft tom-
l^Ioato* to the add. and O* tUidl? Ks eoaparatin inaolDbm^
Ib baiUag ohlatoliMV, I? tba graatw sotobilitr of itoealdBm niv
and hijSt atrlng a jaUow pndpitato with hrtia shladdst Bali-
(^Ua add wbaa JHU* ihoald ba tnt tran odour and dunild dlM*I*«
oomdstoir in aloiAd, and its solntlan, whan spontanMOdjr arapo-
ratad withoot eontoctwith all. ■hoald jidd ajstala barfBg osloa^
las* BdntL It has a ipadls Rravltr of 1-tt aad fhHB at IBS* CI
(Iir-rihi.)j abon that tanfntm* It la oonnrtad into ^sad
andtorbonieanhTdiida. Ito cbamkal focmola la CUEUOH]tXlkE.
It 1* ■olnbla in W Mria of odd water, to 1 of laetlbd splilto at
wins, and in 200 of dnailB, also Ib oUt* aad oaator dl% in aultsd
fats asd TiasliBC IDuJlo* lalts of dlri«, aosti^ and pho^bona
add* mdar it auc* aolnbls in watsr, posAlj fcaiB tb* bsaa oob-
Unlac with It. An uownu lolDBaB of allcjUo add f^rts s ddp
T^kTaslaarwUhOntosatta. Tha ma^L s&jrl. ■'d aniTl athars
of ths add an wad ia psrfamMy, and Aa eddma nit If kspt
fi>r asB* tin* and tbn dbtOIad with wBlar Tldda a Uqdd ridih
baa a strong «dow af nss* (Din^, A^Mto. /wm., otzrlL
p. lie).
Whan admtdstend intnttU* nUerHe add tajdair 1ow«b O*
bodllv tsmpMBton and ndaoonh* pain tata, blood prim, and
npidltv orinatiallaa. tandng dstth whos gitiB ia mssdT*do»n
l7F^jda7th*r*nliBtorraiiaM. It I* oiented i> O* ai"
partljr n ntkjUo amTpartlj n salicjlnrio add, coBBanlnt
to It a brown ooloni by idbelad and a ossb ono hj tnnaaiil
light TbM taksn br sosu Ub* It prodncsa dtafHsih gUdin^
Vt^^.j1|«^ ••^ anins '■ *'" **— Hfc«^Blii^ Tsksn iotwaallT tn
madidMl do*M tt piMWM Uis an* pnwtin n saUdn ud
■odioia nltcrUto (is* bslow), bat ia nnc^ Ita* ss*d la madidn*^
AppUsd sctwnallri it ha* a aiarfcad actioa on Ihlcksnad ■ctfami^
udhbsBBBMidfbrthaoanif oomaaad wait^ tonllrr* psln
and dsstooy fetor In nlontod oanow, aad du in ovtaiii skin
dimna la which an sntisiftio Is Msh), aa to iia«iasis, scBma,
inbvtrigSt Inpn^ snd lingwMM. Ttkoo ai Hinlt it rsUsrta ha;
dUMato y smHwb (VaCLUU ii mora ftaqeandr »id i>> >>>*^-
oin* than salM^Uo add bsnon Isn htitating to tha miiaou B<a>-
brann. Iliipr«na(«dbTn*Btnlii(ngawtatianar*adlBBoarboaato
with nlkrlie add. It ooian In eoBnana as Miall whU* amtalUn*
pbtn wlOk a sllAt psarly hutr*, haying a iws*tlih sslb* tasto
aadBildlfdkaUmiMrtiaa. ItlsaohiUSinl-aFartoof wataand
a tf aloahol at ir C. (U* fahr.X bat BWli Bora n to bd)lBgwst«r
and aloahoL It ia obidy saplaT«d Bodlsinally aa a fsBMlr to
aoBto riMOBaUsB, In which it Iowa ths tatoptratan end slim
paiB. It fa aln vafbl In hnilarn* and in oUHnada alba ; Ito
ebol^ogls aetioB and ila powv «f Mtdwlng th* bil* uon flnid
IndioatoibBntalnMoindMttMbBaBtefaaUslraas. Itbubesa
bond at atnio* In HanMn'i dlssassL AlscAoI or oUur atimnlisto
an oAm ritaa with It ta pnrant O* dspfndng inlasnM oa th*
bnrf s aoBon which fa eaoasd by 1*ms doss*. *———** ia, how-
arsr, nnlt for this pornn (Usrtbtdal^ A(ra fHarsMMjiit, 3d
ad.,p,fT), IIk*a]ioyBoadd,ltprodaenwb<agl**ainfii]ldosn
sat^iolira sndlloty phanousno, bat thssB VBploB* an nUand by
tha us of Mgot and hydrobroBlo add. Ia ■ few pnaona It caan*
mrit JlnrriinMn ilium iihia«Tg thi syn sni&nt, snd in othm
IthaasTsnprodnosdddiriaB. In ito letliat tn hsotsria it i> abeat
oBt^thlnt bto powsrfU tbaa nll^Io add.
tnnaaiitold
218
8 AL — S A L
SALIEB^ Anona (17S0-I8SS), drunfttic composer,
vM bcrn Bt LeoiMBa^ Italy, Angrut 19, ITSO. Id 1766 he
«M t)dnn to Vumia l^ > fonner " Eapellmeuter * named
thwnwnn, irko iatrodoced him to the emperor Joseph,
and faiilj pnpared the way for bii sabaeqaent rocceaa.
Hu fint <q>aik, Lt Dooik LeOeralt, was produced at the
Bn^Tboatw in 1770. On Ooaunum's death in 1774,
W racmTsd tliB appointment of KapellmeiBter and eom-
poMT to the court ; and cm the dwUi of Botmo in 1766
be WH advanced to the dignity of " Hofkapellmeiiter."
Ub held his offices with bononr for fifty yeaia, thoo^ he
made freqnent TiaUs to Italy and Po^ and oomposed
for many impOTtant Enropean theatres. His oW' (fmnnv
ms Taran (aiterwarda called Ajxt, £e iOrmia), a
'work which was preferred by the poblic of Vienna to
Momrt's Don Giooanni, though it is, in Mftlity, qoite
twwoithy of compariMUi with that marrellons inspiration.
It was first produced at Vienna, Jnne B. 1767, and
stnngel]' enough, considering the poverty of its s^le, it
was revived at Leipdc in 1846, thon^ only tor a single
representation. lUs last opera wu DU Stger, produced
h 1804. After this he devoted himself to the composi-
tion of church mune, for which he hod a very decided
taiaot. Salieri lived on friendly terms with ^ydn, but
was a lutter enemy to Mozart, whose deMh he was sus-
pected of having [ooducvd by poison ; but no paitdde of
widence was ever forthcoming to give colour to the odious
aacnsation. He retired from office^ on his full salary, in
1824, and died at Tienna Hay 7, 1835. None of Saheri's
^nA» have survived the change of fashion. He gave
leswos in compositaofl both to CSiembiiu and Beethoveo ;
the latter dedicated to him his Three Sonatas for Piaito-
torte and Violin, Op. 12.
SALIT. BeeMABS.
.' SALISB0RT, or Nnr EUsmc, a city and mnnicipal and
Cliamentary borough, the conn^ town of Wiltshire, Eog-
1, is situated in a valley at the oonfloence of the Upper
Avon, the Wily, the Bourne, and the Nadder, on the Qreat
Western and South Western Bailwajs, 80 miles west-sonth-
west of London. The city at the beginning was regularly
laid out Igr Kshop Poore and still retains subelontiaUy its
original pun. In the centre is the market-pUce, a large
ana handsome square, from which the street* branch off
at right anglea, Conning a series of quadrangles facing a
thoroughfare oo each aide, and encloeing in the interior a
wftea for courts and gardens. The streams f owed un-
eovered through the streets till the visitation of cholera
ia 1849 lad to their being arched over. The cathedral
of St Hary was originally founded on the hill fortress
of Old Sarum ^sy Bi«hop Herman, vhen he removed the
•M from Sherborne between 1079 and 1076. The severe
drought in lB3i caused the old foundations to be dis-
covered. Its total length was 2T0 feet ; the nave was 150
feet by 73, the transept 160 feet by 70; and the choir was
60 feet in length. In 1 2 1 8 Bishop Poore procured a papal
bull for the removal of the cathednd to New Sarum. For
this various reasons have been given, — the deepoUsm of the
governor, the exposure to high wiads which drowned the
voice of the officiating priest, the narrow spas* for houses,
and the difficulty of procimng water. Until the Reforma-
tion service still continued to be performed in the old
diurcli. A wooden chapel of St Mary was commenced at
New Barum in the Eoster-tide of 1219, and the foonda-
tiona of the new cathedral were laid by Bishop Poore,
S3th April 1320. It was dedicated at Uichaelmas 1258,
tfie whole sost having amounted to 40,000 marks, or
XS6,6C6. The cloierters, of great beauty, and the late
Early English chapter-house were added by Kshop Waller
de la Wyte (136S-74). The tower from near the ridge was
Imilt in the Decorated stvle by Bishop Wyville about 1331,
added betwen 1335 and 1375. It k
both
impreanoa it tauwtrj%
(404 featX and is
for its baan^ <rf nraporti<» and the impn
of ligbtnsss and sWlamess. Hie chapel built by Bidiop
. (1450-63)^ that built by Lord Eungerfotd ii
1 476, and dw fins campanile were all ruthleMly demolished
by the architect James Wyatt, 1783~179L TEecathedral
as a whole is a unique ipeeiman of Early English, having
the advant^e of being practically completed as it now
stands within a remarkably shixt period. For li^tncas,
■tm^icity, grace, and unity of deugn it ia not sorpataed
in EnglaDd. It ia ia the form of a Qreek or donhla
croas, and comprises a nave of ten bays with usies and a
lofty northern porch ; two transepts, one of three and the
other of two bays, while both have eastern aisles for
chspeb ; a choir of three bays with aisles ; a presl^tery
of three bays with aisles ; and a lady-chapel of two bays.
The total length of the building is 449 feet^ the length of
the nave being S29 feet 6 inches, of the choir ISl feet,
and of the lady-chapel 68 feet 6 inches, while the principal
transept has a length of 203 feet 10 incheo, and the
eastern transept of 143 feet The width of the nave ia
34 feet 4 inches, and of the principal transept 50 feet 4
inches. The library, built by Bishop Jewel (1560-71),
contains abont 5000 vcdumee and several M8S. of great
interfst. In the dose, dScnpying an area of half a square
mile, and poBseeaing a finely-shaded mall, are the episcopal
palace, an irregular Btmctuie begun by Bishop Poore but
of various datea, the deanery house, and other boildingg.
like three parish dinrchee are St Martin's, with square
tower and spire, and nossaaing a Norman font and
portions of Early EngliA in the choir ; St Thomas's (o(
Canterbury), founded in 1240 as a chapel to the cathedral,
and rebnilt in the 15th century, a handsome building in the
Perpendicular style ; and St Edmuod's, founded as the
coUegiata church of secular canons in 1268, but subse-
quently rebuilt in the Perpendicular style and late^
restored at a coat of £6000. The residence of the oolh^
of secular priests is now occupied by the modem
lU^ of St Edmund'^ founded in 1873.
St John's chapel, ^unilkl by Bishop Bingham (1228-46),
is now occupied by a dwelling-house. There is a beauti-
ful chapel attached to the St Nicholas hospital, founded
in the reign of Richard IL Tie poultry cross, Oi
high cross, an open hexagon with six arches and a central
pillar, was erected by Lord Montacnte before 1335. In
the market-place is Marochetti's statue to Lord Herbert
of Lea. llie principal secolar bnildings are Ae court-
bouse^ the morket-honse, the Hamilton Hall, the county
jail, and the theatre, Among the ipedmeus of ondent
domestia architectnre still remaining may be mentioned
the banqueting hall of J. Halle, wool merchant, built in
1470, and Audley House, belonging also to the 15th cen*
tury, and repaired in 1881 as a diocesan church house.
There are a large number of educational and other charittei^
induding the bishop's grammar school. Queen Elisabeth's
grammar school, Talman's girla' school, the St Nicholas
hospital, founded in the reign of Richard II., and Trinity
hospital, founded by Agnes Bottenhnm in 1379. At one
time the city poBsessed woollen and cutlery manufactures,
but these have now declined ; and, although the mannfac-
tnre of hardwue and of boots and shoes is still carried on, it
is on its shops for the supply of the neighbouring villages
and its agricultural trade that it now prindpally depends
The peculation of the city and mmudpal borough (area 616
acres) in 1871 was 12,903, and that of the parliamentary
borough (area 676 acrw) 13,839; in 1881 the numbers
were 14,792 and 15,680.
liffhbour
thiiig of Old SsnitB sud t£« nn^ n
8 A L — S A L
219
dsnjtl vliM of CbnaJoa. HtlAird Bm lad nihnin u« two
«f tba ikbMt IMm !■ tha CMUtor far palnditbk Imnliwmtfc
Ii tk* BlMkuon Mmkw fldkboiT pn«MiM mm of tb* BoMt
oDtettooi of nbMnrie uttqiimM m Eo^ud ; iti nksdU
atbfliig of oljsdti ftm th( nooDdifai lb* Kaw wodd u nto-
Uilr BUDniund. Hia tertnm tt Old Sunm (AMntor^ i.*.,
Sm^ixniii^, prolablj " tba dir d^"; Suiibolo ia D«mmi»j)
ii rf TaiT <*^ diti^ ud wu nndoDbtodly hdd Iw tlM Btlga balN*
itba>m*ufanpertuitfi]rtt«M0ttlwBonui(£9rK«(wna>X It
oM^iid ■ eanied Boond rUog atenptly bua tha nll^, ■ '
lo^ tad imputi, vUck ftUl tMnala, m tbml > milt m d
ttmtt. Tutoo* Bdbm toad* btuiebed oat ftom It ln_dil
Jwethwa, Haar It Crnrid won a mat Tietor; a
lUl It WM baraad and n^ad ^ Bwand in li
fUsboMith Villiim O* CoBqaararin 1070 i ,
ifbr Ua TictariiB : and It «H han that h» took tha oath of ftal^
from an b^kh ludhoUan on tba ouplation of Domaada? in
lOM OldSanmMBtiniiadtohaTathapriTU^aalntanilngtm
mabm » padkoant ontll isai, allhovf^ lattatij not > AmI*
itfiM tamainad within it* Hmlta. Haw Saram gnw np mmd
tht Daw atbadral fimndod la tba IStb eaBtmy. la ^117 it
nntrcd bmn Haoiy IIL a ebaitar uofiariug on ft Uw laaM
Awhiiii and UbsrtlH u Winobactar. Tba dob of iatMaAan
■at nacatad at SaUaborr i> ItU. Duing tba atll Warftwaa
bald iltcmtelr by both paitlaa. SallaboiT liat aaat maMban to
farilmmt In iwe, aad TUioni paiiiamanti bara baaa held
Ikm. Tba ladtotribntfara Act of IS86 da^lrad ItTof ana of lla
tw umaantaMTaa.
(■OwMtH yWUtart CMMrnr, mtiad vrtr; bcUa, WUm,
ini; K. ■.IrakD&llnHraibtfsaliihiry, ina i W. Bmuj^imm, fMi ^
itiita<Milv<nu<i, IK* ; V. Bwr '«»! Dlsgwn SIMnr VMMani un
SALISBUBT, BoBnr, Eakl or. See Ckhl.
8ALITA, 8ALITABT OLAKBS. See NunmoM.
SAT.T.lini! See RabIt.
8ALLT7ST (86-U ■.&). SeUnrt i> tlie genmllj
impted modem term at the nwne of the Bxunau hia-
toriu Cnins EWliwtina Crispna. 86 &a mw the year
of hit biiih, M)d tba old Skbine town of Amitemom iX
tha foot of the Apennines ««■ hia birtkplkee. , He cune
of a'good plebeun funily, ukl entered pnblic life at a
mnpantiTelj eartj age, obtaining first the qtusatonhip,
tad then being elected tribnne a! the people in 93 H.C.,
that jttz of politioal hubolsnce in which Clodine mu
kiOed by Hilo. Salhwt was opposed to Hilo and to
foapeft partf and to the old aiiatocrac; of Rome.
ftaa tha fbtt ba waa a decided partisan of CKaar*!, and
to Caaai be omd such political advancement as he
attained. TlDleas he was the victim of violent party
miiitpreeautatioa; he seems to have been motallj worth-
Int. In SO B.a the oenson exercised their power of
noMving him from the senate on the ground of gross
inunonlitj. A. few years afterwards, however, no
donU thnmgh OEsar's influence, be waa itetored to his
poahioii, and in 46, in which year Cuaar waa for the
third time consol, he waa prstor, and was with Cssar
in bis African campaign, which ended in the dsciaive
victory of Tbapensovcr the remains of the Fompeian
party and in tba suicide of Cato. Ballast remained
for a time in Africa as governor ot the prorinco of
Xnmkiia, which, it woilM leem, Cnaar gave bim as a
rewiid ior good servioe. It waa said tlu^t be emidied
himaolf at the eqienae <rf the provincials, but the diaiget
U hr as we know, waa nerer tubatautiatcid, though it waa
raodaced bidily probable by the fact that he retomed to
Bone tba f Mlowing year a very rich man, able to porchaae
knd 1^ out in peat splradonr thoae famous gardens on
the <}airinal known aa the "borti SaUnstiam,' which
liecama wtaoqnentty an imperial rendence. He now
istiied frofei publie li<a and devoted his leienia to letters,
for vbicJi he' had always had a taste, and certainly
<onsUI«nble ability. The fraits ot liis industry have wnne
down to US in tbe shape of a history of the fitmons
CatiHiM ooD^iiiacy, of an aooount of the war with
Jngortha, and of soma ftagmenta of a larger wor^ —
*'iuBtorieB,"as tbe Bomasa called them, " memoiiB," as we
<b(rald sl]^ tbem. His lurtoiy of the Catiline conspiracy
waa bk flnl pabUAed mtk; It'ta tlie biatcffy of the
memoiaMe year 63, when deero as ooosnl baffled and
eonfoduded Oatiline by maUiig all men believe that bo
was an areb-oMispiiator agaimst ttw Hbertiea of his oonntry,
wbov under qMckxis pretexts of relieving pover^ and
distna^ was really aiming at making himadf a trtaot and
adeepot. Sallnctadopla the view which was no doubt tbe
naually aeen)ted one, and be writea aoocndingly aa a
pditkal partuan, witlMMt giving us a clear inaigbt into the
euses and di«amataiioea whiu gave Catiline a consider-
able foUowing^ and led many to tbink that his schemes
were mora reapaetable than dioae of a mere wild revolu-
tionist He does not expUin to us at all adequately what
Catjline'a plana and views were, but simply paints the man
aa the deliberate foe of all law, order, and mMality.
Oatiline, it most be ttmenlbered, bad been of Sulla's party,
to wbich SaUnst was opposed. There may be trnth in
Hoounaen's suggestion that he was particularly anzions to
clear his patron Cesar of all complicity in the conapiraoy.
Anybow, tbe subject was quite one to his taste, as it gave
Um the opportuni^ of abowing off bis' rhetoric at the
ezp«nae ot uu old ttomaiL ariatoeney, whoae d^eneraey
ha HuHghtaH to paint in the blaekaat ooloora. His bistMy,
■gain, of tba war with Jogortba, tboogh « valuable and
interesting mooograph, la M>t « satiadEaetory pcrf on
" .......... m^,|, ^
Wemay ai
M that be had oolleeted n
I aod Mt
together notea for it during hia govenonhip of Humioia.
Hare too we And him dmlling on tlw feebleness of tbe
senate and of tbe aristocnoy, ud dnp^ng too <tften into
- tiresome moralising and phikaophising vain, hisbeastUng
'eakneei^ bat altogether failins us in those really im-
portant details of geography ana even chronology which
we naturally look for in tha historiMsa d military opera-
tions and campaigns. In all this SaJlnst is no better than
Livy. Of his Hufuriet, said to have been in five books,
and to have commenced witb the year 78 S.C (the jeai ot
Sulla's death), and to have oonclnded with tba year 66, we
have but fragment^ wbicl^ art^ however, enongh to show
the political partisan, who took a keen pleasure in describ'
ing the reaction which followad on the cUctatM's death
against his policy and legislation. It is nnfcwtnnate that
the work hat not come down to ua entire, aa it .matt have
thrown mach li^t <m a very eventful period, embtadng
the war against Sertorios, the campaigns of Lncollas
■gainst Uithradates of Pontos, and the victories of Uie
gnat Pompey in the East A f«w fragmenla of bit works
were published for tbe first time from a manuncript in the
Vatican early in the present centnry. We have alto two
letters (Aiaa fpifloUu de SrjmUiea orduunKla) addietaed
to Oewr, tetters of political counael and advic«, which
have been Eommooly attributed to Ballast, bnt aa to thb
autbenticitv of which we must tuspeitd our jndgmenL
Tlu vardlct of antiquity Wta on tha wfaola bvoaiabla to SaHnat
aa aa biitorian aod aa a sun of lattaia. In oartaln qnartan ba ni
dacilod ; hia biavl^ wta taU to ba obaenritv, and hii finHlneaa for
old tratda and phraaaa In wbkb be la Mia to bava Imitatad hia
eonlamporaiT CatOt waa rtdienlad aa aa aActatioD. TadtiLi.
bomrar, apeaka hlgUy «f him {Aim., UL M) ; and, to do Um
Jnatica, w« muit nnttmbv that ba atraek oot (tor Unaelf ibaoat a
D«v llua Id Utatstu^ aa np to bta tinn nothing at mnoh vstua
bad beau dont tor BaouUl Mttory, and Ua ywJaewiBia bad beru
little better than ebioniahn aad annalwta of tha "dn>.aa4aat'
tm SallattalmadatbaingaoinathiiiBlikaaKonanTliiiBjdidaa,
and, ttaongh ha lalla br di^ of the great Or«k hiatotian, an>l
drifts DOW and a«in Into more ibetoiia and pedaitry. wa mar
at laaat mngntolueaanelvta on tba poasaasiao of bla CwfllM and
JufHTtki, and w* mast fNl that bttm^ baa be«k nnkind in
depriving na of bia lannr woik, Ua BMerim.
BALHABinS, Claddius (l»e8-16S3), in the verna-
cular SAUiuint, tbe most dittingnisbed dastical telxdar
of his day, was bom at Semanen-Auxoit in BorgUndy,
April 16, 1S88. His father, a counsellor of tbe parlo'
moot of Dijon, gave him an exceUent edueatioa, and sent
■'-■■' O'
SAL — 8 AL
him ftt the age of nxteen to Puii, irtiere hU promiaa
excited the especial iatereat of Caeavbon. After hardl;
OTeroomiag hia father's opeoeitlon, he proceeded in 1606
to the univeTNty of Heidelberg, noiiunatly to be initiated
into jnrupnidenee under Qodefroj, but in fact entirely
devoted to cbiucal atndiea. The atmospbov of the place
pobablj had its infineDce in indaciuK him to embrace
Protealantiim, the raligioa of hie mother; and hia firet
publication wae an edition of a irork by Nilus Cabasila^
arcbbishop of TbeBsalonica, against the primacy of the
pope, with a timilar tract by Barlaam. The Latin trana-
tatioo of thne worki, although apparently aisigned to
Salmanns on the title page^ is not by him. Id 1609 he
edited Flonu, with notes compiled in ten deys. In the
foUoning year he retained to Ftaoc^ and nominally por-
med the study of jarispmdence to qualify himself for the
saccession to hie father's poet, which he eTentually lost on
account <Sf his religion. Nothiog important proceeded from
his pen nntil 1620, when he published Casaubon's notes on
the Auiputim ffittory, with copious additions of his own,
cqnally remarkable for learning end acumen. In 1G23 he
married Anna ilercier, a Protestant lady of a distioguished
family; and in 1629 he produced his Bta^inn opiu as a
critic, his commentary on Soliuus's Polj/kulor, or ratbei
on Fliny, to whom Solinns is indebted for moat of his
materials. Greatly as this work may have been overrated
by his contemporaries, it is still a monament of stupendoos
Itaming and conscientious industry. Salmasios leemed
Aiabic to qualify himself for the botanical part of his task,
and was lo nnwilliog to go to press without having con-
anlted a rare treatise by Didymus that the third part of his
commentary, De fftrbu tt PlaniU, did not appear in his
lifetime. He was now ostensibly as well as actually
devoted to philology, and foreign universities vied with
each other in endeavouring to secure his servieea. After
declining overtures from Oxford, Padua, and Bologna, he
closed in 1631 with a proposal from Leyden, offering an
entirely honorary profeesorahip, with a stipend of two
thousand (afterwards raised to three thousand) llvres a
C merely to live in Holland and refute the A tinali of
□ins. This latter stipdation he never fulfilled.
Shortly after his removal to Holland, ha composed, at the
request of Prince Frederick of Nasaan, his treatise on the
military system of th? Bomana, which was not published
nntil 1657. Other works followed, mostly philological,
but including a denunciation of wigs and htJr-powder, and
a vindication of moderate and lawful interest for money,
which drew down upon him many expcetnlations from
lawyers and theologiana It prevailed, however, with the
Dutch Church to admit money-lenders to the sacrament.
His treatise Jh Primata Papa (1645), occompaoyiog a
republication of the tract of Nilus CabosJJas, excited a worm
coatroversy in France, but the Government declined to
scppress it Kotwithstonding hie Protestantism and the
opposition of the papal nuncio, he had already been made
a royal counsellor and a knight of St Michael, and great
offers hod been made to induce him to return, which, sus-
pecting that he was to be charged with the composition of
a panegyric OD Richelieu, he honourably declined.
In November 1619 appeared the work by which
Salmaains is best remembered, his D^entio Stgia pro
Oarola I. His advice had already been sought on En^h
and Bcotoh affairs, and, inclining to Presbyterian ism or a
modified Episcopacy, he had written against the Independ-
MtsL It does not appear by whose infinence he was
induced to undertake the Deftnna Regia, but Charles IL,
low as his exchequer was, defrayed the expense of printing,
and presented the author with £100. The first edition
was anonymous, bnt the author was nniversally known.
A French tmnalation which speedily appeared under the
name of Le Qroa WM tbe woA d SalmaioBs himielf. Tliii
celebmted wort:, in our day principally famons for tba
reply it provoked from Hilton, even m its own ftdded Uttte
to tiie reputation ot the author. Salmaains iqjnied hia
character for consistency by defending abaolute monarchj,
and knew too little of English history and politics to argtw
bis cause with effect. He deals chiefly in generalities, and
moat inappropriate illustrations from Biblical and dassicsl
history. Not caring sufficiently for his theme to liie to
the heights ot moral indignation, he is as inferior to Hilton
in earnestness as in eloqnenee and the power <rf invective.
Milton had, no doubt, a great advantage in enconntering
a personality, at whose head vituperation cotild be lannHi^,
while Salmosius is fighting abstrajctions and indicting a
people. But the reply to Milton, which ha left unfinished
at his death, and which was published by his son in 1660,
is insipid as well as abusiva Until the appearance of
Milton's rqoinder in March 1651 the effect of Salmaaius's
work was no donbt considerable ; aod it probably helped
to procure him the flattering invitation from Queen
Christina whidi induced him to visit Sweden in 1650.
Christina loaded him with gifts and distinctions, hut upon
the appeannce of Milton's book was unable to conceal her
conviction that he had been worsted by his antagonist
Milton, addressing Christina herself, ascribes Salma^us's
withdrawal from Sweden in 1651 to mortification at this
affront, but this appears to be negatived by the warmth ti
Christina's subsequent letteis and her pressing invitatimt
to return. The claims of the nniversity of Leyden and
dread of a second Swedish winter seem fully adequate
motives. Nor is there any foundation fw the belief that
Milton's invectives hastened his death, which took plac*
on September 3, 1653, from an injudiciooa use of the Spa
waters. He was at the time engaged upon his reply to
Milton ; this he does not seem to have reckoned among
the MSS. which, feeling that he had expressed himself with
undue asperity, he directed his wife to bora after his
decease. Ha left several sons, but his posterity did not
attain the third generation.
Nothins, to modeni ideu, nn H«m mors rinftnlar thsn th*
litrruy dictitonliip sicsrdMd b; s men cluneal Bcholir, who
■hoUB pHudnllf *■ a comiEeDtatcr, snil irh«* indepondntircrics,
thoDgli highly rapectsbls, tvince do opscisl poiren of miiHl.
Siliiiuiiis irni for enough from being > Qrotiot, ■ Lsibniti, or
even ■ Cuiabon. A> a commentitor uid Tsrbol critic, however,
h< !■ entitled to thj liigli rink. His not« on the AiigvMan
HiMbiqi and Solinns disjilty not only miinivB etnditlan Imt
musiTc good mm u Tell ; hi* parctptiou of the nxiuiDg at Ui
inthor is commoalT Tccy uutB, and hii oorrectioiu of the text trs
fnqnentlj highly jelicitoiu. Hii msnly la dependence wu ihowD
ia muy drcnnuttneet of hii life, snd tho genanl biu of bii
mind wu libenl and ■on«bl& He wu sccunl of soanien nsd
■DlleDDeM of temper ; but the diirge, if it bul invi foundation,
ii eitenuated by the wretched condition of hii health. Hia
biographer Clement ennrneratw aoven elaseee of diiorden uliich
Dunanl him thronghout hia lire, and icbich reniler hia indDati;
id prodnctiyeneia Ihs mora ertiaordiiiary. Panillon calaJogOfa
glity book) published by Salmaains hiinaelf, or Irom hisUSS., or
mentioned bjr othera ; ninoty-tliree iforVa with JIS. notw by
SalmaeiuB, w tuch ahoold uov ba in the National Library of France ;
and fifn-Dina boolcs projeclad or ooutcmtilsted.
eighty t
■^ bowenr, DKd lijr rapJDsa bhBwU,
- 4Wnn*BwMH(U]i^
.-, _- ..--J br CMacpt prcftiBd (e ab
"" "iS*'* "* "SS^Sif' fir"' '■ ^''.—
B for luiubjee^ Hrtupi ucniaMa H ka iwltr lallnS
.. IMS, and eSIIed^BTiH M iUiUh^ It b^^rlbHtaHe,
paiaa orer Ik* Dtftmlt Kfla alnart wlkaat mtOm,
■"---■" -LSTi^jg.
SALMON. It will be convenient to consider this in
'on with the other members of the great hmily ol
I which it belongk See 8AiJ(onni&
SALMONID^
SALUOVdM. The diitiognuliuig tntnna of tLu
tamilj «f fiahei ue deacribed in technical lui([iuge in the
4iticle IcBTHTOUviT (toL xil p. 693), mnd it k on-
naLueaaij to reiwat the definitioiL The meet conepicaoiie
f th« eztemal chmcteiiitice i> the iiraeence of tvo donal
ina, of which the anterior ia irell developed and mpported
bjr the nstial joiuted bonea known at £a-raji, while the
poaterior it thick and fleehy, ronaded in outline, and deeti-
tnte of raya, Tlie poaterior flu i« thai • rndimentarj organ,
ud it ia commonly called the adipoae fin. Tien are two
other fkmiliea of fiebsa which reaembJe the SalnuDudm in
the amngBmeot of the donal fine — the Pmoptidm and
Naploekilonida; bat the former consiete of only one ipedea,
fnmd in the United St&tea, and the latter is confined to the
wnthera hanuapheceL Amoagst Brittih fiehee a Salmonoid
tao be ilwKjn neogaitai bj it* donal fioa.'
nie Salmmiidm ratain the open oomainnicatioa of the
air-bladder with the inteatine, and th« original poaterior
poaition of the pelric fina, — f«atar«a which characteriia the
diritioo (A TtUmUi known w Pkftottonii. In the great
aaaemblage of bony fiahea known aa PAftoditti, theas
feahirea are loet in the adult condition. It ii known that
in all cases the air-bladder deTelopa in the joung flih a*
anontgrowthordiverticoliun from the inteatiDe; and it ia
obvioai from a enrvey of Tertebrataa in general that the
posterior limba belong originally to the nei^bonrhood of
the anus. It follow* therefore that in theaa featnrsa the
Salmomidtt, and all the Pkftaktmti, are more aimilar to
the early Miceaton of the bony flihea than are thoae speciea
in which tba air-bladder ia ckaed and the pdvlc fina haye
an anterior poaition.
In the SalmoniJit the chMMteriitic Telecatcan paando-
bnnchia is present. Thiaorgaa i* the diminiihed remnant
of the serie* of gill-UmstUe belonging to the poaterior face
of the hyoid arch, aa the paendobranchiA in Elaamobranch*
i> the mdiment of the eerie* of giU-lsDellm belonging to
the postarioT face of the maudibalar arch.' ^le bone*
known as mazilln form portion of the bonndaij of the
apper jaw in SalmoinJti ; in niany Bihe* they an exelnded
from die jaw margin by the backward prolongation of the
premaiillK. ^era ara no tealet on the head in thit
farnily, aod there an no Setbj fiUmenta or " barbels " in
the neighbonrhood of the month aa there are in many bony
£ihe« — for example, the Ood, in which a tiogie short barbel
ia attached beneath the lower jaw. The pylorio append-
sgei, CKcal dlTerticnla of the inteatinal tabe immaduitelj
behind the atomach, «n nearly always present in eonaider-
ibls nnmben. In the female Salmon tiie ovidnct, the
tube connecting the orat^ with the exterior, i^ wanting;
the eggs when ripe escape from the surface of the ovary
into the abdominal cavity and p«a* thence to the exterior
through a pair of apertnns in the body wall situated one
on each aid* <£ the anna ; these apertores an the
abdominal potea. In the mala ealmon then is a dnct to
the testis, and the semen i« extruded through it in the
wiul way. Fertiliiatbii takee place outside the body, the
■permatoioa and eggs uniting in the water.
Ditlributiim. — Sitlmonidti are found both in the sea and
in freeh water. Moat of the marine ipedss inhabit the
de^r parts of the ocean. Many of the freshwater forma
pas 4 portion of their lives in the littoral parts of the aea,
n when adult every year in order to depoait
(tie ■ fuDllT obuaoMr uihHig t]]« boiij flthui. Thai lb« iptdis of
thiOidlWiir(0iuli<bt|li*niinuUrltuMiip>imt«doiw1tH iliiiiUi
b ih^ a^ ilM. tha SUmiiJm an chuutalitd by tb pna»«
ot ■ oatlBuw dontt ta ntMtdtng tlmut tti« whols Ingtb cl the
bKk. Tb* Rifpt^Ia gr Hanliip all hiT> a nn^a trianfalar donal
their spawn ; that i* to «ay, many qiaeie* an an«dionion&
Some an oonfined entirely to [redi water. Tht Selmomidm
tie, with the ezoeptioo of one .species indigenon* to New
Zealand, peculiar to the tempenta and arctic region* of the
northern hemispbertt. Foeula belonging to the family ara
fonnd in strata ot UMOCoio age. Onunu occurs in the
greensand of IbbenbOrMi, and the ichiatt of Qlaroi and
Licata. ifallotta willotiu, indistinguishable from the
living Capalin, occur* abundantly In clay in Qreenland, the
geological sge of the bed being unknown. Omuroidei
aeroyrMJai* and AtdcltpU are foasil genera occurring in
the chalk ne*r Lewes in Snieei. and were probably deep-ses
Salmonoid*. The introdnction of certain ipecies into new
area* by hnman agency, which has been effected recently,
and H still going on, will be described in another aectioo.
Tha following in neocn inclaila Britiali iptctia :—
1. Balno, Artall (Silmoo and TrontL S»lca anisIL Cleft ol
tnsDth iridi; msillU «it«iding backward to ' ' '
- - - — -„ ._bahiDdtL.
Denlilioa Ttll d<T<1ep«d ; cooUsl Ueth on th* jaw bonn,
and piUMou^ and on tha tscgiu ; Bona on tha
a. Aoal fln ihort, with fonrtcfla or fower nja.
. . l^te nnmerooa. Ova Utg*. Dark tranivano
band*, knovii ai "parr macka," pnstDt on tha aidaa of th* body
ptei7»ld b
r. ISmalta), Scain of moden
Cleft
juth *ida; maxilla long, eztaodins to or nearljr n> tb<
1 cf th* orbiL DaDtllioD vail dartlopad ; t«th o
a and pnmuilla imallcr than thoae on the manmuje^
araa aerits of tiatb on the romtr, a«*«nl of which an large
fanglika ; a aeriea of coninl teeth along the ruUtine uil
goid bonea ; ttning fang-likt teeth on the Innt of the
tongue, aavanl longitndini
part. Pylori ..
B. Onvgnona. Bcalta of modente liis. Cleft of inoDlh amall;
maiDta nthtr ihort, not nUndlngbafkbejoud the orbit Teeth
donal Gn tilth few nji.
._ ibicnt •ItoEclher.
Pyloric append
i. TbymaUna, Cui. (On^llnf^li SlmUfT to Carmmai
naving * long antartor donal with many nja. BnuU Un
Jawi, vomer, aiid palal
S. litutlna, Cnv. Sealea nther large, aeft of month imall i
inaiilla not eilinding to below tb) orbit Teeth wanting on
jawa; minnti taath on the head ot the vnner and Ton part of the
nlatinea ; aeriea ot amall carred teeth on each aide of the tongne.
boreal fln ahort, In advance of the pelvic; Pvlorig spi«iidaga few
or Id modtrata numbeif. Ora amalL Tha moal conapicnous
paenlUrltj ot thi* gcnn* i* the Battening of the siilaa to iJaa*
mrfacti bonlend bj keeled lidgea, ao that the tnnarene aection ot
the flih ia haugonal.
Tba fallowing eleven ganen inctnda no Brlllih a[ieclea .■—
fl. DnoothynchBa, Baekley (^hi. Lyt. Kai. Bin., IGSl). Simi-
lar toSoiiu. iicrpt that the anal fln baa mon than fonneen nja.'
7. BraehjmfatB^ Ottnther. tntennediate between Salma and
8. Lnelotnlta, flttnther. Uigntorj tnnt from Xorth America.
>. PUeoglnHoa. ScblessL Body covered with vary luull aislea.
aeft of mouth wide ; miiilU long. Dentition feeble ; pnmaiilla
with f«w imill conical tretb. Ende of mindiblee aepante at tho
chin, tha mneon* membnna between them fanning folda and
pouoha*. Tongue very amall, with m' '- "■
10. ■-' ' — "■'' -
allied
the lateral lint aiid along
th ' -'^ '
Cleft of
, , IS \c Otm^MM,
d IE. STpoanaaoa, Oil], and ThalOsblhyB, Giraid, aic
S. lEaUotus, Cuv. (Capalin]. Scalaa mlnnte, aomewhat larxar
^_ .V. 1.. — 1 II J .1 L .1.1. -f •■lebelljf. In m-' —
7 feeble ; tHth in aingle ae
with
much
flat pointed taoat Cleft lA
Idiotic tripendacee very abort few. On BmalL
1 1. Saluii, Oir. Body •longate, compmMi
■null, eiceeJin^Ij fine decidnoue acalea. Head e
deprnaod, lenDiuiling in a Idob, flat painted ..
month wide. Jawa and palatine lonea with conical tatth, aome of
ihoa* on prenaiilla and mandiblea beine enlarged ; no teeth on
vomer i tongue with aiogle aeriea of cnrred teelh. Anterior donal
fin far behind v«ntnl, in fn>ut of anal ; silipoae 1011111. Pseudo-
bnnchlB well developed ; air-bladder none. AHmentaij canal
quit* (tnJght ; pylorio appendages non*. Ova amall.
222
SALMONID^
IG.
Ttrj nniij ; muUlv twj ibort uid iinni. Eji Terr Urgi
Rirm- Hiin of tr; null tHtli In tli* lomr j«ir uJ icnm
tliB haul of Iha Tomor ; no other tMth. Doml Bn ahart, iiunrtsd
Inhtad iIm Tentnli. bot belbn ths aul ; idlpiiH So piwat In
nunt jroiiDg ipednciu, tm^neDtlr abHiit In old onea. ratado-
bnoeJiut *gll daTslopad; air-hlaJdn large. Vjloric appanda^M
-' — ' ' -sembrtna of atomaoh «lth nommxHia laiva
siiab aiiNDg tcbth jologiatL Uaaj <^
^eoiea an eitmnalj miabk, M that aom IndiTidnal* i^ oua
iDwmbl* tlia man abemiit udiTjdnala of uotlut ; ths apedra
an aaldom aejiaraEHl by eOBnienou diffartiiMi. Tha indlTidiuii
of a glvea apocin nrj eoiudarmblj vith aj[« and bbx» and i'
nitb habitat and aitamal oandltioDi. Man; oT the aptciea
capable of btesding tgg«th«r and producing r«rtU« oflipilDg. '
cluncton irbii:h an moat eonitinC, lad on Tho« diffenncea
diatinction of >pc':iea cbiea^ niti, an ai followa ;— (1) ths k
of tha rrsoperenlDin (the horiiontil btvadth of thla bone at
iaadolt); (t) el
1 atrongth
.li \%i aijBngiiiiumt ud per-
of caoda] En; (S) psotoral
... ...... )f Ttrttbtte J (9) numtBi of
f ylorio appaudagaa.
In sU ih* ipodea oF SaloB than art teeth ia tha TOmsT. Ib tha
Balmona propoT and in tho TroDta there an, In tha Tonoft laeth
both on the bead anil bod; of that bona, but In ■onia apaciea on tha
bodfanly; aomeof thettethon the bxijan dactdoooa, and an in
Dioat of the apaciea ahed kt an eailj age. In tha Cham than an
teeth on th* head of the Tomer bnt bod* on tha bod; of tha bona
at nn; period of life, and none of the Tomarine laeth an dae^oona.
Tit apaciea of tnw Troat an confined to ftwh Tatar, andm not
migratoEf . In aocordanoa irith theie peealiarltiea tome loalogiita
hare dinded tha gtnoe SbJinv into three enbgonen, — Salm> tenia
nttiicto, Aria, snd BalTeli*at, But modem aathorltlta ntain
ontjr two tabd[Fiiuiui^— the iDbgeaera SaliM, iDcluding mignton
fUImon and non-migratory Twnt, and BatstJi^M, tha L'hatn.
A. Suligan^iB 8auio,— Araat nomber of specita of Snimo h»TB
been deacnbsd ; in tha BrlL J/w CaL Dr OunUur diatingnuhn
fifty-two, of which aeren an confined to the Brillah Iilandi and
foni tn foand both In tha Britiih lalanda and other parla of the
world. Ifr Day on tha other hand eonilden that all the iodi-
geociii Salmon and Trout of the BtitUh Iilandi halong to two
tpeciea, Sulma mlar and £afino truUa.—Salmo UeeitauU and
Salnu, /aria being Tarietin of the latter ; the reat o( the deacribed
Biilith qiecita ha eonaidan at local nrietlM or anbraiiatiM of
(I) Salma, tatar, L. (the Salmon). R U-12 ; D. 11 ; A, 11
7. Ill T- 9; L. lat. IW; L. tnnitem fll!; Tert. Gt-OO; Cae.
C'l. it~77. ' Atttini to a lanKtIi of 4 to S feet ; femtle maton
ngth o[ tboot IS iaohi '
Unib and with the angle
at lonj at broad, toolElB . . , ^
of tmell teeth which an gradoally lott from beliind forwarda ao
Uiat older enmplaa only ban from one to foor left. Hind part of
body elonpte and eortred with nlatiTciy large acalet. Young
with aboDt eleron dntky tninacama ban on the aidoa ; half-grown
and old •pedmana ailrery, with anull black epota in emaJl iBmber '
aptmilBg mala with nnmarone large bUcli and rod epota, tome of
the twi apott conflnenl into men or len eitondire patchot. eai-sci.
ally OB tha belly. An anidromooa epeclea, inhafaitinB temperate
Enropa touUiworde to 43" N- lit [ not foond In Uediterttnean ■
in Aua and Amarjci eonlhwardt to 41' H. 1»L
Mo TtrieLies ot SalToa aaior an reoogniied in Enrepe, bnt in
Horth Aa>-irica thtre occnn one ailmonoid which !a comiJered by
diffennt anlhontic. either at a yariely or a rab-etiodea, rii, Saima
aoiar, var. eeiajo, L. Ut IIB- 3odj and dorJ and candal fine
with anbqmdniBgnlar or aubcircolar bUck ipota. Ij non-migt»-
tory and occurs in acme of the Ukea of Uain* and Kew York in
«" Dmtod SUtia ; these lakea hara no oommnnicttion with the
Ma- Tbit form it called Tulonaly tha ludlocked EalmoB or tha
Bchoodio Salmon.
lenphof 4 to S fe
angle ronoded. Hear' '
Hthlen; tha body of
inoded. Head i^ Tomtrtnbpentagonal,
'la Uie •rank Mae'^ imteilni the I
■aiBb«(?HSuJ!!^' it^ta" " "^ eaj V-Jiiiii~la'TnMrer'a^ir'i»l.I
I" MM K tha bodrTu"
B( lioie gt IM eodta a
fcittrt) Uh mttcuntr.
Esa."
The Ina Balma Ifilar on Iha American ihon of tha Atltotia
la tometfmea oallod tba Fenobaoot Salmon.
(S) SiUmalTvlta, Fleming; Satmo eriox, FmnMlUFUut o/ FIHA
cf nni) (Sea-Tront, Brimon-Tront, Bnll-TroDt). a II i D. IS ;
A. 11 ; P. It ; T. R ; L. lat 120 ; I> tnneretie ^lU ; Vert G»-
00; Coo. pyL 4»-«l. Attfdne to a length d tbont 3 foat ;
female mttuTa at a length of 10 to 13 inchea. Head of Tomer
triangular, at broad at lonfi, toothleae, body of the bone with a
longituJiEial ridge armed with a aingle aeriaa of teeth, a'hicb are
deciiloouB ; gonorally only the two or three iBlertor onot roond
in eumplcg of more thin 20 inchea in length. SllTorr, aometimoa
Immacalate, nsoally with mon or leaa numerooa X-ahapod apata;
KtB on the head and doraal fin ronnd and readily diaappeving.
ing (pur) with nine or ten dnaky croat ban ; gnlie with top of
doraal and pectoral and with bind rnargin of candal black. A
migratory epeciot,'odeiUTing in the riren falling into the Beltic
and Oennan Ocean ; nnmerona In Bcutltnd, Ictt beqncnt in
Engtiah and Irieh riven.
(I) Balma eambrvMi, Donor. {BrlL Fiiha) (Iha Bawen of Conch,
Salmon Peal}- a lO-U; D. 14; A. tl-11; F. IS; T. S; L. Ut
ia>-126iL.traaaT8rai jii,; Vert, 6»; Case. pyL 8»-47. Attaiu-
ing to a length of S feet; female matun atalength of fram IltolS
"ncojwrenlam with a diatinct lower limb, with the kngle
n teeth a
sdet of «hi[Ji tha teeth art iiiterted, 'forming a dngle aeriaa,
and alternately pointing to right and left In ptm-bred ijiocimaDa
theae teeth an loat in the gribe ttata, ao tliat only the two or three
anterior nmtin in epadmanamon than 12 or 13 inchea long. Pine
of modente length ; candal fin forked in parr ata£e, alightly
eourguiata in grtlee, Inincata in matnn ipecimena. Tbit apecia
loaea Iha narr marktvery early, wlioaonly B to 8 inchea long ; itia
then bright ailrery. Oreeniih on the back, with few tmalT ronnd
black ipota on the head and tidea. Tbia cijoratian nniiint ntarly
nnalttred during the farther pvwth of the flah, but tha apoti
i_~. — iiregnlar, indiatmetly X-ihaped. An tntdiotuoui
ring in riren of Norway, benmirk, IValn, nnd
Mr Day {FMia i/f Ghrat Srilniii) contidert Ibii form at
metely a variety of Satvu IniOa.
(4] Sat«ui /aria, L. (Tront). Dr GUnthei diitingnltliM two
Tariotioa :—
(a) Satmo fario falmatii; Saima faimardi, Cut. and TtL;
S»iHi> irvUa^ Gtinurd (foy. M. ani 0nxnI.,-AtL Poiaa., pL IS,
fig. A). D. 13-14; A. 11-12; P. 14; T. B;I^ Ut ISO ; L tr«Da-
Terte H; Ceo. pyl. B3-4B ; Vert SB-SO. Largeat apecimeu
obaarTed, IS inchea ; female matnt* at a length of 7 or 8 Incbet.
Head of vomer triangular, email, broader than long ; romeiina teeth
in a double tarin aometimea diapoted in a ogug line, pmletnit
throDgliout life. Sidea with nnmoroui tvund or X-ahaped blaok
Bpott ; onper nuface and (idea of the head and the dond, tdipeat,
and caudal fina nanally with crowded round black ipota ; doraal,
anal, and rential with a black and white onter edgt. Found in
loeland, Rorth Britain, IreUnd, Scandinaiia.
((>) Oifno faria a„mi*.H ; Balmo niuMil, Cut. and YtL (tba
common BiTer-l^onti Formula aa In a, bat Vert ST-SB. Attnint
to a length of 80 inchet ; female mature at a length of S inchea.
A DOB-migratary ipeole^ inhabiting nnraerout freah wvttn of
Central Europe, Sweden, and England, and riven of tL* llaiitiioe
Tba following forma ue pecnliar to ths Britiah lalanda :-
(S) Ailino leiciunfi^ talker {Wan. JT " '
Lbtou Trout), D.13;-A. 11; P. 14; V. S
TorteH; Ciec. pyl. 6S-80; Vert li. Huimum length SI inchea.
Teeth moderttefy itrong ; the head of the Tomer triingulai with a
trarurerte eeriea of two or three t«lh acroea iti btte ; the teeth of
the body of the Tomer form a ringle icrlei and are jicnialeBt
throughput life. Upper pfti-ta browuiah or greenieh olive ; aidci
of abaHuad with round black apota ; aidea of the body with
X-aba[)od, aometima rounded, brown epoti, Dotjal and adipcae
flna with numeroiit email bjown apota. A nou-migntory apeoka,
inbtbitiufr Loch LeTen and other laket of lOQtliDra Scotland and
northern England, Thit tpeciea la conaiderod by Ur Day u •
variety of S. tntUa.
[B] S. brtuhypana, OUnther ; 3. iricx, ParucU {Fiik. Firtk of
Fortk). D, 18; A. 10-11; P. 14; T. B: L. lat 118-1S8; L. tnna-
Terte H ; Ccc pyL 4S-47 ; Vert SB, Pneoiierculum with acanely
a ttBce of lower limb. Teeth ntbei attong ; thoae of tbt vomer
in double Kriea, bnt in ogiag line. Host ot theni an loat In
ledmeua 17 inchet long, only a few ot the anterior Wniiining.
idea of the body with X-tbaped or octllated Uack ipoti, lomt rail
.wti along and below the lateral line ; dorsJ (in with round black
apott. Donal, anal, and rnitnl fine with a whits and black onto
margin in young enmplca. A migntorv iineiot, fhim the riven
Forth. Tweed and Outt^ AecotdlngtoUr Day, Itiaidontiea] with
th* White Salmon of mnoit and Salmt albia of Car, nnd Tat,
SALHONIDJE
223
■11 «f tk(B tebg ntniJirail by Da; H a nrittr. S ■»». of JUm
(7)Sfna>(tiuu,aaiitlwr. Aa nudTcmaa ^ndM Aim Oalnjr,
^■tunnlitd br tha •ctttdj poiaUd bnt not tlaDMi* taoaL traM
ecnni:lnd,>nll an, fnUe t«tb, hiblaBuIlluriDdBodiUa,
and bf ntniiwlT tun uh] ihort nkrie apjiailisaa, vbieh an Bot
Ioiu<t tkan MMlBch aor tbiekn liian a jagaoo^i uML Aoait<liii([
to JjayamriBtTof &/«rf«.
JB) S.fim, Jard. and Smlhj (BHiik Ifimnibt. JmmuJ, 18)5,
iL). A UHi-Biigntorj tpseiBa Inhabltfu the largi locha of tlw
north tt BoothnJ and Mvtnl Ulna of tlia north of EagbnJ,
Wal^ Ukd Inland. Pii«>)i«ndan cmBt-ilu{iHl, tli* Eindir
■sd lonr BUHina fualag Into tach othiT withoat {analog an
iD^ AceoidiBg to Dajr a nriatj of S. fialo,
(>} S. trtailiiuSi, Gflntlur, tram Loch BtcBsii in Oikn*.
(10) S. Hamadueiu, OUntbtr (lh« Oilluoo). from lakn of
Inland. Tblck Itoiuch. Fad* on ibdli (LimmMm. ^wfilw).
(11) S. nigrlfiMit, QilBtW. VaD-mignlatT >p«i«> inhafaltlv
moaDtain pmli of Vtin, also Lough Ualrln, Inland.
S. omuHnutt, Wilb., ArtvJl ;
8nl«lal« IroDt, th>m anUdals, Torkihln ; ud
Cmaapnlll tnnt, ftom Loch CrMaapoiU, ButharlandiUn.
lUer ipodat of Saima niit which an oanBnBd Is limltid anM
b tha omtiMat of Eniopa. Ad acaooat of tluat la ^Tan in tha
Bril. Mm. dUOnfM, vblrh alro oonlaina lafManaM to Oo litwa-
tan. Ooa of thii^ B. matndigtia, DuiMl, la a ma-Biigntaj
form ooconiDg in Atgiria, and b tha aaatbanmiiat apactei of tlu
Old IVorld. Thno non-atlgntorr apadaa aitat in tba tiran
h(lan|4u to ths bann of tha AdriaHd In tht Alplaa lakoa of
eantw Eonpo Bn anooita an kiMwa, vUch wawnblt In haUta
tha fonaa toOBd in Biitiih lahia, amiding tha atiwiii which
fMd tha liki^ in onlar to apawn. Two of tbaaa apadM Inhabit
tlu laka of CoBitaacs, ona tha I^a of Oaoan. Aria ar^altiu,
C«T. and TaL, found in tha AtlanUo ilTan of Fnnn^ la eo.-
ndanl bf Dr GUntbu a dlitlnet ipadia, bj Ur Da; al a moBTin
of S. b'ltita.. Ona nilgntoTT apecua la knoini fram tha Eid^ard
nrer in Hcrwaf ; tn> land.Iockod apadea baa laka Wcnai ht
, M tt
Anwiiea hai
br BoekUr In i'oL HiM. JfoMnglM TtrrUtrf, and by GImrd to
Proe. Atad. KaL Si. Fkilad. Oalf ods apBdn Daad ba mantlonod
hoi^ and that on acconnt of tha Impottanoa it haa aoanlnd la
CDaDBdoa with tha work of tho Unitad Statxa Hah Comnlalon ^—
Salma MiUm, flibbooa (JVoft CW. Ac IfaL Be, 18IS, p. U);
Solar irida, Qinnl (Ane. Aiad. Vat. &l FUlad., IBM, Pl 130
and U.S.Fat.JLB. Stfhr.—FM, f. lai, pL 71, f B, andjd. 11)
(the Cklifonian, ll«iutaln, at Bainbaw Tnnt). B. 10 j D. I( :
A. M ; L lat 110. Caudal daaplT amargtnala. Bodj and doml
and cnodal Bna vith nnnuraoa ODall black ipola. A naB-tDlgntor;
apedaa in itran of Upper California.
Foe the aamg na»n ai In the nneading eaaa, tha fbllawlnp
■{leeita of tha aaitern alopa of tha Korth American continant u
Salma n^fntd, Pcnn iAnL Xoal. 0. n »S], Car. and TaL
(Kid.p.Ma)(I^aXroat]. B. 11-11; D. 11-14; A.1S; Y.D; U
Ls. no. Fnopercnlom Tar; ihort, withoot lower limb ; head
ratj laiga. Taatb ationg ; Ihoaa on th* Totner pgniatnt thttairii-
oat lifi^ and In rfngia eeriea. luhaLita all tha gnat lakaa of Uia
northam part of North America.
B. Bnbgeniu 3ALrEL[^»; —
&iJaw alpiinu, U (the Charr, Tamil, Srlt. H^ta, Id ed).
D. 11 ; A. 13 ; P. 13 ; Y. 10 ; L bt. US-MO ; Tut. ES-«! ;
Caic pjrL IS-tS. BoJt allghtlj- oompraiaed and tlongata. length
of head eqnal to bright nf hody in matnn apaeimena and two-
ninthe er on«-flnh of total bngth ; maxillair aitanda bat little
bajrond the orbit in tha fnlly adnlt Aah. Eja on^-halri^ « Icaa
S. lUlbuMit, GUather (/yon Zool Sac. ISSS, p. 6M}. D. 14-
IG ; A IS ; P. IS ; V. B ; L. lat 180 ; Vtrt S3 ; Cue. lifL 41-
&SL Heed, Dppai jarta, and fine Ivowniah black ; lower parte
with ID anoga-caliHmd tinga In tha mala ; aidaa with vary
■mall, light, inconapicnooa apoti. Anterior margina of tha low
■na wliita or llfihtonngecolonrad. Loch Killln, luTameaa-ahEn.
Conudeml br lit Day u a nti*tf of S. alpinut.
S. teillualiMi, OUnlher (Frae. Zoat. Sac, IMl. p. 16, j>L S) ;
Charr. mUnghbr {HIU. PUc. p. IH), Ftrnn (£rU. ZaoL), and
YiRaQ {BrO. f^itL, Id «L} (the Charr of Windarown}. D. IS-
IS; A. IS; P. 11-14; T. B-10 ; L. laL 1<S: Yarl S>-«1; Ck.
pyL n-44. Bldn wit^ nd dob; billy red; pectoral, Tintral,
and anal aith wbita marglna. l^e of Windonaan ; Looh Bmiach
(Saotland). Conaidend by ITr Day aa 4 Tarietr of & alpiKM.
a. paidi, OUnthar (^ax. and ilf KaL SM., IWB, p. TE);
- -„ „ i-...i i.11; P.lt; T. S; Lbt 170:
TerL SI i On; {lyL Ml Mat with nnnaraoa rwl data ; bally nU
in Iba aatna Bihj pasUial, valnl, and a^ «4lh whilo
naigian. Lakaa of North Walaa (Uaabania). Cenldend by Ur
Daw aa a variety of S. a^(>H
Afrayi;Ottnthar(AH.XiBt&K,lMl,n(l). D. IS; A. 11;
P. 11-14; V. »; L lat 118; Yett. 60; C*c pyL 17. Bida*
with acatbnd IIght4rang*4oloarad dots; belly Dnlform aQTgr)
whltieh, or with a ligbt-nit ahado ; Una Uaekiah. Laagh Ualrin,
Ireland. Conddend by Ur Day aa a nritty otS. alinutu.
S. talii, Ollnthar (Prm. foot Sac, IMS) (Cola'a Charr, Ccmah,
KA. Brit Iilm). b. 11; A 11; P. IS; Y. f ; L Ut. 160;
Vert. «t ; Om. prL 41. Bloiah black abora ; lidta liliory with
acattend Iight4Umen.colauad dota ; belly nddiiih ; ■» black,
the anal and tho paind fine with a reddlah tinge, tha anal and
rantala with ■ nairow whiciah margin. A email apeidea 7 ta 8
■iua long from Laogba Eike and uii^ Inland. Couldand by
hir Day H 1 vatieb? a. alplnu.
na abova an all Oe BiiUah ^ad
- , Aaia, h
liKtly known ; lo* aa a<!Oonnt of tham m* OtIntherVi CMafona.
The IbUowIng American ipaciee of Chan k one of thoaa eudtatad
by the ABsrlcaa Hah Commiiaian : —
S. ISalftliiiiM) /am»alit, Ultoh. (IVniu. LIL aid AA Bat.
Haw Yotfc, L ^ ME], Cnr. and YaL (uL p. 386) (Drook Tnnt).
& 11; Dl 11; AID; UlaLSOO; Cm. prLIl Ho nodkn aeriee
tf taatk along the hyold bona. PneopaicBlun ehott in l™ig^t~l>p.j
dinctlon, with the lower limb rary indiatlDat BiTBia and lakea of
BriUah Borth Anatloa, and of tlia northon parta of the United
Statea. Inlnddced in Britain.
S. Of the ganoi Oamaiim only thna apaotea an dnolbad tn tha
BHI.Jfua. CU., one of which iiBritlah:—
fhsHnu mtlaant, Laalp., Lino, (the Smalt; Tt., ^|wrfa»;
Scotob, .^r]iivor£j><rKif^ B.S; D. 11; A. 11-16; P. II ; Y.
8 ; L. tat 60-63 ; L. tranaTana A ; •>«■ PtL l-« i Yatt 60-61
Heightoflradymaeh lea than length of the hand, which laaqnartar
or two.nfDtha ol the total length to baaa of caadal Bn. feoat pro-
diced. Vomerine teeth and anUite Ilnful teeth latga, bng-liha ;
poatarior maodiholar taalh larger tliaa Iba anterior ODt^ wbitt fern
a doable Mriee, tha bintt aeiiea eontainiBg atKnger teeth than tba
enter one. Back tranafueBt, greanlah ; aidea aUran. AdoH riia
10 a IS incbea. Coaila and nnmanDO fnah waten of Bortben and
central Europe.
Onwnu ririJatnt, Laananr, another apadn Muoety diatinet
from 0. iptrlaam, Int wi}h acalta a little Bnaller, oconmBg on tha
Atlantic aide of the United 8UI«.
Otmmu OialtiMltft, Aym, ocean abundantly in the Bay of Pan
Tranciaoou
I. or Oongonne fsrty«ite ^edea an dcacribad In the SrII.
Miu. CM. Foot qiedea are fonnd in Britain :
anareraa tjl* ; Vert
ratrndiag beyond thi
nchet. Ireland, In
Vert 68. Snont piodncad, with tl
H^Jaw
id in adnlt apecimene pradoced
_.., length of the lower limb of oparcnlnm 1) to
., that of the npper. Fectonl *e long a* tba bead vithmt
anont Found on eoaala and in eatuariea ol Holland, Oennany,
Denmark, and Sweden. Captured recently (three apaeimena
onli] in Linoolnehin, neat Cliicheatcr, and at the nontk of the
Uedway.
C. aumaiit, LacJlMe ; C.piaita<MC, Cut. and Yal (the Owy-
nlid i^ Lake Bala, Bchelly otUUawaler, Fowan at Loch Lomond;
aometimM called tha Freahwatai Barring). B. 3; D. 14-lE; A Il-
ls ; I. lat TS-fiO; L truiBTana A; Cwe. pyL ISO; Tert tS/ZO.
Snout with upper jaw not prodnceiL Fectonl larger than the heed.
Fine black or nesrly BO. lakea of Great Britain.
C. ■aadofiu, Eii^Btda {Paint. Bar. Amtr.); C. <t(hila, Car. and
Yal. (the Vendace). D. 11 ; A. IS ; Y. II ; L kt 0S-7I ; L.
tnaame Ai Vert SO. Caitla Loeh, Loobmalian In Dnmrrlaa-
Bhita.
C.paHait, Thompeon(nH. Aol. Sac, ISSE), Cut. and YaL (tha
FDllan). D.lS-11; AI3-11; V. 13; L.UtB0-86;Ltnnai'ei*e
^i Yert 80-61. Two jawa of Mme length. Teitb if iireeeni
Tejy minata. Bluiah along the beck, dlreiy along tha aidea anil
beneath. Denal length oTadnlla 10 to It IncliH, BUiiman IS
InloDgha V • ~ " "
IB Naa^, Sine, Deis, Conib^ ai
ihannoB.
Thirty-BBTen apadae of Cartgetut hare Imch dlrflngniiilied
■Bidea thcaa four. Some an migratory ; but the greater nnmbcr
IS iiahaUtanlB of large lakaa. Tba anadromooa apaoiae ancenGneil
> tha Arolio Sea, and the jreaUr number bulanj to tha ooaat and
SALMOKID^
nnn or Bfbwia. Snml dkHoat ipvlM oocor In O* kka g(
flvidni ; ft r«r u* fmud ia tli* Uk« o< flwilnriiDd ud «nlnl
Xonph (7.AHiHill(l(pHBliutolliaU3ngf OoDfteDM. Stnnl
■meiM inlubil the Bi>t biAntv Ulu* tonaMtid vHh tlu linr
flt Idimoe4 ot HorO) Anurln, and tk« Ukw hrtlwr to th* moitk.
Om of thna Ii enlUntMl by tiw Antricu Tiih Conmkiioii :—
OmgHHt thipi^fiin^ kit«b«U, DtluT <A'w r«r« Ahml
RO), Oiv. Mul TtL, A^bIi (Zola 5ii^M^«r) (tha SW
flalmon, TrMfavMB HiniD^WIiitaftih). D. II g A. 14 ; L. ht
76-77 : L. tnuuTWW A. Ths uumt ii palntod. ud than b u
>nwadi8* to tha Tentnl Bd vhioh ii lull u Iodi u tha An UwlC
laiigth at adnlt 11 to IS Inchca. Lakea Erii and Ontario.
i. Only ons >paci(a of nmniUoi oesnn in tha Britiah lalandi : —
l%ymaitiii mlgarU, KiEnon ; nynaUw taUliftr, Car. and
VaL JtlLt arajUngi rtmch, X'0«£rt ; Italian, TtmM. K
7-8; D. K>-2S; A. I»-l«; P. 10; 7. lO-U ; L, lat TC-85: L.
tnnnacM ,-^ ; Cnc pjrL IS; Tcrt. 10/22. length of had two-
niatha or OM-flfth of total lauth to baa* ot candal ; poatarior
doml lajn aanuahat prodooad in adolt Oram to IB inchca in
langth. A tnahwatar Eih, oommon in mu); of tho rivan of
Englaad, Intndnoad into xinw of thoM ot aontharn ftcotUnd ;
•baeot boB Inland. It ia iridaly diatribotod In wntral and
iurtharnEarop*,0(>:aninelnlAnlind,3v«dBD, Lake at Oowtuwo,
th* lau, and the Dannbo. Adolt ain aboat 15 Inebta.
Tkt/maaiu miiani, Cut. and YaL («<fi>XAaf, £L, liT. H), oocan
in I^ Magnlan. On* •nsdaa hu ban dowiribKl tnim Siboia,
and two m known inhabitbg Uu Uichinn and tho watan at
Britidi Hortb Ainrrica.
S. Of AiKantln«foarBp«neaand*«»lbodinth<Arif.iriu. Cat.,
HMxaAj-.—Aryntiua (iliit, Nilawn, ooconing off ths north-waat
coaat of ITomf , ArgemtiKa afatgrraiu, L., tram tha lledEtomntan,
ATgnUKt MiTidin, Nibaon, toiuid on tha coatla ot Borway and
Scotland, and ArgmUia Utgltata, Csv. and Tal. Aooordingto Ur
Day, two of tbeas, A. ipkyrWM and A. MsTidUa an idmtlcal, tba
aueiM langing from the coaat at Konra; aiid aaat and weat abana
of Sootlanif to tha Uaditarninaan. Tha following b tba farmola i^
J. UridtM, KilKn, accDTdinntoOUDthar:— D. >-ll ; A. 11(13);
P. in* ; T. 11 ; L. UL SS-ft ; OtM. pjL ll-M ; Vart. 81 Tho
acaha with mlnnta aidnaa.
8. Tha ipede* at OBOarbjtdOat an all anidramotu, and ara aon-
flntd to American and Adatlc riTsn fluwiog into tbe Pidfio.
O. quintat, BlchardKin - O. duulilia ocean in tha rirer flacn-
mento, and ia onltlTated bj th* American Fl^ Comininion.
7, 8. For ftaehrmjata and Innlotrntta, aaa p. 3S1 abore.
». PlMO^iani oompriaea inuill abemat fmhwittf apacie*
nmd*nt in #apan and the Island at Farmoaa.
10. Batroptniia eontalna bat an* (pedtt, Ji. ridtanbssM, which
ia known a* the Few Zealand Smelt It fa coroman on tha coaata
of Kaw Zealand, aacendlug ■atnaria*. Like Onatnu nfrlaaut, It
ia landlocked In fteib water in aonw loojitln
11, 13. The (Mdn at arpnum* and ThatalobtliTiaGonroD the
Padflo coaat otHorth America. TJtalticlMyi paeijiau, Oiiaid, ia
caosht in raal nnmben in tha nafgbbonrbood af Yanaanrn lalind ;
it ■■ axtnmelr fat, and ii a»J ai a torch whan dried, and alas aa
food. It 1* calliKt locally the EnUcluu or Oulachan.
11. OtKallotniouljoneepedasiadHcribcdbTOanthar:—
italUui ilUouu, (-DT. and VaL, UUIL (Iho Captlln ; fnuch,
(7a«[«B). B. B-10 : D. 13-U ; A. 31-21 : P. IB-M ; Y. B ; C«.
pyL S j Yert OS. Brownith on the hack, ailTiiy on tha aldea.
OpsmdaaiailTerT with minute brown data. Bhotv a( Antic Harth
America and at Lamchatk*.
II. Of-the gentu BnUaz two (pMile* an known :—5oJom
Aimtuit, OUnlhir, Oabcck, which ta oommon on the caaat of China
and called*'Whitebalt"»tlIac«o,*nd At/aw - - -
in tha Uedllsmnaan ; It la not anidromaaa. It la the <»Iy
>p*cle* ot the genni kuowu, nnleaa tbe l/lemioaitu grtnlaitditui,
deaeribad by Batnbaidt, bom th* 8*a of Oteenland, TetUy belonn
to thia genua.
IC Foe Batl^ago^ «ae p. :23 above.
L:/i UiMirt Iff Of Salman nnd AUM Sfceia.
laaailentinlTandBniltory obeerratlonaattbeSahln thdr natunl
coudltlDD*, then exiited a great deal af nnoartainty and dlnraity
ot Bi>inloD on the anbjeot WiUila the laat twenty or thirty
j^^ta attenaJTa prwitioe at aalmonaaltBr* baa nmorod nearly
all abecori^ btm to* )ih*noniana, and tba hfatory of SalmanolJa
ia now man tocnntaly boown than that ot moat other Aahea.
The talmon pnptr, Satme aiar, brMiIa in tbe aballow nnnlng
watan <rf th* app*r itnaaia of tho rima It ananda. The fsmalL
when about to depodt bw tm, auoop* out a troogh in th* gtaral
ct tha bad of the atreem. TO* the aSaota by lying on bar dda and
lOiNVbingfattothegnTtl byeneryetio motimaafherbody. 8ba
•xtradn then, fwtiliialloa bdng, aa In th* gnat
nM«jcritT of TtUfHi, (xlanaL Tha pannt ftah then Ul up the
UvaA and heap up Oo gnretoTar the *ggi nntit lb*n an eonnd
toad^thofaonetaat. TbegraTel b*ap thua formed la ealleda
*'r*dd.^ Tbaperiadot the yeer at which apawning take* plus in
the BiitlA Iitt*, ud in limilar latitodca of the northern bemi-
aphara, Tariaa to a oettala eitant with the locality, and in \ glTen
looalll^ may Tuy in diffonnt yean ; but, with ran eicei^ibona^
apawning la oon&nad to the period betweon th* bcginuing of
MptemMT and the middle ot January.
Tba e^ ot Salme aatar an aphnieal and non-adheatra ; they
an haaTMr than water, and (re niodaratoly toaiilt and olaatk; Tba
■lie nrlea ilightly with the age of the perent Bib, thoee bom full-
aiied temalee being alightly Iwgar than tboae tram rary yonog fleb.
AacordiBR to nagh caicnlatloBB made at aalmon-lveading cataUiih-
menta, than an £6,000 egga to ■ gallon; tba diam*tar ta aboot
a qturter of an inch. It b naaally oitimatod that a female aalmon
prodncca abont 900 egg* for each ponnd of bet own weight ; bat
thle aTerage ia often emeeded.
Tbe time between fertiliiation and hatching or tli* tacape ot
the young lUh from the rKS-membnue, nrlu conaidenbly vith
th* temperature to which the eggi an ejipoeed. It hjia been fonnd
thatat I oonetaot tetnpcnturo of It* F. the period ia 67 day*;
bnt tbe period may be aa ihort aa 70 dayi and u lona aa ISO daya
without injury to the health oF the embryo. It followa tbintor*
that in the natural con<litiona CRge doi>osited in the autumn an
hatched in tha early apriug. The nenlj hatched fiah, or "aleria,"
ia proTided with a Tery larse yolk-eac, aud by the abeorptioi; of
the yolk eeutained in thit the young cnatun ia nouriihod tot
aome time : although itamoulh ie futly fomied and open, it tekea
uo food. The alevin atage laata for about aix vecka, and at tha
and otlt the young ftah ia about 1} inehee long. During UiB next
tingnlahed br tl
along the aldea,
h coatmg of bright
marka" Thoee marka occur in
iinong the Satinirnidm. Tha pan
nontha.
laiu in frtah water Ibr two yaan
[ bright lilTery acalt* which comiiletely conceal* th*
, and they paee into a stage in vhich they an known
aa "amolt*." Th* uuolt la Miliar to the adnlt aidmon in all
napscta *icapt aiia. and the young ealmcn, aa •oon ta tho auoU
atag* i* laachad, mignte* donn ihe riren to the eel.
The abore facta haT« been eaUUiabed nichia recent yean by
accnmto oboemtion and experiment Sot veiy long sco II nea a
diapnted quHtion whether th* pan vt* the yonng aalmon or a
diatlaat apeciae of fish. That the former riew iraa comet was firat
experimentally prored by Ur John Sliav, gnmekeepet to tha duka
of Bncdeuch, Dmmlanrig, Dumtritaahin, who in 1811 laolatcd
aeTeral pane in a pond, and found that in April 1811 thty changed
into amolla ; an accouut of tbi* experiment waa publielMd In tha
TTmuaaiw of th* Soyal Society ot Edinburgh. Tha quartioa i*
Dowof merely hiitoriul intorett, for at th* proent time lain nnm-
ben ot pan an hatched at Tarioua Gih-batcliing eatablilhlnentl
arery aeaeon. By olwcmtion at these atabllalimaats, tb* know-
ledge ot the hiatorr of the parr and the migration ot the amolt
which had barn guuad by the study ot the Ish iu tbelr nitonl
btan conclusiTaly ascertained that aome pair become emolta and
migrate to tha eaa In the ejrlng fallowing that in which they were
hatched, while tha great niajonty nmoin in tha parr stage until
the aeooud (loing, and n few do not attain to tbs sinolt cuoJlticn
until tbo third year. The mals parr whsn only 7 or 8 Inchca ia
length i* otian sexu^y matnn, the niUt being capable ot feitiliziag
tha on ot *n sdnlt female aalmon.
The migration at amolta to the aea tikes [daoa In all riven at
about tb* asm* time ot tha year, Tii., between Usnh *nd June.
Sometimca the amalts an obaerred deacendiiig In large ahcala
Formerly angling tor tb* doKsuding sntolta wa* a neogniMd *part
but their captun is now illegal It ia the ogilniou of the most
oomntent anthoritie* that tli* amolu Inert*** irith wonderful
npidity in aire and weight when they roach the aea, and thm
ntnni to the rlran after a few month*, during th* nm* year, aa
Uttla over G lb in weight It Is aarjiriilng that a amolt weighing
only a tew nunoea ahonld increase to 1 or < or CTen 8 B in shout
thm montha NeTsrthelcss it bu been imred by actual aiperi-
mont that this it tha fsct At BtomiDnl field, in Uot 18SB, 13O0
•molts wen marked by cutting off the adipose fln, and 23 of thene
SALUONID^
235
tWaiMBtOnd Ol MM MMMMIffltMh Tat^l^ IIMI t A
nnnli^ It mldit In tmcmi Hut •dim noalfi do not ntm
«nil« till Ai Hunnw Mlewing tb* twoI Odr dmmt, b«
tiiM ol tb^ itajr In tb* Ml baii^TuitUt,*! kllw period ^mI
fa* tun j& tiw tf TNI. But all tlii nidmet It igtlntt thk npcoii-
tfaiTarilM nnv oooUMM nnidiiw tm IMab^^mmn; II W
kl bcM taan thia ■ jnt ia tbi «, noa wsbU mbMj umA
M^intlwiaWMt. udotLaknwMlDwn. ItthtnBttfaM It
Buat b* bonwiniuildtbU>SuwhldiMmilii*dlatbaM>anu
■n« ilii«nfiiig ■■ ft MMit nWit Mt h* neagilnd *> > giUM,
hniiV tMchad tb* ri« «r ■ mas BbMO.
TbagrOM, tftw twrntu ia Hitanp, ntnrn igifn to tbaMalm
HMi>i>tarMfellowtu^ilDA tod wicwKl U» dm* ■■ mitan
nwaim alBMik in m* (olbwiu nar. Bolb adiiMa (oii gtOm
JUtrmwBbigmt^M'lailM.' Tkt feUowing mntdad ■mri-
mtnt UlBrtntH tb* growA of nib* Into mIbmw :— • grilM-kdt of
9 n VM uriud «a awcfa SI. fSU, and iwaptond on Ancurt ■ of
thaaBBM yaaraianlni^ of 8 fe.
na Mcaot of riraa bf adolt vIsub la not w ngolai la Oat
of grilai, and tba kaowudg* of (bo mbjact imot at tlu bnaant
tiaw coBiMib lltboo^ Mtanoa ataralr «t*t apawn beloi* tb*
nootbotSqtnbw, a^dokotaacaidinabMli Jut bafon tbat
naaoa ; tba tiiBa of aaonit ailiBBdi Ibioa^Mnt lb* qning and
amnar. A Mlnoa aawlj infrod in bmk -rtttr fraa tba aaa li
aalkd a aliaa aafaMO, OK •caoont of tta hrWit, mll-ftd aniaanDco ;
dmiag IMr ata; ta Oa riran tbo BA kw Oa brilUaBar of Ibair
aeaka and dateridfata in oondttita. Aa tisw c( nar at wblch
id«B •^nuii MKmd thin tha am rariai vaadr in mtertat tiTara;
■ nlation lo tbia lolqae^ Dinallr JwwmiBatad
and riTan ania n ,— , -
«>rtTorI*t& nwSoottidk itma Sowiu- inb.
■ad Piatland nitb an abnat all aarif, whlla ihoaa of tba Atlantio
dopa an kta. Tbo Tbataa in CaltbnaB and tba Hanr In Salbai^
laidAIn eoolain btdi-nm nlnon in Diaabat and Juvaij ; tba
Hoa b tba saaa Willi tba Tar. In Toifcabira aalmon conmanoa
Ibilr aamit in Jul;, Angnat, or Saplambar if tba naaon ia wat,
botifitbdiTthaumipatiaiiiaddajad tmtbB aotnmn nina aat
ra witb tba Bood ti£^an
ulatonnali
le baignC, and
^ at* and tbo Hniatancocf a
,_, In asnat man; rirata anadnmoii
«iili ban baan azdndad bam tba nppai laadita b* attiBGlal
dbattneiiaii, awib aa daaia and veii^ awatnetad for ua pnrpoaa
of iHiiw.^ tba watar of tba atraam, or to obtain vatar power,
or aimol* to ftdlitato tba cutu* of tte Sib. Otber riTon bar*
boon to^amd mdnluUtabk by Mteua bj poUitiooB. Tb« ataU
of tba Tbaoua witUn Am bonndariaa of LondoD baa liiioa Ibo
banning of tb* yaaan* «*Matj aicluded BaLaonolda antlrdj
from tba rinr; bManyaaaaDo ■Innn and grilae.an takan la or
atar tba Tbame* mtatrj. and tbar* ia no doobt tbat if tba watw
eonld again b* londnad modtintalr daar, and it flab-nn wan
ptmidad at tha impanaUa wain, tb* npmr walan of tba Ibamoa
mold apln ba baqamtad bf aauntn and niantoiy tnot
Tha lifii Uatoij a Salmt (ntUa and S. atrntrkm la raij imular
la tbat of MHO aofar. Tba tlnr trout, & Jbrw, makea a redd
in Oadalknnrpartaaf abaama Ik duaanamaniiarBB tha aalmon,
tba «alT difbranaa baiog tbat tba noond of graTal Coming Oit ndd
k aiaallw Aa <^ ^T^ f*^" »■* lo **o "^^ b*low tb* anrbi:*.
Tka bn*ding nnod of tbo troat Tarfa* In diffarant itren, witbia
Oa Hmiti «F Biptambet and UaidL' Tha nnmber ol egp pio-
dooad bj aacb mnale la about 800 Ibt atary pound of tiM paronf a
wiinhf . about 40,000 of tba agga maka a gallaa, as that the; an
nniiriilarablj amauar than thoaa d( B. Malar. Tha trout of Loch
Lann, U. Inamuit. aaeend tha •tawmi l«ding tha locb, in oidar
to apawn, at tha and sf Bsptonbar and beginiiiu of Octobsr. Tha
batata of othar ifom ol lak* tioat an aimilar to thoaa of B.
li in ordai to apawn,
graTaU* aballowa of tha lakaa thariubdiit. Tb* aiawning psriod
orOacbanoftbaCambBiUnd bk* dutriet ia trom tha b^inning
of SovbbIm' to tba baginniiig of Deoambor. Tha agga of lb*
daiT bara baaa fbond to bitob in bon 60 to K> dan *!>• P**^
mioatj In 70 dam at an avarag* tamparaton of 10* T. Tha
Aiarioan ^aeiaa, S. fioHnnh't, bnada at about tba MnM tlma a*
S.fyriQi i&oaanonlrbalf tbarinoftboaaoftbalattar.
n* analt, a lyarfaiiiii, ia a gngaiioai Bib and axblbita
•agnbi nigrnoD* In nuataatnatlaa. It ia eommon is tha fldwaf,
Ifaa rirtb of IWtb, ^ linn of Horlidk, and tha mtavj of
tba Thanwi. In maat plaoia whan it ia lonsd it ramalna in th*
^•j^a^tmH^atimt/i^ntMif.'-i^^^mZ.ni'i
mair. AtADoaoaOalwaBadteantakeuinlanaii^ban
br aaina tMta in qdns befim and during tha arawnSng pariod.
Ava l*a ngalaf libaij for tbaot at tbo nma leaaoa on tha 3olwa7
nrtb and in Morfolt Tb* food of tba amelt conaiata ohiaSj of
Tooog Aah, OBpaoially joang borlngi, and onutBHana. Th* «a
an anwll, jallowlib in ooloor, and adhanra, not adberlng by u*
iobn mtnlf aa ia tha oae with Hum* of the barring, but aacb
*g Jitai^^ a abort tbr«ad tb**od of wbieh beoonua atbuhad
*- plankt. itona^ orothar nlid ol()«clain tha watar. Accord^
ICr Dif tba agga an dipodttd naar tha higb-wat*r marb^
a tb* air dnrlog tha
•atm br tb* i&lied
■> ftom the
Ihv tba n> ai
■ariiw-tUa^ •> tSu lb., _
*Ml Tba malt whan In tl ._, , _
dog-lib IMauOtn ndfrU). Tha apntn it abaant I
•onUwm ooart of England and tnm Iraland, tha Msalt m.
oeoorrlason thoaa ooaata bdngprobablr thaatharina (.UkrAta),
oftB oallad tbo Mnd-aoult 0. ^MWaiuia ia abundant on Iba
ooaat «f Tinhad^ am' alao tioonnon thara In tnahwatar takia,
in which it remaina all the nar roond. It la alao common on tb*
AUanlia eoaat of Inaoa. Itii of Inlonat to not* Oat th* in*lt
In BritaiD and on other ooaali, whan not oonfintd lo fttab watar,
ia. in itantgraUon. intaimadiata batwoen anadramoua SalmmMm,
wbieh aaoaad to near Iha aourcaa of rirart, and ouch Aih aa tha
bKilnA iriiioh appnaah tba ibon to nawa but do not Daaall;
antor iCran. Tha analt a* a rala aaeanda aatuaiiea onlr a* br H
tha r^jon of bcadikh watar. -
Tht vailaaa apeoi*a of Otngnmt raaambla tba eharr In their
habit^ ^wniog in tb* aatnmn in tba ahallowa of tha lake* tbe;
ii jabit i tbali on an ■naU, and, aa menUoned in PinciocLTDU
(a.Ki), an nou-adherira and of abuoat the aame apocifie grailtj aa
ffaah watar, ao that thej an aami-buonnt
Tha giU'linA niMalliit anhaH^ ia in Britain «xeliBdvdT
luTlatlleiln ScandinaTia it la fouid alao In lake*. It i* met
with eblanf in dear atiaaiu with aaiid; gnreli or loamr bade,
It wai introduced not manf ;*an ago Into tha Tweed by tha
narquli of Lotbian, and thiin* than. It la abaent from the
Thaaw^ bat la oonmon in moat of tha rlTeia of England and Wain
—t-t; tha rivan of Yotkahtra, the Serem and tha Wyo. II 1>
■haent from Inland. It bed* on InaKta and ti»«r lann,
cmalmcsauL and email moltuica. It hnad* In April and Hay,
depoaitliw ita ore on the miface of the oranl in the -■-" — --'
in a ndcL The dt* an ouller than thoaa
in eolont ftom white to deep orange, and thar batch .
to the fourteenth dajr attai eitnialoa. ne fry „
inohee in length by Augua^ and hy tbe following aatunn
of th* troot, and mr
lay batch from Uie tveUth
ne fry grow
in nnguum anu n aiea uu
u equal iW>t to ftab for aa]
nen, wbue tbo pronriatoi
rbich an not urlgabla b
fioAwoia .niAarir ZagMotfoih
law ia tbat arery penon b
L. ^ ,- n,^!, uj
., r.- jior* 01 ue 0011 on ue t-—'— -' -•—
UTlgablt
of tbe ooU on tbe banka of riten
_ 0 hiTe the aiduilTe right of 111 „
Tba enetion of itako-nela, at othar llied enginie toi the
capture of aataaon in eatnaria* or on the aee^oaat u neceHarily
inoomfatibla with Um mainleuanoe of tbe puUic right ct EihinK,
and haa tharafbn from tery eariy tiniaa been refprded ea illegiti-
mate. There haa eouequently been a etmatant conAlet betw«n
leoiilation and piiTato intareat orar tbla point By Ibgn* Cbarta
all fiahing wein wen aboli>hod exoept on tbo aea-oout, bnt tbe
ebjeot of tfala aeenu to bare b**n ntb*r lb* protection of th*
freedom of navigation than tb* adTantage of tba aalmon Sebole*
inlsnanea of apnUioflgbt In lalar timea Bird enalnea
•tedlr dedaraf illegal and their enetion probtUttd 1^
Finally In iseitbey wen definiUnlyaboUabed In all caaea
oioept where lual tif^t to maintain Uum ooold be conolndTely
prared. Tha aidmou Fiabeir Act of IMl, of wUob tbe ^rohibilion
JBit nfeired lo waa one of the olinaaa, wa* baaed upon the n|>ort
'(rf a royal oommiaalon appointod In IBSO to inqnin Into tb*
condition of tha aelmon Mheriea. and it forma the haMa of tba
regnlationa otpreeent in foroe, all jnTiom Inpalation being by it
expreaaljr abi:jnbed end anpeaaadadT It prohibited the capture of
nndean and nnwafinitil* vlmoo, made a uniform do** waion
fin fifg}"* and Wal*^ ordained a woeUy oloaa anion of ftir^-
two bran, praridad (or tba enetion of fiui-pan*a and ngnlatod
the na* <rf fiahing wain on non-nangabl* riTan, TraMd tbe
oentnl authotily of tha aalmon Sabaiiaa in tha Homo OBcot and
{(orided ibr tbe appointment of inapaelon. In ISOS an Aet wa*
paiaad nobibitlng the eiportaUon of aabnon during tha
bu*. In 18W, aa it waa found umIob to bnalato w
maohlnor to enbna Uie law, an Aet waa panad to com
flahtry dhMala under Am eontiol of local board* of oonaw
appointed by tha magiBtnlaa in qnartenneiona. Tbaaa board*
wan empowend to enforce a liceno* dn^ on ftahing ImpleoMnta
naed In [nhliB waten. One or two ndnor aalmon Sabary Acta
wan panad in aocceeding yean, .but tb* neit important mac* of
leglalation on tha auhjen waa tb* Act of 1S7>, the two moat im-
POTlant prorlakmt of which are [1) tbat BaberaKO in pnbUo waten
br aTfty £M of liceno* dn^ vUob lliay payeleot a mambet of the
SALMONIDiB
. ^ ant ol the
> witUn Ita own dirtnct Tlw mnnil doM tiine lor
^num in Eo^Uzid uid'Vala %t proasnt for nalB coiumeocv ADfC*
K-Sopt SO ud oloHi Fsb. 3-Apnl 1; nniufl in diircnut diatricU
witliin tba limits ginn ; for radi ilie cine tlm« U Sept. 30-Not. 2S
to ttb. l-Miy 1. Tbe law u r^tudi cio« time for Sud aughies
j_j j^ jgj,_ j^g method of Bihinp: followed in- the
^ abs isid'for euh net, and etakn-ueta along the
ooeit are tery ran. Jot inapeotor of aaljnon fkahariea ippoiutad by
the Home Office npoHa annnall j.
la Scotlanil the nlmon fiihery coatoma in one napect differ
mucii from those of England : ita^ net* are the conunou and
nnlnmal meaoa of almon capture in eataajiea, aitiiODg^L aweep
neta are lieo employed. The raaaon of thia la Uiat origtnallj all
the aaimon fiahin^ belong to the crolta or the grantees of the
erown. The principal Acta ngnlating Soottiah aaimon Qahoriee an
thoaeof 1882 «udl8fl8, hat, aa the preriana etatut™ ' ■-- -
tepHled.tlie law on the anhject ia aantewhat confi
magwl by diitrict boarda.
daya ia enforced, iaating for net>
[rom Angiut £6 to 3opteuiber li naUl Febnair 5 to Fobniary
IS, aud for rode from September 14 to Norember SO ontil January
11 to Fahiqary 25. The notkif oloeo time laata thlrty-aii hooia,
hom SatarcUy night till Uonday morning. The coimtmctlon of
moahea of neta ore all regqlated. Ia 1SS2 the mioagement of the
aaimon fliherioa wai placed together with that of the aea fibheriel
under the eontroi of tlia recoualitoted Scottiah Fiaherj Board, to
wluch power waa gireo to appoiat an ioapecter of aalmoa flihefiaa ;
by thia oKdni an annual report oT the condition of the fiaheriea
ii ^taeutod throtwhtho Piahaiy Board to the Home Offics.
The principal Act relating to Iriah fiaheriM ia that of ISflS.
Bpadal inaha:^ Commiaaionen are raaponaible for the carrying out
of the le^ lasnlatians. The oonutry ia divided like EDsland and
Scotland into fiahoty dirtricta nnder the Jariwlictioa of boarU* of
conacrratora, by whom clcrlia and water tuilifla are appointed. A
•oaleof licenalnodntim la enforced, and all newBied anginae— that
ia, any beyond thoee vhlch legally eidatad in 1862~iire illegaL The
wfekly close time In Ireland u of forty-eigllt lionra' duration, from
4 A.H. Satnrday to fl A.U. Uonday. The annnal dens time la foe
seta from July Ifl to Boptembar M nntfl January 1 to June 1, and
for roda from beplember 11 to November 1 until January 1 to June
1. Jn Inland aa ia England and Bcolhmd an inapectonhip of
aahnon flaheriea eiiata, and tlie holiler of the office makea an
vmoal report to the Home Offioe on the oonditioa of the fiaherlea.
IniroilacHaa 1^ Spaia la 2fiiir Anai i^ Sum
e paat fow yaara^ ainoe great aetivity _
ted in piacieulCnn genenlly, ai^ tapedaUy ia the cnltniv
Mmonidm, -■--■■' ■
hibited _. ,
of SalmeniOK, Tariona axparimenla have hesn made In thi
portation of egp or youiig fty of Taluable apecfea from their
aatiriihibltab to dlMant paHa of the world. The American aa-
oallod bn»k tlDUt, A fitUimUd, haa been imported aomewhat
Uroely Into Britain by nriooa Mlmon fiaherj proprieton, It
tfariTea wall In nriooa placea in England, Scotland, and Wale*
■here it haa been tit tne, — Ibr example, in Korfoik riren, near
Qoildford in Surrey, and in the ato<i ponda at Howietorm-
In WatuH, Jnly 18, 1S8I, u aoeonnt wai glTen of the introdoc-
tion of the &y o( the Amartcaii hndlookad aaimon (S. mlar. Tar.
atiiifv}to tbe apper wkteraof tba Tbaroea. Eggaof il namaycuA,
S. aaMos, S. fmUmaiil, aud OOtmui albta bare been aucoeaafuliy
Ibcwuaed from the batoheriaa of the Amaiiean nab Commtalon
to the Deotaoha naoheiri-Teniii in Berlin, and to the Snilitj
d'Awllmatatioa at Paria.
The cemawn trout of Brlbiln, S. /aria, waa introdsced with
compieta Bacoeaa into Taamania saarly twenty yean ago by
frank Ba>>Uand, and Ii »ai> abundant in the Taamanian etnams,
altbongh It la nportad to be much laaa Tained aa (bod there thui at
home. From TaemanJa tho ^ga wan tinnaported to th« riTen in
Otago, New Zealand, where they alao thilTe and breed (eea Tmiu.
of Ot«go iDatitnta^ ISiS). In ISM Ur Fnncia Day Intndnosd the
fry of tba lame spanlea Into tbe riren oT the table-land of the
Vilglria in the nelghboorbood of Hadraa. The Bxparimant on
thia oooMloa biled, but two nan later the ertabtiatunent of the
Bpeciea in tlie diatiict in qseatton waa aooaeBfully aooompliahed by
Mr Mliot, who imported thn fry tma Scotland.
BakMn OuUtm.
Tor the irtiBdal coltore of aalmonaldi the retds li nferrsd to
the artide PiAnocxTnK The fdlowing aoooont of the aaJmon
and tront hatoheriM in Sootlud ia abridged ftom a paper read
befhn tlie Soottiah Tiahaiiei Impnnmant Aaaoolation ia Edin-
bnririi, Mth Ifoyembsr ISSL tiy j. Baikat Dwioan, tlie bonoian
- MB^Mt, KJlBbargh. wl
lacV^bcapaMaedeatalaliif aintomeooen. . ..
A prlrale hilih«f Mob^bji b Iha mirqsla of Ailu, npiUe d IwteliiBf
■bom sao,eOO na, kiUBitedat CulHaa la Amhlra. Balmea era ate attaloH
rnpiD the rim DgoD, HtlDcfiar. aad lUaAoek, end Ibe fry Mnied aaala tan
uouinBlBO batchal ts HoctitialiUlDtliBiil'tlieiilaleerCaliMB. Annri-
iDl u Mr y«Ba (be BimlHr el mbaan Is the Dwa hai I*oa coMwhlj
AsaUiir pilTiU hBHkHr, wtth a ••faellTet K,liui.ii aalatalaii ea Uia Lseh-
tlB^■«ala,^Ma at Mdl, lor tba puVnie nt kdiUdc tba itm* aad hkts ea Ikp
^iCXbaiCaaaRaleliarTwaaiatabtuhiilki AMrtaM bjOiadUiM lieeidaal
tMrtienDeeend Den. Han l».o» It 10.000 hyar'
Lijid to tsMaiUei — — - — " ' ■
Salman Diteaae.
Diirinothebat rewyaaraaalmoninapvatuian} riven LaTP Ijecn
obaerreir to be auSering from an epidemic t'ntanuous diaeaae from
which Urge nuraben ban died. So (ar aa ia known thij dineaaa in
ita epidemic form La quite a now phenomenon ; there can be llttia
doubt that it mnat hiTs occnrreil aa a anoradic nnecdoa in fomuo'
Umea, hut It aeems on the otiint hnnd probable that nich mor-
tality among aaimoa aa has lakon plai;e in aome reouut auaaiiua
muat hare attncted atlentiou if it occarnd. eren when icraiata
obaemtion waa rare. The diaeaae waa flnt noticed ia 1877 in
the ZA and the Nith, flowing into the Solway Pirth, and alnoe
then it ha* dairtrojed tcit large nomben of aaimon 'a almnit
enr? rirer ia Briiiio. The diasaM conaiata lu nlceratiuna of tba
akin, which begin at one 01 aeTerol a)iol>i on th-- head end body, and
uitimetflT (itoud to the wboto aurlaca oF tb'- Bah. Tiia din^ied
porta of ihs akin are fouud nhen eiau>ined to be coTetuI with a
fungoid growth, with 4Le mycelium of a fnngna cousistlntf of
plaited hyjihie which cKtend bilo end ninify throu){h thu Uhos of
the derma and opidenaia, ciniing thr coll* to die, until the mircr-
Scial tiasan decsT and aloni-h olf. auil iuflammnlion a'ld blfwliun
an produced In the dcoiwr and sarrouuding {-iria. It b certain
that the iiuury to tho akin and Bth of the eslinon ia eunaod by the
fungus. U a aactiou of the cdga of an alFoctod i^iot ho made, and
examined miutoocopicnlly, the cells arc neca to be perfectly normal
and healthy beyond the rfgiou to which tho hyplue eEt«od, and
the growing iwini* of tho hyj>hie an eeen to be penettatlsf
batwoen and dutorting these unituured cella. It ia eridaut Ihenfon
that the morbid aitention of the tidoos foliowi the attark oT the
bypbie and doaa not precede it The eitsmal anperAcial part
of the mycelium corering a diseaaod apot of the akin baaia the
tnictiHGation of the fungus. This eonsiata of lunaperangia, which
an the eiilai;ged blind taraiinal parti of orataia of the hyphi^
I A L — B A L
227
• a* Ririkea at tlu Bjodlnm.
, 1 Binltitiids of i^hBrieaT ipgni.
of a* Uad taohnicaUj calkd Bxapon*, weh on
•— — ofv uum the ipom^om moTlDg about tctlTtlj ^ meuia
oT tm Tfimdk sOk. Tha moqioniigUim cmlta tha mOBpim bj
Ml ^erton at iti ««], md whn It hi* muitisd Itadf tlw hjplw
l>agiB*to(row^daatlh*bM*«f tb*imp^iMMlnM«d> — '-
np thraogh tb( caritr of tba oil nanoniwiiB » nxr ■
Whid baconiH ■ nodod ^on c^Mlla. nita baton Iialaii..._
Wio of tha niHu thpnltri^ bdoufu to tb* CMmtml
nriaoi kinds «idilA an win kaowB to boiaakt* ; On voanr
ocem 1> daad Inaaeti or atlwr tamttobnto aniaab ia — ■ —
Oa dead bodki of lb* mwdob lamt-tj iriwi in a aoB
■Mriat plaea alnuat iaTariablr pndnca ■ tontrbnt onp of Aprv
iMHla. Tb*i»mnMn(atipai^ors»rvtvKi>ti&/<nuaBftb*
UDOB taagm baa iHaallT noabad tba mkm aaiM, aa tboo^ It
wnaapQi<;dhrttbatltwaaidaitiMl»tththotap«tii. Bd O*
mda* of a apnlnte «ui cnl; ba aacKbiMd hon tba cbanotwi of
ib ootpoaauB, vEhi an qalt* dilhMit bean Iba (Doantaiigia and
■n pradaoad mneb man nini*, and wboaa eontaot^ Ua oo^oni^
an Mfllnd bv Oia oostanta rf riBaltwaowlTpndnBad autkaildla.
lb StiiUiH baa obawrad tba ooBoiaMia «f BbDoa (Bi«Di (aaa bla
paaan in Aaa Mtg.8aB.Mi., lits aDdlSJ*), bat bk dnmiptko la
Bdl aaOdBt 1« put tba idanUttoaUon «r tba HdM barond a doabt
Ftan ProC Hular'a anwlmtnli It ia arUant that tha nbaoa
r lapcodaea 6r Tvy aaar noMatJou arttfaont tba
of ooaDotia. Tba mimim tttgm mn with gnat
- InadkiMilaalnoatU
Uatfl U b knom
penaaaaBt nidna in dtcniiw watafala aolataaaa^ bat at naaast
IthianotbMa datmaiaed^M&wlt kpoMfUa laaahlnlatte
nlnoB SmnltgKia on Tagatabli nattKj «r tU diMM BMj ba
jmugfM tfmOiaaj among tba flah, Balmoooida and othn^
«Uiih an pemuDaat nddeata of tha ilnn : or 111 f»»-J«-«^ Bw
dapod on tba amout or daad antaal BMttv Oat b anflaUa te
ttaaatriUon. Than 1* arobaUy dwan aaaa AHvbnria h •ntr
linr; ihaaaooodar^coiaitiooa which WniiwjTWharWMtflw
uawar tan b« shm
tha flyihiinfa oibt
•c£ tL; la,^J
— — — —- . — tfcii»<i. !■»>;
,.r'iirrn£Hui^"^!ln.JlianMKM.Utt'' (I.T.<U
BUiOME, widow of **«*"■■*— JftniMfiii, and qnacB of
JdiIbb btw> 7S to 69 &a (n« Lniun^ Ttd ziiL p. 4U).
Anothar SbIooib ia th* dMgfatw of HerodiM mantinMd ia
Hfttt. xiT. 6. Hn tktW wu Eefod, aoo of Hcmd the
OtMt Mid Mariamnwi, and ahe baoMua anmwlTnij wifo
of her faUwr'g brother tha tetcaich Eliilip (aon d Hccod
tho Oraat bj Clec^tra; tat HnoD Peiup), and of
Aiistobnhia.
BALONIOA, Of auoxiKi (ItaL SaUmkei), Tnkidi
SabBMi^ SlaT. SUw, the ancieDt I%Maafeiawai during the
Boman ampin tbo capital (rf Ulb proriiioe of Haeadonia,
and atill one irf the moat important dtiM of EniapaaD
TnAiT, the diiaf tows of an extaoHT* Tibqret whiA
:»i..j^ the Hi^iaka of Sahmioa, Sem^ Diama, a^
ar, and haa an agf^e^ite pc^polation al 1,000,000.
» liea on the weet aide of tlw ClhaU^ peoinm^at
lo OhaLddio ,
the head of the Oolf of Balonics (Siitit Tkermaiat*), on a
fin* b^ whoea aootheni edge ie ioaati bj tha CUam«iati
hei^ita, iriiile ita northeni and weetera aide ia the broad
allavial ^in prodnoed bj the dlachaioe of the Taidai and
die IqJa^Kanwi, tha priadpal riven 01 weateni Haeedonia. .
Bnilt part^on the low grannd ^ong Oe edge of Ae b^
and pardon the bill to the dotA 6t eoo^aot nM« of
mka adiiat), the dtj with ita white Immm* endoaed hf
white waUe nna up ahmg uattual nmnea to the caatle cf
dw Seren Towcn (H^t^jigiionX and U nnd«ad Bieta<i>
Mqna hj snmerDiit domea and miiianlB and tlw folbwa
o( ebn^ cjprweei, and mnttiwij tfaa^ Iha UU ofSa
Heptaf^igioD b dominated bjr a aeoond and that bj a third
eminence tonrda the north. His oommerdal quarter of
the town, lying natnially to the north-wBB^ towaida the
and tha qiuyr ezteoda from the north-weat ol die ei^ for
foBr-fifthaofamilelotheKaali-KnletToweKrfBhwd), or
as it ia now called Ak-Knle (White Tower). n« oU '^a
Egnatia bavenea the dtj from what ia now the Tazdar
Qate to the Calameriaii G^e. The hooaea are for the moat
part insignificant wooden erections covered with liine or
mod. Two Jhnnaii triiunpW arches Tued to q»n the y»
^natia. The sich near the Taidar Osta—a maaein itooe
sbmctnTe probablj erected after the time <i Veapamaa —
wai dettrcTed about 1S67 to fmniah material (or repairing
the dt;r ^'^eUa ; an imperfeot inaeriptkm from it is now
preacrred in Ihie Kitiih HoBenm.1 Hie oUisr an^ pcvo-
larir oDed the arch of Oonatantine, but ly Leake aigned
to the rd^ of Theododns, oooiiited erf three ardiwva
bnilt of bctdc and faced with maibkk It ia now in % -nrj
dilapidated Btate.1 Athirdeiam^dBomaaardbiteetnie
— the remaina of a iriiite marble portico nrooeed to ha*e
formed the entranoe to the hif^odrome — ii known by the
JndsofipaniA deaigiiati(ni of Tj* Incantadaii from the
eight OaijaBdee bttie iijnier |iart of the atmotoreL* Ihe
eoonienoiiS Boaqnea of Balonica fasTe wtAj all an earif
CSkrvtian otinD • thf* remarkable raeaerration of dieir
»t*d to St SnJda, 8t Oeeig^ and R DemeUna.
Soehb (An SiiAa), fnimarij Qia oafliadn]; aad mbaU*
>d EfJaatinbn'awdiHaat Anthaain^neaoamtad lato*
„„, lvabemi^iafcald«DAtts66oiiBanj«(di
of irUdi an oartcad Mtb a ridi nuaab manwiUnt tha AaeeBJca.
matriu irtdA b piobablT older than tba lima of hatinln,
bof aloncnaTafdiTldadlatoanabq* b^ Baarfra aqoaro
plaa) aad two Aaablia, aaeh twariaallng aaatwari inaaaMnm
tbo Ibn kUit of tba ia.-n, In a atrb not loown to oeaer in any
thoaa hi tho ure. Tha Intnnal dacontiDB b all pedacad by
abla fi dl8gnnt.ool«ai«d narbk^ St Oaottpr^ co«faetnnIIr
■r ia pbn. ueuaiiiw IntKnaUr M l>at In dbmatar.
waUli IB bat^idc and at tha a^ of an la-
in cbual* fanaad In tba thldcB«> «(9ia will, and i
--_ wwsoo-haadad laolb Tblbla on the axtarin; tha aaatan
chapd, hoWartr, I* aolaind and dardopad Into a bene and *ifm
pngtcttBg barond the dida, and the waaUm aad wMiim eh^ab
MiutltiitathatwoatnnDnafflkabDildlng. nadea>% Tlntda
la dniunf!faM& b eonnd tineo^tet its aatln aaAoa at BOO
Eaaa jaia wit& what b tba lamt mdc in anoiaat monb Oat
oonw dow> to VM, noMatto^a aarias of ftwrtsM minta
atandlH in the art of adcmfioa in ft«at of tamda* aad aoloaoadaa.
The nB Jmaa, .ar Old HoaqD^ b oMiQitr btvaaUns baitlka,
" > later than OouSW with iUa abiM ^ an uaa
ride -tMri- Tha ohmA of tba Ha])' Ipoelks and diet
.. -. JUm idn^HKre mantko. Of tha awobr UUlan Oa
ClasaTMwsnd|nnallr attdbotad to Ammeth IL, fnbablj ditas
•a^m^^ of 8*loaka baa aU ahng haw bigaly Oat of
a eomiMdal dtr. Bming Uu Chibtlan ocotoiiH brfbi* Oa
""htimmtitan oonqneat Um pabon aalnt of tha oltr waa abo Ihe
aalnt ot a gnat n^^kat or lUr to wfalab nMnbanb oama bom all
soib of tha Haditanaaaan, and afw Aom oonnttba bayond Iha
Alpa. At Oie baghmiag of the iriiipt aantmy a bige azport
taida waa oanlad on In woollen and cotton bbiio% mlta andTiad ■
yaniLEiBln,««ol,tobaooo, j«Ila«ba«lc^dkbtiiea,nioiwH,lKi; ,
andalligaiuawaaiMnabotondinthaoi^. Dinot Ailfih bade
Withitalonlaab^janafbc&aanakwarofindapaDdanea. Woraa
__ Enobnd, Aartriai OannaBy,
BwitMbmL Md IMt; Mgai m^nlr from Aaabb: oeAa bam
Boott Amnlca QarQr dlnet); pamlanm frcaa Aaailca aad
Bnaris; aoati from Onaaa and Oiata; metal mods hnmlagba^
fnaatt and AMbb; eadooal from ttigianJ neazpcata oom-
> Baa ftaee; Mat Seo. LtL, roL tUL, nnr aali^ 1878.
* Sm Hawtoo^ ftwaria, An, <• Oe Ummi, toL L p. Ufc-
• Saa Btoart^B ^Maa^ ToL UL pL 40, te mpwlnc.
S A L — S A L
ptfn eecMb (>h«t iiUj. Mti, miltt, it*), tcbMM, not,
"ittoa, POPET —^ warn, oMood^ prnnt*, and timbsr. la 1884
tba IsdiulAl ntabliiluiiMb wtn ittuo flonr-nilK ■ eoUoa-
nfaulng fMtolT (nniiltiTlnf 500 hukdi and nmllDg Its tftoia to
dinriutiit^l*^ Smtnu, and Baynnth ■ diaUDacr, aatsnl larga
•Dap-vorki, ■ naQ hcbU7, an Iioii-bwW«ad botory, uhI i muDber
of brick and tll« voib.
In Salonlca tlia HTSnt iwtion«1Itlta bn lebuolior thdr I
OiMka, for •aIupl^ hin a nonnal Mhool,
DiBa othar acboola (ana for jt^jl*) 1 and anii "
tbtir mambara an oonpantiTelj amaU. hi
Th* Jawiah oemmuiitT (about 50,000) la of Smniah arigtit.
I it* iDtoo-Spaiiiali wriHen in Habnw charactara.
achoala the; hare th* adnotage of a large aBhooI
bubliahad Chnnb of
m ot 8al<iniea
I, a gTmnadnin, and
be BabEariaiUL thourii
i two Dormal acli<»k
atlll jBHarraa
BaaidM th^ on achoala the; hai
aopportad bf the Jawiab luaaion ot tba
Sootland (inititDtad aboDt 1800). Tlia total Herniation of
waa eaHmaEed by Toar ah«it 1849 aa 80,000. It ba*
creaaad niobtblj to 90,000 or 100,000. Tbe lallway opraed to
K^piili (ISSt milaa) in 1878 i> now aitendad 7t milaa to
llltroTitn.
Mitlory.-^Tht older nam* of TbeaaalonicB waa Tberma (in alla-
rioo to the hot.apriii'p of tbo DaEshbonrhosd). It waa a military
and comiEerdal atauoii on a main lina of conunonication batraan
Soma and the Eaat, and had raaohwl ila lealth btfor* the aeat of
oantnn, and In
til* ancient diiliatiou agunat the barbarian
conaEdarabla part In 8>0 Ttaeaaalonica waa tb« i
ma ion perpetrated by oommaDd of Thoodi
paired tha port, and imbaUy onriohod tlM
WldlDga. Daring tba loonoolaaUo nbpa o
deleualTa, aad auoaadad in aaTiis liM ai
ebatebea : in tha 0th oantnry Joaoph. one ot ita
* of the dreadful
.. of ita
it atood on tha
of Ita
I with
nraril daya. It ma th* atteDpt toad* to . .
garian trade to Theaaalonjoa that in the elcM ot tha Dtfa eantory
canaed the inraaion of tho ampira by flimaon of Bulgaria. In Ki
the Saiaeeni from the C^naica took th* place by atorm ; tha
pnblie bnildingi ware gruTonaly JDJiuad, and tbe ioltabitanta to
the number ot 33,000 vera earned olf and aold a* ilaie* throogli-
oDt tlia oonntriaa of the Heditamnaan. In 118( the Normana of
ontry.
.. . IT a bn dayi' ileea, tmd parpatntad aodlsa
haibaritioa, ol which Eualathina, then Uahop of tlu aut ha* left na
•n aocDnnt In >SM Baldwin, conqaaror « CoiiBt>ntinopI& *od-
hmd tba kingdom of TheaKlonica on BonlAice, marqola of Mont-
temt ; bnt aightaan yaan later Thsodon, daipot of Epima, ana of
tba natmal *Damiaa ot the new kingdom, took the dty and had
himaelt then aowtiad by tha patriarch ot Uacadonian Bolguia.
On the dnth of Demetrioa (who bad been npwted in hie endea-
TOOT to reoover hia bthai'a throne by Po« HODOrina III.) tba
empty title of king of Salosio* waa adoptad by Mreral elaimanta.
In l-ue the bonae of Bargnsdy nc^Tad a nut of tba titular
kingdom from Baldwin IL wbea be waa titnlar <mp*ror, and it
waa Bold byEudea IT. to Riilip of IVentun, titnlar amparorof
BomaniainlSSCk Tlu TeiMtiai^ to whom tha dty waa tnnalair*d
'ogl, ware In power when Snltan Amnnlh
a of tlw daqiarat*
la of the
9!"' .
the city, wbioh had thrice prerl-
aneai*4~Bnd'« tba Ut ^'ilay 1^0, in
raaUaweof the inhabJtanti^ took tb< '^ -
Ooly been in tha handa of i
tbapat
1b the 4
Jartai . .. , _. . ._ . . __.
aadana attribntad virtna to tba buiona oil oom which the ._
obtaiMd tbe titU of HjraUete. In 187« the rranck and German
jonmla at Theaaalonioa wan maaaaond by tha Tnrldah popolaoa,
>MMta TafiTi Mairapli, MHatatit * tlmttlmtHi (lartta, ISM), aaa
BeUaaTi IV«^ (Uuh artatKii, noMMn ma *i0«, ui« I Bnraii'i iUiJ
JOm, nnuta^ ■■< irtrm QUh; Bi^^Ekh, C. I. B- tqL 1L| luler Hd
SALOP. See BsKOFtaiBM.
SALSETTE, a lu^ ialand to tlie nwth of Bniibar,
with kn arw of 341 •qowe milea. It Uw between 19" 3^
30" »Dd 19° 18' 30" N. Irt. and between 73° 61' 30" and
73* 3' E. long. ; it u eunnected with Bombkj Islud hj
bridge ftad cftiuewny. Balsette ia a beutiftJ, pietnreaqne,
and well-WDoded tract, ita nrfaee bains well divarufied bf
hilli and nonntaino, aoma of oonaider^ile elairation, whila
it ia rich in lica fielda. In tariooa paito of tha inland are
vonuntio viem, embelllahed bj tha mina of Portogaeae
chnrdMi, coaveat% and vilka; ita caTO tntiqtutiea Mill
fbtn % mljaot ot intenat,
At the oanaaa of 18S1 Balaettt had a popnlalion of 108,1U
(malea M,Ua, famala 48,809) ; Hindoa niunbei*d 74,788 anil
Mohanunedana 7,088. The ialind waa taken ttam th* Portogneaa
by tha Hahnttaa in 1739, and from them the Britlah oaplond
it In 1774 ; it waa fonnally anneiad to the Kaat India Company'*
dominiona in 1783 by tha tnaty of SalhaL
SALT. Common lalt, or Amply aalt, is die Dame givea
to the oatiTB and indnatrial forma (tC aodinm ohkndA
(NaQ). The eonaideration of thia important aabatanM
natuiaJlT lalls imder two bead*, relating leapectivalf to aea
aalt or " bay " aalt and " rock " ealt or mineral aalb As
aetnallj foond, bowever, the one ia probablj derived from
the other, moat rock aalt depcaita bearing evidence of haTing
been formed bj the evaporation of lakea or oeas at formor
(often remote) geological perioda. Thia ia aeen from their
Btratified nattin, wiUi their interpoaed bedt of clay, which
oonld only hare been depoaited from ecdntloiL Ibe oTBtals
of Bdenite (hydrated <»Icium anlphate), moreoTer, which
they contain can only have been formed in water and ca«
never aince have been aubjectad to any cotLeiderableamonnt
of heat, otharwiae their water of cryatalliiatioD wonld ha**
been driven oS. The beda alao of potaseium and magneaium
ealta found at Staaafurt and o^ier place*, interpoaed bs-
tween or overlying the rock aalt depoaits, are in jnst tha
poaition in which one wonld oatur^y expect to find them
if depoaited from aalt wiiter. Finally, die marine ahella
often occnrring abunoantly in the anrroiiiidiiig rocks of
contemporary periods alao testify to the former exiateooe
of lai^ nei^bouring maaaca of nit wator.
Sta Salt, — Aiisnmmg a degree of concentration aoch that
each gallon of aea water containa 0-3B17 It, ot aal^ and
allowing an average denaity of 3'24for rockaall^ ithaabeen
computed that the entire ocean if dried np would yield no
leoa than 4,419,360 cubic milea of rock tut, or abont foar-
teen and a lialf times the bulk of the entire continent ot
£nr<^ above high-water mark, mountain maeeea and alL
The proportion of eodinm chloride in the water of the oceui,
where it i« mixed with amall qnautitiea of other aalu, ia
on tbe average abont 3S'3 per 1000 part% tangiiig fn»it
29 per 1000 for the polai aeai to 36-5 p« 1000 or mora
at the equator. Enckwed aea^ eiicl) as tAe MeditertaneaiL
the Red Sea, the Black Bea, the Dead Sea, the Caqtian, and
othna, are dependent of oonrae Ux the proportibn and qna^
i^ of thMr lalina matter on local dmimataiicea. IWoh-
hanuner foond tha following quantitiee of aolid matter in
the water of variooa aeaa.- —
Ilinth3«a 83-80 nammw per litre.
Cattaoat and Souul IB'13 „
Baltio 4-81
Xadltemneau S7'E0
Atlantic 84-80
OaribbaanSaa tS'lO
Of this aodinm r^l^lm^^n cooatit&tea about foiir-&fth&
See Su. Watkr.
At one time almost the whole of the loU In commaMa
wa« iHodnoed from the evaporation << aea water, and in-
deed ealt BO made still formi a staple commodi^ in tnaay
oonntries poeaeaaing a eeaboaid, e^edally those where tM
climate ia dry and the aommer of io^ dniatum. In
Fortusal a total of over 360,000 tona la annoally made io
the mSt works of St Ubea (Setnbal), Akacer do Bid, Oporto,
Aneyro, and Figoeraa. Spain, irith the salt works of tha
Bay of Oadii, the Balearic Islands, &c, makca 300,000 tana.
Italy has Mlt wtn-ka in Sicily, Nudea, IWviy, and Bar-
din^ prodndDg 166,000 tona, In FraiuM, between the
"maraiB laUuits do midi" and thoae on the Atlantic^ 36(^000
to 300,000 tons ate annually produced, besides those of
Cotsiea. The "Salsgitften'of AnatriainoducecolleetivBly
from 70,000 to 100,000 tona annually at variooi places on
tha Adriatie (Babioneello, TVieatt^ Krano, Capo dlsbia,
Ae-X In En^aad and Scotland the indnatij law «f lat«
8 A
jatn giMtir Uln 00 mdar tta eoamtiliMi of tlw roek-
Mlt warki of Cbuhin, bat MHne luU maonbctariM rtia
•nit, U North SbtakU nd eUowlNn, when aUt ia maA»
hj dindnng rack-ntt in Mk micr, ud anpontiog the
wrfation to wyrtilliwtirw by Mtifleiri ha**.
nw naei «f A* wontMMW nqoiUloD gf im witw hu
tma T«T OBrMtr rtodM hj Vri^ on HBlUnmiHit nto it
(Mta. Tb* dn^4 U Bnt wm l-OS. PriniuJlT but a ilight
dap«dtlsftnM(l(m«B««ata tha eonemtaUIaa UTtTM U qxelfts
gnrttr l-OeW), ail dapodt onnditing for tha noM pet of (alofai
cutonUa a>d toila oxld*. TUa g™* on till > dendtr if 1-lSlt
fi TtlntTil. vbn Inrdnttd caldoa nilplHto beein* to danlt, ud
eaDtisoNtOliVaaUo gnri^l-asU ii nadwdl At ■ iaatrot
I-SIS tlMTdnma^ t& m^tnta lua baeoma ndnad to TtMha
afvtetltvuatfnt, ind from tliia nuniWDt tha dapodt bacouta
uanuted far lodiDiB ehlodda, wUdi goaa down nixid vitli k
Imbmi^i^snaUorklaaddiDlpbata. At ipeoUo gnrltr 1 -M61
■ Uttla aodlom bnnmda lua bagnn alaa to dapodt. At nadAo
0n%I-niaaTolm>Mof tbonteii 00I7 tWi*!)* of wnw it
wu at Int, and ft la tlna oaopaaad:—
tUffmimum:iihMf U'W par tast.
MHDHim (Uacida UU „
8o&m AktUa U-M „
BodlBBI
I
ndSe 9A% 1-S1S 01^ D-itO of dapodt bad laratd, wd that
iAMIt UMiiiiiiaiiil of lima and Iran, bat batman •padBo giaTlt;
1118 Ml 1 -(II tltm ii dqndtad ■ mlitore of—
OaldmnaafalMta O-Oast pKcant
Hhd^bu aolphata OIMIU „
KwiMriamiAlnida. OitISS „
Bodfam cblorile 17107 „
BodlnibniBl& O-OOl „
l-BSW „
And of tUa w« aw that abont H par iMot. la aodlom cUorida.
Op to thia ndnt tha aaparatton of tha aalta baa takan plaoo In a
fau-ly ngobr nannar, bat now the temparatim bagina to aiert an
inHn«.r»j ud aom« of tlia aalta d^oaiM In the cold of tha niriit
diaaoln apin partial]]' In the luat of the day. Br niriit tba
aior ^raa uaH j pen magDadum aidphata : In tha day ua ama
I^Bta miiad wlUi aodiom and Mtaaaum aUorUaa la dapoalled.
The motbsr-tiinKir now tilli a Httt* In dmiitT to a ipadlo gnTtty
otI-9081 to I'WOS, and <rialdaani7 mlxad dapoalt of mamednm
tmniidBand diloTlda,petaaaia)nahlori(U>and magDcriam iQpbala,
with tha dimUa magntaiDin and potaaatinn anlphata, oomnonding
to tba Iniglte of Btaarfttct Thara ia alao dapcailBd a double nu-
BoiDm and peti wliiui cblaride, ajmilarlotbaearmllitaofSliiafart,
gnri^ I '9)74, coot^aa only nua mafpualma ehknlda.
nw ^ifdioatkni of tiuaanauta to tba pradmtiaa of ibU feaa aaa
ntar la obriooa. A lana place of land, Taiyins frmn one or two
toaaranl aoM handraMva Uj^-mtat maifc, la laraDad, and if
naeeiaaiT poddkd viui clay ae ai to jrenDt the water from pcioo-
tiling 1^ itiiking away, b tidal aaaa a "Jaa" (aa tiia uongi
ttmrrm fa oallad) ta eonatraotad ■lotunid& atollai^ landerad im-
parriiwa, Iniriilob tha walar I* itoiM and allomd to aatde and
iMuuutiata to a cartaln axtanL In nen-tidal aaaa Bila atocaga
haain la not laqofrad. Tbt pnpaied land ia partitioiNd off into
laiMii hamia (nifmiii nr aiiriwid) mil nfhtai [rall»rl in rranrn nfraa.
atSlUM, or latim mtmUm) wMA gat amallai and mora abalhiir In
{■apottioaaitbayaa Intandad to naalTa tbeintaraaitbeoaiiaa
Bwce and MOM aa«BMtiatalioata>tflhJaulfcll being allowadftem
OBaiat<<haabati>aeoairtoea9aelbe«at«tD flo« abnrty
thfoa^ Iban. Tb* Bow la aftta aaaiatad hj pampina Ibaaaa
aalt thia made la ooUactad Into email baani ou Am paOia around
tha bMlM or the looia if Iba baaiaa UMDaalTia, and bae It nnder-
goia a Siat partial pnrtBcatiaii, tha more diUqpaaaent aaU* Itm-
dallyflieiaM?iMlnmdikirida) being aBowad to drain away, rrom
thaaabaqettiaaolleetad Into logM om^ wbaa it dtaina ttnttia',
udbaemca Bon poifled. Here It ia pwtaatai by thateh tat
The aalt la eollaatad from tlw (nlbea by maaM of a aott of
wooden aeoop at waapm wUeb tba woafanaB nubaa bafora blm,
hot In Bite <f eawy pcaaaolian aaiaa of tba tcilai lUah it la pro-
daead ia imrllditr t£n t9 wMi it, oEonumlMiBg a ted CT F«r
tint Baa adt fa Onoa known h many «( tba ItaDdmarfcataaa
L T 229
aodlameblorido 8T-*7p«eant
Kagnadnm oUocide. 1(8 „
KujnaalQm aolpbate O'N „
Oddom nlphala l-M „
Inaolabia l)-80
Water. 7-60 „
Oenarally ipaakiK thii aalt goaa into eommaica joit aa It lii
-it in aomi eaaaa It & Uksn fiiat to the nBnerr, when it eitho- ia
BJDpIr wiahad and then atOTa-diied bafora being aant ont or la dla-
aolTCd in baah vatar and thea bailed down and orntallleed like
iriiite Bilt from roek-aalt brioa. The aalt of the " aillnea da midl "
of tlM imith-cait o( rriDca la far ponr than the abora, howerar,
apoaUion bring aa tollova : —
Sodlma chloride fiEll percent
Caldnm anlcJi^ _ 0-Sl „
Inadnbla 010
Tatar _ SM „
ma la perbipa partlj owing to the fket tiat of lata jnn, by way
of obrlating die abna-mantlaaad oanaa at ImporitT, a apedea of
haa haan Inbodioad therewith aoma loccaea ratm Forto^
SirmB a bad on wbhA the aalt la depoeited. The motber-
Uqvan from the cnatallliatlon of 1^ oommon aalt oontain atill a.
Utdeeodiom cUoTide and moat of thabmnina and iodine. of tha
M water, all the pobaaiDm aalti, mocb mamewnm anlphatei and
large qnaatlty a ""g""'""' dkloride. lliay aia oftm tbiown
■ay aa iiaii1i». bat lately, In the aoalh af Franca, In the * aallnea
_D mldi," tiiay bam bean uadfbrilwprodDetiooofeaTtainelHaii-
eala by a ayatem of olterior traatmMt Introduced by M. Merie and
load by hla naeeaaor H. Fechlnat
•I tbawatac arrireaat apeclBo b>t1^1'S«)7 and bM
meat of tta aalt, It la drawn dT and atored In larga tanki
of tO,OaO or 00,000 cable mabM aapadty. Ptun thaaa It la
witbdiawn in aaeoaain portiaaa^ awr artudally molad to 0-4*
~ ' ~ Under tbeea drauDitaaceah Indeed at My tonpentan
n* Fahr., a doable deoompoaltioik takaa place between tha
chloride and tha iwht™"'" aolpbate— ujatallliad aodlnm
anlphata baiu tbM Mparated. Alter bdng wItbdrBwn and freed
1Mb the nouer-liqnor by a bjdroeztraetor, thia aolpbate, whi^
aina two atoma •( wanr, la than ramderad anbydrona by Beatlig
rerarbontory ftamace^ From tha rafkigentingTeaael tha water
pama to an ordinary araporallng part, where tike remaining
aalt la preai^tBted by bolUne oollectad, and poriBad hj the hjdiv-
aibaetor. liare tbawaler attaina a apaciAa gnTilr IMSO, and,
being qiraad oat In a thin layer on a amooth larel bed of cemant
or eonoeta, depodta on coofiog all Ita potamiam aa the doable
eUoalda id potajaiaai and ""e"**'"'", the nme aa the earaallila of
StaarfDrt
fig, 1 lanraeantalheniaiHonnef an Anatrian'gal^ptan-at
Capo d'tetilb It la 1 parallalog^am ol S to S aorta in extant
oi fnra ^ir nnna, wm^ang im aonim to oa miiav ana moia ermu
Bm it tbla wata Ina tbi? Iteaet that mod oo^t to be ebauar
ftenealt Tba mlt made aa Oa ooMt of Brittany peaaaaaaa Iba
Ro. L— Ran of Autfian aabgrntan.
d by • dyke or aaa-wiU &' 1^ aaa wtfer enter* by tiia
— 1 [Heta Into tha wide foaae e, wbtn, darfPrfu by
It paaaea by tba apeninga / into a aaztnple aadaa N
•■'"•■ ■ -lai^fimt of all entering tba
It paaaea by 1
■ dMdadbytt
SALT
Iart>«t oUB g, i, i, nil tlun punnsbjthe cannia n into tbe othoi
buiiu i, k, I, I. Ttio Oow of tho nitui frora ods act of buiiu to tbt
otIiAr bi rwuUtcrl br Uif ululf'w f , r-, r. As it punt from ouo Ht
" bittern" ti Ihsn nn off iotn />, uid UwnCS Into tha na. IB '
Truoo it ii ofton itorad u ilnadj alkted Tor thtnra tnatment.
Tn c*H of beaTj rEio^ ibt tlnttdy oouctntntad mter Ij run into
tb< coTored ditonis t, t, wluoli httb to l)pld it till tlia nnm of
Ti.oy.'tl.—PcraiitaDtAnaiyni^SiaSiilUfiim IFiltJeaotm Iccailtta.
Bodinm cblorfde ...
Uagnainm cblciiido
llaennlnxn ntl pinto
Sodium nlphato....
" ' nm nupbnta...
Inniubiamiittofl!!.
—This <^ip«ars to occur in almost ereiy
foTmatton, eicept in the Prinuuy rocka, atiictljr bo cftlled.
The oldest depoait of which the age maj be considered to
have been aii;thing like pTsciselj determiaed may be said
to be the great salt range of the pQojab, which is regarded
aa beloDgiog to the Permian ; and that lately diacovered
at Middlesbrough in Toriahira, immediately OTwlying tie
nagneaiaii limestone^ may be probably referred to the
same period. In the northern cotmties of England there
are freqnent inslanceB of brine springs rising from the
Carboniferona and contignoua formationa. The Cheshire
and Worcestershire aalt-beds are by some attributed to the
Permian ; more generally, howerer, they are referred to the
Trias. Thoae of West New York and Oooderich (Canada)
are said to belong to the Balina period of the Upper
Klnrian. The deposits of the Yoagea, SalibnTg and
othen of central Germany and Austria ara C0Dsidet«d to
belong to the Trias ; that of Bex in Switserhud to the
Lias. Those of Wieliczka in Poland, Cbidona in Spain,
and eome Algerian fonnBtiens are admitted to be Creta-
ceons. Those of Bayonne, Daz, and Camarade, in the
Pyrenees, are probably Tertiary, while the Dead Sea, I^e
Elton in Astrakhan, the Bitter I^kes of the lathmoa of
Suez, tbe Kara Boghaz on the shores of ilia Caspian, the
Litnana of Bessarabia south of Odessa, the Bonn of Cnteb,
and certain formations of the Sea of Asoff, Jtc.areiDstaQcea
of salt framations now in actnal progress. The freqnent
aasodation of bitumen and petroleum with rock-salt and
brine ia one of the most noticeable features in the geology
of those aubstsncea, and aeems to point to Kme nnfcnown
condition of the formation of the two first named. The
Daz salt is close to the bitumen deposits of Bastente and
Oat^Bc Borings made at Dai^ as well as at Saliee abont
20 milea distant (where alao salt eziata), gave vent to an
effloz of inflammable gaa which cootinnei! for seraral
week^ and the water of seTaral springs in that neighboor-
hood ia tainted with petrolenm. Bitumen and petroleum
occur near Tolterra in Toscany, where a large deposit of
salt ia being worked. . In Walachia the two ocoor in the
same formation. In the United Statsa of America and in
the aonth of Ruasia petroleum and brine are fomid ia many
places either actually asaociated or in near proximit;;
petroleum has recentiy been discorered not fu from the
aalt deposita of Hanorer, and one of tbe beds of rock-salt
at Nancy ia strongly coloured by bitomen, while almost
all rock-Mlt has a more or lew peroeptible bitaminous
odour when struck or nibbed. In the province of Sze-
dtneo, China, are some remarkable salt springs, where the
brina ia aetompanied by such aa effltix of inflammable gaa
that the latter aerTes as fuel for its evaporation ; and
other ■priogi aooompanied by the aune phanonMnon enst
in the same region. In fact, inatancea without end might
be dted of the two occurring together, and it would appear
that petroleum for some mysterious reason can only be
formed in presence of salt
The chi^ rock-salt districts of Europe may be classified
as follows: — (1) tiie Carpathians; (2) Austrian and Bava.-
rianAIpa; (3) WestQermanj; a)TosgQ6; (fi)Jura; (6)
Swiss Alps ; (7) Pyrenees and the Bp^ish or Celtiberian
MoontaiuB ; (8) ^e British salt deposits ; (9) isolated
deposits and springs in Russia, Tiu-key, Italy, ite.
Tli« Cu^wthiin diitrict nu; ba aubdirided Into tha Uoldo-
WilschiiD, 'TnjiiylHnitn, G^lsn, and Himguian isolloiia.
Th«7 fonn probiblj tbe licbst and moit eitioiirg of the
Enropean salt fleldi and bj them alona tbt sotin continent might
be ntppUed for agoa. Tho TianijlTanian and Walachlan mines
an ipcciallj nameroua and rich. Thooiandi of tona of nit, in
tbe form of brine frDm the Bpringi nhicb art conuxan thionghoat
ittT, aro allowed to run lo waate, no important factory
,_ .1 ^.„ ,^ ^.- "^- Tick i* in bet
pnblio comomption. In Oalicia tbe priocipaJ n
. . , itthoaa
>t moit bietoncal iatereet are at Wielicika and Bochoia. Tlie
former, wbicb ii Jnitl j tbe moat cslateated in tbe world, ia aitnalsd
G milea from Ciacow and baa been worked contiiiDoaaly for ax
handnd years. The maaa of aalt ia calculated to be COO milea
long, 20 milea broad^ and 1!00 feet thick. It ia on the aoiib-weat
aide of a ridge of hilla, an oHtet of the Caipathiana. The aalt ia
atoned oot in longitudinal Bud tranavene galleriea, ' and large
Tainted chaniben, tupported b; mastive pillin. Eiplaaivaa ara
not uasd in tiia or aij of tbe other minea of the diatiict Tbe
elae finely ground
. . 2S1 yarda deep and 1 mile 127EI jarda long ~
raidi wide. All the criuding and p^^ing is done wi.
It is atatod that the coUectiTe length of tbe galleiica and chambers
it no loa than SO English milea and the total yield 011,067 tona
per annum. These mines employ &om eight hundred to one
thonaand peiaona, man; of whom Lve pemunently under groand ;
the loner leTeli contein (treet* and honaea and oonautota a
complete Tillage. TraTellen have giTen glowing deacnptiona
of the cryatal vaults, tparkling aiilea, and biry palaoaa of tbis
mine. The aalt ia grejiah, and somewhat reaemble* granite in
In tbe well-known district of tbe Anatrian and Bavarian Alpa
tbe mine of Balibnrg (Salihammaigut) ia perha^ the moat
familiar. The Austrian portion of the district mcludes the
towns of Anasee, Ischl, Esllatadt, and Hallein, and tbe Barsriao
inclndes Bsrcbte^aden, Belebenhall, Traunatein, and Boaenbdm.
In the last-named salt ia made from Liioe conveyed in pipss from
Bercbtenaden, pasdu by BeieheDball, Itl milea m all, with a total
fall of lUS feet. Tbm are also tai^ att works at Hall near
Innsbnick. Here, aa in tbe Catpatbiui ragion, moat of the rock-
salt ia sold merely ground, or in lumps, and the tnda ia, as in
other parts of AnatJu-Hongarr, a atnct Oorermnent monopoly,
prodncm^ an annual ivvenas of two aikl a qnartar to two ud a
half miliums sterling.
The Oetmah mines are nnmerons ; they eitnd north and simth
tnrn Segebaig in Holsteia to Bali on the Neoksr, and cast and
.. — « . . ^.... —-'-- jrajngB md Basil woAinga
„. ,,. t two IbniiatiaDS «f speoisl
Staaaftirt In Ssxeny and IT '"- " — " "^ '"
A'
«on of tha StaafDrt Indi, iDd
wilt ffn u ulia of their fOnutioa. It tippia* lui tban meat
Dtban to hm ima HibJBtBd to d«ul»l«tiwi riiM bdng fonMd,
Fn. l-flKtkmofStHrfnrtSah-BadL
potHdim ud nigoeaam nlpbatM ; uid iMth w* Ut« k tba
nnar l^v or "eanulUta" ngioD, tl judi thick, oenbdniss
•MmtnelniiTClr th< doobh poUMlinB ud iMMiwlnir eUoiidtt,
togrtba «iHi otiut dallqbncait will, mdnlv ol boneito, Ac. It
hM ham compntHl that > m dopth of llj iuIm mmld b* nqidnd
fct th* pradnctioii of nch ■ nriei *• lU*.
Ths VMgM, whtoh li * Tan Impoituit dlftrist, mppUtd ft Um
uit i^ th« BUt of Tnuc* with nit, till liat In the wu of 1870-
1871, ■tun which Una Hun; haa gainad oonndanlilT In import-
iDca; OwikwicUlTnaklils; VamTiiiDdndedinthlihaatiL
U Swllarbad &a ahM mlt dirtrkt lia* oi flu lUU buA vt
& Blma, iMar tha lata of Ganara. Tbo nrineipd oaotraa an
AUi^Boclw, and Bk tha bat bdiut tha moA important
Tha ^ranaaa ara ijeh on both ddaa ia Mna aprinyp and rock*
■Kbnutiona. In tha aooth-wart at Fiwoa «• hvra Ifaa nek-
ol Mna an idantjltal, m i> indicated b* tha baqnant racnnrac* of
^nllabla *^8al ' in tha namn of towna (Balinn, Salinillai, Poa
dill Sal, fciLX
Tin CUtibariaD or axclniiveli' Bpauidi dlaWet (ncIiidH Tu4ina
toma aeattnad orar Spain — SaJinu da
tona aeattnwl orar Spain— SaJinu da Saalion (GnMiakJanL
YilliUflla (&mina1, Toimiiiiaao, Caiorla, and Hinojana (Jaan),
he; but pafufatha moat nmaifcabla dapoalt of laltln Brain ia
.._. _, ,^_,__. ._ .. , "■ -»l(oa, « miln north-waat
italn oompoaid of a bod of
a thldt, and (anniiv two
Hwa. nw nit ii aa unal
thit oF Cardona in tha pnrinco of Baraelma, U miln north-waat
lithatdtjr. H«b ii a mitabla ' ' ..-...-
— ■"■*-"r P*"" n^t US to Ui
niBta, (uA aboot a mlla Is dnji. . — ..-
tfniifiad, and baan t«tj atning eri^siMt of danidation. It la
datHj nm white, bat in parta mi«* from light-blnato briek-rad.
It n antactad b; an opan-air worUiig Ilka atona ftom a qnanr.
^kica are aoow brina and Rxk-aalt dcpoilti which out bardljr ba
"liarffltd as holoDsing to bdj particular diatrict. Such aia — in
tnim, at tha ibot ottha Alpa, tha brina ■piingi of Hootian and
CutalUna ; in Italr, Toltam ; In Sldlj, Nuoda and Unnomall ;
in Croatia, Sambor ; In Boama, Tula ; In Busaia, DuhiDUtr on
Uu Dimcti, Balachna uo tha Vo)^ Stanji-BnMa netrLtkt Ilman,
Enpatoiia snd other placea in tha Crimoi ; in Pniiiid, Wtltan-
doril; Bparanberft Ac
"■ ■ " ' ■ ■ - ■ ■ 1 at Korthwich,
doril; Bperani
niaeh^c
H . _ --
n, BCoka Prior and Droitwleh in Woicaatciahire, and
.Middlaabroogh En ToAahira.' Dnnonia luai Carriekfanu In
Inland alao ponann a laigo dapodt of aUt The duaUn and
^orctataidkira nit dapoaita ara np to tha praent tlmabjr&rthe
tooM imnrtant, tba Donenw dapoiit being M1I7 partially woilad.
JUthoiiai brina qrina haT« baan known to asit in both theae
m,,^.. ._j .l.n „ ^__,.i..,
iliont
thna bade of ni^4iltnn dfaoonnd al Lawton'iepaiatsd fr
ooB another W lajcra of Indaratad daj. Tba Manton mine, the
pnpertT of Haam Bigbr and Pletcbar of Sortfawieb, It tha larceit
•af paAapa tha oldeat (than ara twentj-STa in England altogather
'*"» lodE-nlt ia niied). It wai voifced foe about a hmidreirjii
accnpation, and lalt had beui
. . _ It waa not till I«IO that rock-iuc
to jnrda thi^ wu diacorerad at UaibDrjr near N'orthwieh
no man axdoiing for inal, at a dsplh of 11 farda. In ITTS
bade of nck-nlt wen dlsoorend at la ' ' ' '
— -rad^nltianiaed). If
b enlf ita npps b«l, hot la 17SI Iti ownan decided on abiklna
*~"-T, aad, aHw tnraring • l^er of tndraatad obj intmtetad
with nun nlna of aalt lot jnda tUi^ thar n
L T 231
lock-aall. TUa— Ilia had which hu eontinnod h ba worked crar
rinea-la n to S7 Tarda tblok. Bmeath it an othan, bnt they are
thin and impor*. Tka totalilaptliaftbamina tothebottomoTtha
lowu Inal & ISO yuib. At Winidotd, whan ths aanie (onaatlou
aeama to recur, it la IGP yirdi from the eniAee. Tie llantun
niM ooiren an area of alxHit 10 acna. Tlie aalt ia fint naclied
at tt-M yaida in the Nortfawioh diatrict, and the niipor lijor
la 9fi-U jaida in tlticknen (Uanlon 33-28 yaidi) ; it iLU abors
' ' ' 'n tha riMaca of Iti amftoe, a layer of
la the brine which ia nieeil at Iho rariona
pomptng elation* in Hortbvich and eleonhsn uoond, and which
aerTea when ariponted to pndDce whito salt. The bole are
taadied by rinUng throngh the clayi and Tari<!gated maila typical
of thia foTmatloii. The eatt ie bluted oat witli gunpowder. The
Hiddteabion^ de^xit bide fair eooa to become of Tery great
impoftanca. It w> dincovend by Ucaui Bolukow aud Tanghan Id
boring fer water in tS at a depth o( 100 yardi, bntnenotutiliiBd,
and <raa a|^n bund by Ueean Bell Broa. at Port CUnsDoo at a
depth of nt yarda, aiM b being now woikod by tliam, th* heat
luad (or araporatlon being tha wuta ^aea of tlMr Uaat fnmaco*.
Eaooanndliy their aocoeaa the Neweaetlo ClMmtcal Company haTe
alaifbandoa tha appodte ride of tha rirer. TW biled at firrt
to Bnd tha >*lt, bat ultimately aaoceeded by a tnJb boring, Th*
eitant «f ths bad b nut yet occrtained, bat eriJently by the
faiiin of the KewcastU Chemical Company at flnt it cannot extend
br to ths north. Ila thkknma haa been prorad in to &r aa the
^ot whan Uean Bell Broa, mode their boriagb concerned. Theae
gtntlenua han introduced ths method employed at Nancy
a laiains the nit in ths lorm of brine witbont the trouble or
eiponae el nnUni a shaft. In Choilun the iarface-water tiickliug
thimgh tha orsrlying strata dinolTee the salt which b lulw
qnenUy pnmpeil aa biiue, bat hers the greet depth and itoper-
mnbility et the atrata pTKlude* thi^ so another method ha* been
naortad to. A ban b made Into the mlt, and lined wiLh tubiii^
in th* nnal manner, and thb tnbe whan It tniaraea tbe nit ii
^anad with bob*. Tithin thb b hnng loosely a second tuba o(
mnch aaudler dimeariona ao aa to bar* aa anouar ^'•ce between
the two. Throng this eueee th* trash nrfto* water End* its way,
and dbeolTlng tbe nit below lisn in the innti tnbs u brine, bat
only to inch a larol that ths two coIdduh bw to ons aiiothsr tha
__._j ..._ ^_ . — 1_. thb beiM ths InTSioe ntlo of the reejieo-
''~~i andmahwitar. For th* ramaiuiug
„. J a pamp. At Brat whlb tha cavi^
nuuauis small, then b some dlncalty in getUng a conlinnona
sapply of brine of rail strength, bat tUs oeasn to hs ths caw u
the sMDtlan -*■«■">-"■ (sa It is celled) bsconn enlaigad. The tnak
water, howenc, U It desosnds rises to ths sarbos of fbs salt,
""■''"II nthar to dimolTO ila npper bjen and extend saperfioblly,
so that after a time the snperinaunbant soD, being withoot eapport,
&Bs io. These interior bialell^ bealdca ehokbg the pipea and
breaking the commanicstioo, ottea pcodocs sinkfase at ths smbes,
anoh aa occnned aoma tims ago at Disan (Lonauie}. The ssnts
IncoDTeaioaca b bsginDing to make it»ir felt in the snTirons ol
Hsnoy, snd a eiuibr ons pndaon on a larger acale the einklng
and aubaidencca at Wiosfbrd and Kotthwicji so mnoh eomplainsd
of. The dsi-oaitB of sslt in the United Blatu on onimportant
The Goantry lassessH no Kally cousidentde salt indostty, bat b
sDppUsd SO or u interior onunmiitioa ia ooncanad to a uall
axtent by briae spring Th* ptucipal rapplioa, howercr, an
derired frtna England ajad the ahtnea of^fipain end PortogaL The
■ams nnuuk awloa to Canada. Boath America pcninai eeroal
aalt dapoaita and brina springe, Imt abo tekn aU its ann^ias from
EoroM. Asiatic Bniab b very abundantly npplied wiUi salt, aa
Ukawba b CUna ; and Penb b perhaps one of the conntrlea
moat abondaatly endowed wiU) tins nstnral and nseftd product.
British Indb cannot bs nld to be simibrly bvound. In the
north, it b tme, b the gmt nit range of tbe Pniyab, ~~ — " '
.1. o._ii__ ,_!.. -if^t b obtained '-
rslstlon of lea to twslve, thb bei
tiTs waists of aataratad brine ai
distanes ths brins b tabsd by a
placn along its Mtensin sHbonrU ; but Inilia b not well sapplied
in many puts, end b dependent largely for thb srtido on tha
Chahin lah worka. In fact thb eiport b one of ths mnt im-
portant branches of their tnde.
Table II. (see next rsge) b froi
dtatrial ArO, kc. Tfio clay snd ^
BtanfoR sslt sssm to Im aomswhat aLnormally bige.
Bock-ialtb probably the oiigia of more than hair the nit mw.--
lactared In ths world. It ocean In ell degrees of parity, from that
of men salty cby to that of the most tranoparent crystali. In the
former cue it b cAea diSlenlt to obtain tha brina at a denMM.ercn
wnoaohliv satofatiaD, and, aa at Uoutian In BsTi^ and in ssTsnl
M na Qsman aalt woA^ ehamhen sad nJlerin an eacaratsd
within tha aaliferoaa bed to incnan the dtnolring sorbaa, and
water 1*1 down Itaah la pompad np as brina. Many brina ei^iDg*
alao ocoir in a mon or Im ntnrstsd condltian. I" *bA <<uh
inlv b sianstlmaa caiuMd to trieUs orar 0
iriMtsby
ralv b sianstlmaa caiuMd to tiieUe orar bggM» anaund
large opm shads callsd " gradoatton booaM ■ (AoiUrUwsr},
by a miva axtonsln aaibn of arapotntlaB b obtalMd, asd
SALT
M aempoMlim tf Sedc-BaUfrim JFtO-kaom LatatUitt.
ohmt
Q™«r.
rnw.
AMta.
"^ 1
L«dlW _.„_„_.
*wl5S£;'^
s
MMfUt.
lSSS.
vi^I*™u*
Du.
...
as
wmi.
• ICll.
.^^
FAIbx.
«-^.
Hcg.
teDm-
taU*.
.^.
=«..
"sr
»-,.
B^.
wua.
Cth
Sodl™ «Mor!d»
Clciam chloridi
Cldom lalphnU
BB-97
Si)3
0-01
0-02
tnuw
0-11
OK
0-80
M'85
tncs
0-16
..■.7
...
0-»T
8-J8
0-as
97-05
0-iB
!■»
ii)0
o-so
B7-80
I'M
«-*6
'O'le
i-so
iJ-Bl
tnos
...
oi>l
e-ss
0-2B
0-ii
0^
lOODO
68 SO
i'-n
H-70
0-88
tT«e
o-ae
1-7*
0-83
CdSJimaibOMl.....
roTiachlarid*..'.
OUy or i«olttbl«
M npidlj anuBDtimUd. F%. S tivnn ose of tlitaa
Itconabti at a loDg abed, tha Boor atirbicb U i
alultov eUt«ni k»pt Bllsd with ths brins to b« cansentnUil, ths
bodf of tha boDU bcmg oooapitd by ■ ilugls or dtxibli row of
^^ot> of bUckAarn t, and abora thaw ■ trough or trougtw t.lnto
which tha btina ii pninped : aaopini from thaaa Into tha chund
c, It li aDand to iIdv or drip •loimorar tha TigKOta, uid fluda
ita way back to the bum beneath. The abed hsalta ndea opes
■nd aipoaad to tbe t'"^'^'°f! ><iiidi, and, the hriua being thos
apread oyer a luge lurface, there a mncb scope for eTapontioD,
and it becoiuB npidi; concenUaCed. SsTaral each ihsdi an DftaD
bailt in seriea, and the brine, being conTejed from one to the other
Mit becomsi denaar, ittainaat last a epooiBc paTity of about 1*18,
*hen iL ia atored ia Urge ciitenu till tequirad for araporatiDi.
Thia ia dona in large iron pans bj tha mothod to be hereaiter de-
acribad when ipealung of rock.ult brina. The me, honTer, of the
■ gradnatloa bonaea ''^ia dying ont, except in pirticnUr looilitjea
when competiCiOD from *e« aalt or porar lock-aalt ia difficolt, aa
both their cooalmction and their maiotsDaaca are eipaoaiTa. Tha
parer rock-ailt ia ol^n dmply gronnd for nee, aa wa ha*e aeen
to be tha caaa at Wielicika and etaewhere, bat il ia mora fceqaantly
pnmped aa brine, prodnoed either by aiti&cial aolndon ia at
Hiddleaborongh and otbei pUeaa, or by natnnl ueana aa in
Cheehire and Worceataiahiia. One great dikwback to tha uaa of
eran tha pareat rock-ult eiiaply gronnd ia ita tendency to rarert
to ( bard nnnieldy nuua, whan kept any lenMh of time In aadu.
Thia ia partly bat not wholly obviated by padiing in caaka, which,
howeror. are dear aod lot alwaya obtainable. Aa lunally made,
'"'',0 two groopa •.-—{l)
flna,baaket,
... «.kc); (3)
imon, chemical, fiabery, Scotch fiabery, artra fiahory,
aouiuB em fiehery. and bay aalt (Fr. ml du It, ti, iS 60. and
7t Aeuni). All theae namea are derirad from the >iia ud appear-
anea of the cryirtala, their ssoi, and tha modea of their prodactioTi.
The bailed HUti. the cryelale of which are amall, are Ibrmed in a
~-" — -inatantly agihrted by boiling, Tha fln< • ■ ■'-
ODbdled :
«it takaa It* name from the conical baakets fiom which it ia
allowed to dnin iriian Ant it ia " dnwu " from the pan. Bstter
and oheeaa aalta ■» not ftora-driad, but left in their mora or leaa
moiat condition, aa bring thna mora aaally applied to their reapee-
tire nee*. Of tha Dnboiled mIC* the firat two, correepondinB to tha
fi. tel dtU teuro and lel <£< 14 Awra, show by their Engliali
appUcationa of which are equally ahown by their namea, menly
depend for thair qoality on the length of time which elapaoa
between euccaaeire diawiagi," and thetamparatnreotthacTapora-
tion. The time Tariaa far tha unboiled sella ftom twelve hours to
three or four weeke, tha larger eryatala beiog allowed ■ longer time
to form, and tlia smaller ansa beins formed mora quickly. Tha
tamperatore Tariaa from 65* to 180* Fahr.
One striking diSsnnee between the manufacture of aalt from
iDck-salt brine aa oarried on in Britain and on the Continent liea
in tha almost azcInaiTe uaa to the latter case of eloaed or coTarod
pau, exoapt in th* making of fine aalt, whereu in Britain opaD
one* are employed. With open pans the vapour ia free to diffuse
itself into tne aurrounding atmoepbore, and tlia erapcratlou ia
parhsps mora isidd. When eoTered pane are need, the loat of heat
by radiation is less, and the aalt made ia aleo cleaner. In works
pnbliahad In Fiance and Oermany tbe statement la frequentl*
made that it wonld be Impoaaible to aell there a grain oT salt
mannlhctDred by English mothoda, bnt one la fairly jnstJBad in
doubting this aaertion, eeeing the ease with which the publio arr
indnead to pnrcbaae the ul gnt of tbe maiai* ealantL In fact. It
i* dutomary in soma placea to make a apedal article, which ie eold
in competition with sea ealt, by mixing with the purer ana 10 or
13 per cent of mud or earth. Tha moat adTantagsons mode of
oTapontion would eridently be to canaa the heated gieei tttaa tbe
fumece to psie OTer the snrfecB of tha liquid iteelT. Vo wearing-
out of tha pane need thus be feared, no lowering of tbe conductiTa
power by bcnistation, bnt tbo rapoar a* feat aa formed would
diffuee itself into heated air in rapid motion, thia air being far
from its point of aaturetion and greedy of moietnre. The plan,
howeyer, wbith was tried in Britniu by Otto Pohi and in Germany
by Bom haa hitherto been a failure, the silt being for one thing
Tory much eoiled with the soot and other products of combnition. '
Again, tUs mode of evepoiation hardly coneorta with the >low
Crogress snd perfect stillness required for tha production of the
Teer-grainod sajta, and gi*ee only £na aalt.
Figs, i and 5 repreeoot a French pan, while fig. 8 la a BriOsh
pan, only diffsring from the CoEtineutal ones in not b«lng covei«J
ui, and in nnially haying tliree or lour fires in place Hi two or
thna, and a separate chamber beyond the pan ir -i-i"!- "■■ ■•'*
»toTed, healed by the flues conTBying the furnace gases to
the chimney after lesTing tbo pan. The first fwo npreemt a pan
of 84 feet long by ail feel
D npreemt a pan
^ _^ __ _... filled with briocio., and with
circulating flues beneaOi for economy of boat. _ThiapBn,a, I* su-
portad all round ita lower edges or • • "
bis pen, a, I* sup.
_ . rsU snd on the pillan ft, e,
and heated"bytwo£«i"e, t"°"rh* fiame and the heated gaaea ol
each fliw drcuat* In the tinea js p, J9, in which an holes at yarions
conTaniant points for oleaning ; tiins then theae gaae* an made to
ti«Ter*e tba length cj the pan thi«e times bafon airiTbg at tbs
ehimnsyi w, « or ths d^ng Boon d, o. Tha channels t, t
beneath the flan (fig. 5) sarre to warm the ur which fseds the ixm.
and, entering at the hirther end of tbe pan, ksTerses them snd
tsBUea warm into the ash pit o, which is of conna otharwba olcaai
In tba door A. The ateam, eolleoting benaath tlu eorar as, d
which th* sppai portion i 1* attaehad to tb* tlmbfn of ths rw4
233
• bf (b* iUaatT i,, "Ul* ittom k MtiM of ilntten illo*
■ lor tha niioo* muiipaUtiou.
la two diyiBg Boon «, « u* och basted bf tluM Smi 4, f, q.
_...» of thow below the pui, within whicb drcoUt* tbt
htaUd p*" OB tbni waj to tba Bwin ebiniiiaf, and on thii floor
B ■pnu '!** "" ^ '" ^li*^ Tba foor of a pan ii gcnanll; at
Fid. 6. — Tha auoa ta loDgitadlDal aacttoa
n latbsr daapar at tha ddea than In tba middla, bnt tbaj toon
flatten ont anil waip is all dinctioni on baing End. Thii warp-
iag ii a gnat iaeoDTaaiesca, opening commonicationa batwcan tha
tarferiog aadl}
nuggnanti o(
tbeaa Uttn •
jut diaeilbBd,
Bait* atnnn-
manL On the
■m
wupiag or bvobUnA the acalioft and tba fonoalion of " aata," aa
tba rnkmcB eall tha nrt of atalactitM of aalt which forai in
tbrfloM, aiU^ fton Iwki In tha fan. an pabapa among the
wont annojuieM o( tha HUmakan. Tba {u* art of nmnar;
lar platM rivatid toMthar, na pitta* nry in nn, bat nanallr
9 taat bT 1 faet, and nthar aoaller otst Om Gra. Tba Rata,
whicb tbonld ba raeb at to pradnca a nodeiats and diffoaad beat,
la ot tba ordinarj kind, and tba firing it ntuaUj dona trom a pit
belowtbeaailof tbepan. Id England tba^ ntt "lUck" lonttimM
callad "bnrgtj"; abroad thay nae all kiodi of fod— wood, eoaj,
ligaita, and tnrf ; and tbaj tl» in man j plica in in the babjt of
protactiBg tba pan from In* more inUnH heat Inmadiatalj' o*er
the fire abj a gnard I at that pajticnlar part. Aa a meant of pro-
dndig a ■<i»^— < aod gantle beat withont imoke, watai gaa will
icobablj ooat to ba mwd hj and bj. On tba Contintnt Uie floaa
are often 1 or !| feet higb, and' In Britain Ibef are nauallf half
that height At, bowaTei, 1 aloi* and itnlir dnngbt ii to be
timed at, on tha prindple ennnciated b; Hi fitdk. Biament, tba
CoBtiaantal plan aaama the mora ntional Siiaoa doee not here
admit of t d**eription of th* to-called maehint nana— tba daj pana
of tb* Cbaahire Amtlgamttwl Sal t Campanf or Otto Pohl'a tjtteu.'
In Britain tbt brine it eo pan that, keepbg a imall itnam of
it mnning into tbt pan to rtpltca th* lottti bj trtporttion and
the rcmaralof th* ttlt, it iaonlr ntoentiy oocauoiuJlV (not often)
r-Iiqaor wban
Dride ; but in a>
'orka on the I
tinnit, Mpedtllf thoae of North Grrman;, tb* Biotb«r-li<jiw
only contain* mor* of thit imparity but beoomea qaite brown frara
orgaaia matter on conoentration, and totally nnfit for further
eerrin after yielding bat two or th»acrop(o[HllcrystalB. ftoma-
timea, to gat rid of tbaag impnritiaa. tbt briua ia tnalnl in a Itrg*
Inb (benmr) with lime; on aettling it bacomi- ' ' -'-—' —
ntarda the evaporation, ^
time* aodinm enlphats it added to th* brine, prodi
ling it becomoa clear ai ..,
a aldn on ita aoifaca Jn the pan,
id impsdia tht cryttaUintiDD. At
Idad to th* brine, produdig aodiun
cniona* tna nagneaium tnlphat* by donble deccnipoailion wilb
the magneainm cnloride. A aligbt degree of acidity eeemt more*
faTOOnble to tha cryitalliiation of aalt tban alkalinihr ; tbn* it
it a pnetic* to add 1 cartain amonnt of atom, S to 13 B. par pan
of l>r]ne, aapacially when, alin fiaheijBaIt,fiDecryttallatvraqairad.
He salt ii "drawn" from the pau and placed [in tht cat* of
boiled aalta) in amall conical btakrt* hoDg mnnd tht pan to drain,
and thqnc* monldad in iquan boie^ and aflerwaida atora-dried,
or (in caae of nntlailed aalti) "drawn" in a heap on to the
" hnrdlee," on which it dnina, and thence it cartiad to tha atoro.
In moat Continental conntri** a hoaTj tai ia laid on lalt ; and
the Boaraer aa well aa the finer cryitali an tbenfon ofton dried io
ta not to pay duty on more water than can be helped.
The brine naed in tb* »lt menaractora In EngUnd ia Tery nearly
tatonled, containing 2S or 2« per cent of aodinm chlonda, the
utmoat water can take up being S7 \itr cent ; and it nngaa from
Sa to 12 ounce* of aalt pr gallon. In eone othEr cooatriea, tt ba*
been eipltined, the hnne baa to ba concentrated Lefon uee, and
e*«iy onno* per gallon by which tba brine ia below aaturation
indicatea a dilference of coat in the produi-tion from it of ttlt ot
about 41d. to H± per ton. Subjoined in tour tnalyttt of brine
taken from Unart Bichtrdton and Watta't CAcHMtry ofpliid to
ChtAIr*.
_J— — 1
H.n<«.
Mete
Chloride of lodium
Chloride otpotaaaium
2S'322
traa
triio
■IM
■Ml
■OM
■107
trace
trace
trace
2S-S5S
tnc*
■in
■jis
-lOT
tisee
trace
trtc*
trace
21'4S3
trace
trace
■SM
■M?
■116
■ou
t^'o*
trace
trace
trace
M-1S2
trace
tnca
6H
rMl
■019
■OSl
trtca
trace
lodUeofaodinm
Chloride otmagneaium...
Sulpbata of niigneaia
C^bonateoftoda
Carbonate of magneeia. ...
28-01!
2«D« 1 I*-S78
28197
The prioe ot atlt tt tbt worirt may be taid to range ttaa 4a. 8d.
to 8t. per ton, the former being lea* tban tb* ooat pric* aa giren
baton the Britiab pailiamantary oommlmion in 18S1. It ia then
■tatad to Im — brine, 8d. ; labour, lOd. 1 fuel 3*. ; nnt, int*r*at, k«..
It. ; total, Ca. fd. Tbn* the mtrgio for [ffoBc it but amall, almoatthe
only gain being aaid to aeeme from tha ligbtaring, moat of th* Bit
mtniuaetnrera doing the carriage in their cwn 'Sttt."
XXL ^ JO ,
234 8 A L-
SdtMdinc b liT M MiM Ml uludlliy taa« MB* didkt Mm-
MM of th* «n tmng tbi nij ttieHoa twnrttniiw go*ifIuNd of i
inind, tlw ■tmoqilHn of atMin MbuaUd wilh nit In which
Am miknwa lira Mmt ,^*dillj maamtin tgalnit oolil^
rkmuoaliin^ BsUBlgit, he. It ii atd that ing« m nthw
b«tt«r Nkd ampiojmwnt mora ragolu in WoceeMscihiia Hun in
T^ juHanmtarj oommlKlon abon nlani to wu appoistad
with a nnr to th< inTtatigatioD of ths oa«i of tha djHiboai
(DtaliltncM vhtch ■» ooDstantljr taldag plaoa in ill tho nit
dMrtSta^ md th* mriatoii of ■ nmady. It kd to no l^iiilatiT*
Mliaii : bat ths art] !• noogniiMl ai a gnr* on*. At Sorthwioh
and Winifoid aoantlra bonis ora ohlmnt/itack nnulni itn^ht.
HoBMa IT* kind up with " (ba{ii,* " faoi pUtM," and " boltt,"
and only kspt ftoin MUbk br Icuiug oa on« uouai. Tha doon
and -wlodawi hara baooma lounn-iluvad, tha valla bnlnd, and
0>t flooca CTOokad. BaiUiagi KaTO want, anma of tnam dia-
wpaaring aUagatliai. I«laa hav* ban fOrniad wbaa than waa
•oUd groond bafbn^ and iocalenlablo damua doo* to pnpartj in
an qaartaia. At tha nma tima tt ia difflcnlt to aaa bow thia
ptaraooa tan ba nnadlad wilbont Inflioting nrioiu icjniy, almoat
nin, apM tha Mlt tiada. Tha warkiD|{> in Gnat Britain laptaaant
tha ahatiaction of lather mon than a eahie mile of rack araiT fin
jaai^ and ot tUa by fat ths itigtt part ia in Cheshin.
■ulaT cina tb* ibUowing itaUMica d Uw.prodaction of aalt in
li^aodbrlSSl:—
( ITorthwich MO,OO0 tona.
n._i.i» JWinaford 1,000,000 „
""■•^ ) Uiddlawidi »0,000 „
( Whaaloak and Lavtott 100,000 „
BCaSbtdidiira.., ShiHaTwlak and Wtdon-ou-Trsut 1,000 „
w..,„..,..|,. tProitwieh lU.OOO „
"*~''™''" ( Stoko Prior 106,000 ,;
Total 1,SM,000 „
Ha abo glTfi th« fgUowins dataila ot the alt oiportsd for nara
(nding Dsa II, IMl to ISM incluiTo, quoted riom the aicbina
of tha Salt ClMiBbeT of Cotnatene, whuea tha inportiDce ot tha
aalt trad* In England maj ba jodgad : —
IHl.
uai.
un.
'TSgl^.^^;-™
Is
1
*4,vr
"its
lli,ii>a
is
1
:; SS* JildKift-E^-::::::
TUal hm LfnTpHl.
fw.ara
■as
■«
aia.iM
lll.Ml
<.~.~. :...
i,i*Mn
i,«ii^
I.WT.IW
prtanitj'
(iL in
■ and naa do Bit with their food. In aoma parti a
n of India (among the Todia), aalt wufintinti
ana ; and there an Hill parti of OMtral Afiiea when tl
t ii a Inxorr oonOned to the liob. Indeed, whan nwo li'
thrt 111 lalli a» not kjrt, it ii not nei!ei..i7 to add lodiqni ehloride,
and thu we ondentand how tha Nmnidiu nomada In the time of
BallMt and tiia Badooini of Hadramant at the pnaent diT nanr
eat lalt with tbali food. On tha other hand, oanel ot TigiUbla
diet oaUa Ua a mpplameBt of aelt, and to doei boQad meat. Tha
impoituit part pined br tha minatal in Oa hiatoTT of eraimarca
and nligion dapanda on Ihii fast ; at a rar* earlT atasi ot pncraa
Mlt became a uananij of lite to moet natEou, and in many^eei
StL^',? J^" '1 !?!' *™ ■**~^' '™" *•" ««"««t or bom
diitrlota like that ot Palinjn when altf tncnutatiane an found
ra tta anrlhoa of the aoU. SomatiniM iadaad a kind of aalt waa
M tnta the aih« of aaline pluti (•.>., br the nmbriani.
aaeanonra anof(nlina) wood ud oolltetinc tbaului, u wnt
dene inindant Oennin; CPec, ^wi., lilL 67), in OanL and in
Spaia (Plln., « *, xiri. 7, St ^.); bnt th»e wen in^iarraet
Htea. Among inland paoplei a aalt iprinc mi rwuded aa a
giftof thagodi. ThaOaonlani iaEp&niha?on*wUeh
into a etnam whm there wm no liih i and the iKnad wu
that HinelM had illowed thair forebthn to ban ult uitead of
IM (Aiiat, X eipriB). The Oamana w^ war In mUm ibwina,
■SAL
and baUarad that Ui* pnaMca of «dt in the Hnl lumleJ i dktriet
with peculiar iinotltT and made it a plage when pnTsia wan moat
raadllr heard (IW, ta ti^). That a leligloaa aignilcukae wm
■ttuhed to a anbetanoa ao highly piiied and which waa oftM
obtained with dUBcnlty ia no more than natnnL Aod it tnuit
alia be nmambend that the habttnal ua of hII ii intinataly oon-
nested with Am adTuse bom nomadio to igrioultunl lift, i.t,,
with nedaaly that atap in ciTiHaliau which Iwd nioal tnHoanca on
tha cnlti of dmoit all ancient nattona. Tha godi were wsnhl|iped
u the prat of the kindly fmlli of the eaitb, and, u aU onr tba
world bread and Bit " so together in common naa and comDion
phraia, Nit waa baUtoally laodated with offeiin^ at leaat with
all oterinoi which oonaiatad in whole or in part of oereal alemauta.
Thia pracBea ii finnd alllu among the Oneka and R"Tirni and
amcagtheBemitiBpiaplatln. il. II); HainereillaaaIt"diTina,'*
and mto nanua It 'a anbetanca dear to thegnda" (nauaiu, p.
80 ; oomp. Plntinb, Synfoi., -r. 10). Ai eoTananta wan ordinarilj
made OTer a aacriedal meal, in which ealt wu a uaij element,
the axneuiOD "a cofeunt of lalt" {Numb. zviiL IS) ia eaaHy
underMood ; it Ia probable, howerer, tVat tha pnaerratiTa onalitica
of lalt were held to make it a pccnliarly fitting nmbid of an
(dliui^ oompad, and influenced the choice of thia particular
aliment tl the corenaot meal u that which wu reguded u lealiBg
aa obliptisn to ILdsUty. Among the indalti, aa among Oiimtata
down to tha preaant day, anry meal that included ult badaoarlniii
lacrad cbaiactar and created a bond of piety and gneat (rianddiip
between the partjeipinta. Henoa tha Qreek phme I\u nil
Tain{tr wtftimlniT, the Anb phraae "thcnia aait between n^"
the eipraanou " to mt the aalt of the palaoe " (Em It, 11, Rer.
Ver.), tha modem Peiaian phrai (.—.._ u.......
llaloval or nngntetnl, and
hu baaa plaoaibly coniact
.. omtadtor trafflo in lalt; at ai , . ,
ehkt ecoDondo and raligiooa ntccatariea of the indent world, ^daj
a great part in ill that we know of tha andant highwayi of
eommaroa. Tbna one of the oMeat radi in Italy ii the f^ SoJivfii,
by which tha prodDc* of theealtpaoaofOatii wis carried np into
the SaUne coantry. Heredotui ■ aaconnt of tba «anTan root*
Dnlting tbe lalt-oana of tha Libyan deaert (iv. ISIif.) makea It
plain that thia waa malily a Blt^rold, and to tha pnaent day tba
canran trade of the Haban ii laqialy a trade in iJt. The aalt of
Falmym wu an Important alenwnt b the nit trade between the
Syrian porta and tb* Fenian Onlf (aee PiuiTSi, toL iriiL p, 300),
•adlouatlerlbeglonof tkagieat merehant dty wupaic "the
nit ot Ihdmec" ratabed lie lepntattoa (Matffldi, tUL MB). In
like nwnnar tba andat trade between the Aaaa and tha coaita
of loithem Bittila wu lunlj depaodeat on the nit pena at th*
nmitb of tin Dnieper and on the nit Aah bronght fkoia thia
dlrtriot (Herod., ir. 63 ; Dio Chryi.. & M). la Phoankaa
commerca nit and aalt Aah— tha latter a nined ddi«*or in tbe
ancient world— «lwiye fonwd an Inportant item. Tha nit nit
DiiuM of aortham India ware worked before the time of Aliundal
(Stnbo, T. t, a, XT. 1, SO)aadmuthanbeentilecauireo^Bwida-
apnad tnde. The eoonomio impoitiiK* of aalt ia (ortlwr indi-
cated by the almsat nninnal pranlanoa In andeut and nedimnl
linUB, and indeed in meet oonntriu down to th* prcaant dn, of
nit tiles or of OonnmentmoDOBoIiMiwhleh ban not often bean
directed, aa they wen ia andent Borne, to enable erery one to pro-
«Di« 10 nseaaan a eoodimcat at a moderate prioe. In Oritatal
iTitama of tazaUon bi^ impoata on nit are nanr lacking and a»
often canied out in a Tery oppreaaln Way, onarnnltot thia being
that the aitiida ia qit to raacb the eonanmer in a nty impon etnte
largely mixed with earth. "Hie ult which baa loat ila aannir"
. or the palai
(Kit. r. IS) li limply Aa nrthy midnnn t
attm tba aodiimi dilcnd* baa bean waibid oi
of eilt in Qm *'"■>■•<«' lyiSem ol
Mj.). ~ • (w.iLa)
BALTA, coital of k province of the Mine Dune in tba
Argentine B^mblie, mih ■ population of about 20,000
(1881), ia n well-lMiiit town oceapjing » aomewbat in-
■kfnbnoni utoktion, 3760 feet kbore the ma, kt the coo-
floence of tiie Bio de k Sillata And Rio de Aria*, head
afreama of the Ko Salado (there called Rio Fuaje ot
Jnnunanto), abont 820 milee north-WMt of Bnenoe Afiea.
^le town, fonnded b; Abenin 1683, waa originally known
ai Sao Cleinente de Nnera Caitilla, took the name of Sao
Feli^ da Lmua when Hernando da Lenna renMred it to
■ 0"~
S A L — S A L
235
ita pnmntubt, ud b«gu to b« taUai Bdta in tba l?th
eeatarj. A Urge taada ii eutied on with Boliiik
SALTCOAT^ k iMport and ntoring-flMe of Ayr-
abi)^ BcotUnd, contignoiu to Atdtoin, ud 19 bUm
nortli of Att. It poa«uu » good Mft-bMch, and of Ute
7«n hM become » fftToorita wMtrisg-plM*. TIm town
racaiTed a charter •• a bnii^ of Iwoaj in 1S3S, bat
altawardi lost it* pririlege* aai (ell into decKj. At a
T017 Milj period marine NUt waa maonbetnrad, and Mit-
pan* were erected by Sir Bobert Ciuuungham in 1<M,
bnt that indiuti; baa now ceaaed. A harbour waa alao
eonabncted and fix a conudcraUe tine thefe waa a
large LiMpment of coal, hot the trade haa now paaaed to
ArdroaMui. The population, 4624 in 187), in 1661 waa
9096.
8ALTILL0, the capital of the aUte tA Coahoih in
Hezieoi 69 milea aontb-weat of Honterej b; the Meziean
NsUooal Bailwaj, on the alope of a lull OTerkokiiig a
fertile TaUcrf. It hM w«Il-paTed atiMta, leTeral good
pablic bnildui^ and cotton bctoriie and other indnrtrial
eatabliaiimentL The pnnilatioa ii about 17,000.
SALT LAKE CTTT (originaUT Oraat Bait lAke Gtr),
a citj (rf the Umt«d Stattw, the capital of Utah Territoij
and the metropolii of Hormonuim, itandi neailj in 41* N.
lat and US' W. long., at a height of 4250 feet above the
Ka, on the brow of a alight decline at the weitem baaa of
the Wahntch lange, ud on the right bank ot the Jordan,
a atream which flowi from Utah lAbe into Great Bait
Lake.' By the Utah Central Bailnad the citj ia 36
milea eon th of Ogden
Junction on the
Unioo aqd CentiU
Pid£e Bailroad, and
the Sonthem and
Wertem Utah Rail-
roada. The citj ii
hid ont chaaaboard
bwhioD, nith all the 1/
atreets 137 feat widal
andaUthsbbcka40
radaaqnare. Shade L
and fruit treea bare fcrtrQOiorB.ltL.k.ai7.
been freely planted, and on each aide of every north and
aonth atreet Bowa a atream ot pure water in an open channeL
Vlth the exception of wnna modem ereetioaa, the honaca
are nearly all of ann-dried bricka. "Dte largeat and nglieat
paUie bnilding ia the taberaade, with ita huga oral wooden
dome. It ia aaid to accommodate 8000 to 10,000 peraona,
and haa Cha aeoond largeat organ in America. Within
the aame endoanre aa the tabernacle at* the aodowmwit
house, where the initiation ceremoniea al HonDooiain
are performed, and the new Mormon temple (1674-5)
encted at a coat of- $10,000,000. Other conapicuoua
boildinga are the dty-haU, oaed aa the Territorial cApitol,
the theatre, Walker'a opera honn, the Bait Lake pavilion,
the mnaeum, the Deaeret nnivflraity, aeveral hoqnlali,
and the city priaon. The population waa 6000 in 1850,
8230 in 1860, 12,813 in 1870, and !0,768 in 1880 (86
colonred).
•What Grst Ut I^k< Qtv «u foondad fn JuIt 1B17 (^.
UoBMOKUH, VOL Tvi p. 837) tha iriiala ngion Uj tar Mfond tht
■dnuieiog nn of mstarn diillatlaa. Bat thi mtj did not long
noiain ths iMiUtad ouii in tho dewt whiiih ita llrM atttlti* nads
> TUi bk^ iboat 10 uilH from ths dtj, Uh priDdpal bodf of
vitcr In th* Onat Fnawnt bull, li ?0 milH Jtnf bf IS mUd bnwl,
bu u ana oT IWO iqun bUh. ud Um <300 fut ntxin tbi lu.
ng *M« or th* Ilk* eoBtiLu aboit SJ timH mm tbu tte unagi
■sUd eesatltiunti of ■•■ vklar, tuing ilaHt a* baTJlT iapngiutail
<I3-4pR<inrt.]Htlut of tba D«d B«(M'Sp*r swt). Tha Mlt
I* Hid la th* dtr vitliaat utiftcLal nflalsg.
UaaUa ■OB-HonDOB popolati
- I oniMO at Ckmp DDDgUa (batweao 3 aad ■
diataot), ud I^tadetatsJaJsaa.
BALTPETBE, or Nitkati or Potkh (KKOJ, ia a
Mlt obtained aa a eommereial piodact In three diSerent
waya. (I) It oocnn a* an eEBravaoence on the aorfaoe or in
the auperfloial abatum of the aoil in many parta of the
world, bnt qwdally to a great extent in the Gangea
valley and other parta of India. (3) It i* obtained in a
" ' ' oannar in nitrarin or aal^etn plantationa.
ot haapa <tf deoompcung animal matter
mixed with lime ai^a% nad ectapinga, and other lubbiah
coveted over &om rain, add from tinie to time damped
with the mnninga from atahlei abd other urine. Such
heap* develop within them amall proportiona of the aalt
and olhar nitratea, and an, in effect, artificial imilatione
of the aaltpetm-beariog aoil of India. They were formerly
very oomswn in Switaerland, Franoe, Oannany, and
Sweden. (S) A large quanti^ of aaftpebe ia now
prepared from Chili aaltpetr^ tna nibate of aoda, by
double deoompoaitioD of the aoda aalt with another
aalt of potau. Bee Nirxoass, vol xrii. p. SIS,
and GunrawDnt, voL xL pp. S19, 323. Saltpetre ia
of importance in numerona indnatriea, among the moat
pronunent of which are gunpowder mannbctore and
pyrotechny. It ia alao uaed aa an oxidinng sgnt in glaae-
making and in metallnrgical oprntiooa. la the euing of
meat it ia extendvely ampkiyed with Mmmon aalt and logar,
and it alao oocnpica an importamt [daoe in phannacy.
In tba jaar ISH UT.TOS ewL «( aaltpMn waa imparted bto
tU Uoltad Klugdon, tba •Mlmatad valaa bdos £BM,111 Of
tbtaaaoont SOO,aetBwt. oama ftom Bugd ud Biitidi Bumah
*loa^ ud 78,MS BWt. of numwtad wltpttra can* from Oannany.
DuiDf aaoh of tba two yaaia 18SI and 18S4 ths Imparta of CfaOi
altntn, ndat the nama «f mbie niba, axoMdsd 2,DOO,0W ewt,
naan; tbt whota aupplj Modng from BoliTia ud Pern.
SALU8 (Safety), a goddeea wonhipped in varioua parti
of ancient Italy. aI Rome a temple adorned wi^
puntiug* by Fabini anroamed the I^inter (Pictor) wia
''•-■' to ber in SOS «.o.; and pnblic praym were
ber on behalf of die Roman penile and the
In 180 M.O., m the occaaion ol a plague, vows
vrera nwde to ApOUo, ^lacolepina, and Bain*. Here the
tptOMl attribute of the goddeaa appaan to be "health";
and in later timea ahe waa identified with the Greek
goddeaa of health, Hygeia. On coin* of Tiberin*, Nero^
&&, aha ia repreaantad aa a yonng maiden with the aymbol
ttf Ilygeia, a aarpent drinking ont ot a goblet,
SALUTATIONS, ot greeting*, are cnatomary forma of
kindly or reapectlul addrea^ eapecialty on meeting or
parting or on occaaiona of ceremonion* f4)pToach. Ety-
mdogically the word tatvtatiim (lAt lalvtatio, " wiahing
health") refer* to worda qmken, but the conventiood
geeturea an even mora purpoaafnl, and both ahould be
eooiidered togMher. "Hie principal modes of tainting,
when elaadfied, fall into a few group*, with well-defined
meaninga, the examination of wUch explaina the practice
of any pu^cntar tribe or nation.
Form* of *alut*tion frequent among aavagee and bar-
bariana may laat on almoat unchanged in dvilized cnatom,
or may be foond in modified ahapea, while in other caaea
they may have diiappeared altogether and been replaced
by new greeting*. The habit of affectionate clasping or
embracing is seen at the meetinga of the mde Andajnanen
and Auatralians, or where the Fuegiana in friendly aalnte
hng "like the grip ot a bear.*^ Thia natnral geatnn
appear* in old Semitic and Aryan custom :— " Eaan nn to
meet him (Jacob) and embraced him, and fell on hie neck,
andkiMed him,Bnd they wept''(Oen. xxxiiL 4); ao^when
Ulyaaea make* himaelf known, Philaetina and Enmnns
■ W. P. Baov, In IVau JtUmel. age., n. a, n>L 1. p. Ht/
2W
SALDTATIONa
OMt thir ardii nandlnD nidi ki«M on tha Imd, liMida,
ud dkonlden (Odyu^ xzi 333) :—
■Xmt if ituli 'Olvrft l^f fsn x'tf BtXirrt,
ml afrtw *)«*(4^> nif^^r Ti ■■) Sfioi.
ne«mbnwe ccmtiiinM habitul thMtigli ktor age^ and,
though in modem tiiBM a good deal ratristed, it atill
nMtka the meeting* of near hinifolk and ioven, Bnt ^le
kiai^ aaodated with it in paasagee liks thoae jut cited,
haa no laoh nniTenalit;. The idea of the kua being nn
inatinctJTo geetnre it negatiTed bj it* being unknown orer
halt the world, when the preTuling Mlate ii that hj
«™<''l'"g or BniiBng (often called bj tnTellen "mbbing
■MBM'h which belongi to FolTnedana, Ualaji, Banneu
and other Indo-Chinese Uoogola, kc, -extending Uience
ewtward to the Eakimo and westward to I^ipUnd, where
lAnnwn* mw Telativea Minting bj potting their nosaa
together.^ Thia teem* the onlj appearance c^ the hatut in
Europe. On the other hand the Un, the aaliit« by tasting,
ran constantlj in Semitic and Aryan nntiqm^, as in
ftboTe cues from the book of OeoMU and toe Odyuey,
er in Herodotoi'B description of the Peraiuu of his time
kiMing one uiothar — if equals on the month, it one was
•omwrtutt inferior on the cheek (Herod., L 131). In Greece
in the claKie period it became cnalomar; to kiaa the hand,
bnas^ or knee of a anparior. In Borne the kiaaei of in-
terion became a bnrdenwme civility (Uaxti&l, zii. 69) : —
"T* Ttdnis tati, te pilMns
Hinno pnmit oii^ita eolanu."
TlM eariy Christiana made it the atgn <^ fellowiliip :
"greet all thebrethren with an holy kiss" (1 Theaa. *. S6;
^. Bom. xti 16, die); and this may even now be seen
among Anabaptists, who make an effort to retain primitive
Christian habit. It early paMed into more ceremonial
form in the kiss of peace eiTen to the newly baptised and
in the celebration of the Eucharist*; this is mUined by
the Oriental Chnroh. After a time, bowoTer, its indis-
erimiAate use between the sexes gave rise to acandala, and
it WM reatricled by eoeleaiastioal r^;ulationa— men being
only allowed to kin men, and women women, nod OTentnally
in Uie Roman Church the ceremonial kiss «t t^ communion
being only ezchao^ l^ the ministen, but a relic or cross
called an otndatamtm oi pax bung carried to the people
to be kissed.' While the kiss has thus been adopted aa a
reUgions rite, its original sodal qm has continued. Among
men, howBTor, it baa becmne leas effnaiTe, the alteration
being marked in England at tha end of the 17th century
by inch paasagaa aa the ad rice to Sr Wilf nil by his Londcw-
brad brothcc: — "in the conntry, where great lubberly
brothers slabber and kiss cms another when they meet ;
... TT is not the fashion here.'^ The kiss on both cheeka
between parenta and children on Oontineotal railway plat-
forms now anrprisea the undemonstmtiTe TiingliiJiiiTTi, who,
when serraots sometimes kiss hia hand in aouthem Europe,
is even more etmok by this relic of serrile ages. Court oere-
monial keeps np the kits on the cheek between sovereigns
and the kissing ot the hand by aalyeeti^ and the pope^
like a Boman emperor, receivee the kiss on his foot A
curious trace whidi these osculations have left behind it
that when ceasing to be performed they are still talked of
by w^ of politeness : Austrians say, "kOssd'Handl" and
Spaniards, "beaoa Vd.las manaal" "I kiMyonr haodsl"
Btroking^ pattiags, and other careaeee have been turned
to use as salntatioos, bat bare not a wide enon^ range to
make them important. Weeiung for joy, often occurring
nalnrally at nieetiiigi,i»»omBtunsialected as a salutation;
> J. 1. amith, UmmmaJi Tbht At Inmlamd, vgL L p. »t.
* Vi^M^AimrnaimtfOuair. aninK,'<^ lU. & 4, IT. 0. *.
• n* UttB 1MB ka HpplM Um Iikh Isi^a^BWlth ItatnmlaT
sUi^^«A WsbkfM; SMUor^ JbMwCW^oik VOL vL p. 43-
'OaaiMTi't r<sr^aiiri>ru,A<itm.
but this seems to be diffareot from tlie Ugjkly ectMuenioa
weeping performed by several mde raeea when, meeting
after abeenoe^ they renew the lamentations over those
friends who have died in the meantime, nw typical case
is that of the Australians, where the male neanet of kin
preens his breast to the new comer's, and the neareat
fentale relative^ with piteous lamentations, embracea his
knees with one hand, while with the other she acntchea
her taoB till the blood drops.' Obviously this is no joy-
weeping, bnt mourning; and the same is true of the New
Zealand t(mgi, which is performed at the reception of a
distingmshed visitor, iriisther lift has really dead friends to
mourn or not*
Cowering or cranchinff is a natural gesture of fear or
inability to rentt that belongs to Uie brutea as well as
man; its extreme form is lying prostnte face to gronnd. In
barbaric society, as soon as distinctions are marked between
master and slave^ chief and commoner, theoe tokens of
snbmission become salutations. The sculptorea of Egypt
and Assyria show the Lowly prostmtions of the ancient
East, while in modem Dahomey or Siom subjecta cnwl
before the king, and even Siberian peasants grovel and
kiat the dnst before a noble. A later stage is to soggeat,
but not actually perform, the prostration, as the Arab
bends hia hand to the ground and puts it to his lips or
forehead, or. the Tongan would tooch the sole of a chiafa
foot, thus symbolicaUy placing himtelf under hit feoL
Kneeling prevails in the middle stages of calture, as in the
ceremonial of Ctiina; Hebrew custom sets it rather apart aa
anact of homage to a deity (1 Eingaxix. IB; Isa. xlv. S3);
medieval Europe diatingai^ea between.kneeling in worship
on both knees and on one knee only in homage^ as in th«
Bekt of CvrioM^ (ICtii century) :—
" B* onrtsjtt to god, and knsle doon
On both* knia* with grata danodaiin ;
To noB yia ihtUa knels opqn ^ toB,
>a to>er to >T laU yn halda •Jo&."
Bowing, as a salute of reverence, app«ars in ita axtrems
in Oriental custom, as among the andeut Isnelitfis:
" bowed himself to the ground ae^en times " (Qsn. xxidiL
S).' ~ Hie Cbineee according to the degree of rcapect
implied how kaeeliog or standing.' The bowing salnta-
tioD, varying in Enrope from something less than the
Eastern salaam down to tiie alighteat inclination of the
head, it interesting from being given mutually, the two
Sainton each making the sign of aubmission to the other,
which would h*ve been abenrd till tha ugn passed into
mere civility. Unoovering is a common mode of ealota-
tion, wiginally a sign of disarming w defencelessneas vt
destitution in the presence of a superior. Polynesian or
African chiefi require more or less stripping, such as the
uncovering to the waist which Captun Cook daacribes in
Tahiti.* Taking oS the hat by men has for agta been the
accepted mode in the Weetem world, done in a freqaent,
demonslntive way bj such as make • show of politeness,
and who by being " free of cappe and full ot curtesye " pay
cheaply social debts ; but modern society has modelled
this bowing and scraping (the scrape is throwing back tha
right leg as the body is bent f(«ward), at well aa the
curtseys (oDurCoins) of women. Eastern natiooi ate apt to
sea ditreqiect in baring the head, but, insist on the feet
being uncovered ; the importance attached to entering
barefoot is well known to English officials in India;
Burmah was agitated for years by "the great dioe
• Qtti], AnTMb^ vd. U. p. US.
' A. Tirlor. ^— AoIohI, p. SSI.
' Bm tbs IgTptUn bcnr with ons hud to tbs kn**; TTIftliMiiii.
I A L — S A L
287
, . , aid b» nOed o& to
oonf otm to zi»)in tnuton, ntliar thui theii own. It taking
oS thair ihoM to «irt«r tho rajrU pwMBw.^ Oiufiing
butdi !■ ft gMton wUdi nwku ita appcNUM in utiqnity
ma ft hgkl ftct nmboUo of tlie putica Joining in EompAc^
peaocs or fnamulup ; this ii mil Man in BMrrii^ whore
the luu^ gnwp was part of Ae talent HindB oennwoj,
ai WH tba "flttbanun Jnnetia' in Roma, iriuch paaed
OB into tha Chintiaa rita, Li the-dania world we lee it
I — '-g into a man lalntatioD, at where the tinwme
wiqmlntanee met In Hoi«ea on Ida ttnii along the Tin
Smm ariMB Ida hand (Hor., SaL, L 9) ;—
''Irnpbfoa mau, ' Quid agiih
trlng ae tlg^ hand of fdlowabip (OaL >L 9) paaaed
natnnUj into a lalaWian throoj^oiit CStriataodom, and
■preod, pnbablr from ^TBUitiitm, over the Hoalem wwld.
The Md^atie form of the original geatore in "rtriking
haodr" la atiU oaed to make the giMtinA ntofa haarty.
the 'TBiietr called in Eug^ "ilwkiiig landa" (Germ.
gjwJi aetflwrfit) onlj Wimm to IxTn beoome unal in the
ICiddbiLgea.* In the HoaleniJeeal fwm of joining hancta,
the paitiet fttm ibaii thumha togeUtei.* Thia haa baeo
adopted aa a aalnta hr Aliican tribaa. Sot it haa bean
a^edallj^ Xn^iah badtta and miidoaatite who at kte
jmn Iww introdacad. ahaUng htada far and wide in ths
vorid, to that eren aoch nide peoplea aa Aoabaliana and
HottMitota, Eakimoand FlM^:ui^ nnita in. pnetialng thia
nodeni driUeed enatom.
Aa to word* of aalatatioD, it-ii found eren amoog the
bwer laoea that-ceitatn. ordinarr pbraaea have jMoatd into
Jdnnal greetinga, Thna knoos tha l^uia of BttnH, after
the ■buger'a stleot antnl in Qia hiri^ the jnaater, who for
• tiinehad taken do notice of him, would aay "J^'
waUr" that ix, "Art ihoa cornel'' to which the proper
TefJj waa, "Te^ I am ccKnel"* JfaitT'foninilaa aipreM
dilareiiM of lank. and conaequeol nxpnet, aa where the
Baaato Mlnte thnr cUela with "Tama ttmOal' Lt^
"Qieetinft wildbeaat)" QoDgonegroea retnniiiigfrom a
joonHf whitaUidrwiTWwiUiaakflMtionateOiaM/ but
they meaklj-knealiitf raond him roaf not repeat the word,
but nnuit mj SaI IuJ* Among cidtni«d naticMi% aalnt^
iia of peaee and goodwill, •■
it well with theef" (3 Kingi
ir. Sfi); "Feaoe tothee, and peaofr
(1 Bab. TZT-. < ; aea Etrk It. 17). Such foranlat ran on
nom age to tgt, and the latter maj be tncad on to tM
Hodau grwtinfc SaUm 'tdaihmJ "The peace be on
jwn," to which ue milf i< Wt-'aladatM ai-tat^m/ "And
on you be the peace (ac of Ood) I"' Thia la an example
how a greeting maj become a paaa-word among feUow-
belieren, for it it nanall^ held tlut it marnot be need by
or to an infidel Flora an epigram of lletaagei (AiUi^
ad. Jacoix, m 119; ^. FUotna, i^n}., v., pturam) we learn
that, while the Sjrian-ealatation was ShdOn (" Peace 1 "),
the Fhceniclana greeted by wiahing life (^mt nn, the Kirt,
Acq of Neo-PoiUB graTeatonea). Jhe-cupiate " ' ■ '
fonn, "Qkinft Un for erer I" (Dan. iiC 9), i
e BabylOD
DaofphraaMwbiehcoDtinnBBtillintheT'rvii'rez/ "Long
lire the king ] " TbeOreekaaaidx<^M. "Be JOTtaIl''both
at Boeting and pariing ; the IMhAgoreaa {iyuZrur and the
n>b>ni((«Sii)xCTT«r wuh bealu; at a later time di7n{iuai,
" I greet !" cane inlo ftuhion. The Ilomani applied Salm I
"BainhealthreapeciallrtomBetinftaDd Fa/;/ "Be well I
to parting. In the modern cirilized world, ereiywhere, the
old inqnii; after With appean, the "Eowdoyondot" be-
oomiog BO formal aa often to be nid on both lidet withovt
1 Bhw*)> Tae, T>i» Biinuii, nil. IL mi. ISB, SOS.
•ilH Trior Id JtfaaH/l«'lJf«.,lbrlWip- K.
• Laatt JfgdL Xf., toL L p. £1B. • Jatu iitUn, part U. p. KM.
• HatP*. Jin" fa atd-JjTita. *Qr. ToLiri.p.Ut,BaUl.
either waiting tot u uuwer. Haidlj' lev iride In nnge
ii the aet of phiaaea "Good dajl" "Qood night 1"^,
Taiying according to the liOQi, ud tranalating into evety
language of Chriatendom. Among qther European phraaea,
BOme coneapond to onr "weicomal" and "farewelir while
the leligiona dement entera ioM another claaa,aiemplifled bj
ODT "Qood-byer ("Ood be with yool"), and Frenti Adum/
Attempta hare been made to ahape European greeting into
ezpieaaiona of orthodox, or eren teata of bdiet, bnt they
hare had no great aoeeeaa. Examplee an a IVoteatant
~lennan Mlntatbn "Lelu Jttam Ckritimm/" anawered b;
In Smglceit, Amen/' and the formnla which in Bpain
enforcea the doctrine of the Immacnlate Conception, "Am
iiariapuritima/' anawered by "Si* paeado e/metbiia/"
On the wiiole, though the hnU-meaningleae forma of aaln-
tatiim may often aeem ridiculona, aodety would not cany
them on ao niuTenally nnlen it found them uaefuL In
fact, they aerre the anbatantial pnrpoae of keeping np aodal
inteiconree, and eatabliahing rcJationa between the partiea
in an inteniew, of which their tons may atrike the kiy
note. Hontaigna, a maater of the coniteay of an age
more oeremonioui than onn, tndy aaaerta Uieir importance,
" C7eat aa demoorant une trie ntile ecience que U adence
do rentragent" (■. b. t.)
BALDZZO, or SAi,ncn, a rityof Italy, at the head of a
droondario in the province of Cuneo^ 42} milea aonth of
Tnrin (with which it ia connected by lailway and a ateam
tramway), ia utnated 600 to 650 faet aboie the eea, jnat
where the laat bill* of the Monte Viao die away into the
plain between tha Fa and ita tribntary the Viaita. The
upper town pfeaema aome part of the fortifieationa which
protected it when, preriona to the plagne of 1630, the
dty had upward* of 30,000 inhebituita; and the hiU u
crowned by the min« of an ancient castle. The more im-
Cot cartle of the m&rqulBce (in which according to the
il the patient Griselda waa confined) i* in the lower
town and now aerres as a penitentiary, fieaidea the
calhedial (Gothic, U80-1511), with the tomba of the old
marqnlaea, other conapicnona tniildingB are the chnrchee of
San Giovanni (formerly San Domenioo) and Son Bernardo
/tbft lormer the fineat architectoial monument of tha
jLtarqnlaate), the old tows-houae (1 462), the new lown-houae
(foraierly belonging to the Jeanita), and tha theatre (1 829).
Ito tha north oftbe dty lies tha abbey of Staflkrda (1130-
■ ^Wnlation of the dty wm 10,146 (oo
1737). The^
I6J37) m 18f
Bjioms aotb'
aotboritua Sahuio i> idntilM with Auiuti Tagisn-
ha Una or iti tBMmviam tMgaii (IH!) with llufred, nn
oT BonibM, mtrqnia of SaniDK, and contumed till 1 5JS, nhtu tbe
dmth ot Qabrld. Impriaonad by Hanry II. of Fiuca ia tba cutta
of nnaroln, allomd dty and terrltoi; to b* aaiied bf tba Francb.
Tbfl raarqdaea of SaJooo bailiff great opponaata of tbB hoiuia ol
3«*<n-, uhI fteqnentlj takiu part in tlia iingglea hatwaan Fnuoa
and llw ampirt, tha city oRan bad to mMa UTaral} from tba
fortnna* of vai, Ifaniy IV. nttorcd tha raarqauata to Cbarlaa
' I. of SaToy it the paaca of Ljona in IMl. Among tha
JO tha P
Caalii the Uatoria . „
wu wTittaa by DolBno Uolatti, 6 tola., 1S£»~1S3S.
gALTADOR. See Sam Saltasok.
BALVAQE ia "the rewatd which is earned \ij thoee
who hATS voluntvily'aaTsd or aadated in aaving a ahip or
boat, or their appaiel, or any part thereof ; or the Uvee ot
penona at aea ; or a «liip> cargo t>r any port thereof from
peril; or a wreck from total loaa" (Boecoa, Admiralty
Lai» toA Practiet, p. 13). The word aaivage ia indiSer-
ently need to denoto tba claim, tba rewatd, or the property
aaved, Sdvage i* intereating a* being perhapa the one
caae in "l^iwflli'h law in which a peraon may become liable
to a claim npon htm for aerricaa rendered to him without
bis requeot, express or implied. Salvage may be dcher
militoiy oi chiL Clalma for militaiy nlvage, Lt^ aalnge
^38
S AL — S AL
. « (for wliich Me VaoM^ ue decided hy a ptixe
eomt. The tribniwl for dstenomuig eaaee of civil galvage,
the DMul kind, in a Matt luriiig adminlt; jnrisdictioii.
In England or IraUnd tlieHigfa Coiut of Justice (Admital^
Diviuon), in Scotknd the Oonit of Setaion, have cognitance
of Mdn^ daima to any amount The Uetchant ^pping
Ao^ 16D4, confen jnnadiction on jnatioea of the peace to
arbitrate on cUimi not exceeding ^300, o.' where ue ralue
of the property eared does not exceed ^1000. Qert«ia
eoDDtj conitB DBjDed by order in eonncil hav J by the Connly
Conrta Admiralty Jurisdiction Act, 186S, jnriadiction in
any claim in ivhich the value of the properly laTed does
not exceed £1000, or in vhich the amoont claimed does not
exceed £300. The jarndtctioa of the inferior conrta is
protected by providona depriving the enitor in the High
Oonrt of hia coats without a certificate from the jndge in
caaea where the eUim might have been made befo.-e jnaticea
w in a coonty court. In addition there are various local
tribunals exetciaing a more or lasa limited jnrisdicticn in eal-
vagB claims. Buch are the Commiaaionem within the CSnqtie
Ports, llie Covrt of Paseage of the city of Liverpool, aod the
Royal Courta of Jeiaey and Qtiemaey, beaidee the various
Tioe-Admiralty Coorts throughout the British empire.
The rales which guide tite cotuta in die award trf
MlvsgB are reducible to a few ample principlea, depending
partly upon the general maritime law, partly upon the
Herehant Shipping Acta, 1854 and I8S2. (l) The
aalvBge servicea muat have been rendered witnin the
jnria£ction of the Adid&altt (g.v.). (3) There mnat be
no legal duty on Uie part of the nilvora to render aauat-
•oca Therefore there must be very meritorioos and
BXH^tional services on the part of the craw, or even of a
pilots a passenger, or the crew of a tug to entitle any of
them to salvage. The aome is tha ease with the officers
and crew of a qneen'a ahip, coastguardamea, drc, who are
bonod by their poaitiou to assist (3) The property most
have been in peril, and reecned by the salvora. (4) The
aerricee mnat have been succeaafoL Of coarse where a
nqnMt foe help bat oetoalty been made, and the property
periihea, tbe light <^ remaneration neverthelea anrvives,
no the ordinary principlea of contract The basis of
■alrage proper it (errice independently of contract
If thete conditiona be satiafied, aalvage claims take
priority of a& olliera against the property saved, and give
the salvors a maritime lien upon inch property, enforceable
by an action tn rem. Salvage of life from a British ship
or a foreign ibip in British waters ranks before salvage of
gooda. In diatribntiDg the aalvage reward tha court
ocmaiden (1) the extent of the peril of tbe property aaved,
(2) ito value, (3) the nature erf the asrvicea. Thia is
anltjeet to any contract not inequitable, made between the
parties Seamen cannot abandon their right to aalvage
unlasB they specially engage themaelvea on a ahip to be
employed on salvage duty. Salvage of life is rewarded at
a higher rate than salvage of property. Misconduct of
salvora may opeinta as m bar to their chum. Salvage
reward is commonly apportioned between the officers and
ciew of the salving ship, its ownen, and other persona
awjnting The amount is at the dtsoetion of Uie distri-
buting authority. It seldom ezeeeda in the whole one-
half the value of the property aaved. Apportionment for
salvage aervicce rendered within the United Kingdom,
where the aom doea not exceed £200, due l^
or the order of juaticea, may be made by the rsM
wreck on application of the parties liable to pay it
Mn^ b ■ tana >1m> aiitiUeil bj aatlogj lo property nt - -
at iM, rat frain Hn on lind, uid iln to propntr rscovared &am
dfatraetiati bj tb< aid o[ vol antsrf pAfm rata. Tbapenon makins
tiw lut advanoa ia euUtled to iinoht; in tho uann irf quo-
salvaga, aa tha eoDtinnad cxiatunoa or tha propartj at all bolj b«
dOB to him, 4.t,, tha can cl ■ paynient made to pravaut "--
forMtnrs of a iiolie; at Insnranea. '
Chatna in fkvotn' of a aoUdtct
>n propartf ncararad oi piaaBTvod oj hla mcana hara biMD
. . ranf tlniH dacUnd by the courts to ba in tha natwa of Mlnss
of this kind.
Tha lav of tha Dnital Statv la in genaral agnamant with that
of Engluid. The court of admiialt; Jariwlictiou ii tha diitrict
conrt Tha ana in which nlvige aoTTicaa maj ba rendoiad ia
much widar than in EagUncI, a* It iacludaa tha great fnabwater
Tuvigabla nvara and lakaL Thia difforanoo aTiaoa ttota tia greatat
lDiI«rtuica of liiUnd navigation in tha l^nitod Stataa &M
BlPl^lilH Lawh.
SAT.YIAJf, a Christian writer of the Sth century, wm
bom in Gael, and moat probably in the neighbourhood
of Trevea or Cologne (Be Gtib. Dei, vi 8, 13). His birth
conjectnrally assigned to the period from 390
He waa probably brought up as a Christian,
thon^ of thia there it no absolute prooL Zachimmer
conaidert hia writings to show that he had made a special
itndy of the law; and this it the more likely as he
appeort to have been of noble birth and could describe one
of bit relations aa being "of no snlall account in her own
district and not obscnre in family" (Ep. L). He waa
already a Chrittian when he married lUladia, tha
daoghter of heathen parents, Hyjiatius and Qnieta, whose
diapleotnre he incurred by perenading hit wife to letira
with him to a diatant n>onastery, which is almost certainly
to be identified with that to lately founded by St Ean(H«-
tus at Lerins. For seven years tiiera waa do communica-
tion between the two branches (rf the family, till at las^
\vhen Eypatins had become a Christian, Salvian wrote
him a moat touching latter in his own name, hia wife's,
and that of his Uttle daughter Auspiciola, begging for the
renewal of the old affection (Ep. iv.). This whde letter
ia a meat curious illntttation of Salvian't reproach against
his age that the noblest man at once forfeited all esteem if
he became a monk (Ik OtA., iv. T; cf. viiL 4).
It was preHumably at Lerint that Salvian made the
acquaintance of St Honoratus UA. 439), St Hilary tA
Arlea {ab. 449), and Bt Eucher of Lyons (oi. 449).. That
he Wat a friend of the former and wrote an account of -
his lifd vre leam froji Bt Hilary ( VUa Hon., ap. Uigne^
L 1260). To Bt Encher's two tons, Balonius and Terannt,
he acted as tutor in contort with St Vincent of Lerint.
As he succeeded St Honoratus and Bt Hilary in this oScb,
this date cannot well be later than the year 426 or 427,
when the former woe called to Arlea, whither be seems to
have summoned Hilary before hit death in 439 (SticitrU
liutruetio ad SaliMntwi, ^ Migue, L 773; Salv., £p.
ii). Balvian continued his friendly intercoorte with both
tatiier and sons long after the latter had left hia care; it
waa to Salonitis (then a biehop) that he wrote his uxplana-
toty letter just after the publication of his treatise Ad
Eeeltmam ; and toihe tame prelate a few years later he
dedicated his great work, the De GvitnialuMe Dei. The
above taot^ as will be teen, render it almost certain that he
moat have been bom a good deal before 420. If French
Bchdan are right in assigning Hilary's 7ita ffonorati to
43(^ Solrian, who is there cidled a prieat, had probably
already left Lyons for Marseilles, where he is known to have
spent the last years of hia life (Oenn., ap. Migne, Iviii
1099). It woe probably from Moteeillea that he vrrnte his
first letter— presumably to Lerint— begging the community
there to receive his kinsman, the eon of a widow of Cologne,
who had been reduced to poverty by the barbarian in-
vasions. It teems a fair ii^erenoe from this letter that
Balvian, acting up to the precepla of his own troatiae Ad
MecUmoMi, had divested himaelf of all his proper^ in favour
of tktaocietyand, having no longer any poeeeaeiona of hit
own, tent hia relative to Lerint for ateittanca {Ep. i., with
which compare Ad Seda., iL 9, 10 ; iii. 6). It has been
coqjeetui«d that Balvian paid a visit to Carthage ; but thia
is a nun inference based cm tbe minnte details he gives of
I A L— S A L
239
Uw rtftto of (Ub d^ jot before iti Ul {A (hA., TiL. TuL)^
He aeeiiu to luTe baea (1111 liTing at HaneiUee when Oeo-
Bodiiia wrote nitder liw {)*{]«cy of Oeladni (493-496).
Of SdTiui'i writing dm ua rtin ortuit tm traUim, «dtlt1^
raipwtinl7 ilt OvttmMea* IM »aa Ai Jarfwt— . umI m nilea
irf nia* Ittton. Tia Lt Ouimatiau, SklTkn'i grcatat mxk,
tor
«(*»■),
■■ tf tba cmpln, hot
■ (viL B). Tha wgrdi "piaxiBm*
ti> dOHt* ft fNT TRj MOD iftor US. In tUa work
SalTiui ilalawith thannw pteblm that had nana tha aloqneiica
o( 8t AonatiM ud Ofoatna. Whj wan thaw DlnriM Uliu ob
tha anpfiat Could it ba. aa tha pagau nid, baaaMa Aa agaW
bnakaa ll> iJd ndi I or, ai tta aanl-MgaB snad of toBt Chria-
tiau taught, that Ood did sot oonatanllT oremda tlu world ba
had oHtad (L 1)1 With tha lornva BalTiu wiU not »rgat (UL 1).
To tha lattir ba lapliM bj aawrtlng that. "Jmt at tha uriotliv
ataaiamaa narar lonaaa the halm, todoat Ood narar (BaoTa hiaeara
rrontheworU" HaiiiM tha titla t4 tU tnaUah In booka L aod
iu Balrian aati himaalf to pms Ood'a cosalut mldaDaa, liat bf
tha beta of Bcrintqro biatmy, and aecondl; hj tha aiiDiiMcatian «
apedil taxta dacluliiK Ihi* troth. HaTiu thni ' laid Iha fbuuU-
tlina'' of hiairorit, ba dadaraa Im book i£ that tha miaivrotth*
Boman vorjd ii all dua to tha no^act at Ood'a aMDmandmaota and
fta ttn!blaalnaa(*irai]rclaaef aoda^. It ■• not Banly that tha
rikTc* an tUaraa imA. nutawnji, wiD*-bIbb«a and dnttont, — the
rich an wooa (It. t). It U tkair banhMta and paad that drire
A» HMT to Joik tha BuudM and flv tx Salter to tha twtaiian
isndea (t. B and 6). EnnwhaM tha ttxm an hauad npou tba
■wadr, whOa tha rich, who MTa tha ^nrtionliig of tha uanoat,
aaopadoaraiUindr '>**<T. TV l\a neat townt na whtdlr glTan
nplotiHaDOBinatlonaaf thootnoaandthatlMUT^whan/-- - -
It at Dosglit, ai
UwocdiiiMidl
■ whdiTctTaB
whan ainineT
a, and tha old
«da anattll >onhJ|i«d (tL 11 : ^. *L 3 and tOL^. Tnrw
aaioat daMi^cd Jijr tba Urbaifana; fat tba Int petition of ita
gamea aa a mnadr fee tha iniMd dto (tL IS^ And
u prajar of OiriMiant, vhoaa ^aiilliiial oath [Mgw)
. _«noa"tbadaTiiaiulhiB woifct. . . tba pooiBt and i
[apaetank] " of thia wt<lad world (ri. t). DaAar atill wan tha
iiOqiiitln tf Ctith^^ aarpaaatng eren tha nneonaalad UcuitioDa-
DMBofOaol ■Dd8F^<iT. t); and mon hariilto Salriui than
■llelaa waa It to haat matt awear "br Ohtiafthat On wonU
oonnit a oriaa (Ir. IS). It wanld h» tha athekfa atranaaat
•igomMt If Ood lait ndk a atate of Mcla^ inpnnithed (It. IsX—
' aapadalij auMg CArialiant, whoat lii, dnee tbej aloM had tha
. .. __.barian^ area if HiaUj
r. SV Ba^ aa a aattar of bet, tha lattar hajl
. - . Jg TirtoN Binned with thiirTlata,wlwnaa tha
Baaam wan wholl* oonspt {tfL Ifi, Ir. U). Vith thta iidanilT
of tba Banana SalViaa omtnwli tha dkMti^ of Aa Tandali, tha
paetr of tba QoAi, and flu radar virtaat of Am Tnuka, tha Saiana,
and tka othai tribn ta wboai, tboBsh haiatia AHaaa or ■abaliaven,
Qod ia giTlng is rewud tin labaritaMo of Iha aapln [tO. S, 11,
— ,.,_ , ■athatSaltiaaabewanoaaehbatndof Ibeltataco-
' lanl aaran^ jtan later.
splalntd b; HaaeoBon VOt, Omtra
ja Oan «wa in tha A fiWwiuMaiu.
SalTiaa nbUahadltudatlhaMUBaaf llMDtlnr.Badapiainadhia
matiTM fm ao dabuE in a lattar to hie old papO, BiAoB Saloniia
i(^it.\ Tbiaw<i£iaohiaflrraaMltaUalMaawhiaiatplaen
it aeaot to noomnend panntanot to beqoMh aBTOIuF to Oalr
ehildno, on Iha piB oat It it batMr tvt tha ehfldtaD to nflte
want in tbia world thtu that tbair |»nala AoaU be ^mnad in
tha next (ilL 4). Balrian ia n? ol«c ao tba dn^ af abaahita telt-
■■--*-' *- "■ of «wnd Tiigln^ friart^ and moob (iL 8-10).
JSry?^!^' "■■■■■■ ■Ml mMai eaOaolMl MwihHii (Altiirt.
■ammvMta aOUw antant (na Ba Utt totka uiLanwT. d •« lAli*
■«aa-miriiaillTl«Mmell^M.I<RHab(»wtla.lWT)aaaF. Paalr
(Vlaaaa. on). *■- — -"-^ "■ -^ -^i fi iTilimHiei lilinj li 111
1M MtafT (CM. Ph^ aa. u,Mn _a tka IM n ii !&«»: oi tta
la the ia ffv% USA ; «f awii nil. M laa Tia or aa faaterr fPnte.
3*i»i-a|»l»ay »nig. ax^^^Vj^aala ^^ mw al >«. (H^^
SALWIN TTTTT. TRACTS, a diatrict hi the Tenaaoerim
difiaioa of BritUh Bonuah, extendiog fcoia tlie nortlieru
portion of tke province southwarda to Eaw-ka-rit on the
Sadwin rixer, and oocnpying the whole of tiie ooaah7
between that riTsr on the eaal and the Fnung-loong
Dumntauu on the waat. The diMriet containa an area of
ftbont 4646 eqiiara mile^ and i» boatided od the north bj
the Kareng-ni atat^ on the east bj Zeng-mai, on the aoath
bj Amheiet and Shwe-gTSOg and on the west bj Shwe-
g]r«ng and Tonng-nid. Fiwn the aanexatum of Fegn
nntU 1873 the mil IVacti formed a mbdiviaion of the
Bh«»f7eng dialrie^ bat in tbat jear it vat ooniAitated
into a ieoarate juriadictwD. Nearij tbe whole diatrict it
a maM of moonlaiii* interaected bj deep lavinea, tlie onlj
leTel bnd (rf ai^ conndecaUe extent being found in (be
aallej <rf the Bwon-»-lenft while ever; part of tlie oonntty
ia eorend with denaa forest
Tht HOI Traolt an ilnlnaJ by thrae priiwlpa] tina, tha Balwin,
BwoB-n-len£ and Bhi-lanft Im bruamanxit moontaln tonrati
wUeh raah down bbitow nvinaa. The Salwia ia the laigtat il*ar
In iIn Taoaaaarin dlrlaloa. Iti aoona haa nartt baan aiplotad,
bat It appaan to taka Ita ria lar north ia tha Himalajaa or In tha
moaataint which (oni thdr aztanrioa aattward. Altar tnTeniag
the Chiniae protim if YuiBaii end the Shan end Kanng-nl
atataa to the aooth, ft aslan Biitlib Bumah at It) aitnnia north-
tldth atldom ai
It 700 B
not oompr von than M nidt. Th* Sa]
liT npida, and ia not unnbiB by large
inilia IVmn ita DontL Tba Bwon^a-l
;■li^aDd in agme part* th* bad dan
nit. Th* Salwln la gnatlf ebatraetad
„, liin.in tha
ntrama nonli, it saTlplila with aoma dilllenllj in tha drr aiaaoB
aa Ito aa h-nwoa, Iha adoiiniatntl** headqaartan ; tlu Bbl-lisa
i* not laTigabla within tba limita of tha dbbrict eieept by snail
Of thelotal acM of the diatrkt onlj II aqoan mllea an oiili-
Tatad ; tha dilat crept tn rlca and betel inla. Tha rareooa af
Salwin tBOonlad In 18SS-S4 to odIt £1»«4, dT wUch 4S4CI wva
niaad b<mi the ItoJ-tax. The pumlatiaa In 1S81 waa ntnrnad at
I0,00« <inal<a 1S,K», ranaln l^tOO).
8ALZA, HcuuKK voir (c U80~133S),ooetrf the moal
iUnttrions kni|^ta tA tbe Tentwo order, wai a ecioa of
the honae of ''^"g*"— '-n in 'Diuringia, where be waa bom
abont 1180. He waa » Autbfnl and infloential conndllar
of tbe emperor Frederick IL, and took a {aomioeot port
in tbe contemporary afbiia of the German empire. Tlie
erenta of hit life are inTolved in the biatoiy of tbe
TnTTomo Obdkb (a.*.), ot which be waa elected matter
in 1310 or 1211.
BALZBHUNN, a unall Oerman watering-plaoe, visited
annnall; b; aboat 4000 patienta, ia aitnated in Bileaia, 30
mile* to the eoatlt-w«M of Bmlao. Ita alkalo^alioe
spiinga, which are eepedallj efficacaooi in polmooar/
oomplainta, were known sa eaHy aa 1316, bnt afterwanla
fell into ditnae until their merite were once more die-
eoreted at Uu beginning of thii contnry. The rwideot
popolation in 1830 nnmbered &777.
SALZBUBQ, capital of tbe preaent Auttrian erownlaod
and fonscri; of ilie archbiaboprio of tbe sme name, occo-
pisa ft position of ringnlar beaatj on the SalMcb, 87 milee
MMitlteiwt <rf Mnnich, and 1 64 miles west by eoaOi of Tienna.
The river, flowing nortb-west from tbe i^aciin of tbe Saln-
bnrg Alps to the Bavarian plain, paMea at this print between
two ieoUted hilli, tbe Huicheberg (1733 feet) on tbe loft
and the Capuiiiierberg (21S3 feet) on tbe n^t; in the
lovalj valley so fonned, and stretching into tha plain
bejroDd, lie* Baltbnrg. Tbe pictuieeqne and wooded con-
fining hillt, tbe lofty dtadel of Hohen^aliborg. ritin^
like a Oroak acropolis above tbe towen ood epiiea of tbe
city at ila foo^ and the magnificent faackgroand of the
Balaborg Alpi, overttanging tbe broad plain, make Salzburg
the most beantifnUy titnated town in Antbu or Qermaay.
Tba older and main part of the city lies on tha left bank of
tbe SsIbkIi, in a narrow eemidrc olar plain at tlie base ol thr
'240
A L Z B U H O
MSnclulMrg ; tha never town ii on tlie right Iwiik at Hie
toot of the C^pminarberg which is sapantttid from the livei
hj the narrow ■aburb of St^n. At the aonth end of the
old town, below the Nonnbeig, or eonth-eaat spar of the
HiSnehtberg, ii the saborb of Nonnthol ; and at the north
and ia Hiiiln. The ateep aidea of the Honchsberg rise
direotl; from amidat the honsBa of the town, aome of
which have cellara and rooma hswu ant of the rock ; end
the ancieat cemetery of St Peter, the oldeat iii Salzburg, ia
boniided bf a row of TBolta cnt in the aid? of the hill.
The naiTOweat part of the ridge, which haa a length of
ftbova two milea, ia pierced bj the Neu Thor, a tannel 436
teet bng and 23 faet broad, completed in 1T6T, to form a
OODTettient pesiage from the town to the open phin. The
Knth end of the Honchsberg ia occapied b; the impoaing
Hohen-SalibnTf^ a citadel originallf founded in the 9t£
ceotary, though the present biuldiaga, the toweraof which
riae 400 feet above the town, date chieSy from 1496-
ItilB. The atreeta in the older qoartera are narrow,
crooked, and gloomy; but the newer porta of the city,
eapacially tboee laid out aince the remoral of the fortifica-
tions about 1861, are handaome and apadooi. Owing to
Ptao ofSalibiuK
the freqnent firea tha priTate bnildinga of BaUbnrg are
oomparatively modem ; and ^e pitMot Safrroofed hontea,
laviahly adumed with marble, are, like manf of the
pnblic btdldings, mooDmenta of the gorgeoua taatti of the
prince archbiahopa of the ITtb and 18th centnriea. The
atjle of the houae^ the nnmerona open nqnaree, and the
abundant foontaina {jve an Italian air to the town.
Both (idea of Ae river an bordered bj fioe promenade^
planted with tnee; and a pnblie parkhaa been laid oat
to tha north of the new town. The BaUaoh ia spanned
by four bridgea, including a railway bridge.
SdAarg ti tall of oli|Mt« ind Luildinn of iatacMt Tte
Mthsdnl, ni« of Um lirgBt uid mott nerhct mdiaaBi of th*
RanaiMDM i^la Is OnnuiY, vu built In Ifllf-U by th* ItiOta
iraldtMt ButuD Bvlui in biitetion of Bt FiWa at Rom*. On
tbiM ridw it ii bonndad by th* Dna-Ilate, th* C^t*I-F1*b, aod
tb* B**idMii-FUb ; and opuilng oa (ha mtlh-wt ud aorth-wcat
of dM lut *!• tha Hos*rt-Pla& and lb* Hazkt-Plalc. Id th*
Hceait-Pbb Is a •tatus cf Hoaart, who «*» bom In Salibanln
lTt«. OnoD*rfd*otth*B«rid*ii>.>Utalstli*pi>l>**,*sin<aBbr
tbow^ iBIMdnc boDdlag U tfaa Italiu iti^ btnn hi IBM uvl
iaUwd hi int It la now oeeapitd by th* gnnd-dnk* ot Tu-
oaay. Onnsit* !• th* KoaBia, tMgm InlBW, inwUchsn th*
GoTtnimant oflUt* and th* Uv ooorta. Th* salia* c/ th* iiiiiiilI
a th* Cqdtal-PIibE. Icras th* rinr, with It*
?nmch garden adjoining the pnglle paik, ii Ih* Wrahetl pal^etk
romurly tfa* nunmir iMidow* o( the prluoe irehU*lii>[i*. Boilt
in 1007, *nd i«Mot«d itlar ■ In in ISia, It n* jnsmtwl to tba
tawn in 1M7 by tha anparor Piaoci* Joaaph. T1j« bnOJlns do**
to th* Ktn Thor, now th* ea*aliy b*tnck% m* formeny the
lamptnoni itiblM ot th* ■nhblihap*. hnilt in ISOT ts teeooi-
modit* ISO hoTML Btdd* It ia an unphltbMtn^ F*rtlj hswn
out of tha rock ot the Utinchibsrg in ISSl, knmrn u th* Sammsr
Biding achooL Tha Wint«r Biding Sohool, hi th* adjuant bnilil-
ing, bu 11* *Bi]lng decontsd irith th* pilnting of ■ toDrnimant,
ditJDg from IBBO. Tba tQwn-hotu* ot aalibnrg vu bnilt In UOJ
mad natonfd ia 1076, Otbvr intflrocting wktiW bnildingi an tha
Chiemnohor, foucdtd ia ISOfi and rtlmilt in 1897, fornwriy th*
patuis of the islTngla biihop ot ChiBSUH, ind now tb* moetinf-
!Uo« of tbe R*l2bnTg diet ; tba nnitsd •chaol-bnlliliiig, anetad w
87S ; St JoLd'i hoipit*] ; the CunUno-Augnituini mDaanu ; and
tlie bindKiiDa CDrh*iu. aiected in tha pnblis park in 18tB.
Ot tha twentj'four chonhic tha m^oritj an intsniting fttim
thali utiqnit;, tbair ■nhltactnre, or their i*M>i!ialion*. Hait te
tba caLlisdnL tha chiat li Mrb*p* tha ibbey chorch at St Petor, a
Bomuinqiia baidliiv otll27, tulalaadj mtond tn 171G. It ooa-
tiin* mosuinaut* to Bt Hnpart, ' ' ' " " ' * " ' ' -
nlisioaa poet ot tha latter half <
in tha Riidat of 8t Palar"* chnnjhjard. built tnl . . ., .
Id 1885, 1* dtnatod natr tba a.n in the aide of tha Hanehsberg.
' ' hiva bean the harmitage at St Uuimns, who «u martyrad
77. Tba Tranciaoan chafeh, with u
ins eaampla of the liana-
snCurr, «i(h later banqna addltkoa 8t
.,..t hank, boat ID 1605-11 and rastond tn
1812, oontaiiia tha tomb of Puuielaiu, vhoaa hoBis atood In th*
PUliI, or iqaua at tha nortb end ot tbe chief brjiln Tba oldeat
and moat important of the eight ooBianti (fonr for aaahaaa) at
Salibatg la tha Benedictine ibbn of St Pater, fosndad abont SBS
by St Bupert a* tb* nueI*Da o( th* city. It CDotain*.* libnry «l
40,000 folnmaa, beaidea HBa Tba (ipachin nonartaiy, dating
from Iti), fji'vai name to tba Capniinarberg. Tba oUaat nnnnacy
is that Ipondad on tba tTaohbarg by St Bupert In MS. Th* aui^e
FrotMtint chorch hi Saliborg wa* not bnilt nnbl 1866. '
A theological Beminarr ia tbe only nlla now left ot tha onlnc-
aiu of Salibnift tonndtd in K2I and ai
' itiou ttyla at the 13tb o
iderable nambar ototber edacatioa
natltndona
in 1810. A 01
in^ lay andd^aid,
una their aaat in tba town. Th* pablio library eontala* llS,00a
Tolnmaa *nJ a onllaetlon a< MSB., and tha Bnmwim lihaty WMitolna
10.000 Tulaiaa*. Tha anmlMa of haneTolant and charitula initl-
tntiona I* larg& Saliborg cant** on a Tarlaty ot amalt mannbo-
tore*, including miuloal inatniinanta, iron-saiaa^ tnari^ onamaDtt^
ounaut, ■rtiflcul wool, Ac. It* trad* has baonn* laor* important*
ainca direct nllwiy coumnnioatloa ha* b**n owaad with MAniA
and VieDU. A lug* numb*r ot toniiat* vUi Baliboig aansally ;
and ita bath* alao attract many Tisitoca. It i* tlw ***t ot iapntut
Jodicialuid adminlatrmtlTedq[iartnMDta,aDd*l*oorau anbUdiop^
—''- ~ cattodral ehapur aad a coaaiatory. In 1880 tba pi
th a catmdral ebapur aad a coaaiator
icdnding tk* anbnrba) «u ^,IM
Th* ongln and deTah^naant cf Saldw
and it* hiatory b inrolnd with that of
Itnnilanam*. Tb* old BoDaU '
rain*, and
nn alike *acte*i**tkaL
arohUaboprio to wbiea
r JnnTiun «u laid in
hs, and tha indpiant Oiiatianlh of th* diitriat ore ' '
., the pagan Ootha and Haia. nw aaclao* ot th* n
»aatb*m
^_„ _. M pra**at dty
I nion**t*ry ud U*boprie fcoaded ban aboat 7W (Mn* ny
>83) by St Bapartaf W<(M who had b**n iaTltad byl>aka
Tbaodo of Banria to pnaah ChrtsHanltr in hia bud. Th* aaodtn
name ot tb* towa, do* Bka aantal otben in tha diatriat to tb*
abondsaotat ailtfonnd &*n, appaai* bafim th* *ad of tb* 8th
caatBiy.'. Than Chariam^n* ts«k poaaadoB ot Baiaiia la TM ba
made Biafiop Ano of Salabntg an anhbiihop. Tbancribrwatd th*
dUnitf and power of O* •** ataadOy InerMl*! Baiter* th* *Bd
oMii* 11th esntoiy Ano'a ■maaaeia had baaa namad prinatai of
(}*nn*iiy and p*r)i*tBal japal kptaa ; in th* aooiaa oi tim* tbqp
*bt*iiMd high *MBlar hOMBii also : and in 1S7S Kndotpb tf Han*-
bnig nud* the aiehhldiopa Imperial priaa**. Tbt able aad amU-
tlaaa lia* of [cino* an!hU*bopa^ oh«*aB frcoi the nobl**t huailiaa at
Oim*iiy, *as*rly enlarged tbair poaaaadona by parobaea, auhann
tad gift, and did not Eaaltata to coma into warHka eollMon with
tha i«)ara of fiamia and Aaalria, or oran with the ampanr binaalt
"Oitj took an aotiT* ahara in the aflUn tt tba amplr^ and bald an
inlatntial podtlon In the ebctmal eoUega. Aa a ocoatitnant at
tba Ovman ampira, Balibng ombnoad an ana of 8700 aqaais
mllaa, with a pcmlation «( ItO.OOOi, Tb* last indmndint
HJaronymaa, oonnt of Coll*i*do, dasted & ITT
. -._ Miargyaud Jnitio* bat witboat popi<lai" ~
•a* wa aaenlaiisad by tba Haas of lAnMlla in 1K>£
who nlad with MMrgy and Jiutig* bat witboat umplsfi^. As
• wa ssenlsiissd by tba Haas of lAnMlla in 1K>£
The atrUa batman lori and paopla hhd alnya baa kaa la
ilabnrg ; and in Itll tbe arahblahop, Lacaihaid, wa* b*((*e*d la
Dban.&libaii by tb* InbsUluta. Th* Pi—ntn* Var also
ragadwf"-'-"-— ^—^-<—.—. ^^^-^ i-u
<^th*B
SAL— SAM
241
yreSpat Dittrich mu^ __
ih« town and tbelr hooH dsmoliibed. _. . .
rigoma panHintioB tlw new bilh ipittd in ncnt, (apeciaar
•nnog tba lindmid nbjscts of the uchbiihDp, and i Mv
ud mon ■■iililnj edict of eipoUoa *•■ iwwd bj Areh-
hithop Von Fimun In ITIT. The Prottatanti involnd td* aid o(
Fndeiidc William L of Prudi, who jmrnti let thmn wmiMiim
to mU thair Boodi and to anignt* i and in 1791 and ITK Saliborc
mrtod to maia «ltb abont SO.OOO indiutrioni and psaogfol
aUxtoM. AboBt tOOO ot tbna am* fram tb« capitaL
Bf tha psB or LnnMll* SalibiUK "■ ginn to tba archdnlM of
--■ — ''-'--• TaaeaBjln * '
u and gnnd-dnlca of Tiueasir li
, n anStUB nn lucsii j^ ; uui
._ „_ .MMiroUed among tba cltetonJ princn. In tbara-
diitribatioD foUoTiag tb* peaca of Pnaabug in IMS, Salibarg Ml
ta AmDia. Four jmra latar it paaaad tn BaTaria, bnC tba Man of
I'uiainlBUmtoradit to&nitna, to wbiftb tt baa Hnot balongid.
Under tba dcaignatlon of a ducbj tha tamtoi; fonned tha dapart-
maot of aalaeb ia UpniT Anitna Dotil IBM, «ban it m* mad* a
■oHmta cnwu-Und, Mtb tba four daeartmenta of Salaborg, Sell,
Tamavtg, and 8t Jobann. In IHI tha managamnt ot ft* akin
ma ontniatDd to a local diat, eoniiatiiig of tha gararnor, tha aroh-
bbbop, and twaatj-nia copreaentatlTaa. Tho ana of tha dadir ia
3708 aqwra nilia and tha population in 1880 waa 1SS,B70, ahaaat
ucloBnlyBomanCatholiaandofOanaaualoek. (V. HU.)
SALZKAHMERQUT, m dUtrict in tbe wmth-VHt ui^
of Upper Atutru, betweea Saliburg uid Stfria, £unoaa
for its fioa aeeiiei;, forms 4 nepante imperial donuun
about 3G0 cqiure milw in area, niul with » popolation
of over 16,000. The beaotj of iti lofty moanUioa,
■eqtmtend kkea, ud green ralleyi hu mftde it one of
the laToiirito tooritt reaorts of Europe, and bM gaioed
for it the Utle of the " Auatn&n Switzeriuid "; but it owe«
its uune (literallj " Mlt-eickeqaer propertj") and it*
economic importance to ita extenaiTe ukd valiuUe MJt
mines. The chief lakes are the Traniuee or Lafca of
Qmiindeii, the I^e of Hallitatt, the Attersee or Kam-
mersee (the largeet lake in Anatria), the MondMei and the
St Wolfgang I^ke. The princiiitl moantaina ace ttw
Dachateia (6649 feat), Thontein (9669 feeti Ilia Todle
Oebirge wiUi the itimmite of Priel (6238 feet) and othei^
and the HoUengebiiw (6371 feet). The Schafberg (0840
- feet) or " Aiutcian Bjgi " and the Trannttiin (SMS feet),
isolated peaka among the lakes, are weU-known touriit
points. In the Tary heart of the salt-Tielding diatrict lies
the &BhionabIe spa of Itchl ; but the capital of the
Salzkaouneigut ia Qmnnden, aitnated on the Tminaee at
the exit of the I^aon, the chief river of the diatiiet
Ofcttlo waring and forestrj are carried on to a certain
extent b; the people, but between 6000 and TOCO of them
ar« engaged in the ealt-raines and eraporating woAa,
irbioh yield aauiully about 60,000 tons <^ Mlt. Ilia mle
of the aalt ia an Aoalrian cnlwn-monopoly. The most
important Mlt-worin aie at lechl, Hallstatt, Ebenaee, and
Auawe. Bea Salt.
SALZWEDEI^ an ancient town of Praanan Sauny,
lies on the Jeetoe, a tribntaiy of the Gibe, 32 miles to the
nortb-weat of Stendal It ia an indnatrial place of aome
importanoe, with linen, ootton, and wooliea maanfactorei,
earriea on a brisk rirer trade in grain, and poaaeaeee a fine
Ctothic church of the 13th century. Bnt its chief claim
to notioe lies in the fact that it was for about a century
(e. 1070-1170) the capital of the Okl or North Mark
(also for a time called the " Mark of Soltwedel "), the
Lerael of the Pnisiian state. The old castle, perhape
founded by CSttriemagoe, was purchased in 1864 by the
king of Prassio, nnxipna to preaerre tliis interesting relie.
Salzwedel waa also a member of the Hanseotio Leagn^
and at the begioiuDg of the 16th century seems to hare
engrcesed great part of the inland commerce of Ncrth
<7ermany. The praolation in 1B80 waa 8780.
BAHANH) DTNABir, the name of the third among
tk«a DotiTe dynaatiai which sprang np in the 9th and lOtb
a pottioos of Penta, and, dtkonj^
nominally pnmncial goreroon under the suzerain^ of tltt
caliphs of Bsghdid,Micceededina very abort timeinestal^
liahing an almost independent role over the vast territories
round the Oxoa and Joxartet. ^le Hs'mAn, HirAu-al-
rashld'a son, to whose patronage the Tihirid family owed
tbNr sapmmacy in Khotisin and Tranaoxiana {820-872,
20S-2S9 a-E.) appointed three sons of S&min, or^inoUy a
Tartar chief who claimed descent from the old Bfainian
kings, goveraois of Herit and aome districts beyond the
Oxns ; and these aooD gained auch an aacendeocy over all
riv&l dsnahips that in 872, when the Tihirids were ovee
thrown by the Soffluids under the leodenhip of Ya'kdb b.
Laith (868-8T8), they wen strong enough to lebaiu in
their family the governorship of TransoxiBna, with tba
official sBJiction of the caliph Ho'tamid (870-893), and to
establish a semi-royal court in Bokhir&, the seat of the
new BimAnid government. During the reign of Yalnlb^
brother 'Amr b. Luth (676-900) Isma^il b. ASmad, Simin'a
greatgnudaon (892-907, 279-296 A.a.X croaaed the Ozns
with a powerfitl army, invaded the territcoy of the SafEtrid^
sent ' Amr as priaoner to BagjuUd, and gndnally extendad
bis mle over Khortatn, Kfairtriim, Jnnln, and Uu
boorini; couatriaa. Hia ancMaeota, all renowned
hi^ impulse tb^y gave both to the nabriotie fedii _
the national poetry ot modem Farsia(aeePiuiA,voLxviJL
f. 666 w.), were Ahmad h. Ismail (907-913, 396-301
A.H.) ; Nsfr n. b. Ahmad, the patron and friend ot the
■ -■' i (913-942, 301-331 Jl-H.) ; Ni^f L b.
131-343 a-o.) ; 'Abd al-MaUk L b. KA^
to A.B.); Uaofdr L K Nl^ lAim visiet
^<aml taanalated Tsbaifs univerHl hiatofy into Foniaa
(961-9TS, 35<KS6« A.H.); NAh IL k Uonfiir, whoaa
conrt-poet Da^ftf commenced' tlw AUbtdma (976-997,
36S-387 A.B.); Hanadr H b. NA^ (997-998, 387-389
A.K.); aiid'Abdal-M^ILb.N^(999X with whom the
P*™*"!^ dynas^ came to a lodier abrupt end. The
rulsfs of tlus powerful honse^ whose silver diriMina had
an azteoaive cnnenay during ttw lOtJt eentnry all over
the northern part of **F'Wi and were fcwww^*, ^hwHigb "Bhim-
t, even so t|tc » to Pomanmia, Sw«£o, and
'i^rSa
Norway, white p*l^l^nil^ coins have lately been foiipd in
great Dumhw, anJIeied in their ttim die fate they had poe-
poied for thmr pndeceaaon ; ther vme overthrown by a
more youthful and vigorooa nw«^ that of Saboktogln, which
founded tha iUnatrioui Ghaoiawid dynasty and the Mussut
man empire of India. Under 'Abd al-Malik L a Turkish
slavey Alptsgfs, had beea mtmstad with the government
of Bokhiii, but, showing himself boetile to 'Abd al'maliVa
snccesBOr HonfAr L, he was compelled to fly and t6 take
refuge in the mountainoua rwions of Qhamo, where he soon
eetablished a semi-independent rul^ to which, after his
death in 977 (367 i-s.), his son-in-Uw Sebnkta^ like-
wise a former Turkish alavi^ socceeded. Niih U, in order
to retain at least a nomWl sway over thoee Afg^n
terntortea, confirmed him in his high pceitt<Hi and even
invested Sabuktagfn^ son UaJ^Ad with tbe govemorahip
of Shoriain, in /award tor the powerful help th^ had
given him in his desperate atru^es with a c(»fadu*tion
of disaffected noblea of Bokhlri under the leaderdiip of
Fi'ikand the troops of the Dailamitas, a dynasty that-had
arisen on the ahotea of the Caapian Sea ai^ wresM
alreat^ from the honda of -the B&minida all their wesLstn
provinces. Unfottniiately, Sabuktagln died in the same
year as Nii^ IL (997, 387 A.H.), and Ha^ild, confronted
-with an internal contest againat hia own laother Isma'd,
had to withdraw hia attention for a short time from the
aSairs in EhoiisAn and Ttonaodana. ^lia interval
snffiead for the old rebel leader Filfe supportiad by a tttong
Tartar army under Dekkhin, to turn Ndh'a ancotasor
Mansdi IL into a mere pnppe^ to eoncenbate all tlw
242
S A M— 8 A M
ptnrar in hie own hand, and to indoce even hu oomin&I
nuBter to reject Habmdd's application foi a continnance
of hit goTernoibhip in Ehorisin. HahmAd refioined for
the moment from vindicating hia right ^ bnt, as soon as,
throngb conrt intrigaes, Mansilr IL had been dethroned,
he took pomesfuoD of Klioriaio, deposed Uansdr'a suc-
ceaaor 'Abd al-Malilc EL, and auomed aa an indepondent
monaich for the first time in Aaiatic hiatorf the title of
"snlUn." The last descendant of the hooM of Simin,
Prince Hontasir, a bold warrior and a poet of no mean
talent, carried on for some jeara a kind of goerilla warfare
agtunst both Mahrndd end Bekkhin, who had occupied
TranaoxiaDa, till he was aeaauinated in lOOB (39S a.s.).
Tranaoziana itielf waa annexed to the QhaEnawid realm
eleven yearn later, 1016 (407 a.H.).
SAMAB. See Philifpike laLAicD^ vol zviiL p. 753.
SAUABA, a government of aonth-eaatern Riuaia, on
the left bank of £e lower Volga, bonndad on the north by
Koaail, on the west hj Simbirsk and Saratoff, on the east
by Ufa and Orenburg, and on the sonth by Aatrakban, the
Kirghia Steppee,<and the terriUiry of the Ural Oossacka.
The area is 68,320 sqaare miles, and the population in
1662 was 2,234,093. A line drawn eaatwards from the
great bend of the Volga — the Samarskaya Lnka — wonld
divide the province into two parts, differing in orographicid
charactei. In the north fiat hilla and plateau^ deeply
interaected by rivera, cover the snifaoe. Bome of theee
are epnrH of the Urals; the others ate continnatious of the
fiat swelling which travenes middle Russia from the
Carpathiana to the Urals and compels the Volga to make
its characteriBtic bend before entering the Aral-Caspian
lowlands. The Samara Hills, on the right bank of the
river Samara ; the Kinel Hills ; the Falcon (Sokolii) Hills,
to the north of the Bnzuhik; the Sok Hills, with the Tsareff
Kurgan at the junction of the Sok with the Volga; and
the Zheguleff " Monntaina " on the Volga opposite Samara
are so many names given to separate elevationa or parts
of plateaus between the deep-cut riter valleys. In their
highest parte they rise abont 1000 feet above the sea,
while the level of the Volga at Samara is but 43 feet, and
the broad Talleya of the Volga affluents sink to a cor-
respondingly'low level. Booth of the Samankaya Luka
the country asanmes the characters of a low and flat steppe,
recently emerged from the great Post-Pliocene Aral-Caspun
basin. Only two ranges of gentle swellings, spurs of the
Obshchiy Syrt, enter the eonUt-eaet comer of the provis^a.
Ths gftolon ot E
llmMtoDM (Upper 1
Whon ftpproAOhbiff
ialuidn aarTaiuKlBlb]
[^
li Dot yet fnlly knows. CarlioidfeKiiLa
J la:gt tracts ia tlig norlh-eut and gut
Volga tliB icchatein appeBn in wide
ed bT tbe (prolnblj Tiluio] veriegited marli mnd
... ^niBio dopotilii sn mentioned ibonttbg Banunk-
Lnka. Cretac«aiui depoiita, vhtch oovor lirge tr&cU on tho
jht btok ot the Tolgi, ippesr on the left buik only in the
smth-eut of Saman. Older Tertiary depoeita •ppe*x aleo in the
vary lontli of Bamara ; wtiilo Pliocene Kmsatona and landy clafa,
which CDTOr tha Obalioliij Syrt and Uat-nrLprotrude north aa a
harroK atrip, rcacliing the bend ot the Vol^ The Olacial
bouldor-clay of middle Riuais doea not extend aa far aouth-eaat aa
Garoara, and tbo Fost-GUcUt depoaita, not vet fully invBatif^ted,
aro repreaantod by loaaa, black earth, and ucnatrine fomiationa
It b DOW csUbliahed that durinK Poit-Glacial timca the Arnl-
CaB|>lnn aea mtouded in > wide gulT oocnpying the broad dapmaion
□[ tbs Volfja aa far north aa ths Sunarakaya Luka, Caspian
mniaela haviug been tiacod aa far as Samara. The soil la on Uio
whole very fertile. All the northern pirt of the gaTemment la
coverad with a thick ahoet of black oarth ; tbla beconwa thinner
towarda the aontli, cUya — moatly fertile — appearing from beneath ;
aalt cUya a^sar In thi' toath-eoaL
Saman la inado^uaUly watemi, eepedsUy in the Knith. Ths
Tolgn flom for (ISO mllei along iCa ireatem harder. Ita trllmtariea
the Graat Tcheranuban [220 tniloi), the Sok [19S miiea], the
Samara (MD mileaX with lla mb-tiibutarilo, and the amaller
tribuUriea the Uotcha, Elan-Irghii or Tchura, and Little Ii{[hii
are not navigable, mitlj on aoconnt of their ahallownaa, and
lartlybMsa** of wafer-milk When the walw Ii high, beats can
• of IS to M mllM. TheOnat
nedinglj windii
iTigated to Entchnm, and rafts «,.
Nikolauvik. The hanka of both IfTmmtf an dansely peopled.
The Great and Little Uzefi water ■onth-esetam Sssun andkaa
thomaslTea in the Kamyah nnda before i"''lTig the Csipfsn. A
few lakee and maiabcs occur in the riTsr.vsllsys, asd mlt msfihiff
in the aonth-eait.
The whole of the region ia tapidly drying np^ The fonsll^
wMch are diaappeaiinfi are eztenalvo only in the north. Altegalher
they still com an ana of >,IHS,()00 aoa^ or S par Sent of tin
whole inrfkce ; palrle and gruliig land ooenpie* U,ieE,000 SOM^
and only 4,198,000 acres are nacnltivabla
The climate is one of extremes, eapedaHy in the s(
the depnielng heat sad drought of^nnunar are fol
winter by severe bnet^ etitn acoompanisd by a;
Bvera^ temperstDre at Saman (M* 11' S. li
(January, ft j Jnly, 70*'4).
The population,* which waa only l,Sa«,MO In 18U, hu almnt
doubled lince then, mostly in mTienqrimKiB at Immlgnitlcn j it
reached ^i!<,0tSinlS8^ uidmnetnDw(18H) ba about S, WO, 000.
Only 1S»,S00 of these live in towns, the remslndtf being diMi-
buted over 4,470 villages, whidi sn often very hrgik >» f>war than
ISO ranging in popolatiDa from SOOO to eoOO. 1^ "rp*t FnHenf.
« followed in the
let) ia cnly N"8
tion of Oennan colonlita, from Wtlrtcmber^ Badea, BwitierUi
and partly also from BeUand and the Palatdnale, whcee Immierati
a. village,
a a^^dal
aggregate nnmber leachiBgll
vroiana, now nearly quite Kc
IBperce ,
1(0,W». _The Hduha and bsya Hord-
iber abont lE.OOO. A apecial featore cl Semara la its popnla-
.. r. .._,... . ™.. . ■ - . SrttswrUnd,
. . Immigration
dates from the InvitatiDn of Catherine IL in 17e& Prntaated ee
they were by free and eitenaiTe grante of land, by eieniDtion btaa
military aerrlce, end by aelt-goTsnunent, they have devdoped ridi
eolonieeof Cathollca, P»teetintB,Unllarisnit ADabeptbta,lloraTians,
and HaniMnilaa, moat of which hare adopted the Boaian vUlue-
ecmmnnlty eyetem, slowly modiHed by t£e ei '
diatiictof KoTO-ITietl, ends per cent of that of tlAn^amrdLthelt
■ ISftOOa ThelCdu" "^ " "
. qiiite~Ruauted, gathered is
ilgn ot Pater I., when they sbaudooed In great ni
Dank ot the Volga ; they eonatitute abont 10 pet cent oi tna popn-
lation. Some 70.000 Tchnvaahes and IBOO Votyaka may be added
to the abOTs. The Torklah stem is rnneantsd by some 100^00-
Tartan, 70,000 Baahkirt, and ■ lew Kiighiiea Some butlied Eal-
mncka were settled in 1710 at Stavropol ; and about 000 Ady^
Circaaian^ aettlad at IfoVo-ITnB, may still be foond therSL JJl
theM varied alamanta, living in cleae jnxtepcaltiaa, nsvertbelaa
continne to ""'""'■' their own ethnof[nphkal feaCuas ; the Hard-
viniana alone have lost their ethnokgieal iidiTidDsli^ and ra^dlj
nndergo a modlflcattoQ of ^pe ee they adopt the Uie <rf BauD
peasants. As ngatde leiljibui, tbs peat milk of the pMnlsUaD
•re Drtbodox Oreeks ; the HonoonfiMmiste, who still ntmn Ihni
nnmeroua and widely calebrutad commanibet and nonsetariee oa-
batfi the liver* Cult, unmber several hnndied thonaands (DflhdaUy
100,000)] next come Uohamrasdana, IB par ssuL; a nrlsty ol
Froteetant seoti, S par oant ; Bomsn Catholici, about I per cent j
and, laatlv, some 4000 pagana.
The chief occupation is sgricoltnra, — anmmer wheat, lye, oats,
millet oU-yieldIng planta, end tobacco being the ptindpel raopa
Owing to Its great fartilitv, Samara nsually bse a eorplis of grain
, .._. _..^-_ i.._. ,1 ... ■. niUllon quartern (aiclnrfva of oate)
an avenge year for enmmerwheet,
uuii luiiiDi urn meiii^ lui >iu^ET ryC, the tOts] CTOM WStO — wksat,
3,S1B,S00 qoarten : rye, 717,800; oali, 1,800,000: Wlay, 117,100;
and other graina, 1,SI0,000. Hotwithatanding thia inaction,
vaiying from 6,000,000 to 9,000,000 ijnarlsn of grain (eielndTe
of oata) for a popoletion of only £1 mtlliona, Samara is periodi.
cally liable to unine to such an extant that men die by thousands
-at hoiiger-CypbaB, are- compelled to send (aa In 1879) to adjoiniufl
prDTini»a to porchaaa orach aa food, or are forced te go by bundreila
* ' ^ ' ' * ' nployraant on the Tolg^whus mllliena
iierthelea exported. The popolatloa
. _ r reserve capital for yaare « scarcity
(there ware In 1883 only 946,100 qoartera ot com hi the puUio
giauarica. and 608,022 roublos of capital for that pntpoeeV and
Bome 210,000 maloa have in all only 846,000 scree of srabls and
posture land. But even thia soil, althongh all taxed aa sraUa, Is
often of sneh quality that only 60 to EG per cent of it la nnder
crops, while the pMaants an sompelled to rant from two to two
and a h,-" -="- '-- '-■"-— • — " ....
of quarten of oc
tor tillage from large proprlaton.
r about one-qnartsr of the total eras
I InttMtliig work of K. Ostti «■ "«v (MaM"
S A M — S A M
243
i&ta
■B at rwa tbe BuhUn at noml-
-, ..w a>p«ki pM ten — in in tba hinrU of
BO mm than ITM ptndaa. Th* aggnaW tUM ancted frvm
tha pMHBt* imrKmtisg to 6,783,870 nmbla (1870), tlut ii to hj,
rhnn 8 u 10 nnbiB pv m*K thtT an, vlun uconot ia tab n ot
tKt adniKo NMiTed dmidg Mardtj, reduced lo ati*oliit< dotitu-
Hon vbownr the eropa an ahort, a« u to be Eompeilrd to aall
Oair M hon* and cow. In 1880 tlu aman nacbed 7,000,000
nablM, to wUeh mnat ba addad about 8,000,000 ranblia of adraoee^
and in ISSl, oat of tha 1, t»&448 roablu propoitd to ba larioJ by Iha
mualfua, S7II,IMS nmaiiied Is aman. Tbannaral Impoveriah-
amt mir ba indsad from tha daath-rata. vhich for asrand ;aon
'B 81,488 familua
d to abandon tbaif homea and diapana thronghoat
h of anplojmant j whila 100,000 hmiliei wars latt
■A of eattla in 1S80. Notwitlutanding an Incnaaa
If saallf ons-third daring ths laat twonn yaan tha
ep and cattladMnaaadhjaboatona-haU from 1888
tol8S3.
Dm BuiDlketnn* <A SaoMn an imimportant, tha agRngata
indnctioa (AlaBjr from tannariaa, floar-milla, taUov-maltiiiB
Inaan, and diadllaria) in 18S2 raachlng onW 7,871,000 roublaa
{£7N,\IXfi. Psttr tnid<a,«apwul1> tho vaarlag at*iMUtn cloth,
ai« making ptogriia in tha aoalb. Tha caltara of oil-fialding
pltnti in danlopad in aaranl dtatricta, aa 1* aiao that of tohooco
jlO.OSO acnt, Tialdi:^ 101,980 cwta., in. 1881). Tixda ia veif
aetiT* — eoi^ tallow, potuh, aalt, and aoms voollen doth being
azportad; Iha Importa of raw cotton ftom Ceotnl Ada br tbe
OiBilaug iiil>9 to ba lonrndad to tbe intarior ot Boasu an
incnaring. Tba aegngale talne of menhandiae ihippad on tha
Tidn and lb bfbatarita vUbin tha gorammont reached !T,D3S,0O0
nnblea in 1881 ; whila •,100,000 cwta. of nwrchandiaa van catried
(nbothdinetionaanthaOnnbnrenlliraT. Tha chief loading pUcaa
an Saman, Stavropol, B^kon, and PoknviA on the Tol^ Stan-
lUnak <a tha Maina, and Ekateriuinik on tha BtnDtaliiik.
Tba ftoraRraunt ia diridad into aeran dietiicta, tbe cbiaf towna of
■Ucb, via population aa aatlmated in 1870, are— Samaia (83,100
— -■■— ■a),'iSg.' " " ■■
inhabltasta), Bognlmi
(10.600) — ' ' '
(1000) aleo hia munidpal
mineral waian an Decoming men and mon fraqiunted. ?oknT-
Aara SlobodB (mOOO), EkateriaeDstidt, Ghuhitu. and Alaian-
droir Oaf, aach wiUi mora than 8000 Inhahitauta, the loadiog plan
of Babkon (StOO), and aanral othan, although atiU but TUbgaa,
bare mora inportuiDa than moat of the aboTa towni.
lie tarritarj now oceanisd br Bamaia wai nntil last oentorj the
■bode of nomada. Tbe Bolnrtaiu who occnpied it until the 13th
oantDTjr wan fblloirad \ij Uangola of tha Goldgn Borda. The
Bdaaiana panetntwt thna &t in tha 18th centoif , tftai tha defeat
of the pitneipalitlaa of Kama and Aatnkhan. To aecora com-
nnmieatlon betntn theae two citiea, the fort of Samara wta
erected in ItSt, aa well as Santo^ Taaritnn. and tha Snt line of
Rnarian tirti^ which ailandad from By eiri Yar tu the neighboar-
i.~j ^ "—leliBak near the Kama. A few aattUra began to
ita notoctiou. In 1870 it waa taken bf tha inanr-
lleuka Baiin, whoae nume ia atill remembered tn
.-. , In nia tha Ibe of forta waa removad a little
hrthsraaat^ ao oa to inclndo Erunji Tai and paita of what ia no*
thedlatcfctof BugiinntaiL Tbe Kiaian ooloiiirta '
gathBT
nnt I
Ui* pi
._. ...re pnabed fbrwaidf and iocnaaed in
nnmber. Hia aonthen part i^ the tanitorr, howaTor, remained
atiU eipcaad to tbe nida of the nomada. Id 1703 Catheiiae II.
InTitcd lonlgiNii, e^adallj Oannana, and VouoMibnniatB who
had left Biuaia, to aattla within tha nawlf-amiaiad tarritorr.
Emlmnta fkom rarlona parti it Gemianf imondad to the call,
a* a&o did lb* ll«iifcnlnlli. whoaa oommnnltlea on.ths lighiz aoon
beeun* the oantn of a fomidabla inmmotiDn ot tiia peaeantt?
wUoh bn^ ont in 177E nndet Pagatcheff and waa aappoitsd by
the Kalnmcka and tho Baahkln. After tha Inaanwtloii, In 1787,
w line of forta from nien to tho Volga and the Urala wie
' -a part of the territory. At the end
>ecatne an important centra for trade.
OB non u ma aonioein pan of the Cerritorf became qniet, gnat
nnmben of Qreat and Llttla Butiiuie b^an to aettle there— the
lattar hj order of OoTamment for the tmnaport of aalt obtained
In Uia nit lakea. In tha flnt half ot the preeent cestui? the region
waa lapidlj eoloniaed. In 18t7-MI tha OOTemment introdncad
about laO PQliah bmiliaai in 18S7-eS IfennonltH from Dantiio
alao founded aattlamenta ; and in 18C8 a few Cimaaiana wen
broo^t hither bf Oorenmumt ; while an infloi of Great Roaaian
paamiti eoatlnnad and atill gsae on. Tha territory of Saman
nmalnad long ondar SasA, or Aatrakhan, or Simbiiak and Onn-
bocg. Tha aapnategoramnMntdatea from 1S61. (P. A. K.)
SAMARA, eapibl of tke above goTerament, ia litaated
on the akpM of the loft bonk of the VolgK, 743 milea to
tin NvtiMMt erf Mosoow, at tha month of the Suam
and oppoaite the hitb of ZhegnleE It is one of the moet
importuit town* of the lower Volga for its tr&de. and its
importance cannot (ail to incroaw as the railway to Central
Asia sdTancea eastwnnLi. Its population roes from 34,600
in 18G9 to 63,400 in 18T9. Samara it built mostly ol
wood, and lai^ apacea remain vacant on both aidei of
its broad nnpaved streets. Its few public buiidinga are
ioiigniflciint. A number of tbe inhabitants support thom-
selvea by agricnltnie and gardening, for which thay rent
large areas in the vicinity of the town. The remainder
are engaged at the harbour, one of the moat importaot on
the Volga. Three fain are held anuoally, with aggregate
ntuma exceeding 2,000,000 ronbles. Saman ii becoming
more and more a reaort for coneomptives on account of ita
koumiss eBtabtishments {see vol. xvi pp. 30&-6).
SAUABANO. See Java, voL dii. p. 606.
SAJIARCAND. See Sauabkahd.
SAMARIA (Heb. JiTSP, 5«inftv)n; LXX. XofUpm,
except in 1 Eings svL 31'), the capital of Nottbem Israel
from the time of Omri to the Ul ot the kingdom, which
was consnnunated in the long siege of the royal city by
ShalmaneBer (2 Eingi xvii S) and its captore by his
■Dceessor Sargon {c. 721 B.a). Tbe choice of Samaria aa
hia capital by the warlike and energetic prince to whom
the kingdom of Epbraim mainly owed its greatness is easily
understood. It stands in the very centre of lUeetine and
of tha eoontry of the dominating tribe of Joseph, and, built
on a steep and almcet isolated hill, with a long and
spacious plslcaa for its itunmit, was aatai«lly a pceition of
much strength, commanding two of the most import&nt
roads — the great north and south road which passes
immediately under the eastern wall, and tbe toad from
Shechem to the nmritime plain which runs a little to tbe
west of Omri's capital Tbe bill of Bamaria is separated
from the snTronnding monntains (Amos iiL 9) by a rich
and well-watered plain, from which it rises in sneceasive
terraces of fertile soil to a height of 400 or 000 feeL
Only OD tbe east a narrow saddle, some 200 feet beneath
the plateau, runs acroea tbe plain towards the mountains ;
it is at this point that the traveller coming from Sbeciem
now ascends the hill to the village of Sebastiya (now
pronoonced Sebastfya), which occupies only the extreme
east of a terrace benea^ the hill top, behind the cmsading
church of John the Baptist, which is the first- thing that
draws the eye as one approaches the towu. The hUI-t<^
the longer axis of which nms westward from tbe village^
ti««e 14S0 feet above the sea, and commauds a superb view
towards the Meditoiraaean, the monntuns of Shechem, and
Mount Eermon. The dtnation as a whole is far more
beautiful than that of Jernsalem, though not so grand
aud wild. The line of the ancient waUs has not been
determined, the chief visible rnina being of the time of
Herod ; but, if they foUowed the natural lines of defence,
the city may have been almost a mile in length from east
inad, rednced the plaK with diHicolty.
. . ith Damascaa tha Idngaof lenel often
Tciided at Jemel, which waa nearer the seat o( war ; bnt Onui'a
city never loot ita pn^minance. While it atood, Samaria and not
Jaroaalam waa tha ccntn oF Hebnw life, and ths propfaeta
Bometimea apeak of it aa alao tha ceutn of eompt Jehovah-
wonhip and idolatry (Hoe. viii. 6, Uic t G, li». x. ID). Tha
' The8ntBtn5Miur4Kcan haidlf rapment the old pnnniielatlon.
In 1 Kinga iri. S4, tlia nune of tha city la darlvad from that of Ebemer,
from wfaon Omri bought tha til*, and tuie i-'CV i to hna origin-
ally bad Safiipdw or a*fHp^ (Cod. Tat. au^fpsr), aftarwarda
corrected to ia^tpir (aa in lagaide't edition of Ladaa'a lait) team
"" "ibrew tradition (compan Hald'a Aasfiia oa tbs pasM(a^
244
S A M — S A M
calf-Uoli th•^^ unlMi tb< prophet u tlmidr iziiiif; ths ubio« of
Bftnuria kr tlio kingdom ai r vhok, ah later vnt«n ottea do.
tntinutdy, in ths Greek
wu ■pplied ta thtnliol*
0 kingdom _ _ . _.
Ultimatslf, in the Greek period, the nuue of Suturii or Bamuitia
,1.1..... — ^-'-'— lit ofwbichiti» the cm tie— the region
Hotly of t)ia SAiiAKiTAi(a(j.<i.):
colonlita in it It becwne > fortiea and Tu twioa token b; li
tlie mn at Uie DiidocM [br Ptolemy I- in SIS uid by Demeinui
Paliorcetn alMat 294). ITndn tkt Ptolemies Bunarin mig the bond
of m up«Ttta prorince, and it cantiaaed Mbeiatrong city till John
Hrnsniii took ud ntterl; deitrojed itafter a Tiara eiego (e. 110
B.C ; we JoL, Ani., xiiL 10, 2 a}.]. Taken from the Jowl bj
FompeT, Samaria wai ona of the mined ciliaa which Oabinloa
iirderedtohareatored(Joa., Alt, liT. B, 3); then giTen by Aneuatoa
to Herod the Oraat, it vu refoaaded by him on a aplendid Bcale
SrobablT in 2? ao., the antnmn of which year, accoiding to
chiinra calooUtioni, la the probibie epoch of the new city of
Bebaats, aa it was now csllod in liononr of Augostos. Many remains
of Herod's biildiiin, dsacribedby Joaephna (Ant,, xr.i.i; B.J.,
L fil, t), (till remain ; the moat notable belong to a long oolonnads
Jnst tbon the line li Herod'i nail and those of the great temple
ot Ca«r. 'The tomba of John the Baptist, Elialui, and Obadiah
wen Tisited at Samuia in the time of Jerome (see Obu)uh), and
that ot Bt John most hare been shown there ttill earlier, for it was
baUt over Oie tomb at the BapHat, w
■.TtheH • - ■ ^ '-' - -'
aprt^het
by tL . . . ,
gtnobitiaBunti/QfW.I^. [ItmuriTt, roL iL p. 211 1.,,
Oki there la apian (J Uiedty. (W. R. S.)
BAHABITANS. This term, wliicli primAril^ means
" ioliaUtaDts of SamuitiB or the r^oa of Samaria," is
apeciallj used, m in the Nev Taatament and in Josephus,
aa the oame of a peculiar leligiona commimitf which had
its he«dquarten m the Samaritan cooatry, and is still
represented by a few familiee (about ISO taaii) at Nibnliis,
the ancient Shediem. They regard themselvee as Israelites,
deseendanta of the ten tribes, and claim to possess the
orthodox Telipon of Moaes, accepting the Pentateuch and
tnnsmitting it in a text irhich for the most part has onl^
mdcroseopic TariationB from the Torah of the Jews, Bat
thejr Kgaid the Jewish temple and priesthood aa achismati-
cal, and declare that ilie true aanctoary of Qod'a choice is
not ZioQ hat Monnt Qerizim, overhaDging Shechem (Jidia
iv. 20) ; here they had a temple irhich waa destroyed by
John Eyrcanua about 128 B.C. (Jos., Ani., ziii 9, 1), and
on the top of the moantain they. still celebrate the paas-
over. The sancti^ of thia site they prove from, their
Pentateuch, reading Oerizim for Ebal in Deut xirii 4.
With this change the chapter of Deuteronomj can be
interpreted with a little atraining as a command to select
Oerizim as the legitimate eanctoarj (comp. Ter. 7) ;
accordingly in Exod. xx. and Deal^ \. a commoudn
talcea from Deut. xxviL ia inserted at the close of the
decalogue. Thns on their reckoning the tenth command-
ment ia the direction to bnild an altar and do sacrifice on
Qeridm, — from which of coarse it follows that not only the
temple of Zion bnt the earlier temple of Shiloh and the
priesthood of Eli were schismaticaL Bnch at least is the
exptest statement of the later Samaritans; the older
Samaritans, as they had no sacred books except the Frata-
tench, prolMbly ignored the whole history between Joshaa
and the captivity, and so escaped a great many difficulties.
The contention that the Pentateuch is a law given by
Moses for a commnnit; worshipping on Mount Qerizim is
of course glaringly nnhiftoricaL Bj the (unnamed) sanc-
tuary of Qod'a cboice the Denterouomist certainly designed
the temple of Zion ; and the priestly law, which is through-
out based on the practice of the priests of Jerosalem before
the captivity, was reduced to form after the exile, and woa
firat pablisbed bj Ezi& as the law of the rebnilt temple of
Zion. The Samaxitana mnat therefore have derived their
Pentateuch from tlie Jews aftar Eaa'a reform^ ie., after
444 B.CI, Before that time Samaritaniam cannot have
existed in a form at alt simitar to that which ve know ;
bnt there most have been a community ready to accept tke
Pentatench. In pcaot of fact the distriot of Houit
Ephraim wOs'not eolirelj stripped of its old Hebrew popo-
lation by the Aaayrian captivity, and the worship of Jehovah
went on at the old shrines of Northern Israel aide by aide,
or even interfused, with the old heathenish rites of the nsw
settlers whom the Assyriana brought to fill up the lands
desolated by war. The account of the religioua condition
of the cotmtcy given in 2 Kings xvii S4 »q. dwells only on
the partial adoption of Jehovah-worahip by the foreignen
who had come into the land, bnt by no means implies that
the foreigners conBtitnt«d the whole population. Joeiah
extended his reforms beyond the limits of Judaea proper to
Bethd and other Samaritan cities (2 Kings ziiii 19), and
the narrative shows that at that date things were going on
at the Northern sanctnaries mnch as they had done in the
time of Amos and Hosea. To a considerable extent his
efforts to make Jernaalem the sanctuaiy of Samaria as well
as of Judna mast have been sncceeafnl, for in Jer. ill S
we find foorscore men from Shechem, Shiloh, and Samaria
making a pilgrimage to "the house ot Jehovah,"' after the
catastrophe of Zedekiah. And so it is not snrprising to
find that the people of thia district cams to Zenib-
babel and Joshua after the restoration, claiming to be
of the some religion irith the Jews sod asking to be asso-
ciated with tbepi in the rebuilding ef the temple, nieir
overtures were r^ected by the leadras of the new theocracy,
who conld not bnt fear the results of intetfnsion with so
large a mass of men of mixed blood and very qneBtiouabla
orthodoxy; vid so the Jehovah-worshippers of Samaria
were thrown into the ranks of " the adversaries of Jodah
and Benjamin" (Esraiv.). Nevertheleesidown tothe time
of Nehemiah, the breach was not absolute ; but the expul-
mon from Jerosalem in 432 B.a of a man of hlgh-^eatly
family who hod married a daughter of SanbaUat mode it
so; and it ia more than probable, as haa been explained in
Tup A") voL xiii. p. 419, that this priest ia the Hanosseh
of Josephua, who carried the Pentatench to Shechem, and
for whom the temple of Geririm was bnilt. For, though
the story in Josephns (AiU., xL 8) is falsely dated and
mixed with fable, it agrees with Keh. xiiL in too many
essential points to be wholly rejected, and supplies exactly
what is wanted to explain Uie existence in Shechem of a
community bitterly hostile to the Jews, and yet constitoted
in obedience to Ezra's Pentatuuch.
When we outsider what difficuItiMwere met with in the
introdoction of Pentateuchsl orthodoxy even at Jemsalem,
the foundation of a community of the Iaw in the Samaritan
country, among the mixed populations whom the Jndson
leaders did not venture to receive into fellowship, mnst
appear a very remarkable exploit The Samaritan religion
was bnilt on the Pentateuch alone ; and the fact that they
did not receive even those profJietic books and historical
narratives which originated in Northern Israel (all which
have been preserved to as only by the Jews) showi tha^
before they received the Pentateuch, their Jehovah-worship
was a mere affair of traditional practice, unin«piied 1:^
prophetic ideas and unsupported 1^ written reconl cd the
great deeds of Jehovah in time past It can hardly in any
respect have risen above the level of the pOpnlsr reli^on
of North Israel as described and condemned by Hoeea and
Amos. In Judiea tiie duty of conformity to the Pentateuch
was enforced by appeal to the prophets and to the histray,
of the nation's sins and chastisements, and tiie acceptance
of a vast and rigid body of ordinances was more easy
because they came as the consolidation and logical develop-
ment of a movement that bad been in pn^resa htaa tha
days of Isaiah. Among the Samaritans, on Mother hoa^
the acceptance of the Peototendi inqdied a '
8AMAEITANS
24S
2?,
itr. Ttiqr moit indeed haTs felt tlut
b«d flUeD behiDd ths JndEeuu in religions matters,
d A» Oifortani^ o( putting tiieBBelTes on a par with
uwa t^MOaring a cop; of the inititatea of Moaes and the
•enke* ct a Jodcan pieat woold natnnllj be grasped at
Bat what m nmaikaUa ia that, baring got the Fentatench,
tlwTlblknraditwithaSdditjta loTalandezactaa the Jem
theraaelTea, htb in the one matter of the cliange erf the
eanetaary. Ko conoewions vere made to heathenism or to
the old lax Jehorah-wonhip ; (be text of the sacred book
■waa faanamitted with aa moch eoaadentianBaesB as was
1 b; Jewiiih acribes in tlie first oentories after
I aad even from the numlling witoeas of th6ir
MMnuaa the Jews we can ^ther that they fulfilled all
ri^tMMUOMas with scrapnlooa panetilionaDeea so far as the
letter of the wiittea law waa eoncemed, though of conrao
tbqr did not shaie in the kter de*ek>pmeota t^ the onl law,
•ad aa were heretics in the ejies of Um Huuiseeo.*
That it was poeuble to establish laeh a commnnitj on
ani^ a soil is a rem«rfcable evidence that ia that age the
ncytot
ikot confined
alaborata hierociBciea spnng np after the fall of the old
nktiooalitiee in many parts of western Aua (comp. Priest,
ToL ziz. p. 729). At the same tims it mnst be remembered
tbat, aa Kna wtaid not have oucceedBd withoat Nehemiah,
Wanainnh had SanbaUat's riril anthorit; to hack him. It
ia prafaaUe, too^ that Joaephus is right in asanming that he
waa rtm^theiMd hj a MMimderable saceaqion of Jadsaoi,
a&dit ia ao( to be sappoaed that the "Bamaritons" erer
•oibNoed aajthing lik« tb« wfaok pi^mlation of the
SMBBritaa eoontty. Bamaria itself was HaUeoind in the
tune of AkiaiKlar; and in Ecelns. L 26 the foolish people
that dwall at Bhechem are distingoished from the mhab-
itMita <d the Samaritan hlU-countrj in gBQetaL* The
fVimaiifann, like the Jews, throve and multiplied imdsr the
dimpliiie d the law, bnt at no time in thsir history do the;
^■pear to have had the political importance that would
hmn aecraed to so eloaely knit a religious body if it hod
held aU the fertile Baouiitan district.
Jcrwa and Samaritana were sepaiated by bitter jealonsiei
Mid open fends (Joa, AnL, xIl 4, 1), but their internal
develiqMBeot asd axtenal hiilory lan doaely parsllel
OOnt»«itfllflteJ«wish stale took a pew departure under the
, , . IB PenUtmclt
It la not at SMtTM to bg »DDdered it that Uu
■ oo tk« wImIs si^ntor to tb* Buuritu, for tlu
1 BO eppbrtuBHy at nvUng Hair tut bf Jidmi
amsritan chuaetv b so Indaptnduit danlopmtnt o:
tb* old Bilmvw vritt^ st it wu sbont th* Um« «bai tfae^ Bnt go'
tk* FMtatMcL lUa In Itnir b u Indkalioa Ihst flam Ua fin
id thsl tlMn VM no opportEiilty of
It into It by nfi "- — '
it m a nant* eoBiH ndth
I Mnopttoas that bid get in
aa. Ia JndB sin than win
to ttiM oC ths aqitsagfiit ud i
OHM Hk Sqita^nt nadlnp ^n* with th*
■fciinliil SB sBnl^ batmn tb* loanM of
If good Incik
m th* «hal* OB* of ■ ilBgiibriTsood'^pe.
n had opportnnttT to do sajtUsg of tid* kind.
■ lAul, iL 8, 7} Hji thsr nettni JndHu
kI ot ittaU InvgikrittMi, bat, M b* iikb tb*t Um ta^UTM pne
i^HB *»'«> Ihsj ««• tOi^j HBHitiiil, It ii pliin "■■* (ran tbb iiartlr—
mMtc Ad aot iwtm tg imrmtat tlMm h inMnoit to liti
lafcidioj. Ho doobt, la tddltioD to the lagil ordiniuicai, th*
fciiMrttuw rstiliiid now andaiit trsdidonil pnctlHi, M the;
MMnKkstsoB*p«SD]brfMtu«(,DDior which, tie., thoiippUaUoa
It n> Siistliibl blood to th* bu* at ths cUldno, hu u u '
^^* Is ^ dd AnUo 'b)4& Bh ths suoDnt of an ajs-wltt
(Piet Beda) la Buds'! PaMiiu.
* BasBOntklOB. TIm oU L*tla nlatttalM Hoont Idem ;
ItriiMlM "OM,' wkbh BU7 niND IM a a* Vtnilt* ooutrf,
Maocabeea. The Teligioas reaemblanee between the two
bodies waa incrased by the adoption of the institntion of
the synagogue, and from the synagogue there certainly grew
up a Samaritan theology and an ezegetical tradition. The
latter ia embodied in the Samaritan Targnm or Aramtuc
m of the Pentateuch, wiJch in its present form is,
according to N51deke'e inveetigations, not earlier than tho
fourth Qiristian century, bnt in general agtees with the
reading* of Origen's tA iajiapitTiKor. For the dogmatio
views of the Samsritans our soorcea are all late; they
embrace hymns and other books of little general interest,
and mainly at least of medt«tal origin. Like the Jews,
toOjtheBsinaritanshadahaggada; indeed the Arabic books
thoy still poseess under the name of chronicles are olmoet
entirely haggadic fable with very little admiitnre of true
tradition. The teceat date of all this litetatare seems to
show that the old Samarifons had not nearly so vigorous
an intellectual life as the Jaws, though what life they had
moved in similar lines ■ indeed, having no sacred book
bat the Pentateuch, and having passed throu^ no inch
national revival as that of the Maccabees, they lacked two
of the most potent inBuences that shaped the development
of Judaism. On the other hand, they shared with the Jews
the inSuence of a third great intellectual stimtlltis, that <rf
HeUenism. Samaritans se well as Jews were carried to
Egypt by Ptolemy Logi ; the rivalry of the two sects "waa
continued in Alexandria (Jos., Ant., xiL 1, 1), and Helten-
ized Samaritans wrote histories and epic poems in Qreek
with exactly the seme patriotic mendacity which charao-
terizca Jewish Hellenism. Of this, the oldest larTiviDg
Samaritan literature, soma fragments have been preserved
in the remains of Alexander Polyhistor,*
The troubles that tell on the Jevrs for their fidelity to
the law, under Antiochua Epiphanes, were not escaped
by the Samaritans (3 Mac v. 23, *L 2) ; the acconnt in
Josephns (Ant., xii. 5, C) which mnkee them Toluntohly
exchange their religion for the worship of the Grecian Zeus
is certamly a malignant falsehood.*
Under the Haccatieee their relations with Judna became
very Utter, and they were severely chastised by Hyrconus,
who desb^Ted their templeL Hostilities between the two
nations recnned from time to time ; and in the New Testa-
ment, in Joeephus, and in Jewish tradition we see how
deepeeftted was their mntnaJ abhorrwice.* Bu^ with ell
thii^ the sects were too nearly alike not to have much in
common. The Roman yoke galled both in the same way ;
the Samaritan false prophet whose movement Pilate put
down with cruel slaughter {Jos., Ani., xriiL 4, 1), and pro.
bably also Simon Magus and Dositheus (Grig., Cont.
(Mm., L p. 44), are paiallsl phenomena to the false Measiaha
that arose among the Jews. The original views of the
Samaritans were like those of the Saddoceee, and they did
not believe in a reanrrection or a Messiah; but it waa
impossible for their faith to survive nnder the cruel pres-
sure of for^gn bondage without absorbing something from
Jewish eschatology. And so too, in the stmggle of the
Jews with YeepaeiaD, perhaps also in that wiu Qadrian,
the Samaritans forgot their old fend, and took part against
the Bomans. They seem also to have shared in great
measure in the subsequent dispersion, for in later times we
hear of Samaritans and Samaritan synagogues not only
in Egypt bnt in Borne, and in other ports of the empire.
• Bea aipHJinr PiledUiidir, Sdlaiittlidu SbOin (187B), p. 82 tq.
An Kgyptio-SunuiUn fngment bs* *1k> bsss nupKttd by EnLI
to ba Imbaddad In th* SOyllHia, iL SSV-XU.
> Baa Appal, QaBitfniM 4* RA— SuMKIaiionM, 1871, p. B7 tq.
■ Joaaphu call* tham CnthHoi (from 3 Klnp irll. 10), ud will
not idmit that tbsr an of Habnw blmd at all ; the RabUu oM th*
aama naina, bnt an npt alwaji ao podttva In eallicg (bam para Oan-
tUai. Tb* gnmndki* aaoniUlDB of dora-warahlp (whlah puk« tbalr
nllglaa that of Oa SgrrtsB Aphndttsl woaa U pcat-Udmla Uidm.
MS
S A M — S A M
TOe Ofarutim smpenn made hud edicts against them h
well aa the Jeira, and at length ezclnded them from the
public service. TTnder tbeee circometances they natnrallj
came to be muDly traders and merclmatB' derlu ; in Con-
stantinople "a Samaritan " meaot "a baoker's clerk." In
their old homes they still remained noiaeroaa enough to
mftka a seriooa insurraction under Jostinian (S29 A.D.).
Bi mppresBioD was followed by very atero decrees against
the whole sect, and Europe beard little more of tha
Bimarituu till, towards the close of the 16th centnry,
iWestem scholars took an inlerest in the fowcongr^atioDa
that atill remuned in the East, at C^ro and D&mascns as
,<well as at NAbolos. It was {ound that dtuing the Middle
jLgea Ihay had formed an Aiabic litemtore of considerable
(ue bat of little intrinsic worth, and had eontiDaed faith-
ftilly to preeerre their scriptures. Bince then their nnin-
Ixn ha*a been constantly on the wane, and they have
abnost lost thdr old learning, which wbs never Teiy
eonsideTable.
AMMrilm Liltralun.—Ot thfa ■ fsU ■ccoont (■ glTen, slong
wttb ■ ikatch oF Suiuritui Uttarj, in tbt inttvduction to ITuttt
fhtnualt if a Eamaribm Targum |]8741. The following litt
emifiiwi itwir to what baa been prinMd. (a) Thi Hebrew-
fisuuritsn PflntLtBDuh, i.f.. tha Habrew tsxt in BismiHsn recan-
iioa and chanctar, vu first printed In tlio Fuii pclyglott. On
tba natnTfl of this racanalon, lafl Goaaniiu, De i^iU. Sam, oriffiiu,
kc (ISIS).' A lilt of Tsristioa* from tba HsawreCic tait ii giT«n
by Patarmuin, Bebr. Fomunltkn uaA dtr Aiue^racht der
Samaritwitr (18AS). (i) Tirgam, alio In tha Fuia and London
polralotd, but in ftrj oompt fbtm. A critical edition of tha
whok ii atill lukins ; tha bait text at put Ii that given by Kntt
from a Bodlaian HB. Tla dialtet, apart from tha comptlooa of
tba tact, diSaiB littU famn othar Palartiuian Amnaic. {e) Annnic
baTingbaan supplaDtad In Palasdna by Anbia, an Aistdo varsion
of tba Fanlateiiiai waa mads by AbA Satd about 1100 A.n. Tha
fliat thraa books hsva ben edited bj Eiwnan (IBCl-M), On thia
Aiabio ohionicle Hring down to Bomsn timei, bnt of slmoat no
hiitorical naa. It rosy dsta from tba ISdi oantniy. Jnniboll
edited it in ISie ftom a Lef dan HB.; Uun sie other H9a la tha
Britiah Mmonm and in Tnnity CoUega, Oambridga. (<) Another
abort chnnicla, El-TolidDtb, pobliahad by Kaabaaer In Jour. At.
(laOB), atemi to have uaed the Jewiah .Soot q^ JiiMiwt. Both (if)
and (c) >rith gome other eooma wan ttaad by— (^ Tha Chronicle
oi Abolfath, written in 1SG6. aoJ continoed by hitec handi \ edited
by Yilniar[aotha,1886). (a) A collBrtion of hjmiu waa pnbliihsd
i_n >„,„__,_- k -..-^ \«n\ Other llturefcal piaoea
by Oaaaniss (Oirmfsa Soi
bave baan ptibliahad bj B
wrldo^ oi
aliod by fi«ldake ii
Silt, ef. tU.\3sjT»^a
Omut tumv- Leida, IMS: amI. M ROim Stmartiaatnm taHmfrit
mmmmptrmtik. 6* at) liaiMii la a» MnllamtxtrtlU, lU. {U»Kta
Iki ame^iataaea ol Ik* Baiuriuiu vUh Iiavraaa ickolan. aad ellier muoU
JUHa. veL L (ISMA, Ita H^rtil^ arMnal it Ite SmnttiM n Da a>^,
armLJr.ifLt. OtkvWalanlaRiKait niT<a%>» I«'»^'"'<1°1*
la Bamrni^ "•- •"■ (W.B.A)
SAMARKAlfD, a dty of Gentnl Asia, anciently Mar-
eamla, the capital of Bi^;diana, then the residence of the
B&mAnida, and snbseqnently the capital of Timur, is now
chief town of the Zerafshan district of the Bossian domin-
iona. It lies in a richly callivated region, 186 miles sonth-
west of Tashkend, and 14G miles east of Bokhara, in 39' 39'
N. lat and 67' 17' B. long., 2150 feet above the sea, in
the Tsllay of the Zerafshan, at the pcdnt where it issnes
from the extreme western spars of the 'nan-Shan before
enterioK the steppee of Bokhara. The Zimafshan now
flows iSiont three or fonr miles to the north of the city,
RPplying its extensive gardens with water.
U^canda, a great city, whose walls had a compass ol
90 stadia, was destroyed by Alexander the Qreat It re-
appears as Samarkand at the time of the conquests of the
Arabs, when it wes finally redaeed by Kolaiba ibn Uoslim
m B3 *.B. <71 1-712 a.d.). Underthe SimAnids it became
a brilliant seat of Aialnan cirilitatios. Its schools, its
Mvanta, were indely lenownstl ; H was so pc^ndova that,
wbeo besieged by Jenghis Khan in 1S19, it i« reported to
,yGooglc
8 A M— S A M
247
. d 1>r thna itoriii of mmU ramiu, Mdi harlng
onlj DBS nniing — tbg door. Tbt tiugiitlc bnildu^i uo now
aanlf the dmUingi of mollah^ wlio lira im tb* nrmiaiB ot tbt
WdU ludi at XatW-knrgui.
Tlu aidl»g< of Bldi-dw (bnilt In 1001] t>kH lb Dime from tha
Im lion^ « imllwr Ogiia, ngvnd oa tlw top o( i(a doomT, which
ia ridJj dflontsd with grMn, bine, r«d, md vhita azumelliid
biicki. It ia th* nuwt ipuiooj of tho three, uid 128 molUha
inlulBt iti M ■FUtmmU. The Tilln-kui (''dri:$H<d in pM"),
hailt 1b lelS, lui M ramcm. Bnt the mort nnowued at the thne
mtdnnh* ta that of Dlng-bBg, hoilt in 1420 or I4S1, hj Timnr,
the prndanA of the gmt coaqneroi. It l» enuller tliui tha othen,
hot It WM to Itl echool of nuthenutia and aatniianif that flamar-
r kind owed ita vida ranon in tha 15th nntarj.
A winding itnat nmoin^ north-vaat from the Rigfairtap Icada to
amaeli kigar tqnan haraig the Dollage of Bibi-khanym or '^-
• •' "" -■-—-- ■■ — li, and a iktn ■
w gnna of Tiiuu'i wItm on the aoiitb, u
■ wife of
ia rel^oa. The Uau
B nached by fort^ mai
._» ihdbnd. ._ , .
•Cadonti. It coren a laiga ana, and haa thn« moaqaaa oonnected
ij a qoadtangiilar baHdinj oontuaing the itndanta roonu. The
•Rhwar uid towui of ita fi«ada Bi« anuUered bj Tamb^ ai a
modal tn audi boUding^ and lla dacanlion* raakt tb« dntnictiTa
i"*™—*— ' alika of tim« and of nun. On* of lla uoiqiMi atill
niiei iti high bolbad dome abora tha optai wiUa, whldi an falling
into nUn% aiid now pn aacommodatian to tha carta and U>a baou
gf tiadati In eotlan. Tha loft; niiiu of tha giaia of Tfanni'a wiTci
na nallf gnuKL
To tba Dcnih, ontaida tha walla of Bamarhand, bat do** at hand,
la tha Haarsli Bhah-Zindah— tha anamsr-palao* of Timar; and
■ear thia ia the mit of Sbah-Zindah, or, mora precdaelT, Kotham
iba al-'Abb^ iba 'Abd al-Uottalib, a lamaaa conijonion'of tba
FRi|iliat Thia waaalnadf afamonaihrlaa in tha lltn (xnCnr/ (Ibn
Batata, liLSa); it iabaliaTcd that tba laintitililiT--"^
and will ooa day rial for tha daT
Shah-Ziudsh eovati a wide area i
itipa. A aerita of gallaria and Tooma lead to tha hall
itlksoftha aaint. Ha deoontioB of tba iularior halla ia marTaUoaa.
Anethar atnat inniiing aoath-waat from tbe Blgbiitan leada
to tha Onr-Emir — the graTa of Timnr. Thia conaiati of a chapel
oovnad with an elegant dome, enclosed b; a wall and fronteil by
u uchwaf . Time and earthqukes hare ^natl^ injured thia fine
Imildiiig; on* of the minaiat* la already in luina. The Interior
conaiata of two apaiteiantB parad with white marble, the walla
bainB eoTsnd with elegant turquoiaa anbaaqaea and inicriptioni
in gold. Tba obief room ia of great beant;, and ita decoiationa, ot
a bddai atjla than tha othar^ an in strict hanuony with tba iia-
neirion it ia deaigncd to prodoca. A laiga pTTamida.1 piece of jade
Broken into two ooTan tha graTaot Timor, nichbas by ita aide that
efhiataacbar, HirSeid Bariia, and lho*« tfasrenl mciabenof bia
familT, all aneloaad by a marble tailing. A dark an J nurew flight
of it^ leads down to tha cirpt, alw ornamented with arabeaouea,
where tha gtarea an placed ia Uie aama order as in tha upper naU.
The dbtdet i* aitnaled on the west ot the city, npon a bill whoaa
alaep alonaa nudar It one of tha atrongeat in Centnl Asia. Ita
wills, BOOO yaida In dicuit and about 10 feet high, encloaa a ipaca
of alaat 4 aqnire miles. It contained the palace of the emir of
Bokhan,-~4 Tnlgar modem boildiDg now tr&n&rarmed into a hoa-
pital,-HUad the andience hall of Timoi, — a long nirrow court, lur-
atana 10 feat long, 1 faat bnad, ai
1 ii f«t
Mitly the
1 by bia nnmetooa vixala ; from
oiniii of Bokhata alao wan wont to diipanaa their terrible jnatico.
9T baildis jia — heapa of plain and eoaiDcllcil brick),
aeco-Baotnan coins hare been found — corer a wide
11 anrand the present dty, and eniecially on the west and
north. The nuaa of Aphroeiab la naaallr given to theae ruina,
which aitend for nearly three utlee to the weitward of tha praKtit
Bnaaian town ; this aaburb of Samarkand wae encloeed by a wall,
the inina of which can be tncsd for aeran or eight mila. Fire
milea to tha sonth-weatot Samarkand ia the collage KhodjiAkrar;
Ita Dowai omamantatioa in enamelled brick ia one of Iha most
btkDtifal of Samarkand. Eve ia now grown in ita conrti, and Its
' n ia going to ruin. To the north- iiorth-eaat
„ Hill*, the chict of which haa on ita aammit
ir PolTan. On tha right bank of the Zersfebui
;■ the Tillage of Dehbid, peopled by deecenduiti oF Mahkdam
m (died in 1E12). who powa* a beautiful klania (monutcry),
~^etty aTannaa of tnea pUnted by Koir Dlyaboghi ia !«M.
Ihe bmooa Bif^tchi-naran (the garden of plaie trees), only
a* of ita palaoe now mark ita former position ; the trea hare
or tha Omco-Armeoian library aaid to bare been
amarkand by Timur no traeea hare baan diaaorared,
unbiry Tagatd* th* whole legend aa a bhle inreuted by
ArmsBUaa. Ivary tnos of Oe noowned bigb adiool KaUndsr-
khany hu alao diaappaHld.
an tb* Tcbspan-ito Hill*, tl
th* giBTa of Daniai " '
Btandathe
tc3
The pnaant Hoalan idty ti an Intricate labyrinth o
winding atmata, bsTing on both aid*) day walla concut
conrt-yvrda and miaerabla honaea. Tha population wia t
at Se,000 in 1870 ; it conaiata of Tajiks tlnaiani] and
Dibegi. The Eoropuni aumbared 5360, Some idO Jov
a aeparate quarter, remarkable for ita filth. Numbers i
Paisana, Afghans, Hindus, Kiptchlks, and Ttigena (Gipsicsj uiu^
be met with m the atrsets. The chief occupation oF tho inhabitaats
ia prdeningi the gardana beyond the walli are oitensiie and vtry
well kept. There ia also a certain unoDUt of maaufacturing in-
dnatry ; the workehopa, which are amall, aro thua enumoiali^J by
U. Xoatanko :— for malallia wane, la ; for tallow and acip, 31 ;
tanneries, 30; potteries, 37; for TUioQs tiesaes, 216. TLoea for
dyeing and the mimilactara of hameia, booti, and ailvar and gold
waree are alia nomaroua. Tha but hameas, omamcutcd witli
tnrqnoiaca, and the finer prod acta of the goldttaith'e art, ore
imported bom Bokhara or Afghanlatan. Tha producta of local
potteries an Tary fine.
Tba baaan of Samarkand, the chief of which ia in the centre of
the town, doae by the fiighiitan, ire more animitcd and kept with
moch greater claanlineaa than thoaa of Taahkcnd or ^aman^u.
The tnde carried on by local or Bokbat* uierclmnta ia very bruk,
the chief itema being cotton, tilk, wheat and rice, hcraes, asses,
jhlits, and cutlery. Wheat, rico, and allk are exported clucfiy to
Bokhara ; cotton to Bania, via Tadikead. Silk-wares aod eiccl-
lant truita an imported from Shahri-Syabs, and reck-ialt from
Hiaaar. (P. A. K.)
PAMPALPtTR, or Sitiibiiijvob, 4 Britiah district in tbo
chiof-commissionerBliip of tho Central Froriacea of India,
between 21* 3' uid 21° 07' N. lat and between 63' IC
aiid^4* 21' E. long. ExclnaiTa of attached native states
by which it is surrounded, Sombolpur contains in area
of 4S31 square miles. Inclnding the native aUtes, it is
botinded on the north hj Chutia Kagpur, on the cast and
south by Cuttack district, Bengal, and on the west by tbo
Bilaspur and Raipur diatricta. The UahAnadi, which ia
the only important river in the district, flows through it,,
dividing it into nneqool parts. The greater portion of
Bambalpur is an tindulating plain, with ranges of rugged
bills ^un^ing in every direction, the largest of which ia tho
Bortl Fah&r, a mountain chain covering an area of 3S0
square miles, and attaining at Dibrfgarh a height of 2267
feet above the plain, "rhe Hahiuadi affords means of
water cominunicatioD for 90 miles ; its principal tributaries
in Sambolpur are the lb, Edd, and JhirtL To the west
ot the Mahinadi the district ia well cultivated. The soil
of tha district Is.geDcrslly light and sandy. It is occupied
for tho greater part by crystalline metamotphic rocks ; but
port of the noith-west comer is composed of sandstone,
limestone, and sbale. 0<M dust and diamonds have been
fonnd near HfrokhudA or Diamond Island, at the janctiou
of the lb and MahinadL The climate of Sambalpur ia
considered very tmhealthy ; its average tempeiaturo ia 79°,
and its average annua! rainfall is 6Sj inches.
Thee
popnUtit
nd SlS.eSO females). Hiuilua
lodana 2968. Tha only town
>n eioeeding 5000 ie Sahdai,
tion of 693,199 (3Je,5i
ibcml 632,747 and
Mohamr " ~ ",
idminietrntivu
Lbabitanta, aituated in 31° 2V ID"
. lat. and 31' 1' E. long., on tha north bank ot tho MahdnodL It
u much improved aince IBBl, when a cart could only with great
itficulty piss tbrongh the main street. 0( tho total etei of tho
strict 1125 square mila are cultivated, and of tho portion lying
i an culttvabla. Eice forma the alaple crop ; other pro-
food gnuna, oil-seeds, cotton, and eu^-caue. Tha niauu-
laciurei are few and of no great vilna. Tha gross revenoo in 1SS3-
84 waa £22,413, tot which the laod contributed £11,383.
Bambalpur lapsed to the Britieh in 181S, who immediately
adoptad a ayatem of exactiou and confiscation by raisiug tho
revenue anesBmanta one-fourth aud rrtuming the land grants,
leligioua >and othen. Gnat dieaatinf action waa tbo couecquoncc,
ana the Brahmana, who fonn a nimiarous and powerful community,
made an appeal, bnt obtainod no redress. In 1831 a second land
asttlement again raised the aiaeasmenta arerywben one-fourth.
This ayatem of siaction produced ita natural results. On the
outbreak ot the mutiny in 1837 a general tiaing of tha chiefs took
plsce, and it wi* not until the final irrest of Suniidn Si, a cbiet
who fbr soms yean had boan ths eansa of gnat diatnrbanoea, in
I8S1 that tranqnfllity wtt n«tot«d; dace Qttn O* dirtdet bai
n^oyed profoand paw*, ' ~'" " 0'~
A M N I T E S
SAUNITE^ a pec^ of uieieiit Italr, whow nuoe
flgaiM toot^eifiaay in th« tuir liistofj (A Borne. "Ousj
ooeaned u extenain tract in Om centn of the peninmla,
vfakJi denrod from thsm tlie name of Samninia. The
tenitny thus deu^iutad wm b irboUj iokod diertrict,
homkled on the uortli by the Marsi, Feligoi, and Fren-
tani, who ujnrated them from the Adriatic, on thft eait
t^ Apulia, on the eoath bj Lncania, and on the went
t^ Oampania and Latinm. Bnt the SaninitBa ware from
an early period a nnmeiona and powerful nation, and
focmed rather a confedttaey of tribea than a einglo
people. Henoe the name i> sometimMi uaed in a wider
■omelimet in a more limited Muaa, — the Hirpini, eape-
oially, irtio ooonined the Mtnthemmoat portion of their
kingniAed from I
B included amongst tiiem, i
Bnt acctHding to t
BzcLudintr tha Frentai
wnal aooeptation of the term — excluding
wbcs thon^ nnqoeatioDably of Samnite origin, i
omally ngsrded M belon^ng Ui tha &mnit« nation —
tha^ conaiiitad of thrae principal Mbea ; — the Caraceni in
the north, the Fentri, who may be termed the Bamnitea
proper, in the centn^ and Uie 'Eirpini in the south.
Almoat the whole ot Bamninm, aa thus defined, was a
rugged, monntoinou country, and, though the Apenninea
do not in this part of thur range attain to bd great an
elevation aa farther north, they form irregular maeees and
gronpa, filling up almost the whole territor;, and in great
part covered with eztenaiTe torceta. Cu the aide of
Campania alone tha valley of the Tultuinna was richer
and more fertile, and opened a natnral acceea from the
Bouth into the northern regicna of Somnium, while tha
Calor, a tribntary ot the same river, which flowa from the
eaat past Beneventot afforded in all agea a similar route
into the upland districts of tiie Hirpini. Between the
\ini, occnpying the centre of the Fentrian tniritory and
the very heart of Bamoiam, waa the great mountain mass
V)w known as the Hants Hateee, of which the highest
Uimmit attains to an elevation of 6600 fee^ and which
must in all agea have been a region pteaaiting peculiar
difGcuities of acceea.
All ancient writers agree in repreaenting the 8<unnit«a
aa a people of Sabine origin, who migrated at an early
period to the region of which we find them in the occupo-
i^oa when tbej first appear in history. The period of
WB emigration is wholly unknown, but, if we can trust
the tradition teporte4 by Bbabo, that it waa the reaidt cd
a vow to send forth tbe produce of a "sacred spring" (see
jixoEB), it eonld hardly have been in the fint instance
very nnmarona, and it ia probable that the invaden estab-
lished thomselvea in the midst of an Oacan population,
with whom they gradually ooaleiced. It ia certain that
no very long interval alapMd befon the Samnitea in their
ton foQDd themselvea exceeding the raaonicea of their
banen and ragged territory, and extending their dominion
over the more fertilp and accessible redone b7 which they
were snrrounded. Hie firat of theae mevements was pro-
bttbly that by which they occupied the land of the
Freutani, a fertile district along the shores of the Adriatic,
JMtween the northern part of Hamninm and the sea. The
Hirpini also were in Uie first instance almoat certainly a
later offshoot of the CMitral Bamnite people, though they
continued always inr each close eonuexion with them that
they were generally reckoned aa forming part of the
Samnite oonfederocy, and almost uniformly took part with
the moM central tribes in their wars against Bome. The
nrentani, on the contrary, generalij either stood aloof from
the cmitest or seemed their 'Own aafe^ by an alliance
with Borne.
To a later period belong tha emigratitma that gave rise
to At two fowed nl tutltona of tlw Iincanian» wd Q*a-
paniana. At the time when the Oreek oolooiea war*
established in aotUhem Italy the native tribes that oecn-
pied the regions to the sooth of fUmni'itm were the
(Enotrians and other Pelas^ races, and it was not till
after the middle of the Cth centnry &o. that the preasnre
of the Lucanians from the interior began to make itself
felt in thia quarter. From this rime they gredoally
extended their power throughont the whole oountiy to the
Qulf of Tarentum and the Sicilian Btroita. It was pro-
bably at a somewhat eoj-lier period (about 440 to 430
B-o.) that they effected the conquest of the fertile oonntij
to the wcBt, intervening between the mountain regions of
Bamniun. and the sea. Here they found an Oacan popnlfr-
tioD, with whom thsy seem to- have speedily coalesced,
and thus gavB rise to the people known thenceforth aa
Campaniana, or "inhabitants of the pUin." Bnt in this
case also the new nationality thus constituted had no
political connexion wit^ the jiarent state, and retained its
independent action both for peace and war. The fitat
mention of the Banmites themselves in Roman bistor;
occurs in 3S4, when they condnded a treaty of oUianoe
with the rising republic
Bnt it was not long before tha conrse of events biongtit
the two rival powera into coUidon. Tba Bamnites, who
appear to have been atill actuated by aggreeaive tenden-
cies, had attacked tha Bididni, a petty tnbe to the north
of Cbmpania, and the latter, feeling unable to cope with
■0 powerful an adversary, invoked the asaistonce of the
Campanians. Iliefle, however, were in their turn attacked
by the Bomnitea, and sustained so cmshing a defea^ nnder
the very walla of Capua, that they were compiled to
implore the aid of Bome. Ilieir reqneat was granted,
thongh not without beaitation, and thus begM (in
343) the first of the long series of the Samnite Wai^
which ultimately led to the establishment of the Boman
domination Qver the whole of southern Italy. The events
of theae wars, which are related in all histories of Bom<^
con only be very briefly noticed here. The first conteat'.
was of ahort duration; and after two campugns thel^
Bomana were willing not only to eouclude peace with
Bamninm but to renew the previously existing alliance, to
which the SemnitM continued futhful throughout tha
great atmggle which ensued between the Bomana and the
allied Campanians and Latins. The Second Bamnite War
was of a very different character. Both nations felt that
it was a stzoggle for supremacy, and, instead of being
bronght to a dose within three years, it lasted for more
than twenty years (326-304), and was marked with
considerable vidssitudes of fortune, among which tha
celebrated disaster of the Candine Fwks (331) stands
most conspicnoua. Kor was the struggle confined to ths
two luttJing powers, many of the neighbouring nations
esponnug the cause of the one ude or the other, and often
with fluctuating faith, in accordance with the varying
fortunes of the war. Hie reanl^ however, was on the
whole favourable to the Bf man anna, notwithstanding
which they were willing to conclude peace in 304, on con-
dition of the renewal of the previoosly existing alliance.
This interval of tranquillity was of short duration, and
little more than five years elapsed between the end of the
Second Samnite War and the commeacement of the Hiird
(298). In thia freah content they received • formidable
auxiliaiy in a large body of Qauls, who had recently
crossed the Alps, and, together with their oonntrymen tlia
Beuonei^ eapoiued the canae of the Samnites against Bom& '
Their combined forces were, however, defeated in the grMit
battR (rf Sentinum (394), and after eeveral'suocessive cam-
paigns the consul M. Cunus Dentatns waa able to boast of
having pnt an end to the Bamnite Wan (390), after they
bod tasted more thou fifty yean. It is trae that a few
S A M — S A M
249
Poortb fWmnite Ww u eiven bj tome hLibirians to tbe
incDionible eoQtent whicli, commenced in 282 by the Ln-
cuniiuiB, aiBUmed a whoUj differaat iii-i>ect vhsQ PjirhoB,
king of Epinbs appotred in ft&Ij ai their tuiliuj. Bnt
tbe poircr of tha Uamnitsa iraa eTideallj broken, and after
ttie final defeat pf Pjrrhni thej appear to harp offered
little rMUtance. Their final Bubmiaaion ma made in 272,
:uid acccmling to the 'aiiiial Roman policy wu ■ecomd bj
tbs entabliiibmont in theii territory of the two important
tolonien of £iemia and Beneventum.
)Wtn of hiMilili
d PnniB War,
SDH thfl fnniuDC
S Iba lint ot tbe
Tbs Hiqilni m
,«lan in fBToar of Hatinibi] iher tbs bUtlo of
raiiDB (US); bat tboir sninpls wu not fatlovnd bj ths more
jDwrtul trib" of tlw Pnntri, enH whm HuiniW wm Smllj
drixB oat oTOntnl ItMij the Sunnilct nn ipmlilT rednnd to
ubmiMOD. Fniu thi* tims m hear so mors of tiiem 01] the
linat oitbmk erf tlia lulbn luttani, eominonly knowu me the
!<o.i«l W«r (BO), in vtalcb tlief ban m jmiminBnt pirt. Two
of tho Bu>>t diitlngobbad of tb* Iteliui l«dsn, C Fanlui
Uolilu ud C. Pontiui Talaeinoi, w«n of SimDiCa birtb, mU
liter tlw b]l of CorBQluin tlis Simoite tolm ot Borlxnum beumo
Ihi tomvoTA/T spital of the confadtfrfttca. Tbair lubmistioD had
Dot inilnd Wn eomnletrd whan Iha dril vu bctwocn Uiiiii
•iJ RalU gtn a frwh obanictBr to Iha contat Tbe Haidnitei
wunlr esiKHUHi tha anH of the former, end it wu the defut of
ll.>ir lender C. PoDtiai Teleainui at Iha CoIIIds Gats of Rome tbit
■enrcd ths rlclorj of BaDa and iMled the fata of tho C;iiun[ta
utioo (B3). Dot contant with patt[u|; all bii Saninila [>ruoncra
to tha nord, the rotblaa connneror orgaiiLied a ayititnatin daTH-
UtioD of tha wholi muntry. with the STOwed obji^ct ot eilirTatiDB
he! pnrposo ex. . _
m«n than ■ bnndnd toih iftenwdi, in (bo lime of Strebo, tha
■holo'coanti? li lioKnbod u being iu a ilato of ntlar dewlation,
AonrltfhlDf towoa boing rpdoocd to mcTv villigf^s wbiJa olhera liad
illsgctfaer oaiMd to aiiit Nor dsai it appear pmbabla that it
lutie to niTiTa ita jiroapority hj the aitabliBbmcnt of Komtn
iHiloDioi within [U llmita, none of thou atUinoJ to anj importanco.
]iruTiuM tlLToqghoQt the ffmtn ]art of the Roman empire, and is
■till feand in Cuaiodonia. But nndcr tho Lonibird nils tha
irhalt of tbti part of Italr wu included in the duchy of nonercnlo,
hO ottb* Idrnbard klaRdom In the uortb of luly. Uuriag tlie
melDtiou- ot tha UidJIs Ags» all tracs of Iha nam* U loel : end,
tlioDgh it wa> rarlnil in the laat Maturr u the oOicid dm^etiou
sfaput ot ths ngion oomprlecd within tho incieul limila, pn-
riouAj kn^iwn aa the (Jontodo di Moliae. thii wna a mere pioca ot
aBdal pvJantiT, and the uamo hu again dluppcnred from tha
nodaiw nrnpa of Italy.
Vary fgir town* of importutM exiitsd et any parlod within tho
lunlta of Snmnlum, and many of thou msntionsd in biitotr bad
diAppauod in tha ooptiniul wan with which Iho oonntry wu
t*™»d. TTie only naniaa that am worthy of »poci*l nodoo aw—
Anfidana, in tho nortli, tha capital of thi' Ouupni, thp mini of
which (till exist a tow miles 6tnn Caatol di SanRTo ; BoTianum
(<till eallad Bt^ano), the aneioDt apital ot tho Fcntri, in tha heart
ot Kontr Hatno ; SaepLnnm (Sepino), in the ntna naighboarhnod ;
Assmia, In tha Tallei of tha VultDmiv, itUl known *a Iicniia ;
Aqnilonin {liaeedognaj, in Iho land of tho Uirpini'. nsir the frontier
of ApiUB ; and Compu (Cods), oa tho borders of Laeanla, near
tbo KKiroM of the Anfldoa. liensventam alone bu rabtnod Ita
apcient oonaldanitlon u well u oama, an adTantage which it
derina from Its positlan on tho Via Appla, commanding the
snbvnoB to the mountain district of the HirpinL
The Ungoaga of tha Bamnitas, like that ot tbslr pannti tha
Babina^ mnrt elearly bars been cloulf related to Chat of tbo
Oscan^ and tha two nationalitioi apiwar to haTa amalRsmsted so
madtly tliat before tli* hletorictl period there wu probably little
itiiTcicnca in thil niepect Setrnl ot tbo most important ot the
lniieri|itioBa that romaia to a* haTa be<n found within the liioiU
of the Samnlte torrilory, and may bo eoniidoted u Babello-OMsn
la their rbaraotar, rather than pnnly Oecau. Sea for these the
srticlu It*i,» and Latih Luiodiox. {E, e. B.)
SAMOA. Bee Navuiatohs' ]ai.AKDe.
SAMOS^ one of the principal and moat fertile of the
ialanda in the MffM Sea that cloaely adjoin the mainland
of Au UtQor, from wliich it ia ieparat«d by a ttnut of
only about a mih io widtlL It ii about ST nule* in
length, by about 14 in its greAteet brtodth, and is occupied
thrcnghont the gie«ter part of itt extent by a range of
monntainn, of whlcb the highest mmmit^ near ita ircetem
extremity, called Mount Eerkii, Attains to the height of
4T20 feet. Thia lange is in fact ft continuation ot that of
Uoont Uycale on tha mainland, ct which tbs promontory
of Trogilium, immediately oppoaile to Ae city ot Samoa,
formed tbe extreme point. Various mythical legends were
enrteot to accomit for the iviginal settlement of tbe city of
Samo^ and to connect its fonndera with the Qre«k heroic
genealogies ; but the earliest record that has any claim to
on bistoricoi character ia that of the occupation of the
iahtnd by a colony of Ionian settlers nnder a leader named
rroclea, at the time of the groat Ionian emigration to Asia
Minor (about lOSO e.g.). In tbe historical period Samoa
figures as a purely Ionic city, and was one of the most in-
flaentUl members of the Ionic eocfcdetacy. In the Sve
centariea that interrened from its first settlement to the
reign of Foiyeratea^ Bamce had rapidly attained to a great
height of power and prosperity, had founded colonies at
Perinthos and other places on the Fropontis, aa well as at
Nagidus and Celenderis io Cilicia, and possessed a powerful
navy, including according to TBucydides (L 13), tbe first
triremes that erer were constructsd. It was a Samiao
named Cblmna alao who woe the first Greek that Teotured
to penetrate between the Pillars of Hercnlaa into tho ocean
beyond, and brought back a rasi amount of wealth from
these preTioualy unknown regions (Herod., It. 152).
Samoa waa doubtless protected by its ineolar position
from conquest by tbe Pdtsiaa general Harpsgns ; nor did
it follow tbe example of tbe two other great islands of
Cbioe and Laibos by voluntary submission to the Persian
monarch. On tho contrary, it not only preserved ita
independence for a period of more than twenty years
longer, but It was precisely in thia interval that it rose to
the highest pitch of power and prosperity under the
enlightened and abl^ thoogh tyrannical, government of
the despot Polycbatbb (g.*.). Under bis government
Samoa liecama " the first of all dties Hellenic (»* barbaric,"
and was adorned with three of the greatest public works
that had aver been executed by Greeks — an aqneduct
tunnelled through a mountain for a length of T stadia, a
mole of more than 3 stadia ia length for the protection of
tbe harbour, and a temple [ttiat of Hera) exceeding all
others in use. How far these great works belong to tha
time of FolycratcB cannot be determined with cratainty;
but there is little doubt that they were eolorged and com-
pleted, if not coQuneneed, under bia goremmenL He waa
also the first to lay claim to the sovereignty of the Mgeaa
Sea, or thalassocraty, which at that time there was none to
dispute with him.
After tbe death of Polycratea (623 B.a) Bamoe fell
imder the power of his brother Syloeon, who eetablisbcd
himself in tbe sovereignty with the support of a Peisiao
army, but this revolution was not accomplished without a
nmssacie of the citizen];, which must have given a heavy
blow to the prosperity of tbe island. Henceforth it con-
tinued to be tributary to Persia till the great battle of
Mycalo (4B0), which not only freed the S^iaus from the
Persian yoke, but became tbe bc^ning of a fresh era ot
great prosperity, during which they, like the neighbouring
Chians aod Lesbians, were admitted as membM^ of the
Athenian confederacy, on free and equal tonus, without
payment of tribute. An abrupt torminatioD wo^ however,
pnt to this slate of things in 439, when, the Samians
having given offence to the Athenians, their city was
besieged and taken by Peridea, who compelled them to
raze their fortifications, to give up their ahips of war, to
furaisbho«taaee,aDdtopaytheezpeDsesofthewar. From
XII - 3"
'-' ■■' " O"
250
8 A M — S A M
thta time tberefon Bmqim becune a mere depeudeai^ of
Atheiu, and continued in thu eabordinate conditioii
throngbont the Peloponneaian War ; but atiei tha victory
of the Spartaiu at ^gospotami, the citj mia besieged and
taken hj LTeandcr (40i), and aa nenol an oligarchj was
set up nnder Spartan controL Olhet revolationa, however,
qnicklf followed. The victory of Coaon at Coidus in 394
reeloted the democraey, bat the peace of Antalcidas shortl;
aftenrards (38T) placed the istand under the gOTerameot
of a Peroan satiap, and thus exposed it to the attacks of
the Atheniani, who Mnt an expedition against it under
nmothens, one of their ablest generals, who after a siege
of alsren montha rednced the whole uland and took the
capital city. A large port of the inhabiCaots were expelled,
and their place supplied hj Athenian emigrants (36G).
From this time we hear bat little of Samoe. It poAsed
withoat reeijtance ander the yoke of Alexander the Great,
and retained a position of nominal autonomy under his
saccessoiB, though piacticallj dependent, sometimes on the
kiags of Egypt, sometime! on Uioee of Syria. After the
defeat of Antiochas the Qreat at the battle of Magnesia
(190), it passed with thereet of Ionia to the kiogs of Per-
garanm, but, having in an evil hour eepoased the caose of
the pretender ArietoniDui, it was deprived of its freedom,
and was united with the Boman province of Asia (129).
Heacefwth it of course held only a subordinate position,
but it ■eeroa to have alyaye continned to be a Sourisbing
and opulent city. We find it selected by Antony as the
headquarters of bis fleet, and the place where he spent his
laat winter with Cleopatra, and a few years later it became
the winter quarter* of Augustus (21-20), who in return
restored its nominal freedom. lU autonomy, however, as
in many other caaea under the Roman empire, was of a
very Aiictnating and uncertain character, and after 70 A.D.
it lapsed into the ordinary condition of a Roman provincial
town. Its coin^ however, attest its continned importance
during more than two oentnries, and it was even able to
contest with Smyrna and Epheeiu the proud title of the
" first city of Ionia." It still figures prominently in the de-
scription of the Byzantine empire by Constantine Porphyro-
geuitos, but little is known of it during the Middle Ages.
DuiDg tls Greek War of Indcpendsnc* fi«n« bon ■ coupics-
eOB put, ud it wu is tho itnit bttveeu th« iaknd end Uouot
Ujnls mat Cuurii uh<ov*d one of hii mort celabntMl aiplolt*
t^ Kttlag in to uid bloniog np i TDikiib higste, {n tbe pmencs
otttui arnivthAt bad besn UHuiblsd (or As Invinon of the iiUnd,
a ancoM* tliet led to the abuidoDDwnt of tka mtaisriaa, and Ekmoi
htld Its Dwn to the verr end el the war. On tb* oondiudan of
inaoB thi Island mi iodnd aoaln tended over to the Turks, but
•inc* 183t bu held an simtliniallj ■dvaDttOMiu podMon, beioR
la bat meU-encmti, thoi^ tiibntai7 to theTnikish ampin, uid
nled br a uroak govamor noodaatad by tb* Porte, who bear* the
title of "Princs of Sunoi,'' bat is sapportad and cootnllad hj ■
Greek eooDcil and MMmbly. Hw prdswity of Ilia iilud bun
witnaH b> tba wisdom of thiiiuTaogamant It now oonbuns a popa-
UtloD .of above 40,000 ishabituitB, and its tnda bu luldly ia-
craaaad. Its priueipal uticU of export [■ lb wina, which was
Tbo sndont capital,
ntuited on -'
o( Mycale,
artiGcial port,
^. . . r]uch boi
on the loath cout, directlj oppoalte to tbe promontorr
le, tbo town ilielf BdjoioiDg ttui aea lud hsinag a Urge
port, the remaim of which an itill viiible, es are iba
walla Uut (arroDoded Che tammit of ■ hill wbich risu
immediatalj above it, and now bean the name of AAmiita. This
fbtnisd the acnpolii of the snciaDt city, which in Ita flannahlng
times occDpiad a wide eitent, covering the aloMS of Moout Ampdna
down to the ahon. From tbance a road led dinct to the fai-luned
templa orH(ra(Jano), whicbwaa atnntoddoae to tbe ahore, wheni
its aile la (till marked br a single calomii, bnt aven that benft of
ill eapitsL Thia miianbla nvgnm^ which has gJviD to the
ncightMoriDg headUnd tbe nam* of Capo Colonna, la all that
[cmaini ol the temple tbst «u aitoUed bj Herodi
lai-geat he had ever as«D, and
oeUbrilr with that of Pl»ii» j
Artemli, the goddeag
diSarsDt divinuy fratn
a wonbjnp
)ll«a bv He
>d ia aplendo
m. But, Uka t
I raeUy a
poraly Onik elttsa, lad was mqneatloiwbly fn tbs first Instaaos a
natin Ajiatio deity, who wu ideatiflad, on what cnnnda «■ know
□ot, with tlia Han of tbe Olympic mjtholon. Her image, at wa
learn tnm coins, mack naomblad that of tte Ephealui gnddni
and wu eqmlly remote from any Qmek oonoaptlai of tb* beanU^
and atit*ly Hera. Thoegh ao littla of tba temple lemalni, Ola {ilea
of It hai been aacsrtain^ and !!■ dimanidons tiwad folly to vaii^
the auertion of Herodotai, u compared with all other Gnak tam-
pla eiUing in hla time, tbough It wu afterwardj ampauad by
the later tampls St Ephnoi.
Tbe modernnpital of the
about in
ta of the ]
.oa the caratL, ._ ..».. .._._ „
J, ^ _.._, jn the north eoaa^ which
haa become the reaidanoa of the princo and the aeat of govarpTaaut
□e« town bu grown ap, will built and paved, with a eoa-
E barbonr, and already nnmben a popntatno of 0000;
celebnted in ancient Umca u the Urth-idiea of
bo, however, apent tbe greater part of hla life at a
■■' " '"^V" ^^ name and (gun an toniid
arialdaf" '"^ "'"" '^ — '~
1 nceat period, at ■
aaa, and the aarao
lent city ; but alna* the change in
the capital ba* b« ■
[ythignna, w
on coins of the dty of Imparia . _. . .
the biatory ol art, having prodnced in early times a eebool ot
scnlptora, commencing with Kbiecna and Tbeodom^ who an aaid
oa in bnnie, ai
re of the
iasu
ited tbo art of castiiig (tit
inUoduced many other technical unnroi
Bhscoa also, who built the tamplo of Hen, *ai
iaUnd. At a later i»riod Samoa wu noted for
of a particular kind of red earthenware, ao mncb valued by the
Bomana for domestic purpoaea that apccimcna of it genarallj ocGor
vberaver then are nmaini of Boman aattleineota
MUiFtad br Punnia (ffn ammltrmit. BhUo, W— ' •-■ ' ■-•■— -^ "^
Wind, u II tiLiUd In kU Ume. vU be Cwif la
tro. Fiil^ 1TI7), ud men wml •eamnu la Ibi
OritcMicim Ju<r^ tdL L, SnHtan. ua) ase < . ,
ISM), <t.ri.B^
SAHOTHKACB was the anient name d an island io
the northern part of the iBgean Sea, nearly opporite'to
the mouth of the Eebrus, acid lying north ci Imbroa and
north-east of Lemnos. It is still called BamoUiraki, and
though of smalt extent is, next to Mount Athoa, by far the
most important natural feature in this part of the fgesn,
fram its great elevation — the group (^ mountains which
occupies (umoat the whole island rising to the height cl
5210 feet The highest summit, named by Pliny Saoc^
ia eatimated by him at en elevation of 10 Roman miles.
Its conspicuous character is attaated by a well-kuown
passage in the Hiad (zilL 12), where the poet reprceenta
Poseidon as taking poet on this lofty summit to survey
from tbenoe the plain of Troy and the oonlest between
the Qreeks and the Trojaue. This mountainoos chancier
and the abeence of any tolerable harbour — Plinj, in
enumerating the islands of the .£ge«D, calla it " impcatnoa-
issima omnium" — prevented it from ever attaining to
any political importance, but it enjoyed great celel«i^
from its connexion with Uie worship of the Cixai (q.t.), a
mysterious triad of divinities, concerning whom very little
is really known, bnt who appear, like all the oimilai
deities venerated in different parts of Greece, to have been
a remnant of a previously existing Pelas^ mythok^,
wholly distinct from that of the Qreeka. Herodotus
exprnely telle us that the " orgies " which were oelebiated
at Samothrace were derived from the Pelaa^aoa (iL 01).
These mysteries, and tbe other sacred rites connected there-
with, appear to have attracted a large number of visitor^
and thus imparted to the island a degree of importance
which it wcnld not otherwise have attained, lie only
occasion on which its name ia mentioned in hiatocy ia
during the expedition of Xerxes (b-o. 4801, whNi the Samo-
thnicians sent a contingent to t^e Peman fleet, one ship
of which bore a conspicuous port in the battle of Salamia
(Herod., viii. 90). But the i^nd appean to have always
eijoyed the advantage (^ autonomy, probably oo Mcoont
of it* sacred character, and even in the tame of Hiny it
ranked as a free state. Bach was still the repntatkn of its
mysteries that Oermanicus endeavonnd to visit the island,
bnt WU driven ofl by advene winds (Tac, Jtw., iL H).
■ 0"~
8 A U — B A M
n to tan * Ultol Sanwthnun till the
■l hj Coiug, who pabliihod u
Delglihourinji liUntli, la IMO.
Hd MMiMn tnTtua iiwm
pw IKSS, wbra it wu lillj oplorad hj Coiug, who pabliihod
tasOBt of It, H Willi u tba larger Delglihourinji liUuli, la im
Tliit uannl citj, of whlcb thu rniu an c*ll«I f ■lupoli, *m ultu-
•lad OS Uo north nila of tbo idud clno to tbn n ; tti niCo li
dculy DWikoil, ud coubbinbta ismalni atill eiiat of tbo ancient
nlli^ shkh WHO liUt Id uudi* Cyclonran itjlji, but do rndfiis
an fiMUid of timida or other psbllo baildiDgi. Tho modaro lil-
^ ti on flw Ull aboTb Tba ialud a at the iircaaul da; nry
poor aid tUuIy paaiiled, and baa acamlj anj' tnde ; bat a con-
aidoable tprngc GihorT i* canied on around ilj coait* hf tnulan
from BnjTW (L'ou^ &la> mi/ in lanit, ia ThnkitAn Meera,
Banam, I8S0).
Tbo aJmilaritf of naiu* utnnllj lod to Iho aaptoaltlon that
Baaiothno* ma peopltd Inr a cotonjr from Boruai la loala, and
Ihii is itated ai an hiitoikal bet bj K>mi> Oroek writ«n, bat ia
t^iaeted by Straho, who eooddrn that in both cu« tba umo wu
dsiTrd liDm tbo {diyaial noformiUaii of ths ialands, Samoa btiiig
u old word bianj loA; haiht (Btnbo, i. t, p. 1&T). Tfau lams
cbuactarictk is fonwl <d Cepli*)1<n!a, which waa alia oallod Hainoo
m tho limo of Homer.
8AH0YEDES, a UnJ-Altaie Block, Mattered in mall
gnnipa orer aa untneiue area, from the Altai Uoontaiiu
dowa tbe banns of the Obi and Yoniaei, and along the
■hoRM of tho Atctie Oceon from the mouth of the latter
ri*er to the White Sea. They may be HabdivideJ into two
nMia gronpa. (A) Those inhibiting tlie louthem parts
cJ the goverameDtii of Tomsk and Yeniseisk baTO been so
mod ander Ikrtar ioflaence as to be with diiBcnlty
separated &om the Tartars ; th^ sob-groupa are the
Kamann Tartar^ the Kaibali, the Motora, the Beltirs,
the Karagassea, and the Bamoyedes of tbe middle ObL
(B) ^loae inbabiting tba labarctio region form three
separata enlvgrottpa :~(a) tie Yoraka in the coeat-regjon
tram tbe Yenieei to the White Sea ; (6) tbe l^Tgbi
Bamoyede^ between tbe Tenieei and the Kbatanga; (e)
the Oatiak Samojedee, intarnuogled with Oatiaks, to the
MUth of the others, in the foceit regiona of Tobolsk and
TauMuk. Their whole nnmber may be eatiinated at from
M,000 to 26,000.
lb* nopir t^ao* of tho flamor*!" among the TlTal-iltalana is
■■J dibenlt to datarmina. i» to thdr prownt biih, dgoifjlng
h Hi pnaant Koaian apoUlnE "aBlf-oatara,' many inganiou
thnus hara boon advuieod, bnt tba cprront ono, propoood by
Bdmak, who dariTad tha namo "Samo-ytdaa" tnDi "^loyadtay,
M *nw-aatan, ' Imvio mocb to be deaired. Paibapa tho s^mology
M^ to bg aongbt in quits anotber diroction, uamelT, in tlie llka-
BH to BamnL The names ammsd bj tba Samoyoda* thonwolTa
m VMnra and HjUiTii. The Oitiakt know them nndar tbs
BSBHs of Onkoy, or Woikbo, both of which null tho Ugrluia ;
tha SMM oTHDi is slao in BM among tha Oatiika, and that of
Tiira among tho Zyrisas.
Iba langnan bow apoken by tha Samojedea ia, like the Finniah
""gnip^ agglntinatiTB, bat in both leuma and gmmmu it diifan
so «lUy ttoa theao that ProC Ahlqiiit don not regard the aiml-
Mt* •■ naalw thin, tor instance, that batween Bwediah and
riWaiL Ifacb ramaina to ba done for tha atudy ot Samoyadlc,
hat it Hay bo rtgwdod as tha moot ramota coada of the Ilgriaa.
ItiaaaoMransipaochiplaaaaattathaaar. Ho fawar than thne
sapuats dialeola and a diuni sub-dialacta are known ia !t.
Tbo eoooloaioDS dodiudbla bom their anthropolocical (eatnrao—
opart from Uu gonaial dlffloolty of uriring at saTo ooncloiiana on
uii gnaad slrao, on soaoant o( tbo nriahUIly of tha atbnoloeleol
iro noognliod aa haTlng tho face
tnaa aadonbtodly FinnUi itocks ; thoir ayea are narrower, tbalr
conploion and hair daibev Znyoff deocribaa thorn sa Ilka tha
l^jWon^ with Oattoood nas^ thick Un Uttla beanl, and black,
JjOBfluObl; bat tbay are nadoobtedly diflarent Csatr^n
oonaUm thota as -a mixtoro of ITniana with Jlongellaiia, and H.
Zqpsf so braehyeoiihallo Voagelteno. QDabahge* claaei thatn,
IqMhar with tha Tognla, ■* two Bunillea of tba Ugrtaa lab-btaaoh,
tbk laa^ togatliir with tho Sabmia (Lanoaiana), formiair mrt of
tba Ufrtei or Bonal bruich oT tho njlow or Uongollc iwia.
It is esitaln that tbrmaily the Bamoyedea oocupied tbo Altai
iTomitBiu, whanoo they were driTsn noithwaida by Tares- Tartan
— ^ntably at tba time of the rlM of tha inpiie oT tbo Hana,
that k, bafiva Iho pioaaut eta. Their tiirthor and latar mlgimtion
towaida tha north may bo aaid to be nlng on alilL Thna, tha
KailaJa left tha Bayan Uonntaina and took »•--—<— -■ ■<■-
Abokaa stsf^ (Hlnnaiuak npon]^ ibandonad b]
in tbo earlier yean of last oentnry, snd In nortli uaitrru Rn^lj
the Zjrlana an idli driring tho Sunojoiloa titrlbsr uorlh, lovsnli
the iJctio coait Slnai Ebe mcircbn of Pcbnink it niay W i-uli-
aidena u acllied that hi biiloriml limex tbe Bamoyulca wtK
iabibiUnti of tlio K-call«i Ul-Kb in the Hortlicm I rait, nhiiu
It woald roxult rnm U. Bntlloir. oitcuiilva rc^oanba tlint ll>o
1 oniTua cDQlalnlng nmaiiu of the Bmni* i'eriod whiub
._7 .i__.._i._. .,P... -- ,^ on tho Aiuf, ,^ --'
Yeuix
iW«,7si
a aa ITgro-SamoiiiJ™. Tlila nntlon, »ory ni
-which procodnl the Iron-reriod civllliatloi
wbicli ]>.-
Lrtan.^wen! pretty well aoqualntcd nitli mining ; tlie nuiaina
their minea, enniDtimce KO feet deop, and of tha furaacai wheic
^]y contraat
tliej were
gapona of a hard bronn, their |<d1> [one of xliicL ttDiiba It Jl
id ILcir niottod and iKjIisbcd lirunia lud golden dccumilo.
tntiryloahigh doTelopment of aitielic fKlinuaud in[lm.tria1 akill,
itraating with the low lovd reached by their eartlicu.
luia nnu aia eoii lo DO acen. Tbeykc[it botHn (tlicuah In small
nnmben), iheop, and goata, bnt no tncri of Ihoir rearing hornul
ealtlo biio yet been found. Tho Tiirkith iuTitlon of aouthcru
Siberia by tlie Tukna. Khogaaai, and UigDta, which took plaee iu
tbo fith centory, drove tbom farther north and jirolnbly rodueul
mining to thoir moalen.
At pnaent they an Jiappoiriuft and bavo jlmoat cKlinly
loat tlielr oitlier civlliiatian. IL FoTynkotT quite Hglitly obxcrve.
that the SamovedGa, who now maintain tlieniielvea bj hunlJnK end
flahing on tha lower QUI, partly miind ui the touth nilh OaLisks,
rreall tba condition of tim inhablUnts of Franco and Oerluanj at
tho BiKwh of tho reindeer. Clothed in tkiim, like Iho troslodjtea
of the Woaer, tliay make nae of the aame IniplcmentH in bone and
atone, eat camirorone animala— the wolf uicEuded — and cLetisb
the wino anperatitions (of which thoie rcgajding tho teeth o( tlie
tbe Stono-Poriod InhsbiUnti of wostem Europe. Their heape of
reindeer home and akuUe— memoriala of nlieioua cenmonin — in
aiBotly idmilar to thoae datingfrom tha limiUr period of ciiiliia-
known atone huta of tba bnniniaiu ; their gnTet an mere boioa
leain tha tuudn. Tha religion la foticbiam mucd witli ShamaDiim,
tba ahaman (Jffl^'f.M) being a nprtoentatire of tho groet divinity,
the Nmn. Thii Yalmsl peninaola, where they find so gwat fuililica
for hunting, ia espodaUy Tcaented by the Obi Oitlak «unayodca,
and there they haToone of their chief idoli, Ehcae, They an man
independent tlian the Oatlaki, Ina yielding in chuutar. although
as hoapitable as their neighboonL Beduced aUnoaC to elavery by
BnaaEan marcbantL sad bionghtto thaeitromeof miiery by theuio
of ardent spirits, they an diaappaaring npldly, >mall-poT comfilot-
Ingtheworkof deatraction. TheyitiQ nwlntnin the high atandard
of honeoty laantionsd by blatorloal documenta ; and, while tlie
Boaaiana plondar eren the etares of their abamatit, tbe Simoyedca
nerer wUl take anything left in the tnndn or abont tha hooaee by
thaii " drillied " noiihboara. Tho Ynnk Swnofedes an conrag-
oooB and wsrUks ; tbtj oSerad armed leaiatance to the Ruauan
inndera, and it la only since tha banning of the century lliat
theybaTOpald trlbnto. The exact nmuberi^ the Oitiok Soiooycdcg
is not known ; tha TsTgbi ^mojcdos may number abont 1000,
and tba Ynraks, mixed with the former, aro eatitnated at <000 in
Obdonk (about ISO settled), KWO hi European Buola (n tho
tnodras of the UauB, and (boat SCiO in Yanlaeiik.
Of the Knthem Suuoyedea, who an oomplelely Tortariied, tho
BaItin(W70hi leEB)UTS by sgricnltDnaDd cattle-hneding in tlie
Abakan Mappa. They prabm Christianity, and sneak a huignagg
closely Tsssmbling tliat of the bgai Tartars. The Kiibala, or
Koibala, can hardly ba diatbguiihed from tba Ulanehuk Tartan,
and Bupport thamaelTsa by rearing cattle. Caatr^a conaiden Ihit
three of their atoms an of Ostuk origin, tha muainder being
Samoyedic The Kuniaaint, in the Kanik district ot Ycniaeiik,
an either hardiman or agricoltariat*. Thoy (peak tho a^moyedo
Ungnage, with an adlmiitnn of Tartar worda, and soma of their
atama oonialn a btge Tart«- element The rery intereWang
Isngaista, fn the Savsn Hountaina, ia quite dia-
rejveaontatlTes of thia formerly much mon
. . rapidly loaing their anthropological festarra,
their Taikiah langnage, and their diatinctiTe dreoa. The Hoton
gnled to China and waa then eitenninated ; the nmainder hans
dlnppearad among the Tuba Tartan and the Soyotca. The
Bamoyedea on tbe Obi in Tomak may nnmber about 7000 ; thoy
ban adoptwl tha Rnaiian manner of life, hat hare difflcnlty in
carrying on agricalture, and an a porerty-atricken population with
little proapeot of holding thdr own.
SAMPIERDABEyA (popnUtioum 1681, 19,601 J. Seo
QnoA, joLx.jf. 167.
252
1 A M — S A M
SAMSON (HebMW, ShtBuhdn), the great eaemj of the
niilistinet, ia reckoned w one of the judges of Isniel in
two editorial notes which beloeg to the chronolo^cal
tcheme of the book of Jadgee (iv. 20, xvi. 31) ; but bla
Btoiy itself, which is e pelt-contained narrative b; a single
hand (Jod. liil 3-16, 31a}, repneents him not as a jnd^
bat u R popnlar hero ot Toet strength and iiarcastic
hnmonr, who has indeed been consecrated from his birth
w the deliverer of Israel, and is not unaware of his voca-
tion, bnt who jet is inspired bj no serious religions or
patriotie p^rpOBe^ and becomes the enemy of the Philistines
onlj from personal motives of revenge^ the one paauon
which is stronger in him than the love of women. Id hia
life, and etiU more in bis death, he inflicts great injury
on the oppredsoTs of Luoel, but he is never the head of
a national nprising against them, nor do the IsraeliteB
receive an; real deliverance at his hands. The story of
his eiptoits ie plainly taken from the mouths of the people,
and one ie tempted to coqjectnre that originally hia
Nasarite vow was conceived simply as a vow of revenge,
which b the meaning it woold have in an Arab story.
Onr nanator, however, conceives his life as a sort of
prelode to the work of Batd {liiL S), and brings oat its
religioDB and national significance io this respect in the
opening scene (ch. ziii.), which is closely pamllel to the
story of Qideon, and ia the tngic close {ch. zvL) ; while
jet the character of Samson, who generally is quite for-
fetfnl of his mission, ramune much as it hod been shaped
m rade popuUf tale in a circle which, like Samson him-
self, was bnt dinly conscious of the natioaal and religiooe
vocation of Isra^
The name of Samson (SAamtAdn, of which the Hasao-
retic ShimtU» is a more modem pronunciation, and later
than the LXX., who write So^i^niv) means "solar," bnt
neither the name nor the story lends any solid support to
Steinth^'s fantastic idea that the hero is a solar myth
(compare Wellhansen-Bleek, p. 19G). He is a member of
an undoubtedly historical family of those Danites who had
their standing camp near Zorah, not far from the FhiliiitinB
border, before they moved north and seized Laish (compare
xiii. 25 with xviii. 8, 11, 12). The family of Manoah had
an hereditary Bepulchr« at Zonih, where Samson was said
to lie (ivL 31), and their name continued to be associated
with Zorah even after the exile, when it appears that the
Uanabethitee of Zorah were reckoned as Calibbiteo, The
name had remained though the race changed (1 Chron. ii.
52, 54). One of Samson's chief exploits is associated with
a rock called from its shape "the Asa's Jawbone," from
which sprang a fonntain c^ed En-hakkore, " the spring of
the partridge," and these names have influenced the form
in which the exploit is told. The nartatire of Samson's
marriage and riddle is of peculiar interest as a record of
manners ; specially noteworthy is the custom of the wife
remaining with her parents after marriage (cf. Qen. iL 24).
SAMUEL (78'DP, BhSmfiSl),' a seer and "judge" of
Israel in the time of tiie Philistine oppression. His history,
as told in the first book of Samuel (compare I^alm zcii.
6 ; Ecolns. zlvi. 13 iq,), is too familiar to call for repetition
here, and a critical estimate of his place in Hebrew history
has been ^ven in Issail, vol xiiL p. 403. There remain,
however, one or two points of detail which may be noticed
here. Hia birthpUce was Bamab, or, as it is called in the
Hebrew text of 1 Sam. L 1, Ha-Ramathum (Bamethem,
I Uocc XL 34 i Arimathiea, Mat xzviL 57) ; the identity
'"niulsoMoftnobMnr. elan of pnpn niuiiBi (VkMB, ^yn.
ar. ), (ht udogr ot which ueiDi to txdads tha Idu that It li ■oftsaed
tnia ^ttyiDP, "luardor OoO." It hudi lathar to mcaa " naip* of
n," i.)., "muilfutstlonaf Ood'a pownorwUl." Comparatha titia
™ ua of Bsal," gtrtm la Artirts on tb* apllsph ol
ot the two names id mpported by (ho Septnngint, mHA
has Arimathoim for Raniah in several patHOges. Bamab,
which appears in 1 Kings iv. IT as a stronghold on the
frontier of the kingdom! of Kphraim and Judah, ij< probably
identical witli the modem El-lUm, about 5 miloa OMth of
Jemsalem, on a hill on the eaitt pide of the main rood to
Shechem and the north. Itamoh wod alM the place where
Samuel usually resided in hia lator days, and from which
he made a yearly circuit through a very limited district in
the immediate neighbourhood, "judging Israel" (1 Sam.
vii. 16). None of the cities which he visited is more than
a few miles from Ramah. Bamah, according to 1 Sam. L 1
(where the text is to be corrected by the Septnagint), was
a town in the district of Znph, belonging to the tribe of
Ephraim (comp. 1 Sam. ix. 5 and 1 Sam. x. 2, where tho
grave of Rachel lies on the frontier between Ephnum and
Benjamin ; a different localization is given in Qen. luv.
1 9, 20, unless the identification of Bethlehem and EphratU
there is a lator gtoss).
The original text of 1 Sam. i. 1 does not seem to saj
explicitly that Samael's father was an Ephrathito (i-c,
of the tribe of Ephraim), thongh hia city was Ephrathite ;
aod 1 ChroQ. vL 28, 33 [vi 13, 18] makes him a Levilo,
apparently because a poet-ezile family of siogen traced
their stock from him. The old accountd certainly repre-
sent Samael even as a child ia doing priestly service at
Shilob, girt with the epbod and wearing the priestly robe
(m/U, E. V. "coat," 1 Sam. ii. 18 <;.), but at that early
date priesthood was by no means confined to Levites,
and ^e storj certainly implies that it was not by birth
but only by his mother's vow that he was dedicated to
the service of the sauctnaij. On Samuel's relation to tba
prophets, see voL xix. p. 616. Compare also BainnEi,
Books or.
SAMUEL, BoOKB or. The Hebrew Book of Somoel,
like the Hebrew Book of Kings, is in modem Kbles
divided into two books, after the Septnagint and Vulgate,
whose four books of " kingdoms " answer to the Hebrew
books of -Bamnel and Kings. The connexion between the
books of Samuel and Kings has been spoken of in the
article Emas {q.v.). These two books, together with
Judges, are mode np of a series of extracts and abstracts
from various sources worked over from time to time by
successive editors, and freely handled by copyists down to
a comparatively late date, as the variations between the
Hebrew text and the Septnagint show. The main redac-
tion of Jndgea and Kings has plainly been made nnder
the influence of the ideas of the book of Deuteronomy,
and it was io connexion with this redaction that the
history from the accession of Solomon onwards was
marked off as a sepanite book (see Kmaa). In Samnol
the Deuteronomistic hand is much lesa prominent, but in
I Sam. vii. 2-4, and in the speech of Sunuel, ch. xii., ila
choraetoristic pragmatism is clearly recognizable; the
oatnre of the old narrative did not invito frequent inser-
tions of this kind tbroughont the story. So, too, the
chronological syatom which runs through Judges and
Kings is not completely carried out in Samuel, thongh its
influence can be traced (1 Sam. iv. 18, viL 2 ziiL 1 iq.,
ixviL 7, 2 Sam. ii 10 *;., v. 4 sj,). In 1 Sam. xiii. I,
in the note " SanI was years old when he became
king and leigned [two] years over Israel" (lacking in
LXX.), one of the numbers bos been left blank and the
other has been falaelj filled up by a mere error of the
text ; the similar note in 2 Sam. iL 10 seems also to have
been filled up at random ; it controdicta' and disturbs the
contozt Bnt, though the book of Samnol has bean much
less systomatically edited than Kings, unsystematic addi-
tions to and modifications of the oldest norrativea were
made from time to time on a very consideraUe atit, and ,
8 A N — S A N
ia ttkboo^ tfib Jndm ws sot •ddon Sod two uoonnbi
<d the HUM enota whieh not oiil:^ di^ ^ iateH bat
^unly an «( ftiy diSemt date.
Hm book u a «k^ mej be dhided into thiM nuun
tMitiMa:— (1) Scm^<mdSam:,l fiom. L-iiv.; (3) Tkt
rite amd kimgdtm <if SaM, I Sun. xv.-S Bom. tul; <3)
ne ptrmm^ kidorf </ DanitB cno-t otJenualtBi (mainlj
from k BDgla •oomv iiUcb alio inohide* 1 Kings L, ii), 2
Sun. ix.-2z. FiiuUr, the wwdiz, 3 Bun. zzL-zxiT.,
mint h»e bcHi added after um book of King* had been
OMMBted from the eontext to wfakih 1 Singe L, ii. origin-
al^ bekmged. As the greater part of the book of Saunel
is oecd^ed with Ae iMory <d David, which has been die-
coaeed U length in Ue article, and with that of SaBtnel
and Saul, the chirf pranta ot which ban beeo eriticallj
t^""^ in Oe article Isuxit a to; brief naamd of the
coetanla of cadi of the main sections mnit hen anffiee.
L Th(rtoi7af8aiinnl'BUxth,aMiMentlonladwMnlnaftha
l>i!tBMyitahaok,iDdpcopli««eaJlleg(lfltm. L-iiL) oiDnoeti
UmU tluoagli lb* HDBhMn of till iwwtiaa of tk* boon of EU
Oil. 11 if.) with lU UMon of flu duutn ef Ibumo and tb*
CBptinaiidiMtontMnortba«rii(iT. 1-Til. ]]. Bqt tha naond
ot Oan two MCtbos don Bot M«a to lun b«D oriciiuilT writlaa
■aak*naaillocl»pi.i.-iiL; in itwslcn il^tof Buniul udliii
pmnlwcr ahuHtlHr. Tli* wu at Huub (U. l-JO) and tb*
BTwlMcreimiantdninHaiorOadta ST-M) uo latar inentioiw
(■M WomwMM-BhHb XM, f SOT).
a*^ TiL, with it^DwrimBomiMia intnKlaetkn (TOW »-4) and
Itaaoooaataf avktonat Bbawnrltba •onntsriHrt of On debet
In ohuL It.) whlab ddlnnd Imol ftom tii* FhilirtinM duiig
■Q llu dap et Bund, ia iuoMidrtlot niOi tb* podtion of tha
FUbatiDa poMT at tba tosaarioD «f Sral nia abaptai is it*
pnamt bnn onat bs lat^ ttoo^ haidljr poet-axiliB, aad it li the
tha WSJ is wbiali Banl eeaw to tb* kln^on (cbapi nil, x. 17-
STittL). ltiboiildbeuote',howBT«T, tbat,tbaaghBamBaliatakan
bw tb* bin namtor to bsTa a wid^nad anlboilt)', iDaOMJitaiit
witb tb* beta dladoaad la tba old*r nunttra of tha aboio* of Sanl,
^ qihanangnad to bin in rlL Id, tfia Tai; namw and igraea
Witb eban Ii.
Ot tba ba^aabw of tho kin^p of Saol we ban a twoTold
a«oaat,tbaaldwGaiBBtliatlnli.l-x.lS,iL The nlatln ralna
lOhateii iiii inula bii liiiiiii iliimlj llu iiiaiil In Ihkail, toL xiii.
blML Tboakl(thiatotTiB£antiniiedlacbapa,xiiL.iiT., but bora
zUL T»-U-« doablatta eflh* eocaout of tba imUon oT Saul in
ebKf, xiv.^a oartainlj hnSgi. to tb* original oontait. Tba
■BBBaiT of Saafl anilaits in xiv. 17 •(- la wiittati by in admirar,
wriio appian to aaoiib* to Um aoma of Ssrld'a nctoriea. Bat
tUa d«* not afltet A» Tabu of tha pcaMUos mora datiUed
nanstiTo, n^dh ia ^ainlj baaad on a foil and anthastlo tiadiUoa.
II. niaaeeoQnt A tha eanpelgn^batAnialak [Btm.gr.) doaa
BOt aMnlr aapi^T dstaib HipplHiiBntaijp to xt*. M bat pati
the war with Am ia onita a dllbcaat lifdit bv Istiju ibt ebiat
might on Baal'* diaabadianea to Saainl and tejacnoa 1^ tba
propbat. nuafaaeasabeloaelTaUiodtolSanLHTm. I-S5,mkb,
boimar, la no pait of tb* original 1107 of Saol'a dahat and death,
a> aroaua br oanpaiisg tba poaition of tba two annie* In nriiL
4andxiiK.L CEa^ xv^ in Hi- ' •-*■' -"-i— '
part ot tb« namtiTa ot DsTJd'i
In Uha nunoer, ia probablf no origtaial
iTJd'i rise, to which it now fwini tha
part ot tb« nanitiT
tntrodiwtion, and b
pBOrur, tdL i1£ p, SlS). Tbo anointing ot DsTid (ctI
tHM^poaa* diap. If., and li eoosiatoDt with what (ollowi odIt
u we n^on that dia inT"*"ii of Samael'* act wai not Duduaload
sttbattB*. Tb*ddetbi
Idn«ab^wH (ndktad by
Idn^iabip ww (ndidad by a dlnna one
DB b> pbea Oa pndktirai ao eaclr (1 &
T. S compaiad Mth 1 Sam. xrii. &, xn:
ra and sntriad dkephetd lad (aa in diap.
ztL) wban b* Tolonteeta lo maat Oolistb. In the Hdirew teit
tha cootndktlin batwean tha two aeeonnta ii abaolota, bat the
flmitnadnf anit* niL tS-U, »iL U-zriiL fi, which greatly
lann^lt don not aatiidy ramove tha dlfiealtr .' Tho riaa ot
Saol'i Moa^ Hf^"^ Dmd (zriii MO) and tba open bnach
between fliam, w^Darid'* flight ftom tha oonrt [lii., Ti.), an Terr
ooofinadtnbiHahlaw tan. Borne aerhma dilRcnltu* an eanaped
br IbllowiDg the Beftaaght re
t£« ia a good deal of oonforioi
B»e David, voL
of dot • ■
raoondon, but othav lemaln, aait
' n alao In tho aooonnt* ot Uavid'i
with Achiah (utIL). FordataiLi
SSa f. The namliva ia laigely mada up
._! ! — .1 — j^^ dlYBTgtnt
roL tL p. SSa I
anaodotaL and ...__.„._.
ted m s alngta inddoat liia la dear aa KBuria the
* David'ijMenai^ to Saul (udv., ixH) aad atiU
>« tha LXX omit* oaa of two panllol anaodota (eee
aoconnt dwt purhatja he nvaa of
'"■ - ■ — •.--■^^doni'-''^— ^■- -
■DDi* dear whan th
David, iiC npm), while the nni
tlu twolold nanativ* of DavU'i aijdit tram Saul and of hie batjdpg
bimeatt to Acbiib. At Ibe ea
le than ia anfidant eoDnaion
to allow that the dooblottea and addtttona era etntog on aa at%l>al
thn«l of oantinDoaa hiatocy— s bieton of David, wliiiji heeomia
mora IVe* tnm bmiga accratioaa at tba point when tba ootlaw
B* BoqniTea, throngfa tb* death of Banl, a poaition of con-
inportanca. fiaul'a defeat and death (1 8am. nvUi. ],
ra related aa part <rf tbe bialoiy ot David, wbieb nuatu
point with Ilttl* aridon of odilorial additiinM to lb*
mandlng importance.
%'^)«*
tram thia pL .._
doae of S Sam. v. The nuliDiary aoconnt ot David'a
gDvanment in > Bam. viiL appaan to b* the eonliunation Of tba
aam* docnniant ; dupft vi and vlL, on tba other bud, aaMn to
have an independent saaraa.
III. Tha liiAuT ot Datld'a eoait, s vivid p
Ucb mint be lefttnd In aolatanoa ft not ii
Id DJotara tf «
IKIngaiLwitbvatTUttlaBv. . .-^
great appendix, t SaaL ziL-xziv., and ia tbrM^wat oa* of lb*
SKMt admirsUa ramalne of anolant biatoijr.
Tbe appendix ia made npof rariona piaea%—diap. zilv. sppeaiinjl
to attMh Uaalf dinetly to lii 1-11, wbfla xxL IE a. la Ain in
atnoet to ziliL Sq. ; tba twapoam^ obu. iiiL(IWiBXTilL)aBd
iiilL 1-7, bavi no i^alion to {be oontaxt •* tba w« caa oely ay
ofttannthatttwywaniooacitedai Dsridle at tba ttna-wsiMor
lo tba DwitaroBomiitia ladaetlea— rtaa tbe »i--.n.~~ natter
of tba aniendli waa ineorpotatad with our book.
JjMUi rWi^iMukM aai t« •UMvM w aeUee ^Oe^liw aaAt •<
*— ■■ I*-- ■- M- "--f ■'rr -^^■Um?- If r. lltTI llim M li?l!inl lania
Su-u mi). Ola*rSirwB%*<ialkeeak)eetlk*ialu>nHn>a
SANAA (Bui'l), tha equtal of Yenun in AiaUa, and
seat ot the 'Inrkith goreraor ot Hat gooTinoe, ia Htoated
in 15- 23* N. Ltt and 44' 31' E. long., in a weU-watend
u^lnnd valle/, 4000 feet above the sea and six to nine
Dulia broad, rtuming north and aonlh Iwtween two titH»-
lands. Tha weetem table-laiid, over iriiidi lies the road
to tbe port of ^odAida on the Bad Sea, tista 1300 feet
above Uie town, tbe eeaten (J. No^om) ia some 300 teat
hi{^, and Clowned by tbe ndna of the fortnaa Birfafc,
which local tradition otnuMeta with tbe naow of Bbem,
son of Noah, to whom tha fmodatioo of tbe ct<7 is attri-
bated by HamdAn^ JadnO, p. 66. Under Hoout N^nn
in the vallw is tbe hill Qhomdin with tbe eitade^ wUdi
HaUvy in I6TO fonnd in niins. The ancient foAev of
Ohomdin, which ia oftao refened to by poets, and ia
deaetibed in extiannnt terma by later wTitet% is said to
proper, which is sniiled, ei
lo tne garden and rained palace of the im^n Uotawakkil
00 the west Beyond this is tha qnarter known a* Btr
al-'Asab^ where Uie imims bad their pleaitue ^idcoa,
adjoining which, to tbe soath, ia the ancient Jewish eettlo'
meut (KA' al-Tihtid). In Niebnhr'a time (1763) the two
last were open enborbe, but they have lince been walled
in. Thongh Sanaa ia a veiy old town, the earliest baildin^
now standing are perhape thoee which date from the
Torkiah occupation (1070-1630)— Mma moaqoes parts of
the fortifications, tbe aquedoct. In last cento^, under
tbe independent imAma of Yemen, aa tbe capital of the
coffee country and the most fertile ngion of Arabia, it
was, with ibi palacea and gBrdena, its moeqaee, caravanaerais,
and good private hotuei^ by much the first cilj of tbe
254
8 A N — S AN
Oe imima and duninuhed the proiperitj of their capital,
bat Crattandsn ia 1836 atill estimated ^le population at
40,000, or, with tho three neighbonring towna of Baada,
Jiii^ and Widj Dahr, at not lesa than 70,000. In 18T0,
when tha imamata bad been eztinct for twenty yean, and
the town waa goveroed by an elected iheLkh and liad loit
iti prorineea, Haldvy lonnd it mach decayed, with uany of
the paUcea and public buildings demolished ix used aa
qnaniDa, bat atiU praaentiag a comely aspect vith good
itrMte, hoaaes, and moeques. In 1872, having been hard
prened hy Uie Bedonins (or Bereral yean, Sanaa opened
ita gatea to the Turks, wlio were then en{>aged in the
reoonqnest of Yemen. In the following year Milliogen
•■timated the population at only 20,000.
"Blb climate is good, thongh the extreme dryness of the
wii ii trying. . Rain osnally falls in January and Jane^
and more copionsly in the and of July; the marketa are
well mpplied with grain and fruit; vineyards were
formerly numerous, but were largely given np after an
attack of vine disease some thirty years ago.
Aralria wrilm stra muij dEtooniaiit tnd fabnloiu tnditionB
about tke oldoit hiitoi7 ol Biou uid ita oonnoiioa with tba
■ocimt kiaodom of Himinr. Bat moM igrH tint ita oldnl Dsma
waa A^L which aMins to ba tiia anina vanl nith Ui&I In Geo. x.
ST. A Hinjuita nation or Anxalitaa ocean ia ■ Syriao writer of
the 8th oantoTT. Tbs battsr-iafarmed Anb writen kuew alio tint
the bur name i« due to tba Abyaainiio conqaerors of Yemeo,
and thut it msaat in thair Isngoage "fortiRed" (Bakil, p. SOS;
Naldake, OocIl d. Ptrt. «. Arab., p. IBT). Sanaa beeama tha
capital of tha Atnatinian Abnba [c tsO A.n.) nho hoilt bara tha
(kmooa churah (Katii), of whoaa aplandour tba Arata |[iT« eug-
garated pictnrea, and which was destroyed tiro centuries later by
order of tha caliph UanAi (AznkI, p. SI).
SJLSk'L Abnlm^d M^jdid b. Adam, commonly known
na the ^kfm or philoeopher Sani'I, the earliest among the
treat SAfic poets of Persia, was a native of Qhazna or
Obaiain (id the present Afghinist4n), and floniiihed in
the reigns of the Ohamawid snltAns Ibrihlm (1059-
1099, 451-493 ^b.), his son Uaa'iid (1099-1 114), and his
grandson BahrAmahih, who, after some years of desperate
struggle among membeta of his own family, ascended the
throne iu 1118 ^619 A.H.) and died after a long and
proapsroas reign m 11S2 (647 *.h.). The exact dates
of the poet's birth and death ai« uncertain, Persian autho-
rities caving the most conflicting statements. At any
rate, he most bavaibean bom in the beginning of the
second half of the 11^ century acd have died betv^n
1131 and 1150 (525 and 540 A.B.). He gained already
at an early age tne reputation of a very leaned and pious
man and of an accomplished minstnL Like his con-
Umporariee Hsa'dd b. Sa'd b. SalmAn (died 1131), ^asan
of Obania (died 1179), and Uthmtln Uukhtirf (died 1149
or 1159^ who was his master in the poetical art, he com-
posed ehlefly ^affdas in honoor of his sovereign and the
grut men of the realm, but a pecaliar incident made him
for ever abandon the highly remunerative although often
perilona career of a court-pan^jrist, and torn his
poetical aspirations to higher and less worldly aims. One
day, when he was proceeding to the royal palace to pre-
aent an encomiaatic song to Bultin Ibrdhim, he was taunted
by a half-mad bot witty jester, who propoeed a toast to
the poet's blindneas, because with all his learning and
piety ha had as yet only succeeded in flattering kings and
princes, who were mere mortals like himself, and entirely
misinterpreted Ck)d'B nwtive in creating him. Sani'l
was BO struck with the appropriateness of this satirical
remark that he forthwith gave np all the luxuries of
court-life, retired from die world, and devoted himself
after the due perfonuanoe of the pilgrimage exclusively
to devotboal exerdae^ pious meditations, and the com-
position of ^i&o poetiy in praise of the Godhead and the
diviiw nnity. For forty yeari he led a life of leUremeot
and poverty, and, altlionj^ Bnltin Bahrimiliili oSered
him not only a high position at court, but also hie own
sister in marriage^ he r&nslned faithful to the anstera
and BoUtary life he had chmen. But, portly to show hii
gratitude to Hxa king, partly to leave a lasting monn^
ment of his gecios behind him, that might act as a
stimulus to all disciples of the pantheistic creed, he begnn
to write his great donble-rhymed poem on ethics and
raligioos life, which has served as model to Farld-uddln
'Att&r'a i^d JalAI-oddin BfimTs Siifio masterpieces, the
fTaJikat^ut^kikat, or "Oarden of Truth" (also called
Altildb ai/atkri), iu ten cantos, dealing with the following
topics: — unity of llie Qodhaod, the divine word, the
excellence of the prophet, reason, knowledge and faith,
love, the soul, worlcUy occupation and inattention to higher
duties, stars and spheres and their symbolic Lore, friendu
and toes, separatiou from the world, ioi. One of Sau&Ts
earliest disciples, who wrote a preface te this work, 'Alf
al-Raff&, aliai Muhammed b. 'All Rakkftm, assigna to ita
composition the date 1131 (526 ^k,), which in a consider-
able number of copies appears as 1140 (635 A.B.), and
states besides that the poet died immediately after the
completion of his task. liow, Ban&'l cannot possibly
have died in 113], as another of his msthnawls, the
farii^i-tafykik, or " I^th to the Verification of Tmth," waa
composed, according to a chronogram in its kst vetses, in
1134 (528 i.XL), nor even in 1140, if be really wrote,
as the Ataahkada says, an el^y on tiie death of Amir
Mu'izri ; for this court-poet of Sultiin Banj^ lived till
1147 or lUS (542 a.h.). It seems, tberef<n«, that Takl
Kisbf, the moet accurate among Persian biographers, is
right after all in fixing Sao&'Cs death in 1150 (546 A.S.),
the more -so as 'All at-BaffA himself distinctly saya in his
preface that the poet breathed his last on the llth of
Sba'b&n, "which wasa Banday," and it ia only in 1150
that thb day happened to be the first of the week.
Baoi'l left, besides the UaiKlfoh and the faiik v4aMik,
seveiol other §tific mathnawis of similar purport :— for
instance, the Sair nCibdd HSlmaAd, or " Uan'a Journey
towards the Other World" (aUo called ZwM&nrrvMd^
" The Treasures of Uysteriee ") ; the 'Ithi^dma, or " Book
of. Love;" the 'AklnAtm, or "Book of Intellect;" the
KdrnAma, or "Record of Stirring Deeds," tx.; »a& an
extensive diwin or collection of lyrical poetry- His tomb,
called the " Mecca '* of Qhazna, is atill visited by nomenxu
pilgrims.
Sani'fa HadH^ atOl lacks a crltiad edition, for which 'Abdf
nllatifal-'Abbdai'acommantary (completed 1839 and pnaerred in ■
aooiewhat abridged form in MvenI ooplaa of tb* India Office
Ijbrar;] would rami an eicelleat baais. Bea, oa (he poafi Ufa and
worka, Ouulej, fldyr. SUiiM, pp. 184-187 ; Bies'a and FliigaTi
CaiaScquttj Ac
SAX ANTOKIO, a city of the United States, incoc^
porated in 1873, the couD^-seat of Bexar (Bejar) oountT
and the principal centre of western Texas, b situated m
the fertile plain watered by the head-strefuus of the Sao
Antonio river, which, after a course of 200 miles, falls into
the Qtdf of Mexico at Espirita Santo Bay. It id an im-
portant junction for several of the Texan railways, lyiog
on the main routes from the States to Hexico^ 153 miles
north of the frontier at Laredo. Son Aotonio proper, or
the buriness part of the city, lies between the San AJitoaio
and the Ban Pedro, and ha* been nearly all rebuilt sines
1860. Chihuahua (formerly San Antonio de Yalaro), west
of the San Pedro, is still almost excltisively Mexican; and
Alamo, on somewhat higher ground to the east of the San
Antonio, is largely inhabited by Germans. Hie total popn-
lation of the city was in 1870 12,256 (1957 ooIoutmI)
and 20,650 (3036) in 1880. VewspapeiE ore published
in English, German, and Spanish. Flour, beer, mtat-
extndj ice, candles, and soap are the local mwnfactVM-
SAN— SAN
am rfii of CUhuluft • G>t. Bm hMDdo, «« metodbr
p» apuindi in ITU, tud row jan later tlH mMon at tlw
AluH) (psldu tiM) «■■ atoUidHdin in Tiainicr- Botli IM >i>d
INdio,— 4te fort tUiHtb*^ , _
^rtlMd to bMOBW tuBoo* In th* Tou «>T, «b*B in ia» ■
gairina •thok*! bf * mparior Hnlou (tea* p«lA*d nthar thin
■uiliht. 0«iaan ImaiifnttdM bafu aboat lUfc
SANCHEZ. Tluw p«nou of thk nun* ooee aqjoysd
MoaUanUe Ihenir celebritj . — (1> FKuraacb Baxchkz
(Suietins) {1633-1601), taaxmmif ptyhmn of Qreek
•nd of ibfltoric tX SftlaimuKa, «1wm JfnMmi, fint printed
•t tbat town ID ISttT, was long tlio ataodaid mwk on
Xatia giainmar ; (3) Fkahoboo Saxchb^ a FtntogiMae
p^noan (rf J«inan parentage, jw^ewor of philooqih; and
phTse at Toalowet idien be died at the aga of Mvant; in
163% vlioN ingeniow bat Mphutical writiiiga {QitHf ntMI
«ter, 1661) mt^ tha higfa-watac of reaction agaiiut the
dognntiaM of tba ttaditiooal acboolt of hia time ; (3)
Tbohu Samcbu of Cordova (1BB1-I6I0), Jeaoit and
«aaaiat, vhoee tiMtige J>t Matrimauo (Qenoa, 1C93) ia
more notoriou tor its repnkive featurea than odelrated
for iti real iaajiung and abilitj.
SANCHO L (1154-1311) and SANCHO U. (1208-
1348), kioga of Portugal from 1185 and 1323 nepectively.
Sea PocriroAI, toL six. pi Ml-S.
BANOHUNIATEON, (that ia, \nroo, "the god Sak-
kim halb ^ren") ia tha name of tlia pretended anlliOT of
tba nKBnidaii writiii^ lud to have been used l^ Peilo
known aa Ciodad Hui, chief town of the Mencan state
of CUapaa, atandi in a fertile Tails; on the eaEtarn slope
ti the oeHtral tnoontain mnge 4M milee eaatwnth-eaot
fron the dtt at lltneo. It wai founded in 1528 nnder
tbo DMns of Tilla Baal, and recrind ite
1829. Ita inhaldtant^ nrioaalj Mttmatc
froin BOOO to 13,000; are duefly enjoyed in rearing
Mtth. Ootoe wooUan and eotton •toth, and also common
wai llie»win> an nannfactamd-
BANGBOFi; WiLUAM (161«-ie93X arehtwhop of
OantecborT, wai bom at FiBwingfleld in BnSolk SOth
JannaiT 1616, and entered Kmmaonel College, CambridgB,
in Julr I6S1. Ha became MX in 1641 and fallow in
1643, bat waa e}eeted in 1649 for reloaing to MxtiM the
" Engagement.' He then remained abroad till tbe Beeto-
r&tioD, after which he wm dioaen one of the nniversit;
msadien; and in 1663 h« WBB DOtsioated to tbe deaoeiT of
ToriL Inl6e4h»waainat»lIeddianofBtRHil's. Inlhia
altnatioD ha aet hiniadf with nnwearied Hilipaif to repair
the cathedral, till the firs of Loodon in 1666 neoeiaitated
tba reboildinx of it, towwds wbic^ he gave X1400. Be
altt reboUt the deanerj, and improved ita revenue. In
1S68 he waa admitted archdeaoon of Oanterbnry npon tba
king^ prosentatioii, but be rengned tbe poet in 1670. In
1677, being now proloentM <f tha Convocation, he waa
noaiqieetadh'advaaead to the anhbiahopric of Conteibnrj.
He attended Cbttlea JL npon hia deathbed, utd "made
to him a verj w«i^t7 «ahort*tion, in which he naed a
good de{^ M beedom." He mote with hia own band
tha patfion presented In 1687 againat the reading of the
Deehration of Indnlgenoe, which waa aigned by himaelf
andrixtf bismSragMu. For this tbej were all committed
to Hm Tower, but aftw » toial foe ndademeanonr the;
were aoqoitted. Upea the withdrawal of James IL he
eoDcnried with dw Lords in k dedaralion to the prince of
Orange {or a bee parliament, and due indtdgenee to tlia
PnAmttBt disseoteta. Bat, lAea Oat prince and hia
eoDKtt were dsdand king and queen, he refused to
take the oatb.ta<Aem, and was acoordinglf suBpended and
deprived. From6thAi>gii*tl691 till his death on fiovem-
bw H 1693, he Hved & vny ntired life in his native ^«ce.
He WW boried in the chnrchyard of Fresaingfield, where
tbera is a Latin epitaph to his memorj.
BepnUMbed Fur PrmUHinatiu (IflEI], Jforfcnt FotOia (ItESV
and nn> Sirvunt* {IBM^ I/ijiilm Fianiliar LMm U Mr Satik
(snvnnliBirl]«ir;North)*pp«ndiiil7sr. He inEhanctaivd
bj Mseamlar u "an tumn^ plou, uiTTOV-niiiidiid min."
BANCTUABT is tbe ChrisUan lepreaentative of tbe
daaneal Astlum («.(>.)> and was no doubt suggested in
tbe first instance b; the citiea of lefnge tA tbe Leritioal
law. Originally every church or ohnrchjrard was a taoeta-
ary for criminals. Id England about tbutj chnrdMS, from
a real or pretended antiquit; of the privily acquired
■peeial rqialatiaa as sanctuaries, t.g., Westminster Abbey
and Beverly Hinster. "Tbe precincts of the Abb^,"
MjB Dean Stanley, " were a vast cava of Adollam for all
tbe distnesed and discontented in the metropolis who
deairao, according to tbe phrase of tbe time, to take Weat-
minster." Tbe sanctuary seats at Heibam and Beverley
and the Moetnaiy knoi^er at Durham are still in exiat-
ence. The protectioD afforded by a nnctaary at common
law was this:— a perw» aconaed tA felony might fly for tha
safeguard of his life to sanctuary, and there befora tbe coro-
ner, within for^ days, confess the felony and take an oath
of atguiatioD entailing perpetual banishment into a fdnign
Christian country. The sanctuary being tbe privilege of
tlie ebnrch, it is not surprising to find that it did not bx-
taod to tbe crime of eacnlege, nor waa it held to extend to
high or petit treason. The law of abjuration and sanctuary
was regulated by nnmerous and intricate statntea A list
of them will be found in Coke, InttiltUei, voL iiL p. IID.
Finally it was enacted by 21 Jac L c 3S, g 7, Uiat no
sanctuary or privilege of sanctuary should be admitted or
allowed in any case. The privilege of sanctuary as pro-
tecting from civil piocen emended to certain iJaoB^ parte
or nmpoaed parts of royal palacea, nich aa White Fritra
or Alntia, the Savoy, and the MinL The privilege of
these place* waa abolished by 8 and 9 Will DX c 37,
and 9 Oaa I c. 28. (See Stephen, EiA of Ot CriM.
Zai, vol i, c xiiL).
Id Scotland TclifiDia ■nctuatici w«n ibolithad at tlii Bsfoima-
tJOD. Bot tb« £btar atill Bndi lanEtDaTj tMm diliguia in
Hcdynod Hdius and iti PRdnotL .Hit suctnar; don nat protoet
bankmpta ; snd a awfitalio Jim wimot mar be «iMDt*d iritliin
the HDctiisi?. After tmn^'loar homV twidanoi llis debtor murt
entsr bia nans in the ncerd of tbs Abbsj Court in otd«r to antltlp
him to rnrtbcT prDtsction. Under tlie Act IflSfl, c 6, iniolv>ii«r
eoBcDtring with retreat to th» mictiiiry coiutitutts natOBi bank-
raplc; (age Bell, CommmUtriti, toI. iL p. IBl).
BAND, Gbokob. See Duskvaht.
SANDALWOOD, a fragrant wood obtained from variooa
trees of tho natural order Santalaam and from the genera
Santaiutn and Fvtatna. Ihe principal commercial source
of sandalwood is Santalum cUfmm, L, a native of India,
but it is also yielded tij S. Frtyeiitetuintim, Oaud, and S.
pfrtdariHm, A- Gray, in the Hawaiian Islands, S. B<mri,
Seem., and S. aiutrtHn^tAmieiim, VielL, in New Caledonia,
and S. tmulare, Bert, in Tahiti The wood of S. lati-
Joiivm, Beoth., and also that of Ftitama tpieattu, R. Br.,
have been exported from south-west Australia, and that of
Errmcp/ulaMileheUi, of the mttaral order Jfsoporvua, from
Queensland, but these have little odour and are chiefly
oaed for cabinet work. Sandalwood is also said to be iiro-
duoed in Noem-B^ and ha* been imported into Landou
from Zansibor, and into Oermany from Venezuela, but of
the botanical source of these varieties little is at preaent
known. Hie use of gandalwood dates aa far back at least
a* the 6th century s.d, fur tbe wood is mentioned under
its Sanskrit name " cliandanfl " in the Siruila, the earUest
extant Tedic commentary. It is still extensively used ia
Indifc and China, wherever Buddhism prerul^ being em^
2S6
S A N — 8 A K
pk^ed in ftioeral nUe and reli^u cereEmniea ; compan-
tivel; poor peo|>le often apeud aa much as 50 ruijoes on
■andaIi*ood for a lingla cremation. Until L>e middle oC
the I8th centoiy Indiu wm tho only aourca of sandnl-
wDod, TliB dincover; of a wndalwood in the islandu of the
Pftcific led to a conaidenible trodo of a aomawhat pintical
niture, resulting in diflicultica vitli the nutircs, often
ending ia Uoodnhed, the colebratod missionaiy John
Williuns, amongst others, buving fallen a victim to an
indittcrimioate retaliation bj the uatires on white Dion
vioiting the islands. The loss of life in this trade was at
one time even greator than to that of whaling, with which
il ranked as one of the most adventunins of callings.
Aboat the year 1610 u much as 400,000 dollars is said
to have been received aonuallf for aandaiwood by Kome-
hameha, king of Hawaii. The trees consequently have
become almost extinct in all the well-known islattds, except
New (^ledonia, where the wood is now cultivated. Sandal-
wood of inferior quality derived from Ftuanu* aeumitiqltu
woa exported from sooth-west Australia in 1894 to the
extent of 3620 to: valued at an average of about £S per
too, gennine sandalwood being worth in China from £12
to £^0 per ton.
In lodia sandalwood is largely lued in tte mannfactuie
of boxes, fans, and <Tther ornamental articles of inlaid
work, and to a limited extent in medicine as a domestic
remedy for all kinds of pains and aches. The oil is
largely used aa a perfume, few native Indian attars or
essential oils b^ng free from admixture with it In the
form of powder or paste the wood is employed in the
pigments used by the Brohmans for their distingnishing
caste-marks. ,
During the last few year« oil of aandaiwood has largely
replaced copaiba, both in the United Kingdom and on
the Continent, in the treatment of variana diseases of the
mncons membrane. Three varieties are distinguished in
trade — Eaat-Jodian, Uacassar, and West-Indian. The first-
named is derived from S. album, the second probably^
from another apeciea of Smilalwn, and the third from a
wood imported from Pnerto Cabello in VenemeU. Svcida
eapitala, a Combretaceous plant, is known in the West
Indies as sandalwood ; bnt the odour of the wood as well
as of tbe oil, which is qnite distinct from that of the true
sandalwood, has mora resemblance to that of a Myoxylan.
Inferior qualities of the oil ars said to be adulterated in
O^many witli the oil of red cedar wood (Jvniptrit*
nryiiwdwa).
In India ■ndilwood is prodDesd in the dry tranti of cnintiy fa
Uy«or« and Coimtstor*, north snd norfh-wo»' ' ''
bv trtaCy with Hidor Ali on tlig Eut Indik Company. The
Hysors Hindfilivoad is shipped froni Manj^lora Co tlia aitont of
about TOO torn innully, nliud at £27,000. In tho Hadrai
Prtsidflncv— although thoro ii now no monopoly — nndalwood, by
tho carefal mananment of the fonet doportmcnt, hu beeu nude (0
yield an incrtnmng ravenne to the GoTsmment, u mnch ea B471
tonehaTingbeeafamiBhedbytharaaenedrortsliin ia7!-S. The
tree i* propsgsted by aeeda, irhieh, howevar, must bo placed whore
ther an istendsd to grew, aiace the aeedlinga will not bear trani-
[■lantation, probably on account of deriving their nonrinhmeut
paraiitically by meana oF tuboreoi Bwallingi attached to the roots
of other planta. The trees are ont down when between ei(;lit«n
and twanty-liie yeara old, at which period tbey have attained their
matoritj, the trnnka being then abont one foot in diamotor. Tbo
falling tikes placo at tho end of the year, and tbe trunk i) allowed
la year, and tba trunk i) allowed
jround lor ooToral monlha, dnting whioh timr
tba white anta eat away thn valuelcM aapwood bnt leave th(
fragrant hear^wood " ^ i i mi » , . ^i
billala about S or V
trinimeil at Uu> ti
...„ onched. The heartwood ia thi .. ..
biUata about S or 21 faetloni;. Theaoara aftenrardaneracaierully
'-• ' -■ ■*- 'jraat depfita, and left to dry ajowly in a data
a woak^ by which the odour ia improved and
to China, Iht
uB aia retained for
)>Drta eS,S3T ^cnla
(ofl33Jtt]ofaondBlwoo<liol8T2.
ally inipoHcd into Itomtay from the tialabar coast, of which about
4S0 torn are again ciport<^d. The oil, which ia diatilled chieflv at
llangHlore from the roots and chips, ia alae imnortad iota Bombay
to the oitcnt of 12,000 V, anDually.
Sat SindaliBoai, knoa-n also as J!fd San^tn W«od, is tba pro-
duct of a iniall Leguminous treo, Puroarpiu lanialiniu, native of
Southern India, Ceylon, and tba rhilippine lalands. The wood
"- from Mftdnia, in certain parte of which
ed jirineipilly fi
it IB roRularly
:nl live ted, coming ii
I the
, h0H-e».
katini
ijnder the
aandaiwood yielda op to IB per cent, ef a reainoid body, aantalin
or nntalic acid C„H,,0, (T), which sabalsnee fa the tipckirial
It tieatralLie) alkiliei, and with them roniis nncryalalliiabla aalta.'
In its pure condition eantalin forma mjnnta priainatie crystals rd a
benntifiil ruby colour. The wood alio containa small pnipoitlona
of coIuurleascn'staUinB principles — aantal, CVH|0^ and ptarocarpin,
^rliiiOi— and of an amorphoue body having the (orml^CBA,^f,
' mcdiEvat times red sandalwood poaaeased a high rvpatition in
inring ingredien
diihea. Now it ia a little used a* a celonting agent in pharmacy,
its principal application being in wool-dyeing and calieo-prinSng.
Sereial other spscica of PteranrTiu, notably jP. iiitf JOM, eoDtaio the
tame dyeing principle and can M used aa anbatitatas fi^ red sandal-
wood. The barwood and camwood of the Oninea Coaat «t Ahica,
preaumahly tho produce ot one tree, BapMa nilida ^FtMCttrjmt
angoUntit of De CandoUe), called aantal ronga d'A^que by the
Fnnch, are also in all rapects eloaaly allied to the rad aandaiwood
of Oriental countries.
/I'mE', IBIT. jrB. Sl'a^ia; Slnlwaal, Ami^F mtnai, f. tosi jfm^iu Jtn
Rtporli, laiT; )ii>teiL Krpart en tXli (/AAi,p. M.
SANDARACH is a resinous body obtttined from the
small Coniferous tree CaUilrv ^vadHvalvit, native of the
north-west regions of Africa, and especially cbaracterittie
of the Atlas Mountains. The reun, which is procnred u
a natural exudation on the stems, and also obtained by
making incisions in the bark of the trees, comes int*
commerce in the form of small round balls or elongated
tears, transparent, and having a delicate yellow tinge. It
ia a little harder than mastic, for which it is sometimM
aubstituted, and does not soften in the month like tiiat
rcain ; bnt, being very brittle, it breaks with a clean ghissy
fracture. Sandaroch has a faintly bitter resinous tast^
and a pleasant balsamic odour. It conusts of a miztura
of three distinct resins, the first readily soluble in alcohol,
constituting 67 per cent, of the mass, while the second dis-
solves with more difUcnlty, and the Ukird is soluble only in
hot alcohol. Sandarach is imported chiefly from Hc^ador,
and is an important ingredient in Epiri{ varnishes. It it
also used aa incense, and Iry the Aiaba medicinally as a
remedy for diorrhcEa. An analogous reein is procnred in
China from CaltilrU linttuu, and in South Anstnlia,
under the name of pine gum, from C Beitiii.
SANDBACH, a town and urban sanitary disbrict of
Cheshire, is situated on the Trent and Meraej Cbnal, and
on the London and North-Western Bailway, at the junc-
tion for Northwich, 25 miles east-BOnlh-east of Cheater and
5 north-east of Crewe, In the market-place are two
ancient obelisks, dating, accordiiig to som^ from the 7th
century. The principal publio buildings are the parish
church of St Mary, in the Perpendicular style, with a
tower rebuilt 1847-9, the gramnuir school, the public
reading rooms, and the town-halL Anciently the town
was celebrated for its ale. The principal imlnstry was
formerly silk throwsting, but this is now diMontinned, and
the inbalnlants are chiefly emplcgred in the salt- works aodi
S A N— S A N
267
•tkali-wtrkt. Tin pc^ohtioa tt tlie nrUn Haituy diatriet
(OK* 3694 MRS) in 1671 wh 0369, and in 1881 it ma
B*93.
SAND-BLAST, The erouvB influence of driren nnd
19 tamed to ubeIhI account for Bereral indiutrul purpoaei
bj ineaiu of an apporato* devised, abont 18T0, l^ Ut B.
a TUghman of FhUadelphia. Tilghnmn'a aand-bUat con-
■isU of a contrivonoe for impelling with gradoated degree*
of *elod*7, a jet or coloma of Mud, by means of com-
lirened air or ■team, agaioat tlie ol^ect or rarface to be
acted on. lie appai^tiu is prinoipallj adapted for
obsmring, engraving and oraamenting gtam, but accord-
ing to tbe velocitj with which the land ia impelled it maj
le oaed to carve deep pattenu in granite, marble, and
other hard atoaea, to bite into ateel, iie., and even tu cut
and perforate hole* throngh these and other moat refrac-
toij materiala. Sheet* of gla« i feet wide are obtcnred
at the rate of 3 feet per minnte, with a blast of air tutving
a pieMQte of 1 ft per inch. With the aid of tongfa elaitio
atencib, pattern* and Ictten are sngiaved on flashed
gUa^ globe* for lamps and ^alight* are ornamented,
drnggists' bottlea are lettered, £a.^ Driren with moderate
velocitj against a metal surfaoe, the sand producee by its
impact a Ene uniform pitted i^peacanoe without removiog
the metal ; and in thit way it is nnd for '■ frosting "
plat«d good*. A strong blast is largely need for iharpen-
ing Ska, which, aa thsy leave the cntler, hare always a
slight backward carve or "bur'' on their cutting edge*
whiii^ blunts their biting effect. By dirwdng a blast of
very fine sand, mixed with water into a thin mud, with
stCMU pre—nw d TO A, at an angle against tlie back of the
teetb, tbi* bnrr i* gronnd oS, the ahape erf the teeth is
improved, and the file ia rendered rery keen. While the
nae of ateam for Impelling the aand-blaat i* sioet nmple
and economical, many piactkal difficulties hare hitherto
been foiind in the way of it* enqiloymen^ and conse-
quently for obtaining h^ pwwure of ur costly appaiatna
waa lequired, thua limiting the applicationa of the agency.
In 1884 Ur Mathewion patented an apparatua in whit^
by an ingenion* exhaust arrangement, tiie impelling (team
is swept away, learing only cool, dry Mnd to strike against
the o^ect acted on ; and the aucceaa ol this derice ha*
already opened up a wider flehl tor the empbyment of
the aand-blaat
aA2fDBT, Paul (1736-1609), founder of tbe Englieh
(cbool ot water-colour painting was deacended traia a
branch of tlia Sandbys of Babworth, and wa* bom at
Nottingham in 1725. After comraeneing his artistio
atudiea in London, in 1746 he was appointed by the dnke of
Comberland dranghtaman to the survey of the Highlands.
In 17S3 be quitted this poet, and. retired to Windsor,
where he occupied himself with the prodoction ot water-
colour drawings of scenery and pictorcaqoe architecture,
widch Icooght him under the notice of Sir Joseph Banka,
who gave him bis patronage, and aubsequently oommia-
aioDed him to bring out in aqnatinta (a method of engntr-
ing llien pecnliar to Sandby) torty-«ght plates dnwn
dtuing a tour in Wales, Bandby displayed ooniideiable
power at a caricaturist in bis attempt to 'ridicule die
opposition of Hogarth to tbe plan ta creating a pnblio
academy for the arta. He wa* choeec
member of tbe Royal Academy in 1768, and the
year waa appointed chief drawing-master to the Boyal
Uilitary Academy at WoolwicL He held this ntnation
tin 1799, and daring that time be trained many
ini of tlu blut DS ISO.OOO
<cui CItU Wir. Cut-Iron
rble, the lud
cutljn
■ Ib 18TI loKiii
iDoMoBH of aaldlan ll]1*d la thi
lattov van tutaoai) ij •hdUo on 1
ktaui pnanr* irf tO IA, ud th* itona wu est, In rmr n
b|4k « a qautw of B toob, kartDf Uia lalUr* la lelMl
whoafterwaidsgunedarMiaeintheiriiiofuaiotL Sandl^
will be best remembered, however, by his water-colonr
paintings. They are topognphicsl in character, and, while
they want the richnea* and brilliancy of modem water-
colonr, he nerertheleoi impneaed npon them the originality
of his mind. In his later pieces in particular, decided
progreaa is observable in richneaa ank in harmony of
tinting and they alio show a measure of poetic feeCng
dne, in great par^ to the inflnenoe of Goiena. Hi*
etching such as the Cnei of London and the illustntiona
to Ramsey's GmtU SMtpitrd. and his platca, such as thoM
to TasBo's JenuaUm Delivered, ate both numaroos and
car«fully executed. He died in London on the 9th
Nor ember 1809.
SANDEATJ, LtoKtuD Stlvum Jdub (I81I-18S3), a
French novelist of much graoe and not a little power, waa
bora at Aubunon (Crenae) on February 9, 1 8 1 1, He made
acquaintance aa an art atndent with Uadame Duderant
((}ec»ge Band), who had just taken to an unrestrained
literary life at Paris. He intimacy did not last long but
it produced Bon H Slan^Ae (1831), a novel written in
»>mmon, and from it George Band took the idea of the
famons hoik dt jpum by which she it and always will be
known. Sandean'i subMonent w<sk showed that be eonUl
alone, and lot nearly fifty year* he continned to
produce novels and to edlaborata in play*. His best
works are JfuriaiuMi (1639), Lt Dodnr Iftrbtau (1811),
CatMrimt (1846), Madtnoudlt dt la Sngltin and llaii»-
hint (1848), La Chaue am Somtm (1849), Saet tt Pardif
■UM (1861), La Maimm dt Ptnarwam (1868), La Bodit
tua Momttm (1871). Iha famona pla; ot Lt Gmdrt dt
M. Poirier is only one of several whidi he wrote with
£mils Angler, — the novelist nanally contributing the stcKj
and the dramatist tbe theatrical working up. Ueanwhile
Bandeao, wbo had aooqitad the empir^ but who never
took any activa part in politiea, had been made oooserw
tenr at the Huarin ubtary in 1863, elected to the
Academy in 1868, and next yeaw appointed lilcarian trf St
Clond. At the supprcamoo of thi* latter offlo^ after Um
fall of tbe ampira, he was pensioned. He died on the
34thof April 1883. He waa never a very pc^nlai novelist,
judging by the sale of his wi^s ; and the peculiar quiet
grace ^his styHaswellashisabstinenoefroin (suNUoDal
incident, and bis refusal to pander to (he flench taste in
Sotltions moiah^ may be thoo^ to bava disqualified him
tor populari^. But bis literary aUli^ baa always beaa
recogmzed by oompetent jndgea. Hi* skill in constmo-
tion was very great ; his chareicterdrawing though poi^ ia
eminently free from feeblene** and ounmonplace ; and of
one particnlar aitnation — the tra^cal dashing of aristo-
cratic feeling with modern tead^ — ha bad an sztra-
ordinaiy mastery, which he ahowed without any mere
repetition, but in many different atudiea,
SANDEC. Bee Nbd-Sahd*!
BAND-EEL or ^mn-'LkvntaM. Titt fiahea known
under these names form a small isolated group (Anumo-
dytma), distantly related to the ood-fiahea. Thmr body is
of an elongate-cylindrical shape, with die head terminat-
ing in a long corneal snout, the projecting lower jaw form-
ing the pointed end. A low long dorsal fin, in which no
distinction between spines and raya can be observed,
occupies nearly the whole leogth of the back, and a long
anal, composed of similar short and delicate raya, oom-
menc«a immediately behind the vent, which is placed
abont midway between the head and caudal fin. . The
caudal is forked and the pectorals are short The total
absence of ventral fins indicates the burrowing hatrits of
these fishea. The acale^ wlien present, are very small ;
but generally the development of scales has only proceeded
to the fonna^n at oUiqns folda of the IntegnmeBta,
»~%-
258
S A N — R A N
The ejM are bttentl tnd of moderate >i«e ; iht dentition u
qoite rudimentuj.
Sand-Mil are •mall littoral marine fisbea, onl; one
Bt)ecies attaining a iengtb of IB inches (Ammoilffia Latceo-
latui). The; live in dioala at various depths on a sandj
bottom, and bnrjr themeelTee in the und on the slightest
alarm. Thej are able to do this with the greatest ease
and rapidity whilst the bottom is covered with water.
Many of thoee which live close ioshore are left by the
receding tide boned in the sand, and are then frequently
dog out from a depth of one or two feet Other aboals live
in deeper water ; when they are eurprbed by fish of prey
or porpoises, they are frequently driven to the snrface in
Budi dense masses that numbera of them can be Ecoo[>cd
oat of the water with a bucket or hand-net. In fact, this
used to be, in the Channel Islands, the common practice
of the fishermen to provide themselves with bait. Some
epeciee descend to a depth of 100 &thomB and more ;
and the greater sand-eel is not rarely taken on the
mackerel line far ont at sea near the surface. Sand-eels
are very rapacious, destroying a great quantity of fry and
other (mall creeturee, snch as the kncolet {BrancMoitoitta},
which lives in similar localities. Thay are eicellent'iiati^f,
and are much sought after for bait.
Ssnd-eals sr« ootnnion In sll luitibla lonlitin of Ihg Korth
Atlintia ; ■ ■pocisi acaTcelr diitlecC from lbs Enropean oammDn
■ud-laana ocean on ths Pacific >id« at North Aincrio, inother
on thg (Mt cout of Soath Africa. On tbs Britiah coasts thne
apedea an found :— [ha Grutrr Sand-Eel (Ainnrndyta lantxolaliii),
distinguiahsd bj a loofh-lika bicuspid proraincnca on the vonicr ;
tha Oommon fiud-Luinca [A. (ofi'nxiu), from tn to htch inch«
long, witb niurmed vomar, eTen doml fin, uid with tha intrga-
nanl* toldad ; sod the Boutheni Sand-Launca (A. Beului), irilh
murmeJ Tomer, amooth akin, and with tbo margiDt of tba donal
- ' --' "- - idnUlel The lut ariaci " " '
toddenly oa their ooaati soma Sfty yeora ago.
SANDEMANIANa See Glab, vol. x. p. 637.
SANDERSON, Robhit (1887-1663), bishop of Lin-
coln, and one of the worthies celebnited by Izaak Walton,
was bom at Rotherham, Yorkshire, in 1SS7, He was edu-
cated at the grammar school of his native town and at
Lincoln College, Oxford, took orders in 1611, and was
promoted successively to sevenl benefices. On the recom-
mendation of land be was appointed one of the royal
chaplains inl631, and as a preacher was a great favourite
with the king. In 1612 Charles created him regius pro-
fessor of divinity at Oxford, witb a canonry of Christ
Chmish annexed. Bnt the civil war prevented bim nntil
1646 from entering on the office; and in 1648 he was
tjected by the visitors whom the parliament had com-
missioned. He recovered these preferments at tbe Restora-
tion, and was promoted to the bishopric of Lincoln, but
lived only two years to enjoy his new dignities, dying in
his aeventy-siith year in 1663. His most celebrated work
is his CoMt qf Conicienet, deliberate judgments upon points
of morality sabmitted to him. Some of these cases, notably
that of Sabbath observance, and that of signing Uie "En-
gagement" to tbe Commonwealth, were printed surrepti-
tiously during his lifetime, though drawn up in answer
to private spiritool clients; and a collection, gradually
enlarged in suoedMive editions, was published after hia
deathl Thsy are extremely interesting specimeDs of
English casoistry, distingnished not less by moral integrity
than good sense, learning, and close, comprehensive, and
subtle reasoning. His practice as a college lectarer in
logic ie better evidenced I^ these " cases " than by his
Comptudium of Login published in 1610. A complete
edition of Sanderson's works was edited by Dr Jacobeon in
1894 (Oxford Press). To this tbe reader may be referred
for his sermons and his occasional tracts on public affain
during the troubled j>eriod of his middle life and old age.
SAND-OROUSE, the naine> by which are commonly
known the members of a small bnt remarkable groap of
birds frequenting sandy tractii, and having their feel more
or less clothed witb feathers after the fashion of Oboubi
(vol. xL p. 321), to which they were originatly thought to
be closely allied, and the species first described were fay
the eariier systematiate invariably referred to the genus
Trtrao. Their separation therefrom is due to Temminck,
who made for them a distinct genus which bo called
Pteroclei,* and his view, as Lesson tells us [2'railf, p. 61S),
was subsequently corrobcrated by De Blninville ; while iu
1831 Bonaparte {Saggio, p. G4) recognited the group as a
good Family, PtdiopkUi or Pleraclida. Further investiga-
tion of the ostealf^ and pterylosia of the Sand-Qrouse
revealed still greater divergence from the normal Gallinx
(to which the true Grouse belong), as well a* several
curious resemblances to the Pigeons ; and in the Zoological
Society's Procffdingt for 18G8 (p. 303) Prot Huxley pro-
posed to regard them, under the name of Fierodoiiioi-pir,
as forming a group equivalent to the AlectanmiorpAm
and FeruUromorpkx, for reasons already briefly staled
(Oenitholoqt, vol. xvlii, p. 46).' The PUnxlidx consist
of two genera — PleTodt$, with about fifteen species, and
Syrrkaptei, with two. Of the former, two species inhabit
Europe, P. artnariui, the Sand-Grouse proper, and Uiat
which is usually called P, alcAala, the Pio-tailed Sand-
Grouse, The European range of the firat is practically
limited to Portugal, Spain, and the soutbem parts of
Russia, while the second inhabits also tbe south of
France, where it is generally known by ita Catalan name
of " Ganga," or locally as " Grandaulo" or, strange to Ray,
" FerdrU i Angletem." Both species are also abundant
in Barbery, and liave been believed to extend eastwards
through Asia to India, iu most parts of which country
they seem to be only winter-visitants; but in IS80 Herr
Bogdanow pointed out to the Academy of St Petersburg
{Bulltlla, iTvii, p. 164) a slight diOcrence of coloration
between eastern and western examples of what had hith-
erto passed ss P. alchala; and the difference, if found to
be constant, may require the specific recognition of each,
while analogy wonld suggest that a similar diOerence
might be found in examples of P. arenurya. India, more-
over, possesses five other species of Pteradtt, of which
however only one, P. faaciatiu, is peculiar to Asia, while
tbe others inhabit Africa as well, and all tbe remaining
species belong to the Ethiopian region — one, P. permtatui,
being peculiar to tladagascar, and four occurring in or on
the borders of the Cape Colony.
The genus Syrrhaptra, though in general appearance
resembling Pltrocln, baa a conformation of foot quite
unique among birds, the three anterior toee being encased
in a common "podotheca," which is clothed to tbe clawi
with hairy feathers, so as to look mnch like a fiogerless
glove, lie hind toe is wanting. The two species of Syr-
rkftptet are S. libeUmtu — the largest Sand-Grouse known —
inhabiting the country whence its trivial name is derived,
snd S. paradoxvt, tanging from Northern China across
Central Asia to the confinea of Europe, which it occa-
been lint nud by Latliam In 178S {frt'l"".
It, p. 7G1) u tbe direct tniulallon of the lama Ttlnu artnariui
giian by Pallia.
■ Hb >Uta< that be pnbliibiid thli name la 1809 ; bat hitherto n-
Kirch hai failed to Bod It DHd Bitll I81G.
' Soma more recent wrlten, recogulting Uia groop aa a dlfUaet
It HeUraiitm. Tlie fanner of theia worda 1> liuacl on a graminiUci]
mltconcepUoB, vlilla thg see of tha latter bat Jong tinea 1<»a olbei-
vIh pTwccDpied Id loalogy. I[ there be Bead to ut iHlda Prof-
Huilay't term, Bonepute'i PtdiofJiiii (el abore maotload] auy b*
(MBpled, itid ludad baa priority ot all etlurK
8 A N — 8 A N
26»
noeaUf, rad ia a inandktti nuimw, invade*, m hu been
•Imdj brwflj daeribed (Bium, tiJ. ul p. 770).> TLou^
it* attsmplB at oolooiBtioa id the eztreme wert bave
tuled, it wpold eaem to have eeUUiehed itMdt of lata
yean in tbe neighbonrbood of Aatrakhan (Iliit, 1883, p.
330). It appean ta bo Iba " Bargasrlac " of Hafco Polo
(ed. Tule, i p. 339) ; and the " Loang-Kio " oc " Dragon't
Foot,' io nnscieatUeallj deocribed by the Abb< Hoe
{Sotmatin ttm VojfOff* doiu la Tartarie, i. p. 344),
Bcanelf be anjUun^ ebe than thiajjird.
Extendi; all Suul-arawa pneant en eppteiuc* K> diitlsetln
thet sobod; nha hta *Mn saa of th«m cen b* Id donbl u b
of the net TWir pliuug* i»imiUt«i in gaiMrel eolmi ta ...
of thtgroond thej Enquut, bUng iborao* ■ dull ochreom bds,
ann or laa bamd or nottled hj deAar thtim, while bcnteth it
ii fnqnantlr nriod by bolto of doap beam JBlanal^ng into Uack.
tiigbtar tinta an, howorat, aibrjitad bf lomo apodoa,— tba dnb
■uHingintoa palognj, tlM boJIbriglitesuiB into a liTelyon-"
end attMLi or adnn^ of an almoat par* wfaita relieve tha , . .
nfling andjr at tftwo-oaloored haul that ta^acitUy cbanetariis
the gninp. fla tntt isam alwajra to dUTar in plumage, tba' -'
UieraalabaWtUbrigbtaatendnMatdiTataiBed. The axpnei
B fladdadi; DoTo-Uke, and ao !■ the form of tha body, tbe ]<
viuga coBtribating alao to tluletraot,aotluitBnKng Anglo-Indi
tbaaa birda an oomnonly known la "Badc'PinoDe,' Tba lone
wino, Aa aatannoat primaiy cl vbleb in Btrrrta/Ut baa Its ihift
jndnced Into aa ettannatad fllemant. an In all tlu ipBaea w -'---'
lif arreoilinglr powtrhil miucle^ end In Mnnl form* tha ic
reetriooe an Ukewiae protracted and polntnl, as aa to girs to theit
nweta tb* nan* of Pin-tailed SaDd-Groaas.* Tha neet
ahallow hole in the aand. Three aeenu to be tha ragulai coniplfl'
in eech naat, bat tlitra are writer* who decUre
or) that the full niunbar In aame ipeciea ii four.
I of peculiar (hap«^ being almost eyllndrieal In thi
middle and nearly alika at each end, and ara of a pale eartfar
eoloar, apotted, blolcheil. or marbled wilh darker ahadea, tha
markiage being of two kind*, one anperfloial and the oUier more
deeply atated in tba ahetl. The yooDg art hatched fnll; clothud
ia down [P. Z. A ISW, pL il. Ak 3), and though not Tory active
would appear to be capable of locomotioD tooa after birth.
Uorfdwlogically ganeiall»d ai the Band-Orooaa undonbtedly are,
no one ean coDbaM tha axtiema apaetaliiatian of nun]' at theit
faataiw^ and tho* thar fenn one (rf tbe moat loitructlTe gmaja of
bird* witb whidi anithol«i)ta ace ao^oaiotad. Tha remain* of
an oztiBet ipadaa of neraetar, P. mitlui, intermediata appareutly
batweva P. aUiabt and P. gultmaU*, hare ben leoognlnd In tha
HiocaM caTee at the Alliet by Plot A. lUna- Edward* {OU. fan.
ilf ia Praaat, p SM, nL chd. flp. 1-B) ; and, la addition to the
other anthccitia* on thl* Toy intenating gnmp of birda alreaJj
dtad, nfanace ma; be made to Ur KtUot'i "Stndy' o[ th< Family
{P. Z, B., 1878, pp. SU-I81) and Dt Oadow, " On certain point* In
tb* Anatomy aTnaraalat' (gp. tU., 1883, pp Slt-SSZ). (A. N.)
8ANDHUKST, a city irf Tictmia, Anetralia, in tha
coan^ of Bendigo, in aitaated in 36' 16' & lat and
144* 17' E. long., at a height of 768 feet above the eca,
DD Bendigo Cteek (a anb-tribntaiy of the Mnrraj), lOOJ
milee noith-north-west of Helbooma by the railway to
Echnca. Built on an exhaneted part of old goidGeldi of
Bendigo (ISSl), and long bettor fcnoim bj that namc^
Saadhaiat, which became a mnnidpalitj in 18S0, a
borough in 1863, and a dty in 1871, has been gradnally
mo'king itaelf clear of the im^lari^ and dieordet
tdiAractenatic of abandoned minee and qnarti-cnuhing
entetprieea. Fall Hall, the principal atreet, consists of
good honeei of two and three atoriee ; and, beaides banks,
inaioaiice officea, hotels and churches (many of ivhich are
Dent of ent* la
* Some alight addltlona to and eoTrectloht of that aaxtunt may bare
baglTM. AdTtheiiirp1elittated[/N(, 1871, p. 323) to hsTe twen
killed In Zani))e in 1B6S, namely, at Perpignaa la Fnne*. Onn ia
beliaredtahaiobinoHalDadat M-near ATc1iaiigBl(/i4i, 1873, p. K);
but the report of ne in ffidlj protce to havo bevn a mittakr, and
Rlmloi, on the Adriati*, temaina 111* moit aouthern Itillao locallly
rcacJieil tn 1«». Blnea 1873 a male obUineJ near Modena in May
1878 (fN^ 18B1, p. SM), aod a pair, ooa of whldh wu ihawn to the
mtur, in tha wnaty of Klldai* la Inland, the following October
iZoclegitl, 1BT7, p H], era all that ait known to have occumd ia
W«*t*n Earopa.
anUtantial buildings), then, are in Sandhont Ooveni-
ment and municii*! offices, a hoaphal, a banetolant
asylum, a nechanics* institate and school of mines, a
theatre, and eevenl haUn RosalinJ Park, oppoaita Fall
Mall, the Camp Reserve^ und the Botanical Oardsns are
the princip.i] pieaaure (rrounda. A good inpply of water
has bean secured by the conBtniction of five targe teaer-
Toirs Apabls of storing ia the aggregate npwarda of
622,600,000 gallons. Besides gold-mining, which in tbe
SindbutEt district employs 6800 minere, the local indns-
tries are brewing, i^oQ^aating, coach-building, the workjog
of bricks and tiles and earthenware, and tanning. Tbe
popnktioD of tbe city (which is divided into three wwde
—Sutton, Darling, and Barkly) was 28,662 in 1881, The
*alM of rateable property ia ^1,663,S10.
SAN DIEOO, a city and port of entry of tbe United
States chief town of Ban Diego county, California, IB
miles north of the Mexican frontier. It hsa a land-locked
harbour 5J milos long and neit to San Francisco the best
on the Pacific coast of the States, is the selected terminus
of the Texas and Pacific Railroad, and baa recently become
a fashionable winter rejort owing to the temarkabia steadi-
ness of its winter climate (mean annual l«aiperatnre 6S').
San Diego was fonnded by Roman Catholic missionaries
in 1769. In 18S0 it had only 2637 inhabitants, but they
have since increased to upwards of 6000. In the eoonty u
a lake of boiling mad half a mile long by 000 yaids wide.
SAN DOMINQO, or Sahto DoMiifoo. See Hayti.
B&NDOMIR, or Sedouhkz, a town of Koasian Poland,
in the province of Radom, is one of the oldest towns of
Poland, bung mentioned in annals as early na 1079 ; from
1139 to 1333 it was the chief town of the principality.
Under Casilnir III it received extensive privileges and
reached a high degree of prosperity and strength. In
1429 it was tbe seat of a congresa for the establi^ment of
peace with Lithuania, and in 1670 the well-known "Coo-
seosus Sandomiriensia " was held there for muting the
Lutherans, Calviniats, and Moravian Brethren. Bubee-
qnent wan, and especially the Swedish, rained the town
still more tlian numerous conSagrarions, and in the second
part of the 18th century it hsd only 2060 inhabitants. It
is now a quite unimportant place, bnt retains a few remark-
able monumenta of its past Tbe beautiful cathedral, rising
on a high hill above the Vistula, and facing the plains of
Gahcia, was built between 1120 and 1191 ; it was rebuilt
in etone in 1360, and is thus one of tbe oldest monumenta
of old Polish architecture. The churches of 8t Paul and
St James are fine relics Qf the 13th century. In 1881 tha
population was 6265, or, iodudiog the suburha, 14,710.
8AND0WAY, a dUtrict ia the south of the Araksn
division of British Burmah, ceded to the British by treaty
in 1636, embracing an area of 3667 aqnore mile^ and
bounded on the north by ths Ma-1 river, on the weet by the
Bay of Bengal, on the east by tha Arakin Mountains, and
on the south by tho Kbwa river. The whole face of the
QDuntry is mountainous, tbe Arakan tange sending out
spun which r«Bch down to the coast. Some of the peaks
in the north attain on elevation of over 4000 feet. Not
mors than one^ightcentb part of tbe surface can be called
plain ; and, except there, where rice cultivation is carried
on, and on the nill-Eides, where clearings ate made for
lounffs/a or nomadic cultivation, tbe cotmtiy is covered with
dense forest. There is nothing in the district that can be
called a river, the streams draining it being but mountain
torrents to within a few miles of the coast; the mouth of
the Khwa forms a good anchorage for vessels of from 9 to
10 feet draught. So far as is known of the geolog; of the
district, the rocks in the Yoma range and ita spun are
metaoiorphic, and comprise clsy, statea, ironstone, and in-
durated a^dslone'; towards the south, ironstrac^ trap, and
1 A N — S A N
rocki of basaltic chuactor an commoD ; veina of steatite
and white fibrous quartz ore also found In tbe district
cottoB, tug*r-caDa, dAaHi )i«lma, uid yniaL Tlio reVonno ia 1883-84
«u £lS,eTB, tli« iud tu mduiDg £8749 ot that imount. Tl^is
■nonDtuDoni uid fDn■^d>d couiCit, witli nich > amull cultirBbla
.. ._ ', tho popofation ,. .
81 being Olilir "^'9° (mll« 32,708, femalils 31,304] ; of tbil
la, U mnelj inhabil'id, tha popalE
si bj the cenini
DnmboT H, 168 ireis BuddhiaU. Than an no Uwna with > populi
tipa BicoxliDR 2000. Sandowaj, the chief town and IteadqaBrtan,
ou Iha riT«T ol tho aarai! Dunc, u 18' 37' 3G" N. Ut. aiidS4^ 24' 38'
E. iQDg., iasTarjandonttoirn, andlaaaid tohareboeaat ono tima
tha oapLtal of a kingdom, or mom ptobtblf of a pctt; cliicfhiiubip.
SANDFIPEK (Oeim Sandpfei/a-), according to
WUlaghb; in 1676 the name given bf Yoikshiremen to
the bitd now moit popalarly known in England aa the
" Snmmer-Snipe," — itio Trioffa Aypoltveo* ot Linnseua and
the ToCaWtu, AetilU, or Tringoida kypolrucui of later
writers,— but probablj even in Willoghbj'B time of much
wider dgnification, as for more than a centory it haa
cerlainlj bean applied to neartj all the smaller kinda of
the gronp termad b^ modem ornithologists Ltmuotn
which ore not Plovkhs (vol. lix. p. 227), or Skipes
Iq.v.), bat may be aaid to be intennediate between them.
Placed by moat ajateniBtiste in the fami!; SaJopacidx, the
birds commonly called Sandpipers seem to form three
■ectioDS, whicb have been often regarded aa Sabfamilies —
Tolanina, Trin^tuc, and Phalaropoiliiu^ the last indeed in
*ome claniGDationi taking the higher rank of a Family-^
riudampodida. This section comprehends three species
only, known as Fhalaropes or swimming SandpipeiB, which
are at once diBtingoished by the membranes that fringe
their toes, in two of the species forming marginal k>bes,>
and by the character of their loner plumage, which is as
close at that of a Duck, and is obvioosly connectad with
their natatory habits. 'The distinctions between Totaninx
and Tringina, though believed to be real, are not so
easily drawD, aod space is wanting here to describe them
minutely. The most obvions may be said to lie in the
acute or blunt form of tho tip of the bill (with which is
associated a lass or greater development of the sensitive
oervee rannin^ almost if cot quite to its extremity, and
therefore greasy influencing the mode of feeding) and in
the style of plnmage — the Tringints, with blunt and
flexible bills, mostly assuming a anrnmer^dress in which
Bome tint of chestnut or rsddish-brown is very prevalent,
while the Totaniiue, with acute and sttSer bills, display no
mch lively colours. Furthermore, the Tringitim, except
when actually breeding, frequent the aea-sbora much more
than do the T<danitut* To the latter belong the Obbch-
BaaNK (voL xi. p. 173} and RmaaAKK (voL xx, p. 317),
a* well as the Common Sandpiper of English books, the
"Summer-Snipe" above-mentioned, a bird hardly exceed-
ing a Skylark in size, and of very general distribnt^oQ
throughout the BHtiah Islands, but chiefly freqaeoting
clear streams, especially those with a gravelly or rocky
bottom, and most generally breeding on the beds o^ sand
or shingle OD their banks. Ittisually makeeits appearance
ia May, and from thence daring the Bammer-moDtbs may
be seen ia pain skimming gracefully over the water from
one bend of the stream to another, attoring occasionally a
> ThcH an Pkalarepvi fiUicariiu and P. {m Labipa) kyptrhartut,
KnA on that account wen thon{[bt bj lome of the oldei vrlten to he
atliail to tbe Coots [>dL tI. p. 341). Thg thiid epeclei la P. (or
Af Tunojnu) leilumi. All are iwtiTea of the higher parts of the northem
beailaphera, aod the lart la e>f«<lial1j American, though perhslia a
*tra)!sli» to Europe.
■ There an unfoitgnatat]' no Engliih irorda adeitnita to eipreaa
thew two wclioni. Bf ume Britlab wrilen the TriKgiiut have been
luilkntad u "HUnte," a term cognate with Stunt and whnHy inapplle-
tbe name ot "Sandpiper," and call the Tolatmm, to wblcb Out aam«
\t eipoclally appntpiiit*, " WllUti."
shrill but plaintive whistle, or nmning nimblj along the
margin, the moose-coloured plumage ot its back and winga
making indeed but little show, though tbe pore white ot
its lower parts often rendera it conspicuous. The nest, in
which four eggs are laid with their pointed ends meeting
ia its centre (as is nsnal among Limicoline birds), is seldom
far from the water's edg^ and tbe egga, aa well as the
newly-hatched and down-covered young, ao closely resemble
the surrounding pebbles that 'it takes a sharp eye to
discriminate them. Later in the Beason family-partiee may
be seen abont the larger waters, whence, as autumn
advances, they depart for t^eir winter-qaortera The
Common Sandpiper is found over the greater part ot the
Old World. Ia summer it is the most abundant bird of
its kind in the extreme north of Eorope, and it extends
across Asia to Japan. In winter it makes its way to
ludio, Australia, and &e Cape of Good Hope. In America
its place is taken by a closely kindred speciea, which is said
to have also occurred in England — T. mawfan'iu, the
" Peetwee^" or Spotted Sandpiper, so called from its usual
cry, or from the almost circular marks which spot its lower
plumage. In habits it is very similar to its congener of
the Old World, and in winter it migrates to the Antilles
and to Central and South America. Of other Tolanina,
one of tbe moat remarkable is that to which the inappro-
priate name of Qreen Sandpiper haa been assigned, the
Totanu* or Helodromcu ixhroptu ot omithob^ts, which
moat curiously differs (so far as is known) from all others
of the group both in its osteology * and mode of nidifica-
tion, the hen laying her eggs in tbe deserted nests of other
birds,— Jaya, Thmshe^ oi Pigeons, — but nearly always
at some height (from 3 to 30 feet) from the ground
(/Vw. Zoot. Society, 1863, pp. 629-632). This species
occurs in England the whole year ronnd, and ia pie-
aumed to have bred here, though the fact haa never
been satisfactorily proved, and our knowledge of its erratic
habits comes from natarolists in Pomerania and Svreden ;
yet in the breeding-season, even in England, the cock-bird
has been seen to rise high in air and perform a variety of
evolations on the win^ all the vrbile piping what, without
any violence of huignage, may be called « aong. This
8and[iii>er is characterised by its dark npper plnmage,
which contrasts strongly with the while of Uie lower part
of the back and gives the bird as it flies away from its dis-
turber much the look of a very large Hoose-Uartin. Hie
so-called Wood-Sandpiper, T. glareola, which, though much
less common, is known to have bred in England, has a
considerable reeemblance to tbe species last mentioned,
but can at once be distihguiBhed, and often as it flies, by
the feathers ot the axillary plnme being white barrsd wi^i
greyish-black, while in the Qreen Sandpiper they are
gr^ish-black barred with white. It is an abnndant trird
in most parts of northern Europe, migrating in winter
very far to the southward.
Of the section Tri*ginm the best known are the Ekot
(voL xiv. p. 129) and tbe Dunlin, T. alpina. The latWr,
often also called Ox-bird, Plover'e-Page, Purre, and Stint,—
names which it shares with some other species,— not tmly
breeds commonly on many of the elevated moors of Bntaia.
but in autumn resorts in countless flocks to the shores, where
indeed a few may be seen at almost any time of year. In
seasonal diversity of plumage it is scarcely excelled by any
bird ot its kind, being in winter of a nearly uniform aah-
grey above and white beneath, while in summer the
feathers ot the bock are bkck, with deep rust-coloured
edges, and a broad black belt occupies tbe breast The
' It poaaetiKB an1]r ■ alnile pair of poatnlor "omai]tiastiou"(all*
■temnm, In tbii napect monUInK the Run [iupi% f. H). , Arnng
the PLovtBs(vol. ili: p. 127} and Smct^'*-) ether ibaHvljei'
S A N — S A N
2R1
Danliii nnm eotuoAaaiij in lue, uid to kiiiw otcat
Moonling to ktealitj, arnnplo* from Nortk J^mericft bcdng
■Imoat ilwt,j% raeogniablo from their t;reatar bulk, while
in Eon^M. beudea the onUnur f<»m, there appeMs to be
A iDwUer noe which has reeeired the name at T. trlunti,
bat DO othra diSerenoe is peneptible. la the hneding-
MMon, while performing the uutoi; flight! in iriiich like
all Saodpipem he iodolgee, the male Dunlin otlen a mo«t
pecnliai and for-eunn^g wfaiitle, qoite impoeuble to
■fllablt^ and loinewhaC reaembling the oontinoed rin^og
of a high-toned bnt jret mosical b^ Next to Che Dnnlia
and Knot the oommoneit British Ti-iatginm are the Bnnder-
linft C'Uidru armana (to be distingniahed from ererj
Other bird of the gronp by wanting a hind toe), the Purple
Sandpiper, T. ttnuia or Murifuto, the Corisw-Sandpiper,
T. m/Mivwi/ii, and the LitUe and Temminck^ Btinti, T.
MiMdu aitd T. temmincH, bnt want of apace foffcida mm
than the record of their namet ; and for the Mune raaaon
no notice can here be taken of the man; other i|;>eciei,
ehieflj Amerioan,' belonging to thia group. Two other
birda, howaTer, most be mentioned. Theee are the
Braad-biUed Sandpiper, T, plalfrhpuM, of the Old
Wodd, which eeema to be more bnipe-iike than an; that
are niDally kept in this taction, and the marTeUooB
SpooD-billed Sandpijier, SuriitorAjHicAiu pygnunu, wfaoae
true home baa itLl to be ditcorered, according to the
experionoe of Baron Nordenil^jdld in the memorable
Toyage of the "Vega." (a. x.)
SAKDHOCOTTUS (CBAXiiRXOVm), founder of the
Uaorja kingdom in India. See Iirsu, toL ziL p. 787, and'
PcKSLi, ToL xriii. f. 586.
SANDUUKY, a city of the United Statei, the capital
of Erie conn^, Ohio^ Ilea at ths month of Sandnakj nver,
SIO miles by rail north-eant of Cincionati, and ia hand-
somely bnilt of limettona from the inbjacent strata on
gronnd rising gradually from the Bh<»e of I^ke Erie. The
coort house and the high school are both of conaideiable
architectural note. Beeidea being the centre of a great
Tioofrowing district, Sandusky has the largest freshwater
filth market in the United States is the seat of the Btata
fish-hatchery (which annually pate about 3,000,000 yonog
whitefiah into the lake), and has attained a reputation for
the manufacture of snch wooden articles as handlee, apokea,
"bant work" lor carriage^ carpenten' toola, io. The city
is coextenuve with Portland township. Its population was
13,000 in 18T0 and 1S,838 in 1880.
BAITDWICH, an English borough, market-town, and
Cinqne Fort, is situated in the east of Kent, oppoeite the
Doni^ on a branch of the Bouth-Eastem Railway, and on
tho Stoor, 2 milee from the sea, 13 miles east of Canter-
buy, and 4 north-west of DwL The streets are narrow and
the iKKuet insularly built The okl line of the walla on
the land nde ia marked by a public walk. The Fishers'
Oata and a gateway oalled the Barbican are inter«eting ;
bat the four priooipal gatea were palled down in the hut
oeatnry. Bt Claownt's diorch haa a fine Norman central
tower, and Bt Peter*!, nid to date from the leiga of King
John, has intareatiitg medinval monnment& The grammar
school fonndad by Sir Roger Uanwood in 166i is now in
abeyanoa. lliere an thMe ancient hoepitala; Bt Bar-
thcdomow'a haa a fine Early English chapel of the 13th
eentnty. Until the tx^nnmg of tlie ISth centoiy fiaod-
wich waa of oonsideraUe importance aa a port, but after
the filling up of the harbour with sand aboot the bc^n-
ning of the IGth century it fet^ into decay. The prindiial
indnatriea of the town are market-gardening tB'^"in)t,
wool-aorting, and brewing. Ccal, timber, and iron ate
imported. Sandwich retoraed two members to parliament
till 1880, and was merged in the Bt Augnatine's dtTinion
of the oonnty in 18SG. Ihe parliamentary boron^, which
indnded Deal and Walmer {area 3684 acres), bad in 1681
a population of 16,6&D, while that of the unnidpal
borough (area 706 acres) waa SS46.
la thd Koniuo it
■lit ialhsIOthina Ilth'cc
in the suidi.
■ A "Xonegrtph at Iha Triui/tm of North Aniula'' bf Prof. Coua
vas pibtUlHd in Uw PrtBttHtga at th« PUUdglphii AeHlunr tor
IMI (m lAO-WSX bat b of coBin mv oot of dot*. SciiKetl'a
IM ar"«MyMK"lata*Jf(HlHi.<«i'a)w-Aat li ths but (ocn)
lUHripUoa «• ha**, bat Ihit ti oiilf ■ I<* T«n tttar (18S4), suit
nqsins Bub — -^1F— f'-l to )w put an ii 1ml with tb* koowMit*
of tha piMMt day. The nty nn TWngu leianptera at tbs oldw
— '-a^lati, flfand irj Idthm (Ar<uv<<', fl- 82), the tTP* of tha
"" *" - iloba fwOly s EtslUns totm
iLp. SKI
rJimdcrsd b; ths Fnneh Id tha Uch Mtttnrr. It na flxtiflad bj
BiIwudTL Sandwich vsa iuHirparatBd bj Edvsnl lbs CoiTaanr,
and noaind iti last ohartar from Chsrlss IL
SANDWICH, Edward Uomor, T-'-"- oi (1030-
1672), genenl and admiral, was the aoa of Bir Bidn^
Montagu, youngest brother of Edward Lord Montagu of
Bon^lon, and waa bom 27th JuJ^ 1625. In Angoat
1 643 be raised a rt^meot in the serrice of tlia FarliaoMn^
with which he specially diatingoished himaelf at Mataton
Moor, Naseby, and the aiege of Bristol He waa a
member of the "Little Parliament" (1663), and one of
tha committee lot regulating the cnstoma. In November
fas was elected to ths conncil of state. In the flnt Pro-
tectorate parliament he sat for Huntingdonshire. Id
January 1656 he ancceeded Penn as admiral, and he was
associated wilh Blake in his expedition to the Uediter-
ui in the aama year. After tha treaty with France
Bgainat Sjjain in 16S7 ha held command of the fleet sent
to prevent die relief of tho three coast towns — QravaUnea,
Mardika, and Dunkirk — beaicged by the French, and was
sneoessfnl in defeating an attempt by a great ^laniah
force to retake Uardika. After the death of Crmnwell
he waa sent with a fleet to the North Sea to enter into
tiations with the Northern poweia, bn^ commnni-
cations having been opened with him on bebaU of
Charles IL, he returned to England only to find that the
conspiracy of Bir George Booth had miacarried, where-
upon, after a lame explanation, he waa dismissed from hia
command. At the Bestoiation, having commanded the
fleet which conveyed the king to Eng^nd, he wta made
Knight of the Carter, and soon afterwards olevated to the
peerage as Baron Montagn of St Neota, Viscount Bin-
cbinbrokc^ and Earl of Sandwich. During the war with
the Dutch in 1664-65 he commanded the Blue sqnadron
under the duke of York, and specially distinguished him-
self iu the great batUe of 3d Jane 1669. After his tetnm
to England he was sent to negotiate a peace between
Spain and Fortagal, and also a treaty of commene with
Spain. On a renevral of the war in 1672 ha again eom-
maoded the Blue squadron under the duka of York, and
daring the Sght in Southvrold Bay, on the 28th Hay, hia
ahip^ the Bo^ Jamee, waa set on fire by tha Dntch, when
he leaped overboard and was drowned. Hia body waa
found a fortnight afterwards, and was intemd in Bmxj
VIL's Chapel, Westminster Abbey.
Lord Sandwtch'i tranalaldon of a 8]iaiiuh work on ths Jtt </
llatalt br Alvan Alonao Bubs (1«U) sj.uoand in 1«74. Savsid
of hia lettOTS dnriog tha Bpaniah Duoliationa hava bseu pabUAsd
f n Arlinsbm'a iMten, sod vaiicDa Mtton to kin bjr Cramwall will
be foimd in Carlyls's OrommO. a«* also OriflMl UUm and
IfegetiaUnt ^ Sir mdard KauAtuct, Of Barl <^ SamtwiA, It*
Bart </ Bm>itrUmd,aai Sir Wmiam Otdtfykdt, wlutti* Dtfnt
MantnbitmmauTkrmVniamtifEu^a>ii,Braiit,a»iFtrtftgut
fnm 1S03 la ICTS an ml in a eltar UfU.
SANDFICH, JoHir Momtaoh, Fouxth Soh or
(ni6~lm), waa bom 3d Novembar 1718, and
2G2
8 A N — S A N
IiiB gnnd&ther io the earldom, SOth Octobor 1729. He
wu edacftted at Eton ind at Trinity College, Cambridge,
which he entered ia 1739. After a vojage loUDd the Hedi-
teiraaean, he returned to England and began to take an
active inteiett in politics u a inpporter of Sir Robert
Walpole. A clear and iQcid rather than a brilliant
driialer, hie etyle of addreee always won the attention of
hia aodienca, and his accurate knowledge secured their
reipect. He high opiaion the QoTenunenC entertained
of hia judgment and hia diplomatic abilitiea wm evidenced
by hia appointmeat in 1746 as plenipotentiary to the
congreaa at Breda, which waa coatinued till peace was
negotiated at Alz-la-Chapelle in 1718. On hia return he
berame Crat lord of the admiralty, retaining the poet
until June 1791. He held the tame office from 1763 to
1765, and again from 1771 till the diaaolution ot Lord
North's admioiitration in 1783. He died SOth April
1793. Hia Toyage Emmd the MediUrranean was pub-
liahed posthumously in 1799, accompaaied with a memoir.
BANDWICH ISLANDa See Hawuux Ibumixi.
BANDYS, OiOBQR (1677-1644), famoiu in the reigna
of Jamea L and Cbarlee I. u a traveller and a metrical
translator. He was bora in 1C77, the youngest son ot an
archbishop of York, studied at St Mary Hall, Oxford, and
afterwards probably at Corpus Christi, and began his travels
in 1610. The record of tham was a substantial contribn-
tion to gei^Taphyand ethnology, written in a style always
interesting «nd often eloqnent, intersperaed with versified
scrap* of quotations from classical authors. He travelled
from Venice to Constantinople, thence to Egypt, thence
by way of Mount Binai to Palestine, and back to Venice
by way of Cyprus, Sicily, Naplea, and Rome. IaIst on
in bia life he published translations of Ovid's MOamor-
phoiet, the first book of the ^neid, and varioua books of
Scripture. His verse was praised by Dryden, and de-
servedly so, for it haa vitality aa well as a clearly marked
[hytbm. He died in 1644. Belections from his poetry
were published by the Bev. H. J. Todd in 1S39.
SAK FERNANDO, formerly Ibla db Lkoh, a fortified
city of Spain, In the province of Cadiz, near the head of
the inner bay, and 9^ miles by rail from the city of Cadii
(see ToL iv. p. 627), is a modern town with straight and
level streets, two churches, tWo hospitals, several barracks,
and a school of navigation, with an observatory. It
coDsideraUe trade in the salt produced in the neighbouring
"Salinas." The population within the municipal limita
(which iuclnds the '.' poblacion" of San Carlos and the naval
arsenal of LaCorraea) wai returned aa 26,346 in 1B77.
SAN FRANCISCO, a city of the TJnitad StatM, the
largeat eommercial city of California and of the Pacific
ooail, is situated in 37* 47' S3"'GS N. lat and 133° 25'
40''7S W. long., on the end of a peninsula which has tlie
Pacific Ocean on one side and the Bay of Ban Franeisoo on
the other. The width of this tongue at land within tlie
city limita is about 6 miles, and ita whole Isngth about 36.
The original ute ol San Franeiaco waa ao tininviting that
many ol the pioneen doubtad if a plaoe of mofdi importance
oould ever spring up there. The hills (BoMian Hill, 360
feet ; Teleg^h Hill, 394 feet ; and a number of others,
ranging from 76 to 120 feet) were barren and precipitoua,
and the interspaces, especially on the westerly side, were
made up largely of shifting eand-dunea; on the east side,
however, the land sloped gently towards the bay, and there
was the fnrther advantage of a small cove extending inland
nearly to the present line of Montgomery Street. This cove
bai aince beea filled up and built over. After an attempt
to found tha commercial metropolis at Benicia, SO miles
north on the Btraits of Carquinez, it waa evident that no
Othw pltM within MUy distance from the ocean poaaeaeed
•0 manj tdnntaflM for tha ato of « eiij w Uua bama
peninanla. The Bay of San Franeisoo i* reached from tha
ocean throngh the Oolden Oate, a itrait abont S mile*
long and averaging 1 mile in width, with a depth of 30
' et on tha bar at the entrance and from 60 to 100 feet
L^in. The bay, which extends past the city in a south-
■outh-eaat direction for about 40 miles, is about seven
miles wide in front ot the city, while its greatest width ia
13. Connected with fts Bay of San Francisco on the
north by a strait 3 miles wide is Baa Pablo Bay, abont 10
miles in length and the same in breadth, haviDg at ita
eitieme northerly end Mare Island, the sits of the" navj
yard. This bay, again, is connected bj the Btnuts ^
Carquinea with Saunn Bay, 8 milea long and 4 wide.
The total length of these bays and connecting straits is 6S
mile*. This great inland water, sheltered and for the moat
part navigable by the largest ^aft, reeeivec the two great
bvlnsw of Bui Fniicho&
river* of California, the Sacramento and the Son Joaquin.
In tlie Bay of Son Frandsco are Akatrai lalond ^30 acre*),
stron^y fortified ; Angel Island (800 acres), fortified; and
Verba Bneua, or Ooat Island (abont 300 ocrea).
The preaidlo or fortified settlement of Sao Francisco
waa founded on 17th Baptember 1776, and the mission
(San Francisco de loa Doloraa) in the following October.
In 1830 the population of the preaidio consisted of about
fifty Spanish soldiera and oScere; these added to the
number at the mission made an aggregate population of
about 300. Beech;, who visited the harbour and prendin
in 1836, has left the following deacription;—
Thi govsrnor'ii sbods wu in ■ oorner of th< preaidio, snd formod
rod of ■ raw of whinh tha nthur vu H-ir.'-.! U- • ..I.>»l ' th*
OM md of s row of which the oChi
naiti lids was brokau di:
ibiih sad bonH, di
■h sad bonH, on whicli JhIuIi. dogs, and nltare* inn cob-
Iv inrii^ The othn- two rids of th« qwdnngle coDt*in>d
boDH^ utiaan' iboni, and ths jsll. ill bailt la th( hoBiblwt
withhuUrbnniBlbriaksiBdnwMwitlitika Tlia obapd sad
SAN FRANCISCO
263
na preaidio taitioBan was about 300 jard* aqiure.
Id mi, when it wla lecnlanied and began to be known
by tke anmlar Dame of Terba Bnena, the muaion Dolorss
had a pt^Hiktion of SOO. In the rammei of 1846 an
Amaricac man-irf-war took potseniou of llie place. In the
earij part of 1849 the iababitaota numbered ahoDt 2000,
and die ambiyo city bod tlreadj come to be known bj iti
Intore oatne of San Fnadaco. In conwqnence of the di>-
eojerj of gold in CaUfonua a atrong drift of popnlation
Kt in tomnb the placer minea, and at the end of 1849
there were 20,000 jmople in the city. The first legielatare
of California granted a charter to San Franciaca on Id Hay
1850. Prior to that data the goTemment of the pneblo
bad been administered by an alcalde. The pueblo grant
onginally made by ^e king of Spain contained four aqoar^
(Spanish) leagaea of land; thia grant was subsoqneQtiy
oonfinned to San Fran-
daco by an Act of Con-
greaa. The jnriadiction
of tko mnnieipatity ez-
tenda orer the islands in
the bay. The ana in-
dnded in tbe limits of the
d^ axceeds the original
four aqnare leagaee con-
siderably, incloding what
wme originally denomi-
natad " swamp and ovvf- -
flowad lands' (sM Dwi-
nelle's Ccionial Hidory). -
In tba first stages of =
ita history the boildinga *=
of Qie dty were chiefly
frf wood, — in tnaay case*
the fiames and coverings
having been brought fr(»a
ths Atlantic States roaud
Cape Horn in tailing
TeseeU. Within a few '
months of the ettablisb- ~
neotof miinicipal govern-
ment the dty soffered
aererely on more than
one occaMon from fire.
The fire of 4th Hay 18S0
destroyed property to
the falne w aboat
•3.000,000; another in
the following month was
rt4,000,«00) ; and the
daioage' reanlting from a
third in September waa
estimated at 9500,000.
These occnrrencm natnrally led to the employment of more
■nbatantial building material in some casea, granite being
imported from China for soma baildings, and iron and
bruk being nsed to a cuuiderable extent on otlun ; bat
to this day nearly all the private dwdlings of the dty are
of wood. Binca 1850, however, the damage ftom txo in
the portion of the aty occapied by private hoosee bae
beea remaikably small, — partjy becaose of the use of red-
wood instead of [nne. In the bnsinees hoosee erectod
recently the increase of solidity and costliness has been
vm; narked.
Throo^iont a condderable part of the dty tha staets
am laid out iit rsctangnlar form, and nowhere with any
refarmee to the natnial elevations. T\m moat important
I th(«oaghtan is Uarket Btreet, extending from
er front at the Uny landings to tbe hills on tha
\
west, a distance ci 3 milea or inor& The more important
streets are paved for the meet part with cobble stonea and
basalt blocks ; but asphalt on a stone or concrete fonnda-
tion has begun to be nsed. Among the pnblic buildings
and inetitotionf of San Francisco are the mint, apiiraiaers*
stores, aubtreasury, cnstom-hoasa, merchants' exchange,
stock exchange, city-hall, indnstrial school, hooae of correc-
tion, alnuhooM, Masonic Temple, new Oddfellows' bnilding,
safe deposit, and seven theatres and opera-boasea. The
Palace Hotel cost fS,2CK),000, and can accommodate 1200
gaealA. The city has eleven public squares. Its greatest
attractioD is the Ooldeo Gate Park of lOCO acrea, 3 miles
long and half a mile wide, having the ocean for its Bitrema
westerly boundary. The greator part of this ar«a was for-
merly a shifting eand-dona. An extensive glasa-house in
a central podtion ie filled with the rarest tropical and aemi-
tropical plants and shrubs ; a large put of tba sna is
planted with forcat trees, or is laid down in gnM; tlM
wklke and drives are wall planned and well kept.
Ban Frandsoo is trarersed in variooa directioDi by
horse railroads, which extend from the water front to tu
enbnrfaa. Th^ are also SO miles of wire cable madi^
which an yeariy increaaing. Ihese cable taamwaya
extend 2 milea on Clay Street, overcoming an deration
of 120 feet, ^e coat of their constrtiction and eqoip-
ment has ranged bom 9100,000 to (125,000 pw mile^
The speed ii nsnally about 5 milea an bov. San Ras-
cisco ii the terminus of two cDoliDeotd railw^n^ vhc, die
Union and Central Pscifie and the Sonthent Fadfie;
while a third, the Atlantic and FadBc^ enten tba Aiy am
a leased line from Hohare. . Two narrow-gaage linai lad
ono bnxd-nwt^ ncli lass than > htrndred iniksJtB& to
364
IAN PHANCISCO
important points in the StaU^ tuo connectod with the dtj
hj meaoi of faniw.
The population o( San Fiaadaec^ u tbawa by the
cenitia retuin^ wu 34,000 in 1S50; in 1860, 66,803;
in 1870, 149,473 ; uid ia 1H80, 233,959 (132,008 nuJai,
101,351 fomoles); ia 1885 it was edtimatad, on the baius
of the ichool eensna, at 375,000 (Chinoae, 30,000). At
the lait proBideatid election (1664^ the total vote CMt in
the dtj wiu 60,167, tha totai foreiga Tote being 25,954;
ot tkaae 13,637 were British (10,206 of them Iiiah) and
7053 GermAoa. Of ths 00,468 children in the city nndcr
Mventeen reported for the fiscal year 1884-35, 50,973
lukd foTugn-bom pArenti, aad 1<'>,460 more hod one parent
of forugn origin. In aocjal cnatotna, trade uugea, amiue-
menta, ind r^igiout obeervancei, the large foreign popu-
lation of B&n Fnociaco contributes materialty to the
formation of ita liberal and coemopolitan character.
AdKinutntian, ^— In Jnly ISM ths cEtj ud county, which
onCil than kad auintain«d Hpanto gov^mmDatM, wan conaalidHtDd
Id on* orgtnintlon. Tha ROTaninient li idminiitsnil b; ■ mijor
■nJ ■ boud of twain aaparrlMra, with tba luiul pffloin eommon
to lODIlicinal and aomitj organiaationa. Then la alao a luperinr
rourt harW twelva dapurtmenta, with ono jndge far aach, ■ pclica
oourt, ud jualicea' coaiii. Thg luprenu court o( tho Btateholdi
a uambor of tarma aooh year in San rrancivn. Tha U. S. diitrict
and eircolt oourta alao hold ragnlar terroi in tho cltf. Then ia a
wa1l-argani»d and aOldent police fores of 4D0 men. On lat Jnly
lasi the Bn dopartmcut had BIS men. Tha citf 1* aappliad with
■H by two soniianiea. Water ia anppUed hj tho Bniing VallaT
Compaay, tvinriFally from Sun Hates oonnty. Tht water b
bffongfat in thne linea of wronght-lion pipe: the largest, which
caDDeet* the Uryital 8prin«a naerroir with the oity, la 44 Inchea
in dianuter and 31 mllea In length. The daily conenrnption of
*al*r la aboat 18,000,000 gallona. Tha comiany it able to supply
U,000,000 gallona daily.
FituHU*.--'nA aaaeaament roll of panewl proparty in ISSS
showed a Taloa of tS4,6t4,6fl0, — that of leal atlsla and inpnTo-
Bunta being rstnmed at SIT1,4S3,I2fl. The actnal Talne la not
loea than •3G0,(»a,00a. The debt of the nnnidpality ii 8} million
doUara. Than aia twelrs Incorponted conunonial or dtacoont
bonka, with an aggregata paid-np oanital of t31,047,H5, and a
anqilua (lit July ISSG) of %&.Hl,W. The total aaiata an aat
down at (£0,894,973. There an alio a unmber ot private banka.
Then an eight Kiinga banka, all bat one of theae baling aome
paid-up capital, ths asgrsgate of whiah ia (1,0^1,200. Theeo
Lanka on the lit of Joly lest held deposits to tho amoant of
|SZ,tTT,74S ; thoy had abo a torploa beyond the paid Qp capital
of «a,0«7,10B. The banka hiTing a anbH:ribed aad paid-np capital
pay ngolar dirtlendi on the entin amount ot nominal capital and
aboDt 4t per oenL per annnm to dapoaltora.
a>eii»rM,— Tha aiporta by water for ths fiscal year Iga4-8E
•mouatod to |3T,1T0,S0D, and the Emporta to (37,171,100; ths
itanuof import and eipurt by mil bring the total np to (80,000,000.
The duties coUoclod on uuporta were (8,810.400. Ths treaaun
ahlppod amonntod to (17,M0,000 ; and tha eiporta of quicluilTeT
wen 14,900 Raaku, Talued at (438,800. The recsipta of treaauro
from all prodnotiire aonnee woet of the Uiiaoari, incfoding Moiico,
nachoil a tolst of (40, 3ES, 83I>, and the coinage at tho mint in San
Fnnciaco waa of tha Talne ot (33,7Ga,0Oa, with an addition of
(l,HKI,0(W on fonign uoonnt Tin tailing ihipa sntsiing the
port nnmbered 819 (804,200 tons) ; the attsman ware £3IL Among
ths ImpoHs wan—caOes, 19,Ma,800 lb i logar, 1(^874,870 lb ;
ooal, 900,000 tons ; Inrobar, 387,184,000 het (8^ 754,000 (oet nd-
wood, 17T,S0e,00Q taot pine, the rsmalndai mbcollaiieooa). The
aiporti of wheat wef« 1,001,900 Uma, Talood at •S&79I,E0a ; tbit
■inantity was exported in 888 thlpa, the frrigbta to Eiuvpe nngins
fnim SfiiL to I8e. ed. per too. Kitith iron tailing v^b have ths
pnbnnoo for wheat aitportalion, and obtain thehigfaeat ntea. A
mnch larger claat oT Tceeela ii employed In thSe trade than rormorly,
the car^oea now areraging abont 8000 tont Then sra rogular
ateamahip tinet oonnectiag 8sn Franclaso with Ueiican, Central
AnMrioan, Anatralian, Hawaiian, Jspaucae, and Chiueee porta,
snd with tha chief port ol BriHili Columbia. The Pacific Whaling
Company owin fiye or all >Wps, prinoipally eteamera, employod in
the Antio whale fiahery. The aame mrnpimy has also eitoiisivo
worica for nlining tk< ofl hi Han Fnnciaco. Then la one ttono
dry (look adraittjni Teasela at 8000 tone, sod two or more floating
docks which can take on »™ieli from 600 to 800 ton* burthen. A
seawall it in procoia of conatmctian hy Stale authority round tha
deep-water front to praieot the ahoallug of tha water in the tUpa
namttlng in part fram ths gradoal wt^ifaw down d debris fMm
ths hills and^ttasp elopta of tba olty.
u — fcj ^„ ni^y y,^ msunlkotam nada slow pro-
(£,SD&,00
ta fron tha gnat contnt of popnlatiM^
(40,000,000. In 1885 S8,B19 poi , . .
mtimatad raloe for the bnaineas year ending let July —
(88 417,200. Buhjoinod an tome of ths leading mtuataotan*,
with the number ot persona emiployHl and tba annual Talus of
iivductlon i—bagi, 300, (1,M)0,O0a ; boota and ahara, SGOI\
; cigar-boiea, 380, ££,000,000 ; woodi-n boxot, iCft,
,., ; bni~-foundrio«, 860, (J8r.,000 ; limworiea, IM,
(a, 460,000; clgaim 8000,(1,850,000; clotliins, 1900, (S, 780,000 ;
ontTM and apiftn, (9011,000; conlnge and n\ya, 160, (000,000;
cruiiken, IBO, (OM,000 ; dry ilooke (iitDnt\ «, (876,000 ; tlonr, 17B,
(2,230,000 ; touuJrie^ 2000, (6,600,000 ; fun, 170, (SO0,DOO ;
(iirnllar*, 1000,(2,000,0001 Fae■nork^ 480, (13,000,000; Immp^
4(0, 81,160,000; JBircllery, 106, (000,000 ; Hii-.-.il oil, 66,
(800,000; picklotondfniita, 3000,(1,700,000; proTuiion -packinft
2JD, (1,900,000; nllins-mille, 660, (1,880,000 ; bwIio., doon, Ac,
1660, (6,010,000; ahip-yuilM, 200, (.WS,000 ; i-hirta, 2060,
(1,000,000; aotn, 190, (716,100 ; iu;jir.rvrmori(H, 300,(8,700,000;
Unnerioa. S38, (1,700,000; tinwato^ 180, (625,000; woollun-
milli, 1500, $1,900,000. In the laundricH, it may be adde<l, 938
wbitea and 1300 Chineae won employed.
Chardua ami CAarUia.— There are 70 Pnlntani i^hairbca in
the city, npreiontlng nearly all tha denominationa of the conutry.
Beaidea theae thore an 19 Komnn Cnthallo churchn and a nuxubrr
ot chipclt counoctod with the va.iani hoepitob and achoole. Tlion
an 7 lynagogoca and 1 Greek chnrch (BunluuX lnc!ndlii| tha
chapelt, the total nnmber of nlaeee ot womliip miy be tet down at
100. With few eiceptiona, the church edifioga an not impaing.
lid gmwth of the city wood ha* bi*n
-ing
lUacatdod
naoqnence of Ihi-
, lyed In a msjoritj
for atone. The aajrlunu and bene
and weil-aupporlei Ths mon pi —
the Pratotant Orphan Aijlum (314 rbihlnin), Ratbollo Oi^Jiall
Aajlum, Pacific Hebrew Orphiui Asylum, Uagdalrn Atylum, OU
Feople't Home, Udiea' Pntectlon and Belief Societr, Uttle Hiatsia'
InfantSholter, Soemea't Fiienda Boeie^, Sail rrancbno Betiaroleit
Hodety, ladiea' United Hebnn Beneiolent Sostcty, Bam Franeiaco
Trait snd rlower Hiarion, Yonng Ue^a Chri-rtian AuodaUon,
Pacific Hommopathio Diipontan, Lying-in Howiital. Benrlai
thete there an a great nnmlier of^ aeiociationa which can for their
membors, and In eomo inetanaa praride the Iwit moiiioal attaud-
anca in priTate hoapltale. Nearly all olaaiaa ot fonign saliiit*
hare eatabliihKl benerolent aseociationt ; Bridah, French, iiid
Oerruan iuetitutlont hsTo largo reaonrcea, and am mananed with
great efficiency. Noarlyallthe -.i-.. -
Ac) darotad in whole or In •
etrongly ropreaeuted.
PMk &Ai»Z>.— The fint pnblio achool wai eatablinheil In »ipA
1849. Then an now lii^-one ftne aehoola, with 4S,ME inpila
and an aTsrtga daily attondanoa of 33,181 nie uumlnr of
-'-^"-™ in tlis city bstwosn the an of fiye and atTentron y«»
. ...... -it 1880 wen 89,000. The number
_. , , employod in tho pnblio aohool
department waa 784, the number d lehDalhaiiaDa 86, end tha
aiponditnre for the fiacal year (817,183. The poblio Bi'lioola are
graded, tho higheet gradoe heina two high aohODls tor boye aiiJ
girla leapectiTely. Bctidee the ilay achool* a numlnr of eveulng
■chooia are proiided. There are upirarda ot 26,000 cbildno who
an to a large extent proTiiled with inttmction In imbllc and [iriTate
acbools other than those belonging to tho (reo-iobuol dopaitmrnt
There an abont 100 aehoola in the city, of all sni.n, which are
aupportod wholly hy fata and valuuUry contrilmtioua. Of th«t
tho Reman CaChoHa bare the gnetoat nnuilicr, the latter ini^lod-
iug two colleges and a namber of conront aL-hnoi*. Tho Prot«tant
donominaliona alao hava a number ot clamicil and aooondaty
tcboole of great eicnilanin. The pnlilic-»Jiool ■jeleui of tbeUtats
liminatea in the DniTcrtitr ot CaliromK which baa an afsR^ta
equal to about (3,000,000. The inititRtioo la Mtnalad
^ilul anbnrban town of Borkeley, on the oppotitS tide
tccoTilingt«
all pi
p UerkeloT), Inat
in aTenge atteuilance of about 76 atudentu Tha
late Jamaa Liok left a b^jowt of (540,000 for the endowment of a
School of Mechauic Arts, and among other beqaetta a large ons fM
' lemy ot Sdancu, fauuded m the earlj period olthe d^.
-"- -"--il department of San Fraiieiaeo It under tSa
'ha pnbli
dincion, one far each ward of thi mty. Thacetia aighteen[nbUa
Ubmriaa, inoludlng the tros llbrarr with BI 970 ToTsmet. Tha
Ibrtaitllla library Atsonlatlon has (1,000 TDlUBt^ lh« Hac^wia^
S A N— a A N
265
lutitBti 1S.0A0, tlw 0>Ur<in««^ lilmr AwcUUo
SAKGALLO, tbs Kinwnm of k Florentine £Kiiiil7,
MvemI mBmboiB of vhich becune diatingtiiafaed in the
fitMMta.
L OiuLiAKo Di 6umuAJ3 <1443-I817) wu k div
tingnuhod Ftorentins architect, icQlptor, lu^ton, Mid
military eogiiMer. Hii father, Franceeco di I^lo Oiam-
berti, was also aa able architect, tnocli emptojcd bj Ooaimo
do" HedicL I>iiring the gsjIj part of hia life Qialiano
worked chiefly for Loretuo the Magnificent, for whom he
built a fine palace at Poffgio-a-Cajano, between Florence
and Piatctta, and itrengthened. the fortificatioaa of Flor-
CDCB, CwteUana, and other placea. Lorenio also employed
him to baiU a monaatery of Atutio Friara ontaide the
Florentine gata of San GaJIo, a nobly designed itrnctare,
which wai destroyed during the aiege of Florence in 1930.
It was from this bailding that Giuliano received the
name ol Sangatlo^ which wai afterwards nsed by >o many
Italian architects. While still in the pay of Lotenio,
Ciiuliano visited Naples, and worked there for the king,
who highly appreciated bis services and sent him back to
Florence with many handsome presents of money, plate,
and antique sculptnre^ the last of which Giuliano presented
to bis patron Lorenzo, who was an enthusiastic collector
of works of classic art. After Loreoio's death in 1492,
Giuliano visited Loreto, and with great constructive skill
built llie dome of the chnrch of the Madonna, in spite of
•crioos difficnltioB arising from its detective piers, which
were already built. In order to gain strength by means
of a strong cement, Gitiliano built his dome with possolana
brongbt from Borne. Soon after this, at the invitation of
Pope Alexander VL, Qinliano irent to Rome, and designed
tlie fine panelled ceiling of S. Maria Maggiore. He was
aUo largaly employed bj Jnlius II., both for fortification
waUs round the castle of B. Angela, Kid also to bnild a
palace adjoining the church of B. Fietro in Tinooli, of
which Jidins had bean titular cardinal Giuliano was
mitch disappointed that Bramante was preferred to him-
Bslf as ardiitect for the new faaalljca of St Peter, and this
led to his returning to Florence, where be was warmly
received by tlie gontaloniere Pier Soderini, and did much
service to his native state by his able help a« a military
engineer and builder of fortressea during the war between
Florence and Pisa. Soon after this Giuliano was recalled
'to Borne by /alius FL, who had much need for his military
talents both in Some itself and also during hia attack
npo^ Bologna. For about eighteen months in lfill-1515
Gic'jano acted as joint-architect to St Peter's together
with Raphael, bat owing to age and ill-health he resigned
this offica about two yean before his death in 1517. But
little remains to enable one to judge of Qinliano's talents
in the artistic aide of hia profession ; the greater part of
kia life was spent on military works, in which he evidently
-ahowed great skill and practical knowledge of constructiou.
n. AirroNio DT BjUIouxo (14481-1034) was the
jonnger Imitber of Oinliano, and took from him the name
of Sangallo. To a great extent he worked in partnership
with his brother, bat he also eioented a number of inde-
peodent worka As a military engineer he was as skilful
•• Oinliano, and carried ont important works of walling
•ad building fortresses at Arezso, Montefiascone, Florence,
aod Rome. His finest existing work as an architect is
the cbnrch of S. Biagio at Montepnlciano, in plan a
Greek cross with central dome and two towers, much
leaesibling, on a small scale, Bremante's design for St
Peter'a He also built a palace in the same city, various
dnrcbes and palaces at Honte Sansavino, and at Florence
« range of monastic buildings tor the Bervite monks.
Antonio retired early from the practice of hia profession,
and spent bis latter yeaN in forming.
HL FxAKCEBoo m Badoallo (1133-1570), Hie son of
Giuliano di Sangollo, was a pupil of Andres Sansovinci,
and worked chiefly as a sculptor. Hia wotka have fgr the
meet part but little merit, — the finest being his noble
effigy of Bishop Leonardo Bonnfode, which lies on the
pavement of the church of the Certceo, near Florence. It
is simply treated, with many traces of the better taste of
the 15th century. His other chief existing work is the
gronp of the Virgin and Child and St Anne, executed in
1526 for the altar of Or San Michele, where it still stands.
rv. BxansKO di Bamqxllo (1481-1551), Florentine
sculptor and painter, was a nephew of Giuliano and
Antonio. He is nsoally known as Aristotile, a nickname
he received from his air of sententious gravity. He was
at Erst a pupil of Penigino, but afterwards became a
follower of Uiehelongelo. His life is given at great
length by Vasari, in spite of bis being an artist of very
raedioere powers.
V. Ajrroriio di Sakoallo, the yonnger (t-1546), another
nephew of Giuliano, went while very young to Rome, and
became a pnpil of Bramante^ of whose style be was after-
wards a close follower. He lived and worked in Rome
daring the greater part of hia life, snd was much employed
by several of the popes. His most perfect etisting vork
is the brick and travertine church of 8. tfaria di Loreto,
close by Tr^an's column, a building remsrkable for the
great beauty of its proportions, and its noble effect pro-
duced with much simplicity. The lower order is square in
plan, the next octagonal ; and the whole is surmounted by
a fine dome and lofty lantern. The lantern is, however, a
later addition. The interior is very impreuive, considering
its very moderate sixe. Antonio slso carried out the lofty
and well-designed church of S. Giovanni dei Fiorentini,
which had been begun by Jacobo Sansovino. The east end
of this church rises in a very stately way out of the bed of
the Tiber, near the bridge of B. Angelo; the west end has
been ruined by the addition of a later facade, but tfae
interior is a noble exampleof a somewhatduUstyla Great
skill has been shown in successfully building this large
church, partly on tlie solid ground of the bank and partly
on the ^fting sand of the river bed. Antonio also built
tbeCappellaPaolina and other ports of the Vatican, together
with additions to the noils and forts of the Leonine City.
His most omota work is the lower port of the corCile of the
Famese palace^ afterwards completed by Uicbelangelo, o
very rich and well-proportiouBd specimea of the then
favourite design, a series of arches between engaged columns
supporting an entablature, on arrangement taken from the
outside of the Colosseum. A palace in the Via Ginlia
built for himself still exists under the name of the Palozio
Sacchetti, but is much injured by alterations. Antonio
also constructed the very deep ond ingeniona rock-cut well
at Ortieto, formed with a double apinl staircase, like the
w^ of Salodin in the diadel of Cairo.
for othsr •nhitccti eaUed Sugsllo who lind dariog ths 18th
Hntnry ih tUTioli, KtUti* mi lanri dtl NoM Da San
Oallo, Boms, 18S0. [J. H. K.)
SANGERHAUSEN, an ancteot town of Pmswui
Saxony, is situated on the Gonna, near the south base of
the Hara Mountains, and 30 milea to the weat of Halle.
In 1880 it contoined 9136 inhabitants, chiefly occupied in
the manufacture of beetroot sugar, machinery, buttons,
Ac., in ogricnltnre, and in the cool and copper mines of the
neighbourhood. Bangerhausen is one of the oldest towns
in Thuringia, being mentioned in a document of the 10th
century. The Romanesque church of St Ulrich is soid to
have been founded by Louis the "Springer," margrave of
Thuringia, in 10T9. ^ , _
266
S A N— S A N,
SANHEDRDT. S«e Smramt.
BANrTATION. See HraimB uid Bkwaok.
BAN JOS^ the capital of CcaU Kiea, Centml America,
standi 3000 feet eXtote the Ma, in a bomtiful tbIIs; oar-
rouoded by moDntaiiu, on the iveet Bide of tlie mftia laoge
nbont 15 miles north-wert of Cartago (the ancient capital),
with wMch it ii connected bj a railwnj (1884). Since
ItiTO tiie catbtdnl has been reatored, a haadaume market-
place with offices for the mrnici polity erected, the barracks
rebuilt and tortifled, and seTeral of the Htreets macadam-
ized. San Joa£ is the seat of the national bonk (Cowuied
in 1873) and of a nniTsreitj, to which a medical echool
and a nuueum are attached. The population is estimated
at from 20,000 to 29,000. As a cjt; it dates from the
latter half of the 1 8th centniy ; it became the capital after
the dettroction of Carta^ by earthquake in 1841.
SAN JOBt, a city of tiie United SIoIm, «apilal of
Santa CUca connty, Califoraia, lie* 40 nrilea aonth-aaBt of
San Francisco and S miles front tbe MOtheni end el Ban
IVanoiaco Bay, in tbe heart of the beantifnl Santa (3ara
Vall^. It is at this prant Aat tbe lailw^a from the two
aidea <rf the bftj meet. The main part of the airr ooonpiea
a gently riling platean between tbe Q^ote and Qnadalnpa
riven. Among (he principal bnildinp are a fine conrt-
honae, k theatre, a dty-hall, two marketa, a mnno-hall,
the State normal school, the Methodist "nniversi^ of the
Padfie," and a nnmber of largo eoUegea and schools.
Betides three public parks in the atj Ban Joai possesses
a tiBct of 400 acres in Fenitencia Gallon, 7 miles east^
teaerved for a aimilar porpoae. The Ixk Obmrateij
(founded in 1BB4 on the top o( Hoant Hamilton) ia 13
miles distant^ and tbe Almaden qniokailTer minaa about
14 miles. The pondatioa erf the ci^ was WS9 In 1870b
and 13,B67 (towndiip 18,103) in 1880;
Fonadnl by th« Snniih miMionsrfaa In 1777, Bui Jiaf mnslned
a nnsll tIIIu* «* •'•^' ■— *- *"' "■ " ' *"■ *— *-
ths Dnitftd H*t>
was bald in the
SAN JUAN BAtmSTA See Pracio Eioa
SAK JUAM DB LA FBONTEBA. tbe capital of a
province of tbe Afgentine BapnUio, ia aitiiated 3310 fast
above the aea in a great bend (rf flie Bio de San Joai^ 96
milea nortb of Hendota and 730 milea fran Bnenoa Ajre^
with which it ii ahoot to be eonnected by tail tlBM). It
is mostly bailt of stm-dried brieki, has a cathedntl, aevemi
churches and schools, two banks, and a botanical ffuisa,
and caniea on a conaideiable trade wiUi Chili by the I^tos
and UspsUata paaaea. Fopnlation eatimated at 20,000
(1881).
8sn Jnsn »u ronfldad in Ittl bj Cspteln (kstlUo on a site <
nils to the north, iriilchhsdtabasbuiiionMlawincto
snd la now oiled Pneblo VMa. From 1770 to 1830 tha dt
la fhM goTsnunest of Houubi. Pnaidant 8sn '
•fiedsl utsntion on thia bia nattve town snd ave .
prtod^ adiaol, bmom Umuf^iont tha npablie ttar its sxccllant
ba2i>w«l
SAN JUAN DEL NOBTE. SaeOimowx.
BAN JUAN (or HARO) ISLAND, an udiipehgo
(Ban Jnan, Orcaa, Shaw, Lope^ Blakely, CypMSS, fte.) bring
between Tanooovec Uasd and the nwinlaml of North
and were finally aadgnad to the latter ooontry fay the
arbitration of the emperor of Qermaoy (21et October
1872). Oeogi^hioally the dnster certainly belong to the
m^nland, from which it is separatad by Boaario Channel,
cenerally much under 60 fathoms in depth, while Haro
Strait, separating it from Tanconver Island, has depths
ron^ns from 100 to ISO fathoms. In 18T3 the islands,
formeny conddered part of Whatcom eonn^, Washington
Territoiy, were made the separate coon^ of Sao Juan. Of
tke total arta of 200 aqoate miles, about 00 are in S*n
., 187J,
Joan, 60 In Orcai, and 30 !n Lopes; Hie p
664 in 1870 and 946 in 1880.
Bm A^wra nloMv " (** nwriv y ITadAwlM, V
snd tha n»p in Fatomuun'a MUaiilmtn, 1B71
BANKT JOHANK. See SAAnnaOoKHV.
SAI^T POLTEN, a email town, and the leat of a
bishop, in Lonr Austria, is situated on tbe Ireisen, a
tributary of the Danube, 61 miles west of Vienna by rail
It contains ah interesting old abbey chnroh, ' founded in
1030 and reMwed in 1266 and again at the beginning of
the 18th century, ^ere are several reli^oos cdncatiooal
inetitntions in the town, and a nulitaiy academy for
eo^neen. The inhabitants, 10,016 in nnmber, carry on
some bad^ and the mannfactoro of iron wir^ paper,
weapons, ko. Tbe name is sud to be a eormptton nt
TiBiima ad 8. Hippolytum, from a conrent that formerly
stood, here. The hutMy of the bishopric has been written
in two Tolnmes by Kerscbbanmer (Yianna, 18T6-6).
SAN LUCAB DE BARBAUEDA, a town of Spain, in
the province of Cadii, and 37 milea 1^ sea from that dty,
in a bors^ sandy, and uodalatdng country, on the left bai^
of the Onadalquivir, not tar ^m its mooth. It stands
partly on the flat bank of the'rivsr and partly on ths
rising ground behind, the sommit of which Is crowned bv
an old Moorish castle. There is an old pwidi chunA
dating bam tbe 14th century. The othet bnildiop have
no qiodal interest and the place as a whole ia dnll and
lifdess, having lost much of the comrrwrrial ii
formerly pOK^aed. It is now diiefly depen
trade in ita wine^ whidi is still considerable. Many <rf
the inhabitanta are empltnred in agriculture and fisung.
Vm popolalioD within the mnniopal boondariea 'waa
31,918 m 1877.
SAN LUIB POTOa, a city of Ueikot eapltal nt die
■late at the same namcv b ritnated at a hd^ el 6200
feet on the aaatem edge of like gnat plain <tf AnahTian, in
a valley ituidnR nnth and mmb, 160 milea s<vdt-weat of
Qaenietn. Itfaagreateenmfor tha "diligeoee" tnUBtv
and ia 1666 waa eonneelad-tn rail irilh Tua^eo, a pn>-
midng harbour on the Quit of Meneo. The d^ im^,
vrhiA has a rather Impnaing Oriental t^ipeatancet is laid
oQt with great ngulaiity ; tbestnata'are waU-payed, and
the hoasee, usually tvro atosiai in hei^^ are finqtMotly
fine qiedmens of M Spanish ardnteetnrfc Bat •nbubs
Among the oonspieiioaa buUdin^ ne the eatbedral, the
Qovemment houae^ with a front m toae-eoloured stonc^ die
dty-hall, tbe min^ the diorchea of El Oarmen, Ban Fian-
dsco, ius^ and the recently erected "AMwrioaa" hotel,
which, with tiamwavs, telephones, and deetrio If^^ is a
symptom <d the Oooidentaliang that is n^y takmg plaea
in the inland dtiss of Mexico. The Inabtvto CSentifioo is
a kind of univerd^ for the teadiing of law, medidn^ and
die mwt sciences. Flan Hidalgo takes its name from
the suitae to the mar^ of Hezkan ind^peodsnoe, A
oonddenble taade ia earried i« in eattl^ hidea, and
tallow. The pmulation is itited at 80,000, or with the
suburb* 60,000.
?o(iiidad In IMfl, Baa Lnb Fotod hss vlajvd an istpdrteat jatt
In tha Maxltia etvil wua. Id isnttwsattssaatd thanMfieil
Joam, udsflacbaiiwaecapisdbyBsBfDswas
nalleet Independent lepnUie in
of 33 sqnare miles (BtnlUta^X ^
between the provinces of Forlt and PeMro-Urbiix\ end
conaiits of part of the eastern qiuie of the Arfniii"*.
Monte Titano, the central and colminating summit, has
three peaks (M. Quaita, Cueco, and Gista), die three Peim*
of San Marino — a name evidently identioil with the Celtie
Fenn or Been, bot translated by the canting beraldiy of
the iqiuUio's ooat of arms as three " feathen." The two
8 A N — S A N
267
sbvana (Mmodik utd Aqm) which pMS throng Bimini
to tbe MR have their head-mten partlj in the DOrtb and
wort of San ^'"""i whils its Bouth-eutani Tslleja are
drained bf the loiucea td the Hsnuto. Farmiog and
■tock-iaudng occupy the bulk of the pt^ulatioa (total, S700
in 1650, 7816 in 187 iX "^ ^i>^ '■nn^e uid oiea ace both
Tiiglily pnaed "Hie city of Saa Marino 11600 inhabitants),
fonaerlj leaebed only by a mnle-tnck bat since 1876 by
a good caniag»«»d, ia a quaint little place with rte^
and nemw 'etneti and pictiueaqiM bat gloomy hmuea ot
nndrnwd etOBek tad eont^ning Bts dtonsbci, a cooncdl-
hall, an andieaM duunbw, a law eooit, a little theatre a
miaenia, and a Kbrvy. In the centre of the principal
■qnaie (Fiai^fo) itanda a white marble itatoe of Liberty,
pneented by the doeheaa d Aoq)ianTa. At the foot of
the dtj-hiU Um tbe Boigo di Ban Harino (tbe oommerdal
coitie <rf the i^nblic); and other mnnidpal Tillage* are
Benanlk, FaefauM^ and Huite^aidiao, each with lemuDs
of its caaUe and f orlaficationB.
Th« iwablic li gtnrutd I7 ■ snit eonudl (OtiunU-OmisUo-
Priae^ftt <6 Dimben (SO WMm, M bcinM, SO nrml Und-
ownan] nanMd fte lit« by th* tBondl itnlL Piem tfaii body b
claetad ths Cooaril of Tmln, wfalch with the iMiitaiMa of a 1^
■diinr decUn in tlw tbifd tad lot TMort Two o^tdni-ngoit
elactad eray dx BOBb (ana from th* Boblai, oBo from tlw otha
tva il»»ii«l iTDra«ait tb* itats, lAieh alio bn lU hoiM xcMtuy,
ill nioiiter of fenign tibia, it* ohumllor of tb* McbMuar, an
amy of 950 man, ud * ragnlai bodnt I^ tnaty wlfli Ildy
(im) 8» MuiDo, intad of m^ntilidDg a BUtomi Una of iti
owB, CTcrirw ■ cartaio pnportloB of tha ItaHu eutomt leranna,
ud, agniaiBg Bat to grow tobaooo, ti >1loired to purcbaia ftnign
iDbacoo dn^ free, - iS vnU, rnnj difflcnlty aboat sopyriglit tfaera
ii DO printmg prtM in tb* npublic
Swi ICariDD teino Iti nama from ■ eartalB DalmitiiB muon
vhs, ilongwllli Boonmda ImmorUJited by tha neighboaijng CMtls
and oUMdnl of Sao Lao, aottlid In thia ragion in tha Sd oantnTy.
The bonaa of HarioBa are mH to hara been nmavad to Paria fay
the l4imbahl Ung Aatalphna and teatond to th* Uttb dty on
U rant lltanBi ij Pippin; Dat tha Biat BBthantiD doMarmt pniViag
the oxiMeDM of tb* esmnraMly dataa from ttfi. Situated aa a
bolnrlc betwaao tha boatib honaa of Hcntalaltra ud HaUteata,
of UrtoBO. The aaabtanoe wbloh It imdand Dnk* Tederigo adS
hi* alliea, UkB kiag of ITapha and &» nm, ^^nit BiBiainondo
Halateata wai nwaidad i& IMS with &• eaatlea and %nitoriM
of SenaTdla, Faalano, and VonlagiatdlBO, On th* annauttoo of
DrlHi>otDtheStBteaarth«ChDRihXmi),tbalndapaDdenc* of San
llarioo *!■ aAnowledgad; and tbaraanUiorind iMortion of nnal
jariadietioa by Albanni in 17M wm diaallowad by Clement XII.
an Pebnwy Gtb 174% In 1^^ Napoleon t deoled to pmerre
thii "Muniaian da Tfaabliqne;" and In ISM It waa nrotacUd bom
the liaauBa of Pina IX. hr tha IntaifaTaiiea ef Napoleon III. At
the anileatioD of Italy, Oibmio, a sltiBBH in tboaarrica of the hoQB*
oraany, helped to aeeon aiod^t tanna lot San Harine.
«.»r*K»*t lN>:C.^Ik«ll,a'Mr<b.t-Dto.1S7a:B«t,d Aot
SAN MARTIN DB JOSfi (1776-1850), Chilian gene-
fal, WM bom at Yapejii, on the Urngnay river, Febniary
35, 1778. In bis eighth or ninth year he accompanied his
own family to Sptun for his edocatioo, and being intended
for the militBTy profeeaion was admitted into the college of
noblea nt Madrid. He inw active Berrice and gained dis-
tinction in tbe war of independence, and had risen to the
rank of UeatanBift«idonel when in 1811 he returned t
Plata. Entering the wmoe of the innugents there hi . _
entmatod with lainng a troop of cavalry, and afterwards
WBB appointed to the chief oonmand of the army acting in
Upiwr Pern a^nat the foroee of the viceroy (rf Lima.
After r»4atablishing hia health at Cordova in 1814, he
pnxneded in 1815 to take command of Cayo, where be
organind an erpedition for the liberation of Chili (aee vol
T. p. CIS), He iTOiaed the mountains early in 1617, and,
after gaining a brilliant victory at Chaeabuoo on 12th
Fobmary, waa pieMed by the people of CSiili to talra the
•npremo oommuid, and gained a still mon brilliant victoiy
«t Manx!, 6th Ajwil 1S1& Altar —'-*-- "■
ment of Chili be sailed with the iqitadKNi under LotA
Cochrane for Pern, 31st Aognst 1830, and, capturing Lima,
drove the Spaniards from the coast and assumed tDB title
ol " Protector " of Pern in 1621, but resigned it a year
afterwards, and, sailing secretly fin' Europe, apent the
remainder of hia lite in abeolnte sedosion near ntrii. He
died at Bonlogne, 17tli August I860.
8** BiogmUeal Bkilth of General Ban Martin attached to
/tempAM, bti>i4 an txponlioa tf tit
bis ^totea
n^a4P
architects of his time, learnt
from hia father Giovanni sind his uncle Bartolommeo, who
both practised as architects at Verona with mnch soceest.
Like almost all tbe enthusiastio students of that time
he want at an early age to Borne to study claauc sculp-
ture and arcbilectnret His great talents soon became
known, and he deaigned and carried out a very large
number of works at Terona, Venice^ and other places.
Among his earliest are the dnomo of MontefiaMone (an
octagonal building aDrmounted with a ctipola), the chnrch
of Ban Domenico at Orvieto, and several pakcea at both
iJacea. He also executed a fine tomb in S. Domenico.>
He waa no less distdnniiahed as a military architect, and
was much employed oy the aignoiia of Venices not only
at home, bat also in streiigthening the fortificatiana d
Corfu, Qyprus, and Candia.* One of Banmichele's moat
graceful designs is theCappeHade'Feregnniin the dinrch
of S. Bernardino at Terona — square outside and dicular
within, of the Corinthian wder.* He built a great number
of fine palaces at Verona, five of which still eiiat, as well
as the graceful Ponle Nqdvol His hut work, begun in
1559, was the round chnrch of the Madonna di Campagna,
a mile and a half from Verona on the load to Venice.
Like most other distingniahed architects of hia time he
wrote a work on dasaie architecture 'Li Cmqae Ordim
dde Ankitettimi, printed at Verona in 1735. Sanmichele
to aome extent followed the eartier style of Bnmelleschi;
his work Es always refined and his detail delicate. Hia
chief pupil was his nephew Bemardina
flea Bontani and LndolU, AUrict* . . . . 4f M. aamnlduk,
Venice, 18S3 ; and Salva, maffiii tU Smmiekdi, Ram^ 1814.
BAN HIOUEL (8. Baltadob), or Si MicnAK.'a. Bee
AsoKBi, vol iii p. 171.
8ANNAZAR0, Jaoopo (U5S-1S30X one of tbe poets
of the Kemunance in Italy, was brnn in HS8 at Naples
of a noble family, said to have been of Spanish origin,
which had ita seat at San Nanro near Favia. Hie father
died during the boyhood of Jacopo, who was accordingly
brought up in a very plun way at Nocera Inferiors. He
afterwards studied at Nsples under Pontanos, when,
according to tbe fashion of Che time, he asanmed the name
Actius Syncerus, by which he is occasionally referred to.
After the death of hia mother he went abroad,-~-driven,
we are told, by the pangs of despised love for a certain
Carmoeina, whom he has celebrated in his verae under
various names ; but of the details of bis travels nothing is
recorded On bis retnn be speedily achieved fame as a
poet and place as a courtier, receiving from Frederick IIL
BB a oountiy reajdence the Villa Mergillioa near Naples.
When his patron was compeUed to take refuge in Fiance
in 1601 he waa accompanied by SannagarOj who did not
retnm to Italy till after his death (1604). The kter years
of the poet aeem to have been spent at Naples without
interruption or memorable incident. He died on April 27,
1630.
The Araiiia of Sannanre. begnn In early life und pnbliabed In
la inaipid Italian paatoral, ia^ <tU^
< Bee Italia TaOa, OaHa lU Diumo M OnMs, R«bl 17M.
• «— n-rf~iJi g ■■-> J. -• -n-ritf, if^n 1,1^1 fill, ir-MM.
; 8a. Oialiarf. a» * flBv** V«oaii iSuTT^ ^"^Tl e
I A N — S A N
h *]lmi«ta pTVM and vena the tctnm mi ocen|*li<ini of putoiml
lift *» dMcribad. His now Hldom nti Latin pwrn Dt Farm
Firgini*. which g>io*d for him the usme of the " Chriatian Virgil, "
■ppeand In IE2S, uJ hia collected SotmUi a Coiumi In ICSO.
SAN REMO, a town and Hesport of Dortlieni Italj, at
tlie lead of k circondario in the pTovinca of Porto
H&nrizio on tlie Westeni Riviera, 16j milea b; rail eeat
of Hentone and 64} south-west of Genoa. CUinbing the
alopo of a ateep bill, it looks aonth over a small boj of the
Giilt of Qenoa, and, protected toward* tbe north bj hills
rioDg gradnallj from 600 to 8000 feet, has the tspntatlon
of bang in climate one of the moat faTOored pUcea on the
whole coast The narrow stair-like atreeta of the old
town, with thur lofty honaeH, arched gatewajs, and fljiog
bnttreaw^ form a floe contrast to the rnodern districta of
rillaa and hoteb which have sprUDg up aince about 1860.
BoaidM the Gothic cathedral of San Siro, the boildiuga
of moat interaat are the Madonna della Costa, crowning
the highest part of the old town, the town-house, and
the hospital tor cotaneon^ diseases fonnded by Chailea
Albert ' The port, formed by two moles, both lengthened
UDCB 1680, Vraa at one time much more important, its
annual morement having sunk from about 1000 in 1866
to 388 amall Teasels in 16B4. Tbe popnlation of the
eommnna (10,013 in 1661) waa 16,056 in 1881,-12,285
'n the cuty proper, and 1T17 in the saburba Poggio and
1 Us papil St Biroa. Bahoilt aflar the aapulaion
from Ltinris, It took tha name at Ban Somolo from
bishop lAoaa death-daf, 18th October, le itiU a 1a«l
8t Ormiadas and Us p
of th* Bsiamns from L ^
Its Oth-aaotarr bishop w
fSte. Tq what vaj Biomuaa wai aappianua □* Aemue la oax
dearly aaoertalned. In'lG44 tha town waa attacked bj Barbaioaaa.
and ia U£S by the Trench and BaTojaida. Tha Oenoeaa, agalnat
wboae eneroaohnieDts it had long delaoded ita indapendBncc, anb-
Jnnted It in 17H ; and in 1707 ft waa ineoiponted m the diatriirt
olFalma of tha Ugarian rnnUia.
8AN BALTIdOR, or Qn-yuxx (Repmwi dd Sal-
vador), the ■malleot bnt moat densely peopled of the
repnUiea of Central America, has a coast-line of 160
miles along the Paeifio from Uie mouth of Rio de la Paz
to tttat of the Ooascoran in the Gulf o( Fonseca, and is
boonded inland by Goatemala on lie west and Honduras
on llie north and east Ita length from east to weat is
140 miles, and its aTerage breadth abont 60 milea. Ita
area ia estimated at 7335 square miles, and in 1883 it
eontaioBd 613,273 inhabiteuta (390,870. males, 323,403
females). With the exception of a oomparatively narrow
seaboard of low alluvial plains, the country consists mainly
of a plateaR about 3000 feet above the sea, broken by a
large number of volcanic cones, geologically (^ more recent
origin than As main chain of the CordUlera which lies
farther to the ni»th. ^a principal rivw of th^ republic
is the Rio Lempa, which, rising near Esqnipulas in Guate-
mala and croanng a comer of Eondnraa, enters Salvador
north of Citalk . After receiving from the right the
anrplua waters of the Laguna de Cuija, a vast lake
belonging partly to Guatemala and pirtly to Salvador, it
flows for nearly a degree of longitude eastward through a
magnificent and luznriant valley between the plateau and
the Cordillera, and then turning somewhat abruptly south
■kirta the base of the volcano of Signatepeqae and reaches
the Pacific in 88° 40* W. bng. Among its numerous
tributaries are the Rio Santa Ana, rising near tha city of
that name, the Asalgoate, which passed the capital San
Salvador, the Sumpnl, which forces its way like the
Lempa itaelf athwart the moantains from Honduras, and
the Torola, draining the north-eastern comer of Salvador
and part of Honduras. The Lempa ia even in the dry
aeasoQ a considerable river with a rapid eorrent, said for
two-thirds of its coarse it could easily be made imvigable
Tha Rio San Mignet drains the eoantry
between the Gulf of FoDseca and the basin d the Lcnipfc
The volcanic mountains do not form a chain bnt a series d
clnstera : — the Ixalco gnnip in the west — including Ixalco
(formed in 1770), Marcelino, Santa Ana, Naranjos, Aguila,
Ban Juan de Dies, Apaneca, Tamajaso, and Lagunita ; ths
Ban Salvador group, about 30 miles to the east; Cojnto-
peqne to the north-east and the San Vicente group to tbe
of tlie great volcanic lake of Dopango ; the Signate-
peqne mmmits to the north-east of San Vicente ; and the
great sontb-eaatem or San Higuel group — Ban Hignd,
Chinameca, Baenapa, TTEulatan, Tecapa, ^bnrete. Cbca-
guateque and Sociedod vidconoea in Uie ncatii-eMt belong
to the inland CoTdillera.
The volcanic fbnsa in Balvador hava not aa yet ipent thanuelTH.
Tha lalco vont atill acta aa a aafetj valra, and the nei^bDDrluiod
of tha capital ia aa aubjecC to tremhlingi and rackings of the
earth aa to hare acqaired the name of the iwinging mat or iaa-
mock. The ci^ iteelf hu been deatroj ad by earthqnaka in ItiSl,
1S5S, in 1710, and in ISGl. Ban Uisnal ia dMoribed aa me of the
moat treachcToua baming monntaina m Ameiiaa, aometimeB aevenl
yaaiB in complete repoae and then all at once banting ant with
terriflc fury ^Schener), In 1970-1880 the I^e of Ilopango *ia
the eeene of a remaikable Beries of phenomena. Vith a length of
H mileaand a breadth of 4^, it forma a rough panllelognm with
deeply indented sidea, and ia Bmroanded in all directiona by atcop
moDiitaiDi except at the poiati ohere the villagea ofAeino aid
Apalo occupy little patchoa of level gronnd. Between Slat Decem-
ber 1670 and 11th Jannary 1880 tha lake roaa four feet aboio iB
leraL The Jiboa, which flowa oat at the aonth-eaat earner, bactma,
Inatud of a very ahallow atream SO feet bread, a laging tomnt .
which aoon acooped oat far itaolf in the volcaaic roclu a ehaantl |
SO to SG feet deep. A rapid labeidence of the lake waa thna pfo- :
dac«I, and by the eth of March the level waa »| faet below ili
macimnm. TDwanla tha centra of tba lake a volcanic eenin abml
COO r«t in diametei roae ISO feet above the water, sunoonded by
a niuub« af amall ialauda. A nambor at viUagea wen rained l^
the sccompanying earthqnekea. The lake^ orijEinally stocked liy
tbe early Spanish aettlen, had heooma tha great flab-pond of tlie
republic Oq the ontbreak i^ tha Tolcanio foroea, the Bah flcl
towaida tbs aidaa, and on tha receding of the waters thrir dead
bodita were left behind in ancli qoantitjaa that at Aaino several
hundred men ihra employed for daja buying thna to srnd s
peatili -
.. „ leas to these natonl eatastrophaa dun to political
inatahility that the comparative hackwaidneaa of Salvador to
Hof BOO^
id mlnatala most be asoibad ; ai
middle of the century. Coflee ia now the prindiid export (to the i
valaeof|I,0Se,D0ainl873,ta,4ie,lDlinl(la8). Indigo, for along
time the ataple of the country and aiported to the annual valsa
of 120,000,000, ia Mill Bitanalvely cultltatad (sxpoHs la IBSS '
uoatemalaa, aa anouier vainsoie proDocl oi utinata u aiwiyi
deaignated Balsam of Para (aea vol til n. US), thon^ tbe tree
from which it la obtained growa natarally nowhen else in the
world eicept in a lii
aa the Balaam eoai
Tha aUvsr minea hava been
growa natarally n
limited part of the Balvadoii
laat It waa eiportad in 18SS to tba valoe of
t5I,<I12. Other prodnctjana of leae importanoa — '-'
aanaparilla, india-mbber, and anni. Tha aUvsr ml
end may again b« of soma accoont ; and coal baa b
inland. On the whole the tnde of the eouotry hai Kreatlj in-
cresaed: the imports at.d exports, tl,aaa.S76 and fl,»01,«6O
roe|ioctjvely in I860, were 12,101, 4«3 and |G,8«l,a6S In 188S.
At the time of Dt Schaner'a viait, there was not a bridge hi the
country ; thenaie now a eonaidarahle number of good iim hfiibiea
on tl;e new road* between the principal citiea. The Brat railway, that
from Acijutla to Soneonate (IE milee) waa opened in 1889, andlwa
alnca been continued in ue directiaii of Banta Ana, Uie diief
commercial town. Telegraphic commnnication ha> been (atab-
liahod between tha more important towns, and in July 1B83 tba
Central and North American Company landed ita oahla at U
Libertad. Acajutla, U Libertad, and I« Union or Sail Carios
de la Union (in the Gulf of ronaeca] an the princil^ haiboun.
Baeid«thecapit*lSanSetvador,withl4,0KVIiihabitanlB, (here were
In 1878, according to tbe oenana, AS plaoaa in tba repnbllo witb
over aOOO each— aanto Ana (29,008), Nehniiaico (9988). 8>u
Vicente (00S7), San Uiguel (0312), HaUpan (9782), ChalBliiki[«
(8171), Ahuacl.ai«n (7930), Nnevo San Salvador (7a«), »«■
Tiieie am three ouiT«ivitiea-~Saa SiUndor, Santa Ana, and Saa
Uij^el, with fnude partly provided by a quarter of tba euetoni%—
a girli' eolleeo at Santa Ana, and a fair nnmbor of aaooiMlary
and primarr achoolg. aaivador mcalTed thii name troiB Pedro
Alverclo, w'ho, whi;n ha conqoered it for Spain in 1026-30, fotwd
it n dch and popnbuta ceont^. Its lodepSDdeMa of tbe apm'
8 A N — 8 A N
269
«DWB dttai tev IH) : b ISU It ebtalMd Ui nmtUottoa asdd
-mikik <b k ■odiflrf lorm) it bow aiUU u > MTctdgD itaM.
Ooinnt Vtitkm, barlag im 1S5S oUig«l tiu pnodaat Sutin dal
GMilla to ibdicatat Mouait hk own pmuntDt upointrntDt to tba
lAo* in law i tat In lMS-4 ka (ukd In Ui ndaaToar to dafuid
Ilk udid igdMt tb* OottHUlu^ Mill vhaka ntBinid in 18M to
nttuk DhKh, tb* OatMoMkn pntM ka «■■ dttMtod ud put to
daath. * PnaxidunlentM " hn* dnn batn tk* too gEncnl on-
•■ •■ teof Hldantwt «)Htii>n«;tettbi— '---'^
id tbt &UBOM of t)u rapablla ha*« a
SAMSABDINa, or Sanukdio, a (om in the intarior
of Wertara Africa oa the north bkuk of the Niger, in
13* 40* If . UL Mid 6' 2ir W. long., and included in the
"BrntHi*" of Sega. It wu *iiited bjr Hnngo 7ik in
17H, and in 186S bj lUge and Qnintin, idio witnened
tiw atnnd it made Kgunit n lim hj Ahmedo, ndt&n of
Begn, from whoin it liad revolted, ^le popolktion i» wti-
Mimted at 30,000 to 40,000.
SAB SEBABTIAN, a teapart of Spain, capital of the
pminea of GnqKucoa, 42 milea norlli-norlli-weat of
hi^Mia, and 403 b^Im b; mil from Ifadrid. It
oeet^ta a nanow ielfuntu, terminated tovarda the north
bj * lof^ eonieal lock called UrgoU or C^gollo, and
**TI%T^ m it* eaitam lide by the river Ununea, here
enaaed by a bridge, and on the other hya bay (La Concha),
vhiclt foima the harbour. The mmntit of the hill ia
cnjwned by a fort (Castillo da la Ibrta), and the landward
aid* id Hit town «ai fennerly defended by lolid lamparta
TlM boDHa are almoat all Boden, bnllt oniforoly in
atraight BbeetE and regnlar iqnaTea, ao oi to preaent an
appeaiancB quite nolike moat Spaniah towns. IDiete are
two large churchea, a conrt-hooa^ a thsatre, hoapitala,
barracks, Ac llie manalactuTes of the place are insigni-
ficant ; and the harbour is small, and not easily acoesaible,
tboogh well protected by a mole and small island. Thct«
ia a condderabls trade in English and French gooda,-~«(»it
and other article* being azport«d. Daring aununer tbe
town ia much freqnented, aapecially by the waal^ier
inhabitants of Madrid, for aea4)athin£ and tent4ike huts
■et up for the pnrpoas on the ahora of the bay. From
_ . poaition and strength San Sebastian has been long a
place of much importance, and has sostained aeieial uegea
'Dte moat aumorable of theae waa in Angnst ltfl3, when
the British, ooder Wellington, look it by Btorm. Tbe
population within the municipal bon&darie* was 31,355
■ 1877.
SAN SKVKHO, a city ot Italy, In the iHonnee of
jggia, and at one time the chief town ot the Capitanata,
Ilea at the foot of tiie apora of Honte Oargaao, and has a
station on the railway to Brindisi, 36 milea soQth-eaat of
Termoli and 17 north of Fc^gia. It i* the ace of a bidiop
(unoe 1580), and ha* a handsome cathedral and some r«-
mains ot ita old fortiications. In 1880 the popnlatiDn
was 19,756 rS0,383 in commnne).
Bu SaTarodala* (Tom tin Uiddl* igm. U wis Isld la mloi bj
Pndgtiok IL, sod io.lOW na Iba *mm ot s Ticlorr hf Bobatt
Onkcaid oTai tba papal tooopa andw I«a UL Tba orarloidililp
wu hald in sneeaKuin bj Qu Banadiotinca of Tom UugUm
sbbaT, tha Kniebta Tamplan, the exown of Karios aad^ tba Suigra
- ■' - .. . .- .. . . - sad again
, tha Knigbta Tamplan, tbe crown ol Karias ud^ <
F {Dommendatoria* of Tom Hinion]. In lOiT,
It and lUl, tha lo«a anlland fiom aerthqnakaa,
SANSKBIT LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE
PABT I-aANBKBIT LANGUAGE
SANSKRIT i* the nama applied by Hindn acholara to
the andant literary langoage of India. The word
taiftknta ia the past putidple erf the verb tar, "to
m^ (cognate with Latin eno), -with the preposition
aam, "ti^ther'" (cog. d/io,' ifiit, Eng. "aame"), and has
probably to be taken here in the *«Qse of " completely
fcnned" ot "accurately made, polished,' — tome noun
■"—"■'"g "^Mech" feap> UdaU) Ming either ipieMtd
or nndnatood with it. Tbt term was, doabtlea^ migiu-
■lly adopted by native grammariaoa to distingnish the
litonry language of the ednoUed flsMK from the nncnl-
tinted popular dialacta — tha tonntnnen of' the modem
waraaeolarB of northern India — which had, from an early
period, dereloped aide by aide with it, and which were
e^led (from the aama root har, but with different piepoai-
tiona) iVdip^ i-*-! either "derived* or " natnral, common "
fomii of ipeech. But thii daaignation of tiie literary
idiom, being evidently intended to imply a langnagi
regnlatad by oonventMnal ralea,' also innuvea a diatinctioi
l)etw«o the grammatically fixed language ot Brihmanical
India and an earlier, Icaa settled, phase of the aome
bagiiay exhibited in llie Vedic writinga. Fot grmter
oonranunce the Tadio language ii^ however, usually
indndad in the term, and echolan generally diatingiiish
betweeo tiie Tedio and tha claaaical Sanskrit. The
Baaakrit langoage^ with ita old and modern deacendanta,
njptewti t£a aaatemmoat branch of tbe great Indo-
Oernuni^ or Airaii, atock of apeech. Fhilologieal
icMaieh baa oleafty eriablithed the fact that the Indo-
Afyaoe must mgiaally have immigrated into India from
the aorilMraii Ja the ddeat litanry dooameata handed
fitmt bj Ami lUr ptdaal advanoe eu indeed be trued
from tha ilopea ot eastern Eabolistan down to the land of
the five riven (Pniyab}, and thence to the plain* ot
the.Tamont (Jnmna} and Gang! (Qanges). Numerous
special eoincideacee, both ol language and mythology, be-
tween the Tedio Aryans and the peoples of Iran also show
that tfaaae two members of the Indo.Oermanio family must
have remuned in close oonnezion for some considerable
period after the others had aepaiated from tbem.
^e origin -ot comparative philology dates from the
time when European adiolarB became accoiatelj acquainted
with tha andent language of India. Before that time
claaeictJ acholai* had been unable, through oentiuiea ot
learned roaaarcb, to detcnnine the true relations between
the then known langoagea of our stock. This fact alone
shows the importance of Sanskrit for comparative re-
search, niongh ita valae in thi* respect has perhaps at
tinea been overrated, it may still be conaidared as the
eldest daughter of the old mother-tongue. Indeed, to fai
as direct documentary evidenco goes, it may rather be
aaid to be the only cnrviviog daughter ; for none of the
other six piindpal member* of the family have left any
literary montunenta, and their original featnrea have to be
reproduced, aa best they can, from the materiala anpplibd
by their own dao^ter languages : such la the ease aa
regard* the Iranicj Hellenic, Ituic, Celtic, Teutonic^ and
L*tt»Slavie languages. TV) tha Sanskrit the antiquity
and extent erf its liteiary docudieoti^ tbe ta«uaparency ot
its grammatical structure the- comparatively primitive
state ot its accent system, and tha thorough gnunmatical
taeatinent it haa early received at the hand of native
Bcholan must ever aecnre the foremoat [dace in tbe oom-
pantive atDdf of XadiMIeniaaie i^ee^
270
SANSKEIT
[lajiouace.
Tha SmAiIt kl^Mbrt MMbta oTUia Ibllowing ■oonb :—
(a) Foortoni ToweU, »iz.! —
nn (iiai>1« Tovdi : a d, i 1, u 4, r ti (itii ■■'■I
Tout dlphtbi>a(p : Hi, tit-
<>) Thir^-thiM caUBOtiuits, tIi. :—
gntDml: kikgghA
palital : c Ajjh*
lisgiul : tlk4<fhn
' denUl -.tlkdilhn
Vom (oniTaiHl* : y r I ■ (w) ;
Tkna libiLuiti : aUtd I, lingml A total * i uul
A (Oft uirfnU : A.
(e) nms nnorigiDi] •oandB, Tic : —
*<lnrva {\\ ■ bud Mpinta, ituding martl? for Dtlgioal
* or r J uHi two nuil Krandi of lt« cloH contut than
ths muta-Qtuila, Tix, onimlra (i)i) and niiuiuliitii (lal.
Ai ngud* th« rawalt, a promiosat fcatan or thi langnagB ii the
pnralcuM U o-aimiidi, tluas beisg ibout twio* u fiequent M bU
Ihs otiun, including dipbthonp, laksn tom&ti (Wbitoff >.
Tha atiaenca of tbs ihort Towsla If and fi from the Sanskrit alpha-
bat, ind th* fast that Saoikrit ihov) tba o-rowel «hen othac
*owb1i appwr in other langoagBi, — a^r., Mnrnnlam — *V«mi,
fetttiim i imiat - ^'nt, /mu,— mn formerly CDIuidsnd as
■tnng sridanca in bvaOT of Ui* nkon primibiTa alata of the
Sankrit Tovel ajatam aa compared witb that of the ditar
lauBtM. Reseat teaean^ hia, homrar, ahowa pwttf cod-
duinrr bom cattafD indkationa in tha Saiukrit kagoaga iiaetf
that tha lattai mnit at ona tinw baTe poHCaed tha auna, ar lerj
Dcarlj the aama, thns voml-KiiiDda, and that the diflerantiatiaa
of the origbil o-aoand mnat, thenlbra, ha?a takan plaaa before
the eepuatioQ of the kngaagea.
The <raweli I and S, thoogh apparaatl; alinria Kmnda,
AadiiJithonn bvingooutrutadlromarlgiaalSf andtera
•Dd uible tobe treated ai rach in (he phonatiii modiScaniiiiB uinj
hftTa to npdaigo haibn an; Towel except X
Aa r^aida the eonaonanta, two of the Sre aatiea of motca, Ilia
pdatalaikd liogotl eerieajandf aeooDdarj ttheone oflndo-lianian,
{be other of pSnlj lodian) sravth.
palatali ate, aa a rola, datired from original gnttnral^ the
-"— being gBDenUj due to tha infloeuos of a oaighboamng
faiam Bound i or », or I (d) : af., eoraJl-Idt 'uttS; jfau —
)At, fnm, knaa. "nia nrd aapinta eh, iaworde of Indo-Uwmaoic
oiglD, elmoat inTaiiabl; gMa back to original li: (.;., tkid-
Tha palalkl atbilaot i dHvnonDead atj likewiee originated from a
Sttnm mute t, but ona of aomewhat ditbtant phooetio Taloa from
Lt rapnaantalbySenaktitta'a Tha ktttr, onull; daalgnaled
by f (or f ), ii freqnentl)' llaUa to UbIaUtallDU (ot denlalintion)
1b Greek, probably owing to an ort^nal ptmnnciatioa^ lit [qit) ;
BtiTaly,
language!: e.g., tmt Uun)-i
yt: e.g., tan Um)-iiu
■ tiim. dmn, Ooth. laAun.
(il»), owiif, Oonn
palaUa betrajB llnelf eren lu
II at the and of ■ word. — lo.,
by otherwlae
Bantkrit by
frequently re
The lingui , . .
being attared with tba tip of the tongne tnmed ap to the
tha i^lat^ while in tha attennea M tha dantala it la nreaied
^iOBt tha appet teeth, not againat tba nppar guma aa la done in
t£e EBgliah dimtal^ which tO Hindui aaand more like their own
lingnalel r'^M latter, when oodDrrine in wordfl of Aiyan origin,
mn, aa ■ rale, modiBcatioa ot origmal dwitalei aanaUy aceom-
panied by tba loee ot an r cs otbei aaioinlng ooDaoumt ; but more
cnnmon&r they ocanr fa worda of R>n!gn, pnbabi; non-Aryan,
when preceded in tha eame word by cotain other letten.
Tha aooant aapiral* A ia likewba non-original, being nanally
datiisd fnn original aonant agpiiated mntet, eipecially gki i.g.,
faifua — xt* (f™ X"l). afuir, Oerm. gaai ; aiMn — iy4r, 190,
Ootb.it
The contact of final and initial latten ot word* in tha atme ten-
tenca ia often attended In Santkrit with conaiderabU enphonio
modUkatiaoB ; and we have no nana of knowing how far tha prac-
tice of tba Tcniacnlai longoaga may haTe oorraaponded to thaaa
phonatio thaoriea, Thara'can be no donbt, boweitar, that a good
deal in tlila mpeot baa to be plaoed to the account of grammatical
nAaCioa ; nod tha rary bdlitata which the piiDiitiTa etmctare of
On laogiiga olhnd tot nammaljeal aaalyw and an lii4^t into
the prlndplaa eC internal modtficatlan may haTa gtren Um flnt
Imjmlaa to eiternal modlflcatloBa of a Blmibir kind.
flona ot the oognata langnagaa ad '
manner as Um Banakrit the cardinal priacitile of I*1oO<'miaiiki
word-fonnatlon by the ad Jition ot inHoiiooaf ondiup — rilUcr i-aee-
endingi or pereooai terminatinoi (tliemielvca probably origiual
toots) — to ■tarai obtibied, mainly by moaiii et ntHiia, fnim monO'
ayllabic toots, with or without internal mnliricationa
Then an in Sanakiit docleuiDn thne numbcra and eeren eaaea,
not counting the TOcatiTe, nz., nominatiTe, accnsatini, inattti-
DMDlal, datiTe, abUtiTe, genitiTa and Ipcatiie. Aa a matter of
bet, all theaa asvao caeca ap|iaar, howarer, only In the eingntai of
»atama and of tha pranomlnal dacIuiaiDn. Other noun-etonia bero
only one caae-fcnn for the ablatiTe and genitiTe einguiar. In llie
fiinnl, the ablatiTe ererywbare eharee Ita form with tho datiTe
ucept in the pneanal prououn, where It has the eame ending aa
In the einguUr), wbilat tha dual ahowa only three dilTcnnit case-
(brma — one for the nominatiTe and accUBtiTe, another for the
inatmmmtal, datiTe, and ablatire, and a third lor the gcnUiTa and
ktatiTa.
The decienrion of o-etama, oormpondlng to tha fint and aecoiHt
I^tln deckuioiu, ia of eapedal btereeC, not hi mnch on aeeonnt
of ita being predominant from the eaitieat time, and becoming mom
and more u with the datelopment of tba laagoagr, bat becanee it
preeeDt* the neataat number ot altcmatiTa forms, which npply a
kind of test for detoimining the an of literary pnidncljonek a trst
which indeed hai already, bean ap^ied to some eitent lyj ProleeBor
luman, in hie excellent Slatliiimt Aeanad ^ Knm /lufecin fs
till fedo. Theaa alteruatira oisa-fonnB an ;~
(]) tmi tad tt br tha nominalite plnral maac and fern.: &«,
oMaui and oMt—tjia (fim). The lorma in 4*u,— eipUined iiy
Bopp aa the lign of the ploral w applied twice, and by achleichei
aa the aign of the plnru w added to the nomlnatlTfl singular,—
occur to theee in di (<.>., tha oidinaty plnnl aign at add^ to tha
D the later laagoage.
or the nominatiTe and accuflatiTsnIoralaf nentars:
■Ct'' J"?"- '^^ proportion of the formrr ending
thoRikiall to7, tnt^ieAtharran 1 to S, whilit
ending u ali
(a)lani"
tyuft.yi
to the Intl ,...._. ._
the claarical Sanskrit knowa only tha aaoond form.
(3) Ibhii and dii for the Initinmental plnnl mesa ann nenter:
t.f,, de\Mhii, dtrUt. In the Rik the Vormer forma are to tlia'
latter in the ]>Toportion of 6 to S, in the Attaarran of 1 to B, while
in the talei langua«s only the contracted form ii need. Tba same
eontiBction ii found in other langoages ; hot it ie doubtful wbatbar
it did not origlnBte independently in them.
(4}dand dH for the nominatiTe and acooaatiTe dual maac: e.f.,
vilut, ubhau-tu^ IntheRikfoimeindontnnmbertboMindM
mora than eight times ; whilst in the Atharran, on tha eontniy,
those in iu (the only ending nanl in the cUsskal language} occur
Btc tinae aa often u thoae in t.
(G}dandMa (Md)tar thainstniinantslsingulainiasa. andninL:
ai Alltd, ifdnflU-dosp, The rndingou is the one inTariililt nHj
in the later lengoiga. It is likewise the usnal form In tha V«U ;
but in a nnmber of eaaea itshowa a Anal long vowrl which, though
It maybe entirely doe to metrical requirements, ia mon probably s
relic of the normal iniCromental ending A, prtaerved for proaodio
rsaaona For the aimple ending i, aa compared with that in ena.
Prof. T-*T^T"*T' makoa out a proportion of about 1 to 9 in tho
RigTada (Bltogether lU caa>a) ; whila in tha peculiar naiia ot the
it] In and dxJn for the genitiTe plural : <.;., (attim), attdnim
— lirwwr, iquum {mumm). The form with inserted nanl (doiiht-
leas lor mUm, u in Zand o^Budn), which ii axrlnnTaly DBed in
the later languue, is also the prsTailiBa one In the Rib There
are, howBTcr, a tew genltirea et o-atema in original dm (for a-lm.),
which also ^pear in Zend, Prof. I^nman enumenting a doien
instances, some of which at*, howsTer, donbtfn!, while otheta an
The Sanskrit rerb lyitem raaemblea that at the Greek In Ttiicty
and completaneaa. while the Qieek excela In nicety and dsllnite-
noM of modal dlitinetioD, tho Sanskrit ■urpaoaait in primiliTcnesi
and transparancy ot formation- In this part of the grammati^l
ayalem there ia, howeTcr, an cTcn greater diOerenoa than in Ihe
nsnn inflexion between the Tedio and the cltaaical Sanskrit.
While tha fonner ibowa, upon thr whole, tha full oaini)len
modal fomi eihibitcd bj; the Or"-- *>-- '-*- ' •—
subjunotiTe and indicatiTe moods ; and, their iyutailic rennireme
becoming more and more limited, they at test contented tlwmMli
for modal eipnanon, with a preaont optatiTe and impentiTB,
addition to the indicatiTe tenae-forma, and a little-uaed aoi
optatlTa with a apedsl "pitcatiTa" a " bcnsdictiie" oeani
Bitached to It
Anothei part oF the verb in which the later language dill
widely finm Vedionaege ia the inflnitiTBi Tlie latwDsn of tht old
"""'"' ' ' — ' — IS of Tetbal al
isidenUe Tariety i
alahatnct
with the hmcCion of InflnitiTM, ■ oartain nouibsr of whlth
uiiou;>»] SAN8EBIT
ca Ml ba trued tMk to Oa pmnt 1«ihimi m, br iBrtuo*,
Bull daUn fcim u ^Tr^M-Tirint aU-«a|iM-lx"<n i <«'-
m~ltarm. TiDtlMr, iMt; ■ to eoBaMT,"
■ aorlM intnitlt* iri& flw datira MMUnf
fa fl^i, ■pnusllv aa aorlM intnitlt* iri& flw datira mmUi
([ualld to tha ndioa tOnM^ ndi u yiirfM " to l^'^tf -^ " t
Ins to On latiB mpiaaM Jiftrw, iMn. Bat, m 1b
am, tb* aUrtiTii (iittX o( tin am* tWnet mu
k rimikr porpon, n too Todto lingiwgi mtikm tm othtt tatm do
datr ** laRiillltM, Tii., tb* dttii* Im (om (*.f., Mtot^ and tk*
■wwalodi «af^, aad tka nn.->bL in lot (MtotL A pnainant
'nton o( tha Ut« SaoArit iTDla: ' ' "' .-.-•-
linaUo partielpio Id Ml, appwasl
M {|icobkU*ft dnlntlfa Erom thi
„ Linlot(MiML
« SaoArit iTnlu ia the lo-adM «md
cliuUo partidpU Id Ml, nipwaB% lb* iDrtnaaaCd of ■ rim in
,. , — i_i ._ . i_j_u_ ^^ (^^ In (bX M vdl M t&a garni in
_._n 1b Mm (wiita^l, and Oa
(iTiK^ " to do ■'). And, UaiilM tboaa (d «■ aod 4^ ft ftaqtHOtlr
Hsa tonm nrltb a final long <ranl, u liitfid, Ufd, thna ihow-
ing tha foraiBT to ba ihortaiwd iostnunanlua of ibriiact nonna
iaf andll.
Tba Sanakrit nrb, lilu tha Qrtak, lua two Toiaa, astiT* and
uiddla, callotL aftat tliilr ptimaiT faDCtiani, famim4i pada,
~woidf<if aaatkar,''anilUHiH^pailii,''vanlIbrOMaialL'* Whila
1b Onak Ibt nldJla (onaa ban to Uo dn^ alio for tha paai*a In
all twill eioapt tb* Mfiat ud fatant tba Sanfait, on tba otba
band, bu donhpod br tb* puain a qp*>i*l pnant-atam in ya,
tba otbai tnuaa liaiu aDVpllad by tba eomnonding addilla foimi,
with tba eneptiaa of tha tUid panon ■'"g'"" aonit, tat wblab a
^TCud fonn in f ia nnaUj uaigDod to tba paaatra.
Tba pmant-^itgia mlain fi bj br tba itaat impoitanl put of tba
frhola Twb ajatani, both on anooant of {raqacacr of actul oscBi-
nooa and of It* auaUantatata of prawTTitfen. It ia with ngard
to t^ dUbranfrnjiolpzoaantMenifanBatioB that tba mtin itod
rf —naiiil imta baa la« gnnped by tba natin gnBunirlana nnda
tan dUbnat olaaaaa. Tbeao duaaa again natDndlT bll nndar two
dMriona or * coqjiuMlona,'' with fliia obanutoialla differaiea that
dM ona (tha aaooDdTrataina tba aama itani (aoding in ■) thna^-
«ut tha pnaant and imparfaot, on]; laD(tbonli> tha ftnal vowal
bsfbca tamloatioDa btg&inlng with • or ■• (not unl) ; wbila tha
oUior abowa two dlBineBt tama of tha alwii. ■ itning and a wak
torai, aoaonling aa tba aonnt hlla on tb« atam-ajll^l* or on tha
pemmal amluis; >.$., t liaf. hUm^ *ift—9 pL Uara-Oa,
^ptTt i bat M, *tn—i'4*d, Jn (bt M) ; 1 aiu. drft-ii, nif
r*f,—\ pL J«ry»«»» {rrifKipaiy
Aa aaranl e( tba paraonal oodbgi ahow ■ decUad dnUari^ to
psnonal or damoutrttira ptoBDoniL it ia U|^ prabobia that, aa
mi^t indaad ba • pfBr* czpaetod, all or noat of tbaa ato rf
pronomlul origin,— thoosb, owiof to thdr Mtpoaad poaitimi and
cosaaqnant dMsj, tbali orij^n^ fatrn and Uaitltr ouknot now ba
detanJnad with oattaint;. Tha aotlra al^DkTtannlnaUotia. with
tlta oxoiptioaor lb* aaoond panon of tha ImpantiTt, an nnaaoaBtod
nod of eampantinlT Ugbt appaaianea : wbllo Ooaa of tho dnl
nod pinal, aa w*U u tha middla tCTnlnBUo^ ban tba aooon^
to bo anipDriod
ta, <r atharwloa
brtboal
tha peiaonal onding* in tha bat, and pnonmablr oldar, coojogn-
tion may thn* be add aomawlut to laaeniUa ftat of anoUtici in
Onak.
In Oa iBpatftet Oa praawt »l«n ia faiaiiiMil br tba aBainaat,
eonaiatingofBptdiadil Han. aa In tho othM' UaM In wbii£
it appaon, it hai tnrariaUj tba aoaanl la M^ tU diilinctlTa
alament (otiglDtlly pnbablr an iadepaodaBt daaooabatln adTari>
"Owd")!)* tba awMioD of jMt tima. Tbk aUttlng of tba
word-ucaat aao* to bara oantribnlvl to tha tnthar ndaetlon of
dia panmil «dli9, ud ttnt ounad tha fxmation of a naw, or
toopidiiy, aat of taminationa wblob tama to ba appn>prbt«l hr
■acoodaij taoaaa and mooda mmllj. Aa Id Onak poetry, t^
Bumant ia ftoqaoDtly omlttid in Sanakrit
TbaoMod-aigiiif tharaltJunoliTalaa, addad to <l^ atnmg toim
oOtii* tenaaatam. If tb* atan and* alnadrin a, tba kttai ba-
aomcs leutbanod. it ngnd Ibo panoBal taminalfau, aama
paiaos* taka tbs primary, othan tba aacondaiy format wUb otban
i^isin Eany tak* dtbar Uia ona ar tba otbar. Tho flnt dngnlar
BctlT^ bowanr, lahia ti inataad of ai^ to dlaUnnlBh it Ihnn tho
indkitlTa. Bit badda* tbaas IniM, ahowli^ flia mood-ilgB g.
Um aobjaoatiTC (both pnaant and aoitit) siay taka anotbarbim,
wIflMnt «ir MM,^Mm. »~l.l .^ .~t -Wl. t\. — ~~1.^ -"■^'-rT-
ba^ tbM Idantlail wUb tha aagmanthai fDcn of Uia pietarita.
Tka optBtlTO invariaUr taltn tta aaoondary andiua, with aoma
paoaliar TBiiBtloBa. IntlMaotina(tbofli>tooi|JngaSoD,ltemood-
alfi la ftf, alBnd to tb* wtak fom of tbo atom : i:;., not oa^—
Beaidoa tba gtdlnary parftct, niada from a tadapllcalad tttm,
with <UiUiictfani batwoao atroDg (actlTa ilngalu) and wnak fonni,
and a partly paooliar aat of andinga, th* Jatar Ungoiga makea
brao oaa of a pariphmthi parlact, conaiitlng oF tlw accuaatiTa of
• tainin* abatraet noon In 4 (Hba) with tlw radnpUcatad parfect
fotmi of tba aoiUiary Torln tor, "to do;" n oa (aod oceaaionBlly
iiW), "to ba.' TboB^ mora parttcnlBriy laaorted to for tb«
dariiBtiTa foraa of oonJngitloB — riL, tba caaatiTa (Including tha
ao-eallod tenth ooBJogatbmal claa), tha dnldaiBtlTa, Intenaiva, and
danomlnatir*— titk paiftet-fonn ia alas oommonlT tued with rooti
bcaJBBina with ptaodioally lou nwala, la wall aa with a f«w
otbar ioMatod robta. In tba Blgroda till* funnatioii ia qnila
DnknowD, and tha AtharTSn otbia a aingla InitmiDa of It, fnm a
oanaatlTa nrb, with tha auiliary tsr. In tha Vadio pma, on
th* otbar hand, it I* iMh*r Iraqaant,' and it 1* quita oonunon In
tha latar laogoag*.
[b addition to th* ordinary partldplaa, acUr* and aiddla, of
tba ndnpUoatad 'pattet,—t.f.,)a}aii-iiit, yrfmwit ; (vimfA-iidj
wtwrr-iJw*, — than ia a aeoondaiy partldpuJ formatian, obCainad
by affliing tlw piiiaiailin aaflx mf ((W) to tha pawTa namt
partlcipl*: <.f., Irte-aotit lit 'bBTing (that wbich ia) don*.'
"~'~"^dia«ofafe--' ?!--.- "_ .'..
id It 1* oecaaionallT mat with In On Biihmanaa. In tba htet
lingTiaga; bowartr. It lot oily is nl ntbar fKqnent oocomDC*,
liiillna aaaiii I nulla a naw Ibnatlon, Tii., that of alnlta parftet
lonn ; tbni iritooJii, trilarmilat, witboat any amiUaiy mb,
BHan, nofbaTiagdioai bsfbabu dan^'"'thay baTodona."
Tha original IndO'^arinaBio (btnro-atam tormatlon in tfa, with
primacy mdiBa,— ^ , MiriU — Mm (for Ur m), — 1* tha ordinary
tsnaa-ltinB bott in Vadio and slaadcal Saiiakrit,— a pralarita of i^
with a conditional fom attaehad to It (dijdiyit), I»ln8 i1k oamrnon
to all perioda of tha langnagft
Bida l>y lida with thu Ritora, bowarar, an analytla
In th* Brftbmanai, obtaining wider dUToncj
liita paiiphtaiatic ftttoio £ mad* by maana
jlar of a nsain afmtfi In (or (ddCor, Qom.
. Jowtd by tb* oorraaponding (Hnant form* of
•a^ 'to ba" (Md-'mt, ai it war*, datumt turn), with fliBaioep-
tioo of tbo Udid nnoUB, iriilch need no auilkty, bnt taka th«
raMatlr* nominaar* of tha noniu
Tbs aoriat ayatam i* aomawbit complicitod, inetodioa as it doaa
taitai of TBrioBi bnutloii^ viz., a radbsl aialat^
somatiBMS with nda|licated atam,— 4.;., di(UM-lm(r; tmdH
-■xeh; rfrfuAvt; an »«arlat (or (bamatio amist) with n
withontndnplication,— «f.,driESt-bii«i; t^igllam,^. fn^mj
and aannl dUbant roma of > iiUIant««iat, IB tho oldir
Vedio langBU* tha ndkal aoriat la br mora common than the
o-aoriat; whlcX beeomaa man l^nantly need later on. Of tba
dlAreot kindi of aibilant-aoriata, tha moat common ia tha one
iriitch makea its atom by ttu addition of t to tba root, ailliar with
or without a connecting Towai i indiflkrant n)ot*:«g^, n~* "
part act
iBanUy U
I take • doable aorM-atgn with Inamted
I {*M tor Mi.—4.f., dydrfatom (^ icr^^lf-m ;
_ aj mnly in Qi* alder bat men namaonaly in tbo
■acer laBgnag* — mak* thair aoriri-«t*m by tho addltfon ofaa, t.f.,
dtfaakat-n^M.
Aa regard* la* ajntactlo fttnctioni al the Ares pretsritaa,— the
impetfKt, perfod^ and aoriat,— tha daaiical wilten mike Tiitoally
no diiliBCliDn beftiaap theoi, tut nia tham qnlta indiacriminitsly.
In til* oldw langnaga, on the other hand, tha impccfoot ia dilafly
— ' -- - narnrtfn tinaa, whUa theothar two ■anotlly rafai.to a
OD wbleb is BOW eoDplotat— tho aodaU bowmar, man
_. ___y to that which Is oiily iort dons or complatad. Tha
perAo^ owing doabtleaa to Its ndnpUcatira form, baa also not
tnfteqnently tbs foroe «( an itantlvat or IntanaiTa. pnaant.
Tb SuiMiit, Ilka Um Qrsek, abowi at all timas a erasldsnhle
poww ud &dliqr of BOOB-MnpadtioB. Bnt whilo ia the older
laiigii^. aa waU aa in the aoriiar literal piodnct* of th* diadcal
Bariod, aneh comblBatiaD* imtf aioasd the Umlta oompatible with
uw leDaTsl economy of laflaxlaaal neeeh, dnting Uie later, artl-
Ih [ariiailiiil iif [hiilaigiMiia lliaj iiiailiisllj I niii man and more
niiiiMri. both Ib ain and (MqBauay of Bsa, till at lart tbey aUorb
■Inrart the (ntin ibdo* of ayntaoUo oonatmctlon.
On* of the meat ainkiag (aalor** of Banakrit wonl-foimatioB la
that regnlai tnterebang* of Ught and strong Towel-aoimd*, nioally
daalgnatad by tbs natiTe tanns at fiiiiii (qnali^) and wriddAi
{Inonan). Aa phonetic prooaaa icDplitid in thiae laima con*iata
ttbs raiainK midar oartaln conditlona, of a radial or thnnitia
[ht Towal i, u, r> ^^ ^ maana of an inaartod a^sonnd, to tha
phthai«al (gnna) aonnijj « (Sanskr. *f), Ik (Sanikr. «}, and tha
M Itaa th* tafaal at lb* aa
j,.=cbyC00t^lc
272
combbwl
Thai trcng
SANSKRIT
combbwtion or ud al rnpectrnly, lad, by anpetition of the Mins
n tha (TridJhi) sound* di, tu, dr. and dl roanectiTBlj.
1 root vid, " lo know," ws h«v« Uda, " ItDowlodgB," lod
B vSldiia ; from yiij, »iiflo, yaOfiia. While ths intar-
changi of tlw former kind, due munly io accentoal cuu«^ vb« nn-
donbtadlr s oommon featon of ludo-Oermanu! ipesch, the ]M4a,
or TriddU-ohaiijie, which chieB; occim in Kcondiiy itcmi, ii pio-
bablj I Utor dgielopmoiit UoraoTU, there can be no doabt that
th« vriddhi-rowell bw reaTlj daa to whgt the term impliee.
nlif ununed by com pant
™ norditha reUtloa twtn „-— . .
md Uw leipective umjilo t- uid u-«Dundi.
i philologutB till ■ few jeOTB ngo,
n Che guUHOnndi ii (<] lad Jit (^)
ipective limjilo (- uid u-«oun<ii. Acooriing to » reMnt
theory, however, wMcE has ilreadj recelrkl ■ oomidenble smoimt
of •coeptsiia, we *n hencofgrth to look npoo the haiTiep Towali
■I the oriftiul, and upoo the ligbtar Towela ai the later aoanda,
produoad through the abasiiM of Rreai and pitch. The groundi
on which tbia thsorj la recotumandad ara thou of logjoal conaiit-
•ncy. Id tha snaiogona caiea of iuCercluuiae batwaan " ~~^ ~
aa wdU aa } aod a!, moat ichaUn hare iudKd b«en woiil
the ayllabifl r ""^ i *> weakaned from original nr and . .
'* '^ro granxnuriAna leprewnt the latter aa prodncod from the
- "-"ement. Similarly the ferb at [uj, " to be," loeaa ita
■r the radical ■yllable ia unaccented^ i.t.,iMti, Let
to raflard
former bj
For Other analo
\—tmdi, i{ti]mui ; opt lyin, LaU titn [rim).
I'shange, sea Piuloiooy, voL rriii p. 783
" n aoalogoua caau of Towal-iuodluatioD
783*;.
On tha atrangth of the
ue, tharefora, to accept
-A>f (1^): «Kli (1^ te W)
AcfluteicSuM In thla equation would' uem to IutoIt* at taait
one important admlaalDn, vii. , tliat original roat-ayllahlea eontuned
no aimpla <- and h-towbI^ except a> tha woond etaiiuDt of the
dMithougiat, <4 of; mt, au, «l Va ought ua longn to ipeik
or the root* *^ "to knDW,''itt:^ "to allow, to hid,'>^iU(wi, "to
■oiU'ilV'Vi "to y^" bot of Mfi, deik, d^tigh or diMgk, ymf,
4o. Rar, >a Hm wow Uw would ami; with equal foroa to luAi*!
vovilj, the niSil Mt would hare to M called *«• or mm ; and, in
■xplainbig, for JDituoe, tbs bngDlul; fiunMd itiitrt^i, lilarl^ir,
- « ml^t My tluL by thi alBzioa of h« to tk* not Itm, the
■ ■ H «4«H* 1^-— 1 "
pnnnt-atem
m oUaiatd Ita^fyi), wUob, m
, jeany tmlk intbe'lg^ntinatku* thiot]^ i
ing to vbieh tha luical and brmatlT* elonaaita of Indo-Oormaiil
■peeoh were at om tlnta iDdenodeDt won^ w* wonU ham to l
prapand tor a pnt^ liberal aUowuco, to tbo went liBgnag
otdiphthoDpJnoDonMilaaanch aa AftaaM, wUla rimplooos
binauona inch ai dft *m eoold odIt nring np after aiapaial
Sllahla-woida had baooaM nnilod by tha fSiaa of a cobbob boodi
it, wbetber tha agglutinationiita ba right or wnmA a tbaory Ii
volring the priori^ of the diphtliongJ onr tht iimriB ami-
can hardly he Bid to ba one of gnat prima fialt pnbaUlity ; aad
one may well auk whether the raqairamant* of l^ol iiniAliiiiiij
niifht not he satisfiei in tome other, laa inprobabla, ny.
How, tha analogouB caaea wMoh hare odied tortti thia tbanr
turn upon the !a> of a radical or nfllial a tjlj, oocadonad by tM
ahifting ef tha woid.accant to BOtna Othat orDabla ; 4^., aoo.
■xtttfnm, initr. mdlrd ; Wra^iai, <»T<iaaF ; Mamfia^ llf(a)mr i
ttnd, tmOt.- Ulght wa not then aMome that ai aa Molj '
Booa and verb raflaxioR, thnngh the gfring mjr,
eonditlon^ of the atam a (>), t£a habit et ataman
(lamant of inflailon, oama to ealaUiah Itaalf and •Itloatoly to
otaod ita qihua orar it«m> with i- aod w-TOwda, bat tha^ on
SMatiiig here with men rariatanoe' than in the a (l>-TO«d, tho
atem-mdation than took tha ibaM of • laiiiM a Oia aimplo
ToweC in the " atroog * eaeaa and raib-fbnn^ by tliat mow o-
element which conalitatad the diatinetiTO akment « tboaa i '~
the other variable Item* t In thiiwaytlw (bore oqBatin
atitl hold good, and tha oanemooding Towd-gradt^ On
aomewhat difforant ganada, would yat ba atrietlT aoalogMU.
The acemt of Santkrlt worda ii niaAad only u tha mora Impot-
antTadlctaita,diSBniit ayatBOUaf DOtatianbaiBgnMdindlflaent
work*. Oar knowladga of the later aeoantnaHfiirfworiaia entirely
derived from tha italamcota of arainnarianab Aa in Oraek, there
aretlraa accanta, tha ikMUb (^raiaad," t.^ acntej-r- "—
("not raiaed.'C*., erara), and tho aoorila ("aoimdad, ,
It., drcumflai). Ths laat ia a oomUnatloQ of the two othen^
s/xrsi
'nSSa'**
It* proper oaa being "™^'"^^^ almott antliely to a Vowel luouaJeil
by a aemiruwel f or *, raf^eaantiog an original acntea voweL
Hindu acboUr*, however, alao inclada in thii tenn the aoeant of a
HV* ayllable pnceded by aa acntad ajUable, and itielt fbUowcd
The Sanakrit and Oreok a<
Althooch the Ofh
nla, confining tho ai
ent within
__. _lhOQch the G
a laat three aylkbls, h*a frequently obliteialBd the ofigiiuil
likeueB, the old featuiei may oftan ba Iraoed through the later
forma. Thua, though anniienln) Terh-fonna in Grnek cannot
alwtya have tha accent on the augment aa in Eanakrit, they ha>e
it inviriahly aa little remored from it M the aceentoal raatnctioni
will allow: 4.g., diharam, t^ftr; dUordiia, if4ft^,r\ dMaW-
The moat atriking eoincidance in notin daclandon I* tlit
accentual diatinctlon made by both languagca between tbe "atroBg"
■nd ' ' weak " caaei of monoayllahia noou, —the oiily difleranoaln
thia reapact being that in Sanakrit the accuaatiTe plaral, aa a nle,
haa tha aooent on tha caio^ndinft and oonsianantlr ahowa th(
weak form of tha atam: a,;., atem;ii>il, »t; wUm, wMa; ;udd^
ntii ; padi, «![ ; yddu, w6tt3 ; nnjda, rOn ; fudim, nI4r -
;»*»*, woof. In Binskrit a few other daaaea of alema (aapaciallj
present urticiidea in ant, at), accented on tfae laat ayllable, an ap)
to yield their accent to heavy Towel (not amaonantal} tarmina-
tiona ; compare tha aualogoua accenCnaCion of Bandait and Onti
•1*™. in Ur: pUdrain, rurffa ; fitr*, nra^i; sMro^ nriHi:
tuTariab^ tha auant on tha lliat ijllaUe ; otharwiae it fa not
Finite Ttrb-fonna alao, aa a nla, las* their accent, omept whan
atindlngat tha beginning of a aantanae or Tane^Ivlaion (a vocotfrt
not baing taken tntu aeooont). or ia dapaodcnt (nioatly ralaitlTej
danaaa, or In oo^onetkin with oirtaln nartjalsa^ Of tn or moit
eo-ordinata TartArma, luranar, only the lint ia anaccentsd.
Is writing Sanakrit the natfn^ in diffimnt part* of In^
gananllT (lariay the paHleulaf daanataroaad for writing their own
Tamaanbi. Tb» chaiaotar, howovar, mat widely mtdMatood aod
omplt^ed hr Hlndn achijara, and need Inrariably in Enroptan
adiilaa at fianalcrit«oit>(nDl<a* printed En Boman latter*) la th
ao^led I>Mmdearl orndforl {"faiwn"-«a1pt) ofOMBoda.
Tba aciflin of tha ImUan alphlbela ia atiU enrdoped In doabt
The oldeft hitherto known' apsdmana of Indian writing ar* fir*
nek-inacrintjona, oonlainlu religkm* adtot* In PUi (tha PrUrit
na*l In tha Bnildhiit aer&tnraai, lanad by the ampem Aioka
(P^adad) of tba llsnry« i^rBMty, In XU-Ul !.«., and aoattared
onr tha aiaa of noctiieni India Inm tha Tldnl^ of Paahawar, on
tha DsrtlMrat frontier, and Qlrnar tn Oaiont, to Jangada aod
DhaaU In Katak, on the eastera ooaat The mnt wealeni tf tbaa*
limiiliilhaM lalliNl. ftam Tillagta near i^ the Kapmdandd or
BhthMf^ariJ laamiptlaa-^ azamted lit ■ dUrerent alphabet
fiontbtothMa. It nada fk«n right to left and ia nanally called
dl* Idan PUi alphabet it being alao naed on tha ootn* of tha
QnA aad Indo^nOian princes of Ariana ; vhUe the otber,
whlArMda from left to rUht,hi called Ot Indian Fill alphabet.
na teBMt, lAidt ia nun%atly dvrived from a Semitia (probably
Aiaaaan) aoaraa^ haa left no tracts on the aabseqnent derolopment
of Indian wiftbg^ Tha Indo-PUi alphabet, on the other hand,
from wfaleh Oit modem Indian alphabets sre deriTed, ia af oncartain
origin. Tb* dinilarlty, howsvai, which aareral of It* letters
preaant to those of the old Phcenldan alphabet (itself probably
darlred bom tha Bgyplian hlera^yphia) suggeala for thia alphabet
alao— or at leaat tor the gam of it— tha probability of a Semitia
origin, thoD^ already at Aioka'e ttme^ Uie Indiana bad wnked
It up tb a high degree of Mrfeolian and wonderftaQy adapted it to
thdr peooUar eetmtlfle ends. Ae to the probable time and channd
of ita intavduation, no satlafbetoiT theory haa yet bas propoead.
CcnalderiDg, howanr, the high state of perfectioa it exhiliits in
tha Haorya and Andhia Inacnptiona, as well sa tha vide area over
Irbkh thoa are scattered, it can hardly ba doubted that the art
of writing mnet haTs been known to and prscttssdkrthe Indians
for TSriona pnrpoets long before the time of Aioka. The bet that
* ~ to it la found in the eontampomy liCaratnte has
rtaunloftheTarlooa theories proponed on thia inl^ect irll] be foand
tnspapar ooatribotad bylb B. Cuat to the /wraol 9' lAe .fioyof
<ii5w^, nawee
I invention of th>
The invention of the nameral figures, which nied to he nnenlly
aBoribad to the Indiana, haa alao been randared donbtM by more
' ' inniinn, duUiiE Mtt HialaaaMna Miterteally, bit
paWrtwltoPref. W
■t tuhutrt^ wItA tl
ttw )ta Pi^. n. Btp.
ttritOmnta >Mirtait, poMMied it at
b* PiML BCtilUnct aad BMh. Lantl tut* (B (Ml
&iAi<i-Eii(U« oaiaatitci If PidTi. vmto^ Bd
unutouf
SANSKRIT
PAKT n.— 8ANSKKIT LTTEEATDBK
Hm bistorj of Suukrit litontnm Ubonn under the
ume diMdnutage u tlie' political historj of oneiont ladk,
from Uio total want of Bnjthiag like a fixed cbronologf.
At there Me extremelj few well-Mcertuned pobtical facts
□□til compMativelj recent tiroeo, bo in th&t whole ntt
range of UteraE7 derelopment there U tcarcelj n work of
unpMtanoe the dale of which echoUn hATs sncceeded in
fizmg with ktwolnte ceriainty. The original compoBition
of most Saoakrit works can indeed be confidently aaugned
to cerlaiD ^nsral periods of literature, bat aa to many of
Uiem, and th«Be among the moat import&at, achclan luve
bat too much reason Ui donbt whether thej have come
down to na in their original ahape, or wbetber thej have
not rather, in ooniae of time, undergone alterations and
additiona ao aeriooa aa to make it impoaaible to regard
them aa genuine witneases of anj ona phase of the
deYelopmBnt of the Indian mind. Not can we expect
manj important chronological data from the new materials
whi^ inll donbUeaa jet be brooght to light in India.
TIhmi^ bjr aodt diai^eries a few isolated spots msj
indeed be lifted ap here «nd there, the real task of
dewing awaj the mist which at preaent obecnrea oar view,
if eret it can be cleared amr, will haTe to be performed
I7 patient rsMarch — bj a more minutfl critical examina-
tion of the mnltitodinons writings which hare been handed
down from the remote past In the following sketch it is
inteaded to take a rapid view of the more important
w«'ks and writers in the sereral departmenla of litentnre.
Id aoooidanee with the two great phasee of linguistic
derelopmant abo?e referred to, the history of Sanskrit
literature readily diridea' itself into two princip^ periods,
the Vedic and the classical It should, howsTer, be
noted that theee periods partly orsrlap each other, and
that some of the later Tedic works are bcladod in that
period on account of the subjects with which they deal,
and for their Mchaic s^le, rather thrn for any just claim
to a hi^er antiquity tlun may have to be assigned to the
oldest worka of die chsaical Banskrit.
L Th> Viina PnuoD.*
The term veda — Ct., "knowledge," (sacred) "lore" —
embtacee a body of writings the ong^n of which is
ascribed to divine re?ektion {inUi, literally " hearing "),
and which forms the foundation of the Br&hmanical
system of religions belief. This sacred canon is divided
into three or (according to a later scheme) four coordinate
coileetiona, likewise caUed Veda :— (1) the pig-etda, or
lors of praise (or hymns) ; (2) the Sdnta-vida, or lore of
tunes (or chants); (3) the Tifjw-vtda, or lore of prayer ;
and (4) the AlkarBo-peda, or lore of the Atbarvana
Each of tbeae four Vedas consists primaril;^ of a coUection
(uqiAtld) of sacted, moetly poetical, texts of a devotional
catore, cftlled staiifra. This entire body of texts (aod
paiticniarty the first three eaUections) is also frequently
referred to sa the trayi vidgd, ot threefold wisdom, of hymn
(rtcA*), tone or chant {lAmaii), and prayer (^qnu), — the
fonrtb Teda, if at all included, being in that case classed
together with the ^ik.
"Vbit Brlhmauical reli^n finds its practical expreasion
chiefly ^in sacrificial p^ormances. The Vedic sacrifice
require* for its jffoper performance the attendance of four
officiating priests, each of whom is assisted by one or
> i. Hair's Onfimai Bamttrit TcEti, 6 tob., Id wL, tatm thg ni«t
implaU (BHnl mmj d[ tlia miiJU ol Ttdia naHnh.
■ n* oomUiutiai A, uad [In coDtDRnltr villi th< uoil Eigliih
- '1m) la lUs ik^h of tb» Utmton, eemnoDdi to th* slmnlt c
- -■~io<(«h»a^4.bt^ p. WO.
pradki) la tUi
more (nsually ttuee) subordinate priesta, fi&i-^l} the
ffotar (i.e., either "sscriGcer," or "inroker"), whose chief
bnainesa b to inToke the gods, uther in ihort prayers
prononnced over the seTertJ oblation^ or in liturgical
recitations (ioMra), nude np of various hymns and
detached verse* ; (S) the UdgCtar, or chorister, who baa to
perform chants (detru) in connexion with the hotar's
redtationa ; (3) the AdAvaryu, or oQering priest par exctl-
laux, who promts all the material duties of the sacrifice,
such aa the kindling of the fires, the preparation of the
sacrificial ground and the offerings, the making of obla-
tions, &c; (4) thaBroABtam, or chief "priest," who has to
superintend the peTfornienc« and to rectify any mistakes
that may be committed. Now, the first three of these
priests stand in special relation to three of the Vodic
Barnhitia in thia way, that the Bamhitla of the Stmareda
and Tajurveda form special song and prayer books,
arranged for the practical use of the udgUar and
adhvaryu respectively ; whilst the ]^-aanihit&, thongh
not arranged for any snch practical purpose, contains the
entire body of sacred lyrics whence the hotar draws the
mater^ fn' his recitations. The brahman, on the otber
hand, had no spedal text-book assigned to him, but was
expected to be familiar with all the Satphitls aa well aa
with the practicsd dstaila of the sacrificial performance.
In point of fact, however, the btahmans, thon{^ their
attendance at Vedic sacrifices was required, can scarcely
be said to have ftamed a separate cUas of priests : their
ofBce was probably one which might be held by any priest
of the three other classes who had acquired the neceesary
qualification by additional study of the other Samhitto
and mannal* of ritual In later times, when the votaries
of the fourth Veda pressed for recognition of their Samhitl
as part of the sacred canon, the bmhnwn priest was
claimed by them as specially connected with the Atharva-
veda. It is perhaps for thu reason that the latter is also
called the Srabmairda, — though this designation may also
be taken to mean the Veda of spells or secret doclrinea
(brahwum). It sometimes happens that verses not fonod
in our vetston of the ^ik-samhitt, but in the Athorva-
veda^amhitt, are used by the hotar ; but such texts, il
they did not actually form part of some other version of
the ^ik, — as Blyaqa in the introduction to his commentary
on the J^ik-samhitA aasurea us that they did, — were prob-
ably inserted in the liturgy snb^nent to the lect^^-
tion of the fourth Veda.
The sereral Soinhitts have attached to them certain
theological pnwe works, called SrdAmana, which, thougli
subor<Uaate in authority to the Hantras or Sdinbitls, ar^
like them held to be divinely revealed and to form part ul
the canon. The chief work* of thisclassare of an eiegetic
natnn^— -their purport being to sopply a dogmatic expo^i-
tioii of the sacrificial csramonial iu so far as the particular
class of priests for whoae enlightenment tbe BrUimai>a i^
intended is concerned in iL Notwithstanding tbe uu-
intereating character of no small part of their contents, the
Brihmaijas are of considerable importance, both as regards
the history of Indian institutions and as " the oldest body
of Indo-European prose, of a generally free, vigorous,
simple form, affording valuable glimpees backward at tbo
primitive condition of unfettered Indo-European talk"
(Whitney).
More or lees closely connected with the Brlhmaifas (and
in a few exceptional cases with Sarnhitla) are two claeees
of treatises, called Jra^pata and Upaniihad. The Araij-
yakas, i.e,, works "relating to tbe forest," being intended
to be ravt by these wha have retired from the world and.
XSi-3S
274
SANS. KBIT
iMtd tbe lib of kochoritM, do not gntXij differ in ohai^
Bcter and styla from thfi BrUunajjaa, bat liks them are
chieflj ritnollstic, treating of cpeciol ceremomee not dealt
with, or dealt with only imperfectly, iu the latter worti,
to which they thus atBod in the relation of aopplementn.
The UpftnJBhftdg, on the other hand, are of a parely specQ-
latire mtnre, and most be looked npon as the Grst
attempts at a if Btematie treatment of mBtaphyiical qaea-
tioDB. The nnmber of XJpaniahada hitherto known it very
cooaiderable (abont 170); but, though they nearly all pro-
fess to belong to the Atbarvaveda, they have to be aaaigned
to TBry different periods of Sanakrit literature, — some of
tLem being eTidently quite modem prodnctiona. The
oldest treatises of this kind are doubtless those which
form part of Tedic BaiphitAs, BrlhrnoQaa, and Araqyakaa,
thon{^ not a few others which have no soch special con-
neiba have to be classed with the later prodocts of the
Vedic age.
As the sacred texts were not committed to writing till a
moch later period, bat wei« handed down orally in the
Br&hmanical schools, it was inevitable tiiat local differences
of reading should spring np, which in couiee of time gave
rise to a nnmber of independent veraioos, more or less
differing from one another. Buch different text-recen-
aiooe^ called idiM (it, branch), were at one time very
DumerouB, but only a limited number of them have sur-
vived. As regards the Sambitls, the poetical form of the
hymns, as well as the coocise style of the sacrificial
lormolas, wonld render these texts leas liable to change,
and the discrepancies of different versions would chiefly
ODDsiBt in various readings of ringla words or In the
different anangement of the textual matter. The diffuse
ritualistic dlscnsstons and loosely coDQocted legendary
illustrations of the Brfthmaoas, on the other hand, oSeied
scope for very considerable modifications in the traditional
matter, either through the ordinary processes of oral
traosmissioD or through the special inflnence of indi-
vidoal teachers.
An original BrJUunaijo, then, may be characterized aa a
series of theoretic disconrsea, composed by reoognited
authorities on ritnolistio matters, sncfa aa might be
delivered or referred to in conneiioa with practical
instruction iu the sacrificial art. The grovring intricacy
of the ceremonial, however, could not foil, in course of
time, lo create a demand for treatises of a more practical
tendencT, setting forth, in condse and methodical form,
the duties of the several priests in the eocriflcial .perform-
ances. But, besides the purely ceremonial matter, the
Brlhmaqasalso contained a considerable amount of matter
bearing on the correct interpretation of the Vedic texts ;
nod, indeed, the sacred obligation incumbent on the
Brihmans of haodiog down correctly the letter and sense
of those texts necessarily involved a good deal of serious
grammatical and etymological study in the BrUunanical
schools. These literary porsniti could not but result in
the accumulation of much learned matwial, which it would
become more and more desirable to .throw into a system-
atic form, serving at the same time as a guide for future
research. These practical requirements were met by a
class of treatises, gronped under six different heads or
subjects, called Fedingcu, i.t., members, or limbs, of the
(body of the) Veda. None of the works, bowevsr, which
have come down to us under this designation con lay any
just claim to being considered ss the original treatises on
their several subjects; but they evidently represent a
mors or lees advanced stage of scientific development
Though a few of them are composed in metrical form —
especially in the ordinary epic couple^ the amuifulA
ilvbi, coosisting of two lines of sixteen syllables, or of
iwa octo^llabio pidos. each — the nuqority of them belong
to a slass of writings called rtUra, i.*., " string, " i
as they do of strings of rules in the shape of tersely
expressed aphorisins, intended to be committed to memory.
The Sfitras form a connecting link between (he- Vedic and
the claeaical periods of literature. But, although these
treatises, so far as they deal with Vedie subjects, are
inclnded by the native authorities among the Vedic writ-
ings, and in point of language may, generally speakitt^
be considered as the Utest products of the Vedic age, they
have no share in the eacred title of initi or revelation.
They ore of human, not of divine, origin. And yel^ as
the production of men of the highest standing, and pro-
foundly versed in Vedic loie^ the SQtras are natmally
regarded as works of great authority, second only to that
of the revealed scriptures themselves ; and their relation
to the latter is expressed in the generic title of Hini-Ui, or
Tradition, nsnally applied to thesn.
llle ux branches of Vedic science, included under the
term VedAoga, are as follows ; —
(1) SihAa, or Fhonetics. Hie privileged {loeition of
representing this sabject is assigned to a small treatise
ascribed to the great grammarian P&i.iini, viz., the Pd^uil^
MthA, extant in two different (^ik and Y^us) recensioua
But neither this treatise nor any other of the numerous
jikshls which have recently come to light can lay claim to
any very high age. Scholars, however, nsnally inclnde
under this heod certain works, called I'r&iiiAkhytL, i.e.,
"belonging to a certain i&iJid or recension," which deal
minutely with the phonetic peculiarities of the several
SarnhitAs, and ore of great imiiortance for the textual
criticism of the Vedic SamhitSs.
(2) ChAanJiu, or Metre. Tradition makes the Chian-
dai-iMra of Fingala the starting-point of prosody. The
Vedic metres, however, occupy but a small port of this
treatise, and they are evidently dealt with in a more
original manner in the Nidbia-slttra of the Slmavedo, and
in a chapter of Che Hik-prfltii&khya. For profane prosody,
on the other hand, Piugala's treatise is rather valw^e, no
less than 160 metres bmng described by him.
(3) Vy&karana, or Qraramar. Pfti^ini's famous grammar
is said to be fAe Vedlnga; but it marks the colmioating
point of grammatical research rather than the beginning
and besides treats chiefly of the post- Vedic language.
(i) IfiniHa, or Etymology. Ylaka's A'irvkta is the
traditional representetive of this subject, and this important
work certainly deals entirely with Vedie etymology or ex-
planation. It consists, in the first place, of strings of words
in three chapters: — (1) synonymous words; (2) such as ore
purely or chiefly Vedic; and (3) names of deities. These
lists are followed by Ytska's commentary, interspersed with
numerous illustrations. YSska, again, quotes several pre-
decessors in the same branch of science ; and it is probable
that the original works on this subject consisted merely
of liste of words similar to those handed down by him.
(5) Jyotiika, or Astronomy. Although aBlronomical
calculations are frequentiy referred to iu older works in
connexinn with the performance of socrLficee, the metrical
treatise whioh has come down to us in tvro different recen-
uons under the titie of Jyotisha, ascribed to one Lagodha,
or lAgato, SEems indeed to be the oldest existing systematic
treatise ou astronomical subjects. With the exception of
some appejentiy spurious veraes of one of the recemuons, it
betrays no sign of the Greek inSuence which shows itself
in Hindu astro aomical works from about the third century
of our eta; aod its date may therefore be set down ss
probably not later than the early centuries after Christ.
(6) kalpa, or Ceremonial Tradition does not single
out any special work as the Ved&nga in this branch of
Vedie science; but the sacrificial practics gave rise to a
large nnmbei of systematic aQtia-oiaaiiaU for th» Mrerij
unumi.]
SANSKRIT
275
duns of piicBta. The matt inportMit of theM vaiks
hira eotoe down to m, uid thoy occapj by Iw tbe
mart ptomineot plkco amcog the lltenry prodoctiona of
tbe iflbK-perind. The KaIpa«OtnLS, or role* of cereiDODiat,
»re of two kinds: — (1) the Svutn^iUrat, which Mfi btued
OD the iraH, and teach the perform&nee of the gredt iacri-
ficca, leqniring three Bacrificial fire* ; uid (3) the SBtArta-
lilrat, or rules based oa die amriti or tradition. Th«
htttt clan B^n ioolndec two kinds of traatisu : — (1) the
Grikfa-Mrat, at domeatia rale^ treating of ordinary
Wly ritea, such as nuunage, birth, nkma-giring, kc,
onnected witli limplB oSerings in tbe domertio fire ; and
(2) tbfl 8dnay6/Mnka- (or ZUorau-) rtUnu, which tTMt of
nutomt and temporal dntias, and are supposed to hate
(mud the chi^ soareea of the later law-booka Besides,
llw Bianta-satras erf the Y^nrreda have nsoally attached
la them a Ht of so-called Sklaittirat, •.«., "tuIbs of
(he cord,' which treat of the meaaartment by means of
Mid^ and the oonstroctioa, of different kinds of altars
required for SBcriGcea. These troatiaes (the stady of
wMch has been snccessfally taken ap by Prof. Tliibant of
Benares) are of considerable interest at supplying import-
■nt information regarding the earliest geometrital opera-
boos in India. Along with the Bfltraa may be classed a
large nomber of snpplementary treatiseaj usually called
Pariiiikta (TuuXon^ura), on rarioos subject* connected
«ith the sacred texla and Vedio religion generally.
After ttiia brief charaeterimtion of the Tarioos branches
e( Tsdic litaratiu^ we proceed to take a rapid anrrey of
(he MTsial Tedic eoUectiono.
....Is.>— ^The ^igfiinawMti hn ocm* down to oe la the
» of tbe SlkaU eehooL UentiDii ii muls of isTenl otbar
"nuns ; and le^udisg one ol tbam, that of tlia BUikalu m
Ian HO* Itartfaar lulbriiiatiaii, isnnlitig to which it SMn», how-
««, to ksn diBWfid bat little (lom tho gilcsU text The litter
oanb of IMS hymna, iDclndiDg deren •o-eslled Yiiakkiiyai.
"•^■^ Frofaebfjintrodneedlnto tfaecollectiaai-'' '" '"
'— Tbs h " ■
•ithn bom a peielr sitificial point oT Tisw, into el|;ht tuliiakat at
tbmt niul loigth, or, oa a more nstnisl prindrte, bueii no chs
(IBM the hymns, snd inTuiaUj sdopted b* Ennpeui Mbolin,
tbs probijils WSJ In which the Rik-nqihitl origiiutad,
pi nseli stlU Tssisias to bs desred op br fatura raHarch.
tiie Irst riaea, nsBdiilse iL-Tii sn arldently smnaed on ■
- -■- " ■■• - ' to « diffcnnt f.a.[1v of
I Ax "Bimiijr-hoolci^—
theVlma-
ntilbm pIuL Eschot tfaem ii
iMk, wbsna lbs* an nauUr
il,UMl]tttsunadu;liL,UieTaTlnii
linTH; T., the Atris; t1, lbs Kwisdr^; sad tU. , tn« luiuiiu
nttlnr, weh of thaa book* bafdiu with tbe hnnos sddiHsid ._
igsi, th* god of In, which an IbUowad by tboae to Indra, the
Jaiitar FlorioL whermpon bnow those sddt^ted to minor diidaa—
UuVUnDB*U(-aU-gadi'^,thaltanU>((toim-KodiiXftc Again,
tbi kTisDS sdiirwssi to iseh daity are vrsngsd (si Prof. Dalbrilck
MS Aown) in adisaendlsg order, aooordlas to the nnmbar of tdmm
elwUohthaycoMiit
Tb* first msajaU, tbs lonoaat in the whola Sstpblti, mntuna
HI hjmna, saerflwd, with Om aieeptian or ■ t»* iaolited onoa,
l> twsea posts of diSaeat bmilua. Hen igiin die hymiu of
■A eatbor aia ^i^gyd on predwly tha mm* principle m tha
1UM4. na asm* edwlar kaa paUlahed sa aditioo of the hyniT
bKk b tha oDBsacCail (t^JiiU) snd Iba dbloliiad Ipada) Uit>, 1873^
Aa adiUiii hi Roraaa liwMlilenlioB was pabllihed bj Th. Aofrwl.l,
BBUn, 1861^ (U ad. 1877}. Put ofui Bngtlah tnwlitlon (chiefly
laiad so Blywa's lataipnlstloii) wia bnaght oat by tlie lata Pror,
H. H. VOaoa (nil. L-Ul., 1860-18117) and conUniied by Pn>r. B. B.
Qmll [toL It., 1B6A, bringliig np tbe work to man^iu tUL Lymn
^^ WabaTealao thaSrrt TBlamiof a tnnalitloiii wltliannning
■oaUHOtaiT, by H. UiUlar, HQlolnlng tbe hyDini to the Ksnita at
rt<n.fsda. OnoipMa (larninD trannlui'iiu hiva bc«D poUlahad by
a Oiumau (lBM-7) and A. Lvlwlc (IBTS;.
family-booka' Ihs slfAth snd ninth iNWhs, en the other hand,
hBTB 1 ipectal chsrsotsr St their own. To tha Blmiv«lt-iai|iliia
wbicb, ai w* shall aaa^ oonaiata almoateotlTalj of Tersie chuan froin
theRik fCT rthantlng porpoaaa, thaaatwo inandalas hate eon trlhnteii
a mnch Isiger pninrtlon ot Tcraee tban any of the othon. Nov,
tha hymoa of the eighth book sn lacribsd to ■ nombet of dilTansat
rlihia, moatly beloniridg to the KlnTa (kinllj, Tbe prodnctioni ot
each poet in obmIIt, thoogh not' alwayi, gioaped together, but
no Dlhot principle of amngement haa jet been diacoyend. The
cblaf pacnllarity of tbla mudala, howeTor, cooiiita ia its motrea.
Many of the bjmiia arr eompoeed in the bnn of itaoiaa, called
pragUka (from fi, "to sing^ ODOaiBllnB ol two varaea In the
triAaAandiDfaMilaHmetraa; wbanc* tbb book ia Danally known
Duler the dealgnstion of Pnglthlb. Tbe otbsr metres mat with
in tbia book are IJkewbs aooh aa ware •TUeallj conaidiTed
pecnlEarlj sdantad tor aiMlDg, ria , tbs p^jofrl (trvm gd, "to ling")
and other cbMlj oolonllabM metres. It la not jat clesr how to
scconnt (br those pacDiiarlties j but torthar reaeuch maj nerbaps
(iunilj of Ddgltai^ or cEintera,
'" — jjitem of wonbip
ahow that either the Unns wi__ _ ^^
or that, befois the satabliahneBt of s .
for the Brihrnaolcal eommanltj, tbry wi _ _ _
their lltnrricil eorrlce eicloilTelj by meuia ot chajita, ioitomi of
using tbe later form of niieil reciUtiao nod chant Out of the
(iahiB of this family is cslled Pn«l[ha Klnra ; posibly this lor-
nama " praglths " nay be an oliC or local' ajDonyni of ndgBtar,
or perhapa of tha chief chanter, the •o-ca"-' '^■■'-'— — —
Tbe ninth mon^la. on the othor
-called Pivtioiitr, or pn<
otthoB
allaa
ot bjmna (111) addnaasil to Siiwia, tha dfifiod juit
"moon-plant (SarcoitaHna vininalt, 01 Atrltr „ .....
aacrlbsd to poets of different bmiliea. Thej an called pmaMdat,
" purificatianal," bacanaa tliej wen to be recited bj tha liolar
while tba Jnice exprossed fnnn the eoms nlinta was clarirying.
The first aixtj of thaa bjnint srs arranged atrictlj uxonling to
their length, rsngingfrom ten down to four renci; butaa to the
ramsiniag l^sua no such principle of amnEemeDt ia obaemblr,
eicept neibapa in amsllar groDps ot hymoa. One might, tbonfon,
feel inclined to look npon that flnl ecctlon aa the body of aoma
hymns set spsrt, at tbe time of tbe fint ndaclion of tha Saiphill,
for the apecisl pnrpose of being need aa ^eandjtiMA,— tbe remain-
ing hymns hsviug been added at iDbaaqaeaC ndadjona. It
woDid not. howarer, bj anj maana follow that all, or even any,
of the latter hjmne were ectniJIj later prodactiona, ae tfaej Biiglit
pnrioiutj hare formed part of^the bmilj collection^ or miglit
heTa bean orerlooked when the hyinna ware fint ooUectrd. Other
mandalaa (tii., l, tUL, and x.) atill contain four entire hymna
sddreaied to Boma, coniiitlng together of E8 ytmet, of which only
a dngie one (I. 25, 1] le tound in tbe 8dnuie<li-aaqihitl, aa aU
aoma 28 [aalatad Teraaa to Soma, and four bymna addreaenl to
Soma in coiuimctiDD with aoma other deitj, which an cntinlj
□DnpnaoLilad in that collection.
The tenth man^Ia oontalna the lama number ot)iTmna|ISI}BS
tlie fint, which it nesilj equla in actual length. Ilia hjinna an
aecribed to many [iabii^ of yariona hmiliea, tome ot whom apprar
alnatlj in the pncadlog manias. The traditional nconl id,
howarer, laaa to be depuided npon aa rvgarda tbia book, many
namaa of goda and fictitiona penonagni appearing in tbe list of its
liabia. In the hitter hiilf of the book tha hymni an clearly
airanpd accoiding to tbe number of venn, in decrcaiing order, —
occaaional aiceptiona to tbia rule being eeaiiy etijUbtod by the
alao to loggeet lt»lj in other portioot of tbe book. This mandala
atande aomowbst apart from tbe preceding booki, both iulsii-
guage and tbe general cbancter ot many ot ita hjmm bctnying s
DomperatiTely modsm origin. In this respect It etanda about on a
loTef with the Atbarrsreda-aamhill, with which it ie otberwieo
closely con nectsd. Of aomcISMRik.Tenee foDudIo the Athamn,
about S&O, or rslhei mon than ilO par cent,, occur in the tenth
mandala. In the latter we meet witn the same toadencies aa in
tha'AtharTan to metaplivucsl apeealalion and abatnct conceptions
of the deity on the one hand, and to enperstitlDtis pncticee on the
other. Bat, although in ita genani appeannce tho tenth mah^ls
ia decideJlj mora modem than tha other books, it rontaiua liot s
tew bjnina which an little, if at all, inferior, both in respect ot sgs
and poetic qnalJty, to the gananlitj ot Tedic hymna
It haa heconia tbe cnitom, after Both'a example, to call the
Rik-aaiphitA [aa well as the Atharfau] an hlatoclcal oollection, as
comiiarod with tha SaqihitAa pot together tor purely ritualistic liUi^
poan. And indeod, tbongh tho aereral family colIecLions wiricli
make Qp tbe earlier man^Us may originally hsre srrred ritual
endi, aa the hjmnalt ot 'certain clani or trilnl confederadee, and
allbongh tho BoiphilA itself, in ita oldeat form, maj bare beea
iutendol se s common prBjer-bo(dc, so to apeak, for the whole of
tlie BrUmanical community, it is certain that in tho stogo lu
which it bae been flnatlj handed down it Inclndoi a tortain portion
of h jmn material [and eiieD some ascnlsr poetry] which coald serf r
bars been uecd for poipoaea of nligiona aerrice. It uaj, thenton,
bs swimed Ihst the fUk-NupMliiwalMOsall of the nstirs «f poyv
SANSKRIT
lir hilei that ma MOMilik to tbs oallceton. nr KwmHl to (hem
mrtlij o( bdofc pnornd. The question M to thu euct iniiod
vbea th« hfmu «r colloctol cannot ho uswercd witE uj
•ppKMch to aaiancj. Fot many leMona, howorer, which eiiinot
bo dotuloj lun, KboUre htn coma lo Ax gu the jeat 1000 R.O. u
■n BpjiTOximaU data far tb* collection of the Vcdio hTniiw. From
tiiat titna averj maana (hat hoinaa inganoi^ conlil suggut waa
ailopted to awian tha ncrtd taxti tgninat the riaka connected with
- -■ ■ Bat, aa there iaabnnd
bnttheii
and vaa onljTpaitl j mdantood, tha' period <1
nun of the DjmDa wan compoaed inu.it h
Eurthar haok, and mar Terr likelf hare eTttnnpu over lan earuur
half of theafcond millonii^, ot from about 2000 to 1500 B.O.
Aawaida tha peopla which niaail roritaolf thii impoeingmonn-
ment, the bjmna exhibit it u aettlnl in tba regions watered by tha
mighty Bindhn (IndniX with ita nutern lad weatsm tribuUriea.
Tho land of the flie riren forma the central home of the Yedic
people ; bat, while iti adranced gnard haa already dobouched upon
the pUina of tb« np|Hr Oncgl and Yamnni, tht« who bring up
the rear are itill found loitonng Iki behind ui the narrow glene of
the Kubh& (Cabal) and ComaCl (Ootnal). Scattered OTer thla tnct
of land, in hamleta nd (illagaa, the Tedic liyaa are leading
obieltf Uie life of herdimen and hnabajidniea. Tha amneroiu claua
and tribea, rated ovor by chieh aod kingi, haTe alill conitauU; to
imdicate their rl){bt to the land bnt lately wrong from an Interior
race of darker hua ; just ai in tbMa latter daya their kJnamen in
tho Far West are areron their guard againat the Bern attacka of
the diipoeaesaed ml-ikla. Hot Dnfrtqhantty, too, tha light-ooloored
iryae rage internecine war with oaa (Datben— •• when the
Bharatas, with allied tribee of the Paniab, goaded on by tha royal
fJoT-'-'""'-'— ■■-"- -
aage Viirii
e tha country o)
in king Bndt*. t
^laatod in the "ten ItinRi' battla," tbraugd the inroiiad poi...
of tho prieatiy singer Vaiiahlha. Tlia prieaUj offlra baa already
become one of high social iiupottanoe by tha ^de of tha political
rulera, and to i Urge extent an hereditsry pnfeaaion; bnt it dots
not yet proaect the baneful features of an eiclnslTg casta. Tha
Aijan banMwife aharea with her hueband the daily toil and joy, the
priiilege of wonhippiiiR the national goda, and eTon the trinmpha
of aong-oralt, aome of the fineat hyxina b^ng attribntod to famalg
The religious belief of tha people conaisU in a lystam of natutsl
■ymbolliTn, a woiahip of the elementary forces of naWro, tegarded
as beingi endowed with teaaon and power nperior to thcae of man.
In giTing uttannce to this Blmnle belief, the prieatly spokesnun
haa, howeTer, fisqueDtly worked into it hia own epscolatlTe and
myitio notiana. Indra, the stont-heart«d Tolai of the clond-refiloB,
- , of tha
■ by far the Urgeat aharo of tha deTont
Vedin singer. Hie ever.renawed battle with the malhianB demoni
of darknesi and drought, for tha reooTary of tha btaTenlr light and
the rain^pendingcowsof tbe iky, forma an inexhatutibla ttama of
spirited aong. next to him, in the alTectloiit el tha people, ataadi
Agnl (ignii), the god of fln, inroked aa the genial inmata of tha
Aryan household, and *a the tieenr of oblatjoni, and mediator
lietwaeD gods and men. Indiu and Agni an tbna, aa It wen, tha
ilhino rapreaenUtiTea of the king (or chief) and the prieat of the
Aryan coiomiinityi and if, in the amngement of the SaqihitA, the
BrUimanical collecton gare precedence to Agni, it was bnt one of
nisny iTowala of their own hierarchicBl pretaoeiona. Bence also
tho hymns to Indn an mostly followed, in the family collectiona,
by those addressed UtheTi^re DbtUi (the "all-gods") or to tha
MaruU (MaTon, llanO, the warlike storm .^ods and faitbrnl com-
lianiona of Indrs, aa the dirine impereonation of the Aryan free-
nion, the lii or elan. Btit. while Indra and Agni are nndonbtedly
the fu*ouriIe lignroa of the Vedic pantheon then il rtuon to belleTO
that those goda had but lataly anpplanted another group of deitiea
whopUya loss prominent nai in tho hymns. Til., Fattiur HaaTen
(Dyans Pilar, Z.lt nr#^ Jupitar); Voruna (cl^c,), the all-
ombiacimf Hrmament; Mitt* (Zend. Uithn), nie genial light of
day; and Savitar (Situmni.) or SHrya (4'a>di). the Tirifying snn.
oola of the
ollowen of
the Aliareyins and the RaiisblUkins. Tha Ailanya-brMmawi'
■nd llio iTnudUiTH (or$ilu±U!»iHi-)(rrUniariaeTideutIjr haTofor
their groundwork the same etock of traditional exegetic mattrr-
Tlioy dilfer, liowoTor, ccnaidenbly aa reganla both the arrauRO-
ment of thia matter and their itylistic handling ot it. wiih tho
[ccplionoflheunmerouelegeBdi ..... .,.-..-
-. ,- .„ ir, aa aaama pror«b]e, oi
imatJal aatraa, nanlatln^ tha tonnation of tha ■
^manas, conaiatiiig of flirty aod lixty adhyiyaa, ntt
two worka. In tUs laat pcmoB oooun the wdl-kno'
(also found In die Stnkhlyana^Ot^ bnt not In the S
brthDisna) of Bunafaiepa, whom bis uther Ajllfarta aella
to alky,' the recital of which fonned part oif the inaDg
ofOatwo. ItoonaUa of thirty
ilanya bai brty, dlilded iola
t, of^ in chaptNi each). Tha
rk tre^ howorer, deaily a latar
lon,_llioBgh Ihcy moat h>T< aliaady fonnsd part cl it at the
of Ffaiinl [a 400 l.a 1), if, aa aaama probable, on* of hU
grammatJal adtna, mnlatlng tha foiraatian of tha namaa ot
Brlbmanas, conaiBtiiig of flirty aod lixty adhyiyaa, ralkttolheae
■* — "~ ■■■ "knon Iwend
ilia and oflan
d part of the inaDgaiatka of
■ingik While the Aitar^a deala aunoat axeloaiTalj with the
fioma aacriflca, the Kanahttaka, is ita Bnt all duftara, tnata at
the aevoial kinda ot liatiirynjlla, or oRbringa of rica, milk, |^eo,
&c., whanuponfollowa the Soma sacrifice in thia way, that chaiitaa
7-10 contain the practical oarsmonial and 11-SO tha recitationa
(iaitTa) of tha hottr. Sfcyana, in tha introdactloB to hia sou-
moutarf on the work, aaenbea tha Ailanya to tha laga "''■""-n
AJtareya (sen of Itart), also mantionod elaowhara ai a philotopher ;
and it eeeios likely enough that thia penon arnnged the Brlhmana
and founded the school of the Aitareyina. Baganiing the anthn-
ahip ot the aistar work we bare no InfonnaCioa, oxcept that the
TKaushltaki la Irequantly referred to in it ai
genemlly in oppoaitdoii to tha Paiogya — the
nranmana. ii would seem, of a rival school, the Faineina
Each of those two Brihmanas ia supplementsd by a * forest-
portion," or Innyaka. Tho AOarcytmiiyaia* is not ■ nnifocm
producdon. It eoiiaista ot Gte boo^ (dnmyaia}, three of which,
tha first and the laat two, an of a liCaigical nature, treating ot the
ceremony called mahihrala or great tow. The eacond and third
books, on the other hand, an piuely apendatlTa, and are alao atyled
the BahrjiiAa-bnUtBimta'igittKMad. Again, the laat fcnir oh^en
ot the aacond book an nanally ^glad ont aa tAf AiiartropaitlJiad,*
ascribed, like its BrUunaaa (aiS tha fint book), to UaUdba
Aitaroya ; and the third book la alao rel^tnd to aa tho AnJUM-
iiponuAoi. The fovth and afth hooka an donbtleaa of later
origin, baiDg compoied In aAtra-tocw. iTon natiTa anthoritiea
eiclade them rrom tha laetad canon, and asajba them to Ain
Uyans and "-mil** RapactiTalT, of whom mon farther on. Aa
lewda tha SttiaMlaH^6raffiaha, oor US. mateTtal is not yat
satbdent to enable na to detarDiine iM exact sitent and artaaga-
3t tha aage E
itive, and gei
if thia treatise, a shorter one, consisting of nine, and a
longer one of fifteen, adhyiyaa. Fonr of these, larionaly placed
at uie bfginning or end, or after the aecond adhylya, conatrtaU ,
the hi^Ty intonating KautUUiti- (inUwaiu-) mnialiad,* ot
wh^ wap«asssstwo(Utfan<iti«ennoiia. Tha rsmalninj; oortioua
of ths Iraanka saam to correapoDd, to aome eitan^ to Uia ean-
Dunlal aesnona el tha Aitann-lranyaka.
0( KalftHtInU, or maanala ot HcriJIcUt ceramonial, compoaed
Ibr tks lis of tho bolar piiast, two difenut aeta an in axiatotce,
iba MmUgaaa- tad thiSiakMyam-ittra. Ewdi of theae invka
Isllowa one ot tho two Brlhmaua of tha Rik as ita ohiet ullwrity.
&, the Altaian and Eaoihtuka napectiTely. Both oc
Hia- and a tfr^Aut-adfni. Airallyans seams to hare 111
the tame time aa FliiiBi, — hia own teacher, flannaka, who oom-
is to hare lived about
plated the ^ik-prttiilkhya, batng probably intarmediato b. .
the gnat grammaiian and YUta, the author ot Om Birnkla.
kanaka himaalf is Hid to haTO bean tha sathn of a BmalK-afltia
(which was, bowarar, man of the natni* of a Brthna^) and to
have destroyed it on seeing his popH's work. A Otihya-s&tia is
atill quoted under hia name by Utar wotan. The liraliyans
Snats-sfltra ' oonaista of twalre, the Ofihya * ot fonr, adhytyss.
Bei^rding B&ukhAyans atill leaa ia known ; but he, too, was
doulitleaa a comnantivsly modem writer, who, li
founded a new Bchoot of rllualista. Hence the Xsoshl
adopted (and perhapa improved) by him, also goea and
iuit as the Aitaraya is Bometimes called Alvallyan ^-
The ^khlyona S»uta->lltra conaista of aightaan adhyiyaa. Ilia
last two cha^itcn of tha work an, howsTar, a latai addition,*
while the two preceding chapUrs, on tha contary, pneant a oom-
pantiTclj arcbaic, biAhsianaliks appaaranoe. llie O^ihya-sAlra'
consists of ail chapUra, the last tvo of which an likawiaa later
ippendages. The S^abarya Oj^ya-iUra, of which a aingla MS.
as.'iWivssat.'rjKi
.In I BHidHUm kr r. »aa MUlHrla SBCn< AHb g/lla ML TiL L
> Both works tan boeapablUieil Mlh Ike casBfntsrr g( (ilina XMjMt,
T auln sdiolS' I. la the AU. 7i<. AlistbD tanetlBsOrlbrhiallkaftKaa
UntoA.Anilir.
SANSKRIT
277
( to ba ckaclf tannsctod with th«
hem lad tmUtioDuj noaidi of Ih* tUk-M^hltl. In Onr nmaAi
in tbi TadlogH, tlM PlUiiflUijH bin tbtadj bMQ ntsired to
s dia dkf n|ioiilariii ot fikiU or Tcilic pnonNia. Amonf
>h« mk> tba ^-firitiMUyB* oompiM tlu Int pliw. Th*
nniHi BoBpiidllim 1^ thii impuHiiit work 1* uccllMd to Uu buds
SOalft frdo whom tha Talt|*to KannDn et tba (BUuU) Suphilt
UkM it* Busa. Ha li alia aid to b* tin antlior of tha aiirtiiig
iUt^^la (!.<., Uw taxt-bm in whid tach wmd ia glTan nioon-
MEtol with Uioaa that nraaeda ud fallow it),— which Rpitt ut
nU bt ctaditad, iiiw* Uw lada-tait waa dcabtlaia prqared wiOi
ation, aiKb m ii pncDtad in tha FrttittUija,
leatuRB nndeipma br wordj In their aTntactio
nabiutioiL Id tho PiWiUhja itKlT, Sikalra'a bthci (or
^kdji tha aldar) ia ilao aaTanI tima nfirnd to u an authority
og pbontlGa, thonsh tha joanpar Stkalja ii STidfnUj nuirdad
a biriig impmTfld oa hi^ fauici'a theoiiea. Thui both lather
uidion probablj had a ahaia in tha formulation ot the rnlei ol
jnniinciatioQ and nwdification of Vedis aonnds. The completion
-' ' -- It oT tba lUk-pitliMkhf a, in iti preacnt f DTm, ia
a, tba teimtad taachir of liraUyana. Saunaka,
Bonm, la monly a CuuilT nun* ("deacendinC of Baaaka"),
■liidi ii gi<raB sren to tha fiafai Oritaamada, to whom ncarlj tha
■bolijf Oia aseond inandala of tha Bik ia attributed. Hew long
■nsatkalyaOkiapartieiUT ^aoDalu 'liTed wa do not know; but
*■ — a at all aranta would aeem to lis betwean Iham,
in tba mautinia tha BokaJaa, owing doubcleaa to
^ on phooatio point* in the Sarphitl Uxt, had
^it iatsaaranl bnmiea, to ona of which, tba SilJin lor Saiiiriyi)
-^-ol, H«aaka belanf^. Whila Siluly* ii referred to both by
Plnini WM
■diool, Samuka belannd. Vbi
Tmkt and Ptnini, naithar ot the
inaTtbrieaii Jikelj, for as»eral reaaona, thi
wiuintad with Sannalu'i wotV, though the poi
hbdi been deilnitinly aettled. The Rik-prltiMklij
in miied doku. ar couplet* of Tariooa metrsa, a foru ai compou-
<rB tat wbicli Saunaka eeema to haTti had a ipecial predileclion.
EaiUta th* Prtti-Uhya, lud the O^hja-aQtiB mcntlDned aboTa,
«^t olhar worka are aKtibed to Lusaka, ni., (ha Sriluid-
' " ' *o ilokaa, of tlie deitica of the bftoni,
ahieb nppliai
xluable
^ytliolof
likiciMJD epic metre, on
laa 1 tha Pddit-mdMna, a
I Iaf(
niBgio eB
Big-rul\£ia,
ef Tedic hynma and
■Pfirently no longei Ul <»uuiuui \ uu mo uu.cisui. munua ui
nUio|^a {anutrainanl) of the ;iihi*, nietrea, daitlE*, aaclion*
lusaUs), ud bymneof the Rigieda. It is, however, doubtful
"hither tha eiirtln^ veiaiDn of the Brihadderatt la tba original
DID ; ud tha RigTuih£aa would aaara to be much more modera
IhtD kanaka'* time. Aa regarda the ADDkraolaii!i<, thef aaem all
tehm bara comooaed ia miied ilokaa; but, with the eiception
of tha Anartklnn^ninant, they am only ki^own from quoUtiona,
hafih^ bean aupcneded by the Sarvdnutrant^ or Qompleta iiiden,
of SUytDamt. Both tbeae indeiea haia been commented nnon br
Ehidjnniiiahya, towarda tha end of the 12th centoiy of or
^°f.
derivation, denote*
B. $lau.ic^ — 11* term jdr
a Hleinn tnne or malody to be anng or ctaanted to a j-iclt or vena,
Tititt chant* (atotra) of tha Bomaaanifice are ti a ruIej>erfonneJ
ia trirleta, aithor aetnally oonaialing of three diETerent Teraea, or of
^ »t*ea which, by tha repetition ot certain parla, are made, aa
it nre, to form thiaa. Tha three Tone* ai« naoally anng to tbe
Bqi tans ; bnt in cartain eaaea twn Teiaee anng to the lame tune
hul a diOennt tAman andoaad between them. One and tha lame
■iawi or tana may tbu* be ning to many diSarent Tenee ; but, a*
in I—- hing and praotliinK th* tnne* the <*ia* lerte waa iuTatlably
i»ed fcr a wttain tuna, the tonn"«iaum," aa well aa tha apeciJ
tohnital namea ot BAmana, are not rmrreqaeotly applied to th*
Mtwa IhomaolToa wiUi which they were moat cotunionly ooa-
nteted, jut a* oa» wonld quoto the beginning of the toM of an
Englisk hymn, when tbe tnne oaoally aanE to thit hymn f*
■laDt. Tha Indian chant aomewhit rtiBcmble* the Greginian or
I'ltin Ctunt* Each ilnum ia divided into five paiii or phraaea
ipntlOxia or prelude, tK-), tha flrat foni of which are diatrlbnted
between the aevenl chanten, while the Snale {nliOunia) ia anng
Id UtBu brail of them.
In acoordaiiM with tha diatinction betwaen rich ot text and
•^aa or, bina, the atmaa-hymnal conalita of two puta, via., tha
Simamda-iatiiiU, or collection of toita (tich) naad nn malnnsnp
daut-hynuu; *nd tha Otao, or tima-biMk*, *ong-bDoki. The
ofaonMHtmty-S** Tmta, aonatf «UA liBTa baan taken bom
Khik hymn*, iriiilat othan which alio ooenr in tba Atbamn or
Y^Drrada, aa writ •* auch Dot othanriaa found, may parhapa hwrs
focroed part of aome other raceanan ot the ^. The Biwimda-
aoqiMif* ia divided Into two chief parta, tha p«r«i>. (aiat) and th*
uttoro- Caacond} irAika. Tha aacond lart contalna the tcita ot
tha Mbnan-hymna, amngad in tha older in which tbeyaro ictuall)
Rqnind for tba atotraa or chanta ot tha varioua Soma aacriflce*.
Tlia fiiat purt on tha other hud, contalna the body of tone-Tataea,
or Taiaei naad for ptetUng tha aeveral almin* or tnna upon, — Iha
ttoiM thamaalvaa being given in tho Ordma-gtva-adna (<.«., aonga
to ba anng In tba Tillaga], the tune-book apaciaUj balonging to t£a
Parrtrohika. Hence the latter iscludeanll the fir«tT*naaofthoae
trlplela ot tha aacond part which had apadal tnne* peculiar to
tham, baaide* the texts ot detached aknuaa owwoiiaHy n**d
oatside tha reguUr ceremDoia], aa nell a* aneh « wen parhapa
no lougBT leqnired bat had bean ao nisd at one time or other.
Tlio lerae* of the Pflrrlicliika are amn^ on much the tame nlin
aa tha family_.book* of the Rik-aaqihllA, via,, in three aectiona
containing tbe veiae* addreaaed to Agni, Indm, and Soma (pava-
mdia) reapectireljr, — each aection ^conaiatlni; of one, three, and ona
adhyftyaa reipectively) being again irrangad according to the
metrci. Hemie this part ia Sao called Ckiat%dar- (metteT drcUia.
Ovor and above tbla natural arrangement of (ha two Irchlka^ thai*
ia a purely formal diviiion of tlie toil* into eii and nine
prapUbakaa reepectirely, each of which, in (he Gnt part, conaiita
often'decadea (daiat)of THW. Va harajwo leoanaiona (J the
^ipawntly
italnad in tba Jrmfiia-i
'o tune-bwka belongina to the FSrrbvhil .
here, the {/^-^Nd("iiiadifintion.*anga'')and I'ihHMliH, which
itended for beuig chanted
.. . _.. .._^nad~[n the'Jrmft/a-fdna. Bnidea th*
bwka belongina to the FSrrb^iiliai tbne i
follow th* order of tbe Ututdrcliika, dru
hymna chested at the Soma aicrlltca, with Die modifinliona th*
tone* nnda»D wbi?n applied to teit) other than thoae for which
they were oriKiually compoacd. The SIman bymna], aa it baa csme
ment The piactice of chanting probably got* tiaok to very early
tins* ; but the queetion wbcther any of the tunea, aa given in tha
Ginaa, and which of them, can lay claim to an eiceptionally high
antiquity a'ill perhapa never receive a aatiaTactory anawer.
The title oF BrMmana la baatowed bv tha Chhandogaa, or
fallowen ot the Blmaveda, on a conaideiahla number of Creatiae*.
In accordance with the atitementa of aonie later writera, their
number waa uiually fixed at eigbt ; bnt within tlia hiat few years
which are found quoted may y*C bo brought to li^t In India.
of the characteiiiiUc feiturea of other' work* ot 'that clan ; but
they are nthoi of tba nature of afltn* and kindred treatiaaa, with
which they probablj belong to the aame period of lite^tura.
Moreover, the cont^nta of Ihoae worka— aa might indeed bo expected
ttma the natnte of the dutiea of the print* tor whom they were
Intended — ore of an extremely arid and technical charaotcT,
though they all are doubtleaa of aome [mpartaace, either for the
taxtul criticism of the Saqihitl at on aecoDSt of tha legendary
and other information they aapply. Thaa* worka are a* IdIIdws :
— (1) the Tiifili/a-tiuM- (or Aoti^hi-) trdtau^o,* « "great"
BrtLhman*,— uaiiiUy called /tanatoeinifa'^rdftMau from ita^' con-
elating of twentv-five" adhyftvas—wMcb traiti of the dutiea of the
udgitara generally, and eapecially of the varioua kinda of chant* ;
(1) tha Sha4vi<ii»a, or " tweuty-aiith," heinga anpplament to tha
1, L :,. 1.^ ,1 _l;.|, a^ t,g„, ji^ y^g ^.
pr«eding a
a last chapter, wbicb a1
rather iatareatinx,
treata of all manner of portonta and evil toSnencea, which Tt
teachea how to avert by certain rilee and chanaa ; (E) the Stmani-
dlUlna,' uialogaa* to the RigvidhUna, deacanting on the magja
affeete of the varioua ■*""■"■ ; (4] the Arr/ujfa-brwtmanOf a mere
oatalisne of the technical namea of the almana in the on!« ot tho
Pflrvfchika, known in two different lecenaion* ; (5] th* Snatd-
(Uyd|u,whlctatnatiofthedeItieaotthe*lmanai («) the CUdwla.
MO-irdAiiu^M, the laat eight adhytvaa (&-10} of which conatitato
tha importuit Chhlndof^panin^ ;■ (7) tha SatfiU^amiAtid-
trdhmapa, treating ot Tariona anbject* oonneeted with enanta ; (B]
SANSKRIT
Um rn^iia-AnUmiK t. nun list of the SAmneJa teubcn. To
tfaoM vorki h« to bs tAiini tlis Jaiminlya- or Talunublra-
trdAnoH, dlKOTond b; ths UU Dr A. l)i ' '
known by m Tflu " ^ * '
it,' th« work >Ut
Rik ud y^arrsdF. A pottioD of it u tbe vell-knol
^or Taiaiaajkiira-) upantMAodf on tfao nfttun r
from Piof. WbitnBv'a t
D K ievel witb tbe Bcihinw
, at doit
I Bnbaun, u tl
u tkiu ita ample ihare oT BiAhmus-litentnc
tt olui. TbcD
If tha etuuTodn
thongb la part of
leaa riehly lopnliei
belong to the oldat moiki of
■etna, irhioh attach thsnuslvu mora or leia cloael; to tbe
PanchaTiqiia-brlbmanar— Muiaka'a Artfieya-kalpa, which giveatba
bagintiiiiga of tha t^inaDBiD their ucritiriil order, tfau aupplemont-
inj; tbe AnheTa-brthinlna, which eaumenta thcii tachnical
□ams ; and tbe Sraata-e'i^tna of Ldlydyana * and DrAKyiyana,
of the Kanthnina and Binlyanlyi KhoDla reepectiTolx. which
dI9gr bnC little from each other, ami form coioplola manuala of the
dutiea of the ndgitan. Another afitra, of an angetio cbiracUr,
the Anupada-Mra, iikewise foilowi the Pancharlqiia, the difScult
paiaagn of which It explaina. Beaidoa thoae, there are a con-
■iilerable number of illtna and kindred techoicd treatiwn
bearing on the pnModj and phonetice of tlie alnia-texle. Tlie
more linportant of them are— the Riktanlm, Bppa»ntlr intended
to aerra aa a PrtUMkhja of tbe Sliuaveda ; the Niddnn-Mtra* a
tiwtiM on pTModj 1 the Prnhpa- or Phitla-iAIra, aacribed either
to Oobhlla or to Taramchi, aod treating of the phonetic modi'
flcationi oC tha fich ia the aamana ; and the Sdmatantra, a treatiee
on chants, of a very technical natore. Farther, two OrOiya-iilrai,
balongine to the 8AiuaTeda. are hitherto known, viz., the DrdAyd-
yam-grAl/a, aaoribed to Khidin, and that of Oobbila' (who ii alio
aaid to'baTe GOmpwed a inulta-adtra), with a eapnloment, entitled
Sarmaprai^ bj Kl^jana. To tha MmaTiKla saenii further
• to baloiig tCe OMitmma^luirvuiiiilTa,' compiwed in tAttaa, and
apmnnt^ tha sldeat existing compeuditim ol Hin^n law.
0. Tyur-vida. — Thia, tlu iBBrifidiol Veda of the AJhrarja
jiiieita, mridea llaalf Into an dH^ uid a yoanger brauclt, or, ai
they ate oaualW called, the Bkck lirishHa) and the White (iiJda]
Y^nrreda. Tuition aaoribea the fonnJitlou of the Yajurvr-ii to
the Kge VaiJamptrana. Of hia dinnplrg three are apeciallT s^-aeil,
viz., Kaiha, KaUpln, and Yfaka PaingI, the laat of whom again
la stated to hare communioatsd the aactiflcial ' - - " ''' -' '
How far thia nnealogy of teacbera may be ant]
be detenoinea ; but certain It ia that in accord)
!lions of YaJM-teifa, Tit the ^JfAoia, the
'yaift SaiiihiU,* and tho Tailtirli/a-iB^had.'
UApaka are frennantly mentioned together ;
and the author of tha "great commentary" m Pjlnrni once remarka
that thoie worki aiere taught In ever; (illage. The Kitbaa and
KAIfinaa an orton nferred to ander the oollectiTe name of C'hantkm,
which apparently means ■• - ..... ...
ceonllng to a later writer (iWachania) 'cl
hnu Vaiiimtdyana bitnaeir,
■eon thna called. Prom the , . -
o hare branched off, the PtAcbya- (eairtem]
idra) Chanka ia no oth.
alter waom hii followora wonid ha'
Kutliaa proper two achoola aeem earl
boDU discstgml in the Kapiatithala-Jcafha-XLiphM. The SU&pas
hIbo soon became aubditided into numeroua diffennt achoola.
TiioB Iniia ana ol Kalipin'a imme;liate diicipiea, Haridm, the
Illridrnrtyu look their oricin, whoie tcit-receniion, tha Hdri-
dratiht, is qnoled together with tho Kathnka aa early as In Tbka'a
Kinikta ; but we do not know whether it diifcted much from the
DriRinal KdUpa toita. Aa regittda the Taittirtya aaiphitA, Ihnt
collBotion, too, in eoune of time gare riae to a number of diffcnuit
soUooIt the text handed down Tieiiig that of the Apeatambae
while the contonta of anothor iwcniion, that of the Atreyaa, an
known from thsir Anakrainnnt, which baa been prcaonred.
The four nollcctions of old V^n* toib^ ao far known to oa, whili
points, hoT8 the main maaa ot thoir textual iimttrr in common
Tone and prose and eiegctio or ilinstialivo pmaa portiona (brih
mana). A prominent roatui* of tho uU! Yajus testa, as compared
witb the other Voda^ ia tho couatant inlorniixtura of teitual and
ciosotic portiona. The Chirskai and Taittirlyi
n Saiphiia and BrUhma
two Boparato colloctiona ot texts, hut they
, oi coHoclioD, which includca likewise the
have only
* Ja piWaajif pD)iUt*r4Dn *v I- v. "-'"
laD^riliaDtit TarUlrtiiUra, BIti. tmd.
ivkwaid faahion
■nsgetl
.LnXAATOBS.
Biihmena portions. The Talttirljaa aeon at ijut to itn Bean
'"ipreaied with their want of a aepaiste
lying the iloEcienoy — — •'
their Saqihill, they merely added
BDpplemant (in throe Iwoka), which ahowt the vame mixea con-
dition, and applied to it tho title of 7aitIirti«-inlAi'ui>la.' But,
though the main body of this work is macifestly of a aupplo-
Dicntary nature, a portion of it may perhaps be old, and may once
have formed part of tho 3arphit4, conwdering th.t the latter con-
aista of aoven ashtakaa, inatead of eight, as tliia term roqnirc^
and that certain easentiat parts ot the ceremoniiil handled iD the
Brlhmana are entirely wanting in the SaqibitL Attached to
thu> work is the TaiUirlya-iranyitiii,' la lea hooka, tbe Grat hi
Dt whir: ire uf a litualiatio nature, while ot the reiuaining booka
tho first throe (7-9) form the TaiUirlt/oaiiiii/iaii [eonaiatiug of
three parts, viz., tho Sikehlvalll or Saipbttopanisbad, and tha
Inandavallt and Khrieuvallt, alao called logether tbe Tlnint-
upaniahadl, and the lut book forma tbe Hliiyaofya- (or Y^jBiki-)
:h with the origjniJ
jIj by Dr L. ».
The Maardyant Sa^kUd, tbe iileDtlty
KaUpaka has been proved pretty coi
Schroder, who attributos tha changa i
Maitrayaniyaa to Buddhiat iofluoncoh oonaiata o[ four books,
attached to which ia the Jfailri- (or Jfatfnt^nt) apaiiahuL' The
SdllUiJta, on the other hand, consista of Gve ports, the Uwt two ol
which, however, are perhnpa later additioua, containiug merely the
prayera ot tbe hotar piieat, and thoaa used at the horve-Mcrih'^e.
There is, moreover, the beautiful ATi^Aa- or Kd!^hi-tipatiMad,>'
which is aleo aicribed to tho Athsrvavcda, and in which Dt Rijor
would detect aUuaiona to the S&ukhya philoaophy, and oven to
Buddhist doctrinea.
llie defective amngemont ot tha Yajua texts WM at Isat
remedied by a dilTon^nt achool of Adhvirvus, the YajaaaneyliiB.
The reputed originator ot thia achool and its telt-nceuaion i>
YSjBavalkya Viljoaaneya (eon of V^jaiani). The result of the ra-
ydjiuaaq/i-Ktriikibt, and a BrAkmana, the &Uapatlia. On accannt
of tbe greater lucidity ot thio arrungemen^ tha Yijaaancjin«
called their texts tho White [or clear} Yajutveja,— the name ol
(or obscure) Yyiia being for oppoaito
Chankatoxte. BoththeS
10 dilTore
la ottheYUasaneyinc
loe, viz., those oftlie
id beaiilea a c»naidei-
alia, from which wt
it one other recenuon
of tho £itapatba-brthmana. Tlie dilTete
receniioiu is, on tho whole, but slight as nganli the aubject-mittil;
eepeciany interesting from a philological point of view. WLich ol
determined ; but the phonetic and granLiiiatical diflcrencee will
probably have to be aecountBd for by a gei^Tapliical aeparation ol
the two achoola rather than by a diirerenca of Sfe. In aeven]
pointB of [lilTcrDnce the KSnva reconeinn agroci with the pnctice ol
the Rik-aanihiti, and thare protably was some connexion between
the Yiuua achool of Kdnvas and the laTnoua fatsily of riibia of that
name to which the eighth mandala i{ tho Rik is attributed.
The fdiJaiaiujti-tajiihiU" cousista of firty adhyiyas, the filsl
eighteen of which contain the fonnulaa of the onlinary aacrihcn.
The laat Eflaui adhyiyaa are doubtlesa a lat<r addition,— ae may
alao be the cau aa regirda tlie picceding eefen cbiptera. The list
adhylya iaooramonlv known under the title of Viyawnoyi^iiiiliiti-
(or lilvlsya-) upaniihad. " Its olijert acema to he to point out tlie
fruitlesaneai ot mere works, and to insist on the neceaaity of man'a
acquiring a knowledge ot the aupremo apirit. The aa<,.riJcUl Isita
ot the Adhvaryua canii«t. !n about t^iual parta, of vorsea (rich) aod
prnea formulas lyijua). The majority of the former occur litewiie
lu the Rik-aamiiitl, from which they were doubtless extracted.
of reading, which may bo explainoJ partly from a ditTorenca of loean-
aion ami partly as the result of the adaptation of these veraea to
tTi^Er D.UI/..DT D«j:ririciBl iiumose. Aa reaarda the prose formulae,
' - ■«- - i'„u„Ri)j_itle
jliquity.
I hundred paths,
B of 100 iectuTf*
liniai, EXbw pat marl,-*
UTZKATCWi]
SANSKRIT
279
lbKl»HbitoamiilMBbooki(kta^). TbaBntBlM boobaftb*
Sntaisfalmbw^DrthaTV.-SupliiU; uid it bu ba*n pUuiblj
■ugatad br PnL WatwT tbtt thia pottlaii ot th* Cithiuiu.inir
b* Nfond to in tha lUUibUMbra an Pin. ir. ^ «, when- - '^-•-
patha ■Bdk8lin)iti-istha(<.i., " coiuistuig ot SO path* ")
ti«n*d tegMW u obJKtt of rtndf, wid t£at oanMqnsoUT It Bajr
at <!&■ tima hata fonnad an Indipendeat votk. ThU Tiav ti alia
BDpportfd bj tba circiinutaiiaa that of tha ramalnliig Sra boolu
(10-li) or ib* Hldbr*Ddiiia> th* tUrd ia caflad tba middla ons
(■nadbTuiia) ; vhlla tha KlaTaa tpplj tb* HDia mlttaat to tba
middlamwt oT tli* flra booka (IS-la) pnoading tbalr latt ima.
Thia laat book woold tboa H*m to be tnalad hj thaa H ■ aecond
DO, aa it li of Uu Upuiiahad
oidff, and baan Hit nwoial tltl* of SiOad- (rat) *«i^uis.i
Bioapt in boAi C-IO (IL), vhid troat o( Um oosatnatioo ol
Snaltan, ud raocnfM tb* a^p a^jHj* M tbalr dl^ aatbori^,
"'"-"' -'-'inlatMaDaadTnbRadtolatbaSatapatbaai
b Midanr th* «M* in tb< latw booka, pul
of tba BfOad-lnsTtkatadns aran aalled Tl^Talldfa-U&da. Aa
^— -„ .. ..!• tbalr ddrf.
Y&iftaTalkn'a opiDton la (ManaatiT nltond to la tba Satapatba ai
ao&odtatm Thk la (andanr Om «Mt in tb* Ittar booka, part
of tba BfOad-lnsTtba tadu aran callod TlibaTalklr- '■•--'- •-
Sink Oh aaa 0/ tba Batapatba. tha nobaUlitr I*
J of tb* nrfc ii ooMidaiUy eUar Uan tba tlu* of Pfaital, but
that aona of it* lattar paft* w«n oaautdand by Plalnra critio
Kit^rana to be of aboot the ama ag* a^ ot not mooh oldat than,
namC ETan thoaa potion* had probaUr baan long in aiiitaoea
bafon tbaj obtalnad ncosBltlaa *a put of tba canon of tba White
Tba ooutetoptaou masnar invhichthsdoobrlnaaaftb* Cbaraki-
adbraiTni are rapsatadir auimadvartad tipon In tha Batapatba
batrajB not a Ijtttt of tb* odi'wn Ouolcgieum on th* nart of tb*
dirinaa of tlM T^taaaMjliia towirda tb«ir bntbnn of tb* oldai
aehoola; Bar wu thair anuaoaUf eonHnad to Bcr* llt*nt7 war^
Ian, bat tbaj *e«n to IkiT* abirai I>t mrj maana Id j^aln
aaecndanoy orar their mala. Thaoonaoliiutloaaf th*BrUiniani«*l
hiannbj aid tb* inatitntion of a oommon BTatMH of ritoal ironbip,
which called forth tba lltorgloal Tedia collectioB^ wers danbtleaa
oonanDunatad in tha ao-caJlM lladliya-d«4a, or " mlddl* coODtrf,"
tf log batwaaa tba Sannatt and tba conflnenca of tba Yamnnl and
uaagl ; and inoia tapacially in ita weatant part, tb* Knni-kthetta,
watan and north-veatcni ngtsni ; irMla tha Taittiriyaa
in eonna of tim* apnad arer tha nbole ol the nnlsanla aouth of
tha Hanuadl (Herbadita), wbera thaic titnal baa nmained pn-
■mintntljr th*obJMlof»liidyti]liJompaiat[TalT ■ *~
••"•■uBncjioM, OB the other haul" •— =— '— -
'ff.
ing flrat ninad a footing in
the landa on tba lower Ganeea, ehioflf, it wonld aeent, tfanmsh tha
patronage of King Janata of Vidaha, IhcBcagradaallT worked their
vaj wettwrnrda, tod aTentnally aaccatdod in aoperaeding tba older
■cbooh Dorth of the Yindhja, with the aicapboo of iome iioliUd
plaee* whara area now familiea of BiUraaua an mat wi'Ji which
pmbn to follow the old SuphitAa.
In Xa^pa-HInu the Black Y^nrrada ia partioalarlr rich ; bat,
owiog to tha oircumitanca* jmt indicatsd, tbeT are almoat antiralj
eontuad to th* Taittirty* echool*. Tha only finrata-altra of a
Charaka acbool which baa hitherto been racoTcrad 1* that of tba
Ulnana, a anbdiriaian of the UiitTtjanljaa. Tha JTitiuiB-iniubi-
atffni'aaenutoconiiit of aleTenbooln, th* flrat nbe of which treat
ot the *Kri£cial ritual, while the tanth oontaina th* ^ra-afitn ;
and tha alorantb ii made ap of * namhar of tapplomanta (nri-
«M(a). Tba Miiiatii-gri*t^-tCira i* likewiae in aiiatanc* j but ao
&r inthlng 1* knom, mt* one or two qnotatic
be nothing bat „ ,
which Hama do longer to eiial, Aa reguda tha'Taittiiiraa, tba Kal-
pa-afltra moat wideTj acoapCad amoDg than wu Out of^Apaatamba,
*~ ~' '-ir* aeen, was alio do* onr oxiadng racan-
.ihitL Th* roKomte-lD^pit-tttraeonauta
[qn**tiona); the fint twmtj-iiT* of th**i eonati-
itn'i SdandST thsQnhjMAtraj aSandUtb*
';aiidth*laattlH8n]TB'aatn. ProE, BUhlar haa tried
of thia work aonuwhera betwaan the fith and Srd
hooL aa ve hi
.'aittMTMaqil
of thirtj BnaAaa (qn**ti»
tnt* tb* Brante-a&tn '' ~
kj z. UK, aM. iM.
• ^ aaarea a< TaWM|iM.>^"K. q4rta,
It It a
acttlad. OoDdden .
yam kaXja'tUr^* whleh oonaiat* of the auma principal diriaiDna,
and th* AUmlMt^I-MViil. of which, faowvrar, only a few portlm*
ban aa jet been dlaooTered. The Bittaiyainii-itln, which ia
mora modua than that ofipaatamba, from which it dilTiin bat Utllo,
ta Hkawlaa humeutaij ; and aeTaral oth*r Ealpo-aAtia^ eapaciallT
that of I^afuaht, an foond qaotod. Tha Tocegiuiad compaDdinm
of tba Whlla Y^w iltaal la Uia Avuta-flUM d Klljrtjina,'
in twvnty-aii adbj^Taai Thia work i* lupplaniaiitad br a liig*
nnmbor of aqoondarr traatiaai, likawli* attnbnled to KltjrllTana.
among wbleb ma; be mentionM the CKarnna-nrdAa,' 1 atitiatiea]
aocooat li the Yedin achoola, whidi Dufortunatdy baa com* down
to na in a rerr nnaatUbctorj itata of prcaemtion. A mannal ol
domeitio rite*, cloaalf eonnactad with Utjlfalia'* work, la the
fdlllM-frOyo-idtra,* aacribad to Pkraikara. To Kltr&rana two
Intther ow* the r^Aaurayi-prAUliApa," and a caUlosae (aaaJtro-
■unnoftheWhitor^natalti. Aa ragirda the former work, it i*
*till donbtfol wbalbar (with Vabarl wa bare to coualdai it u older
than Ptninl, or wfaatber (with OolilitUckFr and U. HtlUar) we are
to Idautiiy it* anthor with nnini'a critia Tba only existing
PiitiAkhja" of tba Black Y^u' belonn to th* Talttlrfraa. lU
author ia onknown, and it oonfine* ilaelf entiralj to the lUttlitja-
aambiU, to tha aidnabn of the Brthmana and Amnjaka.
O. AOiana-fda.—Tb.t Athimn waa the litut of Tedio col-
lectlona to ija reuogniiad aa part of tha aicred canon. That it i*
alao tha yoiiDgttt YeJa ia proTol b^ ita langnega. which, both
horn a leiioal and a gnnimatical point of view, mark* an inter'
nudiata at»* bet«**a the Duin bodj of the Rik and tha Bilh-
mana periodT It ia not leaa mioifst from the apirit oC Ita contania,
which ahowa that th* childlike tmit of tlie earl/ singer in Iha
willingncia of the dirlna agents to complj with Or" — — ' '
of than plena wotabippor ftid.p " ' "'
balal
ly, and in Ita plsco had
ingnp a anparatitiboa fear of a boat of nialcrolent powera, wbcae
iFiil wiath had to be depracatsd or tuned aiida by incantatiana
ind mania 1
practlead bj
intriTa
. - -, the oonqoand raco, may haTa helped to bring about
thia change ot raliglona belief it woold be idle to inqnin ; but it
la tar IncB improhsble that the hymna of the Rik leasct chiefly
tba religiona notlona ot the mora inUUl^t and (dncatad minority
of tha eommonlty, and tliat anperetitioiu praatlca* like thoae
dlscloead by the greater part of the Atharrau and a portion of tha
tenth book of the Bik had long obtained amoug tfae jKOpIe, and
became tba more mnlent the more tha ipiritnal leaden ot the
[>eople gave themeelTa up to theoeophio and metaphyiical specula-
tiona. Hanca alio Teraea of tha AtharraTeds are not nnfraqnently
naed In domestic (gphya) rites, hot very seldom in the l^raiita
ceremonial. Bnt, aven if these or anch like apella and incantation*
bad long been in popi^ar use, Uiere can be no dmiht that by the
time they wera oollectAd they mnet have adapted themaelTea Co
the modiScationa which the remacslar language itself had under-
gone in the montba of the people.
This body of apells and hymns is traditionally eonnectod with
two old mythlo priaetly liiioiliei, tha Angiraa and Atbarvan^
their names, in the pfur^, aerving either siugly or eomhiiLsa
t&thsrvtngirssss) aa the oldcat tp(«IlatlDn ol tha colicutian.
nslaad of tha Atharrsas, another mythic family, tlia Bbrigui,
are similarly connected with the Augiru (BhrgvaugirMsa) aa the
depoaitariee ot this myetio science. The current "''' °' '^*
^(AiMTo-«v>Si(d" — apjaroqtly the r«»a»ioa of the Uannaka ai:haol
— conaisti of some 760 diiferent piece., about fire-eiitha ot which
ia in vsrions njelna, tha ramaining i>ortion haiug in pnea. Th*
whole mass la divided into twenty booka. The principle of dis-
tribution is tor the moat part a merely formal one, in booka L-iiit
piecea of tha same at about the same number of vanes being
pieced together in the sime book. The next five hooka, iIt.-
zviiL, hara aich ita awn tpecUl subject :~iiv. treats of msrriaga
and MHOal union; it., in press, ottbe Vrlt^s, or religious Yagtant;
itL consist* of ptoae foraiulu of oonjaratiou ; ivii at a lengthy
mystic hymn; and xviiL contaiua all that relate* to death and
funeral ntes. Of tha isst tno books no account Is taken In the
Atharra-prfttidkhya, and they indeed aUnd clearly in the lalatloa
of supplemanta to tiia oriBinal oollectliHi. The eighteenth book
evidently was the rrenlt of a sulssqiient gleaning of piecea similsr
280
SAN8KEIT
[unuiuiBL
to Hum of til* hiUm lioob, wUdi liad probtUr Mcapwl tlis
oollscton' UtgDlloa; wfaQs tha Uit book, cauUtiiig Umort roilnlr
nt hjmnM to Indn, Ulien Erom tba Klk-nqihiU, u DothilK tnon
thia ft lltoigical nunniLl of ths zvoitAtiou md duDti nqulrcd it
till- Soois ■urifioK
Thfl Atlurrui baa camfl dova to lu In ft mnch Ion wa-tishxtoTj
■taU of praRFStioD tbin taj ot the Dther BuiJutii, ftnd Iti
iatftrpittitioii, which oRen Hmddeiable difficnliiss on imnint £f
munoroiu papul&r ftnd oDt-of-tha-way QxpresaiDHt, hu fio for
nwlTad eomiwmtifelj littla ftid fiom mtiye Boorca. A com-
■wntu7 bj tbo hmoiu Vodio siKite SiTua. vliicb hfti Utsly cama
to li^l in Indii, aij, howarsr, Msipectad to thror light on soma
dtamm puBgM. Bran nun lonnrtuit ii the diicoTery, soma
wnago, Ibnn^ tba aiertioiu oT ^ WiUlua Uuir, of an entirely
niffitaat laeanmn ot tlu Atlwm-ftuiibit&. pnurved In Kuhmii,
ma iwiT racaulon,' nppoaad to bo tint of the Piippsl&ili tchiwl,
CMuUti likawlM ottweD^ boob (kM*), but bolb in laiful matter
■iid in Itft amngamnit it diffsn rerj mneh bom tba ooinnt tut.
A Miwidai^la portion of the littar, inolndlag imRntnnital; tha
vbola of Oit aigttt«anth book, ti wnntingi whlla the iTnuu of tha
nlDataenl^ book are for Uw moat put (onnd iIb in th[i taxt, tliDOgh
uot u • aopanta booL but twttand o>n the whols cdloctioa.
PoNiblj, thcntor^ tbb ncaniioa may Iwto fonned oaa ot tha
■ooroia irhraice tha niDateinth book waa oompQed. Tbo tmntiatb
book i* mnliDg, vttb tha aioeptiDn ti ■ law of tha TaiSM not tftken
bom tba |Uk. Ai a Mt-oB' to tboaa ahortoaminp tha new Tanion
oObia, howBTar, a sood '—' -^ * — '■ — "— " — '- -' — '■■
ono-aiith of tba nbole.
qnotiog tft tho b«iiin_„ .. ._. ._ _ . ..
coinddci vitb the fint Tone of tba tilth bynuial theclIITent tait,
II bu long bean known that ftt leut cue other raccnnon moat hayg
ailited: bat owing to the dafectiTe itato ot the Eftehmir US. it
cwinat bo datanniDod vbatbar tbo new ncenilDn (ft* awnu likely)
ronaftponda to tba ona labnad to in tttoaa work*.
Tba onlj Biibmanft of tha Athanran, tba Oc^MMa-biHAmttna,' Im
I Iwandat apparantlj taken from other Bilh-
■noa s whfla tb* aooond part traala, in a nrj deatiltor; nunnar,
at TBiuni poind tt tht ncrildal canmoaiaL
Tba Salpa-tftttaa bdongiiig to thla Vada oampriBa both a mannftl
ofinatBTltat,tha KaaAwcttRi,' and a manaal of domeatlo tltot.
On rautiia^aira.* Tha latter tnati» ii not onlj tha moce intar-
aattng ot tba two, bat alio th* moro unieat; bolitg actwdlj qaotad
In thaotbtt. TIh twcher Kauiika la tcAatadlf nfairad to In tba
mak aa point* ot canmoidal doctrine. ConiMcted with thli Sfttta
an npwudt of aaventy furitMfai, er lapplementarf tnatlM^
moitly in metrical form, on nrioni labjacu bairiDa an the Mr-
fonnauca at Krfhn litai. Tlu liet latn-woA to be BoUced In
connexion with thii Veda (ith* .--—
being a Prfitiigl ' '* '
lilting ot
l>a crHilot
that hi
oprean
. . ,...,. ,g ^haiUJy
_ . . idiud with belDg the lotnal lathoc u tha work, eouidaring
that big opinion ia rejocted in tha onlf rab when bii uanw
sppean, there Ii no reason to doabt that it chieflj embodls tha
thoBetic; tlieoriea of that tocher, which wan aftsrwaida perfected
; membon of hia aabooL Wbatlier thia Bumaka la idanttcal with
the writot of that oiDie to whom the final redaction of the BAkala-
priliiUiva of " ~ ' ' "" ' " - - -
aieiibed ia not known : but it
note Out on at Teait two point! whan JIAkiJn ii qaotod bj
nini, the ChatoridhjIiyiU ictiiu to bo nlerred to rather tbin
> Rjk-prltdttkhjra. Sannaka la qnotad once in the Vljuuiefi-
Sambitu or BiUunanai of tbe other Vedu. Tbo Xtluurina-
upanlahadi, noatlj ooTopoaad In floku, nay be rooghly dirided
into two plftWii, Tit, tboia of a partly specnlative or general
pantbaliHa chanictar, treating chiefly of the nitnra ot the npreme
Riitit, ud tba meiiki ot attunins to onion tbaravith, ind thote
Of a iaotarlan taodency. Of tbo former oatrgO" • limltiul nnnsiui'
— anch 11 tbo Frafaa, Monjiti, aad Mtj4&
■ It ii in Ibe hula, ct Prof B. t. Both, wbo bai given u loniBnt
Ef 11 in hit audei*-41iiierta(ioii, " Dar AtbarraTeda In Kaadunlr "
187& ■ Bditad, Inthafifil. 7kI. , by BdJaidniaU Uitn.
* Text and a •gimu tranilatioB psbhihsd by R. Gtrtie.
' HiH diSonlt tmtlM la about to bo pabliahed by Pnf. Bloomfleld.
.. , ... — . . . ,^ i. .Weber
probably to be aaigned to tba latar
whilat tbo othoM prtanppoaa
of oono tnlly doroloped ay
ita or tba Yoga. Tha
pariod of Todta It
leai dutinotlj tin
ukd — identifying tbe mprenie ipirit ^tlter
lystcm ot philoaophy, eapedally tba
i. — , — :.- Upttiihadi, ra ttw otbar
tber with OM of tb* brma
Lon (lucb at tbe 2<ltAyinL KriaiilJia-tJMBtjia, Bfana-
i, Oop&la-t&mnlys), o' with'3iTa(t.0; tiie SoJiopaliiihail),
tom> other deity — belong to poat-Vodio timaa.
TL Thi Classioal Fzbiod.
Thecl
litertktnre of India ia _
duct ot artifidal growth, in tbo eenaa that ita TehJcle wsa
not the langna^ of the genenJ body of tht people, hot <rf
a amaJl and odncated clam. It wonid scarcely be poidble^
even approximately, to £x the time when the liten^
idiom c^aad to be nnderatood by the commoa petmle. We
only know that in the 3d century B.O. Olbk existed nvenl
dialects in diSaient porta ot northern India which diftered
cocaiderablj from the Banskrit ; and Bnddhiat traJitioii,
moieoTBT, tells us that Oaat&ma SlLkyamoni himaell^ in
the eth eeotnry B.C, made me ot the local dialect at
Hagtidha (Behar) for preaching his new doctrine. Not
unlikely, indeed, popular diolecta, diCTering perh^ia but
slightly from one another, may hare eiiated as early aa
the time of the Tedic hymn^ when tbe Indo-AnKU,
divided into clans and tribea, ocenpied the I^nd of the
Seven Riven ; but such dialects moa^ at any rate, hAve
■pnmg np after the ertension ot the Aryan sway and
language over the whole breadth ot northern India. Sucl^
howev^, has been the ease in the histot; of all natioiia ;
and there i» no reason why, even with t*
._ ..-. r~r— — , — elsewhere, bat for the
fact that from a cartJln time that language remained alto-
gether slationaiy, allowing the vemacnlar dialeda inoiia
and more to diverge from it Althongh Itngniatic reaeaich
had been successfully carried on in India for centuries, tha
actual grammatical fixation of Sanskrit seems to have taken
^aee abotit contemporaneously with the first spread of
Buddhism ; and indeed that popular religioiu movement
tmdonbtedly exercised a powerful influence on the lingniatio
development of India.
A. Poetical Liierattirt.
1. XpiePoena. — llieEindQa,likethBQree!b^pcsseaattro
great natioual epics, the Rdrndyofa and the llaMAbkdrata.
nie SimAgana, {.«., poem " r^tibg to BAma,' is ascribed
to tbe poet YlUmlki ; and, allowance being made for later
of some S4,W0 flokat, m
18,000 lines ot tixteen syllable^ divided into seven book*.
(I.) Elng DaJatatha of Eofala, nlgniog at Ayodl^ (Ondhi
hai tear uns bom bim by Ibreo wirei, m., BAma, Bfaanta, tXM
the twini lakibouna and datrughna. Klma, by being aUa to
bend an anormoni Inw, formerly tbo drbaded weuon of the nd
Rndri, wini for a wife S\ti, danghtor of Janaki, king of Tldeba
(Tiihnt). {II. ) On hia return to Ajodhyl be li to be ^pointed
hilr-apparcDt (j^va-i^ii, <-•., Juvtnii rex); bet Bbirata'a motbar
penoadu the liInR to tncilh his etdeel ton for fourteen jean to
tha wildemeBF, and appoint her ion initaad. Be[«ration nom bJa
fiToarito ion loon brealn tbo king* t heart; whereopon tha minlitan
Z
howarer, uO, betakina bimsolf to Bftma'a istreal on tba Cbitnktl
monntalD (b fiunddkhiuid), implom bim to reton ; bnt,
to abike R^iok'a molie to coinpleta hii term ot axll^ b* coniaata
to Uke charge of the kingdom in the mcantims. <III.) After a
Un jcan' n>id>niw In tbeTomt, Bftnu attract) tbe attention of a
femala demon (Rtkahait) ; and, infnriated by tha inaction of her
idTanca, and by tbe noondi inSictad on bar by IjV.Viti^-. who
keeps Bima company, tha iaapirca her brother Btvaoa, <Jeni^
king of Ceylon, with Ioto for SOL, in ooniaqnanea of' which tbs
latter la carried olt by bim to hia capital LaakL WUla riw
reaolntaly t^ecti tha Btkibu'i addmna, Rtoia loti ont wiOi Us
brother to her taiciia. (IV.) After numetona Bdvaatana tlwv
UTBKAtUBB.]
SANSKRIT
281
•Dtar iBto u ■lliuMB wlUi tiagitta, klBgjt Uw moalun -, and,
with Uh UBiiUoc* i^ tho monkejr-gtnanl Huuid&d, aad Bivsiu'i
ownbntlwT VibUahuu, thoy pnpui to uuult LukL (V.) "tba
monkcT*, Uuing up nek* ud tne^ cotutnuit & paMga Mrsa
tha MniU- the •o-alloil Adim'i Britl»e, Blill dHignitod filma'*
bridga in IndU. (VI.) Hiring crosaedoror with ki* «Ui«, Bin)*,
■fter S4aj hot mcoonte™ »nd tniraculoiu doedi. ti*n tba demon
■nil optuna tha •tronahold ; irhoreunon ha plucea Vibhlshini on
tha throEM of LukL To aiUy Rinu a miigivingi u to anf taint
•ha might hiTi incornd ttiroagh coDIact vith tho damoo, SIi&
uov aodargnn ui ordeal by tin ; aftar which thej raturn to
Ajodhji, whare, after a Cnuiiiphal entry, Mma ii iniialled.
[VII.) In tha l*rt book-tirobably ■ litoc ■ddition-R&ma, mii^
that tha paopla an not fet aatulied of Stll'a nnrity, nanlrea to
pat har away ; wbannpan, in the loraat, aba falla in with VUmtki
himaelf, and at hia hainiitaga gina birth to two aou. Wbils
Srowing np than, they an tanelit by the •age tha tua at Iba bow.
aa well la the Vnlu, and tha Mnfyana as fai aa tha caplnro of
Lanki and tha royal antrj into Ayodhyt. Ultinutely Rlnia
diaesnn and no«niiaa them by thsir wondaifcl deeda and their
likanoa to himaelf and takea hia wife and aons bock with him.
llie JfaAdirUni^' it., "the great ([raem or f«ud) of
the BUiktu," on tbe other haad, u not to much a uni-
fonn epic poem oi a mucellaneoiu oollectiou of epic
jioetry, coniiBtiiig of a heterogeneoiu maw of legendiry
and didactic matter, worked into and ronnd k centnU
heroic narratire. IThe authorahip of thii work i* aptly
attributed to VyAsa, " the arrangsr," the personificiCioD of
iodian diaakenaiia. Only the bare ontlina of tbe loading
■torf can here be given.
Is die royal lina of Haatinipnra (tha anciant Delhi)— claim ing
diaoaat tnaa tba moaa.and hanea called the Lanar race (aosiBTanuSa),
aud oaontinx among lla ancaaton King Bbtrata, adar whom lodia
ia called Bhinta-ranha (laud ol tba Bhatatai)— the lUKtmion lav
between two brothera, when Dh|lUrlahtn, tbe tidal, being blind,
had to makt way for hia brother P&ndii. After a time the Utler
ratind to tha foreat to paaa the remainder oF bia life in buntine ;
and Dhtilaitiblra amnmed tha gaTamment. asalatad by hia uncle
Bhtihma, tha Naatoi of the poem. After aoiiiB yean Pindu died,
■sating in tana, yit., Yadtiiahthin. Bhlma, and Arjunk by hii
rhiaf wiTe KnnO, and tha twins' Nikula and SahadsTa by Uldri
Tbe Ltttr harin^ bamt henelt along with her dead hneband.
Eontl ratomad with the fire prince* to Haatinlpnm, and waa well
tvsdTad by the kin& who oD%nd to hare hi* ncjibcwa brought up
tOKSthar with hii own lona, of whom he had a huntlrod, Duryodhnna
txiag tlie eldoit From their gmt-tmud father Karu both
(iunilies are rallod fiwmnu ; but for dialinction that nama ia
mon nanally applied to the eona of DhritarJtihlra, while tlieir
DDiuina, SI the younger line, an named, after their Iitlier, Fdndami.
The rivalry aud faryjng fottnoea of Ibaso two honaoa fona tha
nuin plot of the great epopee. The Pilndu print^ei >oon prorrd
thamactrea greatly luperior to their eau^ina ; and Yndhi>hthiia,
" ! ehkat of thorn all, win "
a adrioa, the king, good-ui
miJcl
Tl.oy
ly the^
cacaped, bowerer, and poaacd eome time in tha forsst witn met
mother. Hen DnupadI, daughter of King Dmnada, won b;
Aijana in (feu eontaat, bMame the wife of tha fiia brotliert. Oi
thit oawdoQ they alao met their consin, Kunti'a nephew, th
lunoDS Yldara prluca Krishna of Dvirakft, who eier aftarwaid
rtmained their bitbrul frlcnil and eontideDtial advixr, Dhrita
liahtm now rt»[TBd to dtride tlia kingdom between the'twi
hooiM ; wharanpou the FlnJaTaa hnilt for thenueirn the city o
iudnpraitha (on the lita ot tha modem Delhi]. After a time o
graat proaperity, Yndhiihthira, in a guna of dice, Imt ererjihinj
to Diuyodhani, when it was aettled that the Pdndayaa ahouii
rstin to the fot«at for twalre yean, hat ehould aftervsidi
■ ir kingdom if they
to their kingdom if they lucceedod in paaaing an additional
diwaiae, without being recognicad by asyona. During
may pa menUened their anconntrr with King Jayadnthi of
Cbedi, who had i»ni<d off DnnpadI from tbeir hermitage. After
tba twalfih year hw expired they laara tha (oreat. and, asauming
■uisna ■ll-pnl—j, take aerrice at the ooortof king VirAta of Hateya.
^ Tbiin aia aevanl couplete editioiia poblithed in India, tba
faaodiistialTolL, Calcntta, 1834-B. Numersoi epiiodei from It bsTe
bean pitted and ttanilutad by Enroprin acholin. Than ii a Fnnch
tranitatkn, by H. Fanche, of about one half of the work ; Ijut It
Bnat ba wad with eauthiD. An BngUah traulatlon ia being broogbt
««t 4 (McaUa by Pratif Ouodia Boy.
Dnapadl, and ia daia liy Bhina, Tha Kannraa, pfoAth^ by
Klohaka'a death, now luvade the Hitnaa kingdom, whan tbe
Flnjaraa aide with king Virtia, and then ennua. on the Held of
Knrukahetra, a acriea orSercebatllea, ending in the annihilition
ot tba KanriTai. Yudhiihthin now at laat baeomn yuTa.i^ and
eraotDally kin^ — DbriiirAibiia having reiignad aud ntitwl with
hia wife and KuntI to the foraet, when they eoou after periih in a
conltigration. Lenmiug also the denth of Kri.hria, Yudhiahthin
bimBelf At laat becomei tirvd of liTe and nugna Lis [?rT>wn i and
le byDnailrDpaD<r. till Yudliiahlhira alone, with the dog,
I nte of heaven; but, the dog bcmg refuaed admittance,
ilaring without him. when the dog tuma mt to
IB f^of Jnatiea himaelf, having aainmed th '
rmchfs
the king deel
form to trat Yndhiahihiw'a con»t»noy,
wife Dor hia brothen In hearan, and h
the Dcther world to eipiala their aina, the king iniiMe on aharinc
their tats, when Ihii, too, pnivci a trial, and thay are all nuniled
to enjoy jieqietnal bLaa.
Whether thli story is partly hased, a« Lowep »ng'
geated, on historical eventti, — perhaps a destructive war
between the neighbouring tribes of the Kurua.and I^n-
chilad, — or whe^er, aa Dr A. Holtimana thinks, its prin-
cipal features go back to Indo-Oermauic timea, will pn>.
bably never be decided. The complete work cooiiita of
opvsrds of 100,000 coQpleta,^ita contents thoB being
nearlj' eigbt timea die bulk of the Jliad and Odyary com-
bined. It ia divided into eighteen hooka, and a sapple-
ment, entitled Hariranisa, or genealogy of the god Hari
(Kpiihija-Vishijn). In tiis introdnction, Vylsa, being
aboat to dictate the poem, is made to say (L 81) that so
far he aud some of hia disciples knew B800 couplets;
and further on (i. 101} he ia said to have composed the
collection relating to the BhAratas (bbStata-sainlutl), and
called the £hdral<jm, which, not iDcludiDg tbe episodes,
cotuioted of 2i,00Q ilokt*. Now, as k matter of Cact, tbe
portion reUting to the fend of the rival houses ronatitutes
somewhere between a fourth and a fifth of the work ; and
it is highly probable that this portion once formed a
ttepamte poem, called the Bhdrata. But, whether the
former statement is to he understood as implying tbe
exiatence, at a still earlier time, of a yet shorter veriion of
about one-third ot the present eitent of the leading nam-
tive cannot now be determined. While some of the
epiaodea are bo looeely connected with the story a« to be
readily severed from it, otbets are so clooely interwoven
with it that their removal would aeriously injure the very
texture of the work, lliis, however, only showi that the
original poem mu»t have nndergoue some kind of revision,
or perhaps repeated revisions. Tliatsuch has indeed token
place, at the band of Brlbmaus, for sectarian and caate
pnrposea, cannot be doubted.
The earliest direct information regarding tha ezietence
oF epic poetiT in India is cmitaiDed in a ptuaage of Dion
Chrysostom (c. 80 A.D.), according to which " even among
the Indiana, they say, Homer's poetij is sung, having
been translated by them into their dWn direct and
tongoe ; " and " the Indiaiu are well acquainted with the
sufieringi of Priam, the lamentations and wails of Andro-
mache and Eecuha, and tbe prowess of Achilles and
Hector." Now, althoDgh these ^luaions would suit either
poem, they seem ou the whole to correspond best to
certain incidents in the MaMbhdmta, especially aa no
direct mention is made of a warlike eipeditioc to a remote
island for the rescne of an ahdncted woman, the resem-
blance of which to the Trojan eipedition wonld naturally
have struck a Qreek becoming acquainted with the
general ontEne of the SAmi^na. Whence Dion derived
bis information is not known ; but as many leading names
of the Hahlbhlrata and even the name of the poem itself *
are already mentioned in Plifini's grammatical rules, it ia
• Vii.,<
madj..
^iXL-
582
SANSKRIT
[umATinuL
ItcKmlj certMO thAt Uw BhlnU legeDd matt hive been
cammt in hii time (1 c: 400 B.a), but moat probable that it
ezhted »iretdj in poetical form, u nndonbtedlj it did at
the time of I^taqjali, the anthor of the " great comment-
wj" on Pl^iiii {e. 150 >.a}. The great eplo ii also
nientionBd, both a« BAdraUt and MaMhh&rala, in the
(IfikgiyAlra of AivaUtyana, nhom Idisen Buppoeea to
liare lived about 350 B.a Nevetttkelen it moat renuin
onoartain whether the poem wae tlkea already in tlie form
in which we now luiTe i^ at least aa tai aa the leading
■tofj atid perhapa some of the epiaodu are ooneenied, a
large poctioii ot the epiaodical mattec being dearl; of
kter origin. It canno^ however, be doubted, for many
reasona, that long before that time haroio aoog had been
diligently cultivated in India at the eourta of prijicee and
among KshBtriyM, the kaightif order, generallj. In the
JfaAdAMrafa itself the traaimiraion of epio legend is in
■ome way connected with the SQtas, a social cIms which,
in the caste-system, is defined aa resulting from the union
of Kahatriya men with Br&hmu>a women, and which
■applied the ofGce of charioteen and herald^ as well as
(along with the UAgadbas) that of professional minstrels.
Be this as it may, ^ara is reason to believe that, aa Hellas
had her imZiji who sang the nXia. i*ipuv, and Iceland her
akatda who recited favourite sagas, so India had from
olden times her [wofeaaional bard^ who delighted to sing
the praises' of kings and ios^ie the knights with warlike
feelings. Bat if in this way a stock of heroic poetry hod
gradually accumulated which refiected an earlier state
of eodsty and maonere, we can well nnderstand why,
after the Biihmanical order ot things had been definitely
. established, the priests should bare deemed it deurahle to
subject these traiditional memorials of Eshatriya chivalry
and prestige to tbur own eeoaoishipt and adapt them to
their own canona of religions and civil law. Bach a
reviuon would doubtless leqnire considerable .skill and
tact; and if in the present version of the work much
remains that seems contrary to the Brihmanical code
and pretensions — t.g., the polyandric Union of Diaupadt
and the Pl^du princea — the reason probably is that snch
legendary, or it may be historical, events were too firmly
n>ot«d in tbe minds of the people to be tampered with ;
and all the clerical revisers could do was to explain them
awt^ as beet they oonld. Thna the special point alluded
to was represented as an act of da^ and flluJ obedience,
in this way, tlial> when Aijnna brings home his fair prixa,
and aoDonnoaa it to his mother, she, before seeing what it
is, bids bim share it with his brothers. Nay, it has even
been soggested, with some pUasibUity, that the Brth-
"■»"*"' Mlitan have eompletely changed the traditional
leUtioaB of the leading characten of the stoiy. For,
altboogb the Plvdavas and their oonsin Kfishi^a are con-
stantly exttJled as models of virtne and goodness, while
die Kaoravaa and their friend Karoa— a sod of the sun-
god, bom by KnntI before her tnariiage with Fl^da, and
bron^t Vf secntly a* the *» of a SAta — are decried as
moBstera of iufmntj, thsM estimates of the heroes'
chaiaoten am not nn^equsoUy belied by their actions, —
especially the honeat Eai^a and the bntve Doryodhana
contrasting not nnfaTonrably with the wily Efiiduja and
the eaotiona and svmendiat aSeminate Tudhishtbira.
nieas oonsiderations, coupled with eertain peculiarities on
tiie part of tha Kaoravas, snggeative of an original con-
nexion of the latter with Boddhist institationa, have led
Dr Htdtanann to devise an ingenious theory, viz., that
the traditional stock of legeocb was first wwked dp into
its present sh<^ \ij toma Buddhist poet, and that this
TSisioo, showing a decided predilection for the Knra party,
as the rspresentativaa of Buddhist principle^ was after-
wards revissd tn a eoatiaiy aeiise, at the timo of the
fothmnnical reaction, bj votaries of Vishiju, whan tbt
Boddhist features were generally modified into Saivita
tendencies and prominence was given to the divine natuM
of K|iahi^ as an incarnation of Viah^n. The chief otgeo-
tion to this theory probably is that it woold seem to
mEike such portions as the Bhagavad'gU& (" song of the
holy one") — the famous theoeophic episode, in which
Erishi)^ in lofty and highly poetical language^ expounda
the doctrine of faith (bhakti) and claims admtioo as the
incarnation of the supreme spirit — even more modem
than many scholoia may be inclined to admit as at all
necessary, conddering that at the time of Patar^jali's
MaidlAeUhytt ths K]idi^ worship, as was shown by PiOl.
Bboadarkar, had already attained soma d^ree of deveh^
menL Of the purely legendary matter incorporated
with the leading story not a little, doubtless, is at Isast •■
old ss the latter itself. Some of these episodes — especially
the well-kaown story of Nala and Damayontt, and the
touching legend of Sftvitri — form themseivea little epie
gems, of which any nation might be proud. There can
be no doubt, however, that this great atmehonsB of
legendary lore has received considerable additions down
to comparatively recent times, and that, while ita main
portion is considerably older, it also contains no small
amount of matter which is decidedly more modem than
the Sdntdgaifa.
As regards the leading naiMtive of the JUtadfaaa,
while it is generally supposed that the chief olyect whidi
the poet had in view was to depict the spread of Aryan
eivilintion towards the south, Ur T. Wheeler has tned
to show that the demons of Lanki against whom lUma's
expedition is directed are intended for the Buddhists of
Ceylon. Prof. Weber, moreover, from a oranpariaon of
Rtma'a story with cognal« Bnddhiat legenda in which
the expedition to Lauki is not even referred to, ha*
endeavoured to prove that this featuA, having been added
by TUmIki to the original l^end, waa probably derived
1^ him from some general acqu^ntonce with the Trojan
cycle of l^ods, the composition of the poem itself b^ng
placed ^ the same scholar somewhere ab«Kit the b^inntng
of the Christian era. Though in the absence of positive
proof, this theory, however ably supported, can soaredy
be assented to, it will hardly be possible to put the date of
the work Autiier back than about a centnry befois our
era; while the loose connexion cd eertain pasaagsa in
which the divine character of Rlmo, aa an avattr of
Vishqu, is especially accentuated, raises a strong sus-
picion of this feature of Rima's nature having been intro-
duced at a later time.
A remarkable feature of this poem is the great variatiai
of its text in different parts of the ooontry, amounting in
fact to several distinct recensions, The ao^alled Qanda
recension, current in Bengal, which differs most ot aH, hsa
been edited, with an ItaUan translation, by Q. Qonesio;
while the version prevalent in western India, and pub-
lished at Bombay, has been made the batis for a beautiful
poetical translation by Mr R. Griffith. This diversi^ h«s
never been explained in a quite satisfactory way ; but it
was probably due to the very popularity and wide oral
diffosion of the poem. Tet another version of the same
story, with, however, many important variations of detail^
forms an episode <^ the MaMMiArata, the nlatiou of
which to V&lmlki'B work is still a matter of uncertain^.
To characterixe the Indian epice in a single wmd : —
thoogh often disflgnred by grotesqne fancies and wild
exaggerations, they are yet noble works, abounding in
passages of ramarkabie descriptive power, intense patiic^
and high poetic grace and beauty; and, while, aa works of
art, they are far inferiw to the Greek epiei^ in some
r«^>ecte they ^tpeal far mora stam^ to the ronantto
xl
8AN8KBIT
Bind ot Eorope^ nutwlj, hj Ib^ loTing spprecuttioD of
Baton! beraty, their exqninta delioeation of womantr
lore and datotian, md tlieu tender wntimeat of mercy
tad forgiveiui^
9. Pwifiu amd TantroM. — The F^rliga* are pertlj
■egeoduy pttrtlj apecolative hutories of the anivena,
eomiHled foe Aa pnipoee of promotiog lome special,
local^ pnTftlaat form of BrUunaaical belief. They are
noMtiniM itjled a fifth Teda, and may indeed id a
cartain mum be looked opon a* the scriptnna of Brih-
maakaf India. "Ssa term piinlna, ugnifying "old,"
ip[Jied origjaally to prehiBtonc, eepeciaUy coBmogoaic,
T<igwnd% and then to ooUactioiia of ancient tmditiona
gmerally. The enstiiig works of this clue, thong^ rec(%~
oinng the Brihmanical doctrine of tiie TlitnQrti, or triple
■nanifertMtkH) of the duty <in its creative, preeemtive,
and dnbnetiTo activity), are all of a sectarian tendency,
being intended to establish, on qti&d-bistorio grounds,
the dainu of eome special god, or holy place, on the
derotion of tk people. For Ihis purpose the compilers
baTfl preasad into their service a mast of extraneons didac-
tic matter on all manner of enhjects, whereby these works
hKT« become a kind of popolu encyclop«dias of useful
knowledge. It is erident, however, from a comparatiTely
eazLy definition given tA the typical Pntl^ as well as
fnan nnmerons coincidencee of the existing works, that
they are based on, or enlarged from, older works of this
Uod, more limited in their MOpe, and probably of a more
decidedly taritbeistic tendency of belief. Thns none of the
Pnil«ai, as now extant, is probebly mnch above a
thooMud years old, thongh a considerable proportion of
their malMioIa ia doubtless mnch older, and may perhaps
in nrt go back to several centuries before onr era.
In le^dar; matter the Porlqaa have a good deal in
common with the epics^ especially the JfoAWWrato, — the
compilers or revisers of both claeeea of works having
eiidoitJy drawn their materials from the same flnctnating
BBS* of popular traditiona. Tbej are almoet entirely
ocmpceed in epic oonpleta, and indeed in mnch the same
ea^ flowing style aa the epic poente, to which they are,
however, geatly inferior in poetic valne.
Aioaidiiw to the trmditloml dHdHntloii of tht«« vorki, tlien
■I* laid Id M lA^MeB (huIU-, or gteit) Pvieitaa, lad u miiiy
Bfa /iJfiM. <s ■abatdinile Pnilfu. Ttas fonner uv by kids
snthprltiw dirkUd Into thrs* fposu of dz, accordiiig u ono or
othsmttbg thna priman qiuUtlai El Bitmul aiitsBoa — goojnoi,
biksMi (iKUorane*), sad purion — Is mppoBed to nnvmll is them,
vis. , Ibi riri^it, tfaMdho, fMfSnta, Ooni^ /Wmo, ronKo,—
ifa<^w,g«nw«t iAiga.iW«ii, ~ ' ' ' -•-■--
_ ,__jj ud aita rwpeotiTelj, whilrt tba third group,
Whioh woold noparly belong to BrsEimaii, hai bwo Urcely appro-
nfalBl for tha pmrnadon of tha cUims of otfaor'a^tio, -"-
Viib|B ia hii wiisaaD* form of Kr^duia, Devt, Oueii,
Strri. As Pnt Bsnnjea hu 11101111 in \-a prsbce to ' tho
alilB, BiIb nsms to li«v* bun ddsfly (ffMlsd I7 liter mddi
IntwpoIstioUb Tba iasoffidan^ of th* sbova olsariBoatiaii,
howsnr, opptais bom tb* bot that it onils the FH^B^urA^n,
Bnbshly ms of tha oMart of all, thaa^ snna MSB. anbstftalo It
ntODtoroltatr dsom of tiia seeondgroap llsriRhtaan principal
rnriaia an loid to enuiit of twathar «IO,000 oraplals. In
Hotban India flw Talduav* Pnr&u, Mpeeially tha SMgatata
ai. rMw,' are by &r the moat popolar. Tbs BUvivsta wm
* ' ' '- ^ — ' — n eompoaad by TiqwlaTa, tba
Itth oaator;. It has, hoiraver,
« ms a aynopaii of tha Piii1b>,
and that tha lattar ia sheidy ijnotad In a woA by BsDUa Sans <A
BoDgal, fn tba Tlth centory.
From tha littla «s know n^rding tha irpa-narlDU, their olur-
acter doaa not aDCni to differ vary much from tut ot Uii principal
ParinBi. Oiia of thorn, the Sra/uniiufapuri^ containii, 11 an
apiio^a, the wel]-lcDowu Adkydlrmi-Ild'Hidyaiui, ■ Idnd of ipiliinal-
i»d Tonrion of VUmtki'i poem, Bwida. thoao two cla»a ol
wcika than Ii ■ Lirga number of eocalled Sl^ala-jmrdfit, «
cbroDlelea recounting Ihahialory and merit* of lotDO holj "placo"
ihrine, vhen thmr t«itetiou mmally fonna an imnartaHt part
irilUUmya* (I'toially '■relating to Ibe great loirit"], which uiuallj
profcaa to be lecttoiu of ona or other Partna. Thua tha Dect-
mJMlmna, which - colebrata tha Tlctorloa a'l the great RDiIdeat
Darg& orer the Aanraa, and ia daily read at tha temples of that
deitr, formi a eectlon, though doubtlea en lntcri«il>tad one, ul
the Jf4rkani)eja-pnilna.
The TojUtvi, which have to be considered as a later
development of the lectariui Furigos, ar« the sacred
•rritings of the nnmerons Sdilat, or worshipper* of the
female energy (iaiti) of some god, Mpeeially the wife ot
^va, in one of her many formB (F&rvatl, Devt, Kilt,
Bbavlnt, Durgl, Ac). This worship of a female repi«-
•entation of Uie divine power appears already in aome of
thePnrfti^; hot in the Tanttas it astnmes quite a peculiar
character, being largely intermixed with magic peiform-
aneee and mystio rit«e, portly, it would seem, of a grossly
immoral nature. This daea of writings does not appear
to have been in existence at the time of AmsrsaiD|)ha {Gth
centi^); but they ore mentioned in some of the Pnrl^as.
They are usually in the form of a dialogue between ^iva and
hia wife. Their number is very large; but they still awut
a critical examination at tha handa of weetem scholars.
Among the beet known may be mentioned the £tKfra
ytmala, EulAifara, SyAm&^ahaiya, and KUtkA-tmntra.
3. Madrm Epic*. — A new cUse of epic 'poems begin to
make their appearance about the 0th or Gth century of
our «%, during a period of renewed literary activity which
has-been fitly called' the Itenaissaoce of Vidian literature.
These works differ widely in character from thoee th^l
had preceded them. The great national epics, composed
though they were in a language different from the ordin-
ary veinacnlata, had at least been drawn from the living
stream of popular traditioiui, and were donbtleis readllj
nnderstood and enjoyed by the majority of tfae people.
The later prodoctions, on the other hand, are of a decidedly
artificial character, and mniit neceasarily have been beyond
the reach ot any but the highly cnltivated. They are, on
the whole, singularly deficient in incident and invention,
thur subject matter being almost entirely derived frong
tha old epics. Nevertheless, these works are by no meonq
devoid oiF merit and intereet ; and a number of them
display considerable descriptive power and a wealth of
genuine poetic sentiment, though unfortunately often
clothed in language that deprives it of half ila value. The
aimple heroic couplet has mostly been discarded for
various mote or leas elaborate metrea ; and in accordance
with this change of form the diction becomes gradually
more complicated,^ — a growing taste for unwieldy com-
pounds, a jingling kind of alliteration, or rather agnomina"
tion, and an abase of umiles marking the increamng
artificiality of these productions.
The genaric appellation of nuih worki ii kSvyct, wbiob, mi
m. or the work of an ludiitdual poet (lasO, '' '
-■ - -- - -t£i,r ■-
' Thw* tr* eavaral Indiaa adltlana ot tl
Bygartts has baaa partly pristad. hi an UM
I v^; br K. Bamoo^ and a
Pari*, in
.... a lOarthby IL Baavatta- BeanaalL
M TUnni. there Ira Itanalatian bf E. H. WDaou, td ad. anricbid
riU valiiaUa nolai b; T. HalL Bnval other Pdi^aaa hava bMB
jtBitad in India; tb* Iaikan4e7a and Agni Prntaai,' in tha BM,
M, br PreC Bane^ei and ^tjmdnlUa lUtia rWHctlntv.
■ Mjwdrsllls Mltia. SMt« «/ Bt/ul;. MS9. IL
already
•ppiiei to tha Mndf/a-^ Bii poemi of thi* kind an ainiilac]
by Ditiva liiatoriciana ai itandani worka, under the title of M
jMeyn, or gnat poama. Two of thwe ate aacribed to tha (amoos
druuitiat KUiiW, the moat ptomineat fignr* of the Indiai
~ and tmlr a mailer of tba poetic "" ' " '
__ ii iddti
le lilersrj " garni'" at the court of Vikramfc
..-..j_,.. „.. Yikmnlditya Haraha ol
' the middle ot tl
ditja, now ^«alty identified wilh King
Uiiajial [Djjain or Onjein), who nigned l .
eth eantuij, end aeima to fasva originated th* TikramUitya era,
raekonad from it B.O. Of tha poati who** work* hav* eome down
284
SANSKRIT
ri to ba nna of tint tarllwt
to na KUiJd* amwiri to ba nna oT tint __
litllo doubt tint r>D ni pn»eil»1 iu thia u ia other Joputi
of poatiu compiMiCiaD by nuny InMr li);ht(, edi[ind by th« bdb i
hi> Ume, ud fo[;^tteIl. Of tha nz '* mut poemA " narucil bcio'
lbs fint two us thoae Utribatal to Kilklilu. (1) Tbe Jlaylu
— '■ ' -- 'net of Eaghil," oelobrmtm Iho incoBtoy und deetl
Thai
iug of D
iaminpleta : but hiChaito do copy has hcca discorernl ol tha
■dditioDil natoa vbicb an luppoiod to bnTB compIoCcd it. (2) Tha
Kinndm-inmi/iavn' or 'tha hirth of (Uib »»r-god) Kumlb*" (or
Skanda), tba hd of SinitDd Pfbrnd, coosiata of eight cutoi, tba
laaC of which boa nolj nccntlj bcco mArlfl pnblic, being uoolly
mnitted io the 1IS3., probably oa ucoont of ili anioroiu obanctei
nndering tt aaiaiUblis Tor edDcatio]ial porpaaes, for wbiuh Ibr
worka of Ratidjlaa am citensireir used in India. Nino additional
ra pDbliahed at tho anma tima, have bajn ptovaJ
Vonihar ' ' ' ' '
aviug loat hia 1 „ „ „
!> KUidAaa, being fw inFarior to tho other i
ion artiliriAl oharK-ter. - "
, ... , |ioruT7 of KULIiaa, beini
^1 ti^ethn with him in an Inacription datod C34 A.D
«] Tha SUapdla-badla, or alajiiw of ^opdla, wbo, beinf i
' t of Chadl, rarilad Kfiahna, ^o bad urriad otT hli intao.iai
--■--« killed by him -■-' ■ ....-,. .. .,_
Siteh^""'; . , . ,
AatUa, or "aUpog of Rdnna,'' mora commooly oiled BhaSfi-
kdoya, to distrngniali it from other poema (eapccially ooa by
"" ....-.-... .. former titlo, wai compooed
clodngooitplatitiiroreaaaa to hare baea written at^UaUd, ander
SrtJluiMana, bat, aeretal pHncea of that luma being mantioped
in iuicilptioiu aa hariog ralsd there injiba eth and 7th
Pnruwmu), Ukewiaa betHiu; tl
■otboc'a name, la aeoitly idenUHed *itb
BsHsa Bhartrlhu^, whc« death Pnt H. Uiillar, from a Chuiese
■titamant, fliet U S60 *.□,, while othen uuka him Bhartriharl'a
aoD. (B) Tha IfFihatati/a, or JfaMadJia-cliarila, tha life of Nala,
king of Kishadba, ia aHsribed to drt-Haraha [eon of Hlril, who ii
aappoaod to hare liTed in tha littar part of tha I3th contnry.
A amaU portion of tha almpl* and nobfi epiaoda of the MaJiMM-
nttn ia hens retold in highly alabonta and poliahad ataoaa, and
witb 1 degTM of ludTJauDaaa whldk (sulaH it ba chiaflr daa to
tha poat'a exnbarknca of fancy) gina > troir appalling pictara of
•neial oorniption. Anqthtr hignly aal«am«a poam, tha Sdghava-
stfy^mFlya, eonpoMd Iqr Earidua (* king of poata '). — whoaa data
b nncartain, Ihongh aom« ■chDUr* pUoa him Utar than tha 10th
oantnrj, — It ohanetgrlstio of tha trifling Daet to which the poet'a
art WM put The well-tnmed itaoxaa are ao ambignonsly worded
that the poem may be Intarprated u nlnting to the laadlng atorr
<i( dtber tha JUmdyana or tha MakMAOraUi.
A 'atUl more modem popolar daTalopment of thoae artiflcial
poama are tha nomsroaa ao^called Ciasipta, being compoaitioiiB of
miied Tene and proae. Aa >pecitaans of each worlu may be -nen-
tioued tha Chanipa-bUrala b\ twalre cantoa, by Ananta Bhatta,
and tha Gkampii-rlmii/ana or Bh^fa^^mpA, in flva boolu, ' by
BboJBi^ {n Vidarbh^i) T^ijjita, being popnUr aba'tiacts of
tha two gpc*t apica.
ry d^milai in eharaotar to ^a artUeliil ept
' J oonrt poeta •" »■- "—" "' •>■"-
hifli.
in ornate proae, by Bk^t, in bononr of ^aditja Uaretiaranlhana
(e. allHUM A.D.) of Elnyakat^a (Kanaqj), and tho rOranidiLta-
cHarila,* written by the Kiabmir poet Bilhana, sbont lOSfi, in
bononr of hia patron, the CbUukya king Viknmlditya of Kalvans,
regaidlng the hlatory of whoea dnuity tho work auppliea mnch
vuDabla information. In thia placa may alao be mentioned, aa
eompoasd in ao»rd«nca with the Kiodn poetia canon, tba Rlja-
laraitgliiLt,'' or ohtonicla of tha klngi of Kaahmlr, the only important
■ Edited, with a Latin tnuuL, by F. Stoular; also tait, and com-
OMOtaiy, by S. P. Pendtt.
■ Text nod Latin tranaL pobUabad by P. Btsailer ; an Engliih
trui'I. by A. T. H. Orinth.
• Tait, with comm. and Lulii tnnd., edit*] by F. Benary; XngL
tnnrl., In tint, by Dr Taylor.
' Blitioni of thia and Uu thiea following poema bare bean pnb-
Uahe<l in indie.
• Bbio DiJI, In hli paper on UUdAoa, call* Klgha "a contem-
poniy uf the Bhcija of the 11th entary." • Edited by O. Btihler.
I Pnbllahsd at Calontta; alao, with a Pnnch trauL, by A. Tnyar,
aide allow
n the Soiukrit Ii
iriioe-
ncy.
.. ._ impoiwl by tho Kaehmirinn Jinqt Kaibaija. . ..
1160. and ws» aftjrwarrfa eotitinoail by Ihreo nucooaiiTa aonpl*.
monta, brinj^og down the bialory of Kfuhmir to tba time ol the
emperor Akbar. Dnfortnnataly tha two aiintini; adltioDi wore
Eimrd from very imperfuot MS. matoriala ; but l»r REkhlar'a
nrary of new U^IS.. an wpU an of noma nS tlio wnrki «i vbk-h
ibUuina B poem is iMaoL nngbt to enalilo Iho iiativo ncholar (Pmf.
Bhandarkar) who haa amlarlakcn a Dow nlitiou I« put the text in
a more ■Ltiafaotory condition.
i. Th» DiYtma. — The Barly-hUtorjr of the ludiaa drama
ia enreloped in obecuritj. The Hintlua thcmHclvcB Mcribo
the origin of dramatic repressntatioD to tho aage BbartLtn,
who in lahled to have lived in remnte ftatiqiiit;, Mul to
have received thia acieDce directlj from the god Bntlitnan,
by whom it vat extracted from the Vodo. The tern
b/ianUa~^1) Ca, one nho ia kept, or one wbo iiwluna (•
part) — also uignifiea "an actor"; bat it ia doublfnl vhich
of the two is the earlier, — the appellDtive OBBof tho word,
or the notion of an old teacher of the dramatic art bearing
that Dame. On the other hand, there still eziata au
exteneiTe work, in epio veise, on rfaetario and diBmatargj,
entitled Jf^yn-Mttra, and ascribed to Bharata. Jtut,
thoo^ thia is probably the oldest tbeoi«tio work on the
aubject that has come down to na, it can hardly be referred
to an earlier period than eeveraJ centnriet after the Cbria.
tiaa era. Not improbably, howsTsr, this work, which pre-
BoppoasB a folly developed scenic art, had an origin aimilar
to that of some of the metrical law-books, which at« gunerallj
Bopposed to be popular and improved editions of older
Bt^tra-works. We know that such treatises existed at the
time of PAijini, as he mentions two anthois of Jf'ifit-ilUrat,
or " rales for acton," viz., ^il&tio and EpsMva. Now, the
words wifa and tidfya — as well as lUiftihij the common
term for "draoia" — being derived from the root iiat(»arl)
"to dance," seem to point to a pantomimic or choral
origin of the dramatic art. It might appear donbtfol,
therefore, in the absence of any clearer daBaitJon in
Pioioi's grainmar, whether the " actors' rales " he mentiOM
did not refer to mere pantomimic perfOTniancea. Fortun-
ately, however, Pataiyali, in hia "great commentary,'
speaks of the actor as singing; and of people going "to
hear the actor." Nay, he oven mentiooi two sabject^
l«ken from the cycle of Viahqu Ic^nda — vii., the alaying
of Karnst (by Kjishija) and the binding of Bali (by
Tisbquj— which were represented oa the stage both l^
miT"ia action and declamatioii. Jtidging from diese allu-
sions, theatrical eotertaiamenta in those dayt seem to have
been very much on a level vrith our oki religions q>eataclea
or myateriee, though there may already have been some
simple kinds of aecalar plays which Fatatgall bad ns «cca-
sion to mention. It is not, however, till sooie fire i» Sx
centuries l&ter that we meet with the lint nal diamai^
which mark at the Bwne time the very culminating point of
Indian dramatic composition. -In this, as in othsr depart-
menta of Uteratuie, the earlier works have bad to make way
for later and more perfect prodoctioDa ; and no ttaee now
remains of the iotramediate phases «( development
Here, however, the [Hoblem presents itself as to
whether the siiating diamatio literature has nattually
grown oat of inch popular religions performanoes as are
alluded to by Ritanjali, or wheUier some foreign influence
has intervened at some time or other and given a dlfierent
direction to dramatic composition. The question ))bb been
argned both for and against the probability id Greek
influence ; but it mnat stiU be coniiidered as wS judiee.
There are doubtless some curious pfunta of tewmUance
between the Indian drania and the Hodera Attic (and
Boman) comedy, viz., the prologue, the occasional
occurrence of a token of recognition, and a oartain acne-
apondence of characteristic stage figttrea (eapeoiaUj thq
TidAilwka, or jocoie companion of tlie hero, [VflMiiting a
certain anftiogr to the Mrrna of the Roman etege, u> does
the Tiia of some pUijB to the Boman p«rwite) — for whicU
the •Bamption of aome acquaintance with the Greek
comedj on the part of ths earliei Hindu writan would
afford a readj ezplanatioiL On the other hand, the
diflereneee between the Indian and Greek plaja are
perhapa eren greater tban their ccuncidencea, which,
moreover, are scarceljr doee enough to warrant oni calfing
is queetion tho originaU^ of the Eindui in thia napoct
Certain, howaTor, it ia that, if the Indian poeta were
indebted to Qreek plafwrigbla for the flnt impalte in
dianutio compoaition, in Uie higher eenee, the; have
koown admirably how to adapt the Hellenic
own romantie dnkina. It ia to the latter
apeeiaU; that the general character of the Indian play
preientB » itriking reaMublanoe, much more eo than to the
duaical drama. The Hinda diamatiet has little regard
for the " nnitiee " of the dauical stage, though he is
liaidl; ever goil^ of eztiaTagance in hia disregard of
thBd. nta dialogna ia inianaUj carried on in ptoee,
plendfnllj Ibtenperted with those nestlj turned lyrical
■tanm in. which the Indian poet delighia to depict aoma
natoral aoene^ or some temporary physical or mental con-
dition. ^FliB moat itriking feature of the Hindn play,
bowenr, >■ the mixed natnra of itt language. While
the hero and leading male eharai!ter* speak Sanskrit,
women and inferior male characters use variona Frikrit
dialaeta. Ae regards these dialectic varieties, it can hardly
ha doabtnl that at tho time whsn tbej were Erst employed
in thia way they were local vernacular dialects ; but in
the oonrae of ihe dsvelopment of the scenic art they
faecama twmiaaeatly fixed for special dramatic purposes,
jist aa uie Sanskrit had, long before that tima, become
fixed tor geoeral literary purposes. Thoa it would happen
tiiat these Frlkiit dklects, having once become stationary,
won diverged from the i^ken Tsmacnlars, nntil the
differeoce between them woa as great aa between the
Sanskrit and the Prikrita. Am regards the general
character <rf the dramatic Prikrita, they are somewhat more
temoved from the Sanskrit type than the PUi, the language
of the Buddhist canon, which again is in a rather mora
advanced state than the language of the A^ka inscriptions
(c S30 B,a). And, as the Buddhist aacred hooka were
conunittad to writing about 80 B.C., the atate of their
longoagfi ia attested for that period at latest ; while the
grammatical fixation of the acenic PrAkrits has probably
to be Tofarrod to Uie early centuries of our enL
The sziitiiig dnmitic litentnn ii not lerj utinnrs. The
DBobv of jlajm oT tU klnda of any Iltenry vtlat *ill wamlj
tioDs donbtlsM is that thty tpjiealed to tha tasfoa of aalj a limilBd
clais of biglilT coltiTatDd pcnom, sad mre in cnnsciiuenoa but
Mlilom aeUd. Aa rfgarda tha (heatrioil eolortainmenta of tha
nnoDMiQ paopla, thiir Maadird senut Dover to hacs riun miirh
aiwn tlw Inal of tba rsLigtom apectulea nontioDed by Patanjsli.
Smih at laaat [■ avuiaDtlj the can aa ronrda tba modern Brngjill
jiUna— d«!Hb«d I^ WCaon ai Bibibitiona ot >on)o incidoata in
ths youthFal Ufa of Eriahns, milntalniid iu cxlimpon dialog;,
intarapmaad wi^ popalar aonn — a* tuU o tha aiinilAr rimj or
tba wcatam proviuM*, and ths rough and naij peifonnancea
ot tho Ua*n, or proreaaional bulTooua. Of the nLgiona drama
San.krit lltaratnrB afTera hnt ona oian.plo, yLz., tho fninonj
Oltaavrbidit,^ eomiioMd by JsyadgTa In tlie 12th canturj. It in
rathor a aijtlu-ljrlcal poem, irhleh. hoirarcr, in tha opin[on of
Ltaaao, may be oonaidered a* a tnodDra and Tsfined Bnncitnoa o{
tbs miIt fortn of diutatia compoaitiun. The nihject of tha puein
li aa follow* :—K[jahna. while leaiUp;: a eoubcrd'a liFs in Vris-
iinuM, la in love *ith' Bldlil, the milkmaid, but has ben. iaith-
Itas to her for a wUls. FruaentlT, howaTor, ho returns to bar
' Bl,, vllb a I«Uu tnuL , by 0. Idaaen ; EngL Innil. b]r EL AmoliL
SANSKRIT
285
li broaat," and after
beantv. Like the Snug d( Solomon, lb* Gttagoviuda, moreover, i>
ippoaed b; tlie Hindu eommenUlon to aiUnlt of I mjatic intui-
-eUtioo 1 for, "ai Kilihna, rattbleH Tor a time, dlacovera tha
mil; of all other lovea, ao'd retnnia with sorrow sn<! longing lo
a own darting BUh^ as the human aoul, after a hiief and
autiu attachment to olyrcta ot aenae, bums to return to tha <3o<l
front nbanM ft came " (GrlRilb).
The l/iicMJvtaiiii,' or "earthen toj-cart," ft by tiaitiUon
pUcad at the head or the eiiatiug dtamaa; and a certain clnniaiueiiil
•tmction ieema indeed tojuatify tliia diiCiuutioc. Anx>nl>
kins ^Qdraks, who ia ther« atated to have, through diva'i favour,
recovered hia ayeaight, aud, after aeetng hia ion aa kin^ to liava
died at the rip* sgs of a bondred jnt* and ten days. Accord-
ing to the aame ataniaa, the piece na enacted after tlie king'a
death ; bat It ia probablg IbaC they vere addfd for a anbHoncut
g^rformance. In Blna'a novo) Kddambart [e. «30 a-c), a king
Lldnka, probably the aame, ia [epreaonted aa haiing ruidnd at
fiidiU (Bhilaa)-aome 130 milei eaat of (Jjjayint [Ujjain), where
'le eoene of the play it laid. Chtradatta, a Brihmaa aierchant,
idnoad to poverty, and Vaaantaaeni. an aocompUahed courtaian,
i»t and fall la love witti each other. Thia foinia the main atoiy,
political underplot, n ^ '
DDDliDU betllHU tb<
.king'a
rhanga o( dynaalv. The conDDiiuu betiiHU tb* two ulota
iITected by nutna of the king'a laacally bnther-in-law, Irho pur-
inea Tiawtaaena with hia addraaua, aa well aa 1^ the i>art of the
' inl Aryaka, who, having eacaped nom jini
ahaller in tlie he
atianglei Vututaacnl, and
her ; hut, juat aa tha latter ia ahont to b* aiccnted, hia lady love
appeals a^in un lb* scene. llFanwhde Aiyaka has aocneded in
tlepcwng tha kiDg, and, having himaelf monotad tha throne ol
Ujjain, ht nite* VaaantaaenA to the poeition oI an lioncet woman,
to enable her to become the wife of Ch&nidatta. The piay ia one
ol Ibe longnt, conaiiting o( not lea than ten act^ eoms of which,
however, are ve^ abort. Tba intereat of the acLJon la, on the
whole, wall aiutained ; and, sltooether, the piece proaanta a vivid
In K&Iidtaa {I «. £G0 jk.n.) the dramalic art atUiued iU highnt
point of perfection. From thit accompliihed poet we have three
weli-conatnictad pUya, abooading in atsocaa of eiquiaite teudrmcai
and 5ne deacript|ve paaaagca, viz., the two wcii-knowD mytho-
paatoisl dnmst, ^itunfaM in aeien and VikramoTviii' b five acta,
entitled J/d'ariW^im- ''■ - ■■■ ■
Tho.
Hia«
acta. Xing Antmitra, wbo
ivikl, maid to the flrat qnaen.
'ca endearonr to friutratg their anection tor each other, bnt
end llfilavikl tuma out to be a princoa by birth, and ia
In the prologue to t
anthologica by Prof. Aufrecht, w
fine atania tacribsd to Bimila ant
6r! Haraha-<leva— whom Di T.
with King SilUditya Har^havar
it play, KAlidba menlioua Bhlu and
■on in dramatic rompotition. 01 tha
eeven ataniaa have been gathered from
echt, who baa alio bronght to light ona
le 7th ce
ovad to be identical
Injakubja [Kananj),
irv—baa three playt
of Ibcir aothoia. Such at leaat aeema to hove been the cats ts
re^^arda the RntnAvail,* which waa probably compfaied by Bina.
It ia a gncoful drama of genteel domcatic msjinen, in four acta-'ol
no Terr great originality, the author having been largely indebted
to Kllid^'a pbiyt. RatoAvall, a Crylon priuctag, tt aent by bar
father to the court of King Vataa to bocoma hia aecond wife. Sho
iuffert abipwreck, but i« fo-wued and revived into Vatn'a jinlico
iccn VauvidatI
The king falla in
= Edited by F. Stenzler, tTTionlDtcd by H. H. WIIpol ; Oeniuui by
0. Biihtlln^k and L. Frllie ; French by P. Regntud.
' Both the.-e playi are kooBn in dilfertiil r«Mii»iuii' In diffennt iwrta
of Iiidia. The Bengali ivceoioo of tho Sahalald wu traiialati4 by
Sir W. Jone.. and iolo Frerch,_wilh the Uit, by ChJ7, an.! again
edited crltic:il1y bv B. Plachel, who hia abo advocated Ibi greater
anliiiuily, Ellitiona and tranilttloiu of the ite,>tani (EMTimitcarl) n-
ceniioa have lieen puhlUh«t by 0. Bobtlingk ai>d Mnn. Williama. Tlie
i-ilniaj>rTaH hai bMn sliteil critieally by B. P. Pandit, and ILo
■ontLem leit by R. PlKhcl. It baa been tmwlatod by H. H. WiLwn
and B. B. Cowell.
' E.Uted critically by a P. Pandit ; ItMitL byC. H. Ikwney, and
prevlonnly into Oornian by A. Weber.
• Edited by T^rdiilUba TariuviekatpttI, and by C. CappeTler in
BiihLlingk'a a:iiui!ril-fhrataiivll.ir ; Imulated by IL Q. WUmjU.
28G
SANSKRIT
cognizs hu u 1 " titttir" AccordiaB to H. B. Wi]«n, "ths
toaen dopicWred »™ not Inflnonosd bt lofty r^iiciple or pn>-
fonnd TeSeuon, bat thtj mn mild, ■fTecdoruta, and clogidt It
tOMj ba doublad wh*Ch«r tbe baniiDi at otha sutam nationa, olther
in ineisnt a modem timM, would *fltird inctaruli for u bTounbU
> doliaMtion," Terj Mmikr in oonitriictloD, bat dbtinctlj ju-
ftrtor, 1* ths PrimdartiM, Id Rnu icti, ktolf publlihed in India,
IwTJng Ibr it* plot cnothor iinoaror tba miim king. Tha uane
or the third pUjf, th« Jfigdnanda,' or "^oy of the •arpento" {in
fin icti), on Ui» othar hud, ia laid la aomi-diTina regiona.
JImiUvUiaua, ■ princa of ths Vidr&dhiru Imbued with BuiTdhlit
l.riDciptos, weda Kilajarntl, daughter of the kins of tha aiddhas,
• TOtary of Oaart (3i>a'i wife). Bat, learnliig that Oanir^ the
■nythlo biid, la in the babic at conanmiog ooa anake daily, he
iwtlTta to oBei hlmaelf to the birdaaa lictim, and finally aacceod*
ia eonTettibg Oaraija to tha principla of ahitpsi, or abatcolion
from doing injaiy to lipiog beingi ; bnt ha biioaeU ta about to
■nccnmb fiom the wonnda ha has receiTsd, when, tbroogh tha
timelj IntorreatioD of the goddeai Oaail, he ii reilorod to hia
formal Mdiitioti. Tha piece seeina to han been hitsnded a* *
compromlae between Brfthmanical (Sain) and Buddhiat doctrine^
being thna in keeping with the relifioai Tlewe of king Hatsha.
who, aa we kaow from Hveo-baiig, Iitvoared Baddhiim, hut waa
nrr tolerant to Brihniina. It b^na with a benadietor; atana
to Boddba, ud conclodes with ona to Oanri. The author ia geDs-
rally belleyed to hare been ■ Boddhiat, but it la mom likely tl»t
Ui7a Brfthman, poaaihiy BAna h
d inclined to take ttu 'haro'a Ml
. __^, -JO might
a •alf-aaorifice ia farciic at ■
Nlca aa > tmnaty of Buddhiat principleL
fiharabhatl, auniamed Stl-luntha, "whose throat ia baanty
(oloquenn)," waa a natire of Fadmapora in the Vidartiha oonntlV
(the Beran), Mtig tha acrn of tha Bi«hmao Ntlakaqtha. and h&
wife JltOkarriL Ha ia Bid I0 hare paaaad hia litanrj life U tha
court of YaioTarman of iCanai^, who ia anppoaed to hare rugned
In the Utter part of the 7th and baginniag of tba 8th aautnn.
Bharahhtlti vaa tha anther of three playa, two of which, the
JfaMelmaaHia' ("life of the great hero'*) and the UUamrdma-
ehirifa* ("later life of Rima"], in aeren acta euh, form togellier
■ dramatiied Teraion of tha atory of tha Bindi/aita. Tha third,
tha Mdlatl-BKAdham.' ia s domestic drama in ten acta, repnaentiDg
the^fortonea of UMbara and USI&tl, the bod and daoshtsr of two
mimalon of lelghboariug kiage, who from childhood hare bwa
destined tor each othot, bat, by the leaolntioa of the maiden'a
royal niMter to marry hei to aa old and ugly faionrita of hia,
are for a while threatened with permanent aeparation. Tha action
of tbe play ii full of life, and abonnds ia atirring, thoagh some-
times improbable, incidenta. The poet is cooaiileTed by Datira
pandit* to ba Dot only not Inferior to KUidlaa, bnt aran to have
sarpassed him ia hia Ulianrrdmacharittt. But, thongh he nnki
deserTodly high aa a lyiio poet, he ia hr inferior to KUidtaa aa a
dnmatlo tftiat. Whilst tha latter dailghti la depicting tha
eentlar feelings and tender emotiona of the honian bart M^ tba
peaoafal aoenes of mral UTo, tha yonmnr poat floda a peenliar
attraction in the sterner and more imposing aapeeta of natoca and
the humaa character. BhaTsbhSti'a langoaga, thongh poliahed
and fcHcitoas, is elaborate and artlBcial compared with that of
K&Iidlaa, and hia cenios ia iocaly ahackled by a alaTlah adharaace
the arbitrary nika of dramatic theoriata.
Bhatta Klityana, aumamed HtigiurtUa Oi Sitplu, 'th» lion,"
a anthor of the FmlKan/Uln' ("the adiiug br the braid of
of establishing the pure VaiL.._ , _.
and from vbom tha modeni Bengali BrUunana an inpposed to ba
doBcendod. The data of that ev,;rt. howe^or, is itself doubtftll;
while a modert genealogical work fiiea it at 1077, Lassen refon it
to the beginning of the 7th contory >nd Orili to the latter part of
the Bth. If it coDld ba proved that the poat is identical with the
miriyana whom Bdna [e. 830) mentions as being his friand, the
qucalion would be aattled in laiourof ths earlier calcalatianB. The
play, oonsiatiug of eii acts, ie founded on the st^iy of the if oMAU-
nua, end tJikoe its title from the insult offered to Dnopadl by one
of the Kaurava princes, who, when she had been lest at dice by
Yndhlahthira, dragged her b^ tbe hair into the assembly. Ths
piece b compoeod In a atyla Bimikr to that of Bharabhfitl a pUys,
thoagh leaa poliahed, and ioferior to them in dramatic eonstmcbon
and poetic merit
1 Edltsd l)y Htdhan Cbandn Ohosha, and trsnalatad by P. Boyd,
with a prsfsoa by R R Cowsa
• Editsd by ?. H. Tritban (184S), and twice at Calsatta ; trans-
lated by J. Pickfbrd.
'Edited at Calcutta; trauL by B- H. Wilson and C H. Tswnay.
• Edltsd by R. a. BbandsAir, 1878; tnoslatadby H. H. WUaon.
• Kdltad by J. Grill, 1871.
being afraid laat It mi^t throw
Tho Samimait-itHnta Ii ■ dtamatlirl yandog at tbs alarj of
Blnis, bterspersad wltli nnmcina purely daaaipUTa poatis uaa-
aagca. It conlllta of foartaan aoti, and on aooonnt of iU UngOt k
alK called the iToM-tidfajbi, or great drama. Tradition relies
that it waa composed by Hsnnmlji, the monkey ganersl, and
rks ; bat, Tlimlki^ tho author of tha JUmdma,
tianoman aiiowea nun 10 oaaE nia Toraoa into tha sea. TbaiiBB
fngmatita were altluiately nicked up by a merchant, and braoght
to King Bhoia, who directed tha poet Q&niedara Ui^ to pot Uum
togatbsr, and All up tbe lacniw 1 whence the ptaaent oompoiitimi
onginatad. WhateTer particle of tmth thaia may ba in thb alofy,
the " graat drama " aaKii* cartaioly to ba tha prodostiini of dilTaient
handa. "The langnage,' aa Wllaou rsmarb^ "ii in graaral mj
hirmonlona, bnt the wa4t la aRar all a most di^oiulad and dod-
deacrlpt oompoaltlon, and tba patokwork ia Tsry glaifutj and
' imslypattogatlwr." It la narartbeUsa a work ofamaa iuUr«t,
— poaitioiia o( miiad diamatio anddc' — " ...,_
aosBrmcd
Inaliedao-
toaboutlha lIHh or lllh cantor;. There are, howarer,
iwo differtat r>«anaiona of tha work, a sbottar DDacommentsd opoa
by Uahanadlsa, and a longer one ananged by Uadhaai^daita. A
D&modara Qupta ia mentlDned aa haTine lired nadet Jaykd^ of
Kaahinlr (7fiS-M); hot thla caD scanxly ba tha ane aathar.
The JftuMrlMaa^* or "BUtahaia (tha mlniatar) witk tka
signet," ia a drama o( politieal inttigo^ In asran acta, partb basad
,.. . . ^ -•-- -lot toming on thf *"— '
norderad Ung Nan , _._
laadrunpta jtba Oraek Sandraeottoi,
L Naoda, and hia ministat CAIndiya.
-- , , jMldstaUa dnmatlo akUl. b ligorao^
it not partionlaily alaaan^ langnua. Tba play wm coapoaad to
ViMkhadatta, prior, at any mta, to the Iltfi oaatDir, bnt pariiap*
aa arty aa the Tth or 8th oantory, a* Buddhlsni i* lalanvd to In it
in lather oomplimaitafy leniia.
Praiodlia-tHaiub'tday*,^ 01
atio and declamatory nua)«aa oti
. . . _ _ In the aarly a^gaa of the diami
art Tba eonneiion <rf tba poet with King BbcHa, alao aosBn
by theM^-fFToiiBuUB, wonid bring the oompoaiUon, 01 *
. . moon-tisa of IntalHgeBeah"
oompoaad by KriahumUnabont the lath can tniy, ia ati al Initial
~'~- '- ail aoti^ the <ir(tmii(ii HTMiM ofwhich conaiat snt&Iy of
4.1 — AI.U.A ._.. . ifileting hoala.
abatraot ideal, dlfUad into twi
Of unmeniDa lofnior dranMle
tha beat— tbe ~
ine of ail [daya (thraa of which aia known) by Bljafakhan ; and
.1. n .J — fj- j,j,je„ (ha anttor of the rhetorical
AMtncti of a nuaber ot other pieoaB are
giTan in U. E. Wilson's SiKia Itsidra, tha atasdard woft on thb
le CluadrdUla.
6. Lfrieal, Daer^tire, -aid Didaelie Pottrp. — We Iut«
alra«d7 kUuded to the marked predilectioii of the mediBnl
IndiftD p<Ml tw dspictitig in • single etMun some pacaliar
phynnl or mental dtnatioi). The profane Ijtietl poetry
oonauta ehieflj of such little poetic pictnrea, which form a
promioeDt feature of dramatis oompoaitioiu, Ntunenms
poeta and paettMea are onlj koown to na throng^ anch de-
tached itanju, pTMerred in Dative antholociiaB or ■tnw"*'*
of rhatorio. Thna the Saibiitibanfdmrtla,* or "mi-
ambraaia of good oayin^^ an antfaologr onnpUed by
Srtdhaia Din in 1306, contuns wenea b; foor hnndred
and forty-oiz different writers; while ths Sirtiffadktira-
paddAaU, another anthology, of the 14th centiuy, oootaina
some 6000 vems culled from two hundred and mx^fonr
different writeis and works. These verses an uthec of a
porely deecriptiTe or of an erotic character; tv Ihey have
a didactic tendency, being intended to contey, ia an
attrtKtive and easily remembered form, some mcual truth
or nsefal coaosel. An excellent specimen of a longer poem,
of A partly deacriptiTe partly erotic character, is KiMlaa's
Mtgka-d^ia,'* or "cload mcosenger," in which a banished
Yaksha (demi-god) sends a loTfr-meBsage across India to his
wife in die Himllayd, and deacribes, in Terse-pictures, the
variotu places and ot^ects orar which tha n
• Bdltad (Bombay, ISM) by K. T. Tdang, who dissaiMa Ihs daU
a ths work In his pnfsaa.
' Tranalated by J. Tsylor, 1810 ; by T. OiddsUikst Into OamMi
1842. Edited by H. Brockhsas, ISU.
umAnrKB.]
SANSKKIT
287
clnnd, will hftTe to Mil in his tuiy -rop^ Tliii little
mtstarpieM hu taUti forth t, nnmber of mora or lesa bud-
ecflrfttt imitktioiu, mch as I&kihmidlra'i ^kia-mtdrAi, or
" pMtot-meBMet^" lately edited by the maMr^a of TrtrSD-
core. Another mneli admired deacriptive poem hj EllidAiM
ia the ^itthtatiMra,^ or "collection of the mmod*,' in
iriiieh the attntctiTe featniea of the six MaBona are aue-
ceMTelj aet forth.
Am r^Bida reltgioiu 'Trica. the fruEt of aectarian .
ferroar, a large collaction of hymna and detached atanzas,
extolling aome q>ecial deity, might be made from Pnritvoa
and other worlm. Of indepeodent prodoctiooa c€ tbia
kind only a few of the more importaot can be meotioDed
b«r& SankorlchltTa, the great Vediotist, who probably
lived in tiie Tth century, ia credited with aeveraJ devo-
tional poeoi^ eapeciaUy the Aiumd<i4aAari, or " wave of
¥>j' * hymn of 103 ataozaa, in praiae of the goddeaa Ptr-
ntL The Silrifn-tataia, or century of ataiuas in praiae of
dfiiya, the sen, ia aaeiibed to HayOra, the contemporary
(and, acceding to a tradition, the father-io-law) of Bii^
(in the early part of the Tth ceatniy). The latter poat
himaelf compoeed the Chu^i'JUUiatra, a hymn of 102
staniaa, «italling Siva'a oonaorL The Kha^tfaprairuti, a
poam celsbrating the ten avatlraa of Tiahijn, ia aacribed
to no other than Hannmln, the mouhey general, himaelf.
Jayaden's beantifnl poem OUagotimda, which, Uka moat
prodoctiona concerning RriahiA ia of a very aenaDona
Ehuacter, haa already been refBrred to.
The psjticnlai fanjkch at didactic poetry in which India
ia aqmcially rich ia that of moral maxima, expreased in
■ingle -*— *- or oonplet^ and forming the chief vehicle of
the Jftti^idttra or euuc acieoca. Excellent coUectioni of
inch aphwiama have been pabItBked,^in Banakrit and
German by Dr v. Bohtlingk, and in English by Dr J.
Mnir. Probably the oldeet t^iginal collection of thia kind
it that aacribed to Chioakya, — and entitled Ji^antiita-
muehchaja, " eollection on the conduct of kinga " — tradi-
tkmally connected with the Hachiavellian minister of
Chandnignpta, but (in ita preaent form) donbtieaa much
later — of which then are aeyeial rficansiona, especially a
diorter one of one hundred couplela, and a larger one
of aom» three hundred. Another old collection ia the
Sdma»dai^>it'lfUitdra,'' aacribed to EJtmandaki, who 4a
aaid to hare bem the diaciple of Chlnakya. Under the
UMDe of Utartfihari have been handed down three centnriaa
of wnWoUona conpleta, one of which, the nlfi-Ai/iiia,
ralatea to ethics, whilst the other two, the A-in^ro- and
wnriffya-tntitiat, conaiat of amatory and davoticmal veteea
reapeotively. Ttie IfUipradtpa, or "lamp of oondnct,"
mulating at alxteen atantaa, ia ascribed to Tetllabhatta
"tiho is mentioned aa one of nine gema at Tikramlditya's
eonrt (e. SCO A.D.). The Amari-iataia, consistiag ol a
hudMd atansas, aacrihad to a King Amani (sometimea
wrongly to Sankara), and the Chavra-mraiapaneMMd, by
Bllhaoa {llth century^, are of an antiraly erotic Gharactsr.
0. Fmaaadlfarraiiva. — For porpoeea of popular in-
itnelioa atanaa of an ethical import were early worked
np with aiiating proas fablee and popular atoriee, pro-
bably in imitation of the Buddhist Jdtaiat, w birth-
atorioi. A collection of this kind, intended as a manoal
for the gmdanco of princes {in tumn drlphinii, was trana-
latad into F&hlavi in the raign of the Persian king Chon^
NndurvKB, D31-9T9 a.d. ; but neither this traualation
nor the original ia any longer extant. A Byriao transla-
tioQ, hinwrar, mads from the Fkthkvi in the same centnry,
nada the title of "Qoalilsg and Dimnag"— from the
• Vied bTSindtBllla WM, ML iaA
Banakrit "Eaiataka and Damanalta,' two Jackal* wbo
play an important part aa the lioo'a connaellora — ha*
been diaoovtred and published. The Ganukrit original,
which probably conaiated of foorteen chapters, wm after-
wardu recait, — the result being the existing Ptrnf/fOantrn*
or "five books" (or headings). A popular onmnjary of
this work, in four books, the Uilopailtiii* tx " Salntaiy
connaat," is aacribed to the Brihnian TLahunsarman.
Other highly popular collections of storied and fairy tales,
' itersperaed with manX maxims, are — the VtlAt-i-pan-
, ._ Jambhala
Datta, or to Sivadiaa (while Prof. Weber snggeata that
Tetila-bhatta ma; have been the author), and at all events
older than the 12th century, aince Somadeva haa naed it ;
the Suhiniiiptati, or " aeventy (atoriaa relatad) by the
parrot,' the author and age of which ara unknown ; and
the SitfMtani^BairitiUikA, tu "thirty-two (talm) of the
throne,' being laodalMy itorice regarding Vikramlditya,
ralated by thirty-two atatnee, standing round the old throne
of that famous monarch, to King Bhoja of Dhltrt to dis-
courage him from sitUng down on iL This work fa sstribad
to K^emankara, and was probably compoaed in the time
of Bhoja (who died in 1003) from oldar atoriaa in the
Hahtrlahfra dialect The original text ha^ however,
undergone many modificationa, and is now known in aeveial
dif erent recensions. Of abont the same date are two
great atorehonaaa of fairy tales, compoaed entirely in dokaa,
vis., the VriMat-txitki, or "great stoiy," by Eshemeodia,
also called Kahsmankara, who wrote e. 1020-10, nnder
King Anauta, and the KathA^nrit-tigara* or " the ocean
of the stream* of atory,' compoaed by Somadeva, iii the
beginning of the 12th ceotory, to conade the mother of
Kins Harshadeva on her son'a death. Both thaeD workf
ara baaed on a work in the PaiUcht dialect, of the 6th
century, vii., Onuldbya's Tfihat-iathA.
In higher class prose works of fiction the Sanskrit
literatnra is extremely poor ; and the few productions of
thia kind □[ which it can boast ara of a highly artificial
and pedantic character. Theae include the DaiJamAro-
chanla^ or " the adventurea of the ten prince^' composed
by Daqdin, about the 6th century, and the Vdnnadaad,''
t^ Sulandhn, the contemporary of the poet BiLva (e. $30),
who himself wrote the first part of a novel, the £Maaibari,*
afterwards completed by hu son.
R SCUHTLTIU LlTBUATnUL
I. Law (iMsniu).— Among IIh tKhnlnl tratlM of tlir later
Vedio perii^, oertuo portioDi oT tha Kali«-i[ltTu, or msansis at
cenmonlil, iHcnltsr to parttculsr ichoaK mn rgitrmd to *• the
Hirliatt sttampla at s lystsmstlc tnntvent of Uv ml^Jinls, These
■rs tha Dlianiia-tUrat, or "mla of (rellgloiu] law,' ilio calldl
^jaaydeAJrAn-jflJiat, or "ralaa of couvuitioiiil nngo (nnuya-
IfUn}.' It k doubtTal wWlier inch tiMltna wan «t any tima
!;ntta aa nnmeroni m th* OHhyatHtnu, or mlaa or donHatio or I
unlly ritat, to which they an cloielj allied, and of which faidecd |
they ma; origiiisllj hare basn an oDtorowth. That the nninber of
those actostly aitant la compantivety amall U. bowner, chleRy
due to the Ikot that thia dsaa of woifca wat lUiiplaiited bj smithsr
of a mora popnlsr kind, which Mvarad tha aama ground. Tha
DhinnaaQtna oonaiit chiefly of strtnga of tans mln, ainitaialiig
tha aeaentlsls of tha sdeno^ and Istanded to ha eommtttBd to
mcmoty, snd lo ba annnnded otslly by the tesahst — thM finnipg:
aa It wrml •pftoDes of olaaa laotorea. Tbaaa nlaa an intai^annl
with coopata a ''BUda," in vailoaa matna, althar oonpoaed by
Aa author himaelt at qnolad boa ilaawhara, whtdi nianlly iriva
tha antstaaaa of tha preoading lulaa Ona am waU nndai*
why Ddi aoopMs ahoald gndiMlly hsvs baooma n
d tT
3aiifaT, t, Lamen
idltad and taauL
Lawwaas, L. Frltn.
■ by F. J ■
> Ultad by R. BKKkbiDs j truaL Ij 0. H. Tswnay.
* Edited V H. B. WilKm ; freely tranilstad by F. W. Jtaob.
f IdltBl br r. Hall, BOL Ind.
' - U)s8simsa, nd bj P. Fataam,
SANSKRIT
[LtieUATVGK.
■IioaU nltinuMjp hate led to du ippenmice nf «ork« oiitlrvly
larg* nnmbtn, not dl u auc«, but oral a Idii;; pvnml of tiuia,
Bxtandiiiff prohaUj from aIkhiI tfao bof^nniux of nur oro, nr ovuu
ntrlior, down to vell-nlsh thu UoliuaDiot
>f thcii
1 IJllM
I couquoit ; I
itinlj diiurdail for tba
ruUrly
TboH vorlu are th« metrical DlanvtMHiiu, or,
aaoally oallail, tha Smriii, "ncoUoctioii, tmilitioD," — a term
which, u in bttt •D«n, bebngod to the wIioIp I»J; of Siltru [aa
fRipoaed (o ths Sruti, or roTolatioa), but alildi boe bucoine tbu
■Imut eicluHlro titlo nt ths TonilioJ inititnttv of lav (ind Iba fcir
Dharmainltnia itiU oitict). Of niotilcal Smiitia olwat forty ira
hitherto known t» eiiat, but tboir toUl nnmb« iirobabty antoDutt-d
to at leaat doubls that liKan, tliDugh aome of tlio», it i» truo, on
bat ehort and ineigaiDc^nt tncta, whilo olbcra an only ililTcrcut
•Jl lb* /IjHi;
Wltli tha emnntioD of ( few of tli
Poflui-, and Kidwu-SittfiiiM — which aro aacrioeu lo lua n'spocciTO
gala, tba aathol^p of tba Smrilii Ik attributed to old Tiabin,
anch at Atti, Kanra, Vjftw, &l^dilyl^ Bharulv^Ljii. It ii, bon-
not alto^tber fancifo], or wholhor, u a rule, tliure roaliy oiiHlod
A traditional counakiou botveen Ihma workn and tbeir alb-god
anthon or acboota namoJ alter tb'em. Tlio iduu, wbiub oarly mg-
seated itaelf to Siuukrit aclioLuis thnt SuiritiH ubii^h nwwd bj
metrical ncaate of tlie Dliorau- [or Oribya-) H^tna of tbuio nchuobi.
,.,,1, Ind
itill a
tboof^ the Im of tba ordinal BAtraH,
additiona wMoh the Suu-itia iloubttoxii Dudcrwciit in counu or
•vsr, •oareely account tor tha diaapneuiDcs of Ibe DliamiaiQtttui
of aome of the most Imporlaiit Kboo^a oio-iit on the grouud thnt
tluy wer« ginnniiiniaTuurofetherwDikK: and ii it likely t hot
thia thould bare becD done, unlin* there *u some EUatsn too that
the new worki, n|ion the whale, ambodieil the dactnnea of the old
antboritiea of tbs reapectlre tchoolaT Thua, aa rcganla the Diont
Important of tlie Bmrttia, tha Ifdimva-BianiuMtim,'
both a B ■ • ■ - ■■ - ......
a Orihyn-i
«ldch I
g partly o( nr«io rales, and jaitlj of ooni'lets. >oi
cur liteiany lu tlis Manuiniriti, wMlat othcn bam
it later doctrinaa. or bare been chaii},-cJ
fnim the original triabtubh iutn the ouic metre. The i.tea oF an
old law-girer Uanu Silyambtiura,— ''aprung froiii tbe aolf.cii.'t-
ent [arayun-bbQ)" god Brahinnu,— nuboa Tir bark into Vodic
antiqitity ; ho la nientloDed aa anch in early teita ; sitd in Yinkn'e
Bat ■bethoc or not the HinnTa-Dnarmaiiatm embodied what ware
■apjioaod to lie tbe aatborltatLTe precepta of tbia uoe on quoationa
et aacml law we do not know ] d« can it aa yet be abown that
tbe Mannimriti, vbich aeema itaelf to have nndorryone coniidenble
modincatloni, ia the lineol dMcendant of that UbarmusAtra. Il
in, bowerer, worthy of note that a very doae connexion exlati
lietireen the If aaoamritl and the Tlehnnkatra ; and, aa the Ir^tt.T
ia moat likely a modem, only partially' remodelled, edition of llio
Satnia of the Black Yajoi acbool of tba Satbia, tbe cloao relntion
between tbe two wniki would be eaiily nndetetood, it it could be
■hawB that the Uaniumrltt ia a modern dcvolo[anent of the
Sdtraa of another Khool of the Charaka diTiaioa of tha Black
YaiorTBda.
Tha U&uaTa Dlmmu^lBtn connsM of twetvo booka, tbo fint
and laat of which, treating of creation, trammigration, and fiuol
boaUtiide, are, howeTer, generally rpgnrded la later additiona. In
them the Ii^cndary ange Bhri(^, bora called a HSnaTa, ia intro-
duced aa Uiuiu'b diBoipIe, through whom Iba great teacher baa hia
work jKnmnl^tod. Why thin Intarmediata agent ahonld hare
been eouoidetBd aDceasanr ia by no meann clear. Excepl in titese
two booka the work ohowa no apecial rclaticn to Uanu, for,
though he ia occaiionidly reforn.d to in it, the Mine ia done in
other Bm;1tia Tha quottion aa to the probable date of the
llnal redaction of tbe work cannot ai yet be uuweted. Di Bumsll
baa tried to abow tliat it waa probably com|>oaed under the
I, aboutfiOO i-D., but bia argumentation
ICanu by Vailbalnihin, ia the Sth centniy, it w
the text which tbe gnat aalrouomer bail liefore 1
eonaidarably from unr HennamritL It ia, bowei
he nfernid althor to the BrUiai-Wmu [Gieal H.]
nld aimcar that
im dinered rcry
JfuHH (OM U.], who ara nftdn fcHiiid <|Betut1, ami appanutly
repreaCDt one, if uot two, ]ai){ur recsnoiotia or the Uuinti. "Hie
oltW oiUling coiunientai7 uu the ittl-mia-DhaiiiuMMtni a hj
HedliUithi, who u fin>t qnatcd in 1300, and L< oaaaUy lappoaed
to bare lived in the »(h or lOth vvutury. He had, bowaver,
nuFcrni prodoccwoti' to whom be rofura aa pOrvt, "tbo format
Next in imnurtanco among Rmfitia lanlca the Y4!tUMalki/a
DiamaiMra.' Ita origin and date are uot luaa nDoertalD,— except
Ibnl, iu tbo opinion of Prof, dtumlrt, which haa neier been qna»
tiDUDd, it ia baud on tbe Itanuaiiiriti, and rttpraenti a mora
' legal theory and dobnitlon than that work.
aoiiio time at tbe court of King Janaka of Vi.lfl*ia (Tlrbntj ,
accordance tboiewith be iaatatod, in the introtluctorj couplet* of thtf
DhanunAiLtCni, to liave propouudol bix legal doctruiea to the aage^
while eUying at Mitbil&(tbe capital of Videbai Hence, it llwcon.
uciianbotwoeutliamotricalSmplwaudtbeoldVedicachoolabaarwd
ipecttofiadiutheYt.
-me with tbe KlUlya.
"DW.Baniemfflciently
paraakara'a ITdtlga-
iDinlkva-amritl ipiKlal coinciduncoa of doctrme w
'fitni, IhoprinciuolBfltraof theVliaeancyina Noii,i
Klriking coincideacei between tht> Siiinti aud FUti
afihyitaUra
allbar
hithcrl
D thla and the
polnta orogrecmi:
MLj^jiiJMHfcBiiu juigbt bo cxiicctcd to bo even i
iu tlie cau) of U:inu, iloliaK are quoted In Taruna woraa mm a
Bfihnt- and a rric/.'fcr- yrfyAmuUffO. The YIO<UTsUya-(mifti
coiuiate oF three books, comaiioudiug to Iha three gnat diTiatodl
of tbe ladiun theory of law :^<leAilra, rula of condDCt (eoeiol and
cutcdalioe); v^cnMro. civil and criminal law; and prigatMtta,
penanca or expiation. There an two important commentariea en
the work :— the funotu MiUOahari,* by^nBinrfrara, who llvnl
under tbe ChWukja king Vikromlditya of Kaiylna (107e-l!Wl ;
and another by Apuirka or Apaitdltya, a petty Btl^ prince of tha
latter liaU of the 12th century.
The F»r4inn-tmTiti coutauia ;
OKly of
- ■ ' ^century),
a large digeal of redigioua law. nanally
-0 which be add(3 a thinl tdupter
Beeidea the ordinary t«xt of tb«
, . Hating of ntber l«a than COO coaplabo, than
ia alio eiCant a Brihni-ParUaTanariti, probably an amplificatfaai
of the fornicr, containing not leai than iB80 (accordinB to othen
ov„n3BOO)41okaa. the NiTodtya-DXaTmH^lra, at H&uiimiiTitl,
lined to law. Of this work afioin then are at leaat ti
reccuslona Bciidoa tbe toit tranalated by Di Jolly a porthm et
a larger receneiau baa come to light Id India. Thia Tanion baa
been commented nnon by Aaahlya, ' tbe pearleaa " — a Ter;
oateemed writer on law who i* aappoeed to bava lived beFcra He-
dlLiltitbi(igth century)— and it may tharaTon be eonaldand aa tba
older receoaion oF the two. But, ae it boa been found to oontaii
the word iflnflra, an adaptation of tbe Soman dmariui. It canao^
" r than tha 2d century ;- indaed, itidatoli prob-
•%z
_jther any of tbo Dhi
.1 "codoa of hiw"for
ry doubtfal
. .... . .. naed in India mS
rtical adminlatiatieD of jnttica
"■ ■ ilientworb of
le meat pcomlieat wticu of
led, it ia highly Impraliabla.' Ko dombt
tnoae woriit wen neid to be of the hieboat anthoil^ M lifliV
down the principloa of religioua and dTll duCyi but It WM not n
mach any single text aa the whole body of the SmfiH tliatwu
looked upon as the embodiment of tbe divine law. Hanoi, tlM
moment the actual work of codifiation b^na In tbe Iltk •Of
tiiry, we Bnd tbe jurieta engaged ia practically ahowing Iww llw
Bmfitia conlrrm aud aupplemeut each other, and in noondlinf
eceniing canlradictiona between them. Tbia new phoae oflndiaa
juriaprudcnca commcncea with V^jUndnra'a JfaikMard, whieh,
thnogh primarily a commentary on YfljUiiTalkya, ij ao rich In
original matter and Uluatiationa from other Smiitia that it ia bl
joore adapted to oerro aa a code of law than the work It pcofroaM
to explain. Diia trcatiae ia held in high eateem all oiei India,
with the exception of the Bengal or Gao^iya school of law which
recognlica aa ita chief authority the digeet of ita foandar, Jtmflto.
vibana, oapecially tl ' "'
SANS
!ti-iM»dnU.' ■ work of
BliatM, in tha ISCL an-
il iii'diB; ud the Pin-
on Ichirm
llitniiniin, ror lUjt Viruiiptu. or Blniih Deo of Orctbl, who
mnnlend Abul Ful, iht miniitir of ths imnanr Aktw, ud
■atiiorcif Iht Mt i jitiarl. There L> no needlisivto snnmentB
of grnter or lea mirit, the more important ol which vill b« founil
menboiud in English digaata of Hindu lav.
'I. PsiLOHOl'ilT.— Ths Indi^ mind ihowa at ill tjmei » itronK
(kapoaiEion Tot mataphjidca] i^jeculaCion. lo the old nlifioua
Irnca thia mij bg datectcJ from tha very Dnt. Not to apeak of
U» abatiact nature of aome oven of the oldest Volic doltiei, thia
propeiuity bsttaj* itielf in a certaia tnptic aymboliRn, tending to
nfina and a;jiiitnaliia the original purely phyiial cbaracter and
activity of lotne d[ the mora prominent goda, and to impart a deep
wnnhip ot more or len iaalitod elementary foiiwt and phenomena
ha.1 oTidentl^ ceased to laLiafy the religioue irante of the raon
Band on &» UltUuhari aro the Sm
KBIT 289
lay beyond eren tho« world^ nsattainaU* thnngh mgbt bnl >
p«feet knowledge of the aooTB natore and it* idi-n^ty with tha
Saprame Self,— tfaia fact of ilHlf *aa iofflcitnt to dajirrciata tha
merit of tha wctifldal colt, anJ to ondermiai the aothoritj of tha
incred ritnela. "Know ya that Self," eihorla one of thoaa old
idaaliita,' 'and hara done with othar wotUt; for that (knowledge)
fi tha bridge lo immortality I ~ Intanaa aalf-canlampIatioB beiug>
moraoTer, the only ny of attaining tb* all-bnpaitant knowledge,
thig doctrine lelt little « no tdoq for thow mediatorial oDcea ol
the prieat. ao iidinmnaable in caramonlil wonhip ; ud indeed
wo actually trad ot Brlhnian aagea reanrtiug to Kaliatriya jviucea
to hear them ei[KiuBd thia, tha tnia doctrine of aalvatlon. But. In
•pite of thoir inti-hiararthical tandenoy, theae ■peoolationi cob'
turned to gain ^jronnd ; and In the and tha body ot treatiaea pro-
ponndiug the Mnlbeietii] doctrine, ftie Uputltlixli, ware ailmittiid
into the eicred canon, aa appendagea lo the ceremonial wrilingii,
the Brihmanaa. Tho [Tpni>h«.ie thni form litarally "the end
of the Veila, the l^aHiiia ; but their adherenta claim tbil title
the direction of the
idea, oi ii
pantheiatic idea ii rapidly
ina cQSnogonte ipacalationi :
B it fully doTiloped. Tha
dirime powera, ....
that of u organiied polyl ,
In tha latter age of the hjmtua
gaining ground, and finds vent in ^
and in tne B.lbmana peciai v
fnniamuiEal conception of tbta dc
two aynonymoua tcnae WnhmttH (neutr.), origini
grovth," then 'derotioaal imnulae, prayer," and
"bnath,Bair. iouL~
Tba ncognitioQ of the caaeuCia] lamcnnt of the individual aaiil),
■nanating alt alike (nbcther really or imaginarily] from the
nltimala apiiitoal cHenca (laraxui-lirahman) " aa ipailu inue from
i^«il™
ii the immcdiata
i! that each, from
ith dliTctl)
_.. ctly at
.irfecdon, is .. ..
riBu of (he Supreme Bein^, tho All-|wrra:t,
tlka loweat to tha bighaet, could ro-unite ther
doaa of ill mundane aiiitencol Tha dilli
h-Uti qneation waa at Tint met b^ the sev
nediata atala of expiation and punflcation, a »iu ». ^...,
but the whole problem found at laat a mors comptehensiv
(ion in the doc rise of ttinamlgration {eaiiudra]. Borne a
Invo BDggeata. " that metempaychoaia may bars been the pr
beliaf amoni the aboriginal tribea of India, and may hai
taken overlrom them by the [ndo-Aryana. Thia no di
quits poaiibla ; but crou in that ciae wr can only aani
HpMulativo niiuila »aii*-l I " ' "' ""'
(if not tha only poaubli
phcDoiDonat exii'tcDCe. IE ia certainly
oatabliihcd in Indian thought, the da
never again called in quoation. — that, lika the fnndamenl
which It reeta, tiz., tha esientiat aamenew of the i
clonsnt of all aentient hoinga. tho notion of mijuim h
:ui auom, a nniveraajly conceded principlo oi Indidu phlioaopny.
TLua tho latur h»» never -uita riaan In the heighCa of pure
thought: itaobjectiaindeedjv*<I^Ui°H>rchtorknowledn; but
it ia an inquiry (iilnid^) into the namn ot tliinga nndartakei
not aolcly i^r the atuinmani ot the tmtl
specific object, — the diicontinnance of aa
iBimdanD eiistance after the preacnt lif^
olTering tha moit aatiafaotory
' L of tho groat ptoblem (^
I >igiiihc:iiit fact that, pnoe
nalerial
thinge nndartakei
Latmco
t he bom again
<d during tho
now forr
g Ufa. lU n
nediatety iirecedint* Ij
nuterial existence, aui
, ._ tact, ealratiun. It i
t, that the Inrlian melaphynicial
taak of tha philowiiher !■ u dii
moibaAB, "nteaae" from the bondi__
Tfcga, "onion" with the Sapnms Sell,
with a view lo thia, anil thia or' ■"--■
takea up tha great nroblemK 01 ii[>^,— tne ongin 01 man ana me
nniverae, and tho roUtion between mind and maltar.
It ■ not likely that thcae >i<ecaIarions were viewed with much
bvoor by the groat body of Brlbmann OBgagoJ in ritnaliatio
pcBctios. Not Uiat the metaphyBicinns actually diacoonlsnanoed
the cenmonial worsLip of the old mythological goda aa vain and
nugatory. C . lbs contrary, they eipreaaly admitlo-' ' bs pmpriaty
of aacri^os, and commended them aa the moat mgritoriona of
bmnan acta, by nhic'- man could raise himaelf to the higheat
degm ot mnndmn eiiatancc. lo tha wcrld. of tho Fathora and
tbo Devaa, Nevorlhdew, the tact that Ihcw wcrs onlv higher
grndea from which the individual lelf would atill be liable to
rela[BO Into the vortex of material triatenee.— that tha final goal
itiouot IbaTada."
(enae, ■■ ' the ultimate aim and c
later time* the radical diatinction betwoen thoaa tptculal
Ippendagei and the hutk of tha Vetlio writluga was atronglyacec
uated in a new claaalficatlon ot tha ncnd acripturaa. Accord
to thia Bchema they wore au)>poaed to couaiat of two great diliaic
~Eha KartHO-Uiji/a, i.t.. ''tha work-eection." or nractical o
mouial (eiotaric] part, c(
(including tha ritual portiona
kdrida, -'liit knowledgo-aocli . .
Theaa two diviaiona an also called reapactiTely lh< j
('■ format "1 and fUam-C'Ulter," or higher') idnif- --'
the apeculativa tanata ot the Ugieniibadi cune to b« fa
a T^nlar ayatem It waa deamM desirable that there auuuiu bhv ua
a apecial system correaponding to the oldtr and larnr portian of
tha Vadio wrilidjt. Thiia aroae ths two aystsma— Uis F»rta- (ot
JTorwo.) wltBii^ei, or "II „
Utlnnt- (or SroAmo-) wImIiu^ ncnallj
eriojprt.
arstsma— Uis Ptna- (or
'practiul) spsntlatioa," and Uio
anally nailed tha Yadintn pl^"-
It Is not yet poaaibia to datsrmina, arsn uiptoiiaiataly, t
ims whan the so-called DaT*tiua (titarally " damonatratloDa '
It (titarally "
la ot philoaopbT, were £iit fonnnltt._ . ..
certainly doTcloned from the lanab annwiatad In tht
atloBa"L
■a £nt fonnnlttad. And, thonrii
'cFoned from tha lanab annwiatad In tht
naidaiaUe doubt aa to tha exact order in
1 ^other. The au^oritatlTa
la "ByiteniB hare apparently paaaed through seienl
ud. in thslr present farm, Iheaa atttra-worka' eri-
nviaw of the philoai:
of all the Datianaa"), compoawl In ths 14th osntury, ftom ■
YeJlntiat point ot Tiew, by tha great jiegata Hldhava Achlrya.
Among th« different ayatam*, nx are gansially noogniiad aa
orlhodoi, aa baing (aithar wholly or for the moat part) conaisMnt
with tha Tedio religion,— two and two of which ire I0dn mors
closely related lo each other than lo tha Teat, via. :—
(1) P«rta,,a«id„ui iMhuiift). and (1) I7IlanMNC*rf«Hd
(KsUiato) ;
IS) adnilta, and (4} Ttga ;
(6) A'gAya, and (<) VaUakOa.
(1) The(F«na-)iflmMisrllBnot>q>it«mo(TibIlo«nJiyin tha
proj-er sense ot tha word, but nthara inratam of dogmaUc ctltioiau
and ecriptaral interptatatian. It "■«*"*«*"■ tha tiainal aziatanea
of tha Veda, the dUTemit puta ot which are mlnntely elaaaifted.
In principal object, bowerer. la to ascertain the raliglona (chleSy
ceremonial) dutIM enjoined 1.1 tha Veda, and to show bow theaa
duties munt be jierfoimed, and what an tho apecial narila and
rawinla attached to them. Henee uiaaa tha neceadty of dttermin-
iiig tha jirinciples tot rightly btrrpnting tha Vadio. taiti, aa lira
ot what forma its only daira to Mns oiaaaed among apaonlativ*
syitoma, vii., a philosophical axamtnaSon of tha maana <«, and fb*
nmi-er metbod lor arriving at, accoiate fcnowladga. The foanda-
tha eomnoritioD of tho Sfltraa or
' "dootrlnalat " '
neutad on by su
and (iiriher annoUttoua IwtrttUca) thereon ware npplisd by tho
preat theologian Knmirila Bhalta, who il mppoaad to have lived
itho(8Uior)7th
horiama which conatftnta its chief dootiinal antWity, laasoribed
- — ~- ra oommontwl on by Sahua Svlmin ;
>tMbi) thereon ware ripplisd b~ "'
.haita, who il mnpoaad to have
and'to have worked hard for the ta-
rn. Acoccdiug to a popolat badilion
uMsd It flankarfaMrya. The meet
' Thase worb ban all beaa pMdbsd wlib VMi
.•YO bM pwUl ti«ill««d !» 1. BJlanlpt^ a« »T «■ K;
iiitnl wirrtt ilw iraHDii le u IH sMiinad f ma H, C •
Ih- >■ Miid.,»iih IWt.Cowi"'
lUUrVT^mm
■< B^Uan|iike] variu wu pobb
B. d^ Conn sai 1. K OeiA »■*•
SANSKRIT
[uXIKXTUKV
KfftondgiauiX iBlralBstlaB to tlM itudj o( tha Mtmjjiii* I> tha
metriofclJMiiiiiltia-JftilyB-iMM-t'iitowi.'itithapfowoomiiwutwj,
both Iqr lUdburk Aeui}*. TU* dlctingnuhM writar, who bu
■Inwlr been _ , - .. .,
from fruuot Matanwati iu USA, to ban bMO tha
a/^a^L tha mU-kiKnm intarpntar of ths Tadu. Tha lata Dr
Bornall' b*^ bowarar, mada It Tacf probable tbat thaaa two
ans ma and tba aama pataon, Sljaiia Iwinir bia T«lilgii, and
HldbaHabtm Ui BiUuauikil sauia. In ISSl be beaama ths
/ogK^nrti, « iplritnal hfi. of tba 9mArtaa (a VaJlotiat aaot
Ibanilad by aaaknitohfaja) at tba Uitb ol SflDKarl, nban, nndar
tha patrouga of Bokba, kin^ of Vid^i^^iai hs campaaad hla
nnmaroiu works. Ha aonatimM inasM nodu a third nuna,
TidjAnnya-iirimlii, tdoptad by Mm an baoomliig a ii»iM|il>fii,
or nligioiu mandioaoL
(3) Ibe PMdxCa pbfloaaphT, In tha eomuntlTaIr pr{miliTa
fbrm b which It pfeaanti itaelE In moat of tha Uiuiuliad*, coa-
atitutM tba tarUeat pbaaa at ijitamatio mataphyBtcal apecolation.
In Ita naantial fMtuiM it nmalni to thli day tha iiranluit bdiaf
at Indian tbinkan, uid anian lainly into lbs rellgloua Ufa and
oouriotiaiia of tha paopla. ItiaaolOMJiatiamonlgm, vhicb daclTaa
tba ontraraa from id nltimata eonanioiu aplritiul prlndpla, tlia
ona and oalir ailalant tram etandty — the Mmm, tha Salt, or tb ~
PumAa, tha Panon, tlia Brakmaa. It ia thii prfasordial aasut.
or Belf that penadaa all thinn, and cItm life and light to llunn,
"withont being ■allied by tha Tldbla outward imuoritlea Or tha
miaeriea of the world, being itnlf apart,"— and Into whkh all
tUnp will, through KDowMgai oltinutalT leaoln thamaalTta.
"The wiae «bo paroeire bim aa being within thair own Self, to
thani balonp atomal paam^ not to othora."' But, while the com-
mmtaton nenr baaitata to intopnt tha Dpaniihadi aa being in
perftat ■greamaBt with the Vedlntlo intaDi, *• eULoiatad In Utar
fanwat uara la often conalderable uBcoIty in acoapting thair
•iplanatkina. In Ibaae treatiaaa only tha leading feabma of tba
paothiiatlo tbaary find nttaranoe, sanonlly In Tune and myatla
uuHuh ollan In eingnlariy powerful and poetieal iangoua, mm
whion it ia not alw>ya poaiUa to •rtnwt Hie aothor'a reoTHea on
Ibndanuntal poln^ aaoh at the relation between the Bapreme
Spirit and tha
world,— whethat the latter wi
enilTed from the fanner by a power Inherent in bibn, or whether
flie pmoaaa k ■Itoathar a IkoUon, an UlaloB of tha Indiridnal
wM. Thoa tha Kui»-iipanlihad* oOkn tba following annunary : —
"Beyond Uba aaDwa [there «e the otdeote; beyond the oltjecte]
tiiere ii the <nlnd (maaai) ; beyond tha mind thara la the intallaot
(boddhi) ; benjnd the intelleet there la Hie Great Belt Beyond
the OteatOna that* ia ththHI^kaat Undeireloped [BTTaktun] ; beyond
the UnderatoptJ there ii tha Faieon (pnnuha), tha ali-parTadinK
ebaraebriiaa (alirgaj. Whateoerer icnowi him ia llbnated, and
attain) immortalil
u their own ptlmai7 m
A Whateoer
rr Hera the
. . . . iwn prlmarr matat&l ntincipla (ptadl
reality JMyA iUndon (oOarwiN ealled ATidy^ 'ignoraaoa, or
aikti, po]ret), the fiotitiona en«;^ which in DoqjunaflDi with the
na that the flreat Ondarelopad, wbioh the Stnkhyaa would olalm
Tmatat&l v' ' ' "' ' '
A iUni
-ikti, pojret), the fiotitiona enem .
Higheat Salt (itman, Pnnuh? prodnoea or
Itnra, the Lord, or Coamlo Bool, tha fiiat
Itman, and hlniialf the (fictltluiu) cuue of kll t
It mnet remain donfatful, hDweier, whether the author ot the
Cpaniabad really meant thli, or whether ha regarded tha Oreat
QndaTalopad aa an actual matnial principle or aobatiatuni erolnd
bom out of tba Pnmba, thongh not •« tha Btokbyu bold,
woriatlny with him fion •tami^. Besldea paaaagea aneb aa
theaa wl£ih mod to Indloata realiatio or matwbUitio teodendea
of ttongfa^ lAieh may well bare drereloped into the doaliatio
Blnkhn and kindred ^atem^ thai* ore otiien wbioh indicate
tba editence erau of niluliit theoilaa, aooh aa tha Baaddhaa— tha
MfWEHiWJiu. OTaSimen of a raid or primordial Bothingneee—
pmhae. Thae we read Is the ObhtodoKya-apaniahad' [—"The
exialait alooe^ my aon, wti beta in tha baglnninA one only, with-
out a aaBond. Otbeia mr, than waa the non-exiilant alone here
in the bagiudng, one only, without a aaoond, — and fiom the non-
exiatant the exiatent wai bom. But bow oould thla bo, my ion T
How could tht iatant be bom tiom the non-exiatent t Kd, my
aon, only flu adatent wea here in the beginning, ona only, with-
out* aaoond.*
tba oompletion d
Ot Veda," ia natitrally aacribad to Ti
ot the Tedae, who ii aald to be - ■''
leputad andior of the ~
to Yylia, tha mythio airanger
IdraUal with Btdaityau, the
' Sdrtnlta-)iMTa, the aQthoilta-
^OMMifeer, OMtMal bf ■. B. 0(
with tiMbaa— whether of the ^ra, or Talihfai%' «r ha
or^odox pemweioDa— with tha tIsw oi raoUng oat hanay ud
re^Mtabliahing the dootrine ot the Unani^da. Hb ognlnmnJu
triumidu (dosbtleai laigal* mythioaQ an lalaleJ in a anabw ot
treatiaaa ennent in Soatb Indu, the two qoet Importuit nt which
an the aankara-dig-wtiiiiya (" Sankan'a wodd^eonqneat"}, BMslbed
to bia own diaei^ jLnanda^rl, and the Aatkata-t^^/a, by Hi-
dhaTlchtryi. In SankaiiLB pbiloaophy* the theory tbat the
material «^ hai no real eiiiteace, but ii a men llludon of Cba
individual eonl wiagit in ignoianoe, — that, thentore, it baa odW a
praetlcaIoteanTentionel(i']|tft>aUnls) bat note tnnacendaDtnloc
true (pdnnidrlUia) reality,— ia etrictiy entoroed. To the qnestiea
why the anpreme Self (or nthei* hla fictitiaiu darelopnaDt, Aa
Higheat Lord, or coamie aonl] tfaould baTe taut (brlli lliliiitiaiilaaina
gorr thia gnat thinker (with the anthor of the 8&traa') can latrnn
no better anawar than that il mint have been done for eport (ttUh
withoDt any ipedal motiTe — dnoe to aacribe anch a matin to tha
Supreme iJord would be limiting hla aelf-anBoieney, — and tbat the
pTDOea of creation baa been going on ftom all etecld^. SaBkara'a
Sitiniila-Mlnubiuil-iiUiAva baa given riae to a lane nomber of
axentie trntiae^ ot whioh Ttohamtl-mMra'e* orporitlDn, autitlad
, __.,_, by BlmlMqjLthe
of tba dri-TaiihnavK aaot, la tha noet notewortbr. Thi*
teadur.whoprobablTfloor'-'^-' •->—--■—' -
oentory. canaed a ichlim in ._. _ ..
ing to Sankara'a orthodox adeaUn, or uoB-doality doetrine, ha put
iaieli^oM
10 probably floorlahod during the firat half of Ike IMh
naol a ichlim in die Tedlnlk aebooL luatead of adhar-
floorlahod during the firat half of II
._. ,_ ^i . »..i._^. jj^jpi^ luateodol
a-doality doetrine, __,_.
non-doality ot the (two)
- •- ■xplalnei'
forth tha thaonp of vMalfd'hiiAct Ci
diiUnat Qirlnciplea}, oi^ m It ii n
naa.dnality ct that which ia qualiflod (by attribatee). According
to thia theoTT Hie Brahman (which te identical with Tiahnu) u
neither doT^ of form and analiQr, nor ia it all thinp ; but it b
endowed with all good qoalltie^ and nuttac ia Jiatmot from It ;
bodlM contfat of aoola (Mt) and matter (wUt) ; and Ood ii tha
aonl Tlth thia Oaatj ia csmUoed the oidluaij Taiabnava
doctrine ot periodical deecenta (imildRi) ot the dd^, in vaiiooi
forma, for tiie bonafit of eraotarea. In Btlnloaje*B mtem eon-
aideiatde play ii alao aUowed to the doelriue of fidth (MoM).
Thii^iaae of Indian religloaa belief which ha* attached itwU to
the Vedlnta theory uon cloealy than to any other, and ik» oiiffik
uolined lo attribate t
infloanca, ami in ftnt to Btaka Ita appeannoe very niHninently in
the BhagarcultiU, the e^aode of the MaUbUrada, already lobmd
to, and ia even mon ItUly developed In aome at On Pntsaii
aapeoiallT the BUgavata. In flia Alv^ilvii- (Atottf-) >d(ra,»the
author and date of wUch an nidjunnt rae doctrine ii iyatanatt-
caUy pTopoondad ia ona hnndred Bpboiianie. Acootdii^ to ttia
doctrine """'*«"* aiiataDae la dna to want of faith, not to
Ignoranoe : and the Ihial libeniiaD of (he Indlvldoal aonl «*D ««Iy
be affictad by lUth. Enowiadge vdix oontilbntai to thia and 1^
romoving the mlnd'a fnnlnnei. anbeUef. Ita U^urt tOuae <€
developmant thia doetrine pnbaUv readied in tba nligloaa oieed
of the BImtttu, a Taidinava net nonded, towaida die end of the
15th century, by Ohaiteoyi, lAcae faUowen nbaeqneDtly grafted
the Tedlnta apecnlatlona on Ida doctrine. A popukr aunman of
the Tedlnta doctrine la the TedditfcMdra by H..1tnmJ., wUoh
haa been fnanantly printed and ttandoted."
(8} The alaUiia," or " enumaiativa ' ^ateiD, probacy dvMa
ita name from Iti ^itonatlc anunieratfaai oi the tmn^-lhe
prlndplea OoMb) It taoogniaeL— oonaiating of twen^-faor malarial
and an Independent immaterial principle In oppoallion to ^
Tedlnta r --^^f^^— ~ ■-^•-'^ -^ '^- • l"^- -• -
apiritnal
unreality,
matarial firat oanae, wUoh it calla either ndb-Fniir«' V>^h
"chiaf Originant" (Ratore), oiPnuiMtia, " the plndpal " oanaa,
and a. plurality ot apiiiCoal alamenti or Salvaa, JSirwAo. The
netem reoognina no intelligent creator {aiah aa the Aearo, or
deminrgne, of tha Tedlnta)— whence it la called nMltan,
Sdleaa ; but it conceiTsa the Material Fiiat Caaaa, ilaalf nnia-
lligent, to have beooma darelopod, by a gradual proeeee of
— ilDtion, Into all the ootoal foima of tfao phenomenal univaaa.
whanoe inriii^ o,.... _. , , _^,
partlolM XtamAIra) and eleven or^na of aanaa ; and fin^, froi
HM elemantarr partielaa, fiva tiaoiienta. The aonle hava tiun al
etemi^ been eonnectad with Sataief^iaving in the Ant plaoa
beoome inreoted with a aabtila fnme (Uiiga-, ot MifaAms-, Mi»\
elemenlaiy partli^ and ctgaoa ot eann and action, Indndliig
LTRunriR.]
SANSKRIT
ud it i* <^^ on hit itUlning perfoct kuowlnlg*, whireby t!i*
tmtkMariag Boda of IntalllginiH c*ua to ba reflactHl on him,
t^ tiifl nruha ii libanCad from th* niuria of SAtpi&jL
TIm npiUd roandir of th<> Khool ii tha ■>» KipiU, to whom
iMlitian ucribd tbr coninontion ot tlia fandimoaUl tait-book,
Ibt (StnOfO^mm, m) JdiUyafnimglaHa,' u veil u thi ,
B4lni kn* ndergODa •ubaeqaont BiodiEaitioni roiglit b* infomd
hmi tba fast that thar tvioa lefar to tlu opinion of PlBchBUkhk,
vbtdiswhtra it itttM to htTg racalrod bit initinction from Inri,
Ot d^iiila of Kapilt, u irell u from the Bge hfmuir. Of tbo
ODatDltriM on the Batni, thit by TijUnt Bhikahn,' a vritu
■sbililr of tha lOth centuiy, ii tha uioat tpproired. An
MepmltDt trattiw by tbg mae inthor, tha SiHkliva$drtt,'
naotiDS of ■ proao uid a n-ne part, it prabably tha moat
Tilubk compendium of Sinkhra doctiinu. Anolhar idininbla
ud bigfalj-talnemnl tnatiaa is lictni-kfiibnt'i Sint/nja-k^riti,*
wkkh giitt, in tha iwnsiir coiii]itM of HiTanR-nie ilo^ a ludii
ud (ompleta aketch of tha aritim. Thongli nothing ceitain ia
kun nguiliu it* author,* thii vork muit be of tolorablt
utiiiQitr, cOBaderfiig that it«tanimmeDted npon bjOuftplda,'
thapncufaiTof GoTiDda, who, on biapar^ ia^^ to unbMn tbo
ttKher uatnittcbtTjM.
(1) Tha rivB ■rtbim ii manlj ■ acluinialk bruieh ot the
ptidlat' •ehaoU hcildini tht mjet opjniant on moat pointi treated
u naum in their SACn^ with the eireption ot one important
pnil, Um aiistenc« oT Ood. To the twenty-fiTe princlplaa {lattta)
<t the Nirlinra Slokhja, the lait at vhich wu tha PunuAo, the
T<p tddt, u tha tweutf-iiith, the Ifirgumi Funulia, oi Belt
dnoidof antUtim, the Supreme Ood ot the lyitem. Hence tha
T^ it <illed the Stivara (tbeiatial) SSiihfn. But orer and
■Mn tha pnrrif apacnIitiTe part ot itt doctrine, which it ahtrti
nth tht iittar school, tha theiiCic Slnkhyt hat deTelopKl ■
om^ela ^item ot mortiAcatian ot the tCDtee— by motnt of
pnlaBgtd tpathy and abatraotion, proCiactad ngidjty ot poatQrv,
uldBiUrpracticei,— mtnjof which an ilreadj alluded to in the
Upuiihldt,— with the liew of attuning to an ecstatic Tisloo at,
ud Ruion (yoffo] (rith, tha Suprtma Spirit. It ia from this
Mrtbn of the tyatem that tha school derires the Dame by nhich
R H mora genenll; kaown. Tha luthorititiTe Sfltraa ot the
Vep, betriag the aame title aa thoae ot the aiatar school, viz.,
SaUijft-fraeaAaHa, bat nore comTnaaly callod Taga-iiMlTa, are
■scribed to I^tabj^i, *ho ia perliapa identical with the author ot
Ih) 'gnat ooainenUTy" on PlniuL Tha oldatt eommeotary
M tht S&tnt, tba JtiaHjala-bUMkya, la attriboted to no other
Ikti VylB, tho mythic tnangar of tha Teda and fbnnder ot the
Tidlatt. Both works have anin been commantod npon by
Tldtuati-niira, YnBina-bhiksbn, and other writen.
(S) (11 The Jrydya* and raOuktia an bnt separata branchea ot
oas tod the tame school which snpplemcnt each other and tba
dttdiaca at which haTe TirtnallTbaconiatnulgtniatedintoaaiagle
^ittn cf pliiloBophy. Tha apecial part taken by each of tha two
knndua in the elahoration ot the'sjitem may be brictly ttated in Dr
I eipUnatiDa of tht catcgarioa (the aimplctC maUphyt-
ieti Idati) ot tht metaphnical, nhyiicii!, and i«yehieal notions,—
■hid lotioDa are htrdlj toncned njion in the Nylya-tfltras.
-Q their statement ot tht i
fjiya tatertinfC fonr moilea of proof (from perception, inferonce,
lulc^, and Tarbal commnnicatioD). the VaLleahikia admlttinii
onlj (he two firtt onea." The tenn Nj4t* (nf-iljfa, " in-goine,"
otiriiig), thooeh properly roaoning "nnafylical invettigatioii,''^ai
•{>|ilisirto phllotDphical inquiry genenlly. hu coma to ha taken
nore eonmodj in the narrower aonu of "loaic," becaase thii
chMl hat tnlareit more 1homui{hly than any other into tha Itwi
ud ptceeaaH ot thought, and has worked out a formal aystam ol
letsoiiint which lorttis tha Hindn standard of loffir.
nttollawtn of theae schools genaraltyrtcogiiiicsoen ctteBorioi
(fBiUraa}:— anbatuieo {Jravya), quality (ftfa), action [karnta),
(Otnli^ ittmdayi), narticnlarity (itiiaha), intimate niatioi
(wasiyi), and uon-eilitcnce or neealian (oWdoa), Snlatancaa
fcnaiiy tha solntnta otqnaliliet aDn actions, art of two kinda:—
and non-atanitli e
■TnaiLfcrJ, «.ariU»t™.;l
• UMM St C. lasSH, lA. TmulUkmtWILT.
, • 0Hn1iir_A_ tb tks HBlL ot FHdiaAba, w
in?Mly
.ity It of throa ki . .
Lumt ot iatitattt nittian (mattilal ants): that of non intiniata
talatloD (botwaen parts of a oonponnd); and initruraenlal canitlity
(eflecting the anion of component wts}. IltCerial things an thna
ipoBM of atoms lanu), {.t., ultimate simple anbatances, or noitt
ily by " jartienlarity (viiitha)." It it from this predication
itnltimate "particulars" that the Vuieahikaa. the origiDttora of
ha atomistic doctrine, derive their name. The Nylya ilrawt a
elaar line between matter and wirit. and has worked out a careful
od ingenions system of psychology. It diitiDguithet betwecp
idiTidnal or tiving toali (jlnllmatY which an nomerona, infinite,
nd atemal, and the Supnme Soul {FammAtinaH), which it one
nly, the teat of eternal knowtedge, and the maker and miet
titan) of all thinn. It it by his will and agency that thi nn-
DBKiona lliing soiila (sonl-atoius, in tact) »nler into union witU tho
uatarial) atoms of mind, kc, aad thos partake ot the pleasareM
nd snUorinra of mnndane existence. On the Hbdu syllogism
DDipan ProT. Cowell's noCot to Colabrooko's Etiai/i, i. u. 311.
Tha origintl collection of JVirfyo-rdirai ii atcribod to Gotanit,
nd that ot the Vailetiiia-i6traj to Kuilds. The etymological
leaning of tha latter nsma leeme to ho " little -eater, particle-
itor," whence in worka of hoatilo critica tha aynoiiymou tanoi
jraHa-Muy or SafaMakaJia an aometimea dcriiircly applied
to him, donbtleaa in alluaion to his theory of itoma. Ha is
ilao occasionally referrtd to under tha name ot XiiiTapa. Both
idtn-worki hare been inlcrpnted and supplemented by a unmber
yt writers, the eommenUry of YiiTuiBtha on tbp Nylya and that
>t Sankara-miin on the Tiuishika Slltiu being moat generally
ued. Then an, moreoTer,'a rut nnmtwr o( eepants worlie on
^e doctlints of these ichoob, especially on logic Ot faTouiitr
ilementary trettiaea on the mhiFct may be mentioned Ke^n-
uiira'a Tarka-blUbM, the Tarka-iunaraAa,' and the BMihA-
/oHeUediL' A large aud important book on logic is GangeiUi't
Ckimtaaiatii which formed the text-book of the celebrated Muddea
tchoot ot Bennl, founded by Baghunithi-iinimtni aboDt tba
beginning of tha IBth centaiy- An intercatlng Uttle treatise is
the KiitumMjali* in which the author, Udayana Achttya (abont
the 12th centnry, according to Prof. Cowell} atlempla, id 12
conplela, to prove tho e]ciatence nt a Snpraraa Being on tbr
prineiplea of the Nylya system.
'j regards tho different heretical syatcnis ot Hindu plii]oM|diy.
re ia no occatlon, in a eketch of San.kril litenture, to onter into
tmati of the two great tuti-BrUimanical accti^ the Jaints and
IdhiiU, While the original work* of the lomiDr am writtin
irely In a popnltr (the Ardha-mdgadlit) dialect, tho Dorthem
lUhista, it ia true, have produced a coniiJoraMa body of litPra-
i,'°compoaad in a kind of hybrid Suiskrit, but only a few of
ir sacred booka hare aa yet been published;" and it ia, morc-
r, admitted on all htndt thtt lor the pure and authentia
iddha doctrinee we have rather to look to the Pill scriptuiM ot
tho tontbera brtncb. Not can we do more hare than brielly nllnd*
» ot a ten
howetar interesting they may ba for a hiatory of hnmoii tlionp}
The ChAn4ha, an ancient sect otundiiguued materialism, <
deny the eiiitauce of tha aonl, and conaidcr the human nei
(punuAd] to be an organic btdy endowed with aonsihility and i
thonght, reaultiug from a modification of tha component mate
elements, ascribe their origin to B(ihaapatii bnt their entliorita
tait-book, the BSrIiaipatya-rilTa, ia only known n far from a
The nadiarHnu, or ShdfOKilai, ar> an early TaitbniTt sect,
in which tha doctnna of faith, already allndM to, is strongly
dCTetoped. Hence their tenets are detondod by ItCmtnnja, Ihongh
they an partly condemned u lientical in the Brahma-afltiu Tlieir
recagniiod text-book is the Ndmila-PaMiariUra.''' According to
their theory tlie Supnme Being (Bhagarat, Vlsudava Viehnn)
bocame four separate panose by ■DCcesiiTt piodnction. while the
Sapreme Being himselt ia indued with the six qualities of know-
lodge, power, atnngth. absolute away, vigour, and energy, thr three
dinna pereontencceniTely emanating from him and from one anothai
repreaent the liring aoul, mind, and conscionsneaa raepectirely-
Tha Fitupatai, one of soTerat Saifa IMibelron] escti, bold the
Supreme Being (ftmro), thom they identify with Siya, to bo the
SANSKRIT
[uTBuma.
in. BHkXX>.t. (VyHamMtl^Ve found tliLi inbiBct ennnior-
«ted u onB of the ui "limba of the Yedm," onuiibiry sdancet,
the ttady ot vhicb wu d«iDcd aecpuu-y fbr t comict mterpnta-
Bon of UiB Bcrod Mmtnu, and the proptr performiineB of Vedio
ritw. Lingniitit biioirjr, phonotio u will as BT«mni»tii*l, was
IndeoJ Mclr martai to both tor the pnrpoM of elucidating the
maanina of the Veda, and with tho .iew of eettling it» teitiiai
form. Tha particular work which csame nltimatoly to be looked
upon ai tho "^vedftn^" repreaentative ot granLDiatical HiDn«,
4Pd haa erer iince remainej Che utandard arithority for Sanskrit
BRmmar In India, ii PIJiIul'i AshfAtUigilyt,' ao called from its
'^oonabtillg of eieht lectona {adXydyn)," of four pidal each. For
■ coraPTelieniiva giup of lisgaialJo facta, and a penetiadne inaighC
Inbi Uw (tnietDn of tbs TenacuUc language, tlits work ataDits
prob^ljr uirinllod in tbe literatan ot anf natloa, — thongh
nir otlur lansnan. It ii tnia, tSord aneh famtitiea as the Sana,
krit fm ft i^naBo analfiiL Pinini'a ■j'Mem of amngeraBnt
diflbiB antjielj from thftt tunallj adopted in our grainnum, tii. ,
■ecording to the ao-iiallsd parti of ipflfch. At the work ia coni-
poied ia npluffinni intended to be learnt hj heart, economy of
mamoiy-mattsr na tha anthor'i paramoont conaidentiau. Hii
ol»et wu eUeflj ftttainsd by Um giaupinit tosethei of all caaea
rabiUHng the Mine pboncdo or lomiatiTe feature, no matter
whtttia or not the; balongcd to the same part of apeech. For
tiiia pnrpoM ha alio makca ua ot a highlj artificial and iugenioua
^tun ot ■Iflobialo lymbola, conaiatJng of technical letlen [aau-
iindha), naed chleflf irith suBUu, ana Indicative of the eiunges
which the Toota or atcin& haTc to undergo in word.formation.
It ia aelf-eTideat that » complicated and completa a ayitem ot
UngniaCic analyalH and nomenclature could not nare ipmdg up all
at out« and in tho infincj of grammatiiial acicnce, bnt that many
generationa of icholan muit have helped to bring it to that degt«e
at perfection which it exhibita in Pinini'a work. Accordingly we
Snd Plninl himaelt making nferenca' in vationa placea to tan dif-
*""""" {fammarian^ beaidoa two achoola, which he calla tha "eastern
uu)° and "aorthen {udatuhat)" gmmtiuriaDi. Ptrhapa
,-,- ^3at important of hia predeccaaon was SikatAyana,' alao
mentioned by Ybka — ths inthor of the Kimkta, w)io ia likewiia
■nppoaed to have preceded Pinini— ae the only grammarian (wt^
Jarana) who held with the e^mologiBta tnainifaa) that all nonna
an deriTed from Terbat tools. Uafortunataly there ia little hope
of the TMWn^ of hia grammar, which would probably hare enabled
na to datetmine aomawliat more eiactly to what extent Pbiinl waa
indebted to tho labonra of hia prcdecesaorsv There exiata indeed a
gnmmar in Bonth Indian HSS., endtlod SabddmMtana, which it
Mcribad to one BAkatlyana ; * but thia has been prOTed ■ to be the
piodactian of n modem Jaina writer, which, ■■ *- '■■
partly be
PHaini ii
.J . „ jnentioned, which iraa aitualed
•oma nw miloa north-weat ot tha Indua, in the country ot tha
Giadhtna, whence later writers alio call him BUiturtja, tha
formation of which name he iiimaelf ex^atna in hia grammar.
Another nama aometimea applied to him ia SUanki. In tta SaUiS-
KHiMgara, > modem collection ot popular taloa meotiosad abon,
P&nini ia aaid to hare been the pupl! of Vanha, a tttcher at Ftte-
Upntra, under the reign ot Nanda, the father (T) ol Chiadmcnpta
(nS-291 S.O.). Tha isal date of the areat smmmarian is, BDW-
erer, ttitl a. matter of uncertainty. While Oddethcker • attempted
to pot hia date back to- ante-Bnddbiat timca (about the 7tb
oantury b.c,]. Prof. Weber holda that Ftnint'a grammar caimot
ham l»en oompoaed till aome tinu after the invanon o' ilexandot
the Groat. This opinion ii chiefly bated on tbe occurtenco i . one
ol tho Satraa of the word yaianint, in the aense of " the writing
ot the yavanaa (tonians)," thus implying, it would aeom, luch an
acquaintance with the Oreek alphabet aa it would be impoaaible to
■aiume for any period prior to AJaxander'a Indian campaign
{32t B.O.}, Bat, aj It ia by no meana oertain* that thia term
really appliea to tli* Oreek alphabet, it is scarcely expedient to
make the word thi eomosMone ot the o^mant regarding FSnini'a
UB. It PataBjaH'i "grott oommentuy" waa written, aa aeems
Ugfa^ probaUe, abont the middle of the Snd century B.O., it ia
luudly pOMlble to aangn to Hninl ■ later date than about 400 n. c.
Though thia grammarian leglatert numerooa wordi and fomutians
. ai psenliar to tha Vedio hymiia, Ua chief oonoera i> with the ordi-
nary (pooch (MdiM) of his period and ili literature i and it ia
noUvorthy, in thia reapeot, that the mlea he lays down on aome
important pointe of ^taz <aa pduted out by Pro&. Bhandarkar
and Kielhomlan In aoooid with Ihs prBoti»ot th- "-"-- -
ntha than Mth that ot tha later oltiuoal litamtnre.
taaDaeaTalaBedBcMoa,birdrSai(UiMik. ^^
• /.*., w er%kaU, whve ka K alv called bkattap^a.
• CDUfm O. Mb&a puBj^^ w4 Omidml, p. «il tf.
• lea La>tan, It^./M, L p. m; M. Smt^, SM. 4^ J. A HL, p. Rli i
a form ^ oratn
hadanwnedniU
y of tha adiobn who dsrotad tb
VirUika, il
Pinini'a efitmt continued for
amioatical activity,
hia predecanort, ao many
Ives to the taak of peilecttng Ua ^atam han nuk
livinn. The earlieit of hia aoeoessora whoM work baa atom
ingh perham not In a aepaiaU form), ia U^yuu,
a lat^ coUectioii of ooneiai critical Botea^ oUlad
ded to inpptement and aonset the 8U114 <ir glTS
„ ^rcuidon. The exactdato ot tbia writsr Ii lik*wla«
unknown ; but then can be little donbt that he li*«d at Inst n
century after PirinL During tbe Interral a new body of litvatDn
eeemi te have apniug np,' — accompanlod with oonaldotabis ebangei
of language, — aud the gooniphical knovledgB of India extended
over large tracta towards the south. Whether tliii ii the aania
Rdt;lyai.a to whom the ViJaaanoyi-pifitiAkhya (aa well aa tli*
3ar>lnukrama) is attributed, it still doubted by some aeholara.*
KiCyiyina being properly a family or tribal name, meaniiu; "the
desoeudant of KAtya, laUr woru uaunlly anign a aeoond name
>. 1.: ._ ... ._.. — ,r. . (jijj^ jj, ^( ij^ (i,^) ^yu> bear
.ee the an^or of the Vlrttlkat t.
aftemards tha miniitsr ot Kinjr
might have fitted Kl^yana wall
enoogh, it it impMdbte to place any reliance on tha atotanMnte
derived frem anch a aourcs. Kilyiyana waa aneceedad agiihi,
douhtlsaa after a coctldonible intervij, by Patatjall, tha author of
the ( Vyakamna-) UaM-lihdikya* 01 Great ComniBntary. For tha
CtyifiBty of infcrraatiau it incidentelirtupplisa legudingtba
atiln and mannen ot the period, thia la, from an Ustoiical
and antiiinarian point of view, one of the moat Importeat woAi of
the clawieal Stnakrit literature. Portonataly ibe aathor^ data
baa been aettlsd by tynchroniama implied In two pangn of his
work. In one of tham the uae of the imperfect a» tha tanaa
referring to an event, known to people gowtally, not witnMMd bf
tha apwker, and yot capable of being wltne— d by Um — ii {Una-
traled by the slatement, "The YavuB bnimd Slkita," «UA
''" " ' ' believe can only nftr to the Indo-Baotrian Una
. a I, who, aeeoiding to Stnbo, aztandri Ui
nni." In the other paaaga tha naa of tha
present is illuatnted by the aantence, "T i are ncrifldng for Path-
pamitra,"— this prince (178-& U2 kd.), the foander of thaSnnn
dynasty, being known to have fought against the OTe*kt.>* Wa
tsjamcni to tuH wriwrs iior Hie
it Tba KaUiiaBrit«Bnn makes
feUow-studiint of Pigui, osd afl
Hands ; but, thou^lfla date m^
H bar* mantianed an torton-
lynasty, being knc
ihua get tho years
work, or put of it, waa compoaed. Althongb I^tatjtli nobaUj
give* not a f%w traditioual grsmmatical oxamplea ■wcnanicallj
repeated from hii ptedeoeaior- "■ — ' " — ■■ — ' — ' —
ately inch a^ from the very . . .._
mode by htmteU. Ths Hahlbhlahn ii not a oontinnolu eon-
monter; on Pinini'i gnuumoc, bnt daoli only with ttiaaa S&tna
(tome 1720 out of a total of neoily tOOO) oo w^ioh Kltylytna had
proposed any Vlrttika;^ tbs critical i<l«ii««in- of which, is con-
nexion with tb* rtspeeliTe SAbu and with the views ct othst gtom-
mariant cspreaied tluraon, ii Oia »c'- "-' -•"■-■
mantatorial remuka Though donbL .. ,.„
toxtoil condition ot the woA, Prof. Eielhorn hia cleady ihown
■ probably bo
* ProE Bhondatktr toktt ti
onda, atoi " "
TagaOitia ia'doDbtfhL The"Mahibbt^]»lu» h
upon bv Kaljnte, in hia BhiOyapnUpa, and tha latta again by
fiigqjlDhaUa, a diitingoithed gromiuaTiaii of the Mllier pait of tba
lait centuiT, in Ui BMthya-fra^oddyiila.
cntury, in bli BMAya-ftii^oidiwIa.
. . mmilng oommentanoi on nidnfa 8Ate-^
and most importent is the KMUcA ^rAH," or "oonunaut of KUI
(Bsoatea)," Uio joint productiaii of two Jaina writars of probohlj
tha first half of the 7th century, vii., JayldiWa and Tlmua, acb
of*hamocmpassdonshair(fouradhyivas)d't]]ewotk. Thtehirf
oommenlnriea on this work are Haradktto Uiira'a FaiimMimi,
which also embodies the mbstancs of the Hahlbhlihya, anl
Jinendn-bnddbi'a JVydu."
Educatlonalrequinmente tnconraeoftimeledU thoappsai^n
of gramman, chiclly of an elementary chaiactei, eonatiaoted on a
LmiATURB.1
SANSKRIT
293
mon pcutual rrtWm at irrugamoit — tha pHodpd lieuli under
which ths gTMnmtiol matUr wu iliitribated uiuaJly baing —
inlw «r anplioDf (jotuUi] ; inflaxioa ot hduu* (ndmaH), gina-
imll* iacladiDg comporitiou uiil •Kondair dcriTitivn ; tbc verb
(«U««a} ; uJ primiirj t.trid-aHla) dmntira. In this wij i
nnmbar of gmnniMic*! (choal* ' tpmig up at dilfennt time*, each
reoogninng a apacial Ht of SELtras, todwI which fcradually nChend
■ mora oriaaa nunieioas bodf o( commaDUtonal and nibaiillarr
tnttttaea. Aa raganla tlie gramciitical maCeri&l ttaolt, th«ae later
KTunnian inppi; compantiielj little that ia not alrsadj contained
iu the oilier wotka. — the difference being mainlj one of niathod,
and putlf of tecminologj', inctuding modiHcatione of the lyilcui
of technical letlara (aKiiiaiuIha). Of the grammara of this deacrrp-
tion hitherto knonn the CMitidra-vydlara^ U probably the
oldat.— it* author Chaodxa icbii;* baring Haaiiahed under King
Abhimanjn ot Kaahmir, who ia Uiuall/ tuppoaed to haie liT«d
tontd* the end of tb* 3d oenCnrj,' and in whoae reign that
*- "^ Tired the iCudy
with > ooanMUtarj by Inandadntta, hare aa jet beea recoTered.
TbaSdlaHtra*oriMfa,amiaHKito Kumba, tha god dF war,
vhsno* thiaaoboot laalao tometimaa Ckllad fauindro. The real
aothoi pmbably wai Bam-Tatmaii, who alio wrote tha original
eomiiMntuy (rt^COi vluch waa alWrwuda lecaat by Dur
and aoin comnunlad upon bjr the taat writer, and tubi
hj TAoetuDa-dlab Toa data of the ElCantra ia nnknnn ,
Will probahly ban b> b« aaatgned to about the Sth or 7th century.
. . Other grami
Auubhati STarftpAchlrja ; the SaniAitita-tira,
KnmadlJTaia, and corrscted by Juman-nandin, wl
called Jaumara ; the Saima-rjidtaT-alyi,* by the Jaina writer
Hemachandn (1088-1172, according to Dr Bhh> Mji] ; the
ifuj/d/ia-bodia,* eompoaed. In the latter part of the 13th century,
by Vopadara, the court puiiJJt of Ebg UaMJera (Rlina^ja) of
Dera^ (or Daoghar) ; tba SiddfiAiUa-kliumiidt, the fanmrite
text-book <d ladun atudenti, by Bhattojt DIkaMta (17tb caa-
tory) ; and a ol*T*r abridgment of it,"tha Loflm- {SidJMnla-}
biKBoidl,* br Tandaiija.
flTtraf nsaidiary gnmrnatical tieatiiea ramaln to ba natlcad.
" -■ " ' • re general maxiioa of interpretation praauppcaed
by the SftCiaa. Tha« handed down a
S1£
applic
n ban been ioMi^tad moat ably by KtgDJtbbatu, i
" ' ' " ' "la caae of rnl™ applyi
PariiMttaduidAara.^ In the caae of' rnica applying ' to wb
pa of wocdi, tba oom{dets Ilela (jcma) at these words are gii
- " -'-, and ooIt referred to in the Siitraa,- "- '
MoJUdadhi,* a compamtiTaly modern
e Siitraa.- Vai^ha-
■u—nii^. xtm uHon^atnat an compioH oau
tha langaaga, with tbalf genaial meanbga. '
nnder thia title,* aa anugad. by PInlnl hu:
mnntad npon, amon^ othaia, by lUdhara.
-t«(lIW A.C;), laTalnableMoSeriug the ooly available
anbuyen tha Oaaai which contain many worda of unknown
Jig. 11i«£IUI«pl)(ltoara compete lifta of the root* (iMMi) of
~"' " '" ' ' iga. Tbeliat* handed down
li himMlt, have bean codi-
. . ^ . , -- - ■». The ^T^ddt-tAtnu are
rulea on the fonnatioa of iinmlar deriratiTea. The oldeat work
tt thii kind, commantad tipon m Ujjraladatta," ia by aome writer*
ascribed to Kltytjana TaiaiiuAl, l^ other* e>en to d&katlyana.
The <ddeat known trealiaa on the philoaophy of gramm'ar and
syntax ia the F<UwajMdl|Ki,'' oompoeed iu Tene, by BharCriluri
(t 7th oentury), whenca It ii alao called BarikSriM. Of later
worka on thia aQhiect, the Faiyittaraiia-MiUAaTui, by Konda-
bhatU, and tha VaiyikariBia^iddM,iiia->iiaii}tAA, by Ntgoji-
hbatta, an tho moat important
n . LaiicoaaxPHi.— Sanakrit dictiouariea {haha), invariably
eompoaed in nne.an either bomonymoos or aynonymoua, or partly
the one and partly the other. Ot thme hitherto publiehed.
SUrata** An^Arihn-tannich^hai/ii}* or " collection of homonyma,*'
ia ^bably tha oldeat. While In the later homouymic Tocabu-
luiss the word* are nioally arranged according to tha alphabetical
order ot tbe final (or aometimee the initial) letter, and then accord-
ing to tha number ot ayllables, ^vata'e priaeiple of anangement
— til. , the nnmber ot meanings aasignable to a word — aaema to be
more primitire. The work probably next in time ia the famous
Amara-iaiKl'' ("immortal treasury"] by Ai
S»"S°
la court of King Vilcram&ditya (c. 650 A.
la former the worda ar« distribnCad in aect
according to anbjecta, aa heaven and the goda, time and aiiaanna,
ke., in the Istter they are amoged acoordiug to their final letter,
without regard to the nnmber of syllables. Thia Koaha baa fonnd
many eomueu tutors, the oldeat ot tboee kuowa being Eihba-
aourcea an the IViU^la and Ulpalitit-koJuit, and the gloaearisa
ot Babhaaa, Tyl4i, Kity£yaua, and VaramchL A Koaha
aacribed to Tanruchi, — whom tmlitioa makes one of the nini
ary "genu
nine^ a
(1111);
ana taa AbAidluliia-<Mnt4Mani" (or Haima-toilia), by the Jaina
Hamachuidra, arem all three to beloug to the 12Ih century.
Somewhat earlier than theae probably is Ajay* Pile, the andior
of the (homonymous) Kditdrtka-tangraAa, being quoted by Var-
dbamina (1140 i.D.}. Of more uncertain date is PunuhotUma
Dera, who wrote the IWfaln^iuAa, a supplement to the
Amarakoaha, beaidsa the Sdriliait, a eollactloa of nncommou
word*, and two other abort gloaaariea. Of nnmerooa ether worka
of this claat the most important is the Itedint, a dictionary of
bomonyma, arranged in the firat place aecording to the flnala and
the ayllabia length, and then alphabetically. Two important
dictionariea, coppiled by native scholara A tha praaent cen-
tury, are the SaMaialiiadnnita by IttdhikJknta Dm, and tbe
yiduupatnii, by TUftoatha Tarka-vftchaapati A toll aoconat
of Sanakrit dictionariea ia conUioed in the preface to the first
edition of H. H. Wileon'a DiUioiutrii, reprinted in hia StKiyt vn
Santtril ZiUnUun, vol ia
V. PaoaoDT lChhaiuIat).—Tba oldeat treatiaes on nroaody have
already been refemd to in the account of the technical biucbea
ot the later 7edic literature. Among more modem treatiaea the
moot important are the J/jila-ianjtvaHl, a conimentaiy on
Fingals's Biltra, by Haliyndha (Hrbap* identical aitb tbe author
of the (^losaa^ above letemid to) ; the Crieto-rodidJzini, or
"jewel-mme of^metrea," in six chapters, composed before the
llth centuiT by Kedlia Bhatia, with aeveral commantariea j and
inetres. In such a way that each couplet
apeclmen of tbe meton U daaoribes. Th* VTiUa-darfona treata
chiefly of PrUqit metna. badcrit pttacdy, which is probably not
aurpaiaed by any other altlwr in variety of metre or in harmoniaua-
uesa of rhythm, racogniie* two claaaaa ot metres via. , anch aa con-
aiit of a certain number of ayOablea of fixed quantity, and suth
aa are regulated by croaps of brevea or metrical inaianta, this
Utter claaa being ^aio of two kinds, Booording as it ia or la not
bound by a fixed order of feet. A pleaaent acoount of Sanskrit
poetics is given In Colsbrooke'a AantM, vol. ii. \ a mon oompUte
and syatematic one by Praf. Weber, IiuL-Stud., vol viiL
TI. Hnsio rSufjUa).— The moaleal art baa been practised In
India ftom early Hmea. Tha tbeoretia treattaaa oB pnfane mnaie
now extant are, however, quite modem prednctioni. The two
moat highly eateemad woAa aia tha 3a»iUa-TatiidkaTa (" Jewel.
mine of mutic ")> by SArn^dara, and Xbt StutgUa-iarpaifa ( mirror
of muaic"), by Duiodara, Each of these works consista of aeven
ehaptera, treating reepecUvely of—{l) sound and muaical notea
Imra) ; (2) melodies {riga) ; (3) moiic in connexion with tha
human voice [praklT^aka) ; (IJ muaical compoaitions {^rotandha) ;
(S)timo andmeaaui« {(J/a) ; (B) mnaical in- " ' ' '
menta! mnaic (nUya) ; (7) dindng and aci
The Indian octave oonaiata like onr own
[nan) ; but, while with ni it is subdivided
the Hindu theory diitingniahea twenty-
audible aoond). Then li, however, aome uuuui as
these frWif are quite equal to ene another,— in whi
iween the chief untea would be nneqnal.
ig [nritia or
intsrvala (imti,
of ei
>e they
interrali between the chief notes be equal, the trvtit themselves
vary In duration between quarter-, third-, and semi-toDea. Then
are three scales ^grAwi), differing from each other in the nature
of the chief intervals (either aa regards actual duration, or the
nnmber of <ruti> or sub-tonea). Indian music couaiata almoet
entirely ia melody, instrumsntal accon)[ianiment being performed
in nnison, and any attempt at harmony boigg connncd to tbe
coatianaliDn of the key-note. A nnmber of pspara, by various
writers, have been reprinted with additional nmarks en Ihe
subject, in Bourindro Kohun Tagore'a Bimdu Mtitie, Calcutta,
187E. Compare also " Hinda Unslc," reprinted from dia
Sitidoo falriot, September 7, 1874,
Til. RuiTOKio (,.4 lonidro-idslra).— Treatiaea on the theory of
SANSKRIT
capalila of bang bstlk daptctnnd uid oUlod forth by tliem-
could not liut be connnUl to tb« Indiin mind. II. K. WUion, ii
bii ThuUre qf a* MinduM, hu giren x detaiied amount ot th<«
theorfltia diitinctioiu with ipecial nfennca to tbo dnnia, nbicb, «
Iha moit perfoct ind Tiried kind of poetic producCioD, luiutlj
ta^H ftn important place In thfl theoir of litonry eotnpoeltion.
Ths Bharala-4ditra h— dread; bsen aUuded to ai probably Iha
oldest eitant work in tbii department of literature. Anothn
compawtiTolj aneient troatiie ii the Xdryrldarfa,' or "mirror ol
poatiT," in three chaplsn, b; Dandin, the author of the DOViil
DaHakuinAiacharita, who probably Hoariihed not long after
l..lliiiau (wboee Pitk^it poem Setnbandha ho qnotoe] in Iha 6th
ii'iitiiry. The irork cengliti of three chlpten, treating— (1) of tiro
dilfaronl local ttyloa [rtti) of poetry, the Gan4l and the Vaidarbht
(to Khich later critici add four othen, the FUoh&lI, UIgadht,
Utl,andAnuitiki); (Z) of the rracea and omamenti ofetyla, aa
ttopsi, fignrei, aimilei ; (S) of iJliteratioi], literary ptuilei. and
twolTe Idnda of fanlCi to be avoided in composing poema. Another
trcatiie ou rhetoric, in SQtru, with a oommentary entitled
KAT^tbinillm-vriUi, la aicribed to Tlinaua. PtoC Cappeller, to
nhom ire owe an edition of this work, ia inclined to Gi it aa lata
as the lith eentiiry ; but it may turn ont to be someirbit older.
The Xivt/dlatilcdra, by the Kaahmirian Bddrata, moat hare
been composed prior to the Utb century, aa 'a gloM on it
(by Kami), which proreiiei to be baaed on oldar cotnmentariea,
was written in 10«8. Dhananiaja, the author of the Data-
rtfpii,* or "ton formi (of plan], the (aToorils compendium of
dnmatnrgr, appears to hare nouriahed in the IQth century. In
the concluding stana ha is stated to hsTa compoasd his work at
tk. .„T,ri «r tfi,™ iinRi. -.1,,. i. irohablT idantwal with the well-
le concluding sti
10 court of ifing
kiiom UHiarft prince, 'the ancle and preJecesac
DUiri. The l&iuflpa was early commented
npoa by Dbanika,
ibly the author's own brother their father's name being tt
I rVjshnn). Dhanika qnotta Bijaiekhini, who is snppoHd 1
liaTe flcntished abont_1000
Jl have to be put
liar. The SanuBiU-tanfiidbhmifa, "the neck-
leranatt (the goddess of eloqutDc*),^ a treatise, ki
fire chapters, on poetica stnersUy, remarkable for its wealth of
SnoUtions, is ascnTiod to King Bhoja himsBir(llth contuiy). pro-
ably u ■ eomnliinent by aome writer patronized by him. The
mi5(o-.pnfcfal*i,'"tha lustra of poelry, " ■nothar eataemed work of
the >amo cbui, in tan aectioas, was probably composed ia the 12Ch
cantnry,— the author, Msmmata, a Kashniirian, haTing been the
maternal unci* of ari-Harah», (he author of the Kaiahadhlja. The
Bdliitya-darpaaa,' at "mirror of compoeitian," ttie standard work
on literary criticism, wsacompoKKi in the ISIh century, on the banks
of the Brahmaputra, by Viirsnitha KaTir^a. The work consists
of ten chaplars, treating of the foiiowiag subjects ^—(1) the nature
rf poetry ; (a) the aentance ; (3) poetic fiareur (nun) ; (() the
diilaions of poetn ; (6) the functions of literary inggostion ; (8)
*isiblo and audible poctrr (ohieBy on dramatic art) : (7) inlts of
'1e; (a}mgriliat etyie
atvle ;
distmctian of styles ; (10)
. Wra).— ThoMg
— o - . mply attested by frequent alli
Vedic writintts, it was donbtleaa not till a much lati
period that the medical practice adrinoed bei'and a certain degree
of empirical skill and phirniaoeutic routine. ?rom thesimultansona
mention of Iha three humoura (wind, bile, phlegm) in a rlrttika to
PSnini (t. 1, 881, some kind of humoral nathology would, howcTer,
ae«m to bare been preralent among Indian physiciatu sereral
ceotanss before our era. The oldest aiiating work is supposed to
hatha CAamto-siniiitM,' a bulky cjcloprntia ia flokae, miied»itb
pro«a sections, which conusta of eight chapters, and was probably
compojcd some canturiea after Chriat. Of equal authority but
rrQb.ibly somewhat more modem, is the Stiinia (-saifiiiM),' which
biwmta IS aaid to have reeeired from Dhanvantari, the Indian
.^■uKulimus, n-bost name, howerer, apnean also amona the "nine
f.^," !c. BSD *.r.l. It condst. of^ix chapters, anf is likewise
fmpoaed m miiod Torse and prose,— the great* ainiplicity of
orrsngoment, as well a> some aliglit attention paid in It to iuraarr,
i.,inV-...n„ -n advance upon Charak>,-» Both - ' . " '
(identjaed by him with aoeralca,
iliddle Ages with Hippooraleii) wjr
aftcr the *^- ' ' -—' "
D ofton confouadcil ii
10 llohammedau couquoat, and that, to far fnia tlie Araba
ly themselTea declare) lUkTiiig derived tome of their
knowle.lm of medical sciaiico from ludian authoritiea, the Indian
Vudyai^tni was nothing but a poor copy of Greek medicine, aa
transmitted br tlie Arabs. But evvn though Onok inflagucs ml;
be traced in this as in other brauchcs of Indian science, then can
be no doubt,' at any rate, that both Cbaraka and Sujimta wen
known to the Arab Mil (c. B31 a.D.}, and to the author of the
Fihrist (completed S87 A.D.), and tliat their works inntt thanfora
hare aiiated, in some form or other, at least as earlv a^i the Slh
oonlntj. Among the numerous later medical worts
important general compendjnma are Ylgbhoti'i Aahtiiiy
"the heart of the eight-limbed (boJy of medical slIc
Bhiva Uiira's BMva-ynJcAla ; wliile of speoial treatiao
mentioned Mldliava's system of nosology, the SvjtiKikliaya, or
U<ldlvim^idAiut, and ainigadhan's compeadiom of therapontica,
the SdngadlviTa-iavkilH. listeria meilica. witli which India b
so lavishly endowed by nature, ia a (aTOUrite subject with Hindu
medical writers,— the most valnod treatias beini the fcfja-Hi'^Jtonfii,
by Che Knshmirisn Kamhori. The beat general Tiev of this branch
of Indian science is continned in T. X Wise'e dmnHtnlan «
Hindu Ifedleitu, I34G, snd in his ffistorv ^ JtBiicinf, ytiL L,
iS2
'eetigation.
be broadly d
While the Itl
of Hipparchu
whether the i
I into a pre-scientiflc and a
Hiuda utronomy
.3
r presupposes a knowledge of the researehea
ler Greek aatrouomera, it is stll! doublTul
liec satronomical and astrological theories of Indian
nlirely of home growth or partly derived from
loroign sources. From Tory ancient (probably Indo.Luropoan) timea
chronologies! cslculatians were based on the aynodical nTotntk>iki of
the moon, — the difference between twelve auch revolntioDa (making
together SG4 days) and the solar year being s^jttited by the li-
aertion, at the time of the wintar solatica, of twdva additlcuial day^
Baaidea this primitive motle the Rigyeda also tllitdei to the neOiod
prevalent ia post- Vedic timea, according to which th* year ia divided
.thir-
live (Jdmna or solar) months of thiitydays, w.._
tteath month intercalated every fifth Year. .This qninqi
cycle (yujM) is oTplained in the JyotMoj r^ardad aa the oldat
astronomloal treatise. An institution which oocupia* an important
part in tboee early apacoiation* ia the theory of the siMxllca lunar
lodiac, or^atamot lunar mansions, by which th a planetary path, in
accordance with the duration of the moon'e rotation. Is divided into
twenty-seven or twenty-eight different stations, named iflet certain
constellationa (nakihaira) which are foand alongaide of the ecliptic,
and with which the moon (masc. ) was supposed to dwell snccealTaly
Arabia ; but it ii still doubtful" whether Che Hindua, h some
scholars hold, or ths Chsldcans, a« Prof. Teber thinka, era to be
creditad with the invention of this theorjr. The principal works
of thla period an hitherto known from quotationa only, vii., tbi
atrgt SaiKhUd, wliich Prof. Sam would Sz at e. H KC.,.the
tTdradt SaiiMid, and others.
The new era, which the nme scholar datta from e. UO a.i>., la
marked by the appearance of the file orisinal Siildb&iitaa (partly
eitant in revised redactiona a:id in quotaSons), the very namaa of
two of which suggest Western infloencs, via., the faildnmktt-,
SSjya-," Faiiitffa-, Jlomaia- (i.e., Roman), and I'mlUa-iid-
dliinba. Based on these are the works of -the most diatingnishcd
Indian sstronomers, viz., Aryabhata,^ probably bom in i7i ;
VBiiha-mibira,o probably II0S-G07; finhma-gunta, who eomplelsd
hie BtalKW-t(dJ/iilxta id 823 ; Bhatta Utpala (10th century),
distinguished especially as commcutator of Vaiiha-mihira ; and
Dhtskars Aehbja, who finiahed his mat course of astronomy, the
Sidd/idnia-iiromani, In USD. In iha works of several of then
writers, from Iryabbata onwards, special attention ia paid to
mathematical (especially arithmetical and algebraic] compnta-
tions ; and the mncctive chaptara of Bhlakara's compendium, via. ,
tbo LUdialt and Vyo^piVo," atill form favourite toitbooka of
these mbjecCs. The question whether Arfabhata was acquainted
with the researches of the Greek algebraist IMopbantoa (e. 860
still unsettled ; but, oven if this was the ease,
e seems to have been carried bv him beyond the
lytheOiwks. (J. K.)
S A N — S A N
SANSON, KiooLU (1600-166T), % Fraoeh carto-
gnpber, wbo, while it U ft mubke t« c»ll biu tlie crmtoi
of Fmtclt geogisphf , «tUu3«d % gc««t vid weU-daoerTed
BmineoM in hia protenion. Ho wm born of an old
Ficaidf funily of Scottish deocent, kt Abberille, on
Dooembcr 20, 1600, and wu educated bjr the JmuiU at
^mum. Tiio metcaotile ptmnit bjr which he firtl oonght
to make his living proved & fftilaie, bttt in 162T he «m
fnrtanato anongh to kttnct the fttteatioa <^ Uich''ien b;
k map of Q&ol which he h&d cooBtracted while sttli in
hb teens, and through the csrdinBl'a iaflQenco he was
appointed rojal engiaeer in Picardj and geographer to the
king. How highly hta ■erricea ware appreciated bj hia
rojal patrona ia ahown bj the fact that when Louia XUI,
came to AbbeTiIle ha preferred to become >J)e gueat of
Sanson (then employed on the fortifieatioat), iottaad of
oocapf ing the Runptuotu lodgings ptotided b; the town.
Sauos's sneceM waa embittered by a qnarrel with the
Jeanit Labbe, whom be accnaed of plagiariiing him in hia
F/kana GaUim AntiqHo, and by the death of hia eldest
Boa Nioolaa, killed dnriog the diaturbancaa of the £Vonde
(IfilS). He died at Paria July 7, 1667. Two younger
■ona, Adrian (died 1708) and Ouillaume (died 1703), auc-
oaeded him aa geographera to the king.
Sbuob'i priDcW worki 4n Oallim Antimut Daartftii Qto-
ITvfkiim^ 1837 ; Brilantiia, ISU, in which \m mki bi idnitily
BtTaho'sBritauaiairithAbbeTiU«(!)i £afVaiic<,141<i In^iantm
OtOHm AMimm niiippi labtt Ihrnuiiitima, 18*7-1648 ; and
Otmakia Sacra. In IflH JuUot collecUd Sanun's mips In an
Mbt Mtatau. Hit eartt^nphj' U gtnenlly bold and rigorooa
SANBOVINO, Andma Cohtucci b«l Montb (U60-
1939), ao able Florentine acniptoi, who lived daring the
n^ decline of plastic art which took place from about the
bc^nmng of the 16th centai7; he waa the son of a shep-
herd called Niccolo di Domenico Contncei, and waa bom
in 1610 at Unite BanaaTino near Areiio, wheocs he took
his xiMjao, wbich ia nsoatly softened to Santovino. He
waa a pnpil of Antonio ^Uaiaolo, and during the first
I»rt of hu life worked in the purer atyle of lSth-c«itary
Florencet Hence his early worka ara by far the best,
Boch aa the tena-cotta altar-pioce in Santa Cbiara at Monte
SanaaTino^ and the marble reliefa of the Annunciation,
the ConoatioD of the Virgin, a KetL, tlie Last Supper,
and nrioaa atatuettes of aaints and angels in the
CorUnelli cbapel of B. Spirito at Florence, all executed
between the yean 1488 and U92. From HSl to
1000 Andrea worked in Portugal for the kiag, and eome
pieces of scniptnre by him still exist in the monastic
church of Coimbra.' These eaily reliefH show strongly
the in£neace of Bonatello. The beginning of a Uter and
more pagan style ii shown in the statues of St John
baptiiing Christ which are over the east door of the
Florentine b^tiatery. This group was, however, finished
by the weaker hand of Vincenao Dauti. In 1503 he
Bxecnted the marble font at Tolteira, with good reliefs of
UiB Four Tirtuea and the Baptism of Christ. In 160S
Sansonno waa invited to Rome by Jnlius IL to make
the moDuments of Cardinal Ascanio Maria Sforza and
Cardinal Qirolamo della Bovere for the retrcxihoir of S.
Uaria del Popola The architectural parts of titeae
monnraenla and their sculptnied foliage are extremely
graceful and executed with the most mioute delicacy, bnt
the recumbent effigies show the beginning of a serioua
decline in taste. Thongh skilfully modelled, they are
uneuy in attitnde, and have completely loat the calm
digni^ and simple lines of the earlier eCGgiea, auch as
Ihow of the school of Mino da Fiesole in the same chnrch.
Theee tomba had a very important influsoee t»i the
monumental senlpture of the time, and became models
■ ■•• BasuaU, Lm AHitn Fvrtmfid, Faita, IStB, p. Ui
which for many years wera oopied by most later sculptors
with increasing exaggerations of their defects. In 1612,
while still in Rome^ Sansoviao oiecoted a very beautiful
group which shows strongly the influence of Leonardo da
Vino, both in the poee and in the sweet expreeaion of the
faces J it is a group of the Madonna and Child with St
Annc^ now over one of tha side altars in the church of 8.
Agostina From 1S13 to 1528 ha waa at Loreto, whcra
he cased the outude of the Santa Caaa in white marble,
covered with reliefa and atatnettsa in nichea between
engaged coinmna ; a small part of this gorgeous maaa of
aculpture waa the work of Ajidrea himself, but the greater
part waa executed by Uontelnpo, Tribolo, and others of
hia numerous school of assistants and pupils. Though
the general effect of the whole is very rich and magnificent,
the individual pieces of sculpture are both dull and feeble,
showing the unhappy reaulta of an attempt to imitate
Michelangelo'a grandeur of atyle. The earlier reliefa, thoae
by SaoBDvino himaelf, ara the bea^ atill retaining aome of
the Bculptnresqne purity of the older Florentines. He
died in 1S29.
SANSOYINO, Jaoofo (UT7-1S70), was called San-
sovino after his master Aadiea (see above), his family
name being TattL Bom in 1477, he became a pnpil of
Andrea in IfiOO, and in 1510 accompanied him to Rome,
devoting himaelf there to the study of antique aculpture.
Juliua U. employed him to restore damaged statues, and
while working in the Vatican ha made a full-sized copy of
the Laocoon gronp, which was afterwards cast in btonse,
and is now in the Uffizi at Florence. In IGll he returned
to Florence, and began the statue cA Bt Jamea the Eider,
which is now in a niche in ona of the great piers of the
Duomo. Under the influence of hia atudies in Rome he
carved a nude fignre of Bacchus and Pan, now in the
Bargello, near the Bacchus of Michelangelo, from the
coDtraat with which it auffers much Boon after the com-
pletion of these works, Jacopo returned to Rome, and
deaigned for hia fellow -citiiena the grand chnrch of S.
Qiovanni Ata Fiorentini, which was afterwards carried out
by Antonio Sangallo the younger. - A marble group of the
MadonnaandCbild,nowatthe weet of S. Agostino, was his
next important work. It is heavy in style, and quite widi-
out the great grace and beauty of the Iiladonoa and Bt Anne
in the same chnrch by his master Andrea. In 1527 Jacopo
fled from the sack of Rome to Venice, where he waa welcomed
by hia friends Titian and Pietro Aretino ; henceforth till
bia death in 1570 he was almost incessantly occupied to
adorning Venice with a vast number of magniGcent build-
ings and many second-rate piecea of sculpture. Among
the latter Jacopo's poorest works are the colossal statues
of Neptune and Mus on the grand staircase of the ducal
palaeej from which it ia usually known as the " Qianta'
Staircase," His best are the bronze doors of the sacristy
of Bt Mark, cast in 1663 ; inferior to these are the seriee
of aix bronie reliefs round the choir of the same church,
attempted imitations of Qhiberti's style, bat unquiet in
design and unscnlpturesqne in treatment In 1S65 he
completed a small bronze gate with a graceful relief of
(Arist surrounded bj AogeLt^ this gate shuts oS the altar
of the Reserved Eoet in &e choir of St Mark'a
Jacopo's chief claim to real distinction rests upon the
numerous floe Venetian buildings which he deaigoed, such
as the public library, the miot, the Scnola della Miaeri-
cordia, the Palazzo de* Comari, and the Palazzo Delfino,
with its magnificent staircase, — the last two both on the
grand canal ; a small loggia which he built at the foot of
the great Campanile, rit^y decorated with sculpture, has
recently been pulleH down and much damaged, but is
being rebuilt Among his ecclosiastieal works the chief
are Oie chnrch of S. Fantino, that of E Martina^ near thf
1 A N — S A N
■nsiuU, the Seoolft dl S. Oiovanni d^ Schia^oni, And,
finest <tf all, the cbnrch of 8. OemimaDo, near St Mark's,
a ytnj good specimen of the Tascan and Oompcsite erdi
tuad widi the graceful freedom of the Heoaisaance.
Hie otherwise proeperons cooise of the artist's life was
intermpted bj one BerioDs misfortiutft In 1S45 tfao loof
of the public library, vbich bo was then coostmcting,
gave my and fell in ; on account of this ha was im-
prisoned, fined, and dismiBBed from the office of chief
■rchiteot of the cathedral, to which bs had been appointed
by a decree of the signoria on April 7, 1CS9. Owing,
bowever, to the intervention of bis friends, Titian, Fietro
Aretino, and others, he was soon set at liberty, and '
1619 he was restored to bis post He did good serv:
to the oathedial of St Mark's by strengthening its failing
domes, which he did by encircling them wiUi bands of
iron. Sansovino^B architectural works have mncb beauty
ti proportion and grace of ornament, a little marred iit
some cases by an excess of senjptured decoration, though
the carving itself is always beautiful both in design and
exwution. Ea nsed the classic ordera with great freedom
and tasteful inventiou — very difierent from tiie doll schol-
asticism of most of his ooutemponu'ies. His nomeions
pupils were mostly men of but littis talent.
SANTA ANNA, Airroino" Lopez di (1798-1876). for
many years a prominent figure in the troubled politics
of Mexico, was bom at J^i>a on February 21, 1798,
Having entered the army, be joined the part? of iTimBiDs
(q.v.) in 1B21, and gained distinction and promotion by
the port he took in ^e surprise and capture of Vera Cruz.
In ^le following year be quarrelled with bis chief and
himself became leader of a party, but without in the first
tnatanee achieving success. In 1838, however, be sided
with Guerrero, who made him war minister, and also
commauder-in-chief after a successful operation against
the Spaniards in 1839. He successively accomplished the
overthrow of Guerrero in favour of Bustamante and of
Bustamante in favonr <^ Pedroza, and finally in March
1833 was himself elected president In 183G he was
defeated and taken by the Texan revolutionists, but
returned to Mexico the following year. In ISll, after
considerable vicisaitudes, he was deposed and banished, bnt
hs wa« bro^ht bock once more to the presidential chair
in 1B16. This second term of office lasted till the fall of
Mexico in 1817, when he resigned. He was made prasi-
dei^ again in IBS3, but finally abdicated in IBbS. In
1867 he took part in " pronundamientos " which led to
his banishment. In 1874 he was permitted to return to
his native soil, where he died two years sftarwards.
- BANTA CBUZ. See Saint Ceoix. For Samxa
Ckuz di Santuoo see Cahaxy Isi.uiiw, voL iv. p. 799 ;
and for Santa Ckvz or NirxNVi' Islahs see Nxw
HsBBioicB, voL xviL p. 390.
SANTA F£, a city of the Argentine Republic, capital
of the. province of Santa Fi (38,600 square miles;
189,000 inhabitanU), occupies on area of 100 acres, 90
mileE north of Bosano, ou the north-east or left faonk of the
Bio Salodo at its Junction with the Parani, in a district
subject to periodical inundations. It is the seat of the
governor, tiie bishop, and the legislature, and contains a
cathedral, a Jesuits' church (1GS4) and college (the latter
an important institutmn with 400 boarders), a new
bishop's palace, a town-hall (with a fine tower), extensive
infantry barracks, and a large market A foundry, a
macaroni-factory, oil-factories, and tils-works are the chief
industrial establishments. "The population in 1881 was
10,400, a decrease sinca 1869. Santa Vi woe founded in
15T3 by Juan de Garay.
HANTA r^ a city of the United States, eafatal of
Now Mexico^ stand* in a wide plain sunonnded by moun-
tains about 7000 feet above the aeo, in SB* 41' N. lett. and
105° 46' W. bug., near the Santa ¥i Creek, which joins
the Bio Grande del Korte 11 or 15 miles farther south-
west It is connected by a branch line (18 miles) with
the Atchison, Topeka, and Santa Fi Bailttiad at I^my
Junction, 835 miles from Atchison. The houses are nuioly
constructed of adobe, and the irregularity of the pl^
shorn how recently the city has come und^ the influence
of " Amarican " progress. Among tlie mora noteworthy
buUdinga an tbe new capitol, for which funds wets voted
in 1883, the Eoman Catholic cathedral, erected Bince
1870, and the old govemor's palace^ a long low edifice
occupying one side of the principal plaia, which now con-
tains a soldiers' monument in honour of those who fell in
the service of the United States. Santa F6 is an important
centre of trade, and tbe development of the mining in-
dustries in the vicinity is rapidly increamng its jvOBperity.
The population was 6635 in 1881.
One of the old«t dtiea of North Amsrics, Bante 7i de Sin
FnncLsHi wu ths es^ital or Hew Moiico rnmi IStO, bat remuBcd
in comphntive wclouoa till the early nirt of the pment centmr,
vbsn it becuDB a main, atation on -what itaa called the Santa Fs
Trail— the trade route between the Unitod States and liatlca, or
mon SBpecially between 8t LouLh and Chihnalma. A cnstODt-houae
WH established in tiie dty in 1S21, and the first American merran-
tUe house Ix^an buaiseBS in 1826. By 1S43 the value ot the
merchandiee entmeted to the train of 230 waggoDa from Bt Looi*
waa $«90,000. Qeneial Kearny boilt Fort Uarcyat Banta Ti iq
lfl*a, and in 18B1 the city becama the eapilal ot the new Territoty.
In 1882 It ma occnpied for a tew daya by the Confedentea.
BANTA Ffi DE BOGOTA. Sea Booori.
BANTiX PAKOAKAS, The, a British district in tha
lientenant-govemorship of Ben^ forming the sonthem
portion of the Bh&gaJpur division, and lying between S3*
48' and 36° 19' N. lat, and between 86° 30" and 87" 68"
E. long. , The total area of the district js C156 square
milea; it ia bounded on the north by the districts of
Bh&galpur and Pumiah, ou the east by Moldah, Hurshi-
dibAd, and Bfrbhtim, on the sooth Iw Bocdw&n and
MinbhAm, and on the west by Easiriba^ and BhigalpuTi
Three distinct types of country are repiwentad witUn the
area of the Sont&l ParganAa : in the east a sharply defined
belt of hills stretches for about a hundred miles from the
Oongee to the Naubii Kiver ; west of this point a rolling
tract of long ridges with interveriiDg depiessions covers
. of about 2500 square miles ; while the third type
iplified by a narrow strip of flat alluvial country
about 170 miles long, lying for the most part along the
loop line of the East Indian Railway. The B^mabal Hillt
are the only range of any importance in the districli and
occupy an area of 1366 sqnare nules; but tiiey nowhere
exceed 2000 feet in height Several other hill ranges
■hich are with few exceptions covered almost to
their summits with dense jungle ; th^ are all difficult of
access ; there are, however, uumarons possee throng all
the Tongea. Coal and iron are fonnd in almost aQ parts
of the country, but the coal is of anch inferior qnali^
that all attempts to work it have failed. Wild animal^
including tigen, leopards, bears, hyainas, deer, and wild
pig; with a variety of small game, are common almost
everywhere. The climate varies : the alluvial boct has
the damp heat sjid moist soil characteristic of Bengal,
while the undulating and hilly portions are swept by the
hot westerly winds of Behar, and are very cool in the
winter months. Tbe average annual rainfall is over SO
inches. The district is traversed on the east by the loop
h'ne, and on the west by the chord line, of the ^at Indian
RaUway ; the total length of railway is about 130 mil»
~ of 1881 dieelesed a total popnlatioa in tha Santiil
Painnlaof
I A N — S A N
897
Vor HI aeeami et thli btanrtlnK triba, tto Iitdia. toI. xiL p.
Tli. TL» popaUtioa h aliiMat tntinlj nml ; onlj two tunuii
aoatHS ont £000 inlttUtauH Hch, rii., DeDghu, vhkb i> the
oalj nuuiidp^itr, vith > popaktian oC 801G, «nd Sliihsl^Diia
wItB 0511. Tho ■dnuiiiltntiTs heailqnirtsn in at Narl Dumlu.
Bica kmm th« itula eiap of tiM Bantil Ptrguub, anil u lirgctj
gnnm ia llis ■llmial lUp cf ouuuUj which rum alons tha euUni
ieaaitjet^tiiMtniX. Otbn cnn u« milleti, «b«C barUf,
nBin,- Tuioa jmIh* uul eil-M*d^ jDta, fUx, mga-ant, cotton.
and iBdi^ Tbt dMrict i> (tngnltrir dcrtitnis of any local
mumbctnn* : iron [■ rmghlj imsltAl bv Kol Bttlcn tnm
CfautU Hagpar; eouu cloth i> woran M a Jonmatio mannractun,
•Dd Mt-iMtal ntuudla ara mad) to a amall uteiit ; indigo i> alao
manntactond. Tha tnida ia earned on br mcanii of permanent
mattLeta. Kiporti cotUBt chieHj of rico, Indian, corn, oil auda,
tuar-dk coooom, lac, anuU-aized timbar, and hill buibooa; while
Baroinaii flmmgaodM, adb and braa or bell-metal utAntili for hooM-
bold DM aompcn th* bulk of the importi. In IB83-B4 tha croaa
nraiMof tb* diitriot uiUHmtcd to £*6,it7, of which tha laud-
tajiMai £13,169.
T%B Saatti* hate bacD known to tba Btitlah liDoe the Utter
Ert o( Ow leth cantniT. In ISM two Ooreminent olEciala were
patad b> demanata with aolid maaonrr pillan tha present area
tt the Daaun-I-Soh, or akirla of tha hllla. Tlie ponniiaian to
Saotila to aattlc in the TiUeja aad on the lower ilopea ot tlie
Daman Itimiilated Bontil inmigntioa to an enonDDos extent.
Tha Biodn monej-lender aooii mideliia ajipeannce imongst them,
and led M tba taboUion of ISU-M. The IninmctiDu waa not
qODllad without Uoodihad, but it led (o the eaUbliahmriit of a
uim of admlniatration congenial to the immistwita ; and a land
aettlemeot baa ainca been carried oat on conoitioaa (arouiabte (o
tha oceopuili of the aoll.
SANTA UABIA. Bee CAfirA.
SANTA HAUBA, or Liucadu (AnwoSo, uicieot
Arvtm), ons of the lonba Islanda, with &□ area of 110
aqatn milea ud a popolatioa (1880) of 25,000 (20,832
in 1870), lies pff tba coant of Acamania (Qreece),
immMliBtelj BonUi of the entrance to tha GnlF of Arto.
It first »ppe«TB in histoiy as & peninsula (Odj/ttey, xxiv.
378), and, if the etateinenta of ancient authorities be
accepted literallj, it owed its existence ai an island to tlio
Coiiathiaai, trhoae canal acroaa the isthmos waa again
after a long period of diiuse opened up by the Romaoa.
Bat it is probable rather that Leucas waa then as now
aepanted froni the moialand b; a shallow lagoon (two
feet or lees). Duriag the English occapation a canal for
boats of fonr to live feet draoght was formed from Fort
Santa Hanra to the town, but tha 16-feet^eep ship canal
which it waa proposed (1844) to carry right acron the
lagoon or aubaie^Bd isthmus to Fort AJeiander was onl;
partially ezcaTated.! Santa B£aura, measaring alwDt 20
miles from north to aonth and 5 to 8 milea in breadth, is
ft mgged man of limestone and bitumioona shales (partly
Tertitaj), rising in its principal ridges to heights of 2000
aad 8000 feet, and presenting very limited areas of lerel
ground. The grun crop snffices only for a few months'
local cODSnmption; but olive oil of good quality is produced
to the extent of 30,000 to 50,000 barrels per annum ;
the Tine)«rda (in the west specially) yield 100,000 barrela
ot red wine (bought m^nly by Roaen, Cette, Trieste, and
Tenics); the currant, introduced about 1859, hasgradnally
come to be the principal aonree of wealth (the crop averag-
ing 2,600,000 lb) ; and small quantities of cotton, flax,
tobacco, nlonia, ik, are also grown. The salt trade, for-
merly of importance, haa snfiered from Qieek cnatoms
reguiationa. Though to a laige extent unlettered and
BuperstitiotiB, the inhabitants are indnstrions and well-
behared. The chief town (6000 inhabitants) properly
called AmaTJkhi, but more usually Santa Uanra, after the
neigjiboQiing fort, is situated at the north-east end of the
island t^iposite the lagoon. In the soath-weat ia the
Tillage of TasUiki, where a wharf protected by a mole
' Aa a atx hmTfl' iboriening of the itenm-paeiage between tbe Levuit
and the Adiiatjc would be alhcted by luc)! a chtumel the echema haa
■pli ba«i Ukm Dp. Asoording to If . Prat, tbe anglneei eaehind
l»Mp<i^thadndti]«oDBUbada>afMl,aOO,OOOtraiica. '
wu huiJt in IS77-*78 for dupping the eomat crop. Ee-
maias of Cyclopean and polygonal walls exist at Kaligdni
(south of Amaxikhi), probably the site of the ancient
acropolis of Neritu (or Nericus), and of the later and
lower Corinthian settlenient of Leucas. From thia point
a Roman bridge seems to liare croeued to tbe mainland. -
Between the town and Fort Santa Hanra extends a
reniarkably fine Tnrkiah aqueduct partly destroyed along
with the town by the earthquake of 1826. ForU Alex-
ander and Conatantine commanding the bridge are relics
of the Busaian occupation ; the other forts are of Turko-
Tenetian origin. Tii6 magnificent '■lift, some 2000 feet
high, which forma the southern termination of the modern
island still bears the subetructiona of the temple of Apollo
Leucatas (hence the modern name Capo Ducato). At the
anooal featival of Apollo a criminal waa obliged to plunge
from the summit into the sea, where, however, an effort
was made to pick him up ; and it was by the same heroic
leap that Bappho and Artemisia, danghter of Lygdamis,
are said to have ended their lives.
BANTANDEB, a province in the north of Spain, on
the shores of the Bay of Biscay, bonnded on the £. by
Biscaya, on the S> by Burgos and Palencia, and on the
W. by Leon and Oviedo. The arm is 2113 square miles.
The prorinoe is mountainons in character, being tcaveraed
from east to west by the Cantabrian chain, which in the
Picoa de Earopa reaichee a height of ovar 8700 feet, and
aends oS numerous branches to the sea. On the north aide
of the range the streams are ail short, tiie principal being
the Ason, the Hiera, the Pas, the Besaya, the Soja, and
the Nanso, which Bow into the Bay of Biscay ; part ot the
province lies to the southward of the watershed, and ia
drained by tbe upper Ebra The valleys of Sanlaoder
ore fer^e, and prcKlnce various Irinds of grain, naise,
pulse, hemp, flu, and vegetables. Oranges, Innons,
grapes, figa, and other fmita flonriah, and foraste of oak,
diestnnt, walnut, and fir cover the hills. Bich pasturage
for cattle and swine and a good supply of game are abb
found among them, and the fisheries along the coast are
likewise productive. Foreign capital has been success-
fully applied to the development of lead, coal, and iron
mines ; and the motrntaios contain qnarriea ot limestone,
marble, and gypsum, and abound with mineral springs.
The district was part of the Roman province of Cantabna,
which, after passing tinder the empire c^ the Ootbs,
became the principality of the Asturias. The portion
called Aaturia de SeJita Juliana, or Sanlillan^ was included
in the kingdom of Old Castile, and, on the Babdivisiou of
the old provinces of Spain in 1833, became tba province
of Santander. The people are of a purer race thoa in
parts of Spain subjected by the Hoors, and both in mental
and physical qualities show their Tontouie ancestry. The
industriee of tlie country are consequently in a flonriiddng
condition, and, besides the natural products above men-
tioned, there are foundries, breweries, diatilleries, tanneries ;
cotton, linen, cloth, and flour mills; brick and tile works;
and mannfactoriea of hats, soap, buttons, preserves, and
chocolate^ The province is travaraed from north to south
by the railway and high road from Santander by Folencia
to Madrid ; the highMt point on the railway (Tents de
F&zomI) is 322S feet above the sea. For purposes of
administration the province is divided into aleren partidos
judtciales, containing 103 aynntamientca, and rBturos two
senators and five deputies to the cortes. Tbe population
in 18T7 numbered 236,299. Besides Santander, the
capital, tha only places having within the municipal
boundaries a population exceeding 6000 are Casttx>-
Urdiilea (7623), Valle de Pielagoa (66O0), ToneUvegn
(7192), and Talderredible (7240). Sontofia has 4428,
•nd Lando 4»1 SantUlana (1776) has a fine Bonaih
A N — S A N
■aqoe eharch and cltHster (IStli eentiiry), and wm tlie
birtliplace of the architect Juan de HBirera.
SANTANDER {Porhu Blenditaa, Fanvm S. Andrea),
capital of the above proviiica, 316 miles bj nil from
Madrid, ii the seat ot a bishopric and one of the chief
seapOTla ot Spain. The population in 1877 numbered
41,000, Laving almost doubled in the preceding quarter of
a centurj, and the trade of the port has iocreaaed ia BQ
oven greater proportion. The town is situated on the
inside of a rock; peninsula, which separates it from the
Bay of Biscaj and forms a magnificent harbour from 2 to
3 miles vide and 4 miles long. The entrance is at the
eastern extremity of the promontor)', and, though some-
what difficult for sailiug vessela in certain winds, has
depth of water sufficient for the largest shipa. The
total burthen ot the vessels entered in 1862 amounted
to 104,449 tons British and 500,342 tons of other oatioDS.
The chief exports consisted of iron ore (20,966 tons) to •
Great Britain, and wine (191,400 galls.) and olive oil
(8000 galls.) to France. The citj is divided' into an
up|iGr and a lower town, and containa few buildings of
intereat. Tho cathedral was originally a Ootbic structure,
but has been so altered by later additions that little of
tho old work romiuns. In the crypt, or Captlla del
Criito da Abajo, there is a font of Moorish workmanship
which has some intwest. The castle of S. Felice contains
a prison which was probably the first example of the
radiating system of construction. Besides these buildings
there are the theatre, which was formerly a convent, the
hospital, and ths Jesuits' church. The city is essentially
m<idera, and its chief features are its well-built bouses, its
quitys, and its factories. In addition to tho manufactures
ot the province mentioned above, Santander has gas-works,
phosphorus, sulphuric acid, and sail manufactories, and a
large cigar factory, formerly a convent, where over 1000
hands are employed. Besides being a trading port
Santander ia also a watering-place which enjoys peculiar
advantages of climate. The faathiag establishment of the
Sordinero, on ths seaward side ot the strip ot land the town
is built on, offers all the attractions usual to CoDtinentol
wateriog-placea. There is communication by tail with
Madrid and by steamer with Liverpool, London, and Ham-
burg, as well as with Havana and the seaports ot Spain.
The port «u in 17SS mads oii« of tho " puert« hstiilitailoa " or
norti priTilegod to trad« KJtb Amarica, tnd in 17IIB itwu created &
■■ciud^." i^horloa V.Undod hen in lG22nlian h« ctme to takspoB.
■csion of tlioSjianiihcrowD.uid from this port CharleBLoEEngluid
nioli«rlied on hia ratum from his ill.fsteil visit (aoijHito in Msreh ot
Bitifs. The dtfwisncliedbythoFrancliiuiderBojlt InlSOSi but
90 little gratitude did tho poople shos to their Engliih illiei that it
win with the p™tcBt dilScnUy lupplioi were foond for tho tn»™.
SAMTAREM, a city and bishop's see of Portugal, in the
province ot Estremaduro, on the declivities ot the right
bank ot tho Tagua, 46^ miles by rail trum Lbbon. It has
the ruins of an old castle, well known in Portuguese bbtory
as a' royal residence, especially in the Middle Ages, and
several of its churches are ot historic and architectural
interest. A considerable trade is carried on, and the popu-
lation was 7001 in 1878.
Santanm, to nomod after a cerUia St Irene, ii identified with '
the ancient Scaliabie PmaiJinm Jnlium. The death of Dinii 1.
and tho birth, alidicBtlon. and death of Don Honni^ue llis cardinal
king, all occarred iatliocit)'; it give i la name to Joflodo Satitarcm.
one of tho Ifith-ctrntiiry natigalots ; arii Femando I. and Caliral,
dierovvror of Braiil, vers buried nithin its walla. Tho UiKueliatg
lion) comrlctcly routed hero bj Hapior »nJ Villaflor in 183*.
SANTAREM, a city of Brazil, at the head of a comarca
in tbe province ot Pari, is situated on the right hank near
tbo month of the Rio Tapajde, a right-haDd tributary of
tho Amazon. It is a clean and neat-looking place, with
rows ot whitewashed houses in the European tovm,
clusters of pslm-thatchcd huts in the Indian Bvbnrb, a
large church, the ruins <rf a stone fort, and, •tooding apart,
,yGooglc
SANTIAGO
midw ibo gorernment of Amhrario O'Higfpua; it !■ now
c towed by Berenl luuidBoai« bridge^ tlw old««t of which,
ft stractnn of eleven arcLes, dfttcs frtMU 176T-I7T9. From
tiiff Ttrj fint Baotugo wu laid oat with great regnkrit;
in panllelognms ■ Iwt owing to the froqneucj oF evth-
qokkiB the dwelling-bonaM ura seldom built of mora than
K un^ atorj in heiglit. The cathadraj, sitnatad in the
PlaB de h Independencia, is the oldest of the chorchee.
OngiDallj erected by Pedro Valdivia and rebuilt b; Oorda
Hnrtado de Mendoia, it wu deatrojed by the eaithqaake
of ]fl4T and lebnllt on a new plan mbaeqTient to 1748.
It is 301 feet long by 93 fact wide, but has no very striking
featmes. Among thd other eccleaiaatical buildinga are the
dmtch of San Agostin, erected in 1695 bj Crist6hai de
Vera and in modem times adorned with a pillared portko ;
the dkorchsB of Baa FnineUco, Ia llerood, and Banto
Domingc^ dating from the 18th centory; the Augnatine
niintiery founded hj BUhop Hedellin in lfiT6; the Carmen
Alto, or church of the Carmelite nnnnerj, bo elegant little
Oothie building; the stately chnrch of the fieformed
Dominican!, ridh in marble monolithic columns ; and the
chapd erected in 1803 to the memory of Pedro Valdivia
niBzt to the house in which he ii reputed to hare lived.
"nm pobUe cemetery, recently aecalanzad, haa a large
nnmber of marble and bronze monuments, — mostly from
Italy. Among the secolar boildings the mora noteworthy
am tka palace of the btendency, the dd presidential palace
(pop«laily Las C^'aa), the congreos buildings, the mint,
the palace of joatica, the municipal theatre. The i«eaent
nwTenity of Santiago dates from I8t3,— the older Uni-
renidad da San FeuM^ which bad been eatablished in
1747, hafing bean cMwd in 1839. It ooenpiea a fine
boiling in the Alawda, and alongside atanda the great
National Insthnta <rf BeaHtdary Education. In 1883 the
nnivenity was attended by 920 atodenta and the inatitota
by 1069. mw dty also contains a school of arts and ttadea
(1819), a mnaical consemttnio (1849), a nattoi:al museum,
a military school established in 1S42 and enlarged on the
abolititm of the naval military school at Valparaiso in 1872
(now i»«atablished), and a school of iuricttlCQre founded
by the AgriciUtaial Society chartered in 1869. The
National lilvary is a noble collection of books dating from
1813, eqieciaUy rich in works lelating to America ; tliero
ii abo a good library in the National Inatitnte. Beddes
the official joornal, Santiago haa four daily papers, as
well as vaiiona reviews and other aerials. Besides the
Alameda, a grtat tree-planted avenue decorated with
atatuee (the Abbd Molina, Qeaeials San Martin, Carrara,
(yEiggin^ and Freir^ Ac.), the principal open spaces in
SantiagD an the ¥\aa de la Indepandencia, tifc Canadilk,
a bnad tie»4K)tdered avenue, ths Alameda de Yungay,
the Oampo de Matte (where are tha Penitentiary, a prison
built and administered according to the moat approved
modem prindplei, and the targe Artillery Park), tha QolDta
Normal da Agrictdtora, which comprises iool<^cal and
botanical gardens, «iid the large area in which the Inter-
natioDal Exhibition of 1875 was held. Aa the Mapocho
w« unfit for drinkin^^ water wu introduced about 1866
by an aqueduct 0 miles long. The prevailing winds at
^ntiago are from the aoaOi and aouth-weat On aa
average nin Ula for 216 hours in the course of the year,
moctly betwecD May and September. Snow and hail are
both eztnmely rara Earthquakes are so &equent that
H many as twenty-aeven or thirty shocks are sometunv
regislered in a year. Those which have proved real^
disaatrons are the earthquake of 17tli March 1575, I3th
Hay I647,8thJuly 1730, 19th Hovambv 1823, and 20th
Vvtmaij 1S3D. The population of Santiago^ irtiidi was
rebmied in 188fl aa 168,003 (79,920 males and 8&fi33
fomake), had iueraund to 300^000 in 1683.
It VIS in PebroaiT ISil Aat Pedte dv Vildlria, oixi of limni'a
optaini, feundad tho citj of r ' *~
> Buttunio ii
u Cbiliau
HiD iilsca Lu all
orj, imt pcrbDim
iportut iKHiit
t churub wiCb iLo lum
(8Ch Ducuiubi'r 1863).
flANTIAOO DE COMPOSTELLA, the former caiiiUJ
of Oalicia, in the north-west of Spain, situated in i'S'
or 30" N. lat. and 8' 30' 6" W. k>Dg., Oil mUm west-
by-sonth from Lugo^ and 32 miles soath-Dy-weat ftoiu
CMUDua, in tha province of that name. It lies on Uiu
eastern slope of the Monte Fedroao, surrounUad by
mountains which draw down incessant rain that given tho
granite buildings of ita dcoerted streets an extra tint of
mehwctioly and decay. The dty is still the seat of a
university and of au archbishopric^ which lays claim to
the primacy of all Spain, but its former glories Lave quito
departed. In the Middle Ages its shrine, which cou-
tainad the body of St James the Qreat, was one of the
moat famous in Europe, and gathered crowds of pilgrims
from all parts. The city became^ in fact, the focus of all
the art uid chivalry of nei^bonring Christendom, and a
spot where conflicting interests could meet on . neubal
ground. But tiie dan of pilgrimagea are past, and,
though the Congr^tion of KiUe declared in 1881 that
the cathedral still enshrines the veritable body of the
^nstle, pilgrims are aearody mon often seen than in any
Mher caUiedral town. The trade of Santiago can never
have been otherwise than dependent on the crowds of
pilgrims wlio visited the shrine. It now only anrvivM in
the ailveremitba' shops on the Plasa de loa Platoroa, which
still have a steady sale for artistu pieces of peasant
jewellery. OthenriM it eonuata in mera local traffic in
cattle, linen, silk, IsHllier, hats, and paper. There is com-
munication by nil with the little seaport of Carril ou
the ireet coast The population within tha mniuciual
boundaries vros 23,000 in 1860.
Ths reiki of the Mlat wete aid to Lit* bean iliacoverod in gSB
bj Tbeodomlr, blihop of Iris, vbo wu gnidsd to Uh ■not by a
>tai, wbeaoe the nuns (Ctanqnu SUllm). A ehipal wai iDrthwith
€twit«l, ud the bisboprie wu tiaoifiiind thitber by a ipscial bull
of Fopa L«o III. A mon mlatuIUI building vu beguu in 888,
bat wu totally deatrored In S97 by Almuucr, vho, liovevor,
nspectad tba lacrad rdio. On tbe nconqucat of tba citj b;
Bennndo ill. the rvadi whicb led to it were improved by tbat
mooiRh, and nilgriio* b^pa to flock to tha ^nne, which fut
grew in npuubon. In iOlS-tixa erection of the preaeut catbodnl
wu begnn doling the aplacopato ct Diego Pelui, and wu con.
tinned until IISS, when tba werteni doorway wu complatad. It
ii 1 cnicironn building tn the Bonikneaqne atyle, SSO feet long, to
feet wide, and 70 ftet high, and keen Its original form la Ibu
interior, bat ia dteflgnied utanially Dy mnch poor late worh.
Beddia tha clustc dww and dodt'tower, tbe two weatem towata
have been raised to a hei^t of HO faet and crowned with onpolaa,
and between Qiem baa been erected a elsMle portico, abovo whioh
la a nicbe'eonlalnins a statue et St Jama*. The tagade waa the
work of CaiBB v Koboa la 17K, sod the tlabn wu by Tantnra
BodrifCuei in 1781. The dtaiga la medleor^ and nioi its cbitt
eSeot tram brming part of an extended anU^ctaiu oompoeition
" ~ ' 'hieh ia snrroanded oa all
to the catbadraL
linked
flAP^^r
it qDsdnipti
on the Plan Uivor, a
ddes bv pnbllc DDildi
whidi a nacbad by a i
1^ itatsu of David i
given throngb aome fine wronglit-irou galea, and in the centra, on
the level o[ the Plan, a the entiance to a Konuneeqae chape], La
Ideaia Bun, cooatnicted onder the i>ortic» and contemponrj with
the cathednL To the north and wrath, inil in a line with the
weat fron^ are danandant hnililriy ttt the I8th centoiy, gronping
well with it. Ihoee to the aonth ooutatn a light and elegant
arcada to the nppor windowi^ and eerve M a acnan to tba cloMen^
built In 1E88 by yonaaca, aftarwaids ambbiihop of Toledo. Thuy
an laid to be tbe largest b Bpaln, and an a Ur exauple of the
lateet Gothic The delicala •colptare over tha heada of the
wlndowaandikngthewalloftkodoMar is vtfynatienblst -On
tb* aorih of the eatbedial is tha Flaioels 8. Juan, wbna the
peanota collect to do &tir aaktOag, Hers ia the oonvent of
B. lbrtta,bnlltlnla», whiBb,'aftertnTing u a lianadi, ia now
tuedMsnewlMlaaticaliemiDanr. nsttmd to thedmnh. Ithu
light of atepe, flanked
I to tbe ■taircsae ia
300
S AN— B AN
k ColmUa <tloi<tor Hid ball-toatr. Tba nntfa nds of tha ntludnl
b mad) orerluJ by cloBncal ui<l Charngnonaque work ; uid tho
tttas tnKtmoDt Las bMU appUod to tins eist end, vhora li Qu>
PoBrU Swita, which ii leapt cloeei], eiDsiit in jubiloo yuan, when it
ia opened hr tlis uobb^ii. The canmr of tho south tnuucpt ou
tboTbia ds loi Phtaios liu been mutilated b; tta unction ot tlio
dock'towei, buttheluadeiifortiuiatoly preserved Intact. Perhaps
tiw -^itif bua^ of the cathedral, bawaTn-, is the Portico de la
aiotk, bohliid iha WMton elaaifl portaL ICfe > work of tho 12th
ooatur;, aid pratablT tbs utmnat .derelopment of which rouud-
■labed Oolhicli oalaUe. Tlie ilnft^ ^pnpana, iuid orchirolts ol
dell oapalila. The ilnft^
the thne doorw^ vhlcli opeo at tothi
of itcoDg and urratM joalptui
nave aud aiolei ore a maea
^ J. doagn i» » general repre-
■ftw^^Hirti of the lAflt Judgment, And Uie raQeete an all tteatod
witli k qnalut graea which ahawi iha woik of % mi aitiat. Faint
traoM oT eolour rentain and give a lotM to the whole work The
cathodral la at nioh a hei^t from the ground that it ie probable
that, until the aMcUou of tha pnaMit gnnd itiircua, the portico
ooold not be naehed from the Flu*, oat rtoad open to the air.
Tbeca an no marb of doeia In tha jnnba, and the entrance to Oia
elwHl beneatli wmlld hava ba«n blDelud bj uj itaircue which'
difind rnnoh in ;^an from thi pnseBt one. The
. in '^an trmn thi pnsel
of uiapunat and Mrt ei
to be met with In B^alia. The aljauiea ift a eleiertorr tErowe an
Impna^Te gloom over the barrel-nuilted rootl which makea tha
bnUdhut leam lusei dian it le. A paasage leula from tha north
taimpt to the nnoqnia of Ban Joan, or La Corticela, a amall
bat intenrting portion' of the originu foundation, llany fine
oamplM of meMl work are in the catliedral, oe, fir inatance,
file two iMonta ambpa in tba choir by Jmm B. Calms ot 1GS3, the
and Ftnetnoao. In the CatriSa del Ealuwio ara a gold eradfix,
dated BTi, tontaiuing «pwca of the true aros^ and a ailTar gilt
snatodia id ISU. The Hoapioio da los Beyea, on the north of tlie
Pbua Uavor, tor the reception ot MIgrinu, wni bi^nn in ISOi bj
Bnriqno de Ina ondar Ferdinand and latbelta. It coniiiti of
two Qothio and two olaaabi court-jardi with a chapel in the oantro.
Tbt gitawaj la Boa, and then ii aomB vigoroae carrins in the
comt-yaid^ one of vUch oontalna a graceful foitntain. The
wppiMaad Oolegia da Fonaaoa aud the adjcdning convaot of S.
OeronimohaTOgood Beneieeancedoonnye. The ludranity, which
waserealad in 1601 by a btiU of Pone Juliui 11., hu fair Rentus-
aanca bnildinge, which data from «t3. Tboee of tbo SominnHo
(inn have no merit The ehinel ot the convent of 3. Francisco,
the doiiten of tba bair-roined a Ansoetin, the belfry of S.
Domingo, the church of 3. Feliz da Oelorlo, wk ~
i.nj,....,v_,,.. _._. '-ifciwiee
SABTIiaO (or ST JAQO) DE CUBA, a city and sea-
foct ot Oaba, at one time the cental of the wbole i»liii(i,
and now the chief tovra of the eastam department i^
wtoated in 19' 57' 7" N. lat. and 76'' 04' 3" W. long.
(L^thotue), on a fine baj on the aouth coast. The epaci-
OQB and well-dafended harbour ii accesaibte to the largest
vemeli, but ailt near the wharf allows only these drawing
leaathanlifeettocomealongude. The city, which climbe
a hill-ude ISO feet above t£e baj, haa considerably im-
proved ainee 1870, Hioagh its etreeta an Uill badly paved.
it containa the largeat oaUwdral in the island, a theatre,
a onatoffl-hooMV banacks (185S-1880), and hoapitalt,
Voondriea, loqhwotla, tan-jatda, and cigai Eaoloriea an the
only iodoetrial eetaUidunentB. The exports wen valued in
1867 at £1.660,000, in 1883 at £1,032,200, and in 1883
at £722,63!!. Beaidee sugar, which forma abont two-
thirds of the idiole, the principal articlsB are cocoa, mm,
tobacco and cigara, coffee, honey and wax, mahogany, and
oopper-ore — this last at one time to the extent of 2S,D00
tone per annum, bnt now in greatly diminished quantity.
The copper minea Lomaa del Cobre lie cm the other tide
<^ Iha bay inland from Punta de SaL The eetimated
population ia between 24,000 and 30,000.
Founded by Di^ Yalozquez in Ifill, and incorpoi
SAirrUQODEL ESTEBO, chief town of the prorinoe
of Santiago in tha Argentine Bepnblic^ is aitaated in 37*
46' a lat and €4* lO* W. long., 620 lert abovs fta Ma,
on the banks of the Rio Dnlce. It in the iwidenco of the
provincial govunor and tho seat of the Ic^alattm, and it
ranks as the oldest European ci^ in the npublic, hanng
been founded by Aguirre in 1652. The moat coca|itcHona
building ia tho cathedral, whoso dome conttaats atrangelj
by its size and evident coGtlineiia with the poverty of the
rest of the towiL TJie population it aix>ut 8000 (mast d
whom have a great deal of Indian blood in thdr vtina).
The railway from Boaario to Santiago <689 miles) waa
opened in 1884.
SANTILLANA, liiioo Lopez dv IdjtNDozA, Maxqqib
or (1398-14G8), Castilian poet, was bom at Cairion de
loa Condea in Old Castile ou August 19, 1398. His
father, Don £)iego Eurtado de Mendon, grand admiral
of Castile, having died while liligo was still quite youngs
the tioy was brou^t up by his uncle Don Alfonso Enriqnes.
From his twentieth year onwards he became an increasiiigly
prominant figure at the court of Juan IL of Castile^ dio-
tinguishing himself both in civil and military service; be
was created Marques de Sanlilkna and Oonde del Real de
Mauzanares for Uia pert he took in the battle of Olmedo
in 1445. In the protracted struggle of the Castilian
nobles against the preponderating infiuence of Alvaro de
Lnna he showed great moderation, but ultimately in 14&2
he joined the combination which efiected the fall of the
favonrito in the following year. From the death of Juan II.
in 1494 Mendoza took little part iu public aSairs, devoting
himself mainly to the pursuits of Uteratuie and to piotia
meditation. He died at Quadah^ata on March 26, 14Q8.
llendoza vai tha fint to introduce the Italian aounat into
Caatila, but bii productionB in thia clasa ore lomoirhat conven-
tional iu ttylo and hate little to racommand them beyond tbeckarm
_» .1 ..^__^._ .1. — mnch more ■aecsestal In tlie
Fortuxa (1«S) and t__ _ _. _. , _..
OOm^duia de Foiaa la a Danteaqne draam^dialogoa, in octavo
itouaa, foniidel on the diaaation* en-fi^t off Ponn in 148G, whan
the kii^ of Aiagon and Navane along with the iotanla of Castile
wen taken prieoaere by the Qenoeae.
The wsrki oV EnnlUlaDa hare bean adlua vU
SASTINI, QiovAinn (1787-1877), Italian u
bom 30th January 1787 at Capiese, in the province Of
Arezzo, was from 1813 director of theobserrato^at Psdn&.
He wrote BlanmH di Aitrmcniaa (3 vols. 1820, Sd ed.
1830), Tiona dtgli Stronunti ottia (? vols. 1838), and
a great many sciaotiSc memoirs and notices, among wludi
ara five cat^oguea of telescopic stars between ■f'lO* and
- 15* dacUnation, from .oboervations made at the hdnft
obaMTatoiy. He died Jnne 26, 1877.
SANTO DOMINQO. Bee HA<nL
8ANT0RIN. BeeTHEU.
SANTOS, a city and seaport of Brazil in the jirovmce
of Slo Fanlo, ia situated on the north side of the island of
Sio Vicente or Ecgna-Onaf n, which forms the west mde of
the harbour-bay (an inlet 3} miles deep, with aoundiogti
varying from 4 to 10 fathoms). It ia a well-built town
with wide airy streets and meet of the better dasKa
have their residences at Barra Fort (4 miles out) and other
saborban Tillages. Commercially the town haa grown to
great importance as the terminus of the whole railway
system of this part of Brazil — the Santou and Jundiahy
line (1867) running inland 87 miiee and connecting willi
the Sio iWo and Bio de Janeiro Railway and variona
other Unee. The export of coffee (the gteat staple) io-
oreaied from 344,800 60-kil(^p«mme ba^ iu 1862-3 to
637,478 in 1872-3 and 1,932,194 in 1863-4. Thevaloeof
the GoSee mw eatimated at £1,630^276 in 1670-71. and at
S AO — S A 0
^933,338 in 1876-79. Tlie export tad import tnulo U
aBtimatod to cucoUto £10,000,000 a year. The popula-
tion hM inoreawd since 1670 from 3000 to about IS.OOO.
Am ttiv citj of Sdto Vicfluta, tba tint r^nruLtivut rortuguou uttlfh
■WDt in Baiit, bdgui to dojinii fmtn its pmution u cspiul ot tho
(DBtbom iTCTinna, Bantw, foanilal bj Ural Cut* io 1EM-KI,
grado^y took itl pUcs. In tLe Iith nnturj it wu bnirgod bj
(b* Dntob and Eogliib. Tbo praviucial uHiubl; |iu»t «a
nuctnuBt bj which tba dt; wu to bo t-aUnl Cidaila ds BoniEuio
in bonoqi elJmi BonHido d'Andraila ■ SItri, ihn iiitloiial mCriot,
to wlwa it bad ginn biitb, but tlie older suuu of Buim bsld iti
SAO LEOPOUK), a German colony io the province
c< Rio Grande do Sol, Bmiil, founded in 1624. It is
connactad with Porto Aiegre by rail and also b; the Rio
do Jinoi, a uuaU bnt deep and navigable river. The
iijiabitants tA the town and siitcen neighbouring Mttle-
menta number in all about 20,000, and are eogtigMi in
cattla-bneding and in (he culture of groin, arrow-root, and
BAdlTE. Bee Rqohk
SAdNE^ Haute-, a department in the north-east of
France, formed in 1790 frofu the northern portion of
FrancheComt^, and traverted by the river SaCne. Situated
between 17' U' and 48' 1' N. lat and between E* 21
and 6* 49* E. long., it is bounded N. by the department
of the Toigei, E. by the territory of BeMort, S. by
Dootw and Jnra, and W. bv C6ted'0r and Haute-
Home. On the nortb-eeat, where they are formed by the
To^^ and to the south along the couras of the Ognoo
llie limits are uaturaL The highest point of the depart-
■nent is the Ballon de Bervaoce (3900 feet), and the lowest
Uie confluence of the Safine and Ognoo (610 feet). Tho
general slope is from north-east to soulb-weat, the direction
followed by thoae two streams. In the north-ea«t the
depajtmeot belongs to the Voegiao formation, consisting
of pme«lad mountains of sandstone and granite; but
thronghont the greater port of its extent it ia composed
of limestone plateaus 800 to 1000 feet high pierced with
fnTTTiirni and Babterranean caves, into which the rain
water disappean to issue again as spriogs in the valleys
300 feet lower down. In its passage through the depart-
ment the SaCne leceivea from the right the Amauce and
the Salon from the Langrea plateau, and from the left
the Coney, the Lanteme (augmented by the Breuchin
wbiti pasaei by Xuieuil), the Durgeon (passing Tesoul),
and the Ognon. The north-easlerQ districts are cold in
climato and have an annual rainfall ranging from 36 to 48
inches. Towards the south-west the characteristics become
tikoae of the Hhone valley generally. At Veeout and Qray
the rainfall only reaches 24 inches per anDum.
Got (tfa total of 1,119,570 icni 884 S4S are arab1^ a7E,WS nnder
fintet, l[iS,t7S nstnn] neadovs sad orchardi, and B1,7G2 Tins-
nida. nit taijcaltaral papolstlon Dumbsn ISO.SSS out of a
lotd of 3H,S0S. Thev poMDia £2,831 horm lfi2,«0B cattle,
n,DOO abm, 73,(73 pige, 70R4 goabi, mon tiun 1»,000 dogi,
■ad ie,Bie iMhiTM (10 ton* IG cwt*. of bonoy ia IBSl). Wheat
ta the sti^ crop— a,7S7,125 biulieU ia IBSS; nail come osts,
•,isa,>n boriuli ; potato**, 8,17fi,87g bwhelB; '
mUdliuqnaUty, 4,8«r,flBSgsl]oD ' ' -
tra jaan (.Oefl.f" -" — ' ■ -
SXMO ; mtdln,
Dialet IH; cola, 468 too*; bestnxtt,' Se.MG toni; poise,' 6862
bnihsl* ; bamp, linen, tobacco, hops. The wood*, which cover
Bon than a ^oaitar et the dei»rtinont, ate composed of Gra in tbs
"Votfitt aod b«ech trea^ oaks, wych elma, and BApens in the other
dietricts. XirechwiMer ia nunaEactortd at FaugproUn trvm thg
uatiTB eharriea. Tba Indiutrial popaUtioo nninber 81,477 i EBO
woriuDsn laias 141,841 tons of iivn-oie jearlj ; coppar, diver, and
msBgaoeM ndM in tha dapartmant, and geld occur* in tba bed
«f Iha OgDon. Book-ealt mioa* yield annually 11,000 tons of Hit
•ad the mstniala for a conilderabla mannfactnra of niliibDTlc,
hydmhktlo, ukl nltrlo adds, cnlrihats o( soda, chloride Dl lima,
*nd Ifisoia ad Olsnber •alia Coal tntnea, with thair principal
«aba at Boncbamp, give employmant to nora than SOOO workmaa.
andlalSU7kVUd313,esotou*ofcaaL Fast,
bDildiBg.(loD«i nurbK I>°rp'<T'T> granite, ayunilc, ind tamtitouo
■ked in the doimrtiuwit Tha grooii jX)r|iliyrypoda.tal of
.1. . LcB InvaJiilM and tliu eyomti- columm
11 iren cut et yorranin. Of tbo niuiiy
Hsuto.Sifiuo the boat known an tli '
Nanoleon'i aorcophafna at L
of the Orand Oi^ra in Parii
clislyU
aanroB, dlKhargo over 127,000 pllona in tha S4 boun
Qvod for bfithiug txtd driuJcing. Deaidca fortj^ovan imn-worlcin^
aatablirhiDCDU (aniilting rumacca, foUDdrioi, and win-dnwlnR
mllla, prodnciiif in 18SS 4978 tons of iron imeltcd by woal-fue^
E88 torn of nhual iron and 1040 torn of almt-imn, «cX Uuite-
flaOaa poaaeaane cpppcr-fonndricg, engip coring work ^ etool-Foondiie^
end facCoriea for producing tin plala, naila, pin*, filca, aawa, screw*,
abot, chaiua, sgncultunl inplensnti, IdcIei, iiiinniog maebiucty,
■itae tools, lie WiiiJow-glaat ia muufnctand by 108 workmen
i3 glua wares by 300, pottaiy and eartbenwaro by 220 to ISO.
1.^ ^^ ^i__ .!._.._ -.nn u^.i. jjjj jjjj works; tha iiapar.ruill*
sro *l*o aboi
omploySSS hsnd.^ ani
2&181ootui,o[ whichlf
wotki, fulling mills, h<
3i
Diillt (88,70
■) upwarda of 2000. Priut-
«ud atnw-hat rscturies are
„ ork^ dje-wotka, aaw-mUli.
n[>ik*, rliaTuicnl woiki, otl.mill*, tanyardi, and flonr-niilU,
{lartnion t export* wheat (8»3.000 biubob). eitllr, lluD. wood,
pottery, kirachxraaaflr, and cooper'a waroa Tba Sa^na ]>roTidda
a navigable chionel of 40 mlla, wliich ia atxwt to bo connacted
with tha MoacUe and tha Uauso by the Causl do I'Kat in oouna ot
CODstnictkiu along the valla; of tbo Coney. Ony ia tlie groat
amporiam of tli* watcr-botna trade, eatimatal at 200,000 ton* por
annum. Tho department baa 188 mUoa of nstioDat road*, S313
mile* of other Toaiii, and 236 mHea ofrailny— Ilio I'aria-Uulhouas
and Nancy-Qny nilwaji, cro«tig at Vsieul. and varioua other
linei. There are three urondiaBotiianta,— Vnoul, any (7£Iil in-
babiUnti lu the to>1i), Liirt (4380),— 28 csantone, IS3 coinmnuca.
Hauto Sadne ia in tho dlitrict of tho 7tb coma d'aniir!a, aud in its
logsl, «cclDfii**tica1, and oducationa] mlaliona depends on Uraaii^u.
Lniauit (4378 inhabitant*], the moat imjiorUut likco sTEar tlie tub-
prarectur**, ia celebrated for its abbey, fDUndml by 8t Colunibaa
SA6NE-ET-L0mE, a department of the east central
region ot France formed in 1790 from Ihe districta ot
Autunois, Brionnaia, Cbalonnais, Charollais, and Ulconnai*
previously belonging to Burgundy. Lying between 46' 9*
and 47" 9' N. kt. 3" 37' and 6° 27' E. long., it is
bounded on the N. by the de|>artment of CAte d'Or, E.
by that of Jota, 8.K by Ain, & by Rh&ne and I/nro, W.
by Allier and Ni&vre. The two streams from which it
takes its name bonnd the dopartmont on the south-east and
on the weet respectively. Bet vreen these the continental
watershed between the Uediterrau'ean and the Atlantic
called the Charollais MonntaiuH runs south and noith. Its
altitude (2500 feet on the south) dintinishee to the iK»th
in the direction of Ote-d'Or. The culminating point of
the department is in tho heights of Morvan, on the border
of Niine (2960 feet). The lowest point, when tho 8a£ao
leaves the department, is under S.'iO feet. The SaAne
crosses the department from north to sonth, and reeuvea
on its right the Dhenna, followed by the Chnal du Centi«
and the Orosne, and on its left the Doubs and the Scille.
The Loire only receives one im]>ortiot affluent from tho
right, the Arronz, which is increased by the Bonrbinco,
whose valley is followed by the Canal du Centre. The
average temperature is slightly' higher at M&cod than at
Paris — the winters being colder and the summer hotter.
The yearly taiofall (32 inches, increasing towards tba
hilly districts) is distributod over 135 days; there are 36
days of snow and 27 of storm.
Of s total area ot 2,118,311 acre* (tliia ia ona of tha lai^iHtof the
French dopartmml*) 1,079,39R ara atablo, 371,888 forcat, M2,28T
natural meidoinandorchar^lt, and 108,111 vincyanlB. In ISBOtha
livestock comprined 26.000 honea, 8000 **■« aud niulos, 7S,000
bulla and oieu, 160,000 cow* and hi^iforK, EC.OOO calves, 218,000
aheap, 17B.OO0 piga, 60,000 goat*, 35.000 beehive, (yiolding 214
ton* ot honey and sa tons of wai). Tho white Cbarelki* oica an
ona ot tba fiasn Fnnch breoda, equallr auitabla for labour anil
fattaning. TSo Fewer than 388,262 of the inhabitant* of tha de-
partment out of ■ totiil ol 626,680 depend on ■gricoltaro. Id 188S
there was piuducad 3,678,276 bubals of wheat, 22,8)0 malie,
1,021^037 tye ; in 1880 210,378 bnahali of barlty, 7G4,87G back-
wheat, sot 328 maiM, 101, »70 millat, ^107.137 oata, It.aEft.IOT
p>toto*s, »,800 jol**, 70,938 too* of bntzcot, SOS Ions bit^ IM
302
S A 0 — S A P
ton* li*in]iMMd, 18E,S0d btuliali cela-usd, S177 tout oola oQ. In
IS8S ths Tinti^ jicldml 93,638,836 gallOM of wine, tbs iTsngo
quntitT ot ncent jan biiiig 31,800,018 gilloDi. Ths nd irin(«
of UlcoDBiia [aptcUly tliow of Tbnriiu) ut Qam in highest
npulo ; FbuUly inodocn the beet wbits vinai. The inilnitriul
cUoe* an repromited by lGCI,t>SS IndiTidiuli. The cxal-baaiD
of Cniuot, tho aiitb in importinoa in Fnnce, produced in 1SS3
1,US,7U loni. A pit it Bplnu ie SS37 teei dKp. Iron-ore vu
•itnotsd in ISSi to the unoant ol 2»,6Gi tan& Slate, limostaae,
bnilcllng-itono, miUitones, gnnita, uuirbla, mill, pluter, bitu-
tnlnou Mhltti, pett, kuilio, mangiiifM |i3S0 tone par unaa)),
and certain procioua Bbmie an alto found in tho deparEment The
most celebrattd iniutnl witan an tboaa of Bourbon-LaucT, six out
of tho nran apringt being tbermaL They are atronElj saline.
ilatal-«erklDg n prinelpalor curled on at Crooiot, wbich, with iti
1S,000 workmen ami iti IS malting fimuna, 100 paddling orsna,
4 BnMnier apparatDMa and 1 Martin'* orena, ftc, prodund in
lgSS«l,eBStouorin>n(»S5tonaotiuli,21,BeitoIuoriheot'tIon]
<ml MfiSa tona of itsal (73,08) tana ot lalJe, 7058 tona ot ahast-
jron). na angina work* ptodnca all •art* of machinea, includJoK
abont IDO losomotlrw. Ilw CbUon bnnab worki tun
boota, brUgai, ud boihn. Othar foimdriaa and fnrgei
partmnt prodnoed la 1S8S lfS,118 tona of oat iron ana cauan
Toantitlai of ooppar and bnnn. Tha cotton mannliuitan amploja
<,(HN apindlv and 1000 boma, ailk WOO Bpindlea and SfiOO bnnd-
1 the dV-
at th* dapartmant, aapediUy aa r^udi itt aiporti, deala mainly
irltb eoaL mataX Dka^n«T7, vine, cattle, bricki, pottery, glaea.
It ia bi^tktad by £to narigatda (ttnnia (181 miliia).— Lolm,
Arooi, BaAu Doab^ Bailla,— tha Canal da Centra whicb nnttiia
ChUon^iiT-flaMM with Digoln on tha Loire, and tbo canal Trom
Boanna to Digoin and the lalanl Loire Canal, both following tb*
main lirai Tdler. Tba total Imgth of tlie canala ia 90 mila.
Than an 106 mileB of national road, 7008 of otbar roada, and <87
milaa of railway. Saltea-»t-LairD tonna the dioocaa of Antun ; it ia
part oF the dlitiict of tha Sth oom d'armje (Boatgis), and ita nni-
Tcraity ia that of Lyona. It ii dirided into five ammdiiaamBnta,
— M£con, ChUon^DT'Saana, Anton, Charolloa (3350 inhabitaata In
tho town), -iubana(lS80b— Mcutona, and GSV EommnDa* ; tho
moat popoloid communa i* Ciooaot (38,000 iababltanta, 18,000 In
tha toum). Uontcaan-Iea-UiDsa (tSOO) ia alio a mining centre.
Clnny (SEOO) la celebrated for itt abba; now occoid^ by the nor-
mal achool of aacondaiy iBatreotlan, and Patiiy-la-Honial [3D0J for
ita pjlgrimaga.
8^0 PAULO, ft dty of Bnzil, capital of ft proviucB of
the Bams luune, ie Mtuated on the north-veBtem elope of
the Sens do Uar, on ft left-haiid tribntuy of the Tieta, a
confliieiit of the Pftiani. It is aa old and irregularly
built ^tj, ^th Bome pictoresgue old chnrches and con-
veotB. lie centra of the proriQcial railway ejatem, B6
tniJea diatant from BjUTcob (;.«.), iU aeeport on tha
AtUatio coast, and 143 miles from Rio de Janeiro, the city
has developed verj npidly within receot jeara. One of
the two ftcademie* of Jaw which Bnuii poaaeaiw is seated
ftt Slo I^ula The most importftst public buildings are
the cftthedral, the provincial govemor'a and the bishop's
polacea, and the theatra. A new Byatam of wuter-siipply
ftnd_ dmnage wab oonstruoted in 1879-80 by English
engineeiB nnder ft Biasilian company. The population of
the city in 1879 numbered about 35,000.
Foundad by tha Jeinlta tt a callage, SEo Panlo was made a town
in THO Inttead of Suito. Andr^ deatrojed by order of Umdo da
8a. In 1711 It became a dty, in 17M a biahoprjc, and in 1823
an " impBrial city. "
SiO PEDEO DO BIO GRAMDE DO STJL gee Eio
Obaxde do Bdl.
BAPOB (Se1p6b or Bhabpohb), the oams of three
fiiainian kings. See Fkbua, toL iviiL pp. 608-610.
SAPPAN WOOD LB one ot sevaral rod djowoods of
commaice, ftll belonging to the Legmninoos genns Ctual-
pinia, or to tha clowiy allied genos Petb^Aonm. It is a
native, jof tropical Asia and the Indian Archipelngo, but,
aa it is one of the most esteemed of the red dyewoods, its
cultivation has been promoted in the West Indies and
BranL Tha wood is somewhat lighter in colour than
Brftiil wo«d ftCicI its other allie^ bnt the Hune tinctorial
principle, brazilin, appeon to be common to oU. See
Bbazil Woob, toL It. p. 241.
8APPHIBB, a blue transparent variety of oorandum or
native atumtna. It diSera, therefore, from the Oriental
ruby mainly in its colour. The colour varies from the
palest blue to deep indigo, the moat esteemed tint being
that ot tha blue cornflower. It often happens that a
crystal of sapphire is particoloored, and hence a fine cut
stone may derive its tint from a deep-coloured portion at
the back, instead of being nniformly tinted tbroogbont.
The sapphire is dichroic, and the coloor (rf a fine velvety
stone may be resolved by means of the dichroiscope into
an ulttenmrine blue and a yellowish-green. The origin
of the blue colour of the sapphire has not bean aatis-
foctorily determined, for, althoogh oiida of cobalt may '
produce it, and is invariably nsed for colouring imitaliuns |
of the stone, yot the presence of cobalt is not alwsyB |
reveslod in tho analysis of the sapphire. According to
lapidarieE the hardness of tho sapphire slightly exceeds
that of tba ruby, and it is therefore the hardest known
mineral, eicaptiog diamond. In consequence of ita great
hardness it was generally mounted by the ancient* in ft
partially rongh state, the surface being polished bnt not
cnL NotwiUistanding its hardness it has been octsuon'
ally engraved as a gem. There seems no donbt that the
ancient irdtntHipm, aa well aa tlie eapphire (^V9) of the
Old Testament (Job xxvili. 6), was our iajHs Iftinii, while
the modern sapphire seems to have been known nnder the
name of iaKwB'K or AyaeintAut (King).
The finest sapphires are obtained from Ceylon, where
they occur with other gem-stones aa pabbl^ or rolled
crystals in the sands of riverB. The sapphires have
general]; preserved their ctystallioe form better than the
associated rubiee. Some of the slightly -clondy Ceylon
sapphires display when cut en cabocbok an opalescent star
of six rays, whence tliey are called ttar-iappMra or
aileriat. The principol localities in Ceylon yielding saji-
phirea are Kokcwaaa, Batnapnta, and &itawaka. A few
yeors ago sapphires were discovered in Siam (in the pro-
vince of Battumbong), but the stones from this locality
are meetly dull and of too dark a coloor. In Bnrmoh
they occyr in association with rubies, but are much loss
iiumeroua. They have also been recently found in Pal-
dar, north of the Cbandrabagha range. Tho sapphire ia
widely distributed throng the gold-bearing drift) Of
Victoria and New South Wales, bnt the M^onr of the
stones is usually too dork. Some of the finest spedmeo*
have come from the Beechworth district in Tictorio. .
Coarae sapphire is foimd in many parts of the United
States, and a few stones fit for jewellei; have been
obtained from Corundum Bill, Hacoa county, North
Carolina, and from the other localities mentioned tmder
HoBT. The sapphire also occurs in Eniope, bemg found
in tha basalts <^ the Bhine valley and of Le Puy in
Velay, but not sufficiently fine for purposes (rf onuunent
The sapphiro has been artificially reproduced by similar
methods to those described in the article Rdbt.
SAPPHO (in Attic Greek Sow^ but caUed by herulf
'1l&r^(a, which ia necessitated by the metre alao in
Anthol., ix. 190, though Alc^ns, himself an .£olian and
her contemporary, calls her Sair^), incomparably tha
greatest poeteea the world has ever seen, <raa a native of
Leslxis, and probably both was bom and lived at Mytdlene.
For the idea that she migrated thither from Sresos is
merely a conjecture to expkin a perfectly imaginary diffi-
culty caosed by the grammarians who invented another
Sappho, ft courtesan of Eresus, to whom to sacribe the
current scandals about the poetess. She was the dau^tat
of Scamandronymns and Cleis, of whom nothing more is
.known. The epistle of Sappho to Fhaon, ascribed Id
r A E — 8 A K
Orid, a^ that ber "pttrent* died when ahe ma ux tmti
oli ; if Fi«g. 90 nltn to Sappbo'a own mother, which i«
Tsry doub^nl, thia '■ parent " mnat ba her father. Her
data carniot be certainly fixed, bat ihe must have lived
about the end of the 7th and bagiaDipg of the Gth csn-
tQne* D.C., being contemponry with Alcasoa, Stetichorua,
aad I^ttacna, in fact with the cnlmiDiiting period of j£olic
poetij. But of hor life very little ebe ia known. One
of her brothers, Charaios, who waa engaged in the wins-
trade between Leaboa and Naocratia ia E^ypt, fell in lova
there with a conrteaan named Doiicha and eumamed for
her beauty Rbodopia, whom he fteed Iiom alavery and
npon whom he aquandered hie property. Sappho wrote
an ode on this, in which alie ceverely aatirized aud rebuked
him. Another brother, lArichns, woa public cop-bcarer at
Mytilenc, — a tact for which it waa neceaaary to be tuyerqr,
ao that we may gnppoae Sap[)ho to have been of good family.
For the rest it ia known that abe had a daughter, named
after bar grandmother Cleia, and that aha hod aome
penonal acqaointance with Alctuos. He widreeaed her
ill on ode of which a fragnuit ia pceaerred ; " Violet-weav-
iD& F°'^ Bweetamiliog Sappho, I wiah tc aay aomewhat,
but diama bindere me;." and she answered in another cxls :
" Hodst thou bod dcaire of aught good or fair, ahame
wonld not have touched thine eyea, but thou wouldat have
apokun thereof openly." Further than this everything ia
enveloped in donbt and darkuEea. Tho weU-known ator;
of her love for the disdainful Fhoon, and hor leap into the
aea from the Leacadian promontory, together with that of
ber flight from Hytiloue to Sicily, which has been con-
nected with her love tor Fhaou, rests upon no evidence
that will bear ezamination. Indeed, we are not even told
whether she died of the leap or not. All critica again are
agreed tliat fiuidaa was simply gulled by the comic poets
when ha tells na of ber imaginary boaband, Cercolaa of
Andros. ^e name of Sappho waa by these poets con-
aistently dialed in the dirt, and both the asyersions
tbey cast on her character and the embellishments with
which tbey garnished her lite paaaed for centariea as
nndonbted luatory. Six comedies entitled Sappho, and
two I'haon, were produced by the Middle Comedy ; and,
when we' consider, tor example, tbe way iu which Socratee
was cAiicatnred by Aristophanes, we are juatlGed in put-
ting no faith whatever in any accounts of Sa[^ho which
depend npon such sntliority, as DKiet of our accounta
appear to io.
Welcker' was the fiiat toezanuae carefullytle evideuce
npon which the current opinion of Sappho's character
rested. He found it easy to disprove^ in his opinion, all
tbc common accusations against hor moral character, bat
DTifortnaately, not content with disproving actual state-
ments, went on to uphold Bappho aa a model of feminine
virtue. Bergk and Mure both combated his views, and in
tiio EkeinitiAa Miittum tor 18G7 may be found the
iaauoi between him and tbe latter clearly stated on both
aides, unfortunately with coaaidcrable acrimony. It is
plain to the impartial reader thai both of the controver-
sialists have gone decidedly too far, but it. can hardly be
denied, however much we sboold natuiolly desire to
think otherwiae, that Hure boa very couaiderably the best
of it. Wo owe thanlcs to Welcker tor clearing ^e history
of Sappho from aevoral fictions, but further than this it is
impossible to go ; we owe thanks to Mure tor preferring
truth to sontimont, but we cannot disregard soma points
of Wclckcr's atgnment so completely as he does. In fact,
tho truth appears to be that Sappho waa not, as tlie Attic
.comedy represented her, a woman utterly abaudooed to
vico, and only distinguished among tho corrupt com.
IBje.
■ eimtm torwttadm rinrit«a Itf)^ OitMivai,
nranity of Lesbos by exceptional immorality and the gift
of aong,— that indticd ahe was not notoriously immoral at
all, but no worse and perhaps better than the standard of
her age aud country required. Thia seetoa clearly indi-
cated by the epithet ayrn, with which AIcecub addresMd ber.
On the other hood, not merely tradition but tbe charoct^
of her extant fragments, with tbe other evidence adduced
by Mute, constrain ns to resign the pleasant dream of
Welcker, K. O. Miiller, and their fo11oirers,^an ideal and
eminently rodpectable head of a poetic school, with &
matronly regtkrd for her pupils, who meant by ber own
poems soydiiDg but what she said, and waa more carefut
to inculcate virtue than unlimited indulgence in posuon.
To leave this disagroeable question, wa will next indicate
briefly all that is known of her position in Leabua. She
waa there the centre of a brilliant society and bead of a
great poetic school, tor poetry iu that age and phice waa
cultivated as osdduoosly ood apparently as auccoastully
by women as by men. Her moat famous pupils were
Erinna of Tdos and Damophyla of rumiihylin. Besides
them we know tho names of Attbis, Teloaippa, Ucgaro,
Oongylo, Oyrinna, Dicn, Mnasidica Sunica,and Anixctoria,
to whom tho second ode, d; jps>ftn>ai>, is said to have been
addressed. The names also of two of her rivala are pre-
served— Andromeda and Qurgo ; but whether tbey also
presided over aimilar achools or not is very doubtful, as
that idea of them depends on tho authority of Mazimos
T^rius, which ia quite worthleaa on this point.
In antiquity the fame of Sappho rivalled that of
Homer, fihe was called "tbe poetea^" aa be was called
"the poet." Different writers style bar "the tenth
Muse," "the flower of tbe Graces, "a miracle," "the
beautifnl," the last epithet referring to her writings, not
her person, which ia aoid to have been small and dork.
Her poemf^were arranged in nine books, on what principle
is' OQcertaiu ; she is said \d have snug them to the Mixo-
Lydian mode, which 'aha heraelf invented. The few
remains which have come down to ns amply testify to
tbe justice of the praises lavished upon Sappho by the
ancients. The perfection aud finish of every line, iJia
correspondence et eense and sound, tbe incomparable com-
mand over all the most delicate reaonrces of veraa, and the
eiqniaite symmetry of the complete odes raise her into the
veiy first rank of technical poetry at once, while her
direct and fervent painting of paasion, which caused
LonginOB to quote the ode to Anactoria sa an example ot
the sublime, has never been since surpassed, and only .
approached by Catollua and in the Vita Suona. Hor
fragments also bear witness to a profound feeling for tho
beaaty ot nature ; we know from other sources that aho
hod a pecldiar delight in flowers, and especially in the
rose. The aneienta also attributed to her a considerable
power in satire, but in beiamet*! veiae they conaidered
her inferior to her pupil Erinna.
Fho Tniginanta o[ Sipplio hoia boni all prcaotved \q athor
anthon incidDulallj, An indeiwndoBt tragmBnt, ascriboa to her
by Bins but njocted by Bergk aod of Tscr doabiral sathsnticitj,
..__ ..___ j7 J ,_ j^ (Ijj Eeypliiin mnanini at
S8T 1 Bccgk, tdL ilL p. TM) ;
(numen
bo^nd
, 188!. Tlie onfy Mpaista odition
idUisonljcamnlototTBnslDtiaDiaEniiliiibiitliiitofUrWbiirton
(London, 188S), in wbich it ii nnfortunatBly impMsibla for th(
gDnernl iwdgc to p1u» mncb raliaoce. (J. A. PU)
SARABAND (Ital. Saraha'ada, ZanAcmda; Fr. Saror
ianife), a alow dancc^ generally believed to Lave been
imported from Spain in tbe earlier half ot the ICth cen-
to^, though attempta have sometimes been made to
tioce it to an Eastern origin. The etymology of tho word
(Nirtoin. Tbe moat probable account is tlmt tlio
named after it* invontor^a eelol>mtod dancer
% boca discoYored on a
304
. A R — S A E
of SeviUe, called Zarabanda. Daring tbe 16th and ITth
ccntoriee the saraband wwi exceedingly popular, ulike in
Spain, France, Italy, and England. Its miiaic was in
triple tima — geoerallj witb three minims in the bar — and
almost olnrajs consisted of two Btrainx, cacti beginning
npon the first beat, and mORt frequently ending on tlia
■ocood or third, llanj very fine cxamptea of it will be
foand among the Siiln and P-irtit'U of Handel and
J. S. Baefa; bnt bj far tho finest ve ikihbcsb is that which
Handel first composed for hia overture to Almira, and
afterwards adapted to the words "Lancia, ch'io pianga,"
in Rinaldo.
8ARA.CENS was tbe enrrcnt designation among the
Christians of Europe in the llidJlo Ages tor their Moslem
enemiea, eapecially for the Moaluinn in Europe. Id earlier
^mes the name of S'iriienii was applied by Oteeks and
Bomans to the troublesome nonuid Arabs of the Syro-
Arabian desert who continually barasEed the frontier bf
the empire from Egypt to tho Euphrates. It is easy to
understand how, after Islam, the name came to be eitendcd
to the Moslem enemies of the empire in general, but no
satisfactory explanation has been given of Che rea.san why
the Romans called tho trontier tribes Saracens. It is
most natural to suppose that they adopted some name of a
tribe or confederation and nsed it in an extended senno,
just as the Syrians called all theao northern nomads by tho
name of the tribe of Tayyi'. The common derivation from
the Arabic Aarki, " eastern," is qnite untenable. Springer
EOggests that the word may be nimply ihoratd, " allies."
SABAOOSSA. See Zabaooza.
SARAKHS. See Pehsia, toI. xriii. p. 618.
BArAN, or Sarum, a liritisb district in the lieuteoaDt-
governonhip of Bengal, lying between 25° iff and 26°
38' K. kt. and S3° GH' and 85° U' E long. It forms one
of the north-western districts of the PatniL division in the
Dehor province, and comprises an area of 2622 square
tuiles. B&ran is bounded ou the north by the district of
Qorakhpur in the Nortb-Western Provinces, on tho east
by the Bengal districts of Champfiran ondTirhnt, on the
BODth bj the Oangea, separating it from Shlhibid and
PatoA districts, and oa tbe west by Qorakhpur. It ia a
vast allnvial plain, possessing no mountains, and scarcely
any hill or even undulations, but with a general inclina-
tion towards the sonth-esat, as indicated by the Bow of
the rivers in that direction. The riv^a and wnterconrses
are very numerous, few tracts being better supplied in this
respect. Tbe principal rivers besides the Ganges are the
'Qondak and Qhagri, which ore navigable throughout the
Cr. There is little or no woate hind, and the district
long been noted for tbe high state of its cultivation.
Slrao is beaatifuUy wooded; mango trees ore very
Diunerous ; and it yields large crops of rice, bosides other
cereals, tobacco, opium, indigo, cotton, and sugar-cane.
Though posBessing no railways or canals, the district is
well provided with roads. Thero is very little jungle;
Urge gamo is not met witb, bat snakes are very numerous.
S&ran is subject to blight, flood, and drought ; its average
annual rainfall is 4S inches. The odminiiitrative heod-
quarCorn are at Cbbapro.
2,1)10,35% llolirktnmolans 2eD,]42, and Cliriitituia 2S2. Tlio popu-
liiionlsontirvljnftricultoriil; thorffam only tln«« towns with moro
tlioli 10,000 iiihabitiuti. rU., Chhalita (51,070), Sowan (13,319), and
UovelKHiti (12,403). Mnnofsctiina aa ha and of littlo uconnt ;
thoprincipil otslniligo, iiitpir, bni»-work, pottery, snltpctn), »iicl
dotfi. Tlio comiNorce of SAnn caDiiata cliielly in tlia aigflrt of mw
IiroJuw, of wliich tlis cliiof drtii:l(« lire oiI->ciiil», Indiao, mtt^r, mil
gmiu of all sorts ««]>[ riM ; tho importi coniiit princiiMlly of
rica, suit, and KnrojioaD piocc-goodi. Borelgnnj i> tlio chief tiadiog
aitit. Tbo gram nronoo of tbo dirtriet In I8SS-B1 imoontod Co
X303,7S4,efwhicbtlieLiiidc*iCribut«l^l£2.«12. Sunn fonnerl;
tsris! jarisdictigni wsn flnC divided ia
SARAPI8. See SsBAPm.
SARATOFF, a government of ioath-etutem Russia, od
the right bank of the lower Volga, having Penza and
Simbirsk on the nortii, Samara and Astrakhan on the east,
and tbe Don Coasacira, Voronezh, and TambofE on tho
wesL The area is 33,624 square miles, and the popula-
tion (1882) 2,113,077. The government has an irregular
shape ; and a narrow strip, 110 miles long and from 20 to
45 miles wide, extending along the Volga as for sooth as
its Sarepta bend, separates from the river the territory of
the Don Cossacks. SoratoS occupies the eastern part of
the great central plateau of Russia, which gently slopes
towards the south «o as imperceptibly to merge into th«
ateppe region ; its eastern slope, deeply cut into by ravines,
abruptly foils towards the Volga. As the higher parts of
tbe plateau range from 700 to 900 feet above tbe sea,
while the Volga flows at an elevation of only 20 feet at
Khvatynsk in the north, and ia 4S feet beneath sea-level
at Sarepta, the steep ravine-cnt slopes oE the platean. give
a hilly aspect to the banks of the river. In the touth,
and especially in the narrow strip above mentioned, tha
country assumes the characteristics of true elevated st«ppes,
intersected with waterless ravines.
Every geological formation from tbe Carboniferons np to
the Miocene is represented in SaratoS ; the older ones arc^
however, mostly concealed under the Cretaceon^ whosa
fossilifetoos marls, flint-bearing ctaya, and iron bearing
sandstones cover broad areas. The Jurassic deposits set
dom make their appearance from beneath them. Eocene
Bands, sandstones, and marls, rich in marine fossib and in'
fossil wood, eitend over large tracts in the east Tbe
boulder-cky of the Finland and Olonetz ice-sheet penetrates
in Saratoff as far south-esst as the valleys of the llcdvye-
ditaa and the Sura ; while extensive layers of loess and
other deposits of the Lacustrine or Post-QIncisl period
appear in the south-east and elsewhere above the Cllacial
deposits. Iron-ore is abundant; chalk, lime^ and whihl
pottery clay are extracted to a limited degree. The mioera]
watera at Sarepta, formerly much visited, have been super-
seded in public favour by those of Caucasus.
SaratoS is well watered, especially in tho north. The
Volga, from I to T miles in width, separates it from
Samara and Aatrakban for a length of GOO miles; its
tributaries are but small, except tbe Sura, which rises in
Saratoff and serves for the northward transit of rimbcr.
Tho tributaries of tho Don are more important ; the upper
Hedvyeditsa and tho Ehoper, which both have a south-
ward course parallel to the Volga and water Baratofi each
for about 200 miles, are navigated notwithstanding their
shallows, ready-made boats being brougbt in separate pieces
from the Volga for that purpose. The Hovlo, which flows
in the same direction into the Don, is separated from tho
Volga only by a strip of land IS miles wide; Peter I.
proposed to utilize it as a channel for connecting the Don
with the Volga, but tho idea wan never carried out, anil
tho two rivera aro now connected by tbe railwny (02 milse)
from Tsoritsyn to Kalatch which crosses the southern ex'
tremity of SoraloET.
Lakes and marehes occur only in a few river-valleys.
Tbe region is rapidly drying up, and the forests diminish-
ing. In the south, about Tssrit^n, where the lulls were
densely covered with them a few centuries ago, they have
almost wholly disappeared. In the north they still cover
more than a third of the surface, the aggregate area under -
wood being reckoned at 3,661,000 acres. Tbe remunder
is distributed OS follows : — arable land, 11,609,000 acres;
prairies and pasture lands, 3,799,000; niKiiltivaUe,
S A R A T O F F
305
];049,W)a BaA is Hm Kardty of timber ibai the
peMMita' koDaw «i« made of cky, the corner poets tai
ioot kod window fnmw being iaigolj aiupped ffom the
wooded districta of the middle Volga. The climate i*
aevav and quits contineotal. The aventge jearly tempeia-
toiM are 41'-5 at Bantoff (Janu&ry, 12'-4 ; 3a\j, Tl'O)
and 44" -4 at Taaritsyn <JaiiDai7, 13'-2 ; Jnlj, 74*-6). Hie
average range of temperature is aa mnch as 119*. The
Volga is frozea for an aveiage of 1G3 days at SaKtoft and
1S3 dajB at '^Britapi. The aoil is vary fertile, eepecialtj
ia the north, where a thick sheet of black-earth covers the
platMQB ; Modj daj and salt cUj appear in the sout)L
Ths iwpnUtiDn in rorjr Tsrioot, •migmili from ill parte of Euais
btjug mjiad with Finniih ud Tinar stsnu init with Girnun
oloiiLibi. Tha Omt RuniaDB cooatituCe 75 pw csut. of tlie popn-
latioB, LiUls Bawiina 7 pwntit., Gsrmuu 7, llotdiniiiuii 6, slid
Tutan >'S p*r nnt. Tba TcbaTuhn mi; Dimibor nbout 11,000,
tleKluriiU< itwal 3000, ind Pole* about DODO. All an auonsallj
iliitrtbutwl, Littlo Kunima baing moro Dunictaua lu tin diatncts of
Alksnk, Bahahotf, TairitirTi, and KaTuyoUiu (18 to 13 per nnt),
tlw UoidTuiiuia hi Eozoabilc and FeCinvilc (IG per niiO, and Ehs
Oomaua Id Kamjabln (40 per seat). Tho inimigntioii of th«
GarataDS took p1a» In 1743-1705, and their wulcb}- colomoa hare
tba aapact of minor 'Weat-EiuopiMui toTnii {aev Saiuiia).
Oa^J 986,140 of tba population mlda ia tun toimt, the
reuaindar (1,827,B37) being dbtribiited over 5S02 Tiltisei, of
vbirh aoma hare froiu GOOD to 12,000 iDhabltaiiti, and no U'la than
lU iHkoa mon than 1000. Tba annual mortolitir ii 42 per 1000
(18SZ), bat tbia high figure ia mors tbin couipeitAiitod for by tba
birth*, whicli-iD tba wna Tear waie El per 1000. Tba rliief
ocenpation ia agnonltnre. Uon than ona half of tho anblo land
(0,210,000 acraa} waa undar cropa In IBSl. In 13S4 tba ratuma
wm iT«k 8,374,000 qoutara (1,008,300 in 1»33) ; vbeat, SB0,700 ;
barioT, 103,400 ; oali, 1 SSr,700 (2,432,700 in I»83) ; and Tariona,
704, IM. Droeght, and aoiDatimas alio noitous intecti, caiua gnat
fluetoitkins in the barraat ; but neTettlieleiB almoat every aeaion
UsTca a aonalderable balaiea of com for aiport. Oil-ylaidbg nionti
an also coltiTated ; linaead in all dietricta except Taantirii ;
inmtsni, both for gnia and oi!, extanairelT about Sarepla and in
ths Kamjahln diatrict ; and aanflower (140,000 qiiatten) in tba
northani districts. Oaidenina la a conxidorabla aoiirca of income
umuld asntofi; Volak, AtkaiA, ssd Kamrahin. Tbe motolcaH dii-
aanteis hsrs gnat plaolatiwa i^ watar-nKloaa, maiona, pumpkin^
fc& Tbs pssnnto of Barstoff an no batter oCT than thoaa ol the
— — -■ -"^ - "- ■ • M SamaijI). Yesis of
CUtle-I
ilT an sommon, snd iDTwilbl j mean rain for tha
e-nasdinft formsrir s Ism aomv* of inconie, ia npidlf bllina
"-- 1877 and 188S Uiare waa s decnaaa of 271,000 hasi^
sndsiaminaiireptawajla^uninbenorcnttli
■fanoiactans an dereloping but alovl;, tba chief of them, tboae
dealing with animal produK, being checked by the falling olf in
csttle-btaeding. Tbe eSOO iDduatrial manutactniiag otabliabnienta
of Saratoffamplored an aggregate of oaij 17,(00 workmen, with an
BimDal prodneCion of but 20,973,600 roublea <£2,O07,SfiO} in 18S3.
Ths most eonaiderabiB waro— cottoni, £17,200 ; woollen cloth,
£44,480 ; tsnneriea, £35,330 ; tallow, aoap, wsx^andlaa, fiour,
X1,2I7,B00; oils, £125,300 idiatiUoriea, £2fi5,730 ; inn, £15,890 ;
snd mschiserr, £37,195. Vatioua patty tmdeaan npidlj deTalop-
inr among tba peaaantrr. Bhlpbuildinf; ii oirried on in tbe Volga
viUagaa ^ wooden TeMsIa and impiemanta are nwUa in tha north,
snd pottan in aareral Tillegea ; and qtiite reoentlythe tabriastion i^
laad-penoila hia bean added at ButurltDovka. Very man} pauanta
IwTe atill erery lear to teaia their homea In aearcli of work on the
Volga snd alaewhara. An active trade ie carried on by the mer-
chants of the chief towna,— com, hides, tallow, oila, beii^exportwl ;
aie Barstoff, TaaritHvn, Kamyabin, and Khvalynak.
Saratoffiadiiidod into 10 diatricla, the cbiaf town* of which and
Uuirpopulationi in 18a2wen Be followai—Saratoff (112,130 inhabit-
ant^)-, itkank (~ r.-.--.--- -.
It (7010); Bataabof (10,0»0); Kam>sbin (14,400);
lunuyiiiK ^.^SM)]i Kiimelxk (17,B30); Fatrovik (15,02(t; 8
dobak (10,300)! Tiarilayu (31,220); and 7oLik or Volji (ir4,»3
The Oannsn oolouy of 8anipta, although without municipal ini
tnliono, fa s lively little tonu with G050 inhabitanta, which carries
on an HtiTa trade in mnatard, woollen nlotb, and varioua mannfao-
tnnd VSNS. Dubovka (13,4&0 iohaliitanU) derives ita importai
from its trslBo with tho Don ; tlio villsigi^SaniDilDYkain the diati.-.
of Bsbaboir atid Kctoyar in Volak have each more than 11,000
iuhaUtsate ; Batands and Arkadak are Important ^rain-marketa.
Tbe diatlict of BaistolT baa been inhabited aluee at 1«at the
SnlithioMod; itainhablUntaofalHtareiioch
1 Bortssea ^ao^ed tiis tarntarr and nooftuiisd d)
of ths Khaar princea. Whether the Burtaaoa ware the anoasbm
of the UordTtniana — la soma ethnologiata an inclined to admit —
baa not yet been detarmined. At the time of tbe llongoiian invs-
aioD, the Tsrtsis took poaaaaaion of the tanitoiy, and ona of tliaii
sattlamants siooDd tba khan'a polaca st Unk, 10 miiea from San-
to^ aaania to hsre bad aoma Importanoo, aa well aa thoaa aboDt
Tajitayn snd I>nboTks. Tbs incuitioiM of tha Crimasu Tsrtan
darsststod tbs country sboat tbs Itth oaotwy, and sftor tba Ul <rf
SaaB and Aatrakhan tbs tarrttory was snneiHl to Uoscow. Ssrs-
toff and TMTitsjn, both protadod by forts, aroM> in tho aooond half
of tha 10th oantoiy; bot ths foroata and deep nvinea of tba torri-
tory continned for two centuries mon to give ahaltsr to nnnMnas
bajida of aqoittei^ Esskolniks, snd runaway oarb, who did not
noogniie tbs authnity of Uoasow ; Uiey aomattmea rabhad tba
oaiavana of boata on the Volga and wan rady to support the inanr-
rectiona both of Ruin snd of tba Imptaton of ths 18tb centnij.
Dmitriavak (now Kamyabin) and Pstrovsk were fonided about the
and of tbf 17th century, sods psUisdsd wall waa sreotsd batwsan
the Votn and the Dan, while other Uoaa of niilitsry posts won
kept ia the north and weat. A apecial "voiako" of Volra Coaaaoka
was founded in 1731, bot aa they slao joiueil the nbellions tbey
BOon traneferred to the TanL Kagular colonisstion msy M
to have bwnn only at the and of the IBtb eantary, wbaii
Catherine IL oiled back the ninawsy diaantars, Invilad Osimsn
coloniata, snd otderod her conrtiars to settle hers their muft,
deported from central KuaaU. In thia way the population of Uie
lieutenancy, which eitonded alao along the left bank of ths Volga,
naclied 040,000 In 1777. It eierodcd one million in 1817. la
51 tba torritory on tba Iclt bank of tbe Vol^ waa tntnafarrad to
SABATOFF, capital of tha above govenuneut, sitoated
on the right bank of the Volga, C33 milea bj i^ to the
south-east of Moscow, luu become one of the moat import-
ant cities of eostent Rnseia, and Tanks anong the veiy few
Russian cities which have more than 100,(X)0 inhabitantik
picturesquely situated on tbe aide of hills which eome
close down to the Volga. One of these, tbe Bokotont Hill
{fiSO feet) is liabte to frequent landslips, which an a con-
tinual source of danger to tbe houtee^ poorer inhabitants
at ita basa The tenace on which Sanltoff ia built being
intersected by two raTinei, tiie ci^ is ditided into tbrea
parts 1 the outer two may be conrndered aa sabiubai A
large village, FokroTskafa, with about Vi,000 inhaUtaata,
Eituated on tbe opposite bank of the Tdga, thon^ in the
gOTenunent of Samar^ ia in raali^ ft mburb ol Saratoff.
Apart from this auburb, SantoS had in 1883 a populatioD
of 112,430 (49,660 in 1830, and 69,660 in 1859). It ia
better built than many towns of central Busaia. Its old
cathedral (169T) is a veiy pluii structure, but the new
one, completed in 1820, is fine, ood has a striking cam-
panile. The theatre and the railway station are alao fine
buildings. Tha streets ate wide and regular, and there are
several brood squares. A new flne-ort gallery was erected
in 1884 by the Russian painter BogolnbofF, who has be-
queathed to tbe city his collectioa of modem pictorea and
of various olfjecta of art A school cA drawing and tha
public library are in the same building which has received
the name of " RadiatchefPs Hnsemu" (in memory of Radio-
tchcff, the author prosecuted by Catherine IX).
Agriculhus and gstdanuiR are atUl the support rf a sseflon at
the population, who rant land in ths neighbourhood of th* oity.
The calture of the inoflawar dasarvea apedal nwntion. Tba loal
roannfaoturing eaUbliahmentn do not keep psos with tbs raiddly
inc[«aing tts3a, and tbair aggtwats praluction cannot bo esti-
mated St mon than ^50,000. The diatilleriee are flrot in impoit-
ance ; neit come tha manofni:turea of liqucun (£160,000), flonr-
mlila (about £10,000), oil-worke (£66,000), and tobacoo-fcotoriea
(about £40,000). Tbe oity hsa not oalj a tts-U in com, oil,
billet, tallow, woollen cloth, wool, fruits, and variona raw produce
exported from Samara, but also a trade in aalt tnm Crimea snd
Aitrakhan, which ia in tfao hand^ of the Samara merohaiita, pod in
iron from tho Urals snd wood™ waraa from tho niipar VolM
vertimcnts. Soratoff alao auppliat aoutb-oaetsru Knaai& with
iDufactnred articlea and grocery T
__ii»aia. Tbe trsBo of the port waa (
ronbleain 1882. Tbe aballownem of tbe v oiga opiioiute me lown,
and the immenaa (dioata along its rii;ht baok am, however, s gnat
diBwbaek. Vatt aand-bank^ which formerly lay above ths titj,
have gnulnally shifted their poaiUon, snd it la supposed tbst b a
XXL — 39
SOS
I A B — 8 A R
favyaui Suiteff wtnba.ittiutHl «s* ilml aboatl mflavide.
In ISSa ud 1883 ttauntn mn oompallnl to ditchmrgs ouvoes
50 milai Mew SustofF or it tlis PoknmkiT* tnbnrb on tlia left
bulk, — Ki that ■ bnnch nilny fgr aumTisg the cvgoea of tba
■tmuti iaa now bean uuiieti ucted HKitli of tho CJtT.
Hi* town ot Sintoff wu (bnikdMl U the end of the Ifltli omtarr,
on tb« Ult tamlc «f the Volgi, khim MT«n miln sbon the preeeDt
dta, to wfaioh it wu nmoreii aboat ISOS. Tba plua it now
ooenpia* (SaiTtau, <» Yallcnr Uaantiia) hu been inhibited from ■
Nmola uttlqid^. Althongh fannded br tha munt«auiM of ocdar
Id th* Tal^ la^on, BmtaV, whloh ma not fortified, wu BTenl
timaa BUlaead in tha I7th and ISth oantniiea. Suifi took it, and
Ilia followan kept it until 1071; tba inanrgant Coaucki of the Don
nndo' Bnbvin and Neknaoff pillaged it In 1708 and Pogitcheff
In 1774. Aflar baina plaoed ondar EaaK and Utar nndar Aatn-
khni^ it baowna tha ohiaf town of tba SuatoB' gOTaminaat In 17eT.'
SARATOaA SFRINOS, a nlkga of the United State^
wboM minenl waten, apart from any chum of ntuation,
bave rendered it one of the meet fuhiooable of Bommer
leaorts. It lies in the eut o[ Saratoga cotmty. New York,
186 milee hj rait north of New York ci^, on a level
platean.in the volley of the Hndeoo, not far from the
junction of this river with the stream diBcharging from
Saratoga Lake. The nomber a&d die of its hotels (some
of which are among the largest in tha world and can
accommodate upvranls of 1000 gnestB) and the large
inflnx d wealthy and faahioutble viaitws, bringing ils
n
Hu of Baiatoga Bptlngi.
popolation Dp to 30,000, render Saratoga Bpringa aajrUiing
rather than a "village." Its reaideat inhabitants even nnm-
bered 6131 in 1880 and the fomuhip contained 10,820.
There are Preebyteriati, Baptiat, Methodist, EpEacopal, and
Soman Catholic chnrchea, a large town-hall, a high school
and other educational inatttutions, a fire departmeot boUd-
iag, a drcnlar railway, and nomerooB private mansions.
GongrcM Park wu laid ont m 187&-4. In July and
Angturt the racecourse of the Saratoga Bacing Aasociation
attracts the best patronage of the American turf.
Tha Indiuia Mom U an earlr data to have knOKa aE the medi-
dnal virtoaa of the High Sock Spring, ud in 1767 Sir WUliua
Johnion, garried thither bj i party of Hohawka, wai natond to
hadUibiF drinking itawaten. OeDertil Scha jler cat a iwd throngh
ua fenat ftom Sohnjlarriltat and in 17S1 erected tha Grtt bama
nooia in the neuhboarhood of tho springa. Hotali begin to be
bnilt about ISIS. Kaw springe bive from Idme to tuna boan
ducoraiad, and their nnmbar haa alio bsan inciaiaad br boring
to that now tb«n ira 38 in ilL Tb«j rito in a atntnm of^Potadim
aanditona nndatliin by Laorwtian gnaia^ kc, and reach tha
•ufaca by paaiiDg tbcracb a bad of blna eh?. lU ara ohirged
With eubanla Mid gii, TbaMlawfav "**™°°< ^ ■■^'■"■taua :
—CoDgiaes Spring in Connw* Pi^ dtsooraied Inl7M (chlcrids
of sodiiun. bicarbouitea oflima and miAnenDm); WMbington or
Chunpigna Spring 11806) ; Calombiui ^piog (1S(M) ; Uithoni
B (IMS) :
itnun Spring; Oajsai
, _ of IM foot and mating U feat
') : Glider, ipoating apiing (botod in 1S71 to SW feat);
~ . ■ f- ..J 1-111 1...1. 1.^ ._j ^j
Spring (laSS)
Spring (bored
into tha ur); . _,_ „ _,__
FUt Eock Spring, known ai «arl]r a* 1774, but loat,
reoovend in 1881. The wiEir from lerenlof the apringi ii lirgal*
bottled and eipoited. The Oeyaer Soring (II milM B.W.) and
Whita Bnlplmr Spring and Bnrelu Bpnng (1} milaa E. ) are beyond
tba limiti of the accompanying plin.
SAitA-WAK, a territory in the north-weet of Borneo^
which, reclaimed from piracy and barbarism by the energy
of Sir Jame* Bbookb (jo.), was converted into an inde-
pendent and proeperoDS state. With an ana eatimaled at
from 3S,000 to 10,000 square milee, it has a populaljon of
about 250,000. The ooast eztendt from Taigong Data,
a prominent cape in 3' 3' N. Int., northwards to the
frontier of Brunei in 3° 10' — a distance in a straight line of
about 280 miles, but, following the sinnoeitiea, about 400
milee. Inland the boundariet towards the Dutch territory
are hypotheticallj determined by the line of watershed
between the streams flowing north-weet and thoas flowing
east-south-east and sonth-weat, but the frontier districts
ore to a considerable extent tmezploied. Towards the
coast there are tracta of low alluvial land; and some of
the rivets reach the sea by deltas ont of all proportion to
the length of their course. The surface of tho country
eoon, however, begins to rise and to be divermfied with
irregolar h'll^ sometimes of rotinded aandatonc^ aome-
times of pictnreeque and rugged limeetone. The Bongo
Hillii, in the residency of Sar&wak, at« about 3000 feet
high; and along the frontier, where the Seraung Hountaini,
the Kiinkong Mountaina, the Batang Lupar Mountains,
iK., are supposed to form more or leas continuous ranges,
there are altitudes of from 4000 to 8000 feet In some
of the limeetone mountains there are caves of enormona
extent (a detailed account will be foond in Boyle, Adven-
hira among CA« Dyaii of Borneo, 1866). The Bqaog is
the largest river in Sariwak. Its sources are only ISO or
130 miles directly inland near Mount I^wi, Mount Mamd
(8000 feet), and Qura Peak ; but it flows obliquely tontb-
weat for 3G0 miles, and tiie principal branchea of its
delta (the Eyan river and the B^ang proper) eml»ac«
a territory of I60O sqoare milee with a const-line of 60
milea £i their upper course the headwatera have a rapid
descent, and none of them are navigable above BaUeh
where Uie Rejong is deflected westward by the occesaion of
the Balleh river. Left-hand tributaries from a low line
of hills to the south — the Katibas, Nymah, Kanowit, and
E^ulan rivers— iMntinne to swell the nuun stream; but
there ore no tributaries of any importance from tha right
hand, the country in that direction being drained directly
seawards b; a number of short rivers — the Oyo, Hnkoh,
Balinean, Tatau, and Bintulu, — of which the first three rise
in the Ulab-Bolu Hills (3600 feet). At the apex of the
Rejang delta lice the village and government of Bibn, and
at the mouth of the Bejang branch is the important village
and shipptng-port of Bejang. Passing over the small river
basins of the Kaliikftb and the Soribas we reach tlio Batang
Lupar, which ranks neit to the Rejang, and is navigable
for large vessels as for as Linggo, about 30 miles from its
mouth— the bar having 3J fathoms water at high tid&
The value of the navigable portion of the Batang Lupar
is, however, greatly lessened by the formidable botes to
which it is Bnbject ; they begin about three days bef(»e
full moon and change, and last about three days, rushing
np the river with a crest about 6 feet high for a distance
of 60 miles. In several of the other rivers a (iinilar phe-
nomenon is ofasarved. The broad month of tha Batang
Lupar opens in the angle when the coast, which has rnn
nauly north and south from tlw drfttjif tlw^&iW| tom*
S A K — S A R
807
timpOj WMt ; ud all Iha liTwi wUd ntek tbe m*
buf^ta tibk poiitt and Taajoag D4tn — ths Stdong, Ui»
guBUkhwD, Um Suimk (with ila tribniariw the Seaiw,
tha S—ban, tha Peak, Ac-X Am Landii, ai« ihort.
n» bIbwiI l>Mhh af Sutwik li not nnlBporlut Gold
w^UDcbHlaBttbttannMoDin tb» owtial nddsnn, thoncb
Bst Witt man tbu Modnmto nuc«h ; ud mam netaUj a ttiHj
pnUfe ■old-SaU hu bMn npmd in tb* DtlghlxHuhood of Uanp,
on tha Batug Lopat, whn* than i> % loniuhing Chinaaa Mttlt'
BanL 0( Bach gwter Tain in tha 4titim(mj ana which occnr
noi* aqniaUjr Iq tha diitrkt of tha hMdatrauu ot tha Buiwak,
fa) tha Boat niiou locahtiaa, owuionallT aa djkM t» hik, bat
mon fraqoratlj id bonlden daop in tha djijrg; aoil, « parched on
towar-lua aimmita and eitfgj piniwclaa, Kcaaaibls OBlr br
laildan. Thaw rich dapodti hiT*, bowanr, baaa latgalf aihaulad,
and no new aaa hara baaa diacaraiad In otbw pvti o( tba lam-
twT, ao that tha Bonao Companr (which bia tha nKAOpal; of tbi*
ud othar BiBcntla ia tba ooootn) baa baaa tampUd to arcct local
nimaoa* to radsca tha poonr qaalitiaa d on and tha nfua of tba
Diinaa to mrolna on U» not. A dapotft ol afainabar wu dia-
ooTcnd bj Hr Halma in ]UT, at Tafora, at tba foot o( tht Bodbo
Hoantaiiia, bat no otbar aocamnca of thii on ot qoickailTaT in tba
tairitoiT haa jat been raportad. In ISTS qniekaUTat waa aipoitad
tathaTalaa o( ia8,0M dolUn.aDJlnlB7»toTe,S»). Coal baa
bacn woikad for BUT nan at Uia govanmant Binaa ot Blmnnju,
o« the banka of a rigfat-band afloant of tba Badong ; ud than
la known to uiit at Silantok «p tha Lli«i* rim (a laft-hand
•at af tha Batug Lapar) • vacj aitanSiB coal-IMd, wboi*
bietM, itill Intac^ ooold Im bnogbt down lot ahipmant at
LinggabTi
oBcaasBall]
-dTnaad Iccallr ont
Ir (roB tba Batang Lapac dlilrict, to China,
whan it ia Ughlj nlaad aa ■ hanaa-buildlng and foniitan tiBbw.
Oatta-iiBtha, iMta-mbbn (guUm-mtu), and biida' nMta an alao
■noftad, but In dininuhigg qnutitiaa ; and thair plana ia baiag
takan ^gambiat and Mppai, tba eoltiiration of which wm intro-
dnced hr tba ngah Oainbicr tgnnd at M,iH picnli in tha
aiporta of 1MI and at 33,433 hi 1881, and pappar at 38,807
pfcoli In ISSl and «>,4W In 1SS4. Tha tarritorr of Baiiwak ia
aaid to AuBiab Daon than boUth* aago prodnce of tho world, and
moat of it fa arawn on tha monb j buka of tba Oya, Uokab, and
other ilren M tha nortbarn naidancf of Baiiwak to tha diitonc* of
nbont 30 milaa inlaad. Tba total Taloa of tbc aiporta of Saiiwak
in 1W4 WH l,14f,2IS dollut (1,071, G3B &om Enehing), that of
tha impatta l,IMI,3tS dolUn. Katona and Datcb Ttaacli an tb«
noat nDmanaa in tba ahlpping ntarna.
Tba CDTarnmeat la an abMata monanhj — tho pnaant i^ah
baiiCtCenopbawofSif JaBn Brooka. Tba nO*b ia Mtiatad b j a
auptema aonndl of all, conaiatinK of two chief KDnpean nddauta
and (bm nativa^ nominatad bj himaalf ; than la alao a general
eoonall af iftr, whleh meat* owa cTarj thrt* jian or sftanar if
nqoind. far adBhdatiatiTe pnipoas tha connln u dirided into
aigfat diatiicta oonaapondtng to the namber of^ prlociptl rirar
buina. Tia** eUafdlfliicta are preaided orer hjr Eoropean oScero.
nil I >.„ I j._ .1.^ control of u
, ..» force, and tha
TheriTUaarricsiB
ranoe ia in a utialac-
__., Tins Oi.BSSdoUaia to tha good in tha period betwHn
I87t and 1881. Ci 1884 tba nTenna wa* »<,£M dollan and tha
ra SaS.Ml. Bomu Catholica and Pnteatanta both haTc
T^Tilailroiganiiad, withpenuou^Jio. '.
torj itata, ihowins 04,898 doUaia to tha |
of UalaTL ChiniM, Land I^alu, Saa Dra
out tba ChinaBaa," »j* the t^ah I fait Mall OtuttU, IS
r, 18aS)"iiNCudonotbiag." Whan not allowad to
nja the t^i
.. . .^. do notbiag.'
haiaaaailj>aTaned,ud tblahaistorbiddan todoon pain
1, Tba I^oln within tba lanitotir haTo giTcn np bead-
knntlas. Tba llilaiiowa, who Uto jn tba noithem diotrlcti, baTa
adopted tha Halaj draa and in many caaea hara baotnna llohani'
uadain; tba^anaqniet, csntaotad, andlobofionapaopte. SlaTerr
still pninila in Soiiwak, bnt anougameati an BMa for ita antira
aboIltiaBlnieSS. KochloA tho capital of Sariwak on the Saiiwak
mer, ia a place of lt,(IO0 ^habituta ud ia ateadilj growing.
fiiCorir.— In 1880-40 Saiiwik, tba moat aontbempiorinceor tha
anitanata of Bmnai, waa in nballion againat tha tTTaaDj- of tba
goramot, hugenn Uakota, and Unda HaaaJB had been aant to
rcaton order. The inamguta held ont at Balldah or Blidab fort
ia tha Siniawaa diatrict, and then Jamaa Brook* flnt took part In
tha aAin of Iha tarritoir. Bf bia aaatatance the innmctian waa
aunpraaaed, and an Baptamb* Mth ha maappoistadehieforSari-
wA. laISM Captain Ea^id and HrBroobaipUad tha pltatM
takan the name
and Sir Jamaa Brooke wai in
fonngar nephew
bom the Baribaa riT«r and In ItU diaj dafaatad thoaa on tbo
Batang Lapar, to whom Uakota bad attached himaelf. In 1S40
another urtn blow waa atmck hj the daatradion of Sirib BaLfb'a
fort at Patniu. Tba Chinaaa, who had bwno to aattla In the
ODontrf iboDt ISW (at Han, Bidi, ka.), made a noleat oltampt
to Duaaocn the Engliab and eeiie the goTcrnment, but thaj wen
promptljr and aeterel]' cmabsd after tbaj had done baToe at
KachiDg. During Sir Jamaa Brooka'i abaenca in EngliDd (1667-
18«a) hia nephew Captun J. Jotanaen (who hr' -'--- "-
Bnoke, ud u geoerallr called Captain Brooka]
itr ; bot a quairel aftarwudr -" — ' ■"- '
1808 iacca«d»d,br Cliarlea Ji
The independence of Soiiwak bad bean lecOKoued after mnob
nntnTenr bf EngUod la ISCS ud preTionatj b} the United
Statea.
^ tmrtmii, ISIt ; S)aiuiir St Juhn. Lifiti U. >«w(i tf O^ /vAul, IMI,
ul U/itftir Jmrntt Aruli, 1*T>^ Hilnii. naMvr<>« M llit Fmr &il,lM|
SARD AN AP ALUS wu, Mcording.to the acoonnt of
Cteaiaa (preaerred b; Diodonu, S3 a;.), the laat king o[
NineTeli, and he ia deaeribed in terma Uiat hare made hia
name proTarbial aa the tjpe of aplsndid and Inxariona
efiemiiUKj. Cteaiaa'a atorj cannot ba called hiatorical ;
but the name Sardanapalna aeema to ba a comptioii of
AafOTbanipal (aee toL lit. p. IBS).
BABDmE{ClmtapiiiAard»t). BeePiLCHABD. Another
of the Cli^eidm (C. acoMfrruia) ii the "oil-Mrdine" of tha
eaatern coaat of we Indian Feainaala.
SARDINIA (ItaL SarJi^mi, Fr. Sardaigiu, Span.
CtrdeHa, called b; the ancisnt Qreeka 'IjifroEtro, from a
fancied tcaemblance to tlie print of a foot), an ialand in tbe
Heditenaoeaii, aboat 140 milaa from the weat eoaat of
Ital;, of which kingdom it forma a patt. It ia aepaiated
from tha island fS Corsica by the Strait of Bonifado,
which ia aboat 71 milee vride, and onlj about 50 fathoms
deep. Sardinia fiea between 8* 4' and 9* 49' E. long.,
and exl«Dda from 38* SS' to 41* 16' N. laL Tha IsngUi
from Cape Teolada in the aonth-weet to Cape Longo Sudo
in the north ia about 160 milee, the bnadtb from Cape
Comino to C^pe Caccia about 68 milea. The aiva of die
island ia 9187 square milea, — that of the department (ooaa-
parftuMnfo), including the small islands adjacent, being
9294 equare milee. It ranks uxth in point of uce among
the islands of Enrope, coming next after Sicily.
Ha greater part of the island is monntainona, eepeciallf
in tha east, where the monntains stretch almoat cmtinn-
ouslj from north to south, and advance close up to the
coaaL ' Tbe elevations, however, are not eo high aa in the
sister island of Corsica. The culmiaating point ia Honte
Qennargentn, which risea, about 22 miles from the east
coast, slmoat exactly on the panllel of 10' N., to the
height of 6250 feet, and ia consequently little more than
two-thirds ot the height of the chief peaka of Coruca.
On the east side the principal breach in the ccmtinuity of
the mountains occurs in the north, whore a narrow vallej
opening to the east at the Onlf of Tarranova cota ofi the
monntains of Limpara in the ezb^ma north-east. Hie
weelem half of tha island haa more level land. The prin-
cipal plain, that of the Campidano, etratchea from sonth-
east to north-west, between the QnlF of Oagliari and that
of Oristano, and nowhere attains a greater eleratdon than
250 feat. At both ends it sinks to a much lower level,
and has a number of ahallow lagoona encroaching on it
from tbe sea. In the comar of the island situated to the
sooth-west of the C!ampidano there are two small isolated
mountwns rising to the height <A from 3(XX) to 4000 feet,
which are of importance as containing the chief mineral
wealth of tbe islaod. A small valley runs between them
from the aoathem end of tha Campidano to Igleaiaa, the
mining centre of Sardinia. North of the Onlf of Oristano
monntains again appear. The extinct volcano of Honte
FeiTU there rises to the hed^t of 4400 fee^ and tbe
■tnams of bualt which have iawed ftom it in fonobr
308
SARDINIA
•gM form tlie rijge or laddle, ojiottt 3000 feet high, coa-
Docting thii moDnUiQ with the highland area cm die eut,
Btill lurther north & trachTtio plateau, tnt^noctad \ij
Bnmeraiu deep rivet volleja, oocuiiice a conaidurablo tract,
•dvMicing np to the plain of Saanri on the north coai '
Hap of BirdlnU.
13w then m nnmeioni bat ahort. The principal ia
the Orirtano, which eaten It^ gulf of the nine namo on
theweat coast
'Qeok^callj the island ii compoaed mainlj of gnnite
and other eiTEtalline rocka. Oronito predominates eepe-
etally in the eait, and the moontoins of that part of Oie
island vere apparently at one time coniinnoiiB with the
Mmilarlj oonstdtated moontains of Coiaica. Qranitic
qniTS likewiae extend to the sonth-weot, and appear in the
c^ws of Spartivento and Teolada. Altogether this rock
■s estimMed to cover one-half of the entire niriace. In
the west of the island the principal cryBtalline rocks are
pofphjritio in stnictnre ; sedimeotaij depoeits an eom-
pamtiTelyaniiiiportaDt, and sach aa are pieaent are mainly
•iUier of Tery ancient or of recent geolo^cal dateL Silurian
fbnnations attain thslr meet oonstderaAle development in
the sonth-weBt round Iglaetas, iriiere there occurred the
oontemporaneona porphyritic outpourings containing the
moat namerona minonl veins of the island. Between the
dapouta of Silnrian and those of Cretsceona times there
ere none of any conseqoence eieept a few patchea of
Devonian round the slopes of Qennargento, intenetiag as
containing some beds dt tme coaL The members of the
Cretaceona sysCem occupy CDnsidomble tracts in the south-
west east (roond the Oolf <d Orosej), and north-west (in
the mountains of Nuna), and a ampler area in the sontb-
weat (in 1^ island of San Antioco). Tertiary formations
>ra ttill more hrgely developed. They cover the whole
plain of the Ounpidono, the wsMt coast oppotito the Ldaad
of San Antioco, and tfab narrow vnlley in the nertb-eart
already roentionod. The basalts of Monte Fsmi an alao
of Tertiary date, and it does not appear to have b«on (ill
that epoch that Sardinia formed a single island.
In varied erf mineral wealth the ioalhem luUf ct
Sardinia ia the richest province of Italy, and it ataada
aecond in the annual value of its miDerai prodncts. Tfao
chief minerals are sulphates of lead more or ks aroonti-
ferona (galena), aolplMtea and lilicatM of linc, crdmaiy
iron pyntee, mlphates of iron and copper, of antimony,
and ik ananie^ besides cobalt, nickel, and silver. The conl
OD the flanks of Oennaigeutn is <rf good enon^ qnolt^ to
fomiah a valoable fuel, and is found in suffieiontly thick
seams to be woAable it on^ the means of transport wero
prsMo^ bnt its ntnatioD is oneh •■ to rendor it of do
economical importaaee. In the Tertiary dejioaib of tlie
Boath-weet then an some veins of nunganeaa on, and
also some beds of lignite which an worked as a source of
fuel for local use. The mineral wealth of Sardinia was
known in andent limes, and mines wen worked both In
the Carthaginians and the Romans. Dnring the UiddJe
Age* th^ were for the moat part neglected, but the
industry was revived in modem times, and haa been greatly
developed in recent years. Upwards of 70 mines hava
now Men opened, moat of them in the district of which
TglwnM is the oeniM, bat a few near the soatham port of
the eoit coast, where Mnrmvera ia the chief town. Hie
minaa are mosllj of anenliferons ka^, silvar, di^ and
iron, ^w ores are maiuy enwrted in die raw states only
the inferior sorts beoog smuted in the ialsud. Ammg
oUisr mineral products are Hiilding attwwi fgraiutSL
marble^ Jic.), alahaater, and salt.
The climate of Sardinia is nmilar ito that tt the nst ef
the Ueditenonean rsgion, and the southam half of the
island shares in the nearly lunleaa summera choneteristia
of the aouthem portions of th* Uediteitanean psniasolos.
At Ca^iari there are oo an average only seven diqn on
which lain falls during June, July, uid Angusk nrouf^ \
out the island tbeee months are the drieat In the yaar,'wd
hence vegetation on the lower groond at least is ganoially
at a standstill during that period, and shnibs with brood
leathery leaves fitted to withstand
colled Dio^iiu) an as ch^racteristio
on ihe *nn.inlani<, WintOT is the raini^A sc
year ; bat the heat and drought of summer (mi
ton 95* F.) make that the most unpleasant of the nnanms,
while in the bw grounds the pnvalenoe of malaria renden
it a moet nuheoldy one, eapecial^ for visilon, Autiimn,
which ia piol(»iged into December, is the moat agreeable
season ; there is then neither heat nor oold, nor miat nor
fever, and at that period birds of paasage \teffa to immi-
grate in large nombeis.
Thfl uricultunl prodnots of tha ialuid u« Knatly inteior to
-whit might ba tipsoted in vicnr or ttas lulstd bAlilj of tbs
■oiL Tm aua an uilKDad for tliii. The fint b tlw misDl*
•uhdinnan ot tba Und, vhich, M in Cortica, ii sanUd to >wdl
in Bitmt that when an onior bai ai nmoh as 100 »ent kta
Cpert; ia divided into Sti oi SO lota enmninded by psiali of land
DDKUW to other onoi. In sneh dicoiiutaimi It i* ntithw
poodble to apply adequate capital to the oultiratioii of the gnmjiJ,
nor for the oamen to soqnira tha requiiiM capital Tho aecoDil
canaa ia tho malaria which mden certain dlatricti jiiiaiii— ml of s
fertila sail quit^ miiiUnbitahle ; and Ihia a«ond cwua can be
remodied only when ■ nmedy hu been Found for the fint, lor. ai
the malaria iaundonbtedl; one rauaa of dimlniahed cuICiTatlon, it la
eqnally certain that want of cnlClTatJon ia ooa of the canata ot tlie
nalana. In ancient timH Sanlinia wu one ot the (i^TanarleB d
Home ; now canala tilia a compaatiTely onimpiirUiBt place anoDH
,ths exports, and thia export ie t«Unced by ■ oonaidarabla import
of lbs aame conunodltj. The chief proJocta ot i
sn grown ia aoffldnit sboitdaMa to «
a of the
many pUoe>,aii
B ioal dsDsni
SARDINIA
30«
iliBouit, onsKM. tuJ cEtmni u* lita Uieelj cnltiTated. ml th«
emoi^ of Ban Vito. s«r llumrrn. luJ uf lEilii, i faw milH to
the Bonh of OmUon, an uuIliI for tLeir »ieel1nii» : tba whlla
winM ot tha bauki of tha OriataDO in of jooJ npotf : anil auonu
other pmlorta of ih* i.lin.1 awniulbfrnija, tobKco, niaajor, ana
ndnssd ii
ITO-gnan an gnwa, but
■ btaido 111* nnmaniaa livgn jiald abamlaue*
if food, «i«]it dimug tba dry kuod, irhin tlia Lonca, ann,
catik, ihHh aud goati hiva to eoiibiut Ihanwjlvaa with atrair,
)om« drisd beaua, and a littta barlay. Uoat atlsntion ia baalowad
on honn. At ona tinie tha aanlioian GoiraruinCQt andntTournl
to kaap a atnJ on tht ialaad for narinc horaaa for tha Piad-
noBten eaTalr^, but tha paraou amploynl (Datim of Iha main-
hsd) vara n&able to vttlataod tha nalaru. Thara ara aomo
lane prirata aatabliahmanta for tha rearing ot lioraaa, hoireTer,
and tba tendii^ of liTa-atock gaaerall; foma n inpoituit t, part
«( the oompatioui of th* paopla that aninuili tank next aftar
minaralt unoog tho aiporti of ^la Uaod. Of tha wild animala,
the wild diaap known aa tba moiiinon, or Earorean mafflon,
lonaarlr u inhabftaat of all tba mouatain* of tba Unditamineiia
HniuDlu and iaUnd^ and now conHnnl to SardioU and Conica,
a tha iBoet Intarettiag. Among tho uoiioui animala ara acoriiiona
nnd tarantnla^
Tha lagDOni near tba cout on tha aontb and weot abound In
nillati, eali, munala, and eraba, which ara canght Is great
UBBben bj tba n*ti*H, while tha fiahariaa roond Sanlmia, aa roond
CoraicB, an in tho handa at ItaUau from tba muoland. Tba
■ochorj', Hidine, and coral Bihuiaa ara all lucratiio. Tba coral
U aaid to he of aicaiUnt qnatitf, and ia exported to tba narkate
of Oanaa and Mattcillai.
Hu oitamal commarca of tha lalanJ haa nearly trebled iCialt in
the twantjT-flva jmn 1S5S-81, t)ie import* andaiporo gachamoant-
!■( in Iha latter jear to aboat £1,S00,000 (abool £1, to. par head of
popnlatiai). Thia iacraua i* chiafl/ owing to (he derefopmant ot
the Biaiu tndoatrr, orte making up nearly one-third at Iha total
nine e( tie aiporti. Ijtb animala make up about a fonrth of the
total Talna, and cenala, which coma next in order, about one-
•arenth. Tba chief importi an cottoa and other mannfactnna and
CDkaiial nndncta. Tha inland trad* ha* bean graatlj promoted
within dw U«t fifty yaan by tha eonatrnction of Votdi aud
nilwajK Before 1828 thara ware no road* at all in tba island ;
the tncka which (xifted ooald ha iraTeissd only on foot or on
boeMbuk. But opwardi of ISOO mjlea of nalionai and prorincial
nkda, all well made and wall kept, h**s einca then been eon-
■tnctad. Ot nilwaya, introduced ainca 18T0, that* are now 205
nilaa in all [equal to abont 1 mile of railway for arery 3* iqiiara
milaa of nrface).
Foe adminiatntlTB piupaeai Sardinia, like tha mt of Italy, ia
divided into ptoTincea and eirdea (cinfittlarii). The following
tabic giTaa the niunet of thaee dlvidoDa with the popnletian aeoord-
i>C to the laat ccnnu (end of 1881) :—
la SBtOOZ, enual
if about middle
Tba whole popuUtion of the department ia thna SBtOOZ, eni
to aboDt 71 to the aquan mite, Saidinia being the teaat populous
of all tha great diTuiou* of the kingdom, ili which the aieraga
denaity ia 26fi to the aquan mila. The lApulatiou ia, howenr,
incnaiing at a rather more rapid rate than on the mainland.
Between 1871 aud 1881 it iocraaed by abont 18,000, or 718 per
cent., while the aierags rata of incrttua throogbout tha kingdom
waa only 8'IB per cent.
Tha inbaUtanti of Sardinia are a hatdy , _. .
hailtbt, and ot darit oompleiioa. They are little accuaComed t
work, but thia ia one of the oonae^UEnce* of the backward at
tlioir driliation and of tha impedimeata already indicatod to tlia
darelopmant of the rteource* of tha iiland. Ednration, a* in
mway otber part* of Italy, ia Yery far behind, notwithitanding the
law which makoa elementary oducalion compulsory; but hare, aa
thnTughout the kingdom, it ia rapidly eitanding. In 18S0-81
only >7.19T children, or Ina thin one -eighteenth of tha popula-
tion, ««■ in attendance at tha eltmentarv achoola, but thia
komber waa double what it had bean in 1881-61. At Cagtiari
tlwre >• a nivetaity, attended by from 300 to 100 atuitanti.
Tba people are litely in their diapoaition, fond of muiia and
peetq', ivmaikahly hoapitaUe, and atrong in their temilr ettacb-
iBBBli. ^Vilh thia laat trait, howerer, i* oonnected the chief blot
na tbA' diuaeter— their addictiDa to the practice of the eewrfrtta,
which preTaila here aa In Con^M. and aceording t» which an
entraga on ona'i honour is iri|<«d out in blooil, anil the can** of
one Diumber of a family ia taken up by tha mt, *o tliat the death
of one rictiiu leads to tha sacrifice of many others. But the
practicn ia uid to bo bucoming erary day mote rare, aud nerer to
be reaorted to eioopt in case of serions offence.
Tiie capital of the ialand is Cacliarl, but Sassari in the north .
has an equally large popalatbia (about 11,000). The other chief
towns an Tcmpio, Algfaank Iglesias, and Orlstsno. Cagliaii,
Alghen, and Cutal Sardo lie fortified.
The auliquities of tho ialand an Dnmaroni and dt peculiar
interaet The moat ramstkabla of thwa an tba monomant* called
HHrSagt (Tarioualy apelled also tmnt^&t, auragXi, ke.\ of which
than an npnanla of 3000 acattared OTtr the island. Thev are
nund abucturea luring the form of truncated oonea, and an
generally built of tbe baldest materiala tha Island annplin (granite,
baailt, trachyte, limaatone, kc.). The stone ia rongbly hewn lata
large blocks, which an laid in regular horiiontal oonnaa bat not
eamanted. The blocka in tba lower contaa* an sometiii** more
than three fret in length. Entnno* i* obtained by a Toiy low
opening at the baae to an inner chamber ; and, when then an two
or, a* in aomo casae, thna ilorita, theas an connected by meaua of
a spiral ataircaae. Tha origin and naa ot tbete atnictore* are both
Lttan of apeculation. The rarity of hnman nmains in them la
unit the idea that they wan used aa tiimbs, while the abeenae
my nlica pertaining to a religiout oanmoniat t> equally adTeraa
tha auppoaition that thay were used aa tamplea. SZit to tha
rbsgi the inoit inlerating of the ramaina of an
s;
nurfasgi t1
•o-calfed tomba of tha giants which appear to baTe been aitnallj
', although, aa the name given to them Indi-
zs:
iJtory.— According to Prof. Craapi, of the uniTatdty of
CagUari, tha tomba iuit referred to an not the only sign* of an
early SgfptiMa aetuemant in tha island of Sardinia. Variona
nmaina are laid to proTa beyond doubt that Egyptiana mnat have
founded at least two colonlea in Tair nmote timaa— (ma at the
ancient t-wn of Tbamu on the small penifltnli of Sen Uarco at
the northern extreiniCy of tha Onlf ot Oriitano, and the other at
Caratii, the preaant C^agliaii But areD baton tha Egyptiana
Prof. Creapi belieTss that th* Fhianidaua had eatabliihed a colony
on tbe small island of San Antioco, and had built there the town
of Silcii, tho ruin* at which are atill to be seen near the toim of
San Antioco. Of Phmnicians and ZgypUatfa, howerar, than ara
no trustttortliy historical records, and the 6rat tettlen moe* iniral
ia historically accredited wan the Certhaginiana, who •aeosedad
in making tbamaalTaa maaten of tbe ialand under Bsadnibal in
S13 n.C. Tha ialand nmainad in Carthaginian handa for upweide
of two hundred and seTeuty Jtara, and than passed into thoea of tha
Romans, who toolc adTBntage ot the war in which Outhage waa
iuTolred with her mercenary n«opa after the cloaa id On tint
Panic War to ar^-- " ^ '-
th.
I the islan.
Thenceforward th*
land naaiuad in pocsesaion ot tbe Roman* till near tha tall ot
la emtaie of tha West, when Sardinia also began to suffer from
the nrage* of the northern hordes by which Italy wii it that
time overrun and the empin of the West OTertbrcwn. Abont
0\t middle of tha fith century the ialand wu occupied by the
Vandals under Ganseric, but in the Srst half of the tollowln|
century these wen expelled by Belisarius. Very aoon after,
howcTsr, Gothi aucceeded the Vandals, and after these had in
thair turn been dHran oat by Maree* the natiTea managed to
eipel tha Romana and to acbiora their indapandeuca («<£). The
Sardinians thcreujiou elected tha leader in the nrolt agalnat Bome
king of the ialand, and by him tha island wsa diTideJ into the
four gnnd-judicaturea of Cagliari, Arborea, Torrea, and Oallnra.
The grand-justices or rulen of theao four diTision* eontinued to
ntain a coiisidenble amount of power during a large part of Iha
Uiddla Ages- But from tho oarly part ot tbe 3th century down
to the middle of tbe 11th their influence waa greatly impaiiwl by
npaatad innuda of tha Sanccns. nho landed now on one coast now
on another, and kept tho inhabiunta in a conatant ttate of alarm.
This state of matten was at last put an end to~bytinrGenos*e and
Piuns, who, acting under tha sanction of the popo, deapatebed a
ticet against tliat ot tha Sarmcent. A battle cnsm-d in tba Bay
of Cagliari ; the Saiaeens wen complolely dcfcstod, and the sUIea
landodon theisland (1050). Very aoon tho Tiane adroitly managed
lo rid themselves of the Genoese, and to gain |>ossossian of almtut
tha entin island, deposing the grand -juatices of Cseliari. Torres and
Cillnra. With the Piiana tha greater part ot tho ittand retnaiued
till 1313, whan the pope gave Sanlioia to the king of Arafton, who
combined with the grand-justice of Arborea lo drive out the former
rulen. But, this being accompt^ed, war soon broke out between
the two, and numerani aucceaea wen gained by tha grand-ioBtica
Ifarian IV- and bis daughter Eleonora acting aa intent on behalf
of her Bon tiarian V-, a minor. The AragonaBe aaemed to be on
tho point ot being diiTan out ot tbe iilaW wbrn Ueopsn diail «f
310
S A B — S A B
ig (140S), ud torn itttr tbs whoU iilud beams u
— „ > (>ft<r the aainn ot th« cnwni of Angon ud CuCila »
SpuUh) [RVTinca. It nmunsd Sjaniih till ths tntutr of UEncht
in 171!, wb«a it iru ceded to tht hooM of Anstrio, by whieh '
ITS) It wu banded oret to Victor Amadeni 11., dukg d( B4T07, ._
tichuiCB for th« iiluid of Sicily . Bbortl; before the dsti of Ihii
acquintum tbg dnko of Strof (••• Satdt) bad bad the title of
king ooBferred upon blm, and irben the easion of Bardlnia took
^aoe tbe title mi iihuif[wl to tbkt gf king ot Sardinia. With thii
IdQRdom tbe iiland olQmateLj became merged ia the kingdom
BH Ia BuBin, rtlHM m AmfataH (PvIl Id sd., lUT-IT) ; RiiiiHrl
t«it, U Aiu-ibltMi «! ftlU(im(PwU.aat) ; Robnt TunuiL SenflaU a
iu MtHmtm (Loud., 1MI>. (S. o, C^
SAKDIS (id S4fAit), the capital of the kingdom of
Ljdift, tha Mat of ft aauiattm nnder the Bomon empire,
uid the metropolis of the province I^did in later Boman
ud Bymntine times, iras ntnated in the middle Henniu
Tktley, at the foot of Mount Tmoitts, a Eteep and loftj spnr
of which formed the ciUdeL It was ftbont 20 stadia (2|
tnileB) Knth of the Henun*. The eotlieit reference to
Sardis i» in the Perim of .£Kh;lna (473 b.c.) ; in the
Jliad the name Hyde Mema to be given to the city of the
Unonian {i,t,, Lydian) chiefs, end in later times Hyde wu
•aid to be the older name of Sardis, or the name of its
citadel It is, however, mora probable that Sardis was
Dot tbe cffi(^nal capital of the Mseomaug, but that it be-
came BO amid the changes which produced a powerfnl
Lydian empire in the Sth oentnry b.c. Tbe city, but not
the citadel, was destroyed by the Cimmerians in the Tth
centuy, by the Athenians iu the 6th, and by Antiochns
the C^eat in tbe 3d century; once at least, nndsr the
emperor Tiberius, it was destroyed by an earthquake ;
bat it was always rebuilt, and eontinaed to ba one of tbe
great citiae of western Asia Minor till the later Byzantine
tima. Its importance was duc^ first to its military
Strength, secondly to its sitoatiou on an important high-
way leading from the interior to the jGgeau coast, and
tiiirdly to its commandtDg the wide and fertile plain of the
Eermns. The early Lydian kingdom was tar advanced in
the industrial arts (see Ltcfa], and Sardis was the chief
Beat of its mauufactures. The most important of these
trades was the manufacture and dyeing of delicate woollen
Staffs and carpets. The Btatement that the little stream
Pactolns whidt flowed through tbe market-pUce rolled
over golden sands is probably iittle more than a metaphor,
due to tbe wealth of tbe city to which the Greeks of the
6th eentory b.c. reaortad for sapplies of gold; but trade
and the practical organization of oommerce were the real
sources <a this wealth. After Constantinople became the
capital of the East a new road system grew np connecting
tbd provinces with the capital. Sardis then lay rather
apart from the great lines of communication and lost soma
01 its importance. It still, however, retained its titular
supremacy, arid continned to be the seat of the melro-
politan bi^op of the province. It is enomerated as third,
after Epheans and Smyrna, in the list of cities^ the
Thracesion thema given by Cooatautiae Porphyrogenitus
in the 10th century ; but in the actnol history of the next
fonr oentnriea it plays a part vary inferior to Magnesia
ad Sipylnm and Philadelphia, whit^ have to the present
day retained their pre-eminence in the district The
HermuB valley began to snffer from the inroads of the
Seljuk Tarks abont the end of tbe 11th century; but the
BUceesBes of the Greek general Pbilocales in 1118 relieved
the district for the time, and the ability of the Comoeui,
together with tbe gradual decay of the Seljuk power, re-
tained it in the Byzantine dominions. The country round
Baidia was frequently ravaged both by Christians and by
Greeks during the 13th century. Soon after 1301 the
Seljuk emirs overran the whole of tbe Hermus and Cayster
valleys, and a fort on the citadel of Sardis was baivded over
to them hj tntty. Finally in 1390 Philadelphia, which
Dennia iu 1882, have
end by bek of fnada.
^jLj, a valt eerin of monnda,
lorth lida of the HDnuBi, four
uCb of the nend lake Coloe ;
irding to Homer, of the Uke,
had for tome time been An independent ChriEtiaii city,
surrendered to Sultan Bayozid'i mixed army of Ottoman
Turks and Byzantine Christiani, and the Se^ok poiwer in
the Uermus valley was merged in tbe Ottoman empire.
The latest reference to tbe city of Sardis relates its capture
(and probable destruction) by Timnr in 1403. Its oita is
now abeolaCely deserted, except that a tiny village, Bart,
merelya fewhuts inhabited by seml-nomadioYuruka, eziats
beside the Pactolns, and that dtere is a station of the Smyrna
and Casaaba Bailway a mile north of the principal mina.
The mini of Sardii, lo far at thiv an no* riiibte, are chiefl; of
tbe Komin time ; but probably few ancient eitee would mon
richly nmrd the excavator nith remaini of all pariodi from
the eaily pre^HcUgnio time don-nnzda On the bauki o( tho Pac-
tolui two colnmna of a temjila of tbe Qreek period, probably tbe
great temple of Crbclo, are (till atandlne. Uore than one atteinpt
to eicale thii lemp!^ the laat by Mr I" ' '
been made end prematurely brought to a
The nearopolia of the old '■'- ''- -
or five milca from Saidia, i
here tbe Usonian ehiofi, _._ „ , .. ,
were bransbt to ileep beside thfir raothar. Tbe Krioi of moontli
la now ailed Rin Tepe (Thoneand llonnda). Several of them
have been opened by modem eicavatore, bnt in ererr caae it
waa found that treaeaiB^eeken of an earlier time had removed
any atticlea of valoe that bad been depoejtod in the sapnlchnl
chambers
SARDONYX, a name applied to those varietiaa ot
onyx, or stratified chalcedony, which exhibit white layers
alternating with others of red or brown colonr. The
brown chalcedony is known to modem mineralogists as
wnf and the red OS eameliait. Tha simplest and commonest
type of sardonyx contains two strata, — a thin layer of
white chalcedony resting upon a ground of either eamelian
or sard ; but the sardonyx of ancient writers generally
presented three layers — a superficial stratum of red, an
intermediate band of white, end a base of dark brown
chalcedony. The sardonyx has always been a favourite
stone with the came&^ngraver, and the finest works have
usually been eiecnted on stones of five strata. Snch, for
instance, is the famona Oorpegna cameo, in the Vatican,
representing the binmph of Baochna and Ceres, and re-
puted to be the largest work of its kind ever executed
(16 inches by 12). When the component layers of a
sardonyx are of fine colour and sharply defined, the atone
is known in trade as an " Oriental sardonyx " — a term
which is nsed vrithont reference to the geographical aonrca
whence the stone is obtained. A famous ancient locality
for eard was in Babylonia, and the name of tbe sCon*
appears to be connected with the Persian word ttrrd,
"yellowish red," iu allusion to the oolonr of the sard.
Fliny, relying on a superficial resemblance, derives tha
name from Sudis, reputed to be its original locality. The
sardonyx is frequently stained, or at least its colour
heightened, by chemical proeeaseB. Imitations are fabri-
cated by cementing two or three layers of chalcedony
gether, and so building up a sardouyi ; while baser
unterfeitt an formed simply of paste. See Onyx, vol
iL p. 776.
SARGASSO SEA. See Axi-Aimo, voL iil pp. 20, 26.
BABOON, king of Assyria, 722-705 B.C. (Uk. jx. 1).
See Babylonu, voL iii. p. 187^ and Ibiuki, vd. liii. p.
iUtq.
SARI. See Miza»darXh.
SARHATIANS (Savpoptnu, Xup/ianu, Sormatn). In
e time of Herodotus (iv. 110-117) the steppee between
the Don and the Canpian were inhabited by the Sanromol*,'
a nomadic horse-riding people, whose women rode, hunted,
and took port in battle like the men, so that legend (pre-
sumably the legend of the Greek colonists on the ^ck
S«a) reprraentad the race as descendants of the AmaKiDi
bj St^^iu fatliera. It is reoowitvd both ti;f PnodOtW
S A E — S A R
311
•nd hj Hippoentee (De Atr., 17) tliat tia m&idea wu
•Uowed to many till ahe had akin a foe (or three foes),
liter which ihe laid aside her matcuUae habits. The
Bcythiaiui, we are told, called the Amazons Owptmro, which
■MIDI to be an Intnian name and to mean " lordn of man,"
and it ia raaiotiable to think that the word woe applied to
the Sarmatian viiaga) hy the Scythians, who themselves
kept women in groat lulijection, and thuH expressed their
tnriaiBa at tlie dominating position of the female sex
among their neight>oura beyond the Don. But in spite
of the difference of their cnstoma in thia point Scythians
and Sarmatiaox spoke almcnt Ibo Name langoage (Herod.
iv. 117), and, whatever difficulty still remains as to the
race of the Scythians, their language and religion
origin is the express opinion of Diodorus {iL 43} and Pliny.
Frcon their Mats east of the Dandbo the Sarmatians at
K later date moved westward into the hinds formerly
Scythian, one blanch, the " transphhted " lazyyca (I. /ura-
marut) beuig settled between the Dannbe and the Theiss
at the time of the Dacian wars of Rome, vbile other
Sannatian tribes, such as the iUitn on the eastern shores
of I^e HKotis and the Goiolaoi between the Don and
the Dniepn, ranged over the steppes of sonthem Busisia.
Thn oonntfj ti Sircuatia, however, as that term is used for
example ^ Ptolemy, ineann much more than the lands of
the Sarmatians, comprising all the eastern European plain
from the Vistula and the Dniester to the Volga, whether
inhabited by nomad Sarmatians, by agricaltniai Slavs and
I>etta, or even by Finos. This Sarmatia vas arbitrarily
divided into an Asiatic and a European part, east and west
of the Don reapectively.
SABNO, a city of Italy, in the province of Salerno,
30 miles east of Xaplw by rail, lies at the foot of the
Apennioea ueor the soiutiea of the Sarno, a stream con-
nected by caiuti with Pompeii and the sea. Besides the
eathedial, a basilica erected in 162-^ at some distance from
the city, Samo has several interesting churches aqd the
ruins of a mediteval csstie. Paper, cotton, silk, lineo, and
hemp ate manikfactured. He population of the town in
1831 was 11,115. Previons to its incorporation with the
domuna of the crown of Naples, Sarno gave its name to a
conatsbip held in succession by the Oraini, Cappola,
Snttavilja, and Colonna families.
8AEPI, Purao (1853-1623), was born at Venice,
August 11, 1052, and was the «on of n small trader, who
left him an orphan at an early age. Quiet, serious,
devoted tQ study, endowed with great tenacity of applica-
tion and a prodigious memory, the boy seemed bom for a
monastic life, and, notwithstanding the opiioaitioa of his
relatives, entered the order of the Scrvi di ilario, a minor
Augnstinian congregation of Florentioe origin, at the ago
of thirteen. He assumed the name of Paolo, by which,
with the epithet Servita, he wot always known to his con-
tempoiariea. In 1570 he sustained no fewer than three
hundred and eighteen theses at a disputation in Mantua,
with anch appkuae that the duke attached the youthful
divine to his oervice by malting him court theologian.
Sarpi spent four yecn at Mantua, applying himself with
the utmost zeal to mathematics and the Oriental lan^egcs.
He thers made the acijuaintance of Olivo, formerly secre*
tary to ■ papal legate at the council of Trent, from whom
he limmed much that he subeaquenCly introdnced into his
Uidorg. After leaving 3^ntua for some unexplained
reason, he repaired to Milan, whero bu enjoyed the pro-
tection irf Cardinal Borromeo, another authority in the
coandl, bnt was soon tranaferred by his euperioia to
Venice, as i)rofea8or of philcHophy at the Servite convent.
In 1570 hu ma sent to Itome on bosineu connected miii
the reform of his order, which ocenpied him several ycon,
and brought him into intimate relatione with throe
tmeceeaive poperi, aa well as the grand inquisitor and other
persons of influence. The impression which the papa)
court made upon him may be collected from his sub-
sequent history. Having successfully terminated the
aflairs entrusted to him, he returned to Venice in 15P8,
and passed the next aetenteen years in quiet study,
occaatonally interrupted by the part he was compelled to
take in the internal disputes of his community. In 1601
he was recommended by the Venetian senate for the small
bishopric ot Caorle, but the papal nuncio, who wished to
obtain it for a protdgd of his own. informed the popo
that Sarpi denied the immortality of the soul, and had
controverted the authority of Aristotle. An attempt to
procure another small bishopric in the following year oLjo
failed, Clement VIIL profiusing to have taken umbrage
at Sarpi's extensive correspondence with learned heretics,
bat more probably determined to thwart the desires of the
liberal rulers ot Venice, The sense of injury, no doubt,
contributed to exasperate Sarpi's feelings towarda the
court tif Rome, bnt a man whose master passiona were
freedom of thought and love of coontry could not have
played any other part than ho did in the great contest
which was impending. I'or the time, however, he
tranquilly pursued his studiM, writing those notes on
Vieta which establiah his proficiency in mathematics, and
a metaphysical treatise now lost, which, if Foscariui'i
account of it may be relied upon, anticipated the sensa-
tionalism. ot Locke. His anatomical pursuita probably
date from a somewhat earlier period. They illustrate his
versatility and thirst for knowledge, but ore far from
poaseaaing the imjiortanco ascribed to them by the aEfection
of his disciplea. His claim to have antici^iated Harvejy's
discovery rests on no better authority than a memoranduni,
probably copied from Ciem.lpinuii or Harvey himsalt, with
whom, as well as with Bacon and Oitbert, he maintained a
correspondence. The only physiological discovery which
can be safely attributed to him is that of the contracting
of the iris. It mnat be remembered, however, that bis
treatises on scieutilic subjects are loat, and only known
from imperfect abstracts.
Hie prudent Clement died in l^rch I60G; and after
one ephemeral succession and two very long conclaves
Paul V. assumed the tiara with the resolution to sliain
papal prerogative to the uttermost. At the same time
Venice was adopting measures to restrict it still further.
The right of the secnlar tribunals to take cogniance of
the offences of eccieaiastics had been asserted in two
remarkable caaes : and the scope ot two ancient laws of
the city of Venic^ forbidding the foundation ot chnrches
or ecclesiastical congregations without the consent of the
stat^ and the acquisition of projierty by priesta orj
religions bodies, had been extended over the entire '
territ(»7 of the reunblic. In January 1606 the papal
nundo delivered a brief demanding the unconditioniu sub-
miaaioti of the Venetians. The senate having promised
protection to all eccleeiastics who should in this emergency
aid the republic by their counsel, Sarpi- prenen ted a memoir,
painting out that the threatenod censures might be met in
two irays, — da facto, by prohibiting their publication, and
dejtirt, by an a|>paat to a general coanciL Tha document
was received with universal applause, and Sarpi was
immediately mode canonist and theological oounsellor to
the republic. When in the following April the last hcn>ea
of accommodation were dispelled by Paul's eicommnnKW-
tion of the Venetians and his attempt to lay their
dominions under an interdict, Sarpi entered with the
utmost energy into the controversy. He pnidently bag^
by repuHlihing the anti-papal fviiuww of ^ famnu
512
S A R P I
euioiuEt Ofltaoo. In Ut UlOnymoiU tract pnbliehed
shortly »ft«rw»rd« {Bitpotia di m DoUots ui T»Uogia)
he laid down pritaciplee irhich struck ftt the verf root of
the pope's authoritj in leculAr tbiogs. This book wu
promptly pot npon the Index, and tba republicatioQ of
Geraon vai attacked by Bellarmine with a wveritj which
obliged Sarpi to reply ia an Apoloijia. The Connderaxiimi
i^lle Cenmtrt and the Traltato dtlC iMeTdntto, the latter
pwtly prepared nnder his direction by other theologians,
speedily followed. Nameroua other pamphlets appeared,
inspired or conbolled by Sarpi, who had received the
further appointmaut of censor over all that should be
written »t Venice in defence of the republic. His activity
n^sten the progress of mankind, and forms an epoch in
the history of free discussion. Never before in a religious
Gontroveisy had the appeal been made so exclusively to
reuon uid history; never before had an ecclesiastic of
his amineDce mainlAined the Bubjoction of the clergy to
the state, aod disputed the pope's right to employ
epiritnal eensnres, except under restnctioas which
TirtuaUy abrogated it. In eo doing he merely gave
expression to the convictions which had long been silently
forming in the breasts of enlightened men, and this, even
more than his learning and acuteaess as a disputant,
lonued him a moral victory. Material arguments were no
longer at the pope's dieposaL The Venetian clergy, a few
religions orders excepted, disregarded the interdict, and
discharged their fanctioos as usual. The Catholic powers
refused to be drawn into the quarrel. At length (April
1607) a compromiae was arranged throagh the mediation
of the king of France, which, while salving over the pope's
dignity, conceded the points at issas. The great victory,
however, was not so much the def est of the papal preten-
■iomi as the demonstration that interdicts and excommuni-
cations had lost their fcnie. Even this was not wholly
nUafactory to Sarpi, who longed for the toleration of
rrotestant worship in Venice, and had hoped for a separa-
tioB from Rome and thd establishment of a Venetdan free
ehoich by which the decrees of the council of Trent wonid
have been rqected, and in which the Bible would have
been an open book. But the controversy had not lasted
long enough to prepare men's minds for so bold a
measuTOL 1^ republic rewarded her champion vith the
further distinction of state counsellor in jmisprudence,
and, a unique mark i^ confidence, the liberty of access
to the state archives. These honours exasperated his
advertaries to the uttermost; and after citations and
blaodishments had equally failed to bring him to Home
he began to receive intimations that a stroke sgainst him
wss preparing in that quarter. On October S he was
attacked by a band of assassins and left for dead, but the
wounds were not mortal. The braroe found a refnge in
the papal tenitrries. Their chief, Foma, declared that he
had been moved to attempt the murder by his zeal for
religion, a degree of piety and self-sacrifice which secma
inpredible in a bankrupt oil-merchant. "Agnosco stylum
Corin Somans," Sarpi himself pleasantly said, when his
BOi^eon commented upon the ragged and inartistic
cluMcter of the -^aaxiAa, and the justice of the observa-
tion is at incontestable as its wit. The only question can
be at to the degree of complicily of Pope Panl V., a good
man according to his light, but who must have looked
upon Sarpi at a revolted subject, and who would fiod
cuuista enough to assure him that a prince is justified in
punishing rebels bj assassins when they are beyond the
reach of executionen.
The remainder of Sarin's life wot spent peacefully in
his cloister, thongh plots against him continned to be
formed, and he eccaoionally spoke of taking refuge in
3i^land. When not engaged in framing state papers, be
devoted himself to edentific studies, and found time for
the composition of several works. A Machiavellian ttaet
on the fundamental maxims of Venetian policy {Opiinom
come (6Ma govtmarti la rrpubUiat di Tenetia), used by his
adversaries to blacken his memory, though a oontemporary
production, is undoubtedly not his. It has been attributed
to a certain Uradenigo. Nor did he complete a reply
which he hod been ordered to prepare to the SquiUmia
dMa Liberia Veneta, which he perhaps found nnanswerablk
In 1610 appeared his Hutory of Esdaia^cal Benrjieft,
"in which," says Ricci, "he purged the church of the de-
filement intnx'nced by spurious decretals." In the follow-
ing year he bssailed another abuse by his treatise on the
right of asylum claimed for churches, which was imme-
diately placed on the Indai. In 1615 a dispute between
the Venetiar Government and the Inquisition respocting
the prohibition of a book led him to write on the history
and procedure of the Venetian Inquisition ; and in 1619
his chief literary work, the UiMory of the Cmaril of Tnnt,
was printed at London under the name of Hetro Soave
Polano, an anagram of Paolo Sarpi Veneta The editor,
Msrco Antonio de DomiDis, has been accused of falsifying
the text, but a comparison with a MS. corrected \ij Borp
himself shovs that the alterations are both nnneeetsoir
and unimportant. This memorable book, together with
the rival and apologetic history by Cardinal FallaTidni,
is minutely criticized by Banks (Hittoi-ji of tit Papa,
appendix No. 3), who testa the veracity of both writers by
examining the use thay have respectively made of their
MS, materials. The result is not highly favourable to
either, nor wholly unfavourable ; neither can be taxed with
deliberate falaiGcation, but both have coloured and sup-
pressed. They write as advocates rather than historians.
Each had access to sources of information denied to the
other ; so that, although it may be tme in a sense that the
truth lies between them, it cannot be attained by taking
the middle way between their statements. Banke rates
the literary qualities of Sarpi's work very highly, " Soiro
is acute, penetrating, and sarcastic; Us arrangement w;
exceedingly skilful, his style pure and unaffected. In
power of description he is without doubt entitled to the
second place among the modem historians of Italy. I
rank him immediately after Machiavelli." Sarpi never
acknowledged his authorship, and baffled all the efforts of
the Prince de Cond^ to extract the secret from him. He
survived the publication four years, dying on January 16,
1623, labouring tor his country to the last. The day
before his death he bad dictated three replies to questions
on affairs of state, and hie lost words were "Etto per-
petua." His poathumons Hilary of the Iitirrdut wai
printed at Venice the year after hit death with lh»
disguised imprint of Lyons.
8i rpl'i services to msnfcinU uro nnw BtVnowledmd by sit sxctpt tin
•— ■ Ultiminontsno iiartiBOS ; and o( his genwd -•—-*—
' ■ " ■ 'Laibwnni
al hstifld Lfl
UI nnsbla to
01 inQ Bcnoiar, tag au»Binai], inu iiie|4iLriukiuiauuvuc;i*nH, lu^-
nanimity, and iliamCereitedneH. Tlieoaly point on vhichhiicoa-
duct nisy be thought to nqniro apolo^ a the reaerTo In whicli be
ahroudsdbiaicliipouaopinionB. QreatJigbt baa been tlrnn upon
hii nnl belier>nU lh« tnoCiTu ofhis conduct by theletttn i^Oah-
tophTDuSohiia,eiiva;orCliristiaii,pTini!eof Anhalt, toTsBiM.pnb-
llBlmd by IiEoHti Kitter in ths Bri-^e und Adn s^tr OadiiiJiU da
dreutisj-lhrigcn RrCt-yn. vol. ii. (llnnicb, 1874), Sarpi told Dofcss
that he greatly disliked aiyiug mas, sad cvlebratsd it u leldofa
ai pouiUe. bot tlist he naa ci>ni[iellHl to do ao, as he would otAar-
rriae Hem to admit tlie TaliJity of the papal pnhibiticn. asd thns;
betray the ™n« of Verier, Thia aopplia the key to hia whole'
bobavionr; be tu ■ pitriot fint and anliKiaua refonner aiier-l
iraida. He naa muat uuions to obtain liberty of Proteataul mnifaip
St Venice, but acircely proceoded beyond gt»d wished, pattljr from
pmdenco, uailj from boin)[ " rootod " is what Diodad JeMribnl
to Dahna ai ''the moet diunrani maiim, that Ood does not
regaid oitemsla ao long ^ £a mind and heart sre rigtt bafet*
i A R — S A R
313
Bim." ■ltlio(1itt]*mil."tdd*IXoJitI.-t<>dta[iaUwttlil>lni.
fir >U Uan hll inarMttutl j apon th< in*tB«i uid nwtiuitr of
mHietiiaim lai Hdrit which niM bin iboTt mil sigh trmrj
■Botkn." BnftiiM uothoi muim. which hs thni ronnDlatHl to
Dolw I "U/MIt »■ diaa uut waf, «a i<> iwrrU w»t ■ iviHW. "
It maat faitMT b* oouiiJiml tfait, thongh S4lpi Klmiml thi
a[liih pnjar-baak, h* wu oaichir Anglian, Lathimn, ant
Ticirt, ud mifht han fpand it diSienlt to leronmadkCa
himatlf to anj PnlMtMit eharch. On tha whola. tlis apinioD at Id
Coaisjw, "qa'U 4Ult CBtholiqao «a grot et qnclnng fou Ptotsatuit
«ft dnil,*IMiulwt alttsvlhugrDciiaiileu, tumieh iEcaq noloaRer
b« icoiptkl tt k ntlofUtorjr (omniing up cf th> qDHtlon. Hi*
diHonriaia wtnn) icliiica hart btra onmitsd. but hliaclmUfie
U> tlDM i> oonwpoudlDg nth a mui Ctoai irhoni hs conld laun
DolUu ; and, thongh Supi did oot, u bM boon MMrtsd, iuTenl
Uw tumaef», h* Inmtdiittl)' tDrnnl it to pnetlnl ucount bj
* — " ifoftlia moon.
IW4tKl^ FUbi
SARHAZIN, Jiotiuta (158S-166D), Franch punter,
tern at Ko^un in 1GS8, wu b papil of the hither of
Simon Onillkin, bat he vent to Brane »t an early t^ and
worked thsta under a Frenchman named AngnilleL Start-
ing thna, Sarrann ipaadilj obtained employment from
Cardinal Aldobrandini at Fnucati, where ha won the
friendihip of Domenichino, with whom ha afterwards
worked on the high altar of St Andrw della Talle. Ris
return to P^t, where he married a niece of Simon Vonet'i,
waa lignalized by a wriei of aacceeMe which attracted the
notice of Snblet dee Ifoyera, who entnuted to him the
work by which Sanaiia ii best known, the decoraticin of
tiie great portal and dome of the weetem facade of tlie
interior eoart of the LooTre. The famona Caryatides of
the attio show, especially in the way Id which the ahadowa
ars made to tell as points of aapport, the urofonnd and
intelligent etndy of Uichelangelo'i art to which SonaEin
had deTOted all tb* time he could apare from bread*
winning whilit in Boma. Ha now eiecuted many commis-
Moa» from ^le qnaen and from all the chief personages of
the day, devoted mnch time to painting, ajil was an active
pitMnoter of the foondation of the Academy. The manao-
lenm for the heart of the Prince de CodiU in the Janit
chnich of the Roe Saint Antoine was hia last considerable
work (see Lenoir, ilmie dtt MonumrtU* Frattjau, v. S) ; ha
died 3id December 1660, wfaiUt it was in progress, and the
cmcifix of the altar was actnallf oompleted by one of liis
pnpils naoied Qros.
SARSAFARILLA, a popnlar alterativa remedy, prepared
from the long fibroux roots of Mvenl speciea of the gsnus
Smila-i, indigenons to Central America, and extending from
tha ■onthem and western coasts of ilezioo in the north
to Para in the sonth. These plants grow in swampy
foivsts seldom Tisited fay European travellers, and, being
ditBcions and varying much in tbe form of leaf in difiet«Dt
individnalo, they an but imperfectly known to botanists,
only two ipedee having been identified u yet with any
de^«e of certainty. These are Smilax offioMiu, Kth., and
S. mediea, Schlecht, and Cham., which yieU respectively
the so-called "Jamaica" and the Mexican vsrietiea. The
introdoction of Mrsaparilla into European mediciua dates
tmm the middle of the 1 6th centoir. Uonardee, ■ phyti-
eian of Seville^ ramrdt that it waa Irong^t to t^ dtj
from New Spain aboat IC36-4S, that a better aort soon
afterward* came from Bondnraa, and that an axeellent
vaiiety of a darker oolonr, and consisting of larger roots,
WM inbaeqaently imported from OnayaqniL SMiuarilla
mnat have come into eztensiva use soon afterwards, lot
Qerard, about the eloM of tha century, state* that it was
importod into England from Pern in great abnndancB. .
When boiled in water the root afiorda a dark exttactive
matter, the exact natnre of which has not been determined;
the quantity of extract yielded by the root is naed aa a
criterion of ita quality. Boiling ahxdol extraete from tbe
root a nentral *nbat«nca in the form <rf CTystalline priama,
which eryatalliie in scale* from boiling water. This body,
which ia named parHlin, in allied to the saponin of qnillaia
bark, from which it diSets in not exciting inaenng. Tbfl
presence in the root of starch, rtain, and oxalate of lime i*
revealed by the n«e of the mieroaeope. Elarsaparilla it
chieBy need in medicine in the fonn of decoction and B&id
extract. It it regarded by many a* a valnsbte alteistive
and diaphoretic in chroido rheiunatitm, typhilia, and
various skin diseasea, bat by others a* poMeasing little if
any remedial value. It u frequently prtaeribed in onu-
tpMsatsr
.auayaqBll
Of tlM*« IhsBnt-nuHd ia
mercury.
The luiatiM of sanapsrilla met vitb in
tha foUovisc :— Jswiirs, UoH
. It i> the onlf Uud adniitt«l into ths Btitlah ^sn
On the CootinHit, and mora sqnUllv in Ita);, tha variatua navu^
a whits ttarchv hark, liha tboaa of Bondnna and Onatimala, an
prararrad. " Amaies" «t*a«*nlla ii notpmlncad than, hot darivaa
Its name from tha [act that Jamaiea waa at ona time ths amporiuB
for aaimpartUa, which waa bronght tbithar from Hondnias, ITaw
Spain, and Pirn. Baraaparillaiagniwn toaimall ntent in Jamaica,
sod i* occaiion»lly aiportad thonea to tho London niirktt in amalt
qnuitltlea, but Its onn^ oolonr and alircfa^ bark in ao dilTerant ia
appuraacs tram tha thm t*ddlih-broim birk of tha gnolna drw,
that it doaa Dot meat with a ready lalB. Th* Januioa auaapuiUs
of tiade ii collactBd on tha Cordillaiaa of Chlriqui, in that pait of
th« iilhtDOa of Panama which ailloiiu Carta Rlcs. wbsrs ths plant
vitlding It growi at an alevadon ct UOO to SOOO faat, and la
broafiht down to Boca dal Ton oa tha Atlantla ooait tat ahipmsat.
It ia mat with io eonimem in the form o( banks shont IS tocbas
long and I inchaa in diametar, looaelj woinnd ntud with a long
root of the luna drug. Tbe root bark la of ■ rsddiih-bnwn odear,
thin and aliriTelled, and tbara ia an abondanca of notlata, which tie
technicailj known b; tha name of "bastd." Urns ssrsuarilla
teaemblea the Jamaica kind, bat tha roots ara of a palar brown
colour, and are fornwd into cjlindiical bundlea of dnulat langtb,
but ool; about 31 Inchea in diamotsr. Bondntas sansparilla
occnra ip tha form of cjlmdrical rolla about SO Inchea long and t
or mora in diameter, cloaal; wonnd round with a long mot ao aa to
fonn a neat bondla. The n»(a in leaa wiinhled, and tha buk la
whiter and mora atarcbf, than in tb* Jamaica kind. It ii axportad
tram Beliia to tb* extent of about 10,000 % annoallj. Onttamala
aanauiilla is very umilar to that of floDdnrss, bat hss s mora
decided orange hoe, and ths bark show* a taDdaaoy to nlit oK
Onanuinil aanaparilU ia obtained obieflv in tha vallsy of Alsori,
on (he weatarn aide of th* eqiutorial inSm. Tbe roots sr* roughly
packed In large bale* and are not made into aepante bank^ snd this
champ orrootitock la often allawed to remain attached to ths roots.
The baik ia thick and fnmwMl, and of a pal* lawn ociloBr intsmallf ;
the rootleta an few, and lb* rootitielf jaof lainr diametsr than u
the other kind*. SomotlmH than ia attached to the roetatoek ■
portion of etem, which ia round and not prickly, differing in theas
reapecta from that etSmilau BjleinaJi; which ia annai* and priokly.
lleiican lanaiiarilla alio ia not made up into hank*, be ' ' ' '
in ttraigbt Icngtba of about t feet into bsltt, the ehi
tlonaofan ' - '- • ' ' -
bntbp«k*d
nmp and por-
ingntar bnt not ennai* )t*m being fraqnantlf attained
. The latter ars elendar, ahrlvallad, and BSarly devoid
of rootleta, Tliia kind ot anpahlU ia collected on tha aaatara
alop* et the Utiieau Andea thnnghont Ih* year, snd ia th* pro-
of Svulat mtdita, BehlechL and Cham.
Tb* eollactlon of aanapuilla mot ia ■ vary tadloB* business ; ■
•ingle mot taksa an Indian half a daj or aometiinea avm a day and
a half to nnearth iL The roote eiUad horisoatsUy in tb* ptmd
on all *id*a lor aboat • feet, and fnn these tha «rth has to bo
carefnll; Kiapad swty and other roots eat thnMuA wbwe sock
■' Arlsatlbuy(anoldwlU}i^iaB.o(iN*
XXI -4*( -
314
»Dd tha Item LI
S A R — S A R
-D of til
^ ■■nd earth. Thui
tiaoH to gnWt aod rooti may wiin ba cut from It illflr tba Upao
oT two yon, bnt the jiatd will ba nuller and th> rooti more
arndtr and Uaa attnhj. In lonu nriotio, ■> tha Cniyaqail and
U«ic*D,tlM«haUplu^iBiiladiagth*nutitoi!lE.ia palled ap. The
InditD* ov filial lativAt m]tctiotioi rootabj the Dumber vfateme
Kriains from ths roota, In the thmaeB of the Imtc*, and the cloae-
l»« with which the Item U bMot with prieklea.
In Baranl a[HdN Of SmUhx tha nets beoom* thickeuad htn wid
lb«i» into targa tuberom "J'"ii'P 4 to ^8 inohai lonit u "
a liinilad •
denble article
It only on tha
hongh lotrodueed lot
. .rg inohea in thtckneo. Theu
gf tnda in China, bol are uaod
Contlnont, under the nasie of Cbi
EDnpe ibotit thaume time u aanaiiUi]]*. Cliiua tw>tla obtunod
both is Chiu and India frou SmiIom alahra and 3. lamtm/olia,
tLnbnrgh, and S. CUna, U i. aimilar mot ia fielded bj S.
wmcto-CUu, L., and S. lamiuUo ia tfaa Uniud Statu l^om New
JonaTiMtthnnli; bj S. ia/»>(Hi'U>, Kth., in tha Waat ludiea, and
hj S. JapitOnfa and & •urintoida, Oriiab. , and S. Brarilinnt,
8pr«DS., in Sonth America. AM theae an u«d a> an altentlre
remedy in tha localitiea where thay grow. Tha amount of China
root Binorted to luropa (rom Canton In IS7i wia only 61,400 Ih^
although In the auna jail aa much u 1,387,738 lb waa exported
from at city of Hankow to other Chinaw iiorta. Id 1881 Bombay
hnportad ^m China tU swta at tha root. Tha auna of Indian
Mnaparilla ia giTCa In tha rooti of BmidamiiM ixdieus, B. Br., an
Aaclej>iadaoeoaa plant indigenoui to India. Theea roota an nailily
eiinguiabad from thoM of triu Mttapartll* by thdr Ioom enokod
k aod by their odonr and tvta, recalling thoaa of melilot*
BABTHE, k depftrtmant of tho cortli-wut region of
FrsDCB, formed b 1790 ont of the outam part of Ukina,
29 eommimei of Ai^oti, knd portiona of PerdiB. Sitiuted
betwaan *7* 3B' nd 48* SO" N. lat. Mid betwaen 0' 25'
W. and 0* 59 E. long., it ia bounded N. by the deport-
ment of Ome, N.E. by Enra-et-Loir, K b; L<»r-et-Chei', S.
b; Indra^t-Lotre ind Ukine-et-Loire, knd W. bjUayatina.
niB Sarthes a sub-tribntarj of tba Loire, flowi in a sonth-
wettarl; direction thropgh the deportment ; and the Loir,
which along irith tha Buihe joioa the Mafenne to form the
Maine ftbove Angera, traTeraea it» eonthern bordeia. The
general slope of the coantrf ia from north to aonth-wwt.
Whila the highett point (on tha bonndair towardi Orne) ie
Ills fast, the lowest, Where the Loir leavea tbe depart-
ment, ia only 66. Tha hilU that eeparate the atreama riM
aa they advance north-eaat into Fercfae, or north-west into
what are magnilognently colled the Alpes MoQcellea (1080
faat high). The Sarthe Sows poet Le Maiu and Sabld, re-
ceiving the Herderean and the Vigre from tlie right, and
the Ome and the Hniuie from the left The Iioii pauee Lo
FUche, and along iti chalkj banki cavee have been hollowed
out which, like ^ose along the Cher and tbe Loire, serve aa
dwell! ng-honsaa and atorea. Tbe mean annual temperature
difCers but alightly from that of Paria There are in the
;aar US daya of rain (with U of anow), 56 of froat, 1 SO of
fog^ 20 of hail, and li of storm, lie rainfall ia about
S4 inches, or rather below tha average for France.
or* total aurfaoa of l,S3«,7aa acm, 9i%tU acraa In the depart-
inmt are arable, 188, £17 onder wood, 1»0,17« in DieidDwi and gr*«,
41.000 in moon, and 22,134 In vlaeyarda. In 1881 the lire itock
vomia^Md (1,100 horaaa, tUt taaea or mnlaa, ias.IBfi uttla,
40,171 akcep (wool-clip 81 to 84 tooa), T>,7S7 pin, £1,388 goata,
118SS bivaa (Tfl tou of honey, El) tooa wai). Ponlti? (capona,
IMtmMt, which Hindi yearly to Paria Z.10,000 (owla and 100,000
f^gaa, and oonanmea or dii|<oaea of 10,000,000 cggi. The honaa
■r*, like tloaa of Ferche IpereAm/it), raoioui for apssd mmbinad
with atnnrth. There an thira diatioct diatricti :— the com landa
to tho north ot tb* Sarthe aid the Ilniane ; tbe moorlinda, partly
planted with pine, between thoao two atroama and the Loir ; and
the wina.growiaK country to tba aonth <^ tbe Loir. In 1888 the
Riatn cnp yieldod 3,913,137 bneheU of whnt, esi,03R of mediD,
7U,Ua of rye, 1.817,780 of barley, 1,S93.04B of nati. 30,880 of
inaiir, and KB.BSOoI backwbrat; and thrrr wen B, £80,811 biuliala
ofuotatoMand fl2.fijl of bean% peaae, tr., 81.881 tonaofbnetroot,
17*4 tone of bnnp, and 8 of Bax. In 1884 cider waa prodoced to
tin aitaot of 16,473,114 ipllsna (aTan^ quantity pn annam in
{icnioea jnia 8,838,444 laUoni), aad visa to 4,347,1)4 pUona
Hu,adu;. rmiier waa gpjwn lo w» ame^
then van ooniidenbla taiipllM sT ChartuaU
>an dn l-oir being tbe ijrincirial markat fat tba
Mt*. which coaiiat malnlr ereakt, witch-elm^
(avenRa qnantity 3,881,330). Fodder
of 381,110 tone 1 and then van oo "
and haul nnla— ChlCean di
former. Fromthefbreat*. whlcbcoaiiatmainlTor.
choetnut-tran. J^iw% and beechea, material la drawn to tha valaa
of £14f>,000. Tha agricolton of the diatriet haa nuda gr«at pto>
BTM through tSa opening np of reada, improramanta, dnJnug;
and irrigitian. Baaidea nuoea of anlbraoite and ooal (ll,SOt tona
in 1883), irun-ore, marble, trHitona, alati, niilatOBai, rlay, nai^
lim(^ taSean (a kind of white chalky toff}, uaenana, aodpaatarc
all worked. Tba itaple indnitry la the wanog of hemp and Baa
(339S apindlaa, 41001oama, 400 being power.looma). Tla cottmi
maoafacton tank* next (8700 apindlea, IBS looma, of which lOO an
powai^looma), while the wooUon manufacture emi4oyt only 860
■pindlea and 181 looma In the pt|ier-mllla MS workmen ara
engaged, and tha nine of the paper uid cardboard raodoeed wai
£180,880 In 1B31. Iraa.foondnM, oopjwr and bali ronndriaa^
potterjaa, tUa-worka, glaaa-worka and atauiodglaia mannbctofia^
corriarias, toffia* and earriaea (actorlea, wira-gaoH Ikctnie^ loor-
milla, and duCiUarie* are aJao otrrlod on ; and alUgatkat aboat
SGS ataam-anginea with 5480 hone-powor ara tiaployad la tfaoaa
" """- ■ "" icommarca of tha department ubdlitatadW
river (Sarthi and Loir). ZSO mile* of natloaal
ither roada, and SSS miTa of nilwaj.
With its 438,817 InhabltanU (1881) Uartha hia exactly tbe-
avanga deneity of population in Trtooa. 7rom 1801 (380,831)
to ISeS (ISG.eit) tha nombei waa cm tba increaa^ bnt (inaa that
data than has baen a daetina. Tha dtpartmant forma tha diocaaa
of La Uana, haa Ita cocrt of appeal at Angen, tnd iti nnlreraity
antbotitls at Oaan, and eauatlntaa part of the tirrilorv of diO'
fourth aprpf fnrwA with Ita hndqnartan at La Uana. The Tow
srrondiaaamenta are named from LalXana, the chief town ; LaFliche
(I)4S1 Inhabitinti], bmona for Ite prytahia militairt; Kama*
(8070 inhabitanU) ; and St Calala (8800). Th«« an 83 cutona
and 387 oommunM. Sablj (8000 inhabitant*) oontalat a eaatl*
built for Colbart by Uaniart; and bard by waa tha calabcaliki.
Banedietlna sbboy DC Solaamoa
SABTI, Onraxppi (1729-1803), mnucal theorist and
compoaer, waa bom at Faanza, Italy, December 1, 172^
educated — according to the best accounts — by Ttdn-
Martini, and appointed organiat of tbe catbedral of'
Faenia before tbe eompletioQ of his nineteenth year.
RaiigmDg his appointment in 17S0, Bart! devoled himielf'
witli ardooT to tbe study of dramatic muaic^ and io'.
1751 produced hia first opera, Powipta, with great sncceaa..
Hia nsxt works, // Bi Pattort, ilnttmlt, DtmofooiUf, toA:
L'Olimpiad»t assured him ao brilliant a reptitatiou that-
in 1753 King Frederick T. of Denmark invited him tO'
Copenhagen, with tha appointments of hofkapellmaister
and director of tha opera. In 1766 ba travailed to Italy
fur the purpose of engaging aome new aingars ; and mean-
while the death of King Frederick put an and for the time
to bis engagement' He was recalled to Copenhagen in
17S8, and for some years enjoyed an extraordinaij amount.
of court fayotir ; bat, though be earefullj abstained horn.
polities, tha diaastars from which both eonrt and country so-
cruelly snfTered at this critical period gradually iiDdarmined
his position, and in 177G he waa banished from Denmark
in diagraoB. Daring hia residence in Copenhagen Saiti
eompoeed a gnat namber of operaa, most of which wer»
fairly anccesafDl, though few survived the epoch of thair
prodnctioiL On hia retora to Italy in 1776 he iras-
appointed director of the Ospedaletio — the most impwiant
mnaic school in Venice ; this post^ however, be relinquished
in 1779, when, after severe compatitioQ, he was elected
maestro di cappella at the cathedral of Hilan. Here he
exercised hia tme vocatioD, — compoain^ in addition to at
least twenty of hia moat sncceaaful operas, a vaat qoanti^
of sacred moaic for tha cathedral, and educating a numbw
of clever pupils, tba mast distingniabed of whom waa
CSiambini, who was never weai|y of singing his praises as
tbe moat accomplished mnsiciao and £nt teacher of die age.
In 1784 Sarti was invited by tlie empress Catherine
Petersbnrg. On his way tbithar he stopped at
' It waj probablj doting thla tiKparaiv aoapaA
iide tha attempt to eatabUeh blmaelf la London, bi
hearint at tba X1b('b TlMata*.
H A R — S A R
31 .»r
Tianiia, i
I, wfcen ths emperor Jowph II. recuTed him with
1 btvoor, ud irhsre he nuule tLe acqaajntonce of
McMrt. He rawbed St FeWraborg in 1785, and kt once
took the direction of the o^trt, for which he compowd
manf new |aeeea, bendae aome reiy itrikiog Mcred muaie,
inclading a Te Demi for the victor; tt Otdukoff, io
which he introduoed the firing of real cumon. He
Tvnukined in Bonift eeveateen jem; bnt t^ the end of
Hat lime his health wu so broken hj the climate that
he solicited permisaiaa to retom. The empreM and her
sncceaaw Faol L hod then been eome time dead ; but the
emperor Aleiuider dieniitMd Sarti with all poedble honour,
and he quitted the country in 1803 with a liberal pemion
and lettere of nobilitj granted to him b; the empreae
Catherine Hia moet Bacceuful operas in Bossia were
Armida and Oltga, for the latter of which the empress
herself wrote the libretto. Sarti did not lire to reach
Italy, bnt died at Berlin, Jnlj S8, 1803.
Thin na la no doubt thit CheiubiDi owed maoh of Lii ittipan-
doDS Isuniag Io Um jiulidoni ttachlng of S«rti, who vu in
soo<nBp)i)lwd matbuubDiui uu] pbniciit u i>«ll u i muiiciui,
ud whoH worki, if ths]' Uok llis uuprai ol trae geniiu, (bow
extnonlioiTf talint, sod in iurk«l tbroaghoat b; hultlMa tuts,
omabtDsd wit^ techidcil iLlU of tha >*igh«rf oidar.
BA3T0, Ahcru. del <lf6T-Ifi31}. Tta» celebrated
painter of the FtoreDUne school was bom in Qnol-
fooda, Florence, in 1487, or perhaps U86, his tathsr
Agnolo being a UHat {rn-to) : hence the nickname b;
which the son is eonetantly deeignated. The fomily,
tliongh of no distinction, can be traced bock into the 14th
eentnrj. Vannocchi has constaatlf been given ae the siir<
name, — aocording to some modern writers, without any
aatiioritf, bat it aeenis rather difficult to accept this
dictum. There were four other children of the marriage.
Id 1494 Andrea was put to work under a goldsmith.
This occupation he disliked. He took to drawing from
his mastn's models, and was soon transferred to a skilful
woodearrer and inferior painter named Qian Barile, with
whom be remuned ontil 1498. Barile, thoo^ a coarse-
gruned man enough, wonid not stand in the way of the
advancement of his promising pupil, so he recommended
him to Pieni di Coumo as dnughtsman and colourUt.
Koro retained Andrea for some years, allowing him to
•tody from the famous cartoons of Leonardo da Vinci and
Hicbelaogelo. Fiiuilly Andrea agreed with his friend
Fiancia Bi^o, who was somewhat his senior, that they
wonld opea a joint shop ; at a date not precisely defined
they took a lodging together in the Piazn del Orano.
Their first work in partnership may probably have been
the Baptisni of Christ, done for the Florentine Coin-
pagnia dello Bcalxo, a performance of no grea^ merit, the
beginning of a series, all the eitant items of which are in
moDOchrome chiaroacuio. Boon afterwards the partnership
was dissolved. From 1909 to ISIi the brotherhood of
the Serri employed Andrea, as well as Francia Bigio and
Andrea Feltrini, the first-named nndertaking in the portico
<£ the Annnnsiata three frescos illn^trating the life of the
founder of the order, B. Filippo Beniui. He executed
them in a few month*, being endowed by nature with
ranaAable teadinees and certainty of hand, and unhesitat-
ing firmness in his work, although in the gDoeiat monld of
his mind be was timid and diffident. The subjects aru
the Saint Sharing his Cloak with a Leper, Ciirsing eoniu
Oomblace, and Restoring a Qirl possessed with a Devil.
I The sBoood and third works excel the firat, and are
impnlsive and able performance*. IlieBe paintings met
with merited appUnse, and gained for their author the
pre-eminent title "Andrea senn errori" (Andrew the
mHRtng), — the CMrectnesa of. the contours being parti*
eolarlr admind. After theoa sntjeebi the painter pro-
ceedM wilb two others— the Death of Bt Fbilip, and the
Children Cured by Touching his Oarment,— all the five
works being completed before the close of 1D10. The
youth of twenty-three was already in techniijue about the
best fresco-painter of central Italy, barely riVaUed by
Baphael, who wan the elder by four years. Michelangelo's
Siztine frescoM were then only in a preliminary stage.
Andrea alwayx worked in the simplest, moat typical, and
most trying method of fresco — that of painting the thing
once and for all, without any subsequent dry-touching,
He now received many ctanmienions. The broUierbood of
the Servi engaged him to do two more freecoa in the
Annunsiata at a higher price ; he also painted, towards
1S13, an Annunciation in the monastery of S. Qallo.
The "Tailor's Andrew" appears to have been an easy-
going plebeian, to whom a modest position in life and
scanty gains were no grievancee. As an arUst be most
have known bis own value ; bat be probably rested content
in the sense of hU saperlative powers as an executant,
and did not aspire to the rank of a great inventor or '
leader, for which, indeed, he had no vocation. He led a
social sort of life among his compeers of the art, was
intimate with the sculptor Rnstid, and joined a jolly
dining-club at his house named the Company of the
Kettle^ alio a second club named the TiowaL At one
time, Francis Bigio being then the chairman of the
KeCUe-men, Andrea recited, and is by some regarded as
having composed, a comic epic, "The Battle of the Uice
and Frt^" — a rechsufffi, as one may eurmise, of the
Greek BatratKomj/omaehia, popnlaily ascribed to Homer.
He fell in love with Lncreda (del Fede), wife of a latter -
named Carlo Bocanati ; the hatter dying opportunely, the
tailor^ son married her on 26tb December 161S. She
was a very handsome woman, and has come down to ds
treated vrith great suavity in many a picture of her lover-
husband, who constantly painted her as a Madonna and
otherwise; and even in painting other womoo he made
tbem resemble Lucrezia in general type. She hss I«en
much leas gently handled by Vasari and other biogrsphcra.
Vason, who was at one time a pupil of Andrea, describes
her as faithless jealous, overbearing and vixenish with
the apprentices. She lived to a great age, enrviving her
second husband 40 years.
By 1S14 Andrea had finished bis lost two frescos in
the court of the Servi, than which none of his works was
more admired — the Nativity of the Virgin, which shows
the influence of Leonardo, Domenico Ghirlandiyo, and
Fra Bartolommeo, in effective fusion, and the Procession
of the Hsgi, intended as an amplificstioD of a work by
Baldovinetti ; in this fresco is a portrait of Andrea him-
self. He also executed at some date a much-praised Head
of Christ over the high altar. By November inlS he Lad
finished at the Scalio the allegory of Justice, and the
Baptist Preaching in the Desert,— followed in 15IT by
John Baptizing and other subjects. Before the end of
1S16 a Fieti of his composition, and afUrwurds a
Madonna, were sent to the French Court. These were
received with applause ; snd the art-loving monoreh
Francis T. suggested in 1518 that Andrea should come to
Paris. He joumojed thither towards June of that year,
along with his pupil Andrea Sgnoszella, leaving bia wife
in Florence, and was very cordially received, and for the
flmt and only time in bis life wou bandaomely lemnneraled.
Lucreno, however, wrote urging his return to Italy. The
king aoiiented, but only on the understanding that hie
absence from France was to be short ; and he entrusted
Andrea with a sum of money to be expended in porehas-
iog works of art for his royal patron. The temptation of
having a goodly amount of peLf in hand proved too much
for Andrea's virtue. He spent the kir^s mraiey ud
some of his own in building a bonee for Bmself in ^(r-
316
S A S — S A I
irhidi |>Uce ftn ontbreak of pkgi
him, htt wifck liw •top-daughter,
1S25 lie punted the ■very fai
MOB. mt Tirnf¥wii1j brooght him into bad odooi with
f nad^ who rtfnaed to bo appeHed b^ wnie eDdeaTonn
whidt the puator ■ftanrarda mode to ningntiato him-
mU. Ko wriooa pnoiahment, howeTsr, and apparently no
pave h)M ot profeerioiutl repntation befell the defanlter.
Id 1620 he lenimed worli io Florence, and executed
the Faith and Charity in the cloister of Lo Scalio. These
wen BDCceeded by the Dance of the Daagbter of Herodiao,
the BehMding of the Baptiat, the Preaentation of hU Head
to Herod, an allegory of Hope, the Apparition of the
iagA to Zarchariaa (1S33), and the monochrome of the
mailatioii. 'niii laat waa painted in the autumn of 1624,
aftec Andraa had rctorned from Luce in Hugello, — to
n Florence had driven
, and other relativea. In
I Tety famone [rcaco named the
>f(tAwin^ Si Sacco, a Inaette in the cloisters of the Bervi ;
this piotnre {named after a aack against which Joseph is
npreiented propped) is generally accounted his master-
piece. Hia final work at Lo Bcabo, 1626, was the Birth
of tlM Baptilt^ ezecnted with soma enhanced elevation of
■t;^ after .Alidrea bad bew diligently studying Hicbel-
aagelo'a flgniea in the sacristy of E Lorenzo. In the
feUowiDg year he completed at B. Salvi, near Florence, a
oelebiated I«at Bwper, in which all the personages seem
to be portiaila. Tnu alao is a Tery fine example of his
•tyle, uongh the ooooeption of the raliiject is not exalted.
It ia tha laat monumental work of importance which
, Andrea del Saito lived to necnte. He dwelt in Florence
throo^iont the memorable siege, which was soon followed
by an infections peBtilenca, He caught the malady,
•tmg^ed aoinst it with little or no tending from his wife,
who held aloof, and died, no one knowing mnch about it at
the moment, on a2d January 1B31, at the comparatively
*ar^ age of forty-three. He wia bnried tuoeremonioosly
in me dinrch of the SerrL
Tsilaiis portniit* ninted by Andrsa are nntded is Uktneaes
e( 1»it»i— ir, bal this Is not Btta (Mmi soma doobt One Is in th«
Lsndoa ITstlntsl OsUmt, an sdmiiabls hsU'flgnrs, parduued in
IBM. Anothtr is at Mbnrick CtMie, a yoang nun aboat twsnty
7tai*efe8«t*i>^bto(Jb(iwaiat8bI*. AnodMratPansfaaonTinaj
pnbsBs n^sasnt In naUty his pupil Damadm Coati. Anothsr
yoatldd pntnit Is la tha Ufflil Oallny, and tht Hit! Galln;
'"■<«'■" nran thsn mis. AmoBg'U* siina rsnownsd works not
alnad; neoflled ai* tha fellowlng. Tha Ti^n and Child, with
8t hueb and Bt Jebn ths IvannUrt and two Angali, now In tha
VOsi, Mlatad tor Ot Aniehaf B. Fianoaaco In Floranca ; this ia
tKBSd Oa Madonna dl S. rnaonco, m tUdonna dalla Atpla,
Ihna ewtaln Bgnrsa «( kar|dH whiah an dacoiatJTely introduced,
and ia latad as Andna'* laaalNjiMa In ojl-paintii^ Ths sltu-
jdsee In th* DIBsi, paintad far the moDarictj of & Osllo, the
Tathsrs DinallBB on tha Doctrine of tha TriniLr — Bta AoEoitliia,
DoDink, neodi^ Iswranca, Babaitian, and Uarj Uagdileii*—
a my eaoostiB wnk. Both thaas pictana an compantiTaly
Nriy — towBNB 1B1T. Ths Chsritj now in tha LoDTra (parhsH
Iha only painHw t"'*- '— ' •* — *-"- ■- " ' "^-
PiatL ia Ow Kli
d whiU in JiancaJ! The
r, shows a strong Hiahalaiustaaqaa
n» ■ cel^tatad frsMO (16n] lapr
I law mm tiibnts, Tsrloaa flgms bria^ig
IsadS' a striUpg pei^ectiTS atianBrawnti it wuL .
by AadK^ snd »ss eomplatsd hy Alaasandre AUorL Two vaij
lenaikabls psIntlaB* (lESt) oanMnins Tariona InddsDt* of tha
lib If ths patrlaiok Joasph, aiwiatsd Tor tha Bonharinl bmlly.
U Uw Fitll Oallaty t«» Mmnta oosapoaltkids of tha Assninp-
tka of lbs 'niain, else a las HatL In tba Madrid Mnsenm
Qa Tligtn and A^ with Joaat*. lUabath, the iafiut BaptK '
aad an ArduagaL In tb* LonTie tha Holy I^amity, tha Baptist
nointln« apwaaas. In ths Berlin Gallaiy ■ portraft of Ui wife.
In Psnahsnoar s fln* portndt asBSd iMm. Tb* saomid niotoi*
in the FstioMa Qallaiy ssctibad lo Andna, a Holy family, is by
•ooa oltiss laordsd s* tha woA tatbv of one of Ua acholais—
wsbsidlyl
IndnaM
a to the eojff , whioh h*
portnit peap of Im X iqr Baphad
SwsBm, & origlsal hsins in Am nWC
Haplas:
da- Uadiei. dw
mdsiMa.rf
the life pT
r, whioh h* prodnaad in Itst,
' it know In tb*
graat a pictorial priia, and nnwilliBg also ta dl*iit>tlee the
^ttaTisOD Kot Andraa to nuke Iha >>apT> whldi waa coa-
■weat to jonr brow
with a
daks, OttaTisnii jfot Andrea to nuke Iha >>apT>
'„ ■ ' ' „ ' original. So d*e«>tiv
imitsCioD thit evea Oiolio Konuno, who tiad hiisBall ny
the original to aonto aitent, vai eomplatelj takan in ; uid. on
■bowing tha lunpinad Baphial jean aftervarda to Vaaari. who
knew the facta, ha conid only be undeceiTed whao a printa mark
on the cinTaa waa named to him by Vaaari, and bronght audar
hi* eyt. It wu Michalangilo who bad introduced Vuiri in IM-t
to Andraa'i. atiuliD. He u aid to have thought Tery highly of
Andna'a powers asyinR on one occumn to Kaniiael, "Thon i*
a litda ftUow in Floiencs iiha wiU bring ' '
U STtr he i> engaged tn great mrka."
Andrea had true pictffliaL txylt, a vary high atandard of «HT«ti
na*9, and an enviable balance oT aiacutiTe endowmeuta. Thapoinr
of techniqne in which ho eicellad li^at wai nariiira that of dia-
crimintting the Taiying teiturae of dllTarent olijecla and aujfaccs.
There i* not mash eleratiDn or iduiity in hia worke— mnch more
of reality. Ria chiamaonro la Dot carried oat according to atrict
rule, bot it adjnatad to hia liklDg Ibt harmony of colovr and foaed
ton* and tnneiiarence ; in freaco mom eapacully hia predilection
for nriad tinta appean eiceaaiTb. It maj be broadlj aaid that hia
taita la colouring wu derived nuii If troni fi* Battolommao, and
in form Irom Uichelangtlo : anJ.hii it})e partakea of the VenetiBn
and Idinhanl, la well at the flotantine uhI Roman — soine ot bi*
flgarea ue even adapted froA Albert i^Uror. In one way or other
ha conrirrniid improving to ik< laat In dnwiug fnui nataro, his
habit wai to iketch tbtt aligTitlr, inakii.gon]yancha memorandDaa
rork iram. The whoUra of Aadm -
as anfflood t ...
long, being domineered orar
Taaari, thay w*r« not wont to stay
„ J hia wife ; ?ontonno and Domsniao
Pnligo may be mentioned.
In ear acmiiil of Aedna 4>l Sirto *a km foDond Uu luli Sas rf (h*
ThanmUDiniililHbT Bli4U(lI»juia^ti| VoaKaiBunL ' (W. IL k.)
SASAIflASS. SeePzRsu.
SASINE. See Beisik.
SASSARI, the chief town of the northern provinA of
the isUnd of Sardinia (lUly), U sitoated in the midst of
oTBsge and olive groves at a height of 6S0 feet above
the aea, 12} miles from Porto Torre% on the railway to
Chilivani, a jnDction on the main line from Terranova to
Cagliari. Till about I860-T& it was surrounded 1^ a high
wall bnilt in the 14th century and strengthened by twenty-
eiz large eqoare towers from 60 to SO feet high. The
castle dates from 1327-133L OriginaUy boiit in the
first half of the 15th century, when the see of Tunis
(Porto Torres) waa removed to Seesari, the cathedral waa
restored in 1631 and received a new facade in the 18th
century. The city besides conttuns a manicipal palace, re-
built unce 1S20, an episcopal palace dating originally from
the 13th century, and a univemty (facnltiea ot law and
medicine, with BT students fa 1881-2) founded by Philip
IIL of Spain in 1617, as well as harracks, law eonrt^
hoepitals, and asylums. There is a white marble fountain
— Foate di Rosello — on the east side of the town, mis
monnted by a statue of St Oavinus, patron saint of the
city, and from this source water is still hawked about the
streets, though waterworks have recently been constnicted
by the municipality at a cost of npwards of X60,00(L
Most of the streets are narrow and tortnons, and vehiclM
ere generally drawn t^ oxen. Sassari is separated bjr a
low and swampy stretch of cotntry from ila port at Pnto
Toiree— a village on tha uta of Ttaru LibitnUt, Calomia
Julia, with a basilica of the llth century fS. Garino) and
the ruins of a temple of Fortune now called Palano dd
1862, ai
a of the dty was 33,946 ia
aau in mi ■
In 13M th* town w .
Ub*nl code el Iswa was pnbliahed
Tola, CaglUfi, 18S0). 6a**ari w
and lo ITM the Sardlnlaa nopnlar party aaised thp«t^, •
thoTfcacoy, and dimantlwrth* eaalla and "paisc**."
BASSERAJI^ a nibdiviBon of ths ShihlMd distriot,
Bengal, India, between 34* SI' and S6* Sr H. kL, and
between 83* 33' and 61* W K bDft, vitk fa am g( 14U.
declarad an iadtpendant rapnbliB, si
upnbliahed in 181(1 (editrfby Don
Tola, CaglUfi, ISSO). Aa**ari waawked by th* Freaoh In IttT.l
and to ITVS the Sardlnl ' ■ ' - " " '
S A T — S A T
mnuan mSSm, md a popakltcm in 1881 of 019,207 (nuJea
2a,TET, fenuJN 365,460). TUi inbdivuioD coDiists of
tonr iImimIk er atatwH, vii:, Siaerim, Kbargv, Dbu-
^Ub, umI Dohne. Tl« tbaiitli (rf Binwim hMan ftre*
of 8»1 mpmn nOtt, ud a popnktiaa (1861) of 106,760
(70^031 maki, 80,729 fuDBlea). It oo&taini the tomb of
the Af^na Kur Shalt, who conqnerad HmiMTiin, Mod
ibgeqnontlr beoMM ampenr of Delhi
HATtT.T, Adiua, 01 AKDALmB, OM of the prineiiml
town on tba tenth eout of Am Minor, ginitg the nam*
of OnU of Adalia to the great bar which the aodciita
•^^hI Man Fimidi;lieiiBL Aitaagid like a Greek thoatra
roond the baifaonr, it pnHiiti an onmaallj pietiicMqiie
fj>pf^f*fiwt airiiiwt ill DackjcnNubd of iDouitaiiia ^ and it
i» onoloaed bj » triple wall of Bwden ooMtmotum,
■twngtiiwwd bf » ditdi aad aqnare towwa. Sennl of
the Btaaaiua and dumhea. aeiaiteca in namber. an of
The
Qreek*. Thoo^ the pbyaical dtangta ^lodncal
t (4 the eoaat bj the toiaoeotu d<^o«ita of the
nren renaer tha kncieat dMcriptiiMU quite in^ffllieable to
the pnaeot town, thnt ia little doobt Oat SataU Dot oo|y
« but occapiDa tbeuteof AUaleia, whiui
wM fonnded bj Attaloi IL Philadelpluw, king of Petga-
tmuB, aid beeame one of the principal cities of I^niphylia.
At an aarlj date it wm the aee of a duiitian biahop.
SATAPA, or Satta&ah, a Brituh district in the cantnl
dinaioii of the Bombay preeideacj, India, bettreen 16* 60'
and 18* 10' N. kL and 73' 46' and 76* £. long. It hu
wa aiea <A 4968 aqoare milea, and ii bonnded on the oorlh
b7 the river Nira and the atat«a of Bhor and Fhaltan,
on the eaat b; Sliolapnr diatrict, on the loath bj the
Tama river Mpaiating it from Kolhapnr and Saogli
•tate^ and on the w«et b; the Sabjidri moautaini, which
aepaiate it from the Concan diitricte of Eolabi and
BitT>4giri The Sitica diatrict coDtaJoa two main ijBtema
of hiUi, the Bahjldri range and iU offshoota, and the
UaUdeo laoge and ita offtiboota ; tbe former runs through
tbe fUrtrict from north to eoiitb, and tha Hahideo range
atarte abont 10 mile* north of MaMbaJeahvar and atretchen
eaat and lOatLi-eaat acrosa the whole i>rcadth of the
diitrict. Tha Mall titan 'Bjiit Me bold and abcnpt, preaent-
ing in maoj eaaaa ban tcarpa of black rock and looking at
a diata&ce like ao man; bill tortreeaes. Within the limiU
of Ultiia an two river aTstema— the Bhima ajatem io a
■mall part of tba north and north-eaa^ and the Eiatoa
■jratem tlutwgboat the leat of the district. (See Kibtna.)
The hill foietta have a large atore of timber and firenoad.
Hw whole ol SitAra fails within the Deccan trap area;
the hilli conaiat of trap inteniected by atrata of baaelt
and topped with UleriU^ while, of the different amla on
the plaina, the commonest ia the block loamy day con-
taining carbonate of lime. Thia ia a yerj fertile acol, and
when well watered b capable of yielding heavy cropa.
Sitin diatrict contama aome important inigatioo worka, —
incloding the Eiitna Canal, open for 35 milea. In aome
ol the weatam parts of the district the average annoal
rainfall ezceeda 200 inchee ; but on the eaatern aide water
ia Kanty, the rainfall varying from 40 inches in S&C&ra
town to leaa tliao 12 inchea in aome plaoea farther eesL
There ia no railway, but the Weat Deccan Railway, which
u in Eonne of cooatmction, will put tha district into com-
mnnicatioo with Poona and Betganm, and will ran through
BiUtia for abont 100 mile*. The tiger, panther, bear,
and aambbar deer ue found in the weat near the Sobyidria,
and the hyKDa, wolf, leopard, and amaller gome ia the eaat.
I,0W,»S. Uo1wmipnUiuH,T]2, ud ClinaUuia
884. row tomu had man than 10,0IW lnhaUnnti,-«Un («
briow), Wti ll.sre, Kmd lO.nS, TMffum 10,104. About tvo-
tliintt of th< ninilw oanuit of Knoba and Hahimltw, wlio ilariUK
th* ptnsd of HaliTctte URUili-ncT fnmiilieil tha bulk of Uu
anoix ; ud tba MirUi, who fomcd Sliir^i'i btrt loldian, van
dnwn rrom th* hill tribu of 3iitiin> diitrict igricnltun rappotta
nun than thiw-roiiTtlii of the peopls ; tha aoil ii tcrliln, and
joar rarma tba suiila food : rico ia gionn In tba waatarn taJlna,
and in the ' '
1.3f><.£.1S ac
vhila al [lia
paliei . ISB.:
1 a-'itt, oil.
t cDttoa it raited. In 1B82-8S, ol
or liLUgr. 370,24* wen tallow or ander gna^
K 1,114.011 acna S«,75? ware twice crD[>[iadi
lay nf joar aiid htjm, oocajiud BB8,S0fl aiaraa.
,. iu, toliaon, oil imiilt, cliilllot, nioloiMa, auda
tittle riv coctotj ; thn intpartu are piccegoodi, hanlHV, aill, and
daua. The groae revenue of the diitnct iu IBiOSt amoontad to
£2SS,77S, or uliicli the land conlnbutsd £i-i&,7it.
Ou tha otenhroii ot tin Jvihav dput; in 1313 tba diatrict
paeasd to the ttahaminednn power, irhich wai coiiaoliilatad in tha
raignof tlio rdbmtin kiiige. On the U) o( tha fiahmaoia towaRla
the end of tiio l&th tentury each chief eet up for hiokaalf tmtU the
Bijapur kiugi boilly UKrCnl theniHUei, aud nudar tbaHkinn
the Ualinttai arose, and laid the foniidatiDO of an ind^ndent
kingdom with Sitira aa ila capiuL Inlrimea and ilEaaenaioaa lii
(be palace led to the aaomdencT of the poibwaa, who nmored the
capital to Poona in 1713, and dcgradad the i^ofSittai into tba
liwition of a political priaoner. The war of IBIT doaad tba
twwr of the peahwaa, and the Britlab then reitond the tItnJar
raja, and acsi^ied to bioi tba prlndpalit; of Bltira. In eonaa-
i^arDce of political intriguea, ha waa depoaed in 1S8S, and hia
brotbar waa placed on the tbrona. Thii pciucs dying wiUiDnt
male hein, Ihs etata waa raauned by tha Britiah Oavamnnnt
SAtARA, chief town and headquarter* of the above
district, ii aituated io 17' 41' 26 " N. lat. and 74' 2' 10"
E. bng., immediately below a remarkaUy strong hill fort
on the aummit of a small, ateep, rocky hUL It takn ila
name from the aeventeen walla, towers, and gates which
the S&tlra fort was snpposed to poeaeas. With a height
of 2320 feet above aee-ievel, Bitira ii aboot 60 mUea
from the coast, and 69 milea loatb of Foona. Since tha
death of the last nya in 1848 the population has con-
aideiably decreased; still Sit&ra contained in 1881 soma
2S,601 inhabiunte (14,SS8 males and U,043 females).
SATIN-WOOD, a beantifnl ligbtcoToored baid wood
having a rich silky Iniitre, sometimes Snely mottled w
grained, the prodnce of a large tree, CUcracyloii SvUtaua,
trf India and Ceylon, A similar wood, known under
me name, is obtained in tha Weat Indies, the tree
jielding which Is said to be Itaha gmanattit. Satin-
wood was in raqoest (or rich fumitore abont the end of
the 18tb century, the fashion llien being to ornament panels
of it with painted medaJliona and Soial scrolla and bordero.
Now it is used for inlaying and amall veneen, and moat
largely in covering tba backs of hair and clotbes-bmshei
id in making small articlee of tnrnery.
8ATIHE. Satire, in its literary aapect, may be defined
aa the ezpresdon in adeqnate terms ot the sense of amuae-
ment or disgnal excited by the ridicoloDS or unseemly,
provided that humour is a diaUnctly recogniiable element
andthattbeutteranceiainveeted with literary form. With-
out hnmonr, satire ia invective ; withont literary form, it ia
mere clownish jeering. It is indeed exceedingly diffisnlt to
define the limits between satire and the regions of literary
sentiment into which it ahadea. Hie lofty ethical feeling
of a Johnson or a Carljle borders it on the one hand, the
witty BBicaam of a Tall^frand, rancorooa or good-natnred,
on the other ; bnt, hovrever exalted the aatiriat'a aima, or
amiable his tamper, a basis of contempt or dislike is the
groundwork of his art. This feeling may be diverted from
the failings of man individnal to tlie feebleness and imper-
fection ol man nmversal, and the composition may atill be a
bnt if ^iB element of sconi or sarcasm were entirely
eliminated it wonld become a sermon. That this expreasien
of averrion ia of the essence of satire appears from the fact
that the lit«n>iy power which, the nor; it ia eierted npen
31d
SATIRE
gnn and elsTated Hnbjeeti^ remoTes them fnrtliei and
fnrtlieT frwn the domain of satire can confer satiric dig-
nity Qjnn the most Bcurriloiu lampoon. The dietinction
botweea the intellectoal form and the raw material of
Mtire u admirably llluatrated by a pasaage in an accora-
plidied norelist. The clever youog lady haiipening to
compare a keen and bright person to a pair of ecissore, her
Dorefined companion is for the momant unable to under-
stand bow a hnmaa being <=an resemble a piece of cutlery ;
but suddenly a light breaks in upon her, and, taking up a
broken pair of scisaora from the table, she imitates the
bolting gait of a lame lady, declaring that Mrs BrOnn
resembles that particular pair of scidiors to the life. The
first interlocutor could have been satirical if she would;
the second would if she could. TbSfaice and delicate i^er-
ception of the former type of character may be fairly driven
into satire by the vulgarity and obtaseness of tbe second,
as in tbe case of Hiss Austen ; and.it may be added that
llie general development of civilization, repressing higb-
banded wrongs against which ridicule is no defence, and
encouraging failings which can be effectually attacked in
DO other manner, continuaQy tends to make satire more
congenial to the amiable and refined, and thus exalt its
moral tone and purpose. ''
The first ezercLso of satire was no doubt snfficiently
coorsf and boisterous. It must bave consisted in gibing
at personal defects ; and Homer's description of Therxites,
the earliest example of literary satire that has come down
k> us, probably conveys an accurate delineation of tbe
first satirists, the carpers and fault-finders of the clan.
The character reappears in the heroic romances of Ireland,
and elsewhere ; and it ii everywhere implied tbat tbe
licensed backbiter is a warped and distorted being, readier
with his toDgne than his bandit. The verdict of unso-
phisticated man on satire is clearly that it is the offspring
of ill-nature ; to redeem and dignify it by rendering it the
instrument of morality or the associote of poetry was a
development implying considerable advance in tbe litcrsry
art. The latter is tbe course adopted in the Old Testa-'
ment, wbere tbe few passages approximating to satire,
such as Jotbam's parable of tiie bramble and Job's ironical
address to his friends, are embellished either by fancy or
by feeling. An intermediate stage between personal ridi-
cule and the correction of faults and follies seems to have
been represented in Greece by the ilarsiUt, attributed to
Homer, which, while professedly lampooning an individnal,
practically rebuked the meddling sciolism impersonated in
nim. In the accounts that bave come down to us of tbe
writings of Archilochus, the first great nnaater of satire
(aboQt 700 B.C.), we seem to trace the elevation of
the instrument of private animosity to an element in
public life. Though a merciless assailant of individuals,
ArchilocUua was also a disringuished statesman, naturally
for die moat part in opposition, and his writings seem to
have fulfilled many of tbe functions of a newspaper press.
Their extraordinary merit is attested by the infallible
judgment of Quintilian eight hundred years after their com-
position; and Oorgias's comparison of them with Plato's
peraiilage of the Sophists proves that their virulence must
have been tempered by grace and refinement. ArchiJochus
also gave satiric poetry its accepted form by the invention
of the iambic trimeter, slightly modified iota the scaionic
metre by his successors. Simonides of Amorgus, about a
generation later, and Hipponax, a century later still, were
distingaiahed like Archilochus for the bitterness of their
Attacks on individuals, with which the former combined a
strong ethical feeling, and the latter a bright active fancy.
All three were restless and luibnlen^ aspiring and discon-
tented, impatient of abusea and theoretically enamonrcd
of liberty; and the loss <^ their writings, which would
bave thrown great light on tho politics oa well •• tb"
manners of Greece, is exceedingly to be lamented. With
Hipponax the direct line of Greek satire is interrupted';
but two new forma of literary composition, exceedingly
capable of being rendered the vehicles of satire, almost
simultaneously make their apiKatance. Fable is first
heard of in A«atic Greece about this date ; and, ollhouglt
its original intention docs not aeem to have been satirical,
its adaptability to satiric purposes was soon discovered
and turned to account. A far more important step was
the elevation of the rude fun of rustic merrymakings to •
literary status by the evolution of the drama from the
Bacchic festival. The means had now been found of ally-
ing the satiric spirit with exalted poetry, and their noion
was consummated in the person of a poet who combined
humour with imagination in a degree never again to be
rivalled until Shakespeare. Every variety of satira is
exemplified in tbe comedies of Aristophanes; and if bo
does not rank as the first of satirists it is only because ka
is so much beside Sucb afllnence of poetical genius could
not be peqietual, any more than the peculiar political and
social conditions which for a time made such fearless aikl
uncontrolled satire iiosiible. Through the half-way honae
of mythological parody tho comedy of public lite passes
into the comedy of mannem, metrical still, but approxi-
mating more closely to prose, and consequently to satire
on its own side of tbe line which it is convenient if not
strictly logical to trace between dramatists and ordinary
satiric writers. The step from Menander to Lnciliua ia
not a long one, but it was not destined to be taken by a
Greek.
A rude form of satire bad existed in Italy from an early
date in the shape of the Fescennine verses, the rough and
licentious pleasantry of the vintage and harvest, which,
lasting down to the 16th century, inspired Tansillo'a
Ytndemviiiitort. As in Greeoo, these eventually, about 364
D.C., were developed into a rude drama, originally intro-
duced an a religious expiation. This waa at first, Livy
tells us (v:i. 2), merely pantomimic, as the dialect of the
Tuscan actors imported for the occasion was not under-
stood at Rome. Verse, "like to Oie Fescennine verses in
point of style and manner," was soon added to accompany
the mimetic action, and, with reference to the variety <^
metres employed, these probably improvised compoaitiona
were entitled Salura, a term, denoting mucellany, and
derived from the «<i(am lanx, "a charger filled with the
first-fmiU of the year's produce, anciently offered to
Ba^hus and Ceres. The Romans thus hod originated
the name of satire, and, in so far as the FescsnaJQe drama
consisted of raillery and ridicule, possessed the thing aUo;
but it bad not yet assumed a literary form among them.
Livius Andronicus (340 B.C.), the first regular I^tin dra-
matic 'poel, appears to have been little more than a trans-
lator from tbe Greek. Satires are mentioned among ti>o
literary productions of Ennius (200 B.C.) and Pacnvins (170
B.c), but the titie rather rrfcrs to t^be variety of mctrm*
employed than to the genius of the composition. The I'eal
inventor of Itoman eatire is Caius Locilius (U8-103 0.0.),
whose Saliras seem to have been mostly satirical in the
modern adaptation of the term, while the subjects of some
of them prove tliat the title continued to be applied ta
miscellaneomi colloctiona of poems, as was the cose even
to the time of Varro, whose " Saturn " included prose as
well as verse, and a[ipear to have been only partial)/
satirical. The fragments of Lucilius preserved are nn-
fortunately veiy scanty, but the verdict of Horace, Cicero,
and Quintilian demonstratee that he was a very «
able poet. It is needless to dwell on compMitioi
universally known as the Snlira of Liicilius'a buco
HoroGO, in wboM buidi thia cltM af wmpadlrai iweived
8 A T I B E
31!)
nWM. Hie bni
•1 cnAafy new daral^MnoDk tMoombg geniftl, iikjfnl.
•■d fuwaann. "Anh Hof»M utrove to uend.' Th»
didaeta elameot pnpondeniteii ■till more in ths pbilo-
■ " ■' not Fvmoi. ths propaguidut of Htoicum,
M inteniitT, dramatic gift, obicaritf, and
■ mid«T bim, like tha Browning and Ueredith
It own dkj^ tha InxDiy of the few and the dnpair of
maaj. Tat anoth«r tonn of catin, the rhetraical, was
iad to ihi» ntmort limita of exceHence bj Javenal, the
•xiHph^of ft gnat tngio Mtirirt. Nearlf at the
e time Hartia^ nuproriiig oo earlier RMuaa model*
IT Im^ ^tb that MtirioJ tnni to the epigram which it
d in Oreeoa, bat hu ever since
, pngnann, tnd polidi erf the
liMtt UDgae wen nenr niore felldtoiulj «zemptified
Aan br thit ^fted writer. About the aame timo another
nrie^ id aatire cum into vogne^ destined to beoome the
BM*t important of ao^. The Uilesian laK a form of
caterfeunment prabablj of Eaitem origiD, grew in the
hand* of lUnmin* and Apuleina into the latirictl
nnttaob, inunenaeljr widening the aatitist's field and
naHipting him from the r«attaint* of metre. Fstronins's
"Simper of nimalchio" is the TeveUtion of a new Tein,
never fnllf worked till oar daji. Aa the noTel aioee npon
tbe riiina at tbo ein^ so dialogue spnuig np upon the wreck
of eonadj, Li Lncian comedyappean adapted to suit tbe
oigencjea of an age in wiiich a liTing drama had become
impiiiM*. Lneian's position as a satirist ia something
new, and oonld not, from the nature of the case, have been
aeea[ned hj an/ of his pndeceeson. For the first time
dnce the origin of ctTiliittioa socie^ felt apprehendTo of
imjiMling dinolutioa, and its fears found an interpreter
in the Boidiirt of SamoMta, "the Voltaire of
an ludTeiMl censw and mocker, doTud of the Christi
bope of general ranontitai, and unable to foresee the new
aoual Older iriiidi the barbarian conqoeet was deetined t«
aeala. Next to hi* wit, Loeian'a apeeial note ia his sturdj
lore of tmdi and demand for genaineneM in all things.
, ViA him anliqna wtire expiree aa a distinct branch of
liteiatni^ — thob^ mention sbonld be made of ^e aar-
caioia and libds with which the population of Egypt were
for centnriee aeeutomed to insult the Roman conqueror
and his parasites. An exceedingly cnrions specimen, a
dennneiattoQ of the ^xistate poet HorUta — a kind of
Egyptian " Lost Leader " — compoeed nnder Angastiu, has
ncenttj been published b; H. Revillout trom a demotio
P^Tme.
It ia htgh^ intueebng to remark how, after the great
deluge erf barbarism hu bc^n to retire, one form of
mtin after another peeps forth from the receding fiood,
the order of deTelopment being determined by tbe circnm-
•taDMa of time and ptace. Li the Bjaintine empire,
Indeed, the link of continnitj is nnbroken, and snch
nilletT of abtiaea as i* possible under a deijxitiim finds
vent in tha pale copies of Lacian published in Ellisaen'.
"nM first really important satire, however,
ia a product of Western Gurope, recnrring to the primitive
(«m of fable^ upon which, nevertheless, it constitutes a
decided advanoa. Stgitard the Far, a gennine expression
of the shrewd and hnmelv Teatonic mind, is a landmark
in liteiature. It gave uie beast-epic a development of
vhich the anoents had not dreamed, and showed how
flatting lidicnle conld be conveyed in a form difficult to
naent. About the wne time, probably, the popolar
Inatinet, perhaps deriving a bint froia Rabbinical litera-
ture hsbioned MotoU, the prototype of Sencho PauK, the
incama&D of sublannr mother-wit contrasted with the
starry wiMlom of Solomon ; and the Till Eulaupitffet is a
kindred Tentonie creation, bnt later and less sigiuficant.
Pirn Ptonf^mum, the next groat work of tbe dsa^ adapts
the apocalyptic machinery of monastac and anehoritie viriaB
to the pnrpoass of satire, as it bad often before been adapted
to those of eccleciasticaJ aggnndiremeol. The clergy were
scourged with their own rod by a poet and a Puritan
too eameat to be nrbane. Satire is a distinct element in
Chancet and Boccaccio, who neverthelesi caanot be ranked
as satirists. The mock-heroic is sncceeafully revived by
Pnlci, and the political songs of the 14th and IHh cen-
turies attest the diffusion of a sense of humour among tha
people at large. The Itenaiioance, restoring the knowledge
and Micouraging tbe imitation of clasxic models, sharpened
the weapons and enlarged the armoury of the satirist.
Partly, periuipo, because Eraamna was no poet, the
Lneiania dialogue was the ftrm in the ascendsnt of his
age. Erasmos not merely employed it age^nst supersti-
tion and igDcmnce with infinite and irresistible pleasantcy,
bnt fired by his example a bolder writer, untrammelled
by the disnity of an arbiter in the repuUiu of lettos.
The ridicule of Ulrio Ton Hntten's SpuUJm Obtatrorvm
Viromn is annihilating; and the art there for the first
time fuUy eiemplified though bog previously introduced
by Plato^ of putting the ridicule into the mouth of the
victim, is perhaps the most deadly shaft in tiie qmver irf
sarcasm. It was afterwards used with even more pointed
wit thoQgh with less exnbeiance of humour by Rucal) the
first modern example, if Dante may not be so classed, of a
great trapo satirist. Ethical satire is vigorously represented
by Sebastian Brant and his imitator Alexander Banilay ;
but in general the BMtrical satirists of the age seem tame if
comparison irith' Erasmus and Hntten, thoufli including tha
great name of MaehiavellL Bir Tlomas Hem cannot be
accounted a satirist, but his idea of on imaginary common-
wealth embodied tbe germ erf much subsequeDt satire. Iii
the succeeding period politics take the pUea of literattira
and religion, producing in France the Salyra Mitiippie,
elsewhere the satirical romance fa represented by the
Atyenii of Barclay, which may be defined as the adaptation
of the style of Petronitis to slate affairs. In Spain, where
no freedom of critirasm eiiated, tbe satiric spirit took
refuge in the noitiapieareica, the pretolype of Le Sage
and the anoastor (A Keldiog ; Quevedo revived the medi-
nval device of tbe vision as the vebicls of reproof; and
Cervantei's immortal vrork might be classed as a satin
were it not so much more. About the same time we
notice the appearance of direct imitation of the Roman
aatiriata in English litentura in the writings of Donno,
Hall, and Uaraton, tlM further elaboration of the mock-
heroic t^ Tassoni, and the culmioation of classical Italian
satire in Salvator Ross. Tbe prodigious development of
the drama at this time absorbed mnch talent that would
otherwise have been devoted to satire proper. Host of
the great dnmatists of the ITth century were mora or
less satirists, Molifere perhaps tbe moat consnminate that
ever existed ; but, with an occasional exception like
La Prtcinuei Ridvmlet, the range ti their works is too
wide to admit of their being regarded as satira. The
next great example of unadulterated satire is Butler's
IluJibriu, and perhaps one more truly representative of
satiHc aims and msthods cannot easily be found. At tbe
same period dignified political satire^ bordenng on invec
tive, received a great development in Andrew Harvell's
Adviea to a Painter, and was sborUy afterwards carried
to perfection in Dryden'e Abtalom aid AchiUiphd; while
the light literary parody of which Aristophanea had given
the pattern in his aasanlts on Euripides, and which
Shakespeare had handled somewhat carelesslj in the
ilvlntmmer NigMi Dnam, was effectively' revived in the
duke of Buckingham's Eeheitmil. In France Boilcau was
long held to havsattained tha mtptu* uttm of the Hototi^n
s^le in satin and of the mock^ieroie, bnt P(^ was eom
320
S A T — S A T
to diow that farther progreu wan poanble in both. The
polish, 2-oiiit, and concentnitioD of Po}>e remaia onEor-
poned, M [lo the ameuitj ot Adduon and the daring jet
tennlj logjical itnaf^iution of Swift ; while the Uinory
i/Join S»H And the Pamdnlajia place thoir friend Artinth-
uot la the Grat laak of political eatirista. The 18th cantary
vu, indeed, the aga of satire. Serious poetty had for tho
time worn iUelf out ; the niiMt original geniuaos of the age,
Swift, Defoe, and llichardaoo, are decidedly prosaic, (ud
Pope, thongh a true poet, is Idbs of a poet than Bryden.
In i<ToceaH of time imaginatLro power revives in Oold^mith
and Konmeau; meanwhile Fieldingand Smollett have fitted
the novel to be the vehicle of satire and much baaide, and
the literary stage haa for a time been almost wholly en-
groiNied by a coloMsal mtirist, a man who haa dared the
nnivcnal application of Shafta-bury'it marim thot ridieule
ia the tent ot truth. The world hod never before aeen a
ntiriat on the ncale of Voltaire, nor had satire ever played
•neb a part if a factor in iuipendiog cliange. Tbe parallel
with Locinn id in some respecte very close. Tolemtioa wad
Voltaire'H idol, an truth vras Lnciaa'a ; and tboia, aiming
more than hiii predaceaaor.at tbe practical refonoatiou '
inannon and ioxtitotion-s hin work tras lees purely negatii
He was nevorthelew a destroyer, and as utterly out of
■yrupathy with the pouitive spirit of science for which ho
WW proparing the way as Lucian conM powibiy be with
Qothd or ChriHtianii. As a maxter of sarcastic mockery ha
in nnirurpateed ; liin manner is entirely his own ; and be is
ona of the moet intensely national of writers, notwith.
■tanding his vatit obligations to Engliub hnmorists, states-
men, and philoMphers. English humour also played an
important part in the literary regeneration of Oermony,
where, after Liscow and Rabener, direct imitators of Swift
«nd the eesayists, Leasing imbued with Poi>e but not
maHtcred by him, showed how powerful an auxiliary satire
can be to eriticium, — a relation wbicb Pope had somewhat
inverted. Another great Qarman writer, Wieland, owes
little to tbe English, but adapts Lucian and Fetroniui to
tbe 18th century with playful if somewhat mannered gioca.
Kortum's Jobnadf a most humorinui poem, innovates auo-
eeufttlly upon astabliohed models by 'T;<iHng low life,
ioHtead of chivalry, the subject of burlesque. Goethe and
Schiller, Scott and Wordsworth, are cow at band, and as
iniagiuation gains ground satire decline*. Byron, who
in the tSth century would have been the greatest of
■Btirixt^ u hnrried by the spirit of his age into passion
and description, bequeathing however, a splendid proof
of the possibility of allying satire with snblimity in his
Vitiim of Jutltfoimi. Moore gives the epigram a lyrical
turn ; Bdranger, not for tbe first time in French literature,
mokeM the gay chanson the instrument of biting jest; and
the elaiuio ^pe receives freah cnrrency from Augusta
Itarbier. Coarier, and snbosquently Cormenin, raise the
political pomphlet to literary dignity by tbeir poignant
wit. Peacock evolves a new type of novel from ^e study
of Athenian comedy. Sliss E^lgeworth skirts the confines
of natire, and Miss Austen, the moet refined and delicate
of all obeervetH of manners, seawns her navels with the
inoHt exqnisite satirio tiaits. Washington Irving revivee
the inannn of The Hprrfulur, and Tieck brings irony and
persiflage to tbe diacnssion of critical problems. Two great
nitiric figures remain, — one ropreiMntativo of his nation,
the other moet diSicuIt to clans. In all the cbacacteristies
of his gpniru Thackeray is thoruagbly F.oglish, and the
&nlts and follies he chavtiBes are thoue MpeciaUy charao-
teriHtie of Entish souiety. (k>od sense and the perception
of the ridicnlous are amalgamated in him; bis satire is a
thoronj{hly British article, a little over-solid, a tittle wanting
b finidh, bnt honoat, weigihty, and durable. Posterity will
pi to hint lor th« hnniours of the a^'S of Victoria, as they
go to Addison for thcae tJL Anntfi. Biit Hmov W^
belongs to any nation or country, time or place. Ho ceased
to be a German without becoming a Frenchman, and * Jew
without becoming a Christian. Only one portrait leaJly
suits bim, that in Tieck's all^orical tale^ where he is repre-
sented as a capricionn and mischiovooi) elf ; but his aoog
is sweeter uid his command over the springs of langhlor
and teare greater than it suited Tieck's purpose to acknow-
ledge. In him the satiric spirit, long confined to established
literary fono^ seems to obtain norestrainad freedom to
wander where it will, nor have tbe ancient models been
foUowed since by any cousidorable satirist except the
Italian Oiustl Tbe machinery employed by Uoore was
indeed transplanted lo America by Hussell Lowell, wboae
ISigloie Pajxrt reprssent perhaps the highmt moral level
yet attained by satire. In no age has tbe spirit of satin
been so generally diffused as in tbe 19th century, bnt many
. of its eminent writers, while bordering on the doDUuaa ai
satire, escape tbe definition of satirist. The tenn cannot
be properly applied to Dickens, the keen obHerver fi the
oddities of hniAau life; or to George Eliot, the eiidc of
its emptiness when not inspired by a worthy pnr)KMe; or
to B&lzoc, tbe painter of French society; or to TroUope,
the mirror of the n^iddle classes of England. If Sartor
Stmiiiu could be regarded as a satir^ Uarlyle would rank
among the first of satirists ; but tbe wtire, tbon^ veiy
obvious, rather occomjianies than inspires the compowtioD.
The number of minor satirists of merit, on the other hau^
is legion, and but few can be mentioned here. Poole, in
his broadly farcical LittU Puliiaglun, has rang the ohangea
with inezhauslible ingenuity on a single fmitfol idea;
JuTold's comedies sparkle with epigrams, and his tales and
sketches overflow with quaint humour ; Mallock baa mads
the most of personal mimicry, the lowest form of aalire;
Samuel Butler holds an inverting mirror to the world's faoe
with imperturbable gravity; Courthope reproduces the aiiy
grace and sonorous melody of the Attic comedy ; and the
anonymous writer of the " Bamum " Christmas nnmber of
Truth has resuscitated with etjoal effect its reckless hm
and personality. One remarkable feature of the age is
the nnion of caricature with literature to a degree inoon-
ceirable before the improvements in wood-engraving. All
large capitals now have their comic iUusttated jonmal*,
destined for the most part to be the marvels and stumbling-
blocks of posterity. Pwh, however, has become almost
a national institution, and bt» fostered the genius of two
pictorial satirists of the first rank. Leech and TannieL
The present tendencies of the civilized world seem highly
favourable to the influence of satire as a factor in bnmaa
affairs, but nnfavonrable to the production of satiric
masterpiecao. Satire is the inevitable concomitant at free-
dom of speech, which mnst continue to prevail and diffns*
itself nnlees checked by military or socialistic despotism.
But as the privilege of the many it is leas likely to bo the
tesonree of the few; and it may happen that the pces%
dealing with follies of tbe day as they arise, will more and
more forestall tbe satire that springs from meditation and
study. The principal security is the originality and robnit-
ness of true satiric genius, which, having defied prisons and
scaffolds in the post, may find the means of eluding public
impatience and satiety in the futore. (a. a.)
BATItAP. Bee Pkbsia, voL xviiL pp. 569, 683.
SATURN, an ancient ItaUan god, whom the Bomaoi^
and till recently tlie muderov identified with tbe Greek
god Cranns.
1. Cronus was the yomigest of the 'Ktani, the diiUnii
of Bky (Uranns) and Earth (Qiea). Boudw the Titaoi^
Bky and Earth had other children, tbe Cyclopes and tlw
Hundred-handers. When the Cydopes and the Hundred-
banders [uovcd tronlileaorae^ Bky thmst thorn back into
SATURN
.121
Iba boMDi ot Ekrth. TUb noA Eaitli, ud dm callad on
her (MM to **eDg« her on thur father Sky. Thsj lil
•hnnk from the deed Mve Croniui, who wkylud uid mnti-
kted hie bther with » ticUe or curved Bword. From
the drops of blood which fell to the Mith Epnog the
Furiee end the Oiuta. Croniu now reigned in raom of
Skj. Hie wife ma Bhe«, who wi* mlso hia diter, being
K dan^ter of Skj and EutL Sky and Earth had fore-
toU to Croniu tb^ he would be depoeed bj one of hie own
children, eo ha awallowed tbem one after another aa eoon
aa tkey wen bom. lliDa he deround Heetia, Demeter,
Han, Hade^ and Poeeidon. Bnl wheo Rhea had brong^t
forth Zeua, the yonngea^* ahe wrapped np a atona in
■waddling dothea and- gave It to Cronni, who awallowed it
iiMtaad of the babe. Whan Ze«^ who had been hidden la
(>et^ grew np, he ga*« hia bther a doae which compelled
him to di^orge Gret the (tone and then the children whom
ha had swallowed. The (tone was preurTed at Delphi ;
BTSI7 daj it was anointed and on festiTsls it was crowned
with wool. Zsos and hi* brothers now rebelled sgainst
Cronos, and after a ten yeara' straggle the; were victoriooa.
Ofmns and the Titans were thmst down to Tsrtarus, where
thay ware guarded by the Hnndred-handers. According
to others, Cronns was remoTed to the Islands of the Blest,
where he ruled over the departed heroes, jndging them in
emijnaetion with Rhadamanthne. Plntarcb (I>t Off. Orac.,
18) Deotiocis a story that the dethroned monarch of the
Rods alqit OB an island of the northern seas guarded by
Briareoa and nncnDded by a train of attendant dignities.
Tb» reign of donna was aappoeed to have been the happiest
tioM of the wwld, the golden age, when men lived like
goda, free from tut and grief and the weakness of old sga
(for death was like sleep); and the earth too bronght forth
aboDdantly withont cultiTation. There are few tracee of
the worship of Cronos in Greece. Fanaanias, in hia deacrip-
tkw of Greece, nMntiona only one temple of Cronos ; it
•tood at the foot of the Acropolis at Athens and was
aMcied to Cronns and Bhea jointly. Tie Athenians cele-
bcated an annual feetival in his honour on the 13tb of
Hecatombeaon. A moontain at Olympia was called after
lum, and on its top annual saerifleea were offend to bim
at the a{«iDg eqoinox.
Tb* idM that Cnmnt wu tba god at tim»-*n id«s which
bctwian tha wndi C^nniu and ChniDiu ("time"). Ciutia* dgrirH
Crmia frcm tb< root Im, oiuning "to iccomiiliih." Cronni
may paihi[» hara been a goi of loma aboiiginal baUiaTaga triba
which tha OrMk* ooaqoNsd. Hiuce the nng« tniU in hia
' ' >'- it by Zans, and theacaitr tmcoa of Mi wonhip
The mjth ot the anitilstian
-'--' '"u vukepraad itory
u of tbair ehildrtn ([
lir children (ooimiani Mrniui.oa*).
ijth an foDnd in Na» Zulaud, India, and
Othtf fo
China. Finllala to th* mllowlng and „ „ „
be fomnd in the folk-lore of Buhmen, EaSre^ Basntoa, ladiani of
Oaiaas, and Eskimo.
2. Gatnra and his wife Ope were amongst the oldest
deities of ancient Italy. He is said to have had an altar
at the foot of the Capitol before Bome was founded.
Saturn was a god of agricultare, his name being derived
fnim scFcn, "to sow." The identification of Saturn with
Croans gave ria&to the lageud that after his deposition by
Zeos (Jupiter) Saturn wandered to Italy, where be ruled
as king in the golden age and gave the name Saturnia to
the cotutry. Janus, another of the meet ancient gods of
Itsly, is said to have welcomed him to Rome, and here he
setUed at the foot of the Capitol, which was called after
him the Bataraian EilL His temple (tood at the ascent
from the Fonfln to the Capitol and was one of the oldest
buildings in Rome, but the eight remaining colnmna of
■ Bo Bailail. Bat *eoi»dlD( to Bomer Zsi* wu the (UmI oI the
the tample probably formed a portion of a new temple
built in the imperial times. The image of Saturn io this
temple bad woollen bands fastened Toni)d its feet sll the
year through, except at the feetival tA the Baturaalia :
the object of the beads waa probably to detain the deity.
Similarly there was a fettered image of Enyalios (the War
God) at Sparta, and at Athens the image of Victoiy had no
wings, lest she might fly away. The mode of sacrifice at
this temple was in so far peculiar that the head of the
sacrifice was bare aa in the Greek ritual, instead of being
covered, as was the uaoal Roman practice. Lc^ud said
that the Greek ritoal was introdoeed by Hercules, who ai
the same time abolished the human sacrifices previeuxly
offered to Satom. Otheie said that the rule had been
obaerved by the Pelaagiane before. Under or behind the
temple was the Roman treaanry, in which the archives aa
well as the treasures of the state were preserved. Dionysius
EalicamensLS (jlnf. Horn., i. 34) tells that there were many
ssuctuaries of Saturn in Italy and that many towns and
places, especially monntuns, were called after him. The
oldest nationsl form of verse was known as the Satumian.
Like many other figures in RoDum mythology, Saturn is
said to have vanished at last from earth. His emblem wss
a sickle. He sobstitotion of a great scythe for the sickle,
and the addition of wings and an hour-glass, are modem.
Ops ("plenty"), wife of Saturn, was an earth-goddess, as
appears from the cnstom observed by her suppliants ot
sitting and carefully tonching the earth while they nude
their vovrs to bar. As goddess oF crops and the hsrvest
she was called Conjuva, and under this name had s sanctuary
at Rome, to which only the Vestals sod the priest were
admitted. As Saturn was identified in later times with
Cronns, ao was Ops with Rhea. Another goddess mentioned
OS wife of Saturn was Loo, a goddess of barrenness. She
was one of the duties to whom after a victory the s|>oiIa
of the enemy were sometimes dedicated and burned.
SoJiinuIuL—Tfaii, tht great tatiTal of Saturn, wu celebrated
OD the ISth, bnt after Cneac'* nfana of the celenilai on the 17th,
of December. Augnttua decreed that the ITth thonld be lacnd to
Saturn and th« !»th to Ona Henoeforward it »rr«" '^*t the
17th and 18th wen deiDt*d to the Saturnalia, and the ISth and
SOlh to the Opalia, a foeliTal of Ops, Caligula added a «tli dav,
■the daj o( roiith"[iiw« iuvaalii), deiotod no donht to tlia
■porta of the »u«iif- But in popoUr mage the fetliTal laatad wver
daja The time was one of genera! iof and luirth. The wooUvB
fettan were taken from the lect of the imuc of Saturn, and twh
man offered a pig. Daring Iho feitiTal iclooli wen clard; DO
war wu decltred ar battle fought; no pnniahruent wu indicted.
In place of the toga an undna gannont wai worn. Diatlnctione
of rank oele laid aiide : alarea lat at table with their Biutara
or wen actnallv vailed on 1» tliem, and the ntmoat freedom
of ipeech wu aUoved them. Gambling with dice, at other timet
illegal, was now permitted and practlaeil.* All cliaaa eichiuiged
gifti, the commonat being wax tipen and cUj doUa Thoe dolla
wen tapeciilly giren to cfaildren, and the maken of them held a
T^pilir fail at Uiii time. Vam thought that Iheu dolli repnt-
eented original eecrilica of human heingi to tie internal god.
„, , , _,., —ildren wen racrificod at Carthip
The Cronna to wham human aacriftcn am aaid to have born
offered in Rhodet was m»t probably a Baal, for then are nn-
miilakable ttacea of Phcuucian worahip in Bhodea. It may be
conjectured that the SatunialU wu oripntllj a calebrmtion of Ihr
_^_.__ ^^T^-:__ U-. . •!,- ' 1 ■' -* :* :—»;*"•— I 1.-
r eolitice
under the r
The promlui
kindling Gt(a at
uotth
tha legend
' '^ " tmalia (tninta — wmivr
I at the (eatiral point
time. The cuitom ot i
etEieofStjDhuJhu]
.iatice').
o the
t the winter aolrtiw. In ancient Mmtioo a now Bn wu kindlwl,
mid great mjoianga, at the end of evity larind of fif^-two jcora.
The duignation o[ the planeti bj the uamea of godi u at lea»t «
322
8 A T — 8 A U
data) WM^MciilMd to
li ths liBt aathoT nia tptakm at tta< pUuat SitBrn. TIm ipj^ic*-
tioDorAsBUDsaitiinitoKdivat t)w«Mk(aUKn>lili«4 Sttnnlar)
baM«M>Biiii>'nbiiifaH{Ls,i8). (J. a. FK)
8ATTB. . In aaoieat Qmk mjthologj tlie b&I?ti wbtb
q)irita, lialMiniiiHi lialf-baiUtJ, thftt hauntBd the wooda
ud moontBiii^ eompuiioiu of Pan and DionTxiu. Fancy
repnHBted thoa aa rtraigljr boilt, with flat Doaes, poinUd
Mi^indtibetaibof boftMorgoata. They wen a roguish
ud mnton bat faiBt-httUted folk, loren of viae and
iroaMO, flVK-MMiniiig the wild to the miia« of pipea and
cjmhtil, TUllliri** and bagpi{>ea, dancing with the nympha
or pnnoing Amu, atrikiiig terror bto men, whoae cattlo
Qun killed and wboae womaa they made lore to. In the
Mrliw Onek art Ihey appear na old and ngly, much likA
wild apw; but in later art, eapecially in worka of the
Attie vhool, this lan^ dianeter ia aoftooed into a more
yoathfnl aiid graceful aapect. There ia a famooa atatae
aappoeed to be a copy of a work of Pmitelea, representing
a graoefal satyr leaning against a tree with a flute in his
h^d. In Attica there was a q>eciea of drama known as
the Batyric dnma ; it parodied the legends of gods and
heroe^ and the cUotns was oompoeed of satyrs. Enripidea's
play of the Cyclopt is the only extant example of this kind
of drama. The symbol of the shy and timid satyr was
tiia bara. In some diatricta of modem Qreece the spirits
knows a* Oalkantaara oSer poinia of retetublaoee to the
andent n^n; they have gtata' ears and the feet of aaaoa
Ot goati, are covered with hair, and love women and the
danca. ^ke herdsmen of Famsssns believe in a demon of
the mountain who ii lord of haies and goote.
Id ths Aathorind Tsnion of lu. xiii. SI, xxxlv. li the ward
t n,ijT ' U naed to mdar the Hcbrsir iI'Mn, " hkiry ouei. " A
kind of danwn or rapenutiml bnng known to Uabnv folk-lors
•s InhsUtdng wiata plaM* is mMUt ; % motioa of Mcrifldi
tb« iTIrlM ii aUndtd to in Lot. itIL T, wksra E. T. hu
They oom^ond to ttia "ihiggy dmion of tha moaiit ^
(a«bb al-altslia} ot old Arab Nipentitian. Bat the Htyn of the
^oimj Hia«IHii iimli, faith In whioh Is not yat utinct, are mndi
oat* taniU* thaa tlioas ef Grcaca.
SAUL, son <3t Eish, king irf laiaeL (See Israbl, toL
xiiL p. 403 *q.) The name of Sanl'a father Eiah (cf>p)
seems to be identical with the Arabic proper name and god<
SAUHAISE. SeeSAUusiua.
SAUHAKEZ, Juns Saukasbz or Sxuuuxiz, Bason
X>X (IT07-1636), English admiral, was descended from an
old family, and was bom at St Peter Port, Qnemsey, lltb
March ITST. Many of his anceators had diatinguished
themaelvea in the oaval aarvice, and be entered it as mid-
ahipman at the age of thirteen. For his bravery at the
attack of Charleston in 177S on board the "Bristol "he
was raised to the rank of lientenant, and he waa pro-
moted commander for hia gallant services off the Dogger
Bank, Bth Angost 1781, when he waa wonnded. In com-
mand of the " Bossell," he contribnted to Rodney's victory
over De Orasse, ISth April 1782. For the capture of
" La lUnnion," a French frigate, in 1793 he received the
honour (rf kni^thood. While in command of a email
aqoadron he was on Sth Jaae 1794 attacked by a auperior
French fmoe on the w^ from Flymontb to Gnernaey, but
by his seamanahip and eoolneaa succeeded in gaining a
safe anchorage in the hartour of that island. After b«ng
promoted to the "Orion" of 74 gnns in 1795, he took
port in the defeat of the French fleet off L'Orient, 32d
June, distinguished himself in the battle of Cape St
Vincent in Febraar; 1797, and was preaeot at the blockade
of Cadii from February 1T9T to April 1798, and at the
battle of the Nile, 1st Aoguat 1798, where he was
woonded. On hia Kbim from Egyi>t he received the
t&t-
of the "Cnear." 84 gnni, with <ndem to mtek
the Freoch fleet oS Breat daring the winters of 1799 and
1800. In 1801 he was raised to the rank of re*r-adiAal
of the bine, waa created a baronet, and received the
command of a small squadron which wc^ deatined to watch
the movementa of the Spanish fleet at Cadis. To prevent
a fleet of Britiah merchantmen from falling into the bands
of the enemy, he engaged the French and Spanish fleets,
which outnumbered his own small aqoadron by two to one,
inflicting on tbem a sev«e def«*t with a loes of SOOO men.
Begarding this achievement Lotd Nelson remarked that
"a greater action was never fonght" For his serricea
Saamarez was rewarded with the iHder of the Bath, and he
also received the freedom of the city of London, together
with a magniflcent sword. In 1603 ha recaiTed ft penaioQ
<rf .£1300 A ywr. On the outlaeak of the war with BoMda
in 1809 be waa entrasted with the command ot the BaMc
fleet, and in reet^piition of bis servioea Qiarlea XHL of
Sweden bestowed on him the grand ooas of the ntilitaiy
order ot the Sword. At the peaoe of 1614 he Attained
the rank of admiral; and in 1619 he waa made reat^
admiral, in 1831 Tic»«dmiral ot Great Britain. He was
raised to the peerage as Baron de Sanmares in 1831, and
died at Onemsey, 9di October 1836.
a vols,, issa.
SAUMTTB, a town of France, at the head of an
arrondinement in the department of Main^et-Loir^ ia
aitoatad on as island and on the left bank of the Loire, 38
miles sovth-weat of Toms, and 37 milea •ontli'^aat of Angela.
A large metal bridge connecta the Toora-Angeie railwar
with that of Montrenil-Bellay by which Baomnr oommoni-
catea with Poitien and Niori Two st<nie bridgea (766
and 909 feet long) alao nnlte the town 0|i the ia^nd with
the two banks of the river. Several of the Sanmnr
churches ate intereetiDg. Bt Pierre, of the 12th centory,
has a 17th-ceDtDry facade and a Benuseance nave; and
Notre Dame of Nontilly (often visited by Loula XL)haaa
remarkable thongh greatly damaged isfade, a doorway and
choir of the 13th century, and a nave of the Uth. Both
these chnrchee contain carious tapestriei^ and in the latter,
fixed in the wall, is the copper cross <tf Oilles de Tyr,
keeper of the seals to St Lotus. St Jean is a charming
little building in the Angevine Qothio s^le. Notre Dame
of Ardiliers, of the 16th century, waa enlarged in the
following centary by Bichelien and Madame de Moateapan.
The towD-faouse ia an elegant 16tb<eDtar7 edifioa; and
the whole town is rich in gtaoefnl and interesting examplss
of the best period of French domestic ardiltectiire. Hie
castle, built between the Uth ceutury and Oe 13th, and
remodelled in the 16th, ia used aa an araenaland powder
magazine. There ia also an intoreating almahoua^ with ita
chambers in part dug out in the rock. The cavalry school,
founded in 1 TC6, and after varions interraptiona noiganiied
in 1334 and 1833, has at the present lime (188«) 400
pnpils, of whom 120 are officers. Other eatabliahaeab
are a pnblla library, a moaeum of natural history and
local Boman and Celtic antiquitiea, a hoctioultnial ffilinih
with a school of vinea in whioh eight bnnidred kmd* of
grapes are cultivated. Sanmnr cwriee oo a large trade ifl
sparkling white winea grown in the nHghi)onrhood, as mil
as in brandy, grain, flax, and bemp ; wd it mannfactnies
enamels and rosaries. The popnlatica in 1881 was 13,439
(14,186 in the commune).
Ths Saumar csth along the Loin siid on bath Mm <t ths
vUl«]r ortho Thonet (a Isft-bsnd tribatuv] nnst havs lose occspM
■ pariod. Tha Tour dn Trone (Mh emtorr} sarni
plue of nftige for the Inhabits
laita^ga Invasioi' — "■ ^
by monks ••(«»<
am roaa tla cutla of a _,
lUl Into the band) of Foolqun Bam, dnka at Anjua, In lOSi, Mrf
at On aatf
in nneUus ot
from St Flonnt Is VleiL Ob Iha
during fadgn Invaaic
*"- ^- monks •Maped .. ._
tha caitla of Bumnr two hnndred years lalet.
B A V — S A IT
323
WMd k a* HA MBtoff bita Ua imMialnii of the kingi <il
nuot to whom II nnuiBid eaiHlaatIr bithlnL Tha EngliA
UUd CD o*ptn« it iaiine ill tbs tsuna of tba HuDdnd Yun'
Var. ' Altar tfaa Botannatjon Ih* town baeama tha maOvpolia of
Plotaatantbn in Fnsca and tha aaat of a tinological •einiiiu7,
fltoitnlad b7 man; diatjngiiialiad nuna*. Tha •choa] <if Suunnr,
M oppowd to that of Sadan, (eimaanted tha mora libenl lida of
rna^Prat(atutina(CUMn>n, Anjmat, kc ). Id l«i» thafbrti-
Scattooawondimautladi tail tha lanieatioB^ tha adictol Maalaa
ndosad th« popslilioB from U,000 to 6000.
SAtJKDEBSON, Nicboub (166S-1T39), luUiemv
tjcun, wM bora at ThniiawHie, Yorkihin, in Jumuj 1 683.
Wlion tboai » TMC old lie lo«t hii aight throagh •■11*11-
Dox; bnt thU did not preTent him from uqniring, hj the
nolp of kind friendi, n good kuowledg* ot Latin »i>d
Graak, Mtd panning with maudoity and taecta the atady
<rf mathematin. In hia twenty-fifth y«ar he commenced
lectnring in Cambridge on tha principles (d the Newtonian
philoaophy, and, though he was not a member of an; of
the eollegee, the n&iTeniQr aathoritiee placed no impedi-
ment in his way. In November 1711 he was aelected to
■ooceed Whiaton, the Lncaaiau profeaaor of mathematica
in Caabridgt^ after hariog had the degree of matter of
vta eonferrad upon him to render him eligible for the
la created doctor of lawa in 1728 by
1 of Oeorge EL, and in 1736 wai admitted a
■nemher of tha Boyal Bode^. He died of aciUTy on the
infa of April 1799.
maftattieiana of tha tim^ amiiiii Kawton, diUa]', Da Hoinv,
OoUi, wd (or th* Bnt of utaa h* antartainod ■ profaiind Tanara-
tion. VlMdMr from in liifleiltda lor* of trnth, or from a motiTa
las cnllBd, ha via aeonitciiMd to tpatk hit Mstimaiit* le^tding
pnaoDi T«cr tnttj, and Uandi a* wall m anemia wara cntidnd
witboDt Mam. A* i* ftaqnantly tha eaaa with tha blind, hi*
■anaaiof haaiingindloQci wora utnoidinaiily •cuts, ud ha oonld
ceny oo DMntallT long end lutricata uithBHtleil or aJ^braical eal-
—'"■—(* Ha darlaal far Ui own u* a p^pabls anthmatic, an
■odoont ofwUohiiBtnBlnUasUbonteJZnMMO ffAlaibn{i
• ■■ - ■ "inlTWXwf'-'-'-'"- "■— — ""■■ "'"-
baa bain peCtiihadli TJli Jfittorf 9* naoinu <1 nt in, London,
17G^ Xt tha and of thla tnaliM thara ii rivan, In Letin, u
•xptenation ^ tha pitndpel profawtioDi ot Sir l«u Bewtmi'a
BAUBIANS. See I^mua.
' BAUBIN, Jiuxiuv (1677-1730), one of the nonp of
peat Vnadi preacbera of- the 17th century {we Fuhcb,
tcL ix. p, ft63), WM born at Ntm«* on Jonnary 6th
1677, atndied at Qeneva, aettled in London in 1701 aa
OM oE the paaton of the Walloon chnrch, and died at The
Hagna, on December 30, 1730, whither be had gone to
defend himself before the eynod against a tnimped-up
duwge of heterodoi^. Beeidee collections of Strnoiu, on
miacellaoeoaa tezta, he wrote I>itoimr$ tsr la ttiHeutnlt
If pUt mtmomUt* dm Viaix tt dm JToMraw TatameiU
(Amsterdam, 1720-28), a voih which, aa continued l:^
Beanaobce and Boqaeis became popnlar nnder the name
otSamrMtBMt.
8AUB0F8IDA. Tbia name was introduced hy Huxley
in bia Imtrodmetim to tA* C/oMMtttfton of AmmaU, 1869,
to designate a pronnce of the VrrtArata formed by
the onion of the Avei with the Beptiiiit. In his ElanaiU
of Comparative Anatomy, 1661, he had used the term
"Banroida" for the same province, nie Stb diTtsions of
the ftrt^rrtUa — Pxtctt, AmphAia, EtplHia, Ave, and
Mamincdvt — are all distinctly deflnabte, bnt thur relationa
to one another differ considerably in degree. The
Awtpkibia are more similar to the Pitet* than to any of
the other divisions, and the Avu are closely allied to
the BtptUia, and thns three provincea — XAti^/optida,
Samroptidoj and Marn'malia—an formed.
tha ekrseten which diitJDgniih tha SatinftUa, thit i^ which
•r« eoOiBOD to Urda uJ raptilci, ind not fonnd combined in
a* athn [IsMM. hiTo b««n thus lommiriied by Hmilay :— no
body eiTitT, The adnlt
; tha
mile the effa
•n maroblaitic lud isrn iifiaaliiii ■ li
■11 tha an ii providad In Um oTidoct
tad oalsldo this with a homy or oJearoi
J nodutad
bnachia at laj period ot
allintoii pRaent in the onhrrD ; a uiodihli i . ,
bonea and uticulatod to tha aknll bj s qnxint* ben* j
blood-corpoiclH ; no aapanta panitAanoid bone is uia unu ;
and 1 aingls ocdpital eondirla. In sdditioD to thoaa prindMl
ebmetnt, othan eiiit which ■» found in ill blrdi and nptilaa,
bnt are not iicluiTelf eoDfined to them. The oviduct is ilwiyi ■
imiltriin duct Hpirita from the ovai; and opening from tbs
I..J !._ m.. .j_i. "-ianej {* ■ metsnaphnii with Hparata
d mtaosephiio dnct bacome in the adult
. a ttoti*. The intinina and the repro.
doctiva and nriouy dact* opeo into a oommon oIdiiCL Than is
nnillT in emkelatan io the Form of nls ; In the biidi the icilei
tiks tb« form of fcathen. There are two aortic udi« in reptilea.
In biidi aa\j one,~lhi right. The htut ia oinallT trilocular,
' - - iming qiiidrilarnUr in erooo^ila ud bird*. In ill thi agp
" "■ "- - tai^ quantity of yolk ; in
t with a layer of ilbnnwa
homy or odearootu abaU. Id ■ Tew ossm
.... «ggi* bitchad in th* ovtdnct, bnt in tbeae caiaa there ia no
Intimita conneiion between the embryo and the wiUi ol the duct.
FertiliBtlon tiks pUca intarsiUy, occnrring st tha npper end ol
the ovidoct pnifoaily to the deposition of the albtuniuooa layer
udeggihell.
Comparative anatomy dearly shows that birds are
reptilea which have become spedaliied in adsptalion to
the function of flight. This condnsioo has been con-
firmed in the moat aniprisingly complete manner by the
discovery of foeeil fwrns intermediate between birds and
teptiles. Two pcunta of specialiiation in addition to the
transformation of the fore limbs into wings an conspicoous
in bird^ — the rednstiDa of 1^ tail and the ahoence
of teath. ArdiMopttryx ia a tying feaAered animal with
a long reptilian tail In tiie Boehy Mountain region
nnmerons toothed birds have been recently discovered,
and have been studied and described in a nusterly fashion
by Prof. O. C. Marsh. Iltese forms belong to tha
Heeoane period. For fnrthar detMls see'RKPnua and
BmDB.
SAnSSTJSE, EoucsBnfKDiOT 1)1(1740-1799), one
of Switserland's moat celebrated phyaidsts, was born in
Oenevaon Febmary 17, 1740.^ His yonth was passed
at bis father's farm, where he early acqnired ■ bve for
the stody of nature. Following the eiample of his
father and ot his uncle Charles Bonnet, with whom he
was asaociatad in a reaeanh on the leaves of plants, he
devated himself st first to botany. Thus be wu led to
make the acquaintance of Haller, who was not long in
discerning and appreciating bis rare powers a* an observer.
Id 1762, when only twenty-two years of age, Saussure was
elected to the chair of [^oeopby at Oeneva, where, along
with another professn, he taught logic and phyuca alter-
nately. But his uattiral leaning were all towards the
study of external nature ; and he took advantage of all
avt^able opportnnitice of travelling to thoroughly explore
the mountains, valley^ and takes of his native land, and
to visit those of foreign countries, with the view of widen-
ing and deepening his conception of the constitutiQp of
the world. The Society of Arts of Oeneva was founded
by Saussure in 1778, and in 177*, at the invitation of the
Ooverament, he elaborated a plan for the reform of the
system of teaching in his native town ; but this was too
i4dical in its nature to be adopted. In 1766 he resigned
his professorship to his friend and fellow-worker Fict^
While honouring his country by his devotion to laborious
scientific investigations, he exhibited bis patriotism by
1 Hli (itier, Nieolii da BasBon (ITM-M), ui igiicnllartrt of
nnniullT libenl ofdnloDi and wide Bympathin, whan ■ young man had
applied hlnwlfto lltamy punlli, and eepecUlly to the rtady of
wiition bearing on tinning. Hi mlded ill hii life it hii (inn ot
ConchM, on tfaa Arra, near Oenen. Ai i mamberof tha eonndl of
Two Hnndrad ba look part In pablio altiit*. Moat ta bia wiltingi
■mtn of ■ pfutieal chinctar, bearing on the cmwth and dlacaaa of
■nln and other form piodnoe. Hliliitwoik, On Hni, Ae Ai'scipl*
V /W«Ai» «■ i'faBtt and ,/ FrHililv in Ot AvA, pubUebad la
17B3, **a aioro apaouiaUva In iU utura.
324'
8 A U — S A V
nntiring diligence in the exerciM of hia dntira u a mem-
ber of the cooQcil of Two Hundred, and aftenrards of
the National Aaaembly. In conaeqaeace of over-exertion
JQthiiworkhia health began to fail in 1794; but, although
deprived of the om of his linb^ he cootinuod to reviee the
COndoding volumes of hin great work on Alpine phjaio-
gnphj, which were pabliahed in 1796. Latterly his mind
became enfeebled, and when he was offered a chair of
Ehilosophy bj the French OorernmeDt in 179P he had
ipsed into a condition of partial imbecilitj. He died
on Janoat; 33, 1799, at the age of fiftj-nine, leaving
two aone and a daughter.
Tbo Alpi rumisd tiu ctDtra at Saiurara'a inTMti|[>tioua. Tlicy
foRod theiDKlvea on bU ftttestioa u tlx gnud kejr to tli« truo
thiory of tli« e«rth ; bat, u joor by year bit siaa of ficU
auumad eTBr-growing dimoMiom, til ^enoralizitiom bocime
mort guuiled, until finally be omo to conuilci ■ liniplo nixinling
of ob««rT«tioni u tb* only jmtifiabi* conrm, Aa > young nun he
twd inunid in nuch of ptiiita throogb miny remote TUloye tud
over tb> "moDbtgnoB minditi" ai hiB nnappreciatiTv follow-
dwoUen by the lakes called tho anov-apped luntmits around
thMn. It had bMn hii dnun, be uya, uace be wm twenty to
MDsnd Mont BUno ; and he accomptiabed the feat on Id Auguat
1787. Thia waa the lecDnd time that tbe ascent of that raoniitain,
Ultil than deemed inacmaaible, vaa made in that year.
Bauture fonnd among the Alpa opportnnity for atudying
geoli^iy in a manner never pnTioDily attempted. The inclination
of the atiata, the nature o( the rocki, tbe foMile, — ' '"■■ — ■ '-
of the chemiitry of tbe day, mtcbing for tbe brilliant a
dlMOvariea and the improTementa in procanea of anatysia tha
brought tbe acience into aucb ifu ^' ■ - ■■ i
I applied all to the atndj
geological obeercations
lian theory ; be regarded
qlUTtai of the eighteenth centnrr ; and
of minetala, water, and air. SaUHUr
made him ■ nrm belieTer in the Kept
■U rodca and roioeraU aa dep«ited
■oapauaian, and in tHaw of thia ha attached
the atnd; of meteorological conditione. H<
uid boiung-point thnmometen to the aummita of the highest
nanntaiiu, and eatiinatcd tba relatiTs huniiditT of tbe atmoipliots
■t diArent heighta, its tamperatura, tbe atrength of solar Tadtntion,
tbe eompnitioa of air and it* tranapareney. Tben, rollowiiig tbe
pndpitatad mnitora, he inTeatintid the tempentnra of tbe earth
at all depths to which he conid drin hit Iheimometar atarea, the
oonrss, conditions, and tantmratura of atnama, riven, eladon. and
lakes, ersn of tbe sea. Helnvented a great number olinstrumenta
Hn these pnrpaaea, tested tbt
them, and inTeatigated the theory (
.utiful and complete at hi* anbnidiar
j( hi* hair-hygrometer against all othori. Ha in Tented
end impcorad many kinds oT appaiatna, (nclndlng the magneto-
uatn, ths cyanomatat for estimating the blneneas of the sky,
tba dispbsnranetar forjudging of the cleanw of theatmoapbera,
tba anemometer, and the moontain andiomettr. Hi* modilica-
tions of the Ihermometar adapted that inttrament to many
purposes : fbr ascertaining ths tsmpentnra of ths air ha osed
one with a fine bulb bung in the abade or whirled by a string,
ths latter form being converted into an evaporometer by inserting
Its bulb into a piece of wet sponge and making it revolve in a
oirolo of known radius at a known rate ; for experiments on the
earth and in deep water be employed large thermometera wrapped
attained iL By the nsSot these initramente ha sbowsd'that the
bottom water of deep lakes la nnifarmly cold at all seaeons, and
tbat tba annual beat wave takes six montbi to penetraCa to a
depth of 80 feat in the earth. He reoogiiiied tiie immense advan-
tages to metsorolo^ of high-level abMrring ttationi, and whim-
arei it wu pnotieeble be arranged for ■imnltaneous obserrations
being made at diflerent sltitudoa for aa long periods ss possible.
It is perliapa ae a geologist that Saosinre worked most ; be ex-
aminad alt the formation* be mat with much care and eiact-
ttess ; and altbosgh his ideas on matter* of theory wen in many
oasea vary (rrmeoos ha was inttnunental in groatly advancing tbat
icioncr
. light on (he tiieaiy et tbe earth. Tbsae agenda ire oC Tsla* si
axhibitinc not only the scojw and doliuibi Ibcnieiug of flan— la's
mind but hie slmoit propbotio fomight, since anljBO(|Oout acintifie
work baa advanced in each dei«rtmcut Tory nearly on tlw luie*
tber* laid down,
HM ille vu vrllUa bj SsusIiUir la IMI. by CKlor far tks Wm»i(«M
t/nlwrrt^fM. and hj I>a CteJaTI* In Ottait PKUmpkl^H, Kd. xt, *■ '-'r' l«
U» nklhai^ln; Mttumt, (tj Ir. M.
SAUSSURE, NicoLAB ThAodobb v. (17C7-I845),
eldest eon of Horace Benedict de Saussnre, wee bom aa
October U, 1767, at Geneva, and ia known chiedy tor
his work on the cheini;>tr]r of vegeteibte pbfsiologj. He
was a eh J man, who lived qnietl j and avoided society ;
yet like his anceitora he wae a member of the Genevan
representative council, and gave mnch attention and
thought to public affaire. He took a deep interest in the
improvement of education, but deprecated the introduc-
tion of science teaching into achooln, on the ground that it
would divert the children's minds from the stndy of the
classical languages and mathematica. Ho latterly became
more of a reclnee than ever, and died in April 1645.
Whan s young man Nicoles Tb^ont sceompnnieJ his fhtber iu
ths Alpinaiourneys and sseisted him by Ibe cucTul detomijnation
oC many phyaieal constants. Hs ws* attracted to chamiatry by
originator. He took a leading ahare in tbe rai>id ancceaaion ol
improvements which rendered the proceeeea of nltimato orgauic
analyilB trustworthy. Ua fixed the com poei lion of etliylie sloobol,
etbor, and some other oommonly occurring substsnoes, thereby
advancing tbe knoKled^ of pnre chemistry. He also studied fa-
iiiontation, the convenion of^stsrcb into sugar, and many other
processes of minor importance. Tbe greater nnmber of his 3B
publiabed pajiers deal with tbe cliemiatry aud physiology of plasty
the nature of eolla, and the conditions of vcgeUble life. Tbtas
wen publiabed nnder ths title SccJitrcka Chimimtt lur la Yi^ta-
fi*«H, and were acknonledgod to display remarkable abiliqr.
SAVAGE, RiCRAKD (1697-1743), a mediocre p
notorious literary character of the time of Pope, a
with Pope in tbe publication of tbe Dmiaad. He had
nearly reached the end of his career when Johnson went
up to London, made hie acquaintance^ and was fascinated
l^ his vivacity and knowledge of the world. After his
death, Johnson gave his romantic histoij ol himself in
one of the most elaborate and beat of the IAm* of tkt
Foett — a fine example of the great moraliBt's-seaTching
analysis and tolerant judgment of eccentric character.
Johnson apparently accepted Savage's account of himself
and his strange pereecntion by his alleged mother, the
countess ol Macclesfield, without hesitation, describing
her as a "wretch who had, without scrapie, proclaimed
herself an adulteress, and who had first endeavoured to
ttarve her son, then to transport him, and afterwards to
hang him." Boawell was less credulous, made inquiries
after his cautions manner in various quarters, and indi-
cated pretty clearly that he considered Savage an impostor,
although he could not explain why, if the unnatural story
were not true, the countess could have allowed it to be
put three timee in print unchallenged during her lifetime
(see BosweU'g Life, chap. v.). After Boswell, Malone and
Bindley nibbled at the paradoi, but it was not sutgected
to thorough examination till ISS8, when Mr Moy Thomas
discovered the original mailuscript depositions in the
earl of Macclesfield's divorce suit at Doetom' Common^
and also the proceedings in the House of Lords. 11>*
results of Mr Thomas's researches, prosecnted with rsre
acutenesa and industry, appeared iu ffota and Qnerut,
November and December 1858. To Johnson's lift
and these papeis the reader may be referred for the
strange story and the elaborate and complete expoenre of
its ineonsistenciea and improbabilitiea. He ooaclnuca
which Boswell hinted at, but was prevented b7 Ida lever-
eoce for Johneon from ei^Meaatng that Sange was an
impoatot, is iiresistibleL
SAVANNAH, a city of the United BtatM, the capital
of Chatham count;, Oeo(gi% and tha largeat d^ is iJV
S A V — S A V
32B
8t»te, ii ntofttod on tlia riglbt or KRtUiera ^nk of the
SatwiDaii liver, 13 milGa in » Btrmigbt line ftnd 18 milee
hj wKter from the ocesn. Bj rail it ii 104 milM aouth-
weat of Qwrlertoii, B.C Stretching kboat throe miiea
■long the river, opposite HatdiiiiBon'B Iiluid, tod exteod-
ing inland 1| milea, SaT&Do&h has on area of 31 square
milou The litfl ii partlj formed bj a bold bins of saod
abont a mile. long, which li«a 10 feet above low-water
mark, ending abrnptly at either extremity, but "ilopea
inland (or lereral milee with averj gentle and regular
declivit;." Tbongh laid ont in parallelograma, Savannah
ha« len than oaual of the monotony of lyatem, no fewer
than twentj-fonr Bmall pnblic parka or gardeat being dis-
tributed thronghont the city, and moat of it» streets being
well ihaded with treee. In the eoutli is Foreyth Park
(30 acres), with a fountain after the model of that in
the Place do la Concorde, Paris, and a monument to the
memory of the Confederate slain. Johnson Bqnare con-
tains a Doric obelisk, in memory of General Nathaniel
Greene and Count Palaski, the corner stone of which was
hud by I^ayette in 1825 ; and in Monterey Sqoare, on
the spot where Pnlaski feU in 1779, risea a more elaborate
■uonninent — ■ itatne of Liberty displaying the national
banner, oo the top of a marble shaft 05 feet high. The
focns of eommaroal life in Savannah is the so-called Bay,
t, narrow street bnilt at the foot of the river blnS, with its
top itoriea opening on the higher level behind. Among
the more conipicnous buildings are the cwtom-house and
post office, the city exchange, the covrt-honse^ Oglethorpe
United States barracks, Chatham academy, St Aiidrew's
hall, the library ball of the Qeorgia Historical Society, the
Savannah medical college, the Bomao Catholic cathedral,
and St John's Episcopal church. Beeides being the
•econd cotton port in the States, Savannah has a large
trade ia rice, timber, resin, and turpentine, the valne of
ita exports being 129,650,276 in 1873, and $21,627,236
in 1880. Planing mills, fonndriei, and flout-mills are the
chief indnstrist establishments. The harbour ha* in Tybee
Bonds a depth of 31 feet and 38 feet at mean low and
high water, and Che bar 19 and 26 feeL The population,
6196 in 1810, was 16,312 in 1850, 38,236 in 1870, and
30,709 (16,651 colouiW) in 1880.
BsTumsh WM settled in Febniitr 1753 nuder Ocaonl Ogls-
thorn. i. Britiih ittuk in 1776 wu repalnd ; but it na csp-
tnr^ in 1778, ind thouRh the French sDd Amerian fonu m&da
■D (ttsinpt to rKOTST it in 177S it <ru held bv the Britiih till Julv
1783. The fim leHton of the li^iUture of the SUte wu held
in Skvannih In Jinuirj 1784. A city cbartar irii granted in
I7S9. A greit lira in 1708 and mathor ta ISW did dsmiso to
tlu (mount or 11,000,000 and tt,000,00a mptctiTalv. nuring
the CiTil Wer SaTinnnh wu held bj the CoDfedontei ; bat It iru
altimiital)' oiptared b; Oenenl Sbamun on Slit December ieS4.
BAVARY, AxKi Juk Masie Rtod (1771-1833), duke
of Rovigo, was bora at Uareq, in the cantiin of Qrandpri
and department of Ardennes, on 26tli April 1774. He
was educated at the college cf St Louis in Hetz, where be
gained a scholarship. When a yoath of sixteen be became
a volunteer in a cavalry regiment His firat military ex-
periences were with the army of the Bhtne under Custina ;
he distinguished hiouelf under Uoreau and Firino, and by
1797 had reached the rank of m^or. la the next year,
under Desui, he took part in the Egyptian expedition,
and he followed the same general in the Becond Italian
campaign, and at the great battle of Marengo (14th June
1800). He had by this time attracted the favourable
notic« of Napoleon, who detected not only his soldierly
powers but his singular gifta in the region of diplomacy
and intrigoe. For Savary the plans and will of Napoleon
farmed a law which obliterated every other, and in pre-
•encA of which political aikd moral scruple had no plac«.
So early aa 1800, while only twenty-six years of age, he
WM appcnnted a colonel and the commander of that legion
which was afterward* to form the pick«d bodyguard of
the emperor. In 1803 be was general of brigade, and in
1804 he was charged with Hte execution of the Due
d'Enghien. Savary in hi* Memoin (published in Pari* in
1828, 8 vol*. 6ro) avows that all he did was to convey
to Vineennea a letter vhosa contentB he did not know,
and early next morning, in obedience to the order* of a
superior officer, to have the duke shot. The other dda of
the story is that he knew all aboat it, — that of set purpose,
and in order to prevent an appeal to Napoleon's clemency,
ha hastened the execution ; and it is certain that, nnlika a
man merely under orders, he himself went straight to
Bonaparte to report the death. Savary was the hand
which Napoleon employed in the deluate n^otiaUoni
with the emperor Alexander abont the time of the battle
of Autterliti in 1805. At Jena in 1806 he distingoished
himself by his Buccessful pursuit of the retreating Prtis-
siani ; he rendered signal service by the siege of Hameln,
which he forced to capitulate on 2Dth November; and,
finally, the severe defeat which he inflicted upon the
Russian forcea at Ostrolenka, on 16th February 1807,
was his crowning victory. Among other honour* and
rewards, be received a pension of 30,000 franca. After
the peace of Tilsit he was despatched to Bt Petenbon ;
but shortly thereafter — the Napoleonic acheme for Ue
crown of Spain bebg now apparently complete— he wia
recalled, was created duke of Bovigo, and started for
Madrid. His deceitful intrigue was soon ■ucceeafnl, and
Joseph Bonaparte ascended the Bpantsh throna. From
1808 to 1810 he was again beside Napoleon in the many
and changing scenes of his exploits ; but en the 8lfa it
June of the latter year Fiance itself, now fully olive to
the vast and mysterious power he had learned to wield,
was startled by his appointment as loccesaor to FoDchi
in the ministry of police. His administration, however,
was not a sncceei. After the overthrow of Napoleon,
he desired to accompany his master to St Helena, but
this WBs refused, and he was imprisoDad at Mall*. He
escaped thence to Smyrna, thetooftec wandered aboot the
east of Europe, and finally embarked for England, which
he reached in 1819. Three year* before it hid been
condemned to death by default; and, learning thi*, he
proceeded to Paris to dear hinuelf of the sentence, in
which ha succeeded, being also reinvested with hi* rank
and dignitiea. He retired to Eomcs where he remained
till 1831, when he was appointed commander-in-chief <A
the African army, and entrusted with the adminiatialion
of Algeria. His duties were BDCceosfolly performed, but
he returned in March 1833 in weak health to Pari^ where
he died on the 2d of June.
SATIGLIANO, a city of Italy, in the province of
Cuneo, 31} milea by rail south of Turin, lies b a plain
between the Maira and Ibe Metlea (head-streams of the Po)
1081 feet above the sea. It still retains some trace* ol
its ancient wall^ demolished in 1707, and has a fine nrf-
legiate church (Sant' Andrea, dating at least from the lllb
century, but in its preeent form comparatively modem),
a triumphal arch erected in honour of the marriage of Tictw
Amadeus L with Christine of France^ and in the Taffini
palace paintinga by the lEth-century local artist Qiovonni
Mollineri (Mulinari, II Caiaccino). Savigliano ha* kmg
been a place of considerable industrial activity; ite
modern manufactures comprise p^ier, silk, and bev, Tlie
population was 9932 in 1881 (commnne 17,160).
Fint mentioned In SSI u Tills BsTilliui, Saviglittio spFMS In
(he ISth cantorr is ■ luniaber at the Lomberd lotgn*. Ito name
pcipolQiJlj crotK op in tlie hietorv of Piedmont uid Sivoy. It w«i
Weged ud tsken b^ the duke at Saioy in 1847 ud 4geui In 1197;
snd in the I8th end 17th oenturiei It mlfeied Mvarelv from Fnnch
nrrlnnk Cbula Smmannel I.-diad In 1S30 at Suiglisao, wh«*
tlie fiedmonlsN sanst* hsd toet to eecaiw iitt [nslilsDce.
S A V I G N Y
BA.TIGST, PinDMOH Ciw, von (1779-1861), wm
born kt FnuiUortoD-(ti»-HAin od Febni&rj 31, 1779.
He wu deecended from ui uicieut bmilf , which fignrw
in the hiator; of Lorrune, »nd which derived ita
name from the CMtle of SftvigDj Dear Chumea in the
TaUej of the MoaeUe. When Lorrune passed into the
poMeasion of France, hia familj attached iteelf to Oer-
Dwnj, and hU onceiton fiUed important official posts in
Naasan and other Qsrman states. Bit great-grandfather
wrote a work. La Dimdution de la Reanioti, as a protest
against the oonqnests of Loi^s XIT. ; his grandfather was
" BegiernngsdirectnT " at Zweibrflcken, aod his father waa
& noble of the empire and " Kreisgeiandter " of seTetal
princes of the diet of the circle of the Upper Rhine.
His father, Carl Lndwig Toa Savignj, died in 1791, bis
mother in 1792, and he was brought np and edncatod by
fail guardian, Herr von Nenrath, assessor of the Beichs-
kammergericht or imperial chamber at Wetzlar, a master
cf tiie "Staatsreeht" of the time.
In 1796 Savigaj went to itudj at Marharg, and
derived great advantage, as is gratefully recorded bj
kim, from the teaching and frieodabip of Professors Weis
and Batier. For six months he studied at Oottingen. It
is noted as a cnrioos cLrcuinstaDce thal^ though Hogo, the
great civilian, was there lecturing Bavigoy did not attend
his ooDiae. He snilered much for two or three years from
ilthealth. Bavigny visited, &ft«r the fashion cf German
■tadent^ Jena, Leipeio, and Halle; and he retnined to
Harbnrg vrtiere, on December 31, 1800, he took his
doctor^ degree. His inangnral dissertation was entitled
DtCoiteitmiDdietorvnFormali} At Marbnrg he lectured
as privat-docent on criminal law, the pandects, the law of
jsaioii, obligationt^ and the methodology of law. In
I he poblidisd his &mons treatise, Dot Recht dti
j>tiUta, or the right of possmaion. It was at once Iiailed
In lUbaQt as a masterpiece ; jurists Tecogaized that the
old uncritical study of Raman law was at an end. It
qnickly obtained a European reputation, aod still remains
a promineot landmark in the history of Jarisprudence. It
was the fountain-head of a sbeam of literature which has
not yet ceaaed to flow. Austin, no partial judge, pro-'
noonoed it to be "of all books upon law, the most con-
summate aod masterly." In 1604 Savigny married Knnt-
gnnde Brentano, the sister of Bettina von Amim and
Clemens Brentano the poet In that year he visited
Paris, chiefly with a view to make researches in the
National library into the life of the jurist Cnjas, whom
he greatly admired. In a letter to be foond in his miscel-
laneons works he explains- the ground of his admiiation.
" Dans I'histoire de la jarisprudence modems, il n'y a pas
d'dpoque plus brilliante que celle du 16°" si^le. Ceat
alon que la science du droit ent v^ritaUement nn grand et
noble oaractire qu'elle n'a pas retrouvi depuis." A story
not without significance as to his character relates to this
period of his life. On his way to Paris, a box containing
papers in which were the results of laborious researches
was stolen from his eaniage. He bore the loss nith
equanimi^, and managed with the assistance of Jacob
Oiimm, his wife, and one of hei sistera to do much to re-
pair the loss.
In 1808 he was appcunted by the Bavarian Oovemment
ordinary professor of Roman law at I^ndshut^ where he
iwnained a year and a half, and where he left many
pleasant memoriea. In 1810 he was called, chiefly at the
instance of William von Humboldt, to Berlin to fill the
ohaii of Roman law, and assist in organicing the new
anivsrnty. One of his services was to create^ in coo-
> Hu obJHt of Ut iBTntlgitloii Ii thu deKribad: "Deliota
SSfniTin diottutiar, nU dfl pturiboa ligam tioUtlonltMi^ qosnu
HaaUnaiiaatTfia, iB aodgni JailidopflDitndu j^Hor." .
nwion with the law facnl^, B "BpmcWJoUotnttni,* «
university court, competent to deal with caxea remitted to
it by the ordinary courts ; and he hwk Itn active part in
its labours. This was the busiest time of his life. He
was engaged in lecturing, in the government of the ani-
vermty (of which he was the third rector), and as tatw to
the crown prince in Roman, criminal, and Pmsaiaii law.
Kot the least important conseqaeoce of his reoidenes b
Berlin was his friendnhip with Niebnhi and EiehliMiL
In 18U appeared his pamphlet Van Ber^ vaertr Zeit
far Ottetzgf^naig und RedUtwitientchaft. It was a protest
against the demand for codification, and in paiticnlar
against the extension of the Code Napoldon to Owmany.
Fired with the hope that a day of reanrrection tar the
national life of Germany was at hand, IMbaut hod written
a pamphlet urging the necessit/ of forming a code for
Germany. Savigny wrote a reply, in whidi were lud
down some principles with which wise advocates dl codi-
fication mi^t well agree. " I regard, " ha Mud, " the law
of each country as a member of its bcdy, not as a garment
merely which has been made to please the fancy, and can
be taken oS at pleasure and ezchangod for another," He
laid stress upon the connexion of the present and the
past and the consequent Umitatioos of the power of legis-
lation. But in the course of his argument be eonfoniuled
the errors of codifiors in France, Austria, and ftnsaia, and
especially the defects in the Code Nspolfcrn, willt the
necessary incidents of codification. Put at its highco^ his
argument comes to' little more than others had before
crudely expressed by saying, " We are not wise enough to
compose a code." '
In 1816 he founded, with Eichhom and Giischen, the
Zattchnft JUT gtKhichttidie Beehtnoitttnichaji, the oi|^
of the now historical school, of which he was the represen-
tative. In 181C, while on bis way to Rome as envoy of
Prussia, Niebnhr made at Terona the celebrated dis-
covery of the lost text of Gains. He communicated to
Savigny tho fact, and also his conjectnre that it waa the
work of Ulpian. Savigny made known the discovery to
the world in an article in the ZtUiekrijf, and pointed out
Oaius as the real author. Qoschen, Bekker, and Holl-
weg actually deciphered the manuscript ; but there ia
some truth in Hugo's saying, " Without Savigny one
would not have hod Gaios."
The record of the remainder of Savigny's life oonsista of
little else than a list of the merited honours which he
received at the hands of his sovereign, and of the works
which he published with indefatigable activity.
In 1815 appeared the first volume of his Gaduehtt tU*
SomisrAra Stcho in MitldalUr ; the last did not appear
until 1831. This work, to which his early instructor,
Wds, hod Urst prompted him, was originally intended to
be a literary history of Roman law from Imeriua to the
present time. His design was in some respect narrowed;
ia others it was widened. He saw fit not to continue the
narrative beyond the 16th century, when the sqwration of
nationalities disturbed the foundations of tiie science of
bw. His treatment of the subject was not merely that of
a bibliographer ; it was philosophical It revealed the con-
tinuity in the history of Roman law ; and it was an emphatic
protest against the habit of viewing the law of a nation as an
arbitrary creation, not connected with its history and con-
dition. It was the Jtarent of many valuable- works which
continued Savigny's investigations.' In 1817 he was ap-
pointed a member of the commission for organinog the
Pruseian provincial estates, and also a member of the
department of justice in the Staatsratti, and in 1819 he
vhst bu tavonntblg viev, sm Otm'* FcmueUi ackriflmt.
S A V — S A V
827
hteuM ft mamlwr of the «apreiiM eoort of cMMtion ftod
nruian tor the Rhino Province*. In 1830 be «ft« mede ft
member ol tlie oommueion for reridng the Praften code.
In 1B23 a teriooi nerToue illneas ftttaoked Sftvignj, ftod
eompelled bim to teek relief in traveL He ftltraja oon-
■ideced that ha had benefited ranch b; the hom<Bopethie
treatment of Dr Neeker, and he renuLtned a firm belieTor
in homOBopethj. In 1830 he began hie elaborate work
Ml the modKS iTatem of Koman law. The ughth and la«t
Totome apfteand in 1849.
In Haidt 1843 he cMaed to perform hie datiea aa
prafeeeor in order to become "Gronkeiuler" of Fmiua;
and in that position he carried ont eeveral important law
refwm* in ng»tA to billa of exchange end divorce (ft
ent^eet on which ha had meditated mi^). He held that
office tintil 1848, when he resigned, not altogether to the
regret of hie frienda, who had uen his eDergiee with-
drawn tnmt jariepmdence without being able to flatter
themaelreB that he.wa* a great elatesman. In 18&0, on
the oocacdon of the jnbilee of his obtaining bis doctor's
degree, appeared in five Tolumea his FemuclU« ScArifUx,
consisting of a eollaction of his minor works published
between 1800 and 1844. This event gave rise to much
eothnsiasm thronghont Qerman; in honour of " Uie great
master' and foonder of modem Jorisprudeaee. Professor
Scheori, in hie Simj/e WcrU ilia- Sanffny, notee the fact
that on the Slit of October Luther fiiet rerealed to the
irorU the light of evangelical tmth, and Savigoy on that
daj began hie wwk as a law refmmar. In 1853 he pnb-
lished his treatise on Oblipatitmt, a anpplement to hie
Bystem of modern Boman kw. Savignj died at Berlin on
October 30, 1861. His son, Carl Friedrich roa Savigny,
bom September IS, 1814, was Pmsaian minister of foreign
Affain in 1849. He lepreoented Pmssia in important
diplooiatic traneaetiona, espeeiaUy in 1866, and died
Fobniarrll, ISTO.
In tba histoij of JnriipnuUDoa Btvigs;'a gnst works sie ths
SaAl itt Bnitam end th* &n/ wunw ZM fir O-tHgilniKf.
Tba lonnar maikad sa noeh in jdriipnideao*. Pmt ibaru^
(■ji; 'With tha AcU in SnUm wm the jnridiesl msthod of tba
Bomu* raguiM^ and uodn JoriapfDilaBM bom." It mukad ■
gnat aiivuua batk in nsolls sad mtthod, ud it raodand obsolaU
Slight
(rau violBDoa, and U
nnltmlted power.
witli giest scatant
,.._ ._ .. Interdicti,
a* in BoinMlim, bat to immnnitr
doD ia nsad OB th* couoiooHUB (d
Thia* tnd other proposition* war* msinUinad
M end bnaqiulled uwaauitT in intaipntiiig
_ I* Romsn JBiul*. Tha book alio Mekt to •olve
tha {inblcm of genarsl iilamt, aonuiraa to slmost •tbtj avataiB
of JuiipnidBiuiB, whj poaB«Bion, righliiil or wnngfal, ■■ dlatin-
gauhod rh>iii prapgttT, ihoald ba pntMlad. Thii geDSisl pnblsDi
■DBtn bvbem^iInioatKilatjrdiKiuwdwiCbntemicetoBousD Isv.
Uii lauUDg iinnciple, thit ovary " aiercise of foroa " U illag*!, '
sot incoalaatiblt, ind, if tne, it doea not desi np tha whr
Kblom: Tba atlsmpt to trait tba biitonol scddents of Rom
u jnrididl Rscwitin ia tlia wuk lide of s work in ott
nspecla muterlv ; and than i* * difficulty in oiidarfttsndinff
' -' ' ' [ytlMtitwuofaIlbookahaknair''tbaleutalla7ed
Auitin'i anlogy &
>r uid imparfntion, " Tba control
ich bu Ii«*n
_sny by IbiHcig, Biiranj Oiina, sod
ion tbit nus; oF Strigoj'i conctiuioni have not
xsptad.' Tba An/ " " ' '■ **" '■"-
imOisr in 1S14, that lao
Mibal* tha noiioB, too
eially in last cantniy, and ooanlmumesd
that law mi^t ba arbitiarily unpa**d on a oonntry irnapactJTa oj
its atsta of dviliiatioii and pait hiitoiy. Or aran graitar valni
than hiaiBTi«*infaiioiIingor consolidating "tba hiitorical icboo
of juiiapradonca " ii tha auipliatia raoognituin in bia norht of the
faot that tba practice and theory of Jurijpnidsnc* cannot be
diToccad without injury to both. WKtiiig at a time «hen th*
iDflnoncs of Hegel was in th* aacendant, and in a dty *b*r* ha
was olSdal phileaopber, Bavignr waa sot carried sway by meta.
phyaicsl thporits. In all hi* wntingi thar* ie not a word betnying
■ft|ialnt*ue*withth*)abonnof hisgrtatoonlampoiwy. BaDthami
Ua nabliib
*B« WlndachaU, Likrhitk da J'amJcUtnrwclUt, i. M>. .
limlmtOuit'tBaMliiita^Pineiuii). PsAspi B itody of both
would do mor* than aDytbfng aln to aid in tba coiutroction of s
traa iciaDc* of jnrleprudaaoa, conaiiting oeitbar of pUtiCodM and
kgonuchitanororawortUeaicalalagoeotle^cBriaaitie*. (J.Ht.)
8AVILK See Hautax, vol. zL p. 386.
SAVILE, Sa Esmv (1049-1623), a learned English-
_Bn, was the second son of Henry Savile, and was bom
at Over Bradley, near Halifax, Yorkshire, 30th November
1049. He entered Brasenoee College Oxford, whence he
was elected to Uerton College in 1061, where he took his
degree in Arts and wee chosen fellow. After graduating
H.A. in 1070, he volantarily reed lecture* on mathematics
in the noiversity. He was proctor in 1075 and 1G76,
tievelledon the Continent collecting MSS. in 1078, and
tutor to Elizabeth in Greek and mathe-
matice. He was warden of Uerton College from 10B9
until bis death, and in 1096 was chosen provoet of Eton
College. He was offered preferment by Jemee I. after hii
acceesion in 1604, bat would accept nothing more than
the honour of knighthood. After the. death of bis sun
Henry he devoted his fortune to the promotion of leam-
. ""he founded lectures on mathamatici and
astronomy at Oxford, and he oleo made various other
benefaction* to the nniversity, including the foundation of
e mathematical library for the profeesors, and the gift of
several rare MSS. and printed books to the Bodleian.
He died at Eton Collage 19th Febmary 1633, and waa .
boned in the chapel there. In recognition of his great
to the nnivenity, a public speech and vereea were
made in bis praise, which were soon afterwards published
nnder the title Ultiata Liiua Savitii.
held in tho highest eateam by all the Itsrnad of hii
iDbliihad Aur £ooib ^ Ma HiMtnii* ^ OtnuiiuM
Iht L\fi ^ Ajrvxia. iBith Nultt, dedicatad to Queen
Eliiabolh (IBSl) ; A VUtc d/ Cirtaiit llUiUiry MalUn, or Con-
Seripiam pod Sedan, (1B98) ; an aioellent adition of Chryeoalom,
B vol*. (I6U) ; MatlumatiaU Ltiiuret m Budid'i SUvukU (1«!1) ;
and Oratio eomm SiiabiOui Xigma Omiiim kalrUa anna 1S93
(18S8). In 1S18 ho pnbliahed, with a lifa, Bradw>rdiii'« vork
Di Cauta Dtt eoKtra Pelagivm t dt Firtula Catuarum; and ha
tnoilated into La^ King Jamaa'a Apolngy far U* ObA ^ AV»-
nana. He alao left sevaiiu manuscripts written by ord«r of King
Jamea, all of chicli an In the Bodleian library.
SAVmOS BANKS (Fr. mine* Sipargfn; Oerm. Syar-
Itmm) are iugtitutions for the purpose of receiving small
depoaite of money and investing them tor the benefit of
the depositors at compound interest They are, in general,
managed by benevdent peisons, who aaak no remonera-
tioD for their eervicee. They originated in the Utter part
of the 16th century — a period marked by a great advance
in the orgamxation of provident habits in general (see
Fkikmslt Socnma}. lliey had bean, however, one of
the many excellent projects suggested by Daniel Defoe in
16ft7. The earliest institution of the kind in Europe was
one established at Bmnawick in 1760 ; it was followed in
1TT8 by that of Hamborg, which still exiats, in 1786 by
one at Oldenburg, in 1790 by one at Loire, in 1793 by
that of Basel, in 1794 by one at Geneva, which had bnt a
abort existence, and in 179S by one at Kiel in Hobtein.
In Great Britain, in 1797, Jeremy Bentham revived De-
foe'a suggestion under the name of "Fmgality Banks,"
and in 1799 the Bev. Joseph Smith pnt it in action at
Wendover. This was followed in 1801 by the addition of
a aavinga bank to the friendly society which Mr* Priecilla
Wakefield had eatabliahed in 1798. Savings banks were
shortly after established in London, Bath, Buthwell in
Dumfriesshire, Edinburgh, Keleo, Hawick, Southampton,
and many other plac^ By 1817 they hod become
numerous enough to claim the attention of the legislature,
and Acts of Parhament were passed for their nr '
and oontroL Their progreas in the United K'
that date is shown by the following (I
SAVINGS BANKS
N.
AwilUta.
sss^
^
■=' 1— "
M21
ISSl
1841
IMl
IBS!
10,BIU,N4
21,0!S,E8t
a«,780,099
87.890,829
38.»a7 48G
ITatknoin],
4!B,40a
841.804
1,181,888
l,90»,102
i
S
£
4,740,188
14.M8,636
24,636, B71
80;41s;68a
41,G42,219
0 13 a
0 18 4
1 a 3
From tiiia cbite the prograsa of the post office aaviDga
bwiica ha* aim to be brought iotc account, autiatics of
which h«v8 already been given nnder Post OmoB : —
T_.
NpilMta.
HuaboroTDnnlton.
^
I»^!^lu.
PottOffld
B»lDKBuk(.
-
1871
1881
1884
•1,846,179
U,ail,483
1,404,078
1.638,486
1,581.474
1,803,498
1,807,812
3,»33,«76
a,707,E70
1,140,098
4,B1«,149
1?
AlHmUgdXqHlt..
r^
I«lh>r,
SS^
S»la(.B^
T-^
i8ri
e
45,840,887
17,025,004
18,194,495
44,773,778
£
55,645,482
80,832,360
90,814,880
£ 1. d.
1 IB 0
3 5 7
£
21
)9
On the 34th April 1886 the fanda in the btuda of the
NaUoDal Debt CommiuioDen on account of tnutee ttTinga
banks wer« £46,163,515, aod poet office MTUigB baoks
X49,e81,896, a total of £96,014,111.
To these may be added the cash and awett in the handa
of the banka and the poabosater-geDeral, which at the
begintiing of the pranoui year amoonted to £T61,S01, and
also the foiloiring inTestmeDte in stock on acconnl of
depodtoiB : — tnutee aaTinga baok, £729.532 ; post office
laTiugs bank, £2,626,928 ; total, £3,3S6,1G0 ;— making
the aggregato funds belonging to depoaiton in sanngs
banks more than £100,000,000.
The largest Bavinga bank in - the United Eingdotn is
that at Qlasgow, as sho<ni by the following t^le of the
31 principal banks : —
Qlsigov
Usnabatn'
Edinburgh.
St Uartia'* PliM, Loiidan . .
BloomSald BtiHt, LOtadou..
PiiidiiuT, London ...
BsirouUS' on-True..
Pnrton
Hottiuham
Uedi..
Bri*U>I
DsTCBport
Blnomibuiy, London...
Btnki with ItM eiplUl bnt
Uin nombn of dopodton—
kUiylobono, London.
s,88e,8or
3,080,788
1,868,488
1,U2,M7
137,851
80,887
88,182
59,970
39,099
85,301
34.317
82,389
81,880
21,9BB
I»,Eei
S7,BB7
23,811
24,822
14,188
18,9BE
£3,533
»8S,2ei
310,828
282,876
54,871
83,414
40,114
From this table some interesting OMiclnsloas na; be dswt
ae to the operations of savinga banks in the larger town*.
These 21 banks have together more than 50 per oeat. of
tho depositors, more than i5 per cent, of the depoeiti^
and more than 69 per cent, of the tranaaiitiona of all the
111 savings banks of the United Kingdom.
The progress of saving banks and the loi^ amount
that the deposits have now reached arc evidence nf the
general fitness of the organization for iU purpose. So far
as regaida tnutee saviuga bankii, tho provisions of tbo
Acts of 181T are atill to a great eitent the same as thoeo
by which they are now regulated) though the law haa
been frequently amended in matten of detail, and twice
(1828 aod 1B63) cooaolidated. Ita main featura ia the
reqoiroment that the whole of the funds should be investsd
with the Oovemment through the Commisaionera fur tho
Reduction of the Ketiooal Debt The local management
of the banks has been left entirely to the trusteea, who
are precluded from receiving any remoneration for tbeir
■ervicea or makiog any profit They are, however,
required to fumiih the commisaioners with periodical
returns of tbeir transactions. This Uending of private
managemeot with atate control has had many advantages
in knitting together class and class, and in many places
the voluntary trustees and managers have been able to
lender real service to the depositors in variuna ways. A
new aavings bank requires for its establLnhment tiie con-
sent of the Nstiooal Debt CommiBsioners yid the certi-
ficate of the registrar of friendly aocietiea to its roles;
but since the openiog of the poat office savings banks in
1861 few have been established,' and many old Sbvings
banks have been closed, not being able to offer to their
depoaitors the same advantages as the new systems The '
savings banks, which numbered 610 in 1861, have thus
been reduced to 11 1, and their capital has boen maintained
rather by the acctimnlation of interest than by frciib
■Dti to thrift,
k dcp«itor JD Ih*
-— 'o Hit ordiosry
thTlwi
• of tbM
.-. lagUation of 1817, among othsr ladno
offond thkt of a bonnty t "^ . . ■
abipe of a rata of Intorott ii
publio cnditor, or^vhich Is the i
wbich could bs euued by th« iorMtmeDt of tbo d«po>it> In tho
:hue of CovsruiDflnt itock. The intenM offered in tbs flnt
8d. ptrdsv, or £4, 111. 3d. i
pnrchue
I of HTiDn ta
md prohibiud
"ay. 1
IT £8,
raqnirioR tl
held by the
In 1844 Cbs intrmt to tnuteei wu furtlier ndnccS to 2d. par
day. or £3, 5l per cauL , t]i« muiiDum to bo »llo««d to dapoalton
belDK fixed at £3, Oe. lOd. Fioallj, in ISgO the intareM to In*-
teosbu bHs reduced to £3, and thit to dF|«iton to £2, IBs.
The nmtt of the boaoi on thrift oBeicd bj tba earlier etitntn
«u ■ loai to the Btite, vbich ought to b*T* b«ea noda nod by
la snniuil Tote. Between 1817 and 1828 the diflerenca batwean
tba Intoreat credited aiid that named anountod to £744,381 ; and
thie lod to tho tndaction in the rate of interest elfocted by tlia let
il bT tlia Act
paid ofll WBi
t b, II
dopoaiU Incraaeed frssb daficioncios arose,
deficioncj, which wonlil hava boen 1^ n
£3.179,930 The reductjoa of intonat in 1844 was about tnongh
to nuke tho ^ad Hlf-iapporting, though aBTinip baDkaaredwin,
as Ur Scratdhley ilearly ihowe, lUble to loa from the (act that
dopoeita are In aiGea when tho fnnds are high aod withdni'al'
when they are low ; bnt tho put deidgnoj wu still allowail to
•cenmtiUte, and It was not till 1880 tbit the plan wh adoritcd
of toting tho defldency aTBry year. Had the acoamaiatad defl-
danay bsea than liq^uidated, there wonld bsTa bum no ueceiaity
for an annnal vote. Tho bad political economy of the legialaton
of 1817 has left ni this legacy ot annnal deflcita. lAd thej
provided the bonnty at thoir own eiisnea initaad of that or
their dMnadanls, than woolJ Lata brMO littl* to bs aaid
BAVI-NGS BANKS
329
nio(fc(ol • boDia on thrift wm ctaundtj ■ecompuM bj
pmrMoiii to miA ^ainrt iU baing onad bj otharm thu Um
"ItMin It WW Citaidoil to «iM»ana«. Till* *» iloiu bj limltliig
tba iBoaDt tbit Mcb daposllar ibogM ba pamuttad to u; In.
!■ Ifaa ant tmtus*, In b^aiMl tba bmit «m fiisd *t £1D0 for
tba tnt TOT, tad £M ■ jmr tftamnU In 1831 tbw limita
wan nduail to £60 6a tbo 6nt yen, lESO • jtar an«n»nla, lud
4SO0 Id th* iriiols. Id 1S3§ the limit vu adoplnj whidh itill
nBaiBi in torn at UO t. jtn or £150 in th« wtiole, aUowed bf
■dilitiaD or Inlaiaat to iDcnua )» £S(Ki bat no (Urtbcr. AttimpU
h>TB beoo (nqoantlf mcdg to imba tba isniul limit to £50, Got
ban alinji bMU daleatod. Tbia ii to bo roeratUit, for the limit
M of donbtlbl ntOitj now that tba nta of Intanat bu boen K)
raJnoad ■• to pcarant loai to tbo aUta. It ia within tba common
•xpgrianco of ta'riDfa taoki Diuiagan that panoDi coma to depoait
— > BioasduwClO ajiJ ara diwppoilitad — ' — "— "— '
tluj cannot do ai
sk, maj Ji'mfii^«K tba mitchigf.
■r of uiawina to wbat ai
oacd bf tha Jaw fitr wUeh tba; wiro
Act of 1U3, panulttinit inTMtnant :
■■-'-'-'- tha mitchigf.
wbat ailsnt UTinsa baobj a
imbUAad br tbo joar IBfil, abowiofi (I
BJmd) tba nnmbar of dapoaiton belmuriag to Vuioiii accnwttani,
■Bd Uu UMBttt of tbalr J>poal^ ai Mlowa 1-
Not two pa orat of tha dapodla, thgnfota, altber in nnmbsr
ST vnannt, an mada hj daana whom It ma; b« auppsaed it wu
tba iDtantbn of tha lapaUtnra to aiclnde.
Wb«i t panon oomea with bia flnt depoait to a aavinga bank
ha ir nqmnd to aign a daclaration, astting tarth hit name,
lilfaaa, aiid oooopatian, that ha dealno to beaom* » depoaitor on
a depoaitni
Bia pwB ooooaat, and tbat ha haa no mooey in any other aarmga
bulk. If tbii dacUntion b« not tnu, ths dopoaita an liabls to
baforMtad i bat it ia to be foued tbat few depoaiton take ths
tcooblo to raid wb*t thqr are i£^in^ or think maeb aboat the
maaaiagodt If tba dap«itoT nntiot write, tha actuan of tbo
aaTin^ btak wiU naill; aak him a few qneationa, anch ai bia
an motbei'a ni^daa uma, fee, which may tend to identilr hinj,
or ifafatt u\j attampt to panouate him for the pnrpoao ol witb-
diawaL Tba amotmast tbat dapoaita an to b« foifaitKl it th*
doolantloB ba IoIm waa qaalified in I8SS br a prorikon tbat the
bttdtan abotild not ba anforced nnlosa in tba niiDioD of th*
■ppdotod bairiatat (now ths Mlicitor to tha tnaaoi?) tbo dapoaita
b»d baoB mada with a hndnlaat intention.
Tba oonaaqBanoo of tb* dalarmination bj ths aohdtor to the
bmmarf tbat tba depoaib bar* b*«n made with tbt " rrandolsnt "
intention wbiob tbo Aot contsmplata ia out of all pTopoition to
tbo natato ol tbo oflenos eommitted, baing in fact ths forfaitnn of
■11 tbo dapodtK Tbo Imbibition of donhls depwiU arose -wUa
tbo atato wia giutlng a rate of intereat greater than that which
it aainad upon tbo inTtstment of the monsj, and it be* now esaaad
to ban anj nal reason whaterer, the rats of intereat bung leaa
than cHlud. Tha Intention to "dernod" now maaoa msnly
tbo intsntion to srade a nstricbon that ba* ceaasJ to ba n "aij.
not u intantioo to deprira anvbody bf anything that belongi to
bim. If it be thought deainhle to auction br the inflietian of a
penalty tbe law that these inatitutiona ahonld be naed only for
tbo aaTinn of tba poorer daasea, the loaa of intsnat would ba a
BuBeiant if not an artraTagant psnaltr, without ftitfeitun of tba
prindpal. Indoed, the present aicsamra penalty baa, In dbs n>-
Biatbalilecaa^ drfaatedltaalf. This wM the caa* of a dnndlar
In an IHA nvinffi hank, who luTastad In BotHlona namsa tba anm
of tSMQ. Tba MlidUr to tbs tnaMrj (alt n>mptll«l to dadan
1 mails with a hauilolant intsntion. Ths
tha kw would I
Id not (Milt a wron|ilos[. Itut pu-lUuiant itaelf
, or halt the amonut VI tho forfciton, the legialatnn
thu proriding a rcmsdy far an iqjuaticB it bail ttHlf ooiumitlod.
Auothsf curious caw wu that of a TDuue woman, the dauj|btsr of
a poatniaator, who in ardor tbat hot uther might bs prorided
with funds to meet buaineaa claims u they became duo, purloined
mane; from bim and inroated it in Mm name* in the poet oSloe
aariugi bank kept at bii houaa. In tbia case, tba poatmular bim-
aoU not being the ^ilty party, no forfeiture took place.
Among the benehts oonfcrrad br the legialatun uinu ilapodton
in savinga banlu haa been that dE eranniuon from the iuriadlctiuu
of th« onliniry courts of law in casoa of disputo with tbo truartan.
onliniry
By the Acts of 1817 dispi
Bythi- - " " -" '
inn bonks (thsn ai
ittTwaa made Bni[ii
disputo *:
na nn [u be sotCled by u-bitnUon.
Bppoiutod to cartity tKa tuioe of tbo
il bis death bl 1870 Vr Johu Tldd
Mas of dilleronoa of opinion between
ue aruimuin. ny tbat of lB4i Hia arbitnton wan abolished,
and au original and Bnal larisdlotioa was eontsmd upon the
haniater. By an Act of 1S7S A» fsnotionB of tbe barrialor in tbia
narpoet wan ooufensd upon tba nciatnr of IHendly socieUoa
Tbi* In eOect makes no change in tlie law, fcr tbo ofioea of barristor
and nglatiar baTS been always held by the same psnona. Aa early
■a IS31 it wu ibtormined in the case of Criap •. flir Hanry
Biuib<U7 that tbe affect ol tbsao enaotmenta is to oust tbe jnila-
diction of all tbe luperior eouita of law and equity, and tbo awioc-
i^ of tbat decision hu naver boon shaken or sTen doubted.
Sinoa 1878 tha r^iatrar of friendly aocietica haa mada U7
awarda in casss of dlaputea Vitb laTlDgs bauk^ in addlKon to 18B
en diaputea with the post olBea *>Tii^ bank. As tba wiitsr of
tb* tniaeDt aiticis is ons of ths two nnoa* in wbom IU* juriadk-
tion i* Tiatad for Englaod, ba hopsa be may be s^ensed Ibr aipraa-
ing ths ofdalon tbat its eieceias baa bsss higbly banalraal to
dtpositora in tsTinp bank*. Tbo oooti of tb* award an limited
by tnaaon wanaat to a (aw abilUng^ never aioediu £1. Tba
prooedDnis rinpk and alaitic^ and th* rsM^ti an batCarsd to b*
satia&oloiy. Tbs oenltal dBee, acting a* nktnr, daterminea
law and lut, and adioMiall tbs aqnitia* of aacfa oaa*. " '
ei to th - ^- -
'*port for
that many interesting qosatic
with regud to so small a m
bank dopout
lo ba AatannioMl
IT aa tba awnaodilp of a Mvinp
uon is mad* b; tbo ^Tinga Bank Act in taToor ol bia raUtiTea,
u whom tbe solidtor to tbe treaanry may aafaid bis dsposita. It
is open to any depoajtor to nominat* a person to wbom tbo amount
dus to him st his dsatb sball bs pajnibla^ prarided it doea not
eicsBd £100 and th* nomina* is not an offlor or ■•rrant of tba
bank, nnlem indeed aoeb oSoer or asmnt la niated to tbs
dDpoaitor. This privileas, dsrirad from th* Pnrldait Homina-
tiana and Smill Inteataciaa Aot paaMd in 18W, fa not yet
BOfficisntly known to tbs balk af dapoailots, and baa not been vsd
to any Urge aitsnt, but may ba oipaoted in time to beoome very
Tsloable. It ia an aitanrfoa af a plrileg* eqjoytd by mombtn of
friendly aiKiaCia dnco 18iG, aod also b; indoitrial nd fMtident
A painfid cbipter in tbe Ustory of MTinga banki b tbat
00GD{ded by tha Inudi of actuarita, which baTs caoaed lonaa to
depaaitora of not lesa than £150,000. It too oftn happen* tbat
where tha only auperriaion ia that of bonorair oBWHi, a paid
aerrant may commit Enuda nncbaoked orar a kng period of ttmo.
In the eaae of a Hnnn bank at Boobdala, £71,711 waa stolen by
tb* Bctnaiy, and <C37,43t of tbia loss had to bo honw V tM
depoaiton. In one at DnUin tbe loaa waa £68,000, and in on* at
Tnl** £36,000. Tbm» nnhappj ovsnia nuat kaTO snatlr dia-
eounged th* poor, and cbeakad tb* prograa* of Mnngs banka.
Than b, howerar, tba companaatinir (act Aat tbo aVTUgi mads
by th* paopl* of Bochdals ainos lUB, wh*n the M*lnf^ bank
tbsre waa doasd, have takso th* mora bToonbls dllsotion el
pnmatiDa tba gnat oo-opantiT* (nt*ipriaaa of that town. Savina
banka, nlnable and important •* thair benaSts m, an still anly
elementaiy teadian ol proridaaoe, and It is w«ll Ibr th* workman to
Isam not nursly to aaTamonsy but to employ bis MTings to r'~~~
tags. Tbs Btiiagant Is^alation a* to aofit ol ISU ba* dimi
fnuds on nringi bank^ and tb*r an now nnl* haaid «C*
In conn*riM> with aarii^ buik% and aa aoziUari** to Hum, an
penny banka. An ofdinaiy sannp bank will not aooapt s dtporit
> Mee ihasber* WIS nWiBibetkslmaatfbaBdirflHartBUlH kite
CB«aaatWkanktasMHBi)ees. ^
SAVINGS BANKS
on ■ocanut of tha axpoiue
Qg Munuamont. it mini vt uto oooair^d to J^ (;ha]DieH tf>
MppUnitDt tha woik ol Use SMnbatfii OM SaTlDsi Suk by
aindilLihiiig In ■ Tree Cliuich BODprafptlnii In E-Linbnrgh i bank,
muu^Hl antinlr bf TolmiUnr tgsaey, in vhich ■ de;<oeIt of Id.
or Bd., or uj pam not eiueJjnjc IOl. wiiuld bo reuind. Wlien
Qmi dtpoalt imoimlal lo £1, thi o»uer vu mjositsd to tnnafer
it to tb> laTluKi bunk, uil the tunili mn luinteil vlth tha
MTinabank to tba utaDtor£10a.> jmv (v£300 in the vliolg.
, BSnikrbuki.calM'InTUariUMviiiRiUoki,'' venutmbliiibeJ
In otbu mmgnffMinim. An organiation oF jiodd; lumk* bu
eiiatal in QlHgo fgi fiiiitjr no^ uid uiotbar bag bun let on
foot Is LtTarpool bf tin mMam of Ui T. konar If awton, tbs
abl* ututy of tha HTinp bank than On SOtb NoTamher 1B8G
then wan ITS nch bAoki open In LiTerponl, >lth 17,4B3
daKMiton. Wben ■ dapoalt rauba £1 it ia tmufenwl to tha
daporitor'i cndit In the LiTarpoot RaTiugg Bank, lb* (mounla
thai tnstfanad wan £ie,\Zi. md £S<32 renuinAl to Clia cndit of
dopodton in tbc penn; bauki. Tha tniuutioiu of tha yetr nom-
bnd Vn.tSa ud unaimted to £iZ,l»i. Fann^ bank! nqnln no
osctiScalBbom thengliEiuorotharla^oiEiuimtloii, bnClf they
dadn ts dapodt mora thu the limit aboTa mantlouad tlia per-
mi^on of to* HttloDal Debt Commiialonen mnrt fliat be obtained.
StTinn bauka tor Uw annT vera aatabliihad in 1813, and an
now iwnkted bj Aola of ParlWuit— U and 2S Tlot c 20 (ISES),
" d 27 _TicC. 0. la ^IMSJ, for^ttia Royal BaTJ widMsrioe. bV
otlMtt
t M (180
and ISandZO'Vlct. o.*t (IflSe). Into th(«, or indeed
Initae or poat office eaTio^ bank, seameD'a wagea may be paid
nndar aUotmant notoa by 4S and U Viet. o. 16, t 8 and neb. 1
(laSO). TIm amounta in Ilia hande nt the Katlonal Debt Commii-
■tonan balnnf^ng to dapoaiton in aarloga hanka of thaaa miona
-Tin I at asd Septambai leSG' wan i—
Total <Ug»,S»3
nMoanectad willi ttaa Oora:
. _• moat impOTtant of which
ToAAlia Fenny Bank and tha National Pauny Bank. Tba
iajiadliM ta tuaa laly ndaly on tba oharaoter of the panooi by
whom thay an mani^Bd, and In aoma Inatitntiona of tha kind
kaTa mat with larara dbiappointanant In oonaaqtiaius. Ai tbey
tha lUt^ thiw Inatilnti
nndar no reaponaibllitt to 1
nUma to parliament, and no tmatwortliT infstmatloa aa to
aitaat of tfaair opantlona oan be riren. '*
Th* lallwaj mmpaoiea, whjcn an print* oorporatiena am-
powand by apsdal Ante of Parliament, Iutb in aaTenl caaea
aTBUed th^maalna of thaaa Acta tc taks power for eatabliabing
MTinn bank* for tba beaeflt of their aairanta. Tha Uanchaitar,
ahaBeld, and linoolnaUn Ballway SaTinn Bank baa beaa utab-
lidwd SS yaui, and liai U43 depoaiton, whoaa acconnti aniauntad
OB Slat Manh ISSt to £US,SS3 i Ita traaaaotionB for the year were
—Mt,JOt d^nit^ £lt,TSS withdrawala, in nnmbv 26,606. Six
ottai nilwi^ oompaDlaa haTa anbmltted the ralaa of thair laTiiiEi
baoki to ua lantiliei of trlaadly aodatlta In pnnoanoa ot thatr
ptnte Aoli, and tha tfft^tt ol Chair annad tetania for the
Bapayinaa
.. £in,S4fl
.. C1I1,B»»
.. 8,m
Inoeaaa duili^ tba ywT
I(nnibaro(trunetlona(aBtimtlad) «1.631
Intanat otadited. £ai,<as
In addition. Are otbar Iraki h^l bMn artablidied by nflwsy
«ori>Banlai wttbont ledannoa to the n^atrar, and theae in 1676
■aorfrad £n,6(» di^oaiti and hKl «30 depoaiton. The total
deuiti In nilwn Mrlue baoki may tberabre be aatimatad at a
million et^ii^
BHUA (Wnate— Hm Olrtaen MTinsi banha b) the eolony of
TiotoiiaWd on tha U Dasamber ISBS a eajdtal ol £1,S7(^SG5.
In tbe Vowing jwi, boweTer, Hie witbdnwala axoeeded tha
dapoaHa, ntaaing tba dapoeila to Zl.rBS.IW. Tha nnmber of
dapoalter^bawewr, hie elaadllyhnWMid from M,18r in 1878 to
TlMMlniatt. Of tbaaSS,tW w«nnHaeaaBdtO,B60fcnia]ea;
1«U laieiftow bad balancai ow <S00, amonnUng to £407,031.
Tba tnnaactlona <rf Um ycat 1S8S wers-dapaaie^ £l,8Gr,67S)
wlthdnwala^ <ei,no,t7t. The dapodti in the tnat offin KTinsi
1— 1_ -"■-^'laalaanadMdllufrhl^iwtamaaDtinlSgl.wben
In 1871
1B8S were— dBpo=itm£724,il__ .
tbe two olaaiei o( eavisRi baaln togetbei, tha numbor of depoaitore
on Slat December 18SS waa 136,1)38, th* amoont of c«[dta]
£2,818.122. and the avinge for each depoaitor £20, 14a. Tbe
nucibec or depoaiton pel oeot. of tbe population waa 10. Ilia
^- of intereat giTOn to dupoeitora ia 1 psr rant Tha Mrln^
InN
01 8 par cant of the population, and the depodte £!,805,SSS or
£42 per depoaitor, the tate of iiiteieat lieinf; 4 per cant, in tba
poat oCSce aavlnga bank and G and 6 per cent in othor banka.
In Qoeeoihuid the depoaiton wen 26,612 or 10 per cant, of tba
popalatloii, uut the depoaita £1,D86,A8B or £11 per depoaitor, tba
nUa of intaraat being 4 stid G per cent.
In South Aiutnlla the dcixHiton were 48,388 or nearly 16 par
cent, of the populetlon, aniT the denaaito£t,(00,!49 or £S1 par
dspoaitor, tbo nCe of intereat being 41 per cant
In WeaUm Aottnlia, on the 31et Ileomibar 1883, tb«n Van
1901 dapoiiton or 6 per cant of the popfOation, haTing £24,SB8
depoiita or £13 eacL
In Taamuila tha depoaiton in June 1883 wan 17,231 or 11 p«
eent. of the papulation, and thail depoaila £830,843 or £21 eacl^
the nts of intereat being 3i per cant, in the poatal bonk^ and
ir in the genonl aaringi bank.
- '---' -a e8,»B6 or 13 par cent, ct
The general Mlal for tha Atutnltan colonies ia 845,833 dt .
or 12 per cent of the popuUtion, and £10,801,140 dapcadt%
which ia £28 on tha alonge for each depoaitor.
In tbe Dominion of Canada, according to * paper read at tba
Hontnal meeting ot tha Britidi AsHKiition by Mr J. C. Stewart
the old aatobUabed aavingi banlie is tha citiei of Uontraal and
Qnebec have £3,000,000 (toiling, belonging to 42,217 detioaitiHa;
Om poat offlca aaTinga banka eatabliahal in IB63 hare £S,6t>0,000,
belonging to 36,682 depoaiton ; and the chattond banka alao
Taoeive deporita on tba aavinp bank ayBtam,
Ukilid S(aA». --According to the report for 18S4 of Kr Henry V.
Cannon, compttollerof tha currency, tbenwan on the SOthNorambtr
1382 in the United Slatea ot America forty-two saTingi banka, witb
capital smooating to £800,000 [tG-£l) and having £8,700,000
depoaila, anil 626 Hvingi banka withoot capiU! haring £182,000,000
depodta. Id the aii yean 1376-63 the number of aannga banka
with capital had iiicreaaed from twenty-six to forty-two, bat their
capital bad dimlulibad 30 per cent, while their depcaita had
increased 16 per cent On the other hand, tha nnmber ot aaviu^
banks witbcut capital had diminiabed from 691 to 62ti, Int their
depoaila had increased 11 per cent Of the aggregate depoaiti, tha
432 aaTinga banka In tha Kev England States hold £87,500,000,
the 170 in tha Middle Statee £98,G00,00a, tha 9 In the aonthan
Btataa £««0,000, and the C7 in the Weatom States and Territorlea
£14,000,000. In Iha latter two gionps the banka witb and with-
oat capital are nearly eooal in ntunbat and In tha amount (I
dapoaita ; in the fonner two groopa bank* with capital an tba
exception, being only one in siitr of the whole.
SaTinn banks in the United Statea dilTar IVom thoaa in the
Unitod Kingdom b the manner in which their fonds an iuTStsd,
not being hmited U Qoreronient Honritles. Thua, of tha lOO
milliona aterltng of depoaila only 16 millions waa bmatsd in
United SUtea t>ond<, lii.. New England, £6,900,000 ; Uiddl*
States, £Sfi,eOO,000 ; Vstam Blatea, £400,000 ; Facifio Btataa ind
Teiritoriaa, £8,900,000.
A stalaiiient of tha s^igi^iale reaoorcei and liabilidea at tSt
KTingi bai^ in 1831 (£383,000,000) is foiniahed, ahowinj i— y.
TJndiTid«lpraflta. 1,000,000
Other liabiUtiea 1,400,000
Prorided for aa bllowa ; — "v
Loans on real esUta. , T>,DOO,OM
Idans on panonsland ootlataiil aaoorl^ tt,000,000
United Stotaa bonds 10,000,000
State, mDoidnl, and otbar bonds and Btoi^ 44,000,000
BaUmad bonds and atocks. 10,000,000
Bank stock _ ...,. &000,0«0
Real aatato 7,000,000
Other assets li,OQO,«00
Dne flmn banks.. 11,000,000
Oaab a,OOthO00
Acooiding to tha report ot tha samptrollsr ba ]SBt {wbiBb W
reachad ns aiuee the abora was writtsn) the dniaalti bare in-
loring tlM jtai to £310,000,000^ Bd &» Mai Ipab t*
onasad^orins f
S A V— S A V
831
1b ■•* Sngttitd tba dcpodlon nnmlw U <■ maj IC
M..
Dqoriun.
tlmfDt^
*™k»-
104,000
1S1,DOO
89.000
eM.000
110,000
MS. 000
I.1M.0OO
87.000
78|000
7000
SC,000
B.000
13,000
ei,ooo
£6,500.000
a.700,000
alaoolooo
sa, 600,000
10,«».000
18.100.000
87.«00,000
1.800,000
7,000.000
8,700.000
100,000
8,600,000
*0O,000
600,000
11,700,000
^•2
7a
BT
•s
71
75
66
n
7»
«a
18
6S
113
DfatriBtofCalnnbU...
1,071.1)00
118,400,000
n
BrmX—ThK mtiagt buik* ti Ab uapin of Bnd htva 1»n
intda iwtnniiaila In the mdiul uctinrtinn of iliTarj in that
ewmlry. Sine* ISTl euh im li mlloired MTtsin honit ■ mak to
Ubonr for bla own banifit, and when hi* aunin^ depoalM ia the
WTingl bulk unDont to ■ tiTeo aDm Lfaa nmuiiJer uf the pii»
of hii enundpatloD U proTiJed bjr tb« *laU out of pablic fund*.
na ahildRD oriUTO inothan, who lince 1871 hiTe b«n tMm free,
■n iln «D<»ang*d Ici pUc* their Mniiugi ia ichool Mniagi banln.
Bj ■ law used on the 14th Augiiat 1SB6. immedUle eniruchiie-
nwDt at tM mat of the itkte ii conferml upon lU'ei smplojHl in
■ffrienltnnl actahliahmeDli, upon coodition of their remaiaing
with tbt maatar at Hisd ngfa for tn yaan and paying half the
■mgm into the aannga bank towardi npajmeat of the price paid
Uk their fnadom.
Omtiiuiit qf Barvpt. — In aertial of the etmatiiea af Eunpa
UTina hanki haTo haan catahliahed and tra flonrialiiTig. la
Ptnada tlw Bnt iB>inga bulk wia foasdad bf tha mnnicipalit;
at Batlin is 1828. Is 18S8 Ihej wan takan antln tha nparriiioii
of the OoTarnraait. Tbdr formatlait hi* beeo moch aided hjr an
•aaociatian calUd the "Cantnl UntoD" for the good of the
IndnatrioBi claw. A piat nriatr of inTaatmenti la peniittt«l.
In 1874 than wan Vti baaka, baring 1,060.000 depoaiton and
«4B,Sie,a00 of deponta, being > little orei £1 per he^ of the
pvpolition. Beaidea aarlngi banka, there an Ihs credit banki
-— "' " d br tha lale Herr SebnlH-Delitneh, which perfom a
L of tha depodta at
In tiaot li par
dabt, on which Intereat
but the aaringi bank* ... _ , , __ ,
inratad In mortgage* and 2 per cant on mnnicipal aecnritiea.
Poat oBce aaringa banki also eriet The arsnge iniaunt of
aaoh dapoait account i* imlller than in England, 70 per cent, of
lb* depoiiti being under £20 ai agiinit 61 par cent. The follow-
Eatad ia the pnhllo
at ia guaranteed,
1 10 pel
IngitalementahDwathe
their Brat regoIatlonhT
i^rfTTssf
•aritig* UnJu in Franca ainca
IMa.
ss
■ssi
"%
lU Dae. 1840
„ 1860
„ 18«0
„ 1870
„ 1878
4*0
640
«t8
SCI, 80S
Ee6,»6
i,iis,in
1,070,141
8.178.711
s
>
E
t
7.606,10)
6,6;3i7»8
16,064,184
86,180,000
40,fl*B.*e«
S 8
ei"o
if 1870 Olaj had
The depoaiton now nambarneatlr flra milllona. aaringa tianka
waragreatlraOectad bytha Barolotian otlg48 and liy the Franeo-
OoinaB Tar. Ptariou to the farmer erent, the dapoaila bad'riaa)
on Slat Dfcember 1841 to £16,822,184, Uling on *'-*
1S4> u low at £<,MG,Ktt. In Oie aarW part of
ilnn to £18,800,000 or Ili. htr erarr indhidul of tha porailatior
n* wpantion of Alaaoa and Lonains radnoad the daporita.
PoMal MTbui bank* wen artabliihad in 1876, bat onlj la
anzillaitaa of the oidinatr •aringi bank* ; aehool aaringa bank*,
Mainlj throng tha anUghlanad uartiDnB of M. da Haluca, wen
ccmnwBBadiB 1874. Tn*** an now astabliahed in 18,111 tduxda.
Wn 488.074 dapoaitDn ud £461.401 deponta, A nitiaiial
poatal Mtiniv bank wo Inatltaled on «h Aplll 18SI, and wm
extMidad to Conlca on lit Uarch 1S81 and to Algeria and Tnnl*
rrom m AiAil 1884. On 't\<«. Decembar IIBS it had alnadi
874,970 depoalton ud £8,097,200 depaaJO. Th* Faria aaringa
hank bad on S1A I>eoamber 1881 440,738 depoalton and
£8,613,483 dipoalta.
Id Italy, et the end of 1871, 181 nrlngi banki wan in aiiitencii,
of which 142 were principal banka and the reat branchea. With
two axHptioaa, all are nuuuged without profit to th* luomoten
or goannton. In 1826 there were 11 MTinga banka In which
£108.000 had bMn depoaitad ; in I860 Ihf depoaita amonnled
to £1,000,000. and ill 1872 to £17,860.000, belonging to 678,327
dapoailota.
mortgage. 10 per c(
obligatiDO* of local
fundi, 21
only in the public debt, 11 per cent, iu
local aathohlie*, II par cent lu ahirea and bond*
■1 cDuijjuun, 18 per ant. in billa of eicbinga, 16 per cant, in
loans on public fundi aod comtnerciai ■ocaritiiv, 11 par cant, lu
enrnint icooanta, and 4 per cent, otharwiie. The ireraga nte of
IntarMt allowed to depcaatora ii 4| per cent. The tnniactiani of
tha year were— dopoafti £7 911,000, withdrawal* £6,614,000. Tho
■jrttem of achool aaringa banka hai been adapted in many coeb-
mnnea. In addition, depodta an mad* In popular biiuki aatd
other ntablbbinenta of credit, and poet oOce aaringa bank* hare
alao been crtabllahed.
In Denmark Bringa banka are prirat* inititDtlon^ bnt mutt
not be managed for profit, nor tnreat in foreign tecuritiea ; and
thef are required to make annual return* to Qovcmouut In
1S60 the aDiouut of depouta *a* £3.221.000; by 1S71 it had
Increaaed (o £8,661,061, and by Slat Uarch 1S81 to £12,707.621.
Th* •aringi bank* bav* incteaied in number during the ten yean
fVom 188 to 446, and th* depoeiton from £86,901 to 492,208.
Twinty-ili banka hare more than £100,000 depoiit*. The oldeit
and Urgeat Ig that of Copenhagen. eiUbliahed let Uay 1S20,
baring £1,320.892 dopoaited, which baa increaaed from £»3!>,B74
in th* ten yare. Th* number of depoaitora hia incmued from
one in *ii to one in four of the population, and tho depoaita from
<3, lie. ed. to £8, Oa. per head of the population. The tiaiiiec-
tioniofthaygar ending SlttHanh 1881 were— depont* £8,141,827;
withdrawala £6,702,470. Of the depoait accounlL 74 per ctnt.
an uniler £23 and IS per cent, abore £23 and under £48. On*
half of the fund* an Invated ou mortgage. The raerva fund* of
the bank* hid incnaanl in ten yoan from £216,829 to £666,607.
Tbefoltowiiui ue atatiatica of aaringa bank* in other European
coontriea ai publiafaed by the Italian Oorernmeiit a Fewyunago: —
CeaaliT.
PDFBMka.
y
■iWSi?.
Belgium (1674)
t.SB«,OO0
10
IB&OOO
LcithaapRjiincei
Hungary <1873)....
16.417.000
Sa)ony(lB72)
1,886,000
617,000
■;
667.000
81
91,000
1,071.000
Hainbuiv(1874)....
136,000
4
48,000
62,000
Ba.aria (1869)-
4,'82t.000
279,000
Wllrt«nberg[lB741
1.818,000
1.766,000
41,000
188.000
Holland (1872)
S.670,000
90.000
8»eden[1873)
4,297.000
6,086,000
1.760,000
6,201,000
2,669,000
S12
641,000
11,681,000
Bnana {1871) (car-
sr'r'""
788,000
nDland(1871]
i;8S8;000
DO
18,000
818,000
126,881,000
2378
4,169,000
123,918,000
It. d* Halarcr haa obtained for th* iMioiMa^ im fHfuaaa
■one mon recent atatiitica, th* detaila of which hare not yet
reached u*. but from information be haa be^n as good a* to oom-
manieata wa infar an Increa** ia dopodt* diJting u* lart 10 yean
In twelie Enropean atitei of £113,000,000,— making the aggngata
of aaringa bank depoaita for all oonntrica, ai far ai aacartained,
£716,000.000, (K, W. B.)
BAVOIBL & deportment of aontli-watern France, formed
la 1860 ofltlie dutricta of Upper Savoy, Savoy proper,
Tueotaise, and Hanrienne, which formed the aoDtheni
part of the ptoviiice of Bavcj tb the kingdom of Sardinia.
332
A V O I E
B (0* S' and 40* W N. hL and between
B* 97' ■nd 7* V E. kn^, it la bounded K by the depart-
HMnt of HMitfrSBToie. N.W. by AJu, W. b; la^ RL bj
HMitea-AlpM, and B.E. and £. b; Piedmont (Italy), the
limila for the moEt part comdatiag of ridgea of Che AJpa,
and OB tka K.W. being determined by the Rhone and its
afflaentB the Fier and the Quisr. The highest point in
the Tanona gronp of monDtaina ia 12,668 feet above the
•ca, while iba Rhone leavBa the department at a hmght of
096 feet, and the Isire about 800. Some details in n^nA
to the orography will be found under Alp8 (;.».). The
latea flowa eaat and west throngh the Tarentaioe valley by
Bonrg Bt HanricB, Hontiera, Albertville, and Mootm^n;
ita principal tributary the Arc flows along the Hanrienae
valley nied by the Mont Cenie Railway. The lake of
Bow^ dischargee into the Rhone by the Saviire* canaL
The dimate of ttie department vsriea accordiog to altitude
and azpoaure. At Chamb£i7 and Aiz-lea-Baiiu the average
tampetatare ia a little lower than that of Faria, bat ^le
rainfall ii about 65 iochea per annum, and this amonnt
goea oo increaaing aa the higher regioiw are reached.
With a totd ins of l,423,£Iil iuk«, Bkroy corDpriM VH.Kl
Km of ancultintsd grannd, SSB.roO *cm of inble, 305,106 In
tmmVi, 173,980 in nig4dowi, 27,183 in Tinejinli. Hon thu th«
Ult of tlia inlubiCanti (1B4,70« oat of 2Se,lS3) tn eT,gtgei in
«((ricaltare. In 1881 then ■*« in the ilBiartmout 97,487 eowi,
ig,»S8 oicn, 3670 hdn«, S160 MHg, 4W malea, 98,829 ihHp,
(4(1 ttHMorwool), 19,423 pig9,26,[l37 gonb. Abont 1,87(1,000,000
fpUlou of milk an produred nod 24flg torn of bntt«r i>nd 6911
loni of ch«« in nunuIuCund. of (total nine of £600,000. Pram
th» 19,«>0 be«lllT» von oblained in 1381 87 toni of honej- ud
ISof ni. Tbflgnpe ripeoH up tn an kllitude orsflSS fe«t, uid ia
mltiTited to m ddOide of 8940. SoTcnl groirtha of EUroy an in
gn«t ropole and the Tineyinln wb« (before Iho innaion of the
riiylloian) ona of the most important prodncta of th> depurtmrat,
Tobauco ia alao onlCiTated. In 1383 the cropa compriaad wheat,
404 896 buahsla ; mcalin, 104,600 ; rye, 879,e83 i barley, 211,881 {
bnt^-haat, a0,«41 ; m*i», 216,246 ; oata, 722,0«7 ; potatoei,
1,S44,B0S ; palae, 64,120 ; oheitnnta, 72,086 ; beetriMt, 14,640 tool ;
tobaooo, SH tona ; hamp, 686 tooi ; coln.H«d, 284 tolM ; hemp.
M>d, 196 tona ; wine, 8,896,496 giUon.! (autmal aTsnwe 4,128,1:20
^DM); ddar, 187,268 nlloni (aTerag^ 09,068 galToDa). Kot-
withatanding deplorablg dwsDCOa, Savor lUll poaaeiwa conilder-
abla vooda ot pine, lanh, boeoh, kc. The ctalnut, of which the
Onaat ipaclnienB atv In the nefghtionrhood of Ali.lea.Baina, grova,
u do alao the walnut and buel, Xo a height of 8600 feet the
oak to MWO, tha elm and Ibe aeh to 4260, the fir to 4900, and the
pine to 7200. The department routaini one of the rickert depo*iU
«( ntbio inn in Enrope. and the Creneot Cma-^tij emplo^ 7O0
handa in working iC Aisentiferona lead and {upper liaTa aleo
bMD oocMtoaall; worked. The kUorieDne and the Tuintaiae are
rtdi In anthracite, and yielded in 1883 10,687 tona of fueL Fst
eoTan 1418 aona, with a tUcknes Tarying from 8 inehai to 8 feat,
aad tbw* an rich bedi of diffeitnt kinda of marble, flftj.two
goantea oF building atone, and ijnarriaa of limtatone, plaetnr,
MnMnt, and alale, la will aa deponta of blank leait. Jet, aabaatoa,
talt^ mid, oobn, nilphaEa of nryta, tine, antimnny, aneDlc,
Bwnganeae, Utaniam, aalphar. The department la putloalarly
' riab in mineral watera, and the moat femani, thnae of Aix.len-
Balai (hot Bnlpbarona) wen freqnented in the time of the Bomana.
The waten at Harlioa in the ntigbtionrhood an aulphuniiu or
alkaline (Iodine, brominel. Thoae of Ctanllea near Chamb^ rank
among tjw ntoat ponerfnl of the natural lulpliuninB watera. The
Baliua-HoatJen watera iu the Taniitaiae are hot, aaline, and rich
tavailoaaBilnaialB ; the hot eprinp nf Hriilia.lm.Baina ia the game
Mgtoa ai* rich in tli* anlphatea of loda and calcium. Bilk ia the
' " ob^t of industry in the department (81 tone '
1S8S).
■ilk (3600
- , - idiog of I , , „
' tofalln ' and >q;indlei<), and the Hearing of tha lilk.lahria (808
louma, tS being hand-looma) emploj more than 1700 workmen,
and the giioda lumnfutured are valued it £380,000. Chamber;
liotne.groi
188 1 17S t
iri'iiu othe
wuollea manafiactnre* II
116,000 yarda ol
iploy 400
illea. The inaiauta uiann-
... , woollen itoffa from their
The bisat furDacea and irea-worka prodnoed in
of mannfaotnred " ""
. naper-mUle, l>«p4r-
pnlp fiinturiea, brlck.worka, aaw.niilla, tlour.milU, fco., an all ol
■uma icnnortano* in the deptrtmant, which eouuta altogether ^ity-
<iue aatabliahUHUta with atewn^uglnH of (agcriMte) 971 aaraa
powir. Tha namlMT of ipliaUtanta aspdail in uiuiinrial pmotk
bnildiog matniala, mloaral w
er are npsitnL There a:
m of otbar naita, and 16C
waa 208.418 in 1881. The dapanmaat form
Chamb^ (aanhbiahoprie), Hniieia. and 81 jMB'te-UnrlaoDa :
*'-- court of a{ipaal and uniTandcy aoademy an at ChuHbiiry, and
i__ , . .. t. .. ^^^ jj balooga (tta
the headqnarten of tha
14th)anataixmob]e. There'are fonr i
(18,000 inhabitant* in tha towsX Alhertrille (6000), HoDtten
(3000), flt Jeao^tle-Uanrienne (300U1,— 29 caotona, and 829 eom-
mnnca. Aii-len-Haioa (4741), owli^ to Ita hot apingi, ia tke moat
important plaoa in ihi dtpartmeuL
SAVOIE, Hautx., a frontier department nt Fnaee,
formed in I860 from the old provinoea of Qenavoia,
Chablaia, and Faneigny, which conatitnled the northom
half of the dnchy of Savoy in the kingdom of Sardinak
Sitoated between 40" 40' and -16° 26' S. Ut. and betweeo
G° SO' and 7° 3' E. long., it a bounded N. by the I^ke of
Geneva, £. by the Talaii canton, S.E. by the dachy of
Aoata (Italy), S. and 8.W. .by the department of Savoic^
W. by &e department of Ain. from which it iii oeparatad
by the Rhone, and N.W. by the canton of QaneviL
Almost everywhere except in tha laat directioa tha
boDudariea are naturoL Tka greater portion of tHb dejiart-
ment is oooupied by monntaimi mnially nnder 8000 feet in
height; but, it inctudea Mont Blano (lfi,781 feet), whUe
the cooflaence of the Fier with the Rhone ia only 9S0 feet
above the tea. Hie streams are torrential, and they dl
jmn the Rhone either directly or by the Lake ctf Oenava
or the Iiire. Hoet important is the Arve which crooea
the departraent from soath^east k> north-weat from tiaaX
Blanc to Oeoeva by Chamonii, flallanchea, and BoniMvill^
receiving from the right the Oifire and from the left the
Borne. ISie Dtanse falls into the Lake of OMteta
between Eviao and Hiodod. Direct tribntariea of the
Rhone are the Uaae* and the Fier, the outflow of the
Lake of Anneoy. Paaaiog Htoive, to the aontli-weat ■at
Chamonix, tha Ariy goea to the laire. A remarkaUa
variety of climate is prodnced by the diflereDoea of
altitude and ezpoaore ; it is roildeat on the banka of tba
lAke of Geneva- Annecy has a modeiato tonpwatnnv
lower than that of Vvw ; but aome parte of the aborea of
the lake, well aheltered and having a good ezpomre^ fom
health reaorta even in winter. The rainfall on the Late
of Geneva hardly exeeeda 34 tndiea ; it ia three timea M
heavy in the monntaina.
or the total atM of I,0«6,IS9 acTH 145,969 aona an anbls,
214,990 woodUnd, IS2,90« nnenltirslad, 96,880 paatnnge, Bl.tM
meadowB, 21,262 vineyarda. Tha live atock b 1880 eoni^iaaJ
9774 honai, 98,171 con or helteta, 11,371 ealna, 18,789 pin
16,681 nata, 88,000 aheap {wool-elip 41 bini), 11,626 hivea (104
ton* of noner, 88 of wan). Cheese ia rvodacad to the vatan of
£220,000, and Imttat to £181,000. The harraat in 188S Imlndad
—wheat, 1,472,881 boehela ; mwilin, 194,610; rye, 190,601. For
1880 the ntuma wm— barley, 138,048 boahali ; bodtwheat
88,178; nalie, 10,918 ; oata, 793,731 ; potatoea, S,7S0,800; pnli^
42,607; ohtMnnls, ««,4«3', beridaa baatrmt, bemp. Sax, isd eola.
In 1881 the vintan waa 8,331,884 gallons, tha aver^ bt ISTt-
1S82 being >,1W,I70, and ehlar waa prodaead to be SBoaat ot
767,911 gailona (aTong* 74X808). Totuca la anoowtall* gion
' ' -'**-- department (llniiuIljX Thoogh nnicJi of tio '
a part 'of the department (ili>''ullj)> Thooob mncli <rftM '
a been cut down, Haata-Sarole atlll eoutalaa Una pine Ibreats
' 'itnda, and flr, lareh, aad beaoh wooda bd««
the elm and aah being 4160, aad that of the
below 71O0 feet of
6000 feet, the limit _.._„
oak 4000. Splendid wainnta aiut ehoatnnu an to be fiinnd
high Dp aa 1960 feet and haaabaa high aaSSUO. ArgMttterooa l«d
ona and cooper, iruD. and manprneaa ona eiiat, but an not maoh
worked About 1000 Imm of anthradt* and ligaita wai« taiaed la
1882, ■• — " • ' * "■-
ifAmpUuaudKTiaa, obalyba
t Oerraie at the foot of Uont SlaniL hot, anlphnrons, andi olialy-
beate;lleiithon, anlphnrona; UOallla^ hut, mlplinTon*^ Oottoa
iniad OB at Anneoy, wUn one eatablkhmant baa
10,D0a ^iudlea, WO pmrai-loaina, aad ISO hasd-bKO^ mi^iBjH
8 A V — S AT
333
no veAm. ■(»• UA-IM or «0a,OM jud*
wsra tkna^aat flw daputomt ij ioom S
va)l.«|ilBBiag aad VDoI ■"■'■*"•'■■** in tl«D M
«f dik itnflk an
, ^ _ Ib the
Ina iBdwby im tou of ant-lcoB ud IBM Um at vullabls
ina van Btao&dtmd in lUl. Cloek-naUBft tu^t ia tvo
■Mchl Khwibk •nplon SOOO bwda TuuMriM, "'-
tOB-voA^ aul flow-Bull on auMmu Abont two-
aatau hm tb* «1nnU(> et btlonging to tho iwaPd
*tUi tk* UMptioB of pewdw and tobaooo. Coal, ootton, mauU
aod pca*iiiou an Importad ; BhHB, «tUa, ttmbar, leatlur,
■q^Adt, building rtona, ud caUeo u* aintfid. Tha siUduI
roHk nska a taUl at IBB miloi, otbu read) SISO mllos and tb«
nilwan— ADDOcr to Aix-lta- Balm and to Aniwman*, on tlia Una
finm Bsll^anla to Krian— M miUa. Tith It* 174,087 inhabituU
(IBBl), who all apiak Fnoab and an almoat aiduiTal; Bamu
> Catbolio, Hanto-SaToli ii ob); about ona-Untb bolov tha araaga
dsaaitr of rnnn^ It formi tba diooaaa of AaHOjr; tha oonii
of appeal and tha nalnnltjr acadanj an at ChambirT, and
tha departiiMDt i* lasladed in tba Itth eorpa d'aimia diatiict
(OnnoGle). Tlian an 4 amndiaeaBieDt*— Annaor (papoUIioi) of
town 11,000), Bonnarllli (3270), Bt Julian (ItOO), and TbnnoD
(H«],— 38 eantoDi, and tU ooBunona.
SAVONA, 1 dij of ItiJj, in tha proTiiKS of Oenok,
25| milaa wMt of Uud town, aod 91 miles aonth of Turin
bf rail, ia after G«ncM aod Nice the moat important of too
uttea of the Rinera. The greatar part of tha town ii nov
modern, oonaiatiog of handaome gardena, bonierarda, and
well-paTed broad itreeta lined with maaaiva arcadee and
anbatential honaea, boill in eoormona aqnara blocks from
foor to Bra atoriaa high. It ia anrroDnded with greeo-cUd
hilla and Inxoriant (»ang« grotret. On the Rock of St
Qaorge atauda tha eaatle built bj thajQanoaaaio 1512, now
lued aa a militai? priaon. The cathedial (1S89-1601) ia
a lata Ranaiaaance building with a dome of modern eon-
atractioD. In tha Oappella Siatina atands the magnificant
tomb aracted bj SiAna IV. to hia parenta. Facing the
cathedral is the Delia Rovere palaca erected hj Cardinal
Oinlio della RoTeie (Jolioa IL) aa a kind of nniTarai^,
and DOW ooenpied by the prefaetora, tha poetofflca, and
tha eonrta. Ban Domanico (w Giovanni Batdata) bnilt
bj the Dominican!, oocnpiea the site of the vary andent
^ttreh of SanV Antonio Abate. Sereral of the chnrchaa
have paintings of aome merit, and there ia a mtmidpal
piotom-gallaiT aampjing part ot the axtenaiTa bnildinga
of tha dril hoapital of St FanL The Teatro Chiabraia,
eractad in 1SS3 in hoaoar of the lyrie poet CAiafaraia, who
waa bom in Savona, and ia baried them ia the ebnreh of
San Giaoomo^ haa ita fa9ade adorned with atatuaa of
Alfieri, Goldoni, Hetaitaiio, aodRoarinL The town-honae
Sith tha pnblie libraij foonded by Uie biahop of Savona,
aria di Hari, in UIO), the epiaoopal palace, and the
barbonr town snnncnDted by a coloaaal figore of the
Tti^ also deaerre mention. Aa early aa the 13th
centoiy, tha SaTonaaa bnilt themselvea a sufficient
hartMur ; bnt in the 16th ceotniy their rivals the Oenoeae,
fearing that Franda L of Fianca intended to make it a
' great seat of Meditanaoean trade, rendered it naeleaa bj
einkiag at its month veaaala flUed with large stones. The
modem harbour, dating from 1819, has unoa 1880 been
provided with a dock excavated In tha nek, B66 feet long
460 wide and 33 feat deep ; and other eztenaiona an in
prograaa. In 1S84 1013 veaaeU (919,463 tons) entered
and S88 (316,SS? tons) cleared— the steamers being
respectively 398 (373,337 tons) and 394 (270,953). The
opening of the railway to Bra (1678) at once gave Savona
an advantage orer Genoa as a port for mppljiog Tnrin
and Hedmont A large import trade has since grown op,
especMtUy in eoala (300,000 tana from Great Britain and
France), which can be loaded directly from the ahip into
the trneka. The experts are confined to the prodncta of
the local indnsbies, fruit, boop^tavea, ias. Tht potteries
wUeh have been limg established at BaToaa export their
aarfbaawan to all parta of Italy; and then are glaaa-
wki, aoap-we
1 North Italy. Shipboiiding U i
tlie largeat inM-foandriea
is also carried mi. Hie
popolation of the commune, which indndea tha anbnrba
of Fornad, Lavagnola, Legino and Zinola, and San
Bemudo, was 19,611 in 1861 and 39,614 in 18SI, that
of the ci^ at tha latter date being 19,130.
&TOU ta tha aato when, aonrdlng to Ury, Mtga atmd V»
bootr in tha Seeond Pasie War. In llVl it boubt up the tarri-
torid alijma of tha Hanjaiaaa Dal Canatta It* whole hiatoiy
ii that of a loog atngde apinat tha pnpoiwlwanaa et Qmum, In
17M It was Bptniad^ tba king of Sardia^ bat it wm miond
to Oaaoa b)i tha tnatj of Aii-la-Cbapalla. Colnmbna, wkoN
anceaton came tram Savoaa, sava tha nanu of tiia dij In oaa it
tba lliat island* ha disaoTeradTn tba WMt Indiaa
SAVONAROLA, GnoLUO (1 452-1498). The loU ttf
Italian great men oontaint few grander names than that
of Savonarola, and the career ot this patriot-priaai^ n-
former, and statesman is one of the strangest pages ct
Italy's history. Amid the splendid cormptiona of die
Italian Renauaance he was ue representative ot pnra
Christianity, the foonder and mler of an ideal Chriatiaa
republic, and, when vanquished by the power of Boms,
suffered martyrdom for the canse to whieh his life had
been dedicated. His doctrines have been tha theme of
interminable controversies and contradictory Jndgmeota.
He haa been alternately declareit a fanatio bent cm tha
revival ot mediaival barbarism and an enlightened pre-
onrsor of the reformation, a true Catholic {wophet and
martyr and a ahameles* impoator and beretio. It ia
enoogh to say here that his beat biographan and eritita
give aaUsfaetoty proofs that he was cbisfiy a reformtr of
morale, who, while boldly denonndng Papal corrnptioiiB,
preserved an entire belief in all the dogmas of the Bomaa
Catholic Church. \
Girolamo Savonarola waabMn at Ferrara Slat S«)tetnb«r
1462, the third child of tfidiele SavonaroU and his wifa
Elena Botiaccoad of Ifaotn^ Hit graodfather, Uidiela
Savonarola, a Padoan pbyiidan <rf mveh rejmta and
learning, had settled in Ferrara Bt the Invitatioa ot the
reigning marquis, Nicholas lEL of Est^ and guned a
lai^ fortune there. Hie yonnget Mm*«i<i waa a nam
courtier and spendthrift, but Elena BavoaaKda WKinil to
have been a woman ot saperior stamp.' She waa tended;
loved by her tamons son, and his lettata prove that aha
retained his fullest confidence throng all ue vidaaitodea
of his career.
Girobuno was a grave precodooi ehiU, widi an ei^
paaaioa for learning. He waa gnlded in hfa flrat ahidiM
by his wise old grandfather the phyddan ; and, in the hope
of restoring their fallen fortnM^ his parente intaidad
him far the Mme profeetioQ. Even aa a boy he had in-
tense pleasnre in reading St nomas Aqaiaaa aod tha
Arab oommentaton ot Ariatoth^ was skilled in the sabtla-
tiea ot tha schools, wrote rerse^ studied music and dsaifpi,
and, avoiding sodety, loved solitary ramblea on the baaha
of the Po. Qrase-growQ Fenata waa then a gay and
bustling town of 100,000 inhabitants, its prince Bom
d'Este a most magnificent potentate. To the mystic young
student all fostivitiee were repulsive, and althongh reared
in a ooartiBr-honsehold be early asserted his indiTidnality
by his CMitempt tot the pomp and glitter ot court £!&
At the age of nineteen, however, be had as yet no tbofi^t
of renouncing the world, for he -was then paMionately ia
love with the child of a friendly neighbour, a Stroin
exiled from Florence. His suit was repulsed with disdain ;
no Strozri, be waa told, might atoop to wed a Bavimartda.
Thia blow probably decided hia career, but he endured
two years of misery and mental confiict before resolving
to abandon his medical studiea and devote himself to
God's service. He was full of doubt and a
^igguit tot tha world did not M«n to him
334
lAVONAROLA
qiuJifiealioti lor the religioui life, nnd hia diulj prajer
WM, "Lordl toach me the way my «oul rfionld walk."
Bi* in 1*7* Ilia doobta were dUpelled by a sermon heard
Kl Fuenra, Mid his way wm dear. Dreading tho pain of
bidding fawwoll to his dear one?, he secretly stole away to
'Bologna, entered the monaatery of St Domenico and than
acquainted his father with hia reasons for the step. The
world's wiekedneas was intolerable, he wrota ; through-
out Italy he beheld vice triumphant, virtue despised.
Affioog the papers he had left behind at Ferrata waa a
tTMliae <Mi " Contempt of tho World," inTeighine against
the prerolent corraption and predicting the speedy
vengeance ot Heaven. His novitiate was marlted by a
fervour of humility. He sought the moot menial offices,
and did penance for bis sins by tlo severest aoateritiea.
According to contemporary writers he was worn to a
shadow.
Ail portraits of this eitmordinary man are at firat
Msht almost repulsively ugly, but writtou descriptions
tJl OS that his gaunt features were beautified by an
wtpression of wngnlar force and beoBTolence. Luminoua
dark eyes sparkled and Samed beneath bis thick, black
brows, and his large mouth and promioent nether lip
were at capable of gentle sweetness u of power and set
resolve. He was of middling stature, dork complaiion,
had a nervous system of siceediog delicacy and the
sanguineo-bilious temperament so often associated with
genius. His manners were simple, his speech unadorned
and almost homely. His splendid oratorical power was as
yet nnrevealed; but bis int«llectaat gifts iMing at onc«
recognised his superiors charged him with the instruction
(rf the Mvices, instead of the humbler tasks he had wished
to folfiL He {assed six quiet years in the ccmvent, bat
Us poems written during that period are expressive of
bamiog indignation against the increasing corruptions of
the chorob and profoundest aonow for the calamitiea of
his country.
In 1 482 ho celnctantly accepted a mission to Farrara, and,
regarding earthly aSections as snares oE^the evil one, tried
to keep aloof from his family. His preachings attracted
■light attention there, no one — as be later remarked —
being a prophet in his own land. An outbreak of
hostilities between'Forrara and Venice, fomented by Pope
SixtuB IT., soon caused his recall to Bologna. Thence he
was despatched to 8t Mark's in Florences the scene of his
future triumph and downfall.
Lorenzo the Magnilicent was then (1*82) at the height
of his power and popularity, and the Florentines, daisied
by his splendour and devoted to pleasure and luxury,
were docile subjects to bis rule. At first Savonarola was
enchanted with Florence. Fresh from the gloom of
Bologna, sickened by the evils wrought on Italy by the
scandalous nepotism of the pope, and oppressed by some
natural human anxiety as to his reception in a strange
city, the guety and cbarm of his novel surroundings
lifted a weight from his soul. His cloister, sanctified by
raemories of St Antonine and adorned with the inspired
K'ntings of Fri Angelico, seemed to him a fore-court of
.ven. Uut his content speedily changed to horror.
The Florence streets rang with Lorenzo's ribald songs (the
"canti camoscialescbi") ; the smooth, cultured citizens
were dead to all sense of religion or monJity ; and the
spirit of the fashionable heathen philosophy had even
infected the brotherhood of St Mark. In HS3 Savonarola
was Lenten preacher in the church of St Lorenzo, bnt his
plain, earnest eihortationa attracted few bearers, wbile ail
the world thronged to Santo Spirito to enjoy the elegant
rhetoric of Fr& Hariano da Qonaziano. Discoiuaged by
this failuro in the pulpit, Savonarola now devoted himself
to teaching in the convent, but his leal for the.Hlnttwi
of the apatheUo townsfolk wm soon to stir him to fierfi
efforts. Convinced ot being divinely inspired, he bod
begun to see viuons, and discovered in the Apocalypse
symbols ot the heavenly vengeance about to overtake this
ain-Uden people. In a hymn to the Saviour compowd at
this time he gave vent to his prophetic dismay. TUe
papal chwr waa now filled by Innocent VIH., whose rale
iraa even more infamous than that of his pr«decossor
SixtnsIV. , , ,
Savonarola's first sncceas as a preacher was (^roed at
St Oemignano <148*-fl5), but it was only at BrMcia in
the following year that his power as an orator was tolly
revaalsd. In a sermon on the Apocalypse he shook men's
souls by his terrible threats of the wrath to com^ snd
drew tears from their eyes bjt the tender pathos of his ^
assurances of divine mercy. A Bresciau friar relates that
a halo of light was seen to flash round his head, and the
citizens remembered his awful prophedca when in 1013
their town was put to the sack by Gaston de Foiz.
Soon, at a Dominican council at Beggio, Savonarola had
occasion to display his theological learning and subtlety.
The famona Pico della Uirandola was particularly
impressed by the friar's attainments, and is said to have
urged Lorenzo de' Medici to recall him from Lomhardy.
When Savonarola returned to Florence in 1*90, bis fame
as an orator had gone there before him The clmster
garden was too small for the crowds attending hit
lectures, and on the Ist August 1*90 he gave his first
sermon in the church of St Mark. To quote bis own
words, it was "a terrible sermon," and legend adds that
he foretold he should preach for eight yeara
And now, for the better setting forth of his doctrine^ to
silence pedants, and confute malignant misinlerpretation,
he published a collection of his writings. These proved
his knowledge of the ancient philosophy he so fiercely
condemned, and showed that no igniMance of the fathers
caused him to seek inspiration from the Bible alone. Tki
Triumph of the Crou is his principal work, but everything
he wrote wss animated by the ardent spirit of pisty
evidenced in his life. BavouaroU'e sole aim was to bring
mankind nearer to Ood.
In 1*91 he was invited to preach in the cathedral, Sta
Uaria del Fiore, and his rule over Florence may be said
to be^n from tiiat date. The anger and uneasiness of
Lorenzo de' Medici gave testimony to hirpower. Five of
the leading men of Florence were sent to turge him to
moderate his tone, and in hia own interest and diat of hii
convent to show more respect to the head of the state.
But Savonarola rqectad their advice. " Tell your mastw,"
he eaid in conclusion, " that, albeit I am a humble stranger,
he the lord of Florence, yet I shall remain and he depart"
Afterwards, in the presence ot many witnesses, he fore-
told that stupendous changes impended over Italy, — llist
Lorenzo, tho pope, and the king ot Naples were all mar
unto death.
In the July of the same year he was elected prior of St
Mark's. As the convent had been rebuilt by Caaiao, and
enriched by the bounty of the Medici, it was considered
the duty of the new superior to present his homsge to
Lorenzo. Savonarola, however, refused to conform to the
usage. His election was due to Ood, not Lorenzo; to
Ood alone would he promise submission. Upon this the
sovereign angrily exclaimed: "This stranger coniea_ to
dwell in my house, yet will not stoop to pay me a visit."
Nsvertheleas, disdaining to recognize the enmity of a mere
monk, he tried various conciliatory measorta. AH were
rejected by the unbending prior, who even refuted to let
his convent profit by Lorenzo's donations. - He Msgnifico
then sought to nodermine his popularity, and Frk Mariano
WM amplcTed to attack him from the pulpit. Bat tl)*,
SAVONAROLA
ass
pnMhw^ MBiidtloat adciMtiona miaMd thtir mark, mnd
AimptmtmA liis beuen wiUioat borting liii tivti. Satod-
»rola took up the dullongs ; tiii eloquence prevailed, tad
Frk Hariaoo ma lileiiced. But the Utter, vhile feigoing
1^ WMthenoeforth hii nncwona ftud deternuned
foe.
In April 14B3 Lonuo de* Hedid wu on bii death,
bed kt Cartfp. OpprcMed bj the weight of hia erimea,
he needed nnie aaraiuwM of dirina forgiveneM fiom
tmctier lipa than thoae of obaaquiona coortien, and
nuunoDed the onyielding prior to ihiiTS hia tonL
Saraoarok lelnctantlj came, and, after hearing the agitated
oonfMakm of the djing prince, offered abeolntion npon
three eonditiona. LtM^to aaked in what they coniialed.
Fint, " Toa miut repent and feel true faith in Ood'i
mercj." LnenM anented. Seeondly, "Ton mnat giTe np
jtm ill-gotten wealth." Iliia too Lorenio promiMd, after
•ome haaitatioQ ; but upon hearing the third clauses " Y(>n
mnat rtatore the iibettiei of Florence," Lorenio turned hia
taea to the wkll and made no reply. SaTooarola waited a
few momenta and then went awaj. And Bhortt; afterhia
penitent died nnabaolTed.
BaTonarala'* infloenea now npidlj increaaed. Uanj
adhcnnta of the late {mnce came over to hi* aide,
diagDited bj the Tidence and incompetency of Pieto de^
Uedid^ nle. All rtate a&ire were mismanaged, and
Ftemiee was faat loeing the power and prestige acquired
nitder LomuOk The eame year witneosed the fnlfihnent
ol SaTonaroIa'a aecond predicdon in the death of Inno-
ent Vm (Jnly Hi2); men's minde ware fnll of
snzie^, aad the Kandalona election of Cardinal Borgia to
the p«i»l chair heralded the dimaz of Italy** woee. T\it
ktH'i attennoee became more and more fervent and
impaMoned. IWriotic tolidtode combined with cloee
■tody of Biblical pK^Aecies had itined him to a piona
beo^, in which be nw Tiaiona and believed himaelf the
ledpHnt of dinne tevektiona. It was during tbe delivery
of one of hia fordUe Advent lennona that bo beheld the
oelebiated viaioa, recorded in contemporary medala and
•ogravingi^ that ia almost a symbol of hia doctrines. A
hand appeared to him bearing a flaming sword inacribed
with the wwda ; " Qladio* Domini supra terram cito et
Tetodter." He heard aapentatnral voices proclaiming
mercy to the bithfol, vengeanoe on tbe guilty, and mighty
criea that the wrath of God was at hand. ILen the sword
bent towards the earth, the aky darkened, thunder pealed,
li^tning flaabed, and the whole world wu waated by
EamiMk bloadahed, and paetilence. It was probably the
nojae ot theaa aermona tiiat eanaed the friar's tempomy
lOBonl from Elorence at the instance of Piero de' Medici.
He was praoently addressing enthusiastic congregations at
Tnio and Btdogna. In the latter city hie courage in
leboking the wife of Bentivoglio, the reigning lord, for
mtetmptuig divine aerrice by her noisy entrance nearly
eoet him hia life. *««»»«'''■ ware sent to kill him in hu
eeU ; bat awed, it is said, by Savonarola's words and
demeanonr they Bed dismayed from his presence. At the
doae of hia last aermon the nndaonted friar publicly
MiBoqnoed the day and hour of his departure from
Bologna: andhialonelyjoomeyon toot over tiie Apennines
was aafely aeoompliahed. He was raptnroasly welcomed
fay the community ot St Mark's, and at once proceeded to
masialilisli the discipline of the order and to sweep away
■11 abases. For this purpose he obbuned, after mn^
difficnl^, a p^xU brief emuicipating the Dominicans
of St Ha^ from tbe rule of the Lombard vican of
that ofte. He thna became an independent autiior-
i^, no longer at the command of distant anperiors.
notoa^y reorganLdng the convent, he relegated many
«( tba Mthmi to a qoietst ntraat ontsde the dty, only
Florence those beat fitted to aid in intellectual
labour. To render the convent *eU-«npportiDft he opened
•choola for various branchee of art, and promoted the
study of Oriental Isngnage^ Hi» efforts were completely
successful 1 the brethren's snthuaiasm ma fired by their
saperior'* example ; religion and learning made equal pio-
gress ; St Mark's became the most popular monastery in
Florence, and many citizena of noble birth flodced thither
to take the vows.
Meanwhile Savonarola eontinned to denounce the
abuaes of the church and the goilt and eompUoD of man-
kind, and thnndered forth ^tredictiona of heavenly wrath.
The scourge of war was already at hand, for in 1494 the
duke of Milan demanded the aid of Franc^ and King
Charles TIIL bfonght an anny across the Alpa. Piero de'
Medici, maddened with fear, and forgetting that hitherto
Florence had been the firm friend ot France, made alliance
with the Neapolitan sovereign whose kingdom was daimed
by Charles. Then, lepeoting this ill-judged step^ he
hurried io persmi to the French camp at Fietra Banta, and
humbled himself before the king. And, not content with
agreeing to all the latter'a demand^ he further jwomised
latge sums of money and the sniiender of the strongholds
of I^aod Leghorn.
This news drove Flonnoe to revolt, and the wont
eioeasea were feared from the popular fury. But even at
this crisis Savonarola's influence was all-powetful, and a
bloodless revolution was effected Fiero Chpponi's declara.
tion that " it was time to pnt an end to this baby govern'
ment " was the sole weapon needed to depose Fiero de"
MedicL The leeusdtated repnUic instantly ssnt a besh
embaa^ to the Freodi kin^ to anrnnge the terms of hia
reception in Florence. Savonarola was one ot the tn-m^t,
Charles being known to entertain the greatest veneratiMi
for the friar who had so long predicted hu coming and
declared it to be divindy ordained He was moat tmtet-
folly received at the camp, bat could obtain no definite
pledges from the king, wtio was bent ob first coming to
Florence. During Savonarola's absence Piero de" Media
had re-entaied tbe dty, found his power irretrievably lost,
and been con tern ptaoualy bnt peaceably expelled. It is a
proof of the high esteem in which Savonarok's convent
was held that, although ths headquarters of the viotorions
popotar party, Piero's brother, Cbrdiual Medici, entrusted
to its care a large share of the family trMsoree.
Betnming full of hope from Fietra Santa, Savonarala
might wdl have been dismayed by the diabaeted state of
public afEaira. There was no Oovenunent, and revolted
Pisa was secretly favoured by the monarch who was
knocking at the gates ot Florence. Keverthdeas, with
the aid of Capponi, he guided the bewildered city satdy
through theee critical days. Charles entered Florence on
the '17th November 1494, and the dtizena' fears evaporated
in jeets on the puny exterior of the " threatened aeonrge." \
But the exorbitance of hia demands soon showed that he
eame as a toe. All vras agitation ; distatbonces arose,
and seriona collision with the French troops seemed
insvitable. The signory resolved to be rid of their
dangerous gneats ; and, when Charles threatened to sound
his trumpets unlees the sum* exacted were paid, Capponi
tore up the treaty in his face and made the memotable
reply: "Then we will ring our bells.* Hie monardi
was cowed, accepted moderate term^ and, yielding to
Savonarola's remonstrances, left Fkaence on the 34tb
November.
Hie dty was now free bnt in the ntmcet discndw, its
commerce ruined, its treasury drained. After seventy
years' sniiijection to the Hedid it had forgotten the ait i^
self-ffovemment, and fdt tiie need of a alroag guiding
band Bo Uu dtiMiia tuiiMd to tbe yatriol sMok iAIn*
336
lAVONAROLA
wotdi bad freed tbem of'EJag Chulte, and Bavonarolk
becMM the hwgiTBr of Florence. The first tbiug done
ftt hi* imttiwe wu to leliflTe the sterrmg popakce within
•nd wiflicnt the walb ; ihope were opened to give work
to the ODemplojed; elL taiee, eepeciaEIy those weighing
on the lower clMiei, were reduced ; the Btricteet tdmini-
■liMiaa^jaitioe wu eoforoed, end til men were exhorted
to pfawe their tnwt in the Lord. And, aftet much debele
M to tlw oooititntioo of the new repnblic, Savonarola's
inflnenee euried the day in fevonr of Soderini'e proposal
of ft aai*ereel or genetei goTemnient, with t, great council
OQ the Teoetiea pUn, but modified to soit the needs of
the ettf. Hie norentinea' love for their greet preMher
WM enhaneed bj gratitode on this triamphJiuit defence of
thur ri^ta. The great council consisted of 3200 citizens
of bkmelea teputation and over twenty-five jeaie of age,
K third of the nnntber sitting for six months in torn in
dte bUI <li the Cinqoecento ezpressl; boilt for the pnr-
piae, Thvn was also an upper council of eighty, which
m eoqjiuietion with the lignorj decided ail queetions of
teo impMtaot and delicate a natoie for diaenasion in the
larger aaaemblj. These inatitutioos were approved by the
penile, and gave a fair jxomiee of joetioe. Savonarola's
progTamme of the new government was comprised in the
foUowing fiwmula: — (1) fear of Ood and purification of
mannen ; (2) promotion of the pnblio welfare in pre-
teranoe to private intereate; (3) a gsneral amneety to
political oflendars ; (4) a oouninl on the Tenetiao model,
but irith no doge. At first the new ntachinery acted
well; the public mind was tranquil, and the war with
Km — not ae yet of threatening proportions — was enough
to occupy the Florentines and prevent internecine feuds.
WithoDt holding any official post in the commtrnwealth
be bad created the prior of St Murk's was the real head of
the stat^ the dictator of Florence^ and guarded the public
weal with extraordinary political wisdom. At his instance
the tyrannical syetem of arbitrary imposts and so-called
vcdnnlary loans was abolished, end replaced by a tax of
ten per cent (la decima) on all real property. The laws
and edict* ol this period read hke pataphiaees of
SaTonarola'a sermone, and indeed his comuels were always
given as addenda to the religious exhortations in which he
denonnced the sins of his country' and the pollution of the
church, end urged Florence to cast off iniquity and become
a trtily Christian city, a pattern not only to Borne but to
the world at large. His eloqaence was now at the fiood.
Day by day his impassioned wordu, filled with the spirit
of the Old Testament, wrought upon the minds of the
Floreatinee and strung them to a pitch of pious emotion
never before — and never since — attained by them. Their
fervonr was too hot to be lasting, and Savonarola's nn-
oomptomiung spirit roused the hatred of political adver>
sariee aa well as of the degraded court of Rome. Even
now, when his authority was at ltd highest, when his fame
filled the land, and the vast cathednd and its precincts
lacked space tor the crowds flocking to hear him, hie
enemiee were secretly prepariog hie downfall.
Pleasure- loving Florence was complelely changed. Ab-
juring pomp* and vanities, its cltizena observed tbc ascetic
regime of the cloister ; half the year was devoted to
abetineuce and few dared to eat meat on the fasts ordained
bj Savonarola. Hymns and lauds tang in the streets
that had eo recently echoed with Lorenro's dissolute songs.
Both sexes dreseed with Puritan plainness ; husbatds and
wive* quitted their homes forconventa; marriage became
an awful and scarcely permitted rite ; mothore suckled
their own babes ; and persons of all ranka^noblee, scholars,
and artists-'renounced the iro[]d to assume the Dominican
K>1>*^ Still more wonderfnl wad Savonarola's influence
over ebildreD, and their naponee to hi* appeal* ii a proof
of the magnetic power of hie gmdneea and p
organized the boys of Florence in a apedea
militi*^ an inner republic, with it* own magii
officials charged with the enforcement of hie mlea for the
holy life. It was with the aid of these youthful enthn-
eiesla that Savonarola an«nged the religiona carnival of
149S, when the citiiene gave thwr coatlieat piwiieiiiiin in
alms to the poor, and tonsured monks, crowned with
flowers, sang lauds and performed wild dance* for the
glory of Qod. in the same epiri^ and to point the
doctrine of renonciatiou of conval gauds, he ceiebr*ted
the carnival of 1197 by the famous "burning of tha
vanitiee" in the Piaua della Signorio. A Venetian
merchant i* known to have bid 32,000 gold florin* tor the
doomed vauitiea, but the scandalised authorities not only
rejected hi* offer bnt added his portrait to the pile.
Neverthelee* the artistic value of the object* comnuned
has been greatly exaggerated by some writers. There is
no proof that any book or painting of real merit waa
sacnflced, and Savonarola wa* neither a foe to art nor to
learning. On the contrary, so great wa* his eeapect for
both that, when there was a qoestion of selling die Medici
library to pay that family's debts, he saved the oollec^D
at the eipenee of the convent purse.
Meanwhile events were l^ng a turn hoetile to the
prior. Alexander VL hod long regretted the enfrancluae-
ment of St Mark's from the rule of the Lombard
Dominicans, and now, having teen a transcript of one of
Savonarola'* denunciation* of hi* crimes, reeolved to
silence this daring preacher at any oost Bribery wa* tha
first weapon employed, and a caidinal'i hat was held oat
as a bait. But Savonarola indignantly spumed the ofler,
replying to it from the pulpit with the prophetic words :
" No hat will I have but that of a martyr, reddened with
my own blood-"
So long a* Sing Charles remained in Italy Alexander*!
concern for his own safety prevented all vigorous neaeurea
against the friar. But no Borgia ever forgot an enemy.
He bided his time, and the tninaformation of scepticid
Florence into an austerely Christian repubhc claiming tha
Saviour oa its head only increaeed hie resolve to crush
the man who had wrought this marvel Tha potent dake
of Milan, Lndovico Rforia, and other foee were labouring
for the some end, and already in July 1195 a papal brief
had courteously summoned Savonarola to Rome. In terms
of equal courtesy the prior declined the invitation, nor
did he obey a second, less softly worded, in September.
Then came a third, threatening Florence with an interdict
in cose of renewed refusal. Savonarola disregarded the
command, but Bus[)ending his sermon* went to preach
tor a while in other Tusain citiee. But in Lent his
celebrated sermons upon Amoa were delivered in the
duomo, and again ho urged the noceeaity of reforming the
church, striving by ingenious argumente to reconcile re-
bellion against Alexander with unaltetabte fidelity to the
Holy See. AH Italy recognized that a ntortal combat wa*
going on between a humble friar and the head of the
church. What would be the result f SavonaTola'a voice
wa* arousing a storm that might shake even the power of
Rome! Alive to thu danger, the pope know that his foe
moat be crushed, and tha religious carnival of 1498
afforded a good pretext for stronger proceedings against
him. The threatened anathema was, for aome reaKm,
dsferted, but a brief uniting St Mark's to a new Tuscan
branch of the Dominicans now deprived Savonarola ol hi*
independent power. However, in the banning of 1497
the Fiagnoni were again in office, with the prior's ataunch
friend, Francesco Valori, at their head. In March th*
aspect of affairs changed. The Arrabbiati and the
Medicean faction merged political diflerenet* i« tb«ir
SAVONAROLA
8&7
WBiMO hand to SkTCMnk. Fun d^ IMkra tnOi
mttM^ to iMBt«r Flsnoee fuled; MntdtdMi bia
folktww* continued tUr mtrigo**, tod pftrtj ipirit in-
cntaed in viralenech Hw citinaB wen grawing vetr;
of tke moaaatio MntoriUen inpoeed on thorn, end Alnandcr
foreaew thkt hia rerenge wee at Iiaod.
A nptOTj opealj boetile to Sevonenk took office
Mnj, end on A»eneion DnTUaenemiee veatand on ective
fawnlt. Hie pai|iit in IbS dsMW ifae defiled, en em'i
ekia epreed orer Om cndion, end dierp neiU fiiad in thi
boetd on wUoli be wo«ld ebrike bia bend. Tbe outrage
wee diacorered end nnedied brfote tbe aBrvice beean ;
nnd, aUtoogh tbe Ambbieti belt filled tbe cburcb and
«TeB Bongbt to atUaipt ble lil^ SeTonentla kept bia com-
poenre end delivend a tnoet inpreeaiTe Mnnon. Bat tbe
iacideut prored the bitteraeae end energy ot bia totm, and
tbe aigiuvT', in lugned anuetj for the puMio peace, be-
■oDj^t bim to aDipand hie <Ueeonnee. Shortly altennvdi)
the Ibnatened baU of eseonunonieetioD waa Unnehad
ngeJiHt bim, and fVk Uariano me in Bone atiiiLaietiDg
tbe pc^e'a wretb. SeTooarole renwined andaniited. The
■entente waa nnll end void, he eeJd. Hii miaaitA waa
divinely inapired ; and Aiexnnder, elected limoniacally and
laden with Crimea, wee no trae pope. NererUielea* tbe
leading of the biill in the dnomo with the appropriete,
lenifying cennooial made a deep impreaaion on tbe
floceatinei. And now, tbe ARabbiati aignory patting
ao check on the Compagnftoci, the dtj returned to
the wanton licence of Lorento'a reign. Bat in JnJy
Savonnrola'e friende were again in power and did their
beet to have hie exeomranni cation removed. Meanwhile
par^ atrife waa atilled by ao ontbiotik of the plagne.
I1ie prior of Bt Uuk's used the wisest precaotions for tlio
aafety of bia two haodred and fifty nonka, atutained their
«onrage by hia own, and aeot tba younger men to a country
fetrent oat of reach of contagion. Daring tbia time
Roma waa borror^trnck by die myBteriooa marder of the
wmng duke of Oandio, and the bereaved pope oionmed
bi« eon with the wildest grieF. Buvonarola addreeaed to the
poDtifl a letter of condolenct^ boldly nrging him to bow
to tbe will ot Heaven and repent while there waa yet time.
^M plague ended, Florence waa plunged in fresh
tranbba from Medicean iatrignw, and a conspiiacy tor
the laatoration of I^ero waa diacovered. Among the five
iMdiog citJzena concerned in tbe plot waa Bernardo del
Nwi^ % very aged man (rf loftj talentt and poaitton. Tbe
gDofaJonier, Ftanceeco Tolori, uaed hia atrongeat influence
to obtain their condemnation, and all five were pnt to
death. It ia nid that at le<ut Bernardo del Nero wonld
have been spared had Bavonarola taiaed bia voice, but,
«Itbongh TefnUning from any active port againat the
priaonem, the prior would not ask mercy far tbem. This
silence proved fatal to hia popularity with moderate nieo,
ffrte now adherents to the Ambbiiiti, and whetted the
fniy of the pope, Sform, and all potentates well dispoaed
to tlie lledici faction. He wae now interdicted from
preaching oven in bia own convent and again auminoned
to Rome. As before, the mandate was disobeyed. He
rcTrained from public preaching, but held conferences in
Ht Ifark's with large gatherings of his disciples, and defied
the interdict 00 Christn^as Day by publicly celebrating
mais and beading a proceenon through the cloiaten.
"Hie year HOS, in which Savonarola was to die a
martyr'e death, opened amid seemingly f avoomble auspices.
^w I^agDoni were again at the head of tho state, and by
tbeir reqoeat the prior resumed his aermons in the dnomo,
while hia dearest disciple, Frk Domenico Buonvicini, filled
the pulpit %f St Lorenzo. Scaffoldings hod to bo erected
to aucomniodate Savonarola's congrc^tion, and the Arrab-
tmti eoold only feat their spito ^ noi^ note on tba
ptaBE ontaide the MthadiaL Tor die last time fba
eanuval wax again krpt with strange religioua feetivitiea,
and many taiualJe books and workx ot art were aacriflced
in a aeciMid bonfire of "vanilies." Hnt menacing briefs
poored in from Ilome ; tba pope bad read one ot
Savonarola's recent Barmons on Kzodus ; the dty itself
was threatcnoil with interdict, and tho Florentine ambaa.
sador could barely obtain a short delay. Now too tbe
Piagnooi quitted olOoe ; tbe new signory was leaa friendly,
and the pticn' waa peraiiaded bj bis adiierenta to retire to
Bt Mark'a. There bo eontbinad to preach with unabated
leal ; and, ainoe the women ot Florence depi<nwd tbe low of
his teachinga, one day in the week waa set apart tor tbem.
The signory tried to eonciliato the pope by relating the
wonderful spiritual eflecta of their pnache^s word^ but
Alexander waa obdurate. The Florentinea must dther
aileuce ths man themselves or send him to be judged by
a Homan tribunal.
Undiamayed by peiaonal danger, Savonarola reaolved to
appeM to aU Christendom againat the nnri^taotia pontiff,
and deqiatched letters to the rulera of Enn^ B^jnring
them to assemble a conncil to condBmn this antipoue.
Hie council oF Constance, and tbe depoidtion i^ John
XXIII., were satiafactory precedenta still remembered by
tb^ worid. One ot these letteia being intercepted and
BGftt t9 Rome by tbe duke ot Milan (it is said) proved fatal
tc the friar. Tlie papal threats were now too urgent to be
disregarded, and ue cowed signory entreated Savonan^
to put an end to hif sermons. He reluctantly obeyed, and
concluded hie last discourse with tho tenderest and moat
touching farewell. Perhaps he foresaw that bo slioiild
never again address bis flock from tba {lulpit.
Tbe Oovernmeat now hoped that Alexander wonld be
ap|)eaaed and Florence allowed to breathe freely. Ral
although ulenced Ibe prophet waa doomed, and the tolly
oF bis diseiplaa jirecjpitated bis fate. A creature of the
Arrabliiatl, a Franciacaa friar oamed Francesco di I\igtla,
challenged Savonarola to prove the truth of bis doctrines
by tbe ordeal of fire. At first tiie prior treated the pro-
vocation with merited contempt, but nnfortunataly bia .
too zealous disciple Fri Domenico accepted the chaJlengB.
And, when die Franciscan declared that he woold enter
the fire with Savonarola alone, ¥rk Domenico protested
his willingness to enter It with any one in defence of bis
master's cansa. So, as Savonarola resolutely decjjned the
trial, tbe Franciscan deputed t convert, one Qiuliauo dai
RondineUi, to go tbrongb the ordeal wiiji Frk DcmeQico.
There were bng preliminary disputes. Savonarola, per-
ceiving that a trap woe being laid tai hia, discountenanced
the "experiment" until over-persuaded' by his diacipla'a
prayen, Petbape becassc it waa a mere ndnctio ad
o&nintHM ot bia dearoet beliefs, he was Strang^ perplexed
and vacillating with regard to it. AYitJi bis firm convic-
tion of the diTiaity of hia nitmoq iu> Roi|oeti;[nea felt
assorod of the tiiamjdiant issue of tii« torriUe .ordeaL
Alternately sn-nyed by imjiassioned ual and tho prompt-
ings of reason, his calmer judgment wad at lost overbcwne
by tbe fanaticism of his followers. Aided by the aignoiy,
which was playing into the hands ot Rome, die AnabbiaU
and Coropagnacci prteaed the matter on, ud tbe way waa
now clear for Savonarola's deetniction.
On tbo 7th April 1 108 an immense thnug gathered in
tba Piaza della Signoria to enjoy tbe barbarous sight.
Two thick bank* of combustibles forty yards long, with %
narrow space between, had been erected in tront o( the
palace, and five hundred aoldieis kept a wida dicle dear
of the crowd. Some writera aver that tbe pUm w«re
charged with gunpowder. Not only the eqnare bat ercky
window, balcony, or booaatop commanding a glimpee of
it waa filled with eofier nMetatoca. Tbe Dominicans
«-S-
838
lAVoNAROLA
from one Bido, liie Fnacbcuu from the other, marched in
(olenm procsnion to tha Loggia dei Lena, wUch had been
divided bj a hoarding into two eepoiate campartmeDta.
nie Dominicaiu were led by Savonarola carrying the
boB^ which he reverently depodted oq an aJUr prepared
in hie portion of tiis loggia, and when Fr^ Domenico was
eeei lo kneel before it the Piagnoni bunt into a song of
f/iaise. The magiatiates cdgnalled to the two championi
to advance. FrJI Domenico stepped forvartl, bnt neither
Bondinelli nor Frh Fiancesco appeared. The Francisca&B
began to urge fantaetic otgectioDS. The DomiDiean's
vestments might be bewitched, they said. Then, when he
promptly changed them for a frisr'a robe, they pretended
that his pioiimity to Savonarola had probably renewed
the charm. He must remove the cross that he wora.
He again complied, — wae ready to fulfil every condition
order to enter the fire. But fresh obstacles were tAiggest
by the Franciscans, and, when SavaoaroU insisted that his
champion should bear the host, they cried out against tlie
■acrilege of ezpcoing the Bedeemer'a body to the flames.
All was turmoil and confusion, the crowd frantic And,
althongh Bondinelli had not come, the signory sent
angry mesaagee to ask why the Dominicans delayed the
tiilL HcMiwhilo the Arrabbiati stiired the public dis-
content and threw all the blama on Savonarola. Some
Compagoacci assaulted the loggia in order to kill him,
but were driven back by Salviati's band. The foreign
soldiery, fearing an attack on the palace, charged the
excited moiv and tha tumult was temporarily checked.
It was now late in the day, and a storm shower gave the
aathoritieB a pretext for declaring that heaven was against
the ordell The crafty Franciscans slipped away nn-
obaerred, bnt Savonarola raising the host attempted to
lead bis monks across the piaaa in the same solemn order
ia befora. On this the popular fury burst forth. De-
fianded of their bloody divenion, the people were wild
with ngo, Fri OiroUmo'i power was suddenly at an end.
Thtw FlorenUnea who had worshipped him as a laint
tamed on him with rabid hate. Neither he nor his
Imthren would have lived to reach St Mark's but for the
devoted help of Salviati and his men. They were pelted,
■toned, and followed with the vilest execrations. Against
the ml onlpritBj the dastardly Fcanciscans, do anger was
felt; the nalmu prior, the prophet and lawgiver of
ncmnce^ wu made the popular scapegoat Kotwitb-
ttanding the anguish that most have filled his heart, the
EoUeo man preserred his dignity and calm. Mounting
Us own pulpit in S( Mark's he quietly related the events
of the day to the faithf nl assembled in the church, and
then withdrew to his cell, while the mob on the square
ontiide wu clonumring for bis blood.
Hie next mmking, the signoty having decreed the
ptioc'a banishment, Franceeco Valqri and other leading
Piagnoni hnniad to him to conoert measures for bis safety.
Meanwhile the Qovemment decided on his arrest, and no
■oonec was this made public than the populace rushed to
the attack of the convent. The doors of Bt Mark's were
hastily secnred, and Savonarola discovered that his
adherents had secretly prepared arms and munitions and
were ready to stand a siege. Tho signory seat to order
oU laymen to quit tha cloister, and a special summons to
ValorL After some hesitation the latter obeyed, hopiug
by his iaftuence to rally all the J^agnoni to the rescue.
But he was murdered in the street, and his palace kecked
by the mob. The monks and their few remaining friends
mode a most deapeiate defence. In vain Savonarola
beeonght them to lay down their arms. Frit Benedetto
the painter and others fouglit like lions, while some hurlod
tiles on the assailants below. When the cburcb was finally
■tonued Savonarola wai seen fiayipn at tho altar, and Frit \
Domenico^ armed with an enormou Gandleetie^ guarding
him from the blows of the mob. Profiting 1^ the mAa
and confusioo a few disdplei dragged their belored
master to the inner litHary and aiged him to eec^w by
the trindow. He hesitated, seemed about to cmiBent^
when a cowardly monk, one Malatesta Socramoro, cried out
that the shepbeid should lay down his life for his flock.
Thereupon Savonarola turned, bade farewell to the brethren,
and, accompanied by the faithful Domenico, quietly
surrendered to his enemies. lAter, betrayed by the same
Malatesta, Trk Silveitro was also seised. Hustled,
insulted, and injured by the ferocious crowd, the prisoners
were conveyed to the Palazzo Vecchio, and Savanarola was
lodged in the tower cell which hod once harbonred Corimo
de' MedicL
Now came an exultant brief from the pope. His well-
beloved Florentines were true sons of the chnreb, but must
crown tbeur good deeds by despatching the criminals to
Borne. Sforia was equally rejoiced by the news, and the
only potentate who could have perhaps saved Savonarola'a
life, Chorlee of France, bod died on the day of the ordeal
by fire. Thus another of the friar's prophecies was verified,
and its fulfilment cost him ids sole protector.
The resnlt of the trial was a foregone conclusion. The
signory refused to send their prisoners to Bome, but they
did Rome's behests. Savonarola's judges were chosen from
his bitterest foes. Day after day he was craelly tortured,
aod in his agony, with a frame weakened 1^ constant
austerity and the mental strain of the past months, he
made every admission demanded by his tormentors. Bnt
directly he was released from the rs>ck he always withdrew
the confessions uttered in the delirium of pain. And, these
being too incoherent to serve for a legal report, a falae
account of the friar's avowals waa drawn up and published
instead of bis real words.
Though physically unable to resist torture, Savonarola's
clearness of mind returned whenever he was at peace in
his ceU. So long as writing materials were allowed him
he employed himself in making a commentary on the
Fsalms, in which he restated all his doctrines. His doom
was fixed, hut some delay was caused by the pop^s
unwillingneas to permit the execution in Florence. Alex-
ander waa frantioilly eager lo see his enemy die in Bome.
But the signory remuned firm, iosisting that the falsa
prophet should snfler death before die Florentines whom
he had so long led astray. The matter woe finally com-
promised. A second mock trial waa held by two apoatolie
eommisaionen specially api>ointed by the pope. One of the
new judges was a Venetian general of the Dominican^ tk»
other a Spaniard. Meanwhile the trial of Brothers
Domenico and Bilvestro was stiU iu progress. The former
led nobly faithful to his master and himself. No
extremity of torture could make him recant or extract a
syllable to Savonarola's hurt ; ha steadfastly repeated his
belief in the divinity of the prior's mission. Frh Silveotro
on the contrary g^ve way at mere sight of the rock, and
of -heavenly visions owned himself and master
guilty of every crime laid to their charge. ' ^
The two cotnraisaioners soon ended their task. Th^
had the pope's ordere that Savonarola was io die " even
were be a second John the Baptist." On three sacoessive
days they "examined" the prior with worse tortures than
before. But he now resisted pain better, and, although
>ore than once a promise to recant was extorted from
im, he reasserted bis innocence when unbound, crying ou^
My Qod, I denied Thee for fear of pain." On the evening
□f May 22 sentence of death waa prononnced on him and
Im two didciplcx. Savonarola listened unmoved to ^a
awful words, and then quietly resumed his interrupted
devotioaw. Fri Domenico exulted in the thought of dying
S A V-
hj lili ■BHtar'a M» ; Vtk ^vtrin, tn the eoatniy, nved
with daapftir.
Tit only bToni SaTotutroU entvad befbrs dMtth wm ft
diort Intarrieir irith hU feUow Tietiina. Thii, atter long
debtto, tha ligiioiy nnwiUfaiKl? giantad, aod nuMiwhUe ■
monk «M NBt to ahrife •!! th« thiw. Tb« m«aK»Abls
meeting took place in the hall of Iha Cinqneoanto. Dnrins
their for^ diji of OMtfinamant and torture each one had
bean told that the othara had lecanlad, and tha fabe iq»ort
of SaTooanla^ omf MBiMi had beeD ihowii to the two moaka.
The direa w«n now face to face for the Int timiL frk
Domnioo'a-bTaltr had Mrer waverad, and the weak BilTee-
tro^eBthotiaam rekindled at n^t of hiichiet BaTowoIa
praTed with the two men, gave them bia bleann^ and ex-
horted tham fajr the memory at their aavioiir'a craoifixiaD to
nbmit meaUy to their bte. Hidoi^t waa hmg past when
Savonaroh waa led back to hia eelL Jacopo Nictolini, one
«f a relipoaa fratemitjr dedicated to conaoling the la«t
honn of cMidemned men, remained with him. Spent with
weaknam and fatigne ha aiked leave to rert hia bead oa
Ida companion^ k^s ■''d qniakly fell into a quiet sleep.
Ab Nieeolini Ulla vm, the martji^ faoe beoama eerene and
■niilingBaaeUld'& On awikingheaddnaaed kind words
to tbm eompaasiMtatt bntW, aad then ptopbeaied that diie
ealamltiea woaU belall FlMwioe dnriog tha leign of a pope
named Clement Ha carefnUr receded prediction waa
verified hj tha ai(«e of ISW.
The ezaontlKi took place the next moniing. A aoaflold,
eoBnaotad hf a wooden bridge with the magisfaratM'
natmm,had been erected on tha ^ot wlun the piles of
the ordeal had stood. At one end ^ the platfwm wm a
bnge ecoH with faggota heaped at its baae. Aa the
pri«oa«H| dad in panitestial hairebth, were led aooaa
tha bcidg*^ wanton boys thniet ^aip aticka between the
plaaka to wound their feet First cams the oanawnial
of degradation. Sacerdotal robes were thrown over the
viotima, and then ronghlj striiqied off hy two Dominicana,
the Uilu^ of Taaona and the pricr <k Bta Haria Novdla.
To the biahop'B formula, " I separate thee from the church
militant and the thurch trianipbant, * Savonarola loplied
in firm tonea, " Not from the dinrch triumphant ; tlut ia
bqjood thy power." By a refinement of crnelty Savouiola
waa the iMt to anSer. Hia diadplM* bodies already
daaj^ from the aims of the enm before he wis hung on
the esQtre beam. Then the pile was fired. For a moment
the wind blew the flames aside, leaving the eorpeea
nntoodwd. " A mitacla," cried the weeping Fiagnoni ;
bat then the fire le^t np and ferocious yella of tnnmph
rang bom the mob. At duak the martyrs' remains wen
"""""'"' ^a cart and thrown into tha Amo.
death, but, wtea tn 1630-30
homis predktad by him, the m(wt beniio defeodera of his
beloved if nngiMefnl aij were Fiagnoni who ruled thwr
lives by hia pceo^U and leverod bia memcc; as that of a
nitiaa nsy ba dMNd In thn* tatagorin t— <1)
u, eelltetad mainly b; Lnanio Tioli, on* e( hit
e Msran ; (1) u unmmM number of itroHtmtl
.. ,jaA *»• tbtdqdesl wert^ «( which il IVi-x>
diUa Onet b th* dikf; (1) s ftnr riurt pouni ind a pulil
tnsUn an tk« nversaieBt «f Ilonnot. llthon^ bii taia
tb* do^isafa* Bornan OaOoUs C&nnb nmr n>NT*dl,
la^hlT!^
I A V
339
^m
SATOT. Utt. ]Mory of the honaa of Bavoy ahowi ina
striking manner how the deetinies of a natiaD may.depend
00 the fortnnea of a princely family. Dniing ei^t oentu-
riaa, and through all changes (rf fortune, the piincea of
Savoy have kept one end steadily in view, and, in tiie
worda of Charles Emmanoal III., have "treated It&ly ai
an wtkboka to ba eaten leaf by leaf." Hie amktlona of
prinoea and the interesta of the people have fortunataty
tended in the same direction, and their work is now per-
fected in the glray of their house and the frradom of the
state.
The deaoent of EiniBKn the Whitchanded, the fotmder
of the family, is uncertain, but be waa moat probsblya son
of Amadeti% the gnat-giandaoo of that Boso of Provence
SJi) who WM fether of the emperor Lonis the Blind,
reward fw aervicea rendered to Hodolidi IH of Arlea,
Humbert obtained from him in 1037 the ooontiea of
Savoy and Maurienne, and from the empera Conrad the
Belie Chablsia and the Iiower Talaia. Hia territories,
therefore, all lay on the nnth-westera slopes of the Alps.
On his death in 1048 he waa aneoeeded peih^ by hia
eldest son Aiuskts L, bnt eventnally by bis fourth son
Otbo, wlto, by his marriage with Adelaide, sole hnreas of
the marqoia of Bnaa, oblamed the ooontieB of Turin and
the Tal d'Aosta, and ao acquired a footing in the vall^ of
the Fo. Hia wife'a ran^ too^ as marchiwteaa made tba
family guardians of the frontier hy anthwit; of the king
of Italy, ai they had been before by poaeeaaion ol territory,
the foundation of their snbaeqoent power aa
'., who maintained a Judieiona nential-
i^ between tu* brotheru-law tha emperor Henry IT. and
tha pope. In reward for hia mediatam between them he
obtuned froo
Bngey. The
bron^t fieeh inereaee of territory in the valley <A the
Tarantaiie, and in 1091 this prince sncoeeded io the dig-
nities of lUa grandmother Adelaide when ha aasomed the
title of prince of Piedmont. Aicaliub HL came to tha
thioneinll03,andin 1111 hia atatea were created conntiea
of the empire by Henry T. Ou hia way home from tha
croaadea in 1119 Amadeos died at Nicosia, and waa *no-
oeeded by hia eon Humbkbt IIL Thia prince did not
follow the example of Amadeoa XL, bnt took the part of
the pope againat Barbaroaaa, who accordingly ravaged hia
territories until Humberfa death in 1188. Tlie gnardiana
of hia son Thomi> acted more diacMetiy, and reconciled
their ward and the emperor. He remuned Qhibellina sU
hia life, and received from Henry YL acceaaiona of territwy
in Vaud, Bngay, and Vakis, wiUi the title of imperial vicar
in Piedmont and Lombardy. He wu followed in 12S3
by Aiusma IT., whose wife wm the beautifol Cecilia of
Beaux, anmamed Ruee Bose. A campaign against the
inhabitanta of Talais ended in the annexation of their
district, and his anppcwt of Frederick U. againat the pope
cauaed the erection of Oiablua sod Aoata into a dtchy.
In 12S3 his son Bohi»(ii succeeded to hia atates at the
age of nin^ bn^ after givingpnxAof hia valonr by defeat-
ing the boops of Charles it Anjon before Turin, he wu
taksn prisoner and died of grief (1263).
The Salie law now came into operation for the first time,
and Phk^ the uncle of Boniface, WM called to the thnme.
Thia prince, on the marriage of his nieces Eleanor and Sancba
of Provence with Henry IIL of England and Bicbard,
earl of Cornwall, had visited EngUnd, where he had been
created earl of Bichmond, and built a palace in London
afterwards called Bavoy House, Hia brothers Boniface
and William were alao ^pcantad, the fwmer to the tee of
CsnterboiT, and the latter to the preaideDey of the eonndl.
In ;«tam he reoogniaed the ohdms of Bichard to Uw imp«>.
840 SAVOY
etraalogieal TiOU i^Ou EMm t/6mir^
, _BD1IBIRT-A¥C1IJ;
A low, I atrfoSt g( Som, i. lOai.
liUiinin.-HuldM(,«r, oi
uin.|
J
' ' " ' ^-"^ *■**. UorulL AnJibUlMp of
.-aOiTll*. B«Mu-anT nwior RuhIu lOrnnl Itailrir
1 -UuT Hi Bntuit. Vlaua. -ilnirr III. -IUch.,urt -I.lnU -(»vli
j of EDfluUU sICaiiwiin. Utnam. alABii
blllp.priiKB
si AcWK Ite Ubenl. I BiniiiiidT. tha FHnful, { Iti
iwt'itn. ini-UM.
s( BdUUr- ths Qnan Count, I Donrbsik. rdnlgfM.
AiUDnv vni.-UvT ot Bgrgvalr.
LrilPiiI«FllllV.,
IP II.-MutuMol BcwMn-CliiiiUai it NclUkm.
m.-ButiK«iil PtiWl
I Alc«tBMb Uia OoDd, I FBUfd. >< U* I
ItH-UM.
FmubL I
of fnPMi EnuinirL FinuuT-lUrffaFat, 4r. of
PtiUlp, Igoila
FnrclinTHfalh, CBiUusCinuiRiiLn.i.Uin'cif Emmuul FblllliHtxAiife Culiulu KiamMurtsaOlynlB
Ciuiiaa taumi nL - Ann gf .
It or SnIliilE, 1 td. dr, ot Cliu. I
-im, Ibd. I7M. of Enilisd.
j&oturott'" " — '■■"
im-tm.
il
VloMl AKtDUnin.-IUria AntslHtU TloMr Aiiudnti-ltirT Jgagdln* KaiT-Prlan <•
im-ITM I IrfSptllL 1TW-17M. I of L<inUa»,Anu(»E- 114*-int laaUllh
^TU^MO, DAUDl. ' 1T«»-WM, iM. UXL 17M-1ML
BiiHiotL-llHT<(E>n7. Anudiiw,MM«. Miilt Pte - Luln,
m UK-Ill IHI.
SAVOY
341
ikt thf«M^ Mid reeelred &«in him ^rlmg in dm diooM
of Lhmium, cooTeiiieDtlj dmt to tlw oounty of 0«nan,
wUch had been willed to Um bj tlie lut coanL Bat tbit
incraue of territoiy only broaght new uxjotiee, for Petor't
■boTt reign ww oeeniHed in radneing nlncttaj tmoUs to
olMdio&M. At luB doftth in 1368 he iras ancceeded bj hia
brathw Teilif L, who died in 13ti5, when their nephew
Aiunma V, ewne to the thront. IUb prince, ninuuned
the OiM^ nnited Bnngi taa Btmn to bii nates in right
of hi* wife Sil^lh, and later oa Lower Faacign; and part
of Qenava. For hia aeoond wife lie married hfaij of Bra-
haat, maUt of tlw etnperor Henry VIL, from whom, in
rewwd foe hia aerrieea in North Italy, ha received the
•Hgncnrj of Aoit& Hia life waa panad in oontinna] and
Tictoriona warfare, Ind one of hia lut eiploila waa to force
ibeTnda totaiartheaiegeof Bfaodea. In oonunemoration
of hia Tietorj it ia wd that he aubatitnted for the eaglea
in hu arma the lettera F.E.R.T.- {Fortiiudo <nw JUodwn
famat). Ha died in 1333 while making prc^iaratioDa fcr a
cwpaign in Md ot hia nephew, the emperor of the East.
Biiami bwass mcceeded him, and, dying in 1SS9, waa
followed bj Ua bnthar Aixov. Thia [vince died in 1 343,
whoa bit aon Aiui»0b YX ascended the throne. Hia
raign Wat, like hit graodfather'^ a teriet of patty wart,
f mn whidi ba eanta out Tittnriont and with axtended terri-
toij, nnt)l,McompBnjingIiO<iiiof Ai^ononhii expeditiMk
aguiMt N^Iei, he died then of the plagna (1333). Hia
reign of bia aon AJumua TIL invniiBed to be at glwioai
at thoaa of hit anceaton, bat it wat cnt ihnt I7 a tall
Inim Ua koiM in 1991. Before hia death, howertr, he
had reoiJTed the allegiance of BameloonBttet Yentimi^ia,
TiUafinnoa, and Viet, to gaining aoeeit to the Hediter-
Wa ton Amimni TIIL now oame to the throne^ nnder
the gnardianihip of his grandmother Bonne da Bourbon.
On attaining hit m^ority he fint directed hia effortt
to ttrengthening hia power in the outlying prorincei,
and in thia he waa particnlarlT' tncceetfoL Tie atatea
ctf Savoy now astended from the Lake of Oeneva to the
UeditanaQMn, and from the SaOne to tho Seaia. Its
priiK« had therefcHV eonaiderable power, and Amadent
thraw all tha wught of thia on the tide of the emperor.
Bigianiand wat not nngratefiil, and in 1116 weetad the
eonntiet of Bavoy and Piedmont into dnchiea. At thit
time too the duke reeof ered the flef of I^edmont, which
had been granted to Pbilip, Kinee of Achaia, bj Amadena
T., and hit powar waa thus Uwnraghly conaolldated. The
covn^ of Vercalli afterwaidt rewarded him for jeimng
the laagne againat the dak« of Uilan, bnt in li34 a plot
apdaat hia Hfa mada him put into exeontion a plan he had
loig formed of retuin^ to a monattary. He aoooidingly
made hia ton Lonii lieatenant-geneial of the dnkadom,
and Mtomed flie haint of the kniig}ito of S. Uanrioe, a
nilitarj order he had foondad at the priory td Ripaille.
Bat be waa not deitinad to find the tepoee he aonght
The pralataa aaaemUed at the oonndl of Baiel voted the
depoaitioa of Pope Engenina IT., and elected Amadena in
hit place. FeUsT^ at he wat now called, then abdicated
kit dnkedom deflnitiTely, but without much gain in tem-
poral honourt, for the tcbiam continued until the death
of Engenini in 1447, shortly after which it was healed
by the hononiable aabmiaeion of Felix to Nicholas T.
Tin early yave of Loun's reign were under the gaidaDce
vt hia fathtr, and peace and prosperity bleasad hia people ;
bnt he afterwards made an allianoe with the dauphin
which brought him into conflict with Charles TIL of
Franoey thon^ a lasting reconciliation wat soon effected.
Hit ton AHADim DC. aucceeded in 1466, btil, though his
nrtoea led to hia beatification, bia bodily aufFeringa made
bba aMpi ita nBgcnc^ to hit wife TolandOf a danghter of
Cfaarlea YII. Ha died in 14TS, when iu aon pBnnxEt
L aucceeded to the thronftand to hit than in the cooteatt
of Yolande with her brother and btotheia-in-law, who tried
to depri-TB their nephew of his rights. Hia reign laated only
ten ycart, when he waa anoceedud by hia brother CHaniAi
L This prince raited for a time by hia Talour the droop-
ing fortunes ot hit hcote^ bat he died in 14tl9at theageof
thirty-one, having inherited fnnn bit annt, Charlotte of Ltt-
lignano, her prelentioat to the titular kingdomi of Ontta,
Jeniaalem, and Armenia. He was Euooeeded by Ui ion
CEuuta IT, u infant, wht^ dying in 1496, waa followed
by Paiup II., brother of Amadeua IZ. He died in 1497,
leaving Fbdxbbki IL, who aucceeded him, and ChixuM
III, who atcended the throne on hit brother't death in
1504. In epite of himaait Charlet wu drawn into tha
ware of the period, for in the quarrel between Franda L
and the pope he could not avoid eaponaing the eanaa of
hie nephew. Bat the dedaive vieEory of Francis at Harl.
gnano gave the duke the opportunity of negotiating the
conference at Bologna which led to the conclutimi of
peace in 1SI6. 80 lai well, bat Charlea wat leaa fwtnnate
in the part he took in the wart between Frandt L and
Charles T., the brother-io-Uw of hia wife. He tded to
maintain a strict neutrality, bnt hia attendance at the
emperor's coronation at Bologna in 1630 waa impenttive
in hit doable cbaraotw of kinsman and TavaL The visit
waa fatal to him, for be wat rewarded with the eounty of
Aati, and thia ao ditpleaaed the flench king that, on the
revolt ot Oeneva to Protettantiam in 1693, Ftancia tent
help to the cititena. Bern and Aeiburg did likewise,
and to expelled the doke from Luuanne and Taod.
Charlea now aided definitely with the emperor, and
Francii at onea raised aome imaginaiy claimi to hit atatea.
On thur rtgeetion the French army marched into Savoy,
and, finding the paii ot Sum tmfortified, deeoended on
Kedmont and aeiied Torin (10S6). C3iarlea T. came to
the aid of hit tUj, and inveated the dty, but, being Un-
lelf hard pretttd, wat obliged to mde peace. France
kept Savoy, and the emperor occupied I^edmont, eo that
only mca rematoed to the duke. On the resumption of
hottilitiea in 1641 Kedmont again aultered. In 1644 the
treaty <rf Creepy reetored hia states to Charlea, but the
terms were not carried out and he died ot grief in 1663.
Hit onlf Burviring eon EmcAinnL Phujbkbt aocceeded
to the righto bnt not the domuna of hia anceatota. Since
1596 he had attached himtelf to the eervice ot the emperor,
and had already given promise of a brilliant caieu. On
the abdication ^ Chariee T. the duke waa appointed
govenuw of the Low Oonntriea, and in 1667 the jvAorj lA
St Qnentin marked bim aa one of Uie first generala of hia
time. Such lervicee conld not go unrewuded, and the
peace of Oateau-Cambreeis restored him liit itatet, with
oertain exceptione ttill to be held by France and Spain.
One of the coDditiona of the treaty alao provided for the
marriage ot the duke with the lovely and aocompliahed
Uargaret of Fiance, Eiater ot Henry IL The evacuation
of the placee held by them waa faithfully carried out by
the contracting powere, and Emmanuel mlibert oooupied
himeelf in atrragthening hia militair and naval foroei,
until hia death in 1680 prevented the exeontion erf the
ambitioua deaignt he had conceived. Hit aoo Chulib
EiouiruzL L, called the Great, bung prevented by Beiuy
HL from retaking Geneva, threw in his lot with Spain,
and in 1G90 invaded Froveaoe and waa received by tliii
citiiene of Ai£ Hia btention waa donbtleta to revive the
ancient kingdom of Arie^ bnt hia pkni were frnsttated t^
the aoceadon*^ Henry IT. to the throne of FtaocOk After
efieoting with Henir an ezcbuse of Breaaa and Bogey
for the marquiNte of Balnno he kept up an intermittent
mi with him until 1609, when, ditguatad with tb«
342
8 A V — S A W
belnTionr of Sfwin, he made • tnttj with France agaiiiat
Philip. Bat he could not remain faithful for long, and,
Nding first with one and then with the othar, ha foand
kimaelf in almoet tbo aame atruta aa hia grandfather,
whan death pnt an end to hia ambitions and failurea in
1630. The &at care of hia aon Victor Ai- iszub was to
free himaeH from the double biuden of his enemy and hia
ally, BO ha conclnded peace in 1631. In 1635, however,
Bichelicn determined to driva the Sianiards oat of Italy,
»nd offered the duke the alternatives of war or Milan. He
gave bnt B half-hearted assent to the acheines of France,
and, without gaining Uikn, died in 1 637, leaving by bis wife
Christina of France Fiancia Hyacinth, a minor, who only
Rorvived till the following year, and Charleb Emu»imii
n, whose legitimacy was unfortunately ntber donbtful.
The regency of Christina resembled that of Yolande in the
MUDS D»ed for guarding her son's interesta against the
ptetensions of Ms uncles, Louia XIII. and the princes
of Savoy. Bat fortune favoured her, and on the dulcs'a
naching hie majority in 1618 the wars of the Fronde
occupied all the attention of Manrio. The bmnt of the
conflict with Spain consequeQtly fell upon Savoy, and
was borne not ingloiiooaly nntil the conclusion of peace.
£harlea Gmmanael occupied the remaining part of his reign
in repairing the ravages caused by twenty-four years of
warfare, and died in 1675, leaving an only wn, VleroB
Ahadxdb it., whose minority was as peaceful as hia father's
bod been the reverse. He married Maiy of Orleans, the
daughter of Henrietta of England, and conaequenCly the
legitimate heiress to the English crown on the death of
Anne and on the exclusion of the Pretender. For a time
h« united with Louie XIV. in persecuting the Protestants,
bnt the overbearing behaviour of his ally made him join
the coalition of Augsburg in 1690. His campaign against
Louis was carried on with vaiying resolts nntil 1690, when
he accepted proposals of peace. This defection led to the
peace of Ryswidc in 1697, and in reward he received from
Louis the territories then occupied by France. In 1700
hs sided with France against Austria, bat, an extension of
territory in the Milanese not being granted by Louis, he
went over to the enemy in 1703, The genersJship of hia
relative Prince Eugene proved too mnch for the French,
and in 1706 they were defeated before Turin and driven
acioaa the frontier. The peace of Utrecht afterwards con-
finned the duke in the poasession of the places granted on
his Joining the coalition, including the long-coveted Mont-
feirato, and endowed bim besides with the crown of Sicily.
Austrian inflaencas now replaced Spanish in the peninsuk,
and Charles YL penoaded bim to exchange his kingdom
for that of Sardinia. This was accordingly effect^ in
17S0 by the treaty of Uodrid, and afterwards proved the
very salvation of the house of Savoy. In 1730 the king
abdicated in favour ot his son, in order to marry the
connl«ss of San Sebastian, at whose instigation he after-
words tried to regain the crown, bnt he died in 1732.
Chablxs £>oumikl IIL continued his father's iDtrignea
to obtun possession of Milan, and joined the league of
France and Spaia against Austria in 1732. Bat he used
the rictorios of the allied forces over the imperialisla in
such a half-hearted way that it seemed as if he did not
wish to break finally with Austria. In the end he only
gained from the treaty, which he signed in IT39, the
NovaresB and Tortona, instead of Milan. The death of
Charles ¥L in 1710 gave him the chance of expelling the
Aoatrians from Italy, but, though he at first claimed Milan
from Maria Theresa, he ended in 17iS by espousing her
eanse. The complete defeat of the French in 1747 led to
the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, by which Charles Emmanuel
received the Upper Novarese and Yigevano, after which
)i« remained at peoeo nntil bis death in 1773. Sia ton
Victor Ajusbds IIL Kucceedud him, and devoted tli*
early yeaie of his reign to the improvement of the admin-
istiation and the reorganization of his army. The time
sooD came for him to nse the weapon he had created, nud
on the outbreak of the Revolution in France he headed
the coalition of Italian princes against her. The honae of
Savoy thus assumed the headship of Italy, but for the time
without much gain, for Napoleon's brilliant victoriei of
1796 ended in the peace of Paris, by which Savoy, tiong
with Nice, was given to France, victcv Amodena died
shortly afterwards, ami was succccdod by his son Caui.ni
EiuLUfUBL IV. The fever of tbo Itavolntion spread to
Piedmont, and in 1798 nothing was left to the king but to
retire to Sardinia. In 1802 he abdicated in favonr ot hia
brother, Victor Eiounitel L, who, in his island kingdom,
protected by the English fleet, became tba symbol of the
coalition against Francs. The king returned to Turin in
1811, and in the following year took poasaauon again
of Savoy. The anti-revolutionary measnrea which wcra
adopted by tlie Italian princes on their return canaed m
spirit of rebellion to spring up among thur subjects. Tb«
freedom of the individual and the unity of the nation thus
came to be considered objects to be atbkioed at one and the
same time. The influence of Austria was panunonnt in
the Peninsula, but an inauneetion broke out at Turin in
1820 demanding war with her, and, rather than embroil
himself both with his people and with Austria, Victor
Emmanuel abdicated in favour of hia brother, Charixs
Feux. The general insurrection waa suppressed, and f (v
the next few years Italy suffered everything posuble at the
hands of various petty princes, whose fears and weakneaa
left them do vreapou bnt persecution. In I63I Chariea
Felix died without issues 'nd in him the elder branch of
the family ended. He was.succeeded by Oharlbb Auxkt,
of the line of Savoy-Carignano, wbiiji was founded bj
Thomas Francis, son of Qiarles Emmanuel the Oreat^ and
grandfather of Prince Eagene. The first core of Chatlei
Albert was to reorganixe his military and naval forces in
readiness for the conflict with Austria which he foreHw.
At the same time he put down the conspiiaciea which
would have forced his hand, among which the most famooa
was that of Mazaini and Ramorino in 1831, The French
revolution of 1818 fanned the embers of Italian patriotism,
and Charles Alber^ wiUiont any aid, began the War of
Independence. Victory at first followed hU arm^ bnt he
was defeated at last by the Austrians at Cuatona. In the
next yaar he was again driven into war with the Austrians,
and, after hii defeat at Novara, he abdicated in favour of
his son, Victor EwuiniKL IL From this point the
history of the house of Savoy has been told in uie article
Italy (voL xiiL pp. 4S9 iq.). (b. b. b.)
SAVOY. For the French departments of Savoy and
Upper Savoy see Savon and Satoix, Hautx-.
SAW. Sea Sawb.
SAWANTWiiU, or SAvrcxTiVAXEiB, a nttivs Btat»
forming the southern port of the Ooncan divisiou of the
Bombay presidency, India, and lying between IS* 37' and
16' 16' N. lat ood between 73" 36' and 71* 31' E. long.
It has a total area of about 900 aqnaie miles^ and is
bounded on the north and weet by Batnagiri district on
the east by the Sohy&dri Monntun^ and on the south by
the Portuguese territory of Qoa. The general aspect of tiia
eountiy is strikingly picturesque. Its surface is broken
and rugged, intersperoed with densoly-wooded hills ; in tha
valleys are gardens and groves of cocoa-nnt and betel-nnt
palms. fiiwantwAri has no rivers of any coutderabk
size ; the chief streams are the Rorli on the north and tha
Terekhol on the south, both navigable for small ciaft.
The climate is humid and relaxing with an average ■nnn^l
tainfaU of over 130 inchea. The foieeti and woode4
8 A W — 8 A W
alapm of llw Bihjtldrit CMtteln Ivge nnmben of wild
animkb^ jiwilnJiiig tlie tigar, poa^ar, leopAid, b«ar,
hjMM, fto. Biufcw hmI oUior raptilM liaa aboimd. The
state poBtMM no nlUmj ; bat thera is an oxcellent tronk
rc«d ihiaagix tlie teiritory.
Tlw c^mi of 1881 ntofud 111* popataUoB <rf Mvintwiri at
174,183 (DulMSa.Ml, faiiutMSe,S73}; Hindu naiDbwsd IW.OSa,
UohMnnuduu 8170, ind Chriitiina 1318. AirrleoUnn ■nnnarta
tha gnatn put of tli* popoktioit. Tha
bst aicHitias tic* son* bnt tb* coonort
bst aic^tiag tic* son*
eoonort graini uid pqliaa an
coltinliaootvfacatUHlcitlumpniorgniiu;
~MUF an (lao OTowo. Tb* graa rannua of tha *Uta lu i<n>a-a>
' - .bant £ai,o3o. BsTon tha eitibliilimeDt of
IT (ISIO) Unntwlrl wu th* highnj' of ( grrnt
ina tha 10th ud 17th oantnnea trade aaffend
iT»lrj of tha Portnpieaa, and In the diitnrbance*
of tha 18th ertitiiTT il almoat antinl/ diiajipaared. Sisca the
MtablidimNit of oAtr nndei tha Brituh [ISIS), tnda hu con-
•idanblr derelomd. The mwDl chief being a miaof, the ad-
mLaiatntloa hu been in th* hand* of tha Britudi nuea IBTO.
8AW.FI8E. See Rat, *oL xz. p. 299.
tlAW-FLIES (TuUlatdi»id»). This iubdiTinoD of the
Bymttapttra ii duncterized by poaKoaing k aenile
ftbdoman irhich hides the lue of the poaterior legs. Hie
Mitenns tbtj in their itractDra and in the nmnber of
th«c jmnti. Ilie evipodtor ii modifiad to form two wwi,
iriiich when at reat lie in a sheath fanned of two Tnlvea.
Hie hrra leaemble caterpillui, bnt maj be diitingniahed
t^ their greater Qomher of legs; nsnallf .9 to 11 pairs
are preeenL When alarmed thej have tiie habit of
lolliDg themselves up in a spiral laahion ; aome also dis-
charge a thia flaid from lateial pores sitoated above the
■piracies. The females place their eggs in small incisions
made bj means of their saws in Uie soft parts of leaves.
Usnallj one egg is pUced in each slit. Some species
merelj attach Uieir ^gs in string* to the exterior of the
leavea. With each incision a drop of fluid is osaalljr
•xerried, which aervea to exdla a flow of tap to the
woonded part - The egg is said to absorb this sap, and so
to increase in siie. One guaos (Sematv*) alone forms
galls, nieae oocor in the young leaves of tha willow, a
beo which the true gall-flies do not attack. JVnnafM
smfneDfai* reaembles the bees and wasps in the fact that
the partbenogenetic ova produce only males ; as a role in
(he animal kingdom the abtience of fertiliiatioii results in
thepTodnctioD of fsmalee.
Hm iqJDij which the ww-fltea inflict npoB Crops or
joong trees is almost entirely brought about by the
TotacuMU habits of the larvn. These poesees well devel-
oped DKnth-appsodagea, by means of which they gnaw
their inif out of tha leaf in which they have been ^^ed,
and then cat it In this way the Tumip Satv-Fly (Athalia
ipUMmm), not to be conftwed with the Turnip Fly (Phyllo-
(rtto memonm), attacks the leavea of the tumip, oftea
oonpfetely eonraming the leafage of acrea at a time. Hie
Rh Saw-Fly {Lopkyna pint) eausea great damage to
343
plantations of jooBg Seotdk flia, daroniing the bndi^
tha leavea, and aran die hark of the young ihoota. Other
species infest eonant and gooseberry bnahea, consuming
lect and kill the larvn when they first appear. Syringing
the affected parts with hot water or tobacco water is also
recommended.
BAWS. Blades of steel with serrated edges have been
used from time immemorial to rend or divide substances
of various kinda, inclnding metals and stone ; but tho
Sindpal modem use of the saw is to divide wood.
odera saws are of the finest stsel, bnt the ancients nscd
bronie saws, and among uncivilized nations saws have
been made with flakes of flint imbedded in a wooden
blade, and held in place by means of bitumen (see
Qrimshaw, Eittory, ic, of Sine*), while obsidian has been
nsed by the Mexican^ and shark's teeth and even notched
shells form the saw* of certain savage islanders. Hie
pyramld-bnildai* in Egypt cut granite and other hard
stoqes by means of bronie saws set with jewels (see
voL xz. p. 124),
Space wonld fail to describe minutely the various
adaptations of the saw to mechanical nses. It is indispens-
able to the carpenter, the fnmiture-mannfactorer, the watch-
maker, and manipulator of metala. It is one of tha most
trustworthy tools of the surgeon's case, while withont it
the dentist woidd of neceasity drop back to the barbarous
cnstoma of a past century. Iron, horn, pearl, india-mbber,
and tha thousand and one conveniences of civilized life are
dei>eodent upon this useful instnuneat^ which is bnt an
exaggeration after all of the diupest of knives, whose
edge when examined under the microscope exhibits aa
array of saw teeth so minute as to present a smooth plane
to the unassisted eya. As the chief use of the tool ia to
saw wood, the enormous timber indtistry of America has
given an impetns to the improvement of the saw and its
manofactore^ which has no parallel elsewhere.
Saw* ma; ha olsBtfisd *• (1) atnight (ndprooMing in action),
having a fiat blade and atraigtit adga, making a plane rat, or (3)
sinnilu' oi diik.Iika, enttins at right angle* to the motion, or (SI
cjlindileal or bvnl-ihsped, with a couvei edge catting panJlcl
to its axil, or (1) hand-ian, being a csntlnaou* ribbon or hand
mnning upon an nppsr and lovar ^ley, making a plane or carrnl
eaX. with a itraiglit edge panJtal to the uii of motion. The cldcet
and commonaat, with the (ridaat tanga af adaptability, ii tho
itraight aair, with i«dpTOC*tiiig rectilinear blade. In thia Clara
ii inclnded the ordinanr bind.aa)r with its vatying rsnca of naei
from fine to cone end from rip to cnMacnt, and with teeth of
formi aa varioOi aa an the diSerect dotiea which it ia calculated
to perfotm. The teeth are longer abort, cnlting one way or bolli
waya a«ording to the " pilch or " aet " which may be given,
and which ahoald be adxpted to both the kind and charactar of
th* timber to be aawtL Tha " pitch " of a aaw-tooth i* the angle
of the point with reference to tho blade, and ii found by enb-
tracti4ig the back angle from the front, W beinn the generic angle
of HW'tpeth, whjcb, however, may be variooaJy placed. From
tho Eiuallett hud-anw to the Urgcat " mill-eaw '' the vma general
mlesapply, In tho targcat aawa of tl ' '" "" ' *'""
_ .. . manntictnrta of lumber or timber,
aud vorked by onu penon standing over th* log and dnwinr
upward while aaolhct ia the pit below follows with the downward
or catting thraat. Frora thepit-iatnte advance tothe "gateaaw"
used ia the earlier adaptation of motive power to tha cutting of
timber, theue* to tba ''mnlej-eiiw,''' au»i«nded wilhont atrain
upon * pitman beuealh, having its apiwr end bung in alidc*
pendent from ■ heavy beam above. Thew aawi mnet of necoaaity
be thick, to BoiUin tho heavy thraats whirli they are expected to
endure, and are cotiieqnently of "heavy gauge," thia beiafj baaed
upon the difforcnt aiiea of wire, the largeat gauge repreaenting llio
iley" (or
ilaj) I.
' According to eoma writer* tl , ,
rived rrom the German "IItlhl«llBO,'' mlll-eaw, bnt, ai thia forr.. .,.
•aw, wbm tntrodnced, diffartd onlj from Iba ordinary mill-saw* long
In nae hi the nianner in which it waa hung [free from (train), the
name may have bean ^v*a to elgnify "hotnleH," indicating tb*
abaenoa of the pondcTODa gat* which waa th* eaasntlal realnn «{
atialned MCTt,
su
SAWS
mthani
tba pt^ dlBkilu bmn it oolj in Iti^tA
■ thas ont-thiid tbs thiekiMai til tit onlisaiy
wudbutahoattwo thinliltaleDZthl. A largn namber of
~ 1 10, m itningd lu a |^M or fnune, mt
ig lliielineM of Inmlior Jcniandi, uhI the
iog ii wholly nuU iuto limnli in ono opcntioD. Of tho rociprD-
ottiiiil dim ot aiTri li tho " cnnt.imC,'' iu«l for cntting tsnai tho
(mia of tho timbor or wood to 1» con«rted into ihortcr lengthi.
fiio IsDfcUi, broaJth, "pitch," *n<l "Kt" of kwb T«rv icootJinB
to Ik* QB which ii to M mule of th*m uid th< kind of timber
Thich ii to ba m*nirinlitwL In > ctga-cot bt t)i> catting tdi;*
■trtlcoa tho libra it right ingln to iti langth, sad while iCi mtch u
bnt illffht (it uij) it mnit levsf from met lido before di«lodgiiig
lb* Miwduit "A liittiiia or riiTidg «aw hM tho entting edge
■bout >t 1 rieht uele to the flbio of the wood, HTering itiD one
pieo^— thoUiniatoFtha tooth wedglEg out the piece. " in alitting
latn the ' ' r>1u " ii ill in trant, in the eroB-cnt on the lide.
Th* drcnliir hw Ii of eomptntiTelj recant origin, ili introdmi-
tlon lilting from ITM, wnen Brunei Gnt umooncod the jmndple.
At Gnt onlv eircnUr tvn of nn»li diunetar were oiod ; bnt, from
tho null ' bon-Bw " of tho witcbmalur and Sua matal irorker,
Dt the riuping bit ot the plaDing-niill or arnontcr ihop, where
■mall diametan b«Te to be dirided, the cirenlu taw hu paaed
to the nw-ndll, where, in diamotm of from IS to SO inchee, it i>
tbo Bwdtol iuatrvment tor edging or ripping the lumber which
dnpa tnm the log in an Imperfect condition, Teqniring liner
nunipaUtian I0 prepare it for morket ; or In dia<net«n of froi
U to 84 Inehn it may ba fc
Tondlng the logi ea thej cor
■ilea adapted lot the Tarione pai
ol diTidiug loa into boarda 1
ba u M,tiOO aaperflciat
Sba found ai the mnin eav ot the mill for
gj coma from the forst into ahipee end
— ' iirpoanot the builder. It ia capab'-
10 inch th'^k or upvuda at aa hii
a daj- of twelve honre, while
■ itnliiht (mnlaf oi gate) bw vonld giTB onl^ BOOO to 8000 feet.
In the chief lumber aeotlona of the iTrited State* BWa of 60
iochea iliamatar are tn mait common VM ; npon the PociCc coast
wva ol a feat diamatai an not nnknown. AtEempta to work larn
drcalar nwi In neati or genga hare not hitherto [hiitmI roeeawtBl,
batthro<^ tour, orflTeBr" '" '--■--- "-- '- ■- ' — '
abaft or "arbor" maj-bi
planln thrown alt from a log.
Ikrrel Bwa, (or the '"
tnb^ are in tbo form
ramoTed, and the atare dui ■ w olid uoau bchbin.
for tlie mannfactnra of Teneaia, where Talnabla timber la to be
eoononicallr manipalated, we baire the Hgiuent-aaw, conatrected
lij bolting aegment* of «iw>blade* Ofion IM ontcc lUn of > caat-
Iran oentre^ fanning a drcalar uw st the de^nd ^anetar, bat
witlt a euttinf edge.of M light a page M to waits bat lltll* of the
Tilnaiile tlnw to be Bwed, the caat'lmo eentn inaaTlng th«
reqnialta atiffoin and itnngtk With theee nwi Taneen icarmlr
(hiclut thaD a dieet tt paper majr be cut, the width being aoeord-
la log ; Huh Mwi are often from SO to 100
a atralght-iided baml with both headi
ing to the iiia of the I(
indue in dianxtet.
Clrcnlar aatn of the larger d
"iiwrtnl'taMh. Adiak oTitoel of loltablaein.haTliigalota mt
in it* parii^iary of the exact die and ahape o( the tooth which
ia to fa* inaerted, Biajr haTe theee teeth renutrad ac oflm aa tho
wear npon them mn THinlre, witbont rtdndDg the diameter of
the plata. The teeth ot lumber Bwa hare to ba iharpanad with
llu nia at leut three or foot timea tn twalre honteT work, and a
BW i>f lira feat in diameter ia rapidlf radnoad in ain with a great
lorn of elBdenlij. In the lutort tooth plate new taath coat
onl; about thru canta (Ifd.) each, and the eaw plata nmalna of
Ite ori;^n(iI diameter, Inaerted taeth an of Tariona forma and
ahappa. from that ot the ordioar; bw tooth, held in place bj a
rirot at the not of the lootii, Ui a " ehiBl point ' luld bf an
iuftenione aritam of weilgin^
Uanil-Bva hare (or many jnn been nwd for oonliaaoiH and
rauid cuttins in Ih* planing mill or othar wood-working aetab-
liahmant, where tcrolla or fancir linea and cnrrea war* to be
faliawod, R<|niring great Oeilhilitj of the nw-blade. Ot late, and
Sa»JRtU in hetoriM for the oonrenlen of fomt tree*
into Inmber kod timber. The eartieat form of iiw-mill
WM nnqoeationablj the MW-pit, still found in ft modifled
form in ahipbnildera' jarda, tho log being raised on trestle
hom ioitead of ono of the eawjen being annk in the pit.
Sawn vera run bj wiodmill-power as eorlj u the 13th
centnry ; and the use of ireter-poirer soon followed. The
primitive water saw-mill cnuiated oE » nooden pitmnn
attached to the shaft of the water-wheel, the log to be
sawed being placed on rollen snatained by a framework
over the wheel, and being fed forward on the roller* by
of levers worked bj hand. Qood authorities meutioa
saw.milla running by water-powar in Germany aa early aa
1322. In 1G63 an attempt to estabW a mill in Engjand
was abandoned owing to the oppoaition of the sawjen,
and no further attempt was made till 1T68, when a mill woa
erected at Limehoose, bat was soon destroyed by a mob.
North America, with ita vast forests, may be aptiy tenned
the home of saw^nills. As early as 1631 a saw-mill WfW
erected at the falls of the Piscataqua, near the line divid-
ing Maine from Kew Hampaliirs. Tliis vrns no donbt the
pioneer of the vast array of mills which subseqtiently
made Maine famous as a liunber-produeing State for many
/eara. From about the same date eevetol mills wen
elected along the Atlantic coast of America, a description
of one being that of alL In these mills the saw woa
attached by a long pitman from tlio wheel shaft to a
ponderous gate, running in wooden slides uixm two heavy
posts, crossed above by a beam connecting the tua aides
of the mill-frame. The mill-carriage on which the 1<:^ lay
was pushed toirards the saw by a rack and pinion, ic,
movwl by a feed-wheel The daily capacity of these mills
was from SOO to 1500 superAciol feet. The first great
improvement npon this class of mills was in the introduc-
tion of two or more saws to the gatc^ the general character
of the methods remaining the same. With the demand
for more rapid production camo improvements in the
" gang " features and the wonder of the age was the
"Yankee gang," so onanged, by placing baU tho saw*
fodng in one direotioa and the other half in tho oppodte,
that tvo logs were worked up ia one movement of the
carriage, or, as in the " slabbing " gang, the outside* or
slabs were cut from one bg, which was then turned njioD
ita Oattened sides to die other set of saws which ent it
boordt. The "stock" gang, "pony" gta^ "slab-
■tlj withiu the peat two yean (1884.8S), SDoctisAd andeavonn
a boen made to adapt them to InniMr manotkatnnh The
a coutlnoona blade or ribbon ranning over polleya
above and below, fanning a '* steal belt" wboaa aenatad
•tola
indila
work of the B«-mill, and In the Utter have a cutting oancit
from 30,000 to 10,000 luperfldal feet in twelre hania. They
eitremelj thin (unidly 16-gange], and the kirf imduceil ii
mnehlaea then tiiat of the upright or tba dicnlar Oat a Bvin
at leaat lOpor cant oftimberisclalmodiBU '
bing " gang, and " Tankee gong are favourites with
saw-mill proprietors, because of the uniform character ot
the lumber produced, and the saving of timber realized
from the use of saws of scarcely one-tiiird the thickness of
the gate, mnley, or circular.
Oang.Bws are seldom thicker than li-ganga, and ne anccea-
faUy worked at IS-gann, making a ssw-kerf or wseta tl bft
^ inch, whereas the oidinsry gate, nnley, or rircnUr takes '-ff'
inch. The mnloy was introdnccd later than the ging, and was
received with great favour, entering into mora general nm bo-
eauae ot Id comparative cheapnoa and adaptability where tho
Bwyer had not to deal with large qnantitiH of lumber. Tba
mnlay null diipanied with tho ponderous gate and heavy poata
of the saw-lrama. While the lover portion ot the mill ia
amuged much aa in tho nH of tho gate-nir, with the additloa
of neceaiarj ilidea, the upper end of tho bw ie guided in a
Blrong iron fmma pondent from the ireirfi-boam ovotbead. On
each elde of thia frame an alidn in nhich are placed boiea,
attached bv a noddle pin and strap to the upper end ot the
- ^ 1 :.!-. xL- .--1 r. T: — :..l. >i.„ ^..» .JJ tk. «-«tt.... :o
■, kefpine tl
ampliibed n
tool
1 lini
[ whollj by the downwiird thrurt, the moHon ot
._ crank ben«th unparting a forwird motion to tba blade in
B cuttiog fiuictioni and a retreating motios
L to hog t
ingenloae
■ay DA imparted, tJ
t of the ilides sn inci
9 olijccC being to caow the
tliB doTrnwird or cutting tl
on tba upward Di
thua decreasing the friction. Uolay-aawi
apaad of SOO ravolationa of tho diivbg whoci per minute, and
tha daily capacity may b« stated at about WOO anperfidal fc*L
SAWS
tirnt It !• ■■ diSenlt U) find b ntu-pown nw-miU u> It ii to And
Ttu nn of ua circnlit i> the mijn nw of a mill b of eampan-
tiTolj Iwsnt origin, th« txparimtnlal point in ItB Introdootion
luring btan puaed onlf ■boat th« j-nr 186f. Since thnt time it
bm npJcDj naehed tiu higluat *IBeiMic]P. DiiT«n br angina
et ftom 31 to 100 hoiM-po*gr ths dnaUr Mir-Tnlll, undar piD|i«r
nuauaaont, tonu oat from 20,000 f«t par d«j for muDar to
CO.OoS and 60,000 fast par iaj for luigor mill). In utdition to
jnuulng tha donblo-tdgtn and trinniing un^ raqniiiita tor
^-" '-r or tb* roofih idgca and bad mdi of tba Inmbar
poAeeti.
■ IcTai upon tl
which hoiili tlio log flrrali in place irwlj
w. Tliu JH SKOinpfiahn] hj oiio at mini
iinplifthnJ bv oi
orkod bT ''^coi
Th* modmi mr-mill atuida npou th< buk* ol ■ tlrn or ponJ,
at an alnBtliui tunallr ol twclre fnt Croni tht lavel of th« land to
tba Hw-Soiff. Tha Ion ar« floated from the fomt [onia mmy
handnd milM diMint from tha mill) down tba rirar, iu lengtbi u
daand. Filing drinD at coannlunt diitancca in tba n-alor
Kuwm to hold tb* long piacoa of timbar, wbicb, scnrad to tho
pilM by heaTj ebaina, form a itronff " boom," floating Into
■bioli tba log! an pennod or " boomad " until mmirod. Fram
tba iHT and of tba mill, at tha aacond itoi; or aav^oor, a " jack
laddir " li conitnelaJ of baaTf Umber, tbo loirar end* roating in
Uia bottom of tba atraam apon a bad of tinibai beavilj Talghtad.
Upon tlia (idea of tba jack ladder are liid ribbon* of iron forming
a tnck for tba log ear, wUch, ttroLgtj eonatmctad and irith itttop
Croaa aaetlona or "bonki" imTllj atnddoJ irilb J^-lmdcd bolti^
li nm B>d«r the watar at a depth to allow tha log to float orcr it
iD lb« mill fa mnnJ up, tho ■[likot oftha car catcb apon tlio
nndar-alila of tbo log or toga, vbich tbn> load thfrnaclra and arc
lianlei' np tho indlns to tba mill floor, Hera tlxij an roUgd njwn
ikida laading to tba lair-arTiiEo, and aro aoon raiinins rai<iJlv
thWT oooiaa of mann^ture. Loaded apon the " bead-block^^
hj m qnlck motion of a leTaf npon tho atandonl, the
iDaarta an iron ^'do?-" vhirli hofilfl the
for adranciog to tli
mathoda ;— {!) bj rark sni
vhicli a belt ta moTnl upon
npid or a ilovar motion to . ....
a TDjw, naaally of irini, boinj; attichod to each end of tba mill
carrugo, and putiug orer polloja in tho floor to a dnun licncath,
aa arrmnged aa to be nndor control of the aairjar In ita foeding
moramont or in raTenol to *' gig " tbo carrion back to ita firat
.n.1 "t^ Thf. ii tbo more modem and
_... _ .«th tha Mir-eairiaga, ita pialon connoclingititb tha
cazriage^ Btaam baing adniittad to tha driring and of tha cylinder
(tba length of irbicK ia according to tha length of timber to be
aairad, aaction* being added or remored at plsaaore] tba aaw
caniaga ti driTas with lightning iiiced, both in the cntting l^cd
■ad larardng ' gig. " Tbirtj ordinair cnti par niinnte, on
11 inchea lead to tha nvolndon of tha aair, mtj be attained
«ith thia adaptation. Aa tha limit of caMcitj for work with a
cltcnlar aaw ia practieallf tha abilitjr of tha operaton to remoTe
tha lonibar, 60,000 to 70,000 fe«t per dajr It no nnnaoal cut,
wbila a rata of 100.000 faet per daj baa been nuintatnsd (for a
nhoct period) bj t aingla eircniar. The hunbor aa it dropa from
tha MM iklla npon " lira roUa," a aariea of Iron or wooden rollera
connacted bf chain 1>ellg, which cirrr it within reach of tba
"HgBT,' who mpiill J panes that portion which require* " edging "
or aplitting tbnngh tfao *'donbJe-odgeT," to a caniage or bnck
on which a la pndied to the piling ground, or, In aomo milla, to
anothai iwiai of lira rolla which take it to tho front of tbo
D juganiona arrangomont of table, benoath which
ro aaTanlaa
I which adva
it recede at the opnator'a plcai
laogtb* are 13, If Id, and 18 teti, and by nae of^tba trimmer all
anparAQona and* are remoTed, learing each picco of muform length
with its fellowa. The waite of the log, coniisting of the
" alaba " and edging!, are carefallj gone OTor, and nieh aa an
anltable foi that pnrpoae go to the "Jath" machinea, where tbay
ara cot iiito atripa four feat in length, | inch thick, and 1} inchea
wido, tor lath and plaatar work. In tba ia*ing of lo^, imperfec-
Vona an often dieoorared in the timber, nnfltling It for ordinary
naea, and fn mar^ milla it ia cuitomary to aaw anch timber Into
of nanally aL
Inchea thickneo. Thoae cania ai
« 18 inchea)
mill to be mangfartared into ahingiea. Sbinglei are taperii
I inch thick at ana end, and fy inch at the other, and an
a iDOt oorarlng in lien of elating or tilca. They are hud in
0 SO 7«*nr wMT npon a to
345
the parpOBO of enabling larger loaa to bo handled than tlio diameter
of an ordinal; oiroolar wilTparmlt Tbo apprr aaw cnta into the
top of tbo log In a liim wUb tba cut of tlm lewor or main saw,
thna iuenoains tha depth of Uie ont In California, when loga of
8 and 10 (att Aamater an notnmunal (larger logi babg qiiartcrod
b; the nae ofgnnpawderar otbor exploaite, timber aa mnch u 20
and OTen 2S tiwt In diauMter being foDvd in tho redirooil forcita],
an ingeniona anangement of foor aawi placed ona higher tlian the
other, Boma horiioutal end other* lertiod, permita IIh haudliui; of
huge troea which until rocontly were not coniidcrad iTailable.
A tlioroughly modem aaw-mlll embrace* all which haa been laid
nganling the circular, with the addition of the "gang" foatnra,
for, while a m^ority of the aaw-mill* of North America an ainglo
■cireulara," man)' of them baxo a rotary npon eoch aide of flie
ill leva eithi
V — ._ .,i,ii,i_. ^ (ha rotariea from o
traiuferred to tho mnga, _,
tha modem patent Impcoramenta, Tha logi ai
ehairu liiiing provided either with aiiftea oi
hold tha log from alipptng Uck. One log follova tha other in
andlea* *iicaa*tlon. On it* arriral at the log deck on tho mill floor,
Iho maulpnlatlon of a lerer caneaa an arm or anua to riae llirengli
tho floor agalnat the ddo of the li^ which ia nartlallj raiaad and
thrown with conaldenbla force npon the akida leading to Iba aaw
oarrtngo, When one log hoi been aaicod, another ia iHidod bj the
ainijile tOBch of a lenr In tho bnndi of the aawfer, canaiuf; ami,-
to riao In tbo akida under tho lug, which Ii lliranu npon the
carriage ready for the aaw. Whoa the flrat alab hoa been nmoTed,
tha aawyar'a tonch of a leTor bringa throogh liio floor the "nigger,
a piece of atrong timber, iron-lnnnd and Kilh iharp teeth or aplkea
protruding from it* front face. It* moliou tend* aliglitly forwanl
apikod anrfoce retching tho aide or face of tlie 1o^ turning it
inaCantly to any deaind poailioiL It the log ia aimply to be
" ' ~ "-' gang the two oppoalto aidea or alalia an
la«t cnt i> complete a hook thrown orer the
ntcd" for the s
taftaabloadai
" L ,
, emerge trmn tba gang, nt
necaaaarily tonehed tha log, Uachinery guided
by hnman intolllgenoe baa done all tha work. When &t loe
reached the carnage It waa diwed, not with tLa old-taahioned
ItTet dog diiren by a mallat, but by the dmpla moramant of a
lerer. It waa brought to^ it* proper podtion befon the mw by
nicely adjnitad aat work*, which gndnatad It* podtton to oaa-
eighUi of an Inch. After tha alab »a* nmovad, if anothar ntt waa
mjnlred the aame aat woriu mored It Itewaid vith lightning
anickneaa, learing it at the aiaet poinL to a nloetr, nqiMte fat
the production m juat the thiekneae deitred for the next place.
Tram the water to the pile In tha milhajd handa har* oecaBarlly
beanoaiployedinaetnalhandlir--*-' '-' -'- - ■• ■- -
and the trimmer, a~ ' '
1 in aetnal handling of Ue prodnot only at the cdgar
Ml, and in aawitlng the qualiliea tipon the tram-car
a it bom tha mill. Machinery^ gabled by hnman
aa done all the heary work. A mjl anaweriageloaoly
laryworl. __ _.
3j boned at Bay City, Uicbi
»rly prodnetion of which for aereral yean fut haa
0,000,000 feet of Inmber, bande* ahingloa, lath, ^liokata, fcc.,
tnim Uie alaba and waata. Tha total {nodnction of the aaw-
milla of the United fitataa ap^oiiniatat 26,000,000,000 bot
aiumallr.
Tha " band " Mw-mOl ia npidly working Ita way into public
faronr bacanae of the eeonomj attending it* uae. The bud aaw ia
a long ribboo of ateel, *ii to eight fnchee in width, mnnii^ orer
Urge polloyi aboTo and below, the np[>er pulley moning almoat
TBTlJcally abore the lower, tha aaw acting aa a belt be^reeo die
t«ia and a* tlie driring power to tha upper wheel Theee aen
anrary thiuandhaTeanMna&etniingeuacityotftom 10,000 to
40,000 foot per d^, with the oonaompfion of U to 10 pot tsnt lea*
power than i* reqnind Ibr the ordinoijr dreolar aaw of the aamo
dailr CMiadty for work. The main adrantaga fotmd bi the uae ol
theband-aawlatn tha aarine of timber (10 per cent,). The eat
differ from tteae at rota^ milla, and althat oonev
feed may be naad in conneiion with It.
junct to the many aaw-mlUa, whldi jnvdsca mon
wieta tban can be conaumod in ralaing tho neceoaary ateam, ia the
** alab-bnmei " or "bell," a large eircniar brisk fninace often EO
get ia hel(^t hj It tset intenial diameter, eieeted eoDrenientI*
«ai tba aaw-ui^ into whieh by duds eairian IomI^ to an
ftaiag at a oallBknt htUU Iiom Um battom, tba Mwdnat,
XXL-44
S A X — S A X
(dglngi, worthlMi ihb*, «addAriiofthsmIUn«coiin]>«d, toba
dntrofcd by fin.
Skingli llillt.—A aUndird ihin^c ii fonr inehK Tide, ond dl
MmpuUdbtu of qtuntilj in buad anm thit irldch, althongh tho
indiTidiul iltingro nu; be ■!! or right InsbM Kide oi oi macb u
IE inchn, in the Utter cue coanting l} ebingln. A ibinKls niU
diOirm &om a UT-milt in tho ■dtptitioni of machinery. Stin of
Ifl.giDgB, to IncbM ia diameter, are meat commonlj (mployed.
la UK* wber* ahipgt* matmractan ii carried ao in cosneiion with
tha BW-mill, the pitxtaM of i>rep«ting the bloclu baa alrefutj boen
datoibad. A iworitj o[ the ahingte* numuTactand. honeTcr, aio
mad* in milli built tn tha ipedal porpote. Lo« mitabla. nEuallT
of ■ nadiam quU^, ara placad Mfon ■ " bolting "or * drug
MV, vbioh aaran tbSB into th« i*qnir«d length. Tha block ia
than ftilppMl of Ita bAifc and aip hj aplitting off a aection at the
oatar cdTsanhraiK* to tha liaart wood, with axea ; it i> nort
qurtend, and the lutda Mction of heart, which ia noTer aound,
tamond ; and than It goea ta the inaGhine for manDractcre. Tha
maeliinaa ■» aomaliniM koriimtil, aometlmea rertioal, hot ^1
work upon tlia aama principle, Tii., that of a tilting tablt, allowing
a tlk{<& Dstt and a thiD ja^t to be alteraatal; taken. The ahioglta
H tbaj drop ftom tha aaw are TODgh-adged, and teqnira to be
'Mointad," gonaiaUj npona tapldljr rerolTiiif wheal, upon tha face
of which aia aaonndf four wall-balancad biirea, which, a* tha
ahingla it priwed againit them, eat awar tha Imperfect edge with
great ta^dl^, leaving ■ Btralght amooth adgi^ which when Ud
Dpon a roof makaa ■ good Joint with ita fellowi. Tha edging or
JointlDg prooeaa ii often perftemad with auall aawa In pUoe of the
— k^i !lr..*« >r^. .1.1.;^.- ... .«..n. .^-l-j (_ i^- l_
wheel-jouter. ^le ahin^ea era naaallT packed in bnncbea
tha eooivalent of ona quarter thouand 44nch piecea, ana
re need for roof oovering than an; other material in the
United StatM oi Canada,
8AXE, Hauuci, Cokti si (1696-ITGO), nunhal of
Fnnoc^ ma the lutanl md of Aagtutoa IL of Saionj
knd the coiuit«M Atiior« of KOnigamark. Ad sntrj in
tha puiah r^patera of Qoelar ahom that he wm botn ia
that town, S3th October 1696. In 1696 the eountem
aent Mm to Wueew to hi* father, who had been elected
Uag of Poland the preriona J6U, bat on acoonnt of the
unsettled cooditiou of the country the greater part of hia
yoath ma apent onteide iti limits, a yearly income being
aaiigned bim. Thia enforced aeparation from hia father
made bim moie independent of his control than he wotild
otherwisa have been, and had an imp^tant effect on the
ehaiacter of hU future career. At the age of twalre he
mw preeen^ under the direction of the count of Scholen-
burg, in the army of Eugenes ^t ^e siegee of Tonniay and
Uona and the battle of MaJplaqnet, but the achievementa
wcTibed to him in thia campaign are chiefly fabnlone. A
proposal to Bend luni at the cloae of it to a Jeenit collage
at BroBMls waa ^linqniahed on account of the strong
pToteeta of hia tnother ; and, returning to the camp of the
alliea in the bt^ning of 171<^ he di^)kyed a coniage ao
impetnona aa to call forth bom Eugene tha friendly
admoDition not to oonfonnd nahnesi with Talour. After
receiving in ITII formal recognition from his father, with
tlie tank of count, he accompanied bim to Pomerania, and
in 1713 be took part in the eiege of Stralannd. As he
grew up to manhood be was seen to bear a stroug resem-
blance to his father, both in person and character. HU
grasp was so powerful that he conld bend a horse-shoe
with his band, and to the laat hia energy and e&dnrance
irere unsubdued by the eSTere bodily illnBasw resulting
from hia many eicessea. The impetuosity noted by
Eugene manifested itself in his private life in a dimolnte-
ness only slightly tempered by his generosity and good
humour. In bis military career during bis mature years
it waa indicated only iu hia blindness to danger and his
unmoved calm amidst the blackeet loweringa of misfor-
tuae, for it was tempered by the " vigilance, forethought,
sagacious precaution " which Carlyle notes aa " singular in
so dissolute a man." In 17H a marriage waa arranged
between him aud one of the richest of hia father's subjects,
the Connteas ron Loeben, but her immense fortune he
dissipated so rapidly that he was soon heavily in debt,
and, having giveu her more serioue grounds of complaint
against him, he oonsented vrithoot defeoea to an ■ana}-
mont of the marrisge in 1731. Ueantime, after Mnring
in a campaign against the Tnrki in 1717, he had in 1719
gone to Paris to study mathematics, and b 1730 obtaoMd
the office of " mar^chal de camp.' In 1T3S n^otiatiiKW
were entered into for hia election aa duke of Courlaad, at
the instance of the duchasa Anna Ivanovna, who offwwl
him her band. He vras cboaan duke in 1733, but declin-
ing marriage with the dncheu found it impoasible to
rwiat her opposition to his claims, althongh, with tlie
asaisUnce of £30,000 lent him by tha French actren
Adrienne Lecouvreur, bis reUtion* with wh<mi form th»
subject of the drama of that' name by Scribe and
Legouvd, published in 1849, be raised a force by which
be maintsined bis authority till 1727, when he withdraw
and took up his residence in Paris. On the outbreak
of the war in 1734 be served under Uar^ial Berwick,
and for a brilliant exploit at the siege at Philippsbnrg ho
waa in Aognst named lientenant-generaL It was, how-
ever, with the opening of the Austrian BucceMion War in
1741 that he first rose into prominenoe. In eommand
of a division forming the advance guard of an anny sent
to invade Austria, he on the 19Ui November luiprised
Prague during the nigh^ and took it by assault before the
garrison were awue of the presence of an enemy, a eow/>
Je tttain which at once made him fauums tbrougfaout
Europe. After capturing on the IBth April 1742 the
strong fortress of Eger, ha received leave of abaanea, and
went to Russia to posh bis claims on the duchy of Cotir-
tand, but obtaining no succees returned to his command.
His ekploit* had been tiia sole redeeming feature in an
unsuccBsaful campaign, and on 26th Uarch 1743 hia
merits were recognised by his promotion to be manhal
of France. In 1T14 he waa chosen to command the
eipeditiou to England iu behalf <d the Pretender, which
assembled at Dunkirk but did not proceeJ farther. After
ita abortive isane be rteeived an independent command in
the Netherlands, and by dexterous mancenvring succeeded
in continnally harassing the anperior forces at the enemy
without risking a decisive battla In the following year
he made a rapid march on Toumay, and, when the alliea
aent an army of 60,000 under the duke of Cnmberland
to its relief, gave them battle II tb Hay, without relaxing
the siege, from a strongly entrenched poaitioa at Fonta-
noy. The cootaat raged from early morning till two
o'clock, when, by a charge at a critical moment which
annihilated a column of the enemy, fortune waa decided in
his favour. I>nring the battle he waa unable oo aoeonnt
of dropay to sit on horseback except for a few minntea,
and was carried about in a wicker basket. In recognition
of his brilliant achievement the king conferred on him tha
castle of Cbamlord for Ufe, and in April 1746 he was
naturalized. The campaign of 1746 waa signalised hj
the capture of Antwerp on the lat June, the capture of
Namur in September, and the total rent of Prince Charlea
at Bauoouz llth October. Having on tite ISth January
1747 been made marsbal-general, be in tbe fottowing
campugn won Uie victory of Lawfeldt over the doke of
Cumberland, and on leth September he stormsd Bergen-op'
soom. In May 1148 be captured Haestricht after amoDth'a
dega After the peace, he lived in broken health dtieAy at
Chamford, and he died there 30th November 1750.
Hanrioe da Soia waa the author of a work on militaij adence,
JTa Bittria, described by Carlrle aa "a atnnge militsiy fanaga,
dictated, aa I aboold think, ander opiam," pobluhed poathnmotttH
in 1TG7 (lant e<!., Pari^ 1877). Hia LMra U JTAnolret Ctuiint
appeared in I7S4. Uanj prerioqi errors in former biompbies
vere corrected and sdditlotial biionsation sapplied fa Carl too
Weber'a Mmlt, Grafvm SaOmti, Mmndaa vm FrminiA, Hot
nrehealiacAfli QiieIt>».(Lelpei<:, 1868), and In Ullandiel's Maurkt
dt Saxt, Oudt AMoruiH iaprf la iamnmU im AnMm <!•
Dffii[\SK). See also CarlyVaiMfHctUtOraai;
B A X — S A X
S47
^tT«.AT.Tmramift (Oatra. Sacitm-JiUmiiir/), a
dsahj in Hmringl*, ud ui ladepaodntt iMmbat m th»
G«nDMi wiirfnt oouUti of two d»tMh«d and aloHBt aqoal
[Mrt^ amntod from aadi gthar bf a pra&n of Keiua
(janloc Ium), and bounded on the B. and W. bj the gmnd-
iiubj of Saaa^WeuMT-Eiaeoaeh, ootheK. by Pnuti>,tnd
oo Iba E. ^ As kingdom of Saxony. Then are in addi-
tioa 13 mul axdant. nte total ana ia SIO iqnan nulla
(about half the iitf of Cheahlre in England), of which 2C4
arc in Aa east or Altenburg diviuon and 3S6 to tbe wait
or Saal-Eiaanbeig diviBoa. lie foraer diitrictf tnTeiaed
by tbe moat weateilj oSahoott of the Eixgebiige aad
watered W the Plsiaaa and ita tribotariei, forma an undu-
lating aiM ftrtile ngion, aoataining aome of the lichaat
aotiealtnialanlinaenntnj. 'nMweatemdiatriet.Uuou^
lAU the Saale Bown, ia rendered hillj hj tha baginninga
of the Uniringian ForeaV ud in aome measoie mi^aa up
ty ito tbe wooda for the omnparatiTely poor aoiL The
minanl wealth ^ Saxa-Altanborg ii aean^j lignite the
diiaf minMal, ia worlMd mainly in th« eaatem diatiiat
AooNdlag ta the ntnrm for IBSS, U^ V" <x>t. of th« cntin
dockr wa* ^'"Sf*^ 'v mbb bad, ud S7) par osot. by fonati,
at which (onr-fiithj mn amiraroni. Tha eaitl enpi wan na
<4t,»T acRa, rlalding &,tti toot), sata (U,80T tcrem, St,fiSa
tODiX barlar (!1,S90 acna, 1S,9)3 tmu), vhaat a7,190 aena,
mt too)}, uul poCatoa* (19,B7D tena, ItS.SOB too*). Tha cattle-
nUmguiA hnaa-bcanling of tha doelij ara at cooaidaimbla impcift-
In IStS tha doohy osnCained Wi hataaa, W,SS6 cattla,
miaabataraaal tiMdaebTanvaiTnrM, batnoaaiaafaorKnat
taipsMaiMa ; woidlan goodi, ^oraa, ball, wnnlaui and aarthaB'
wan, and wosdan artuka «« tha diiaf indneta. Tiada la Ihaaa,
aod in bofaa^ eattla, and agtiDoltBial pnidnca, ii toIafiUy bitak.
lia ahlaf Hata of trada and wunAstara «ta Altaabaig tba
cqltal «l,m lahaUtanta la IS86), Branabon (HU fnbaUtanta
la lUO), BchnBlln (tSH), Oeaaaiti (m«), aad HaoaaMli (3«03)
in tba Altmibus dl<rUou ; and EiaanbuK (SS7T), Boda (MU),
aad Kahla (SMi) in tha Saal-Elaanborg diTuion. Beaidaa tbrae
thon ara tha tova* of Laska (IWC) and OilamiUida (UBl), and
le tilliv^ <•' i^>^ BoMlaf (1T81), in an azalara, ia tha
Smi to tba two tainiil|>alltiaa «f Baan, Saxa-Altmbarg (a tha
moat daaadr paoplad pan of ninilncia. In 1U0 tba popolatioB
via 1M,0H, or sot par aqoaia ndla. Of thaaa lu.isr a
PnlMtaata, TU Boaun Oatbotica, tS Jawa, and 79 of otbai ae
, IS Jawa,
Tha popabuioa ta ISW, Mcofdii^t to a poilaioBal ntnn «r tba
aaaaaa of that nar, waa lSl,lt>. la tba waat diriaion tba popa-
btlini (W,7M)fa vhollrTa>itonio,bBt {nthsaa>t(lll,S41) tbar*
ia a atneg WandlA or BlaToola Jamaat, atill to ba tcaead in tha
paosUar maaaan and ooatama of tba oountcy-paopla^ though thaaa
an nadaallj bring j^vaa ap. Tha lannan and paaaant-prapriatoia
of laa aaat diTl^oa (Altaaborgar Banarn) an ta Indoaliiaua and
waO-t^do elai^ bnt Uka ainllw elaaea in othar anmUiea thmr are
aaii ta ba avaiWona aad pntaa-pmod. Thair hddlEg* ara atldom
diTidad; a onatom oomapoadiiw to BoaauoB-GKaLiau [g.v.),
thooiih aot aaapcrtad by law, obtaut among tham ; and aomtlinua
Oo ddar broUan an an^ojad by tha TiNUifiaat aa aeiTwita on tha
patarnal bim, Tki dtatitatioa to which tha diaiDharit«d ehildran
ara onan radnoad by tUa enaloia ia anloaaly pnjndicul to morality,
na Altanbnis paaanti ara plaaania-larinB and in tpita of th&i
antke an mU ta ganbli tSr rarjr high atBka% aapacially at tha
. oompllaalideard-gtinoot "ikati'nowiuiiTaraalinOanaany, which
nanj baljara to Itava baan innnted hara.
8ua-Altanbnif la a liinlt«d haraditarr monarelir, iti
^ ^ .._ J .», --TqnnnUy modiflad.
agawhopaf
and Tata, nw gnanmant la caniad on hj
aaabni. ot whra two adniniatar Jnitica and
aad Um uicd aU tha otbar dajiaitmanta of boa]
Tba dnka ata coaudanbla poweaa of laitiatiTa
'a ndniati; of thns
._ . financa n^iaetivaly,
. at otbardaraitmantaof boBMandliinlan affiira.
Tha badgat for lB8«-ee eaUmatad tba jraailr ineoma at £1!7,1S0
«d tba raariy aipaadltnra at XISS.&SO. Tha Altcnburf; ttnopa
«a anitad with tbe conttngaDta of SchwanbnrK Bndolatadt, and
tta twa Banaaa to fcnn tha Tth Tbnringian infantry lanincnt ol
tha iiaparial amy. Baxa-iltmborg haa ana TDta is thaBaichatag
aad oaa in OA bdaral coandL
Aftar tlu oanqaaat of Iha 'Wanda, tba pnaant Altanborg diattict
baoona aa imparial poaaaaaion, ^ing partly la tha Pltiaaannn and
ftttij ia tha Vi^tland, whila tha waat diatrlct waa dlTidaa among
a niabti tl oaall aobka. Tba aaniaTa of Saioay ol
Mtnanaat pcaaaaatM of jUttubora aboat ISM, and fh
■liTiaioa waa alaa aarl; faoorpanlad with bla dnninlena.
diattiota wara among tha laadaanipa'
(aaa Saxoht]. Warn id
dominlena. Both
to tba EniaatiuoUua of
by tba acaiTaation of Wittaabatv in 1517
. - -,. IMS tUl lefS thara aifatad an iDdapendMit
dadiy of Altaabaig : Iwit in ISSS, wbaa tha pnaant diviaioa
into the km 8aioa dachfaa waa madik both Altantmrg and £iasn-
bug baloDgad to Gotha. Daka haikrick, who aichaiiged Sava-
Hildbaighanaan fbr tba praaant doAy of Saxa-Altanburg in 1S£S.
waa tha KHUdar of tha rafgalog Uaa. A oonatitution waa gtantad
in 18S1 ia anawar to popoW cooiDulion ; and grcatar nncoaiona
wan extorted by man threatening diatnthancea in 18*8. The
aacoad dnka (Jooopb) abdicatwl In 1848 in tavour of hia brother
Gaoiga Under unaat, who anccacded hia father aa (oDrtli dnku
in leU, a piriod of Tiolaat roactioa Bat in, ao that eran now tho
MmatJtntion ia conatdarably laaa libera] than it waa in 18*9. In
1S7S tba I<aw41aputed qaeation aa to tha pablio doniiina waa
aattlcd, two-thiida of theaa bains now i^arded aa belonging to tha
daka in JUeievmmlatim and in Ban of a cirU liit.
BAXE<»BUBa-GOTHA (Qerm. SatAMtn^Kotmry-
Gotia), a duchy InThnringia, and an independent member
of the Oerman empire, consiata of the two formerly
aeparate dnehiea i^ Ooborg and Qotha, which lie at a
diatance of 14 milea from each other, and of ei^t amal!
acattered ezclavea, tbe moat nortiierly of which ia TO milea
from the moat aontharl^. The total area ia 760 aquara
milea (about 2 aqoare milaa more than the oonnty of Surrey
in GnglandX of which 317 are in Cobnrg and S43 in
Qotha. The duchy of Cobnrg ia boonded on tbe S.E., S.,
and B.W. hy BaTari% and on tha othar aidca by Sue-
Ueiningen, which, with part pf Pmaaia, aaparatea it bom
Cfotha. Tba conaidaialJe azdave ol Konigab«g in
BftTaria, 10 milea aoath, belongs to Coburg. Lying on
the BDUth alope of the Thuringian Foreat, aod in the
Franconian plain, tbia duchy ia an nndnlatii^ and fertile
diatricti reaching ita higheat point in the Senicbsh^i*
(1716 feet) near Hiradorf. Itaatreamo, the chief of which
ate the II^ Steiiiacb, and Bodach, all find their way into
tita Main. Tba duchy of Qotha, more than twice tha aiaa
of Cobnrg, atretcbea from the aouth bordera of Prnaaia
along the northern alopea of the llmringian Foreat, the
higheat aommits of which (Qroeaa Beerberg, 322G feet;
S<£naek<^ 3]7d feet; loaelberg, 3967 feet) riae within
ita bofdera. Tbe mwe open and lerel diatrict on the
nwth ia qioken of aa the " open conutry " (" daa Land ")
in eontiast to the wooded hilla of the "foreat" ("der
WaU "). "Hia Qera, H5nel, TJnatiut, and other atreama
of thia dneby flow to tha Werra or to the Baale.
In both dnchiaa tha diiaf indnatry ia anlcnltni^ which employa
S per cent of tha aotin popabUoo. Acoerding to tbe ntnma
at 1888, G81 par oent. of the area waa oecn^ad )^ ar^da land, 10
. i. 1 — i__. __._._. — __j ^ — cent by foreat
Bcna, yielding
a (2»,07T acraL
1S,M8 lonak wheat (U,25E aena, >,I71tona), and potatoea {Ufiti
acrsa, llA,Mlt tone). A amall qoantlty of hamp and flax la laiaad
[Icaa than 1000 aerea of each), Int a eoiaidaialila qnantl^ of frnit
and Tegatablea ia annnally nodnoad. Cattla-breedias u an hn-
portant monica, aapedally m tha Talln of tha III in Colmrg. In
ISfil tha two dochiaa contained 8187 bonaa, 68,1H Cattla, TS.MS
^aep, 61,1)49 pigi, and ST,01$goala. The minatal wealth af Baxa-
Cobnrg-Gotha ia iniigni Scant -j amall qnantitlaa of coal, lignite,
inmotone, millatone, fee., an aaonally raiaed. Than an ilao aalt-
worka and aome dapoaiCa of potter'a chy.
The maanfactana of the dochie^ eapai '
indiie^ eapadally in the m .
porta laaa faToniable far agricnltore, an tolerably bilak, bat then
u no Urge indnatrial cantn in tha conntry. Inm gooda and
machineiT, aafaa, alaai, aartbenwaie, cbemioala, and wooden
artldca, indnding large qnautitiea of toya, an prodoced ; and
TariooB bnncho* of textile indna^ai* carriad on. Bnbla (two-
filtha of whidi ia ajtaated ii
la of tba dochka, to which thar raapectiTaly gire D
npilol of tbe anitsd dneby. Then an aaran oinar
and tiO Tillagea and bamlata, Tha TlQagaa ol TiM-
848
S A X — 8 A X
riahmh ni Bofala ud tk« InMlba^ ud SchiiHkoiif and oHin
pbitanMoi polnb tnnwlly 4ttnct in ineraaing nniabtr of —
BN limon umI tamiib. Nndlotnidort or Gnadmthd
Honrlm nttloDnit Dnixled In 1T4I.
n* pnaUtlon In 1880 «h l1H,Jlt, m SHpor miwn milg, of
wJUMtt H,7I8 (Ml pM MBIT* mfls) mn la Cobnix and Isr.SSB
(SH w aiiun nibl In GMha. In th* foimn ilochy tha ptople be-
loogto tbiTnoooniu ind tn tlw latter ta tba TbnriiiglBn tnnch
«t a* TMtoob fiwiUr. In 1S80 Uura mn 193,018 LoQiemDi,
Soman OathoHoL iM Jswi, anil 188 otban; In USB the
,_^ -,- . ,- «_. ^ U1,SB in OothiL
wddOBbf )ia> aMpaiatadlet (in Oobatgaf 11.
paiwbtlaa na lM,n7,— e7,IU in Oobnnt ami 1<
Saio-Oabniv-OQttia la a United lundltaiT mo
atttntion nal&c on n la« of 1869, nodUad b 181
■■ 'Ji a&& ■ - - -
iu Ootha of 19 mamlMn): bnt in more tmpartant *nd ganenl
mattua ■ common dia^ fgnaad oT tlM momben of tli« aipuits
diat^ mMtingMOoblUKUldQ«flui>llamatiil]r,*nreiaea4atiiority.
Tha mamban an aloolaa Ibr (onf ytaia ; Ui« transhiaa la vxtendod
toallmala tM[pv«n<rftwan^-flT«7ain<)ragBuidnpinrda, Tht
mm— ny lui ^aolal dapimnwiia wr cocu uugiiji ui .
common praaldant In flnanea tb* doshiaa an alao atpanta, tha
btdnt tn Oobo^ Iwing Totad Ibc n taim of alx jeui, nA in CIdUui
tor bar jMn. Aftat long dbpota betw««n tbo doke and tha
Qorarnmant a oompnoriaa waa afltetad In ISSS, b; wMch tlit
KTOBtarpaitof tbapnUialandila n^idod aa njUriamimiannn In
fea pnawarian at Ott rdjali^ dnk*, wkila tiba iuaoma bvin tlierHl
la ngatdad aa atata-Taranna. Tbare an thn* two bodsala foi aacli
dnolij. Tha aannal inoonw of tlia pablfai landa m Oobnrs la
aatimatad fbc Iba period 1888-93 at £30,700, and tha anandi&ra
at£ll,tOO; In Ooiba (pariod 1888-90} tha aama aonna ia attlnulad
to TltJd £103,831 and tv oeat £81,898^— togetbn prodndns a
nnplDa of £IO,^ttL of which tbs dnka twdraa £S9,foo and ttia
atata-tnamrr £19,718. Tha uniul atala-raranita in tha auna
patiod* «a* attlmatod Hn Oobnig at £81,820, or £2318 mora than
tba —"~t-* azpanditma, and In Ootlin at £100,030, or £2314
man than tin axpandltora. Boaidaa tho d<rll lUt tha dnka of
SajM-ODbnra-Qotha o^Jni a Tarr lam prJTata fo"' '
uhiaflr bj Bcnaat L, wba Bold tlia pdncipalttj of
Pmada in 1884 for an annual parmant of £1^000.
of yianna bad beatowail tba iprlncipaJitj nnon him In raec^itian
of hia aacTioaa In 1811. "tba honaa of ^axa-Cobiug^tba ia
dinotlj connected with fira of tberonlhonaN of Eorapa, and tha
aotonl ralara ra the Iwr* ot tbica klngdoma tnue thdr dueent
ftcm It Tba ancoaaaion la benditaij in tha male line ; and bj
tba dead of anooeaalon of 1868 tha hair to the tbnna b tha dnka
of Kdinbo^b, Mphew d tha paaaant dnka.
SMon:— 11a aUar Una of Saia.CoUuB waa foonded In 1880 by
Albert, ttia aaoDDd ton of Emeat the Pinta, On hia dying ehilO-
leaa in 18M, howarer, tba lino baoama aitlnot, and bla poeaMaiona
Saxon honaea, antO tkv **» ^ally dWAotad at . „.
ISth centBiT. ^M pnaant ralnli^ fkraHy la Uu poatait^ oi
Jobnlniea^ thoaaranthaniaf SniOTt tba Fiona, who orlginall*
mlad In Saia.SaaliaM. Hia two aona, mUng ]n common, MOBlrad
poaaamlm cf Oobnn ud, ahangiag tbair lealdaBce, atylad thnn.
aalTe«dake«af8a»^0abaig.Saa]ftU. Cnder Uw wa aai anenManr
of tba anMvot (who Intndacad tha jrindpla of primoBmltarak
Ihiaat Fradariok t (17U-1800), tba land wa* plo^ into
bankruptcy, ao Oat an imparitl ooauniadon waa apnrintad on hia
<Ieatli to manage the Bnanoaa. n» maania* ad^ted to redeem
tba coBUtcy'a oadit wan ancotetfol, hat tmnoaad ■> modh bardahlp
on tha t*mt that a itilng took places iriiidh had to be qneUed
with tba aid of ferocpa from tha aketocata d Suony, Tha dnka
Rand* rndarink Antony died in Deoambar 1808, and waa anc-
oeadad by hia Ma Anaat IIL (1808-1844), dthoa^ the ovnntiT
wn* ocMipbd by Ae rmreh faom ISOT VBia tba p«wa of Tllait la
1818. In tha lediatrtbatlm of the Baxoa bnda in 1828, bneat
Mdped SaalMd to Kaininaan, raeeiring Ootha in axchanga and
MimiiniraMtld*ofImeatl.t<BnKa-CDbaig-actha. Theline<rf
Baxfr^kfta had baaa Gmaded In 1880 by tha aldaat aon ot Enaat
' had baooma eitlnot In 1838. '
ided in lUl both the pablic :
rf tha daaal family (aaa aboTa)
iona Ubanl idanai OMn been a
--» Fioaa, and had baooma eitlnot In 1838. Whan EisMt IL
(b. 1818) ■toeaeded in 1844 both tha pablic finanoM and tb
prirate tbrtona tl tha daeel family (aaa aboTe) ware AaariBhinf
BAXE-UEININaEN (CUnn. 3<uA»mJfmtitigm), a
6xubj ia Thnringia, utd u indepeadent mamber of tha
ChciBaa emt^ «o(ubU chiidy of an imsiilai cnaoent-
■hapad temtoix, idiieb, with an avamgo Iceadth of 10
■niu^ atntehea for otw 80 milee along the nnth-weat akme
(tf the ntDiingian FomL The oonnx aide rerts upon the
doafaj of Gdbortb and ii in part bounded hy Bavaria,
while tha ooBoara alda^ tnmed towarda the north, ^Mmtnitu
poTtioni at fnOE othat nioringiaD ataUa «Dd PrtUKi b»-
tweeoita h<nu, irhieli are 4S mHea apart Tha diatriela
of KmnichfaM, 15 tnilsB nottk.trBat, and Knniburg; 33
milca dae noitU of tha tnateni horn, tc^lher with a
nnmber of smaller scattoied oxclaToa, compriiie T-t of tba
993 aqnare miles now belonging to the duchy (alxmt the
aize of conntj Down in Ireland). The snrfaco on the
whole ie hillj, and ia fertly occupied by ofEahoota of tba
Thnringian Forest; the higheut anmrnita are tho Kieaorie
(S8G1 feet) and tho Blesa (2B34 feet). Tho chief ctreMM
are the Werra, which traTersea the aouth and cost of tha
dncfay, and varioiu tribntorieii of the Hain and the SaaH
ao that Soxe-Heiuiiigen belongs to the boidns of tho tlire*
great rivers Weaer, Ithine, and Elba
Tha soil la not very prailnctiva, although agticnltnin Ooarlahaa
In the Talloja and on tne loTol ground; grain baa to be imported
to meat the demand. In 1883 only 41 -S per cent of tho total
ana (in 187S, 41 '8] waa davotal to aniimlture, nlillo moadow land
■nj paatuni occupiod 11 por cent Thn ebicr grain cropa in 1S8S
weropye (14,412 acres, yielding 18,112 toui), onta (42,M7 acrna,
17,818 toni), irbcat (26,££3 acm, 9038 tons), and barley (19,018
acree; 91,160 tone]. The oultiratlon ot potatooa ia very genonl
(11,006 acrea, 143,827 tone). Tobacco, liofa, and Uu (In 1881,
9B7 aona) an alao raiaed. Tho TVonatlut and the other fertilo
vallaya produce large qnaatitiee ot fniib Sboep and cattlo raining
ll atolnnbly linporlaut branch oT indoatry IhronghoDt the dncdiy ;
honaa an teed in Kambnig. In ISSS Saxe-UeiningDn ooDtaJned
G174 bereu, 86,733 cattla, GB,910 aheap, 46,138 pin, and 30,817
goatn The aitanaira and Tiluable fonata, of which 76 per oent
an ooniranini tnea, occnpy tlit par cant, of the eat&e area.
Nearly one halt at the foreata belong to the atala and abont one-
third to pnUio bodle* and inalitntiana, leaTing little u
_ _,_..i r !__. .. — ijjjj miniral wealth of the
. chlaf minttnla
and Snla, the fbrmtr
^. , he DiiBcral water of
a well known. 'Fhe manDrtctiuin^ indnatry al
ant Umber rcateis the mannfaotnn of ^1 kinda of wooden artlelca,
capeoially toya ; and taitUa indnatty ia alao carried on to a ali^t
The capital oF the dnehy ia Ueinlngan (in 1861 11,227 inhab-
Umof). Of the aUloen other towna Kalninger ■"—
Hildbnrgliaii»n, Liafeld, SooDeberft Saalfcld, FiiaaBi .
A«.} none baa ao many aa 10,000 InhabltaBta. There a.. ».
vnifgeaend hamteta. In 1880 tha pqpnlatien waa S07,O76 (S17
peraqnan inila), of irhom SO pa cent Itvad in oommnnillaa of
more than 2000. Ae in the other Bajion daEhlaa the populatim la
alncat e:(clnaiTetr Lnlheian ; In 1888 902,970 belonged to that
3378 wm Boman Catbolloa, 204 of other CbrCrtian aecta,
The
on a law ot IsSl aDbaeqieatly modlBed. Tha dlat el«
Taai^ Goudata of 34 memban, of whom 4 ara elected by the laiuaF
landownen, 8 by tbcee who pay the blgheet powmal taiea, and 18
by tba other alootota. Tlia fnnebiae la an}a*ad by all domleiled
wm^.flve yean otage who pay at leaat a mlnlmam of
govMumant ia carried on I7 a miaiatry of Im, with
__,_„ I to tha ducal hoaae and fnaignaAir^ home aflkin^
Juiliea, ednntioi and pnbUo wonhip, and Ananoa. The Mtnma
of tbo atato-lind* and the iwdinary atata.nnan* are treated in
aeparala badgata Tba aaUmate for the period 1884-88 pate tha
annual Ineome from the folnwr at £106,MO and the auunal ai-
pmdltoie at £77,916, whOa the annual hiooKt and e^akdikna
of tha Uttar an balaaead at £146,188. Half of tba aorphia of
£37,436 iacndlted to aaah fond. The duka'a oiTil lift of £18,714
(884,188 marfci) la paid ont ol tha ntnma from the atatfr-laada, at
one time ia tha fnMnaiJTin of tba reigning honaa. Baze-HeinioeBn
baa one rota in the federal conned] and aauda two d^mtiaa to tba
but by 1744 flu only anrrivor waa the romgeaC Antniy UMcb,
who t^gnodakmenntll hia death Id 17<«. Aa dndiybadmean-
whila baaa cmuadenbly insreeaed in extent ; bat eontanliona and
petty wan with the other Saxon prindpallHea on gwatlMia of
bheritaoc^ the extravagance ef tho eoort, and flw iaidabipa of
the B«vas Taai*^ War pimigad it into bankraptov and diatiaa. A
hunlar Uma waa enjned under Charlotte Ainalle, Anteay** wifk,
-'---■-' fbtlMttlNBOnaaiidet(177»-178DMdOM<sa
8 A X — 8 A X
B, U k gnind-
It eoneiiU
-, EuchmIi,
{IM-lWl), »oi iIm aida lh«M princci tbanHNc^ Oeoim,
wkft b^ iBtndnMiI Ihg ptlaetpto nf idiinogsnitun, ma «ii«Hded
Lcut MDlnry, vi
, mnd loricB of m
j-XKt* in Dnoa
lbs CDantry into dlitn^ fnim vhidi it but ■bnrli' i»-
BtmluuU hul iJnsdy tixmbuiooiialT giuabd ■ litMnl
loii to hi* lubjoeti U I89<. wben luso uldittoiN (S30
' iiliuini nils) caDNqnont upon tho rtdiitribiiHon at tht Budd
liuiUi in IBM moTA uiid doobloi hti povoiiioiii tnd nmdfiTBd zv-
orguiinllan ntaiMir. Anmufi iht iddltioai to BajM-Hiiningca
nr* ths ilnchr at IllMburgLBiuDii (whonoo tho (uU titlo of tho
pt«MntdB<bru8>iO'U>inin;;Dn-Hi1<lbnrEhkii»n). shicli hul btnn
fsoDded Jn laW br Ene*t tko niUi bd of Enmit ths Pioni ; tho
liriiuanditf of Sultold, nhkli, tonudeil bj Joha Eniost, Enrnt'i
•DTontb (on, la ISSO, hod b«n nnitol to Cobiug in 1735 ; uiit tlia
ilabrkt* of ThaiMr, Xnuiehfold, Ksiuburg, ind oilier ■nigllor
tenltarlM. Bait-M^jngon, liln tho other ttoion dncbiu, tiilorcJ
tlw Omhiknitiiia at iht Khint in ISM ; bat in less, uulike iu
niiahboan, Uilocbml forAutriain tbo vuigiiiut Prunii. Tho
laml WM at one* oecnpinl by rrnsiui tmoja, uul Qcmhiml
abJIatad (a«|>lomb«r 18M) In fafoor of liii >su Ooorgo, nlio niiulo
rt» wllk rnnaia and sntonJ tho North Qi^rman Coiifi-Jcrutiun.
ISn Ah diapnig which bad laatod alace 1820 betwnn tho dako
Bod tha diat aa to tiio napaetiTa righti of each to tho atata-land*
via tvminaad hy a compromlii.
BAXE-WEIUAB-EISEKACH (Oorm,
Eitauak), the Urgeat of the Tharingiaii iti
duehj Bod a member of the Qennaa ampi
of the thrae chief deUched dUtricta of We
and Neaatftdt, nad tventj-foor Bcattered eicUrei,
which AJtatedt, Oldiilaben, and Umenftti belonging to
Weimai, and 0«th«im belonging to Eiseoaeh, ue the diief.
The first and hut named oC tbeae exelaTes are 70 miles
apart; and the moat easterly of the olhec eiclavea ia 100
milei from the moat weaterlj. The total an« of tlio
grand-dnchj is 138T aqnare miles (or slightlf larger than
Wiltehire Id England), of which 6TS aro in Weimar, 465
in Eiseoa^ and 214 in Neiutadt.
The district of Weimar, which is tX once the lorgost
diviaion and tho geognphical and hiatoiical kernel of tho
gtand-ditchj, is a raoghl; ctreokr territory, sitnated on
ths plateau to Cba northeast of the Thuringian Forest,
It ii bonnded on the N. and E. bj Fmssia, on the S. bnd
W. by the Sdiwanbnrg Oberherrachaft and detached
jKirtions of Saxe-AltenbDig, and lies 23 miles east of the
ueareM part of Eisenacb, and 7 miles north-weet of tbe
nearest part of Nmistadt. The exclares of Allstedt and
OldislebeD tie in Fmssian temtory 10 miles to the north
and north-west respacttvelj ; Ilmenaa as hr to the south-
west ^e snrfooa is uudulatbg and destitute of anj
stHking natural featnre^ althongh the *alleys of tiie
Saale and Hm are picturesque. The Kickelhahn (282S
feet) and tha Hohe Tanne (2641 feet) rise in Ilmenau;
but the Qroaser Kalm (1814) near Bemda, in the eibeme
south, u the highest jxtint in the main part of Weimar.
The broad-baaed Ettersbarg (ISIB feet), a part of which
is known as " Herder's Hill " af tar the poe^ rises on the
Ilm pUtean, near Ettenburg, where Bchillei finished his
Xana StuoH. Hie Soale flows throtigb the east of the
disiriet, but, although the chief riTer hTdrogrsphicallj', it
jields in fame to its tributary the Ilm. Tbe Unstrnt joins
the Saale bom Oldisleben and Allstedt. The chief towns
Sire Wumar, the capital, on the Dm ; Jen^ with the common
nniTstsi^ of the Thnringiau states, on the Baale; and
Apolda, the " HanchMtu of Weimar," to the west,
Tfiswinrih, the wttaaA district iu siie, and the first In
ptnnt of natnnd baanty, stretches in a narrow strip from
north to sottth on the extreme western bonndai7 of
Thcringia, and includes parts of the cbnrch lands at Fnlda,
of Hesse, and of the former coonbihip of Henneberg. It
is bonndttl on the N. and W. by Prasaia, on the S. far
Bavaria (which also surronudi the sxelaTe of Ostheim),
•nd Ml ths E. by 8axe-Ueiningen ud Saxe-Qotba. Tbe
uorth is occupied hy tbe rounded htI1:i of tho Tliuringian
Foixat, while tho Rhun fountains cittind iuto tho
sonthera part. Tho cluaf summits of tho former g^oa|^
which is more remarkable for its fine forests and pictnr-
exque scenery than for iCa height, arc the WartUrg HiU
(1355 feet), tho north-western termination of tho i^stom,
Ottowald (2103 foot), WMhstein (1801 feet), Ilingberg
(2106 feet), Ec^e Vogelheid (3378 feet), and tho OlSckner
(2211 foot). Among the Rhon Uouubtins in Eisenach
the loftiest summits are tho Elnbogen (2677 feet), Bayer-
berg (2359 feet), Hohe Rain (2375), and tho Oliiaorbcri;
(2231 feet). The chief riror is the Wem, which flows
acroas the centre of the district from east to west, and
then bonding suddenly northwards, re-enters from Prussia,
and traversea the north-eastern parte in an imgnlaj
course. Its chief tributaries in Eisenach are the Hursel
and tho Ulster. Ksenach is the only town of importance
in this division of the grand-duchy.
Kaustadt, the third of the Isiger difiiions, is distin-
guished neither by pictureaqne scanory nor historical
interest. It forms an oUoug territory, about 24 miles
long by 16 broad, and belongs rather to the hilly dlntrict
of the Voigtlnnd than to Thuriogia. It is bounded on tho
N. by Benis (Junior lino) and Saie-AItenbui|t on the W.
by Sase-Heiningen and a Prussian exdafo, on the S. by
the two Reuss principalities, and on the E. by the kingdom
of Saxony. The Kesselberg (1310 feet) near the town of
Neustadt is the chief eminence. This district lies in tho
basin of the Saale, ita chief stieams being the White
Elator, the Weida, and the OrU. Neustadt, Anma, and
Weida are tho princiiial towna.
Agricultara (orms tha cbiot ocenralloD of tha bhabilaiita In all
ports or tlis duchy, tboajth in Elaenach and Ilnienaa a tarpi
pioportiou of tht area la covered vltli fomt*. Acoonling to tEe
rattuna for 188S, MS per cont ef tlio (tili™ anrfaca iraa ofcnpieJ
^by arable land, it'B p« cciiL by foreata, ii bT paitiira and
mtadoir-land, and 4'1 por cent by boUdings, road^ and vntcr.
Oiily 5 per cant irsa nnprodnetiTa tail or uoortaud. Thaie
Egnrea indicate that Saia-Walmar-Eimach haa nearly aa larcc a
penentags ofarabla land as Saxa-Altanburg, and, notwEthitaudlnK
the extanaiTa wooda in Eiaenach and Dmanan, a lowar proportiou
ot fonat than any other Thuringlaa aUta. In IMS tha chief cniu
cngia war* oat* (80,083 aero, ybldins U,t7i tona), baikj (78,007
acrai, tS,l<B ton*), rya (7S,M7 acrea, St.OOfl tona), and wheat
(47,7SS term, 1B,S4« tona). Abont tO,(»0 acre* ware plantad with
pototoa^ yialdtng !37,flS7 ton*, or. nearly 4 Mr Mat. par acre Ics
than tha avangi of tha At* yean imm*£alely prtccdlnif. All tba
grain crop* were alightly ahova tha aTcraga of tha nme miiod.
Tha 7S,4oE sens daroted to bay prodncad BS.VIO tona. Amang
tha other eropa were beetroot for tngar (11801 acm], flax (ISOO
acrea), and oiT-ylalding planta (<E83 acrea), Fndt growa In abond-
ance, eapaciidly In tha ntighbonrhood of Jona, in tha Taller ot tha
Glalaae, and on tba lower Ilm; 1070 acre*, moitly on tha banka of
the Sail*, wer* ocenided with tIdm. OT tha fortateSBE pareaut.
andaddnou* and 81 't parosnt coniferma ti««a; tnlly a liaU of
tha Ibrmar are b*«eh«a. Th* gTe*t«T part of th> fonali haloug to
tha Gorammant Cattle-raiaing la carried on to a conaldaralila
eitant, especially in Eiasnsch and Hanstadt, while tha ihean-
hrmins cantiea In TelnMr. The grand-dncal *tad-l>imin Allatnit
milntahiitlM tread trfhoiKS. In IBSSthadnchyeontainad 17,871
honea, 1I0.0»S cattlst 1 411,441 sbsep^ I01,44Sldgi, and 41,Ul|oala.
Althongh iron, eoppar, cobalt, uid linit* are worked, th* nuimal
wealth te triaiiig. iBalt is alao worked at diHannt plaoaa.
Ths mann&etuitna iidnatria In Qia grand.dndiy ar* oonridar-
abla; tb*y emrioy ni per sent of th* popolatiou. Tin moat
Important la tha taxUla utdnstiy, which centraa In ApoUa, and
employ* more than 30,000 band* thraOBlioat tbe oonntry. Th*
predDctloa of wooUeu goods (*tockiii8i, cloth, nadandothlns) fonna
tha leading biaoob of tb* indiMiT; bnt oottoa and 11d*d
wearing and yam-qdnnlng aia also cuiUd on. I^rga qaaatltiea
ti earthenwsi* and cmkary ara made, eapeoially at llnxoan. T^
micnacopa* of Jtns, th* set*ntiAo Inatrammta (thannooiatat^
bannieteis, kc) of Ilmauao, and th* pipaa and olgsr-boUMs o(
BnhlB (partly iit Oetha) aia well kaown. L*ath*r, paper, glaaa,
cork, and tohaoco ar* anonp tha \fm pciniiin*Dt maantkctBR*.
Tb*r* SI* noinsroB* bnwtnt* In th* dnchy. The Tolnns ot
trade is not t*c; gnat, althongh aoma ot tba jirodaetioDa (ehlally
Ihoa* Hist manOaned] ara aiported alt orar Karr~~ -~' '
csK* to eth*t eonttasDt* •* w«ll, Th* ahltt
3S0
S A X — S A X
■aloDlil jtpadi, V wool (or tba iMiialwtini, Udu, coal, niMr-
■dUDm (aom Hmynu 4ad VisDu}, ■mbu, honi, &c Euooach
and Vamur an tfao chief uta of tndi.
Til* JiOplllltloD In 1S80 tnt S{>9,S7T, or 221 nr iqiuuv mils, of
■bom 397,TU wen Lnthoruu, lO.SST Bomu CiUialJa, S3T
Cbrbtkiu of otlior vcbi, ind 1213 Jvita The Thuruigiu mad
In the dicbr. Acconliug to tli« amtiloymotit tmuta of 1882,
•^ ■ ■ '■■ ■ ' orMpetoent
S7-3 percent;
... - - , 's™?"'
'hL j vJilJb 13,GW penool or 4'4 per OBut uuoa no retomi.
B«ve-ATBiinv-&lMUJ3li ii ft liinltod tumditAry moDuchj, und
__ .... _ o the emplovmont
•cricnlUn, fsmtrj, lod Billing mpporUd 13S,200 or ti p«
of Uio poimlition ; iiidii*tri*l punnuti, '" "' — "''■" —
, Ilbonl cOBitintlDn
D of
«H tba lint ilita la Otnnuj to nooln
Tbi* ma mnUd in Igld bj Cbulea Ai„ .
Goetbs, uJiru nrind In I8&D. Thsdiet coiwigta of oDS chimber
witb (hirtj-oua memben, of nhorn one ia cboKc by tbe nobilitj,
four b; onnore ot Und Horth at leaat iElM a jear, fire b; thoat vho
■lariTo u much from other tDnrcea, ud twanty-om by tba not of
tbe iobabitunta, Tba dlit meeta aTarr tbraa Taan : Iha depntiae
■n gleclid for ilx nun. The fnocliiH ia enjoyed bj all dc
,«. Tb
.^..«« .^ bra mlDiabT of thna. holditiD' I
of home
the"wi^'
r JToutj-fiva yean of ag*. ^ha ROTaniuieiit ia
I bj • miniabr of tbraa, holdiag the portfoUoa of liaanca,
nd toraini a&In, and of religion, educa^on, and Jnatica,
:h ii comunad tha duul boiuchoid. The bndgot for tba
ica-neriod IB3t-8< aatimatad Iha yaarly in
. TbeBua-VaimwraaiilTiitlMoUaattmicli
of tbe Kmeotine Una, ud benoa of tba irhala Baxon ktnua. By
Iraatiaa <rf ancoeiaian tha grand-dnbe ia tbe next hail to tba tbiona
of 84X007, iliooU the naoant Albertina linn beooma aidnct He ,
b antillBdtoUupndJe*laof''roTa]hl^eoa.* Biatna^witb
Pnuria Ib IMT, vhioh ■ttermnla beoama tba audal for nmOar
tnatiaa batwaan Pniiaia aid other Tho|ingiu itata^ tha boopa of
the graBd-dnohy vara IncDrporated with tbe Pmaalu army.
I n oarlf tinaa Waimai, with the aniroonding dlatriet, balongad
lo the ODUuli of Orlamiinda, and from tba end ol tba lOth oantaiT
- -^ ^^^ ^^ ^^^ ^ I j^^ ^ eoanto of it* own. It
iDTolfed aflat tba oomrantion of Wlttaobaig <1MT} 1b tha
iiliotad ud oonataslh ablfting anooaaalon anai^^awta of tba
ErDaatlne dnkea of Saumy, who daliyad tba intiodootlan of
nrimoganltare, Waimar doaa not amaroa Into an IndapandeDt
kitorlul potion nntH lUO, when the Crothan WilliaDfAIbart,
and Emat the Plana fonsdad the urindpalltiia of Waimar,
Eiaanacb, and Ootha. Efaanach feU lo Wkmai In lOU, and,
altboDgh tba prlnaipality wai onca tnon tampomily aplit into
the lines Saxe-Waimar, Baxe- Eiaanacb (l«rS-17il), and Saia-
Jana (KTS-KIW)], It waa again nonitad nndar £niMt Angoatna
(IT18-I7UX who noiir«l it againat falnra anbdiriaion by adopting
tin priiulpU of primoganltiin. Hia bod of the mna Dame who
ancoaadeJ died iB 17SS, two yeaia after hia marriage witb Ajuu
Imalla of BnnawioL Kaxt yaai the dnehaaa Amalia, altboigh
sot y«( twoatf yaan old, waa appointad by tbo emparor ngeitt of
tbe prlndpalf^and giiaidlan of bar Infant aon Cl^lei Asgnatna
(17SS-1BUJ. Tin raign of tbe lattai, who aaanmad tba goTarn-
ment In 177G, ii the moat brilliant epoch in the hiatoiy lA Saie-
Walmar. A gifted and iotaUJgaot patron of lllantnn and art
Chailea Aognitu attiaetad to Bia ooort the leading autbora and
aeholata of Uermany. Qoelbe, ScUUei, and Harder war* membera
of tha iliuttioBa aodaty of the oapllal, and tha nninrd^ of Jena
bocama a fooni tt light and '■*"''"ir so that tbe hltharto obacsn
little atataaittnoladaaaynof all Enropa.* Tba war with France
waa bu^t with danger to tha sontiniud axMonoe of tba prind-
paUty and after tbe Uttlo of JeBa (October 14, 180*) It waa mainly
the skilfal naoagamant of tho dBohaaa Looiae that diaauaded
ITapolem thun temoriiur her boaband Iram among the reigning
prinoaa. In 1807 Bau-W^mar-BinBaoh en tared tbe Confadatetion
of tba Bhlna, and waa promoted from a prineipiliCy [rhrateothaiB)
to a duchy (Henwthiun]. 1b tho (bllowing ompdgna it anfferMl
gnatly; and IbIIIB tha oongrana ot Vienna lecempeuaed ita
nkr witb aa addition to hia tanitory ot 000 aqoare miTea (inclnd-
Ug moat ot Henitadt) witb 77,000 InhabllanM, and witb the tiUa
«fjj[raDd-dnka (Oioaahaiiog). On tbo laatoratioD of peace Charlea
AnsDatna radeamed hia promlBa of granttng > liberal oonitltation
(1816). Proadon ot tba pnaa waa alao granted, bat after the
firtinl of tba Tattbn in ISU it waa BetioDal J curtailed. Charlea
Aadariok (lS3S-lBn)ooatlnnad hia fatber'a poUey, hot tie reforma
nilnbtry
NOOgh tokl
ippoinlcd tc
Iha grand'O
eulonid til* Hortb Qen
baa bnn libaraL
t inUtteal
ied throneh. 'RaacllDn «! in qbiIcC
Charlci Aleiauder. irlio auirwled bla father in ISfS, aud tha nnion
BpeaJed, tboo^ both welt
...licinininmcut in IMS
gnwd'ilachjr jolowi Pruaaia uainiit Anatria, althoogh ila
girriaoning townaln tha Anatriau Intanat ; later
' ~ nan Conrederation. Tbe prtaa restrie-
I aud the toudency of recent legialaUoa
{F. MU.)
SAXITRAOE {&uifi-affa), k geniu of plants wUcb
_ vea ita name to the order of which it i< a membor.
lliere are ariorly 200 apoctea diBtribnted ia the tenpei*t«
and atctic parte of tha northera bemitpben^ froquentlj at
conaidetablB heights on tlie mouiitain& Th«j are moatlj
herba nith pereomal rootatocka, Iobtm in tnfu, or, on the
flowcr-Btnlka, scattered. Tho BirangeiDent of the floware
is verj variotu, as alao are the size and colow of the-
floweis tbeotaelTea. Tbsj have a calyx with a short tube,
five petab, ten (or rarely five) atamena aprin^png, like tha
petals, from the edge of the tabe of the caljx. The pistil
portly adherent to the calyi-tnbe, and ia divided abova
to two styles. The OTulea are nnmerons, attached to
axile placentas. The seed-vessel ia capsular. Hany apeciea
of Britain, some aliiine plkntB of great beantf
(S. oppotitifciia, S- ninalii, S. aitoida, die.), and others
like 3. gramdala, &eqnenting meadowa and low grotuid,
tridadj^iiet nwy be found on almost any 6zj walL
Many species are in colti ration, including the Bergetuaa <a
Ucf;as:^as with their large Seahy leaves and copions panicks
of roey or pink flowers, the numerona alpine specie^ sock
as S. pyramuLtlu, S. Cott/ledon, dec, with tall panicles
atodded with white Sowers, and many othera.
SAXO QRAUMATICUB, the celebrated Danish his-
torian and poet, belonged to a family of warriors, his
father and grandfather having served tinder king Valdemar
L (d. 1182). He himself was brought up for the dstical
profeesioo, entered about 1 160 the aerrice of Archbishop
Absalon as one of hia lecretarie^ and remained with him
in that capacity until the death of Absalon in 1201. At
the instigatian of the latter he began, about 1180, to write
the history of the Danish Christian kings from the time
{A Sven Estridson, but later AbaaloQ prevailed on him to
irrite also the history ot the earlier, bmthsn times, and to
combine both into a great work, Grrta Danorum, The
archbishop died before the work was finished, and there-
fore the preface, written about 1206, is dedicated to his
eucceasor Anhbishop Andreas, and to King Valdemsi IL
Kothing else is known about Saxo'i life and psraon ; a
chronicle of 1265 calls him "mirte et orhann doqnuitia
derictis;" and an epitome of bis work from aboal 1340 de-
scribes him aa "egregius gnunroaticua, origine Sialandns ;'
that be waa a native of Zealand is probably oorreetf inas-
much as, whereas he often criticizes the Jutlanders and
the Scaniana, he frequently praises the Zealanders. Hw
■amame of " Grammaticui " is probably of later origiiv
Bcarcely earlier than IGOO, apparently owing to a mistake
The tide of "provost (dean) of Boekilde," given him in
the 16th century, is also probably incorrect, the hishman
being ooofonnded with an older contemporuy, the piOToat
of the same name. Sazo, from his apprenticeship ss the
archbishop's secretaiy, had acquired a brilliaiit but snne-
what euphnistio Latin atyle, and wrote fine Latin verse^
but otherwise does not seem to have had any very peat
learning or extensive readiog. Hia models of a^le wen
Valerius Mazimus, Justin, and Martianos Chpell^ eqnei-
ally the last. OceasioDally he mentions Bede, Dndo, aud
Panlua Diaconus, but does not seem to have studied them
or any other historical works thoroughly, and he nutlur
understands nor is iutereated in sdentifie research, in gciM-
ral history, or even in ' chronology. He'wroto because he
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),Google
S A X — S A X
351
did not like kk ematajman to be bthbd otbw nattou
through tlw mnt of an hutOTiu, and b«eavM ho wiohed
to perpetoato the t«oord of the exploit* of the Danes. Eia
aoorcea an partly Daniih tiadiliou and old mugi, partly
ttw itatementa ot Arehbuhtf Abaaloo, partlj the aeeoonti
of loelandm, and, Uatlj, aome few eartiar, bnt aeantj,
aoane^ being liiU of DaniA kingi and diort drontdei,
which toniiabed hin with aome nliabla ehrooological date*.
He ceandeied traditions as hiatoi7, and therefore made it
hii diief bosineai to leoonnt and ananga Aeae, by Ae bd[)
of the lista of the kings, into a coooeeted wboIeL His
woA, thatafoc^ is a looadr ooDoacted series of biographiea
of Danidi kuua and heraea ; he dwell* with predilection
on those periods during which Deoish kings were said to
hare made great oonqneote, and he leprasents theaa eon-
qoeron as the pangons of (bmr time&
Tba Snt MiM books campriH "Antiqiutr,' that K tnditioiu of
ktnp sad horow of tho Iwir-B]rtlil(al Unw on to sboat MO.
H« wo ken tiadittoiu mbont TnUnd*. shoot Inloth (Hunltl)
and Foaes, sboat Bolf Kist^ Hoddlag^ tko Aat Stu-kalher,
KHoId HUdotui^ sad Bsgur Ledbnk. Id tUa Mriier hiotoi?
8eao has bIm onbodiod ■vlhs of aattoul «ds who Is tndittoa
kd bseiB* Osatdi Unp, fci iBstsaco, fiilibr sad HoOmt, nd or
Bn^Ba liano^ Ukosiso laootponlrd in Duiak hiitniT, •* tka
OotUo Jsranmrik (A. S. Eormonrtc), tho Auslbin Yomiind (A. B.
airM>d>MidDlfe(A.&Ofli), thoOMBuHodiD sad Kild, Ao.
Jnmatlj Ibo asmtin is iulainiptod bj tnaditkno of poont,
wUoh SsiohM Bssd M uthoDtio soonoi, ilthoagh thoj on oTbni
onlj • tm gouaistioaa oldsr tluui Uauclf. In tiu blot booki
(1,-rTL) ot Us woric 1m foUoin to ■ |^t«r aitont hlotorieal
..... ^^ spfroacbea bio owd tima tlw (talloT ud
■ nHOon bMomoo ; oopookllr brillkat h
Blii sad than
But hlo natrioaim onrn msluo blm juTtial to , , _.
ik TiDt of eriliml aanaa oftan bHadi bioi to the birtorI<sl tralh.
Buo'swoik wu wMcljrNsd doriac tha Huldla AfHi sad aaTcral
■xlncla «t it wan naile for omallaT ehnoldos. It wia pobUabed
be tbo tnt tiBOb fram a Ma aflamuds loot, la Psrii, 1B14, bj
tha Daniih huuoiat CbriMina rodsmn ; tbk ediUan wu
Itlitar odiliooi
i, IM, that of
Ukrand J. H.
jot at lata araalt ^psinta bsTo beon'tband ol tlinoUaS. Tha
anot lanaifcaUa ot thiaa U tha fiagniont tatoA at Angna, Is
Wnaei, writlaa sboftlr sftor 1100, paibaps bj Baxo binaelt or
aadw bis SBFariatandonaa i ban smnl eoneotitBa an fennd
sboTO tho llnis. shoviuft bow tbo suthor Tsriod and tnliihod hii
UUd atria.
SAZON DTICHIEa For the tour Saxon dnchiia,
gAXx-AiTMmDso, BAXB-ConEim-GoTHA, Bux-Unmrom,
and SAZB-WxnuB-EifliirAOB, see those beadingi.
SAXONS, Law or trb. Bee &tua Lav.
SAXONT is the name sncceesiTely giren in Oennan
history to a medissral dochj in northern Qermanj, to a
later oleetofate which afterwards became the preeent
kingdom of Saxony (described below), and to a daeal
prorincB of Fmssia. The last was formed directly oat ol
part of the second in 1815, bnt the conneiioQ between the
first and second, as will be neea from the preeent article^
is neithsr local nor ethni^raphical but poUticaL
The BaxoQ* (lAt Scamu*, Oer. Sachtm), a tribe of the
Teatonic stock, are fint mentioned by Ptolemy as occult-
ing &e Boatbem part of the Cimbrian peninKuIa between
the Elbe, Eider, and Trara, the district now known as
Holstein. The name is most commonly dorired from
"sabi,* a short knife, thoogh some aathorities explain it
as meaning " settled," in contrast to tho Snevi or " wander-
ing" peo^ By the end of tht 3d century, when we
hear irf a " Baxon Confedeiatioo' embracing the CSMnuci,
Chanel, and Angrivarii, and perhaps correspondii^ to the
groap of tribe^called Ingnvonea hf Taeitna, the <£ief stat
of the nation had been transferrvd south of the Elbe to
the lands on both sides of the Weaer now qocnpied by
{HtLsobarg and Hanover. The Saxons were one of the
Boat wsrUka and adventurous ot the Tentonio potties;
and they not only steadily extended the borders uf their
home, Imt made colonising and piratical uxcnniinnH ly
■ea far and wide. In 287 they auixtcd the klcnapian
Ouansins to make himself master of Romanixcd Britain,
where he assiuncd tha title of AagaatUR; and on tbe
Oonlinent they came into collirion with the Homan empire
under both Jnlian and Vnlontinian, the latter of whom do-
Isalad thsm in 373 ho fur soutli ah Ucuti, op[>0!>ite Colofpio.
Tbtit settlemontd along the co(u<t of France extended tu tjie
month of the Loire, and, tboogb these were soon abnMbed
^theFranks, their expeditions to England finally resulted
in the foundation of lasting kingdom!> (Es>ex, Sussex,
Wessex) (tee Ehqlakd, vol viiL pp. 268 a?.).' About
the beginning of the Sth century part of tbe Flemish coast
became known as the Liita Sajvnivm, from the settlements
of this people. The Saxons who remained in Germany
Mlt&^aen or Old Saxons) gradoolly poshed their bordeiB
farther and farther nntil they approached the Rhine, sna
tooctwd the Elbe, the North Sea, and the Han Honntains.
In 531 they joined their neighbnun the Franks in a soc-
oeesfal expedition against the Thmingian^ and received
as their spoil the conqaered territory between the Han and
tbe Unstnit. Their settlements here were, however, forced
to acbiowledge the supremacy of the Franks, and from
this period may be dated the beginning of the long strife
between these two peoples which finally resultod in the
subjugation of the Saxons. Daring tbe reigns of tho
weak Heroviogiau kings who sncceeded Lothair L on tho
Fraokish throne, the Baxoos poshed into northern Tbnr-
ingia, af terwardn known at the Alt-Uark. Pippin the Short
obtained a temporary adrantage over them in TSS and
imposed a tribute of three handled horses, but their final
eonqneat was reserved for Oiarlemagne, At this time tbo
Baxona did not form a ungle state nnder one mler, bnt
were divided into the four districts of Westphalia to tbe
weat of the Weaer, Eastphalia chiefly to the east of that
river, Engem or Angria along both banks, and Nordol-
bingia in Holstein. The ganii were independent, each having
an ealdonnaa of its own ; and they only combined in time
of war or other emergency to chooue a hersog, or common
leader. Hie people were divided into the "frilinge" or
"frone," who possessed the land, the "liti" ot "luri," a
semi-freed class, and the serfs, who had no rights. The
"ediHnge" were tbe chiefs, but had no political advantages
over the " frilinge." Their religion was a simple type ot
northern heatlieniem. See QmijUrT, voL x. pp. 473 and
477 ij.
Li 773 Charlemagne, iodaced partly by a desire to
protect his kingdom from the incnrsions of hostile nei^-
bonis and partly by a proeelytiring spirit, began the snb-
jtigation of the Saxons. The wai, waged on both sides
with the utmost ferocity, lasted in a series of campaigns
with bat Inief intervals for thirty-one years. JUpeatedly
conquerod and baptired, tbe Sasoos rose again and again in
revolt as soon as Charlemagne withdrew his troops, threw
oS their forced ailegiancs to Christianity, and under
various kadeiB, of w^om Wittekind or Widakind is the
most famous, straggled fiercely to regain their independ-
ence. Charlemagne was too strong and his measures too
relentle^ On one occasion he butchered IKOO captives
in cold blood, as a revenge and a warning. Wittekind
sorrendered and was baptized in 7B5 ; and after what iii
called the Second Saxon War, which broke out in 792,
away about 803. The Saxons were allowed
» fDnndtlloi dT •
' tbongli thi Suoni
ntoaio tasftdom la &
(he Bnt to <5ect th
Eogliix], the; WB» tho flnt to iRanpt It; anil
Mnaa »au ffaue KU applied (salt lUU Ii)ti7 tha ColUa InhabltuU
ot tbe Bilttih Idanda to all TentoBis Httlen. A dmllai ganenl bk*
of tbe Bime smriTia Id TruiTlTiuiia, when tho Omsan iahahltanU
in •illad."Suoii>,'' slthoagh onlj s Bnall pnporllos of than tree*
thrir daiotnt from tbe Saioi hnnch ot tha Tentonio fuaily.
1 A X O N T
[maon-f.
% aeaddenUe unoont o( (iMdom b; thw sagaoknu ocat-
fOTO. ^le flrat Ca/nAtfart /huoitumm, inaed at Fkder-
botn ia 788, while verj atrict iq maintaiiiing Cliriatiaiiitj
•ad in imDuhiog til rabellian, confirmed a groat nnmber
of Skeoh ctMkuus and tawi, After 803 the lam wore
made milder, aad no tiibate excejit tithea was demanded.
"Hia people livad acoordJng to (heir tormer laws,' under
Cb ^)pointed bj Cbarlemagne ; Tarioiu bishoprics were
DdeiC of which OmabrUck <783), Verden (T8G), and
Bremen (JH) an the earliest; and tianqnillitj was itill
further secured bj transplanting oolonies of Ftaxons to other
part* ot the kingdom, and introducing Frankiah colonie*
to take their place in Saxony. The land now gradnally
boeamaan integral portion of the kingdom of the Franks.*
Under Iioois the Oerman, to whom Baxony had fallen at
tiw treatj of Verdun ia 613, it was harasEed b; tbs iniwds
(^ the Normaoa and Slats on dther «de^ and, in order to
eofB with theees hersogs or dnkee were appointed about
SfiO to keep the Saxon Hark, a narrow territory in
Nordalbingia, on the weet bank of the Elbe. Theae
henoge, lemembering their predeceeeoni or their anceatore
(Lodolf, the first dnke of 6az.oay, ia said to have beon a
datoendant of Wittekind), rapidly extended their power
beyond the mark over the rest of Baxouy, and thtu
founded the powerful duchy of Saxony., Otto the Bins-
triroa, who ancceeded his brother Brano as dnke in 880,
added Thnringia to the dochy, and attuned snch a pitch
of power that he wasoSered thecrown of Germany io 911.
He rafoeed the honour on the score of old age, bat hie son
Henry the Fowler accepted it in 919, and founded tiie line
of Saxon em^Mron which expirod with Henry IL the Fiona
in 1034. Otto the Onia^ eon of Henry L, bestowed the
dnehy of Saxony upoa Hermann Biiling or Billnng, in
whoM family it remained till 1106. The power and in-
fluence of Saxony during thia period depended partly on
the &TOnr of the smperors, bat chiefly on the sagacity and
energy of the aaccGBaive dokea The Saicna were hoatile
to the Franconian emperors who succeeded the Saxon
booN, and in 1073 they me in revolt against Henry IV.
They were at firat Baccenfal. bnt in 1075, at the battle
of T*ngiwi«fclBi) they were defeated by the emperor. The
, rebels woe aererefy paaiahed, tboogh Otto of Nordheim,
la administrator of the dochy.
they again rebelled and eaponaad the oanae of Bndolf of
Swalu; bat in 1067, on U)e redgnat'ion of Hermann of
Luxemburg, whom they bad choeeo kiug, they made peace
onca more with tiie emperor. Magnus was the last dnke
of the Billtng lino. The emperor Hdnry V, now (1106)
jmMatod the l^wed dnchy to Lothjur, coont of Sapplio-
bnr^ wito rapidly beoame the most powerful prince in
Qerniany, aad in 11S5 was placed on the imperial throne
1^ the infloenoQ of the f»peX party. Two years after his
elera^on he asngned the duchy of Saxony to his power-
ful aon-io-law Henry the Frond, who was already dnke of
DaTaria and had inherited tht private poesessions of the
Billings in Saxony, in right of his mother, who was a
daughter of Magnus. Henry had aspired to be emperor
in 1138, and his successful rival Conrad IIL, wishing to
reduce his power, alleged that it vras unlawful for one
prince to hold two duchies, and ordered him to remgn
S^axony. On tiia refusal, ibe emperor immediately de-
clared both duchies to be forfeited. Henry died before
the »m«niiig war was ended, and Conrad compromised
* Tb* Lm auBimi, IB UtlM of whlcb bne inrTlTsd, wu ndnood
to wiltlag BDiltr ChrulMatgiM. Bw andar Btua hm.
* nM Biliand (BiTi-nr), ■ nUgioiu poan snribed to an nnlaiiiwn
SuoD post of tb* tik natai7, la ehtL dlad ■• a pmot of Um imfiA
ChrMlMlHttm «( th> Saana It la alao alBMSt th* only nth la
matten by apprlntiag Mi tppaamlfa Tnmg bob, aftat^.
wards known aa Henry the Lion, to the dueby of Stuony,'
compensating Albot the Bear, the former imperial caadi-
dat«, with tte independence of tho North Mark of Saxony,
afterwards called Brandenburg (see Frubsu, toL xx. p. 3).
In 1155 Henry leeeiTed Bavaria from h^s eonun and iier-
tonal friend nie ampctM Frederick Barbaroeaa, and &ub
beeame seeond only to the empen^ in power. He added
oonaiderably to the extent of Saxony by conquest among
the Wends, east of the Elbe, where the bcnindaiy had
always been a flnctnating one. But Henry was not only
powerful, he was alao am^ant, and incnrred the jealousy
of the other princea, ao that, when he qnanvlled with tho
emperor and his Unds were declared forfeited in 1160, he
had no alliea to assist him in his resistanoe. Westphalia,
the principal part of Saxony, went to the archbiahop of
Cologne, the Saxon Pftlatinate to the landgrave of Thur-
ingia, and other portions to other princes. A small district
round lAuenburg, nartli of the Elbcs was assigned with
the title of dnke of Saxony to Bernhanl of Aaeania, sc«
of Albert the Bear. Henry was reduuod to sabmiasioil
in 1181 ; bnt bis duchi«a could not be restored, and be
was forced to content himaelf with Brunswick and LOna-
bnrg. The dnchy of Saxony was never reetored in tha
old sense, in which it had been one of the four prindial
duchies of the empire^ and embraced the territoriea now
occupied by Wostphalia, Oldenburg, Hanover, the Har^
and parts of Uoddenburg and HoLitoin. The new
creation nerv rose to any importanca. Itembard of
Ascania (1161-1313), before his accoxsion aa duko of
Saxony, had held Anhalt and Wittoiiborg, to tho math-
east of Saxony, and separated from it by tho Mark of
Brandenburg; and when hi* grandsons John and Albert II.
divided their inheritance in 1260 the hittor placed bis
seat at Witteobeig, and two tiny duchies i
lAnBubnrg and Saie-Witteoberg. Saze-lAuenburg waa
now tho only part of the great duchy which retained tho
name; while Saxe-Wittenberg the nncleos of tho later
electorate, transferred the name to entirely new soil.
Both duchies claimed the electoral privilege^ including
the office of grand marshal (Eranaischall), which had
balonged to the miginal duke of Saxony, but the Ooldcn
Bull of 1366 oon&nned the claims of Wittenberg. nudoli>h
LL (about 1370) is the first duke who formally stylea
hims^ eleetm (jtrmerpt deelor). The small dectonite
was made atill amaller in Itll by the fwmation of
Anhalt into a aaparata principality. In 1423 the Ascaniaa
line became extinct with Albwt IIX, and in 1(33 the
emperor Sigismnnd conferred their lands and titles upon
Frederick, mai^rave of M^asen, and landgrave of llur-
ingia, to whom he waa deeply indebted both for money
and BBiiatance in the Hnssite wars, ^le new and morn
honourable style of elector of Saxony superseded Frodfr
rick's other titles, and the term Saxony gradually spread
over all his other poeeessioDB, which included the country
now known under that name. The early history of tho
electorate and kingdom of Saxony ia thus the oarly hiatory
of the Mark of Meiaeen, Ibe name of which now liogera
only in a solitary town on the Elbe.*
•IdenU; latvDH ofUMiUBM Buoarwyl*
bar*, for, though not baasd npoa sajr poUlka)
' — "-u, It tafraqnantlrnftned to tsOwnaa
(tlSl-lBlS) ronwd tlw tM giM ha-
)t tb* ampin to Ik* «a« oflba
divMad b(
pgriil _...,.
WtMc and DOTth ef Iha bi^'*'''!'
Lower ud Uppar itiaaj. "* - *-
w noith-iKst at
tsRibaj, Indndad the Hsr prlncipidltla*, MngdabgiA
Haeklaabufb Bnman, sad Holatate; the lattrr, bHldH Thori^K
the electnTsM of Suodt and BnodmbuTit BmUBod tha auaqnnd
SI&Toale tinda to tha aaat and porth, Including ^nirTfi aad Pcu*.-
nmtB. Tha laadg whlcb ctUI pnaam tha nana of Baxoay an this
an wltUa ttM Bntts Of Ikm einla.
S A X O N T
S53
. d» iboat M,«00 Wi
d nMking ■ lugdagt ofOdr . —
an th* laliei of i mt BUrraic hoida which,
if LmMKIi
, ___ i^ tollUi
tl»M ainowi pwpla
uinuiMt OB ™* bordta of tba Unedora of tb« HatmnadaTi or
nari^M«bo« O* 4th notan, yiMil lata tbdrtnritciriM ob
Om d<nnUl rf tkat Idi^don & tha <th oatnrT, ud Mttlad
OuuinJna l>«tw«»a IIm Sbm ud tba BhIi. Tboj wm knowa
u tha SocU or SonU, uid Oa conntrr, vhleh Inoladed th* «hal«
of tho BOAwn klngdtm of Suonr, vm olbd SonblL VuUka
and Hnktnt, tlwii tidlnooi hM DOT«r bnn oblUintad, aad,
tho^ coDaoatd, tUi itoak Imi BoitboT bMB otamlMlM —
m iDipn>T«d tho Itotil* toilofUdr:
vritan on ^naod to iteognliB theli IbAmbso in tbt ftrong Uat
to urioultanl ond iDdoMrU panolti vUeb hM tnt daco
ohuMtwiMd fh» iahoUtuto of Ibia pwt of OtroMaj i and kaa
doabtrol tnog* har* baoB lall ia tba popolai aapantltloDi and
Imnd^ ud la tba loco] nunco. For nontbaa a bondnd rata
aftu tbaic bit ooUUiga with tbo Oarmaa kingdoH tba fiotba
npnliad all atbMb^ bat in M8 R<dit tbo r««lar, tha bit Bama
eaipaw, cmainc tba Elbe, deraatatad tha land of tba Dale-
n.inrf.n^ and bidlt tha atcra^ mtla of Ulala or VeiaHO, wbkh
thaneatimnid Ibtmad tba antra of a gndnallj laenanng mark
aminat th* bwthwi far two hondnd ymn the oOca of maniaTa
o/HeiBM WMDOthanditNT, bat in UlSCoant Conrad of Vittia
Bbtalaad thaiaosaaaton fw bii boaa*,ud liMudada Unaif princaa
vboa* deMandaata atiU oocajpy tha uroM. It ia laid, tboogb on
raiT dodbtttal grooud^ that Ooniad iraa a tcion of tha tiunOf of tba
old 8«e* hero Wlttaklad. In IISO, iriraa Conrad abdloalad and
Ua pamailoDi Mtandad IKiib tbo Ilalaa and Aa Engabiiga to tba
Han and A* Baal*. Dnrtng tbaa* two oentnii** tha atale of tha
eoontn had bot doi^ liapravad. Tha Sorba bad baan ndocad
to a ODodlttoB of nlnnblo larfdom, and tba bart land n* la tha
teada of InnUih peamt* who bad baea BltM«t*d br in IMdl^.
Acriaaltn*>aa«DOonng«d by dw aodadaitiea, anoolallT^ Bidiap
Bamko, who eaoaptad tbo aia of lM«aa (TouiidHl in sei) about tba
tima<(tt*eMMlM*tof B^andby tbaRormani. In th* Taign of
Otta tha filch {m7-llW)ttafintallT«TnioMW«ndi*ocnnnd,*i '
■ - -^' mndod. Tia* ^
^ , „ nof Lafpalo ..
ud nada wai mad* and towna fbttiflld with tha
Otto'* gnndBon. Hanj tba lUnitiioni (ir"
moOai Intte wia a ^i
Bnbant)i
K Jntia wia a nnrinoiui pclnoaaa, le
br inheiltiw part «f IhaAn^ (tba :
mt) and tta FkiiBalaBd, a* Um diati
Slwhoai
„, nonitad mMt of OomadV
(tba laat want to tba dokoof
, diatriatoa both bank* of tha
of tba Flafaao waa oaUed. Ho too loot tbo cbanco of
Ibandlaga m^ntieait Unodom in th* heart of Oanniay, bjraab-
diiidlag Ui timtafa*, wUeh itntohed in a oommet maa trom
tba Wana to lb* Odat and from Ih* nuHutalaa of Bobenk to tbe
Han. Tb* eonaagnaaMa of tbia poBn* of tabdlTlilon, lAiA wia
(taUowad b]r U* aoDceaaoti, wen bitlar hmllr And* and patty WBiK
perioolj baoiparing tb* d*Tal»pnMlit of t£* ooonliT. Traderi^
the Onn (ltU-lM7) wu A* lirt priao* of tba hon** at Vattla
who waa aol* toln^dl the •BMatnl land* «(Ua bona*. Thanaat
powvftd loan b rnderiok tiie Wariike, who baoama
mi. Ba3d«tb*l[ari[b* ' ' " ' ' ' '
, taniKvjr
Id tba wwlh-wiBt of the pnaant Ungdom, atntobisg from Um Bade
at ffiiiaaalila to lb* lib* it Tono, and ambndng tha pUa of
Laipdu mdartok, In whoaa Talgn lb* aninnity it Lilpdo wu
fonndal had aoqnired bia aaraaae by hla anemtle Mtppoit of
SigiiDDild, eipealally in the Hniaita wan. Aa wobara aaan, ttat
•mpanr'a d«A« to attaoh to biaeeltao nowartiilaii all; led him
to Wow Iha menat alactoTa] dnobj of 8ai*-'Wltt*nb*(s npaa flu
mainaT* in un. Deapila tb* tnaUow atata orpoElk aftlr^
tli*fat>nial pnapiii^i^tb* land bad ataadUyadnncad. Kart
of tb* eUif town* badby tbi* time b**ii Inuidad,— Ldpdc, Eiftnt,
Zwlakan, and Trelbeis bdi^ tbe nuat oonqtaioB*. <^*amlta
had bagaa ila taEtHalndnatiy. Tba condition of dw paamnta wi*
taHa bdowtlMt of tb* boi^Mia of lb* town*; wuyof them
win nM(* nrfc. Tbt ahmcb iMalnad the high pitab of power
wbidi it bad aarlT attaiaed In ll*ii*en. ud nltgtaa* --"--■
onr th( nuMt brtilo diatriota. Is apita of fraah
T, Hw |i*aialai7 want* of tha piiaMa had to b*
iad by centribattoaa called "badaa* ftom tb*
diaoonrU* of rflvir.
laet in a kind of dlat
Aederick** oew diguitiea aa elector, comluned with bia
pHKHMl qnalitiei, now made him one of the mqit powwfnl
CM in Oermuif ; had the principle of primogenitan
•cUUished in the countrr m he left it^ Qamoj uid
not Btuideotnifg mi^t have been the leading power in
die atninie to-dajr. He died io 1428, joet in time to
Mcape th* ffkt ot seeing his lutda enuHj mnfti bj
tha HmritM is U» and 149D. Ibe divinoo of tenito?
between hk two mm, Ftaderiok tbe Hihl (1436-1494)
and VnUiam, ODoe more called forth dertraotiTe intwiodM
wue(the''Brildetkrieg'), in which Oe fomar for « tiaM
fotgot hie nniaB*. It waa in 1466, dnring tU* war,
that the kni^t Knm voo Kanfuogen eatried into exaen-
tioa hia boU, Oonfb only moBiantMilr wioewatnl, plan
of atcftling the two jwing lOtN of die eleotor VndmUk.
Emert and Albert^ tiM two priDoae to qoeatioD, anoeaedad
to their bther^ paewerioM u 1494, and for twenty yean
mlad peacefnlty tn eonuDon. Tba land rapidly proband
during thia rtttpite fawa war. Tkade made gnat advanee^
enoDonged by an tn){ro«ed eoinage, whid waa one of the
ooBaaqnanoea ot the lUnr diNOreriea m tha Sditteaber^
Sevaral erf tha powetfnl ectleriaitMal ^ineipalitieB wen at
time held by menhen of (he Baxon eleetoial houM^ ao
. the erietcM jpfaence of the alertotata wnMpODded
to iti internal proaperity. Hattara wan not eolFgred to
oontinne thue. Iha ihililliaa death <^ their nncb miUam
1483 beqneathed Thnringin to the two prinoe^ and the
nnger AlMrt inuted npon a dividon of the '■™""""
wwmona. InAngut 14S6ae Fartititnof LaqMietook
place, which raanlted in tha fonndatkn of two Ban» Unaa,
tha Emaatina and tha Albertina. Ha landi were nerw
a^tin nnitad. Eneat divided the laada into two portian^
ud Albert (hoaa. ^art faom tha aleetotal dno^ el
Wittenberft lAidi ■aomwrily want to Emmt as the elte
brother, tha landa wm dirided into TlinriBgia, baU << Aa
Oaterlaikd, and Kanmborg and the Toigtland on Hba oaa
hand, and HeiMen and the lamaining parts of eartw
die other. To Bmeet^ tep Aaedn, Albert
die M aaoertna landa of tba WettiiMb
13ta aleetoiaU remained at flnt w
£niait waa Bneoeadad I7 hu aon Ftedarieh Aa THn
1486-1626), one irf tho mort illnatrHoa prinaaa in
Jennan hiatory. Under Ui mle 8an»y waa pe^^a Iha
moat iofloentiid member of the Oerman empto ; Hd on
death tt MnTtmilian the impMW crown iMelf waa
offered to him, bat he vindicated bia "b"-**— Ij rAa-
ing it. In tbia reign Saxony became tha cradle of dm
Bcfonnation. The elector^ wi«et(d«ranoo and anbaaqnMt
im)t«otic» and haar^ aiqipart of Lnther ace wall known
to erarw reader. He ii aaid to Imn remained mimMiiiil
oat of lore to hi* brother John, who anooeedad him. He
died daring tha bomn of the Peaaant*^ War. John
(IBaiUBSa) 1
doetrina^and diared the kwlanft^of Aa
anal nn^rie^
) took part in tbe Stftmalkahl War, Iwt fai 1647 was
Frederick the
League with lUlip of Heaaa. Hia eon. Jobs
ha UagiMnimoH (1633-1647), mUit with
have bean anmamad the Unmtnn
e^Anied at Mtlhlbei| by the amperor Chariaa T., and
foned to ngn Ae e^tnlation of Wittenberg. Hun deed
tiansfemd the eleotoiata and nearly aU the Banm landa to
the Albartine Unt^ wbooe aatole repieeentati** had takaa
the imperul aide. Only a few acattered terntotiea In
Tburingia were reaerred for Jdba Fredoiek's eraa, and oa
these were aftenrarda founded the Eneatlna dtuhiea of
Weimar, Qotha, Ae. For the aeeond time In the hiatory
of the &aaii electorate^ tbe yoanoer line on a divimoo
ultdmatelv aeenred the higheat dignity, for tha Wittenberg
line had been jnaior to Ae lAoenbeig line, ^m Albert'
ine line is now the royal line of Bazony.
The Albertine Ifaoiioe became eleatot after the ei^itnift-
tioncfWittODberg. He was the oandsoa of the founder of
hifl }iOTen. and ^*^ been tnuceded on the thPMW irf If cdeean
by hia uncle George (1500-1639) and tiy bia father Heniy
(ISSg-lSil). Ooorge was a aealooa Bonmn CUholii^
and had Tainly eodeaTonred to atom the Babrmntiaa in
S3tt-45
3M
SAXONY
hk iamioloat : Henry «M an win^j devoted Protwbukt.
kbniiee (lSll-1653) wm aUo « ProteaUnt bot hs wm
too utate to permit hia religion to blind him to his
political intweata. His rulinft mottTe ■eemn to haTs beea
ambition m iocreaae his pentonal pover and the oonaaqneoGe
ti hii conn^. He refoaed to juio the Schmalkald League
with the otbei Protaiitaat prioceB, and made a secret treaty
with the aRiperor initead. By invading the EmoBtiQe
land* in John Frederick's absence daring the Scbmalkald
War, hs forced that prince to return hastily from the
Danaba, and thna weakened the army oppoaed to the
emperor. Thongh he was compelled to retreat before hia
indignant aad surprised kinsman, hit fidelity to the
emperor was rewarded, as we have seen, at the capitnlalion
of Wittenberg. AH thp lands torn from the Erneetinea
were not, however, asu^ned to Hanrioe ; be was forced to
acknowledge the snec^nty of Bohemia over the Vaigtland
and the Bilesiau duchy of Sagsn, and to renoonoe his
own superiority over the Reosa dominiona. The Roman
Catholto prelates were moreover reinstated in the three
great bishoprics of Meiseen, Merseburg, and Naumbug-
Zelts. Recognizing as a Troteetant sovereign that the
best alliance for sacaring bis new poesemions wae not
with the Roman Catholic emperor but with the other Pro-
testant princes, Hanrice now began to wididraw from the
former and to conciliate the latter. In 15G2, aoddenly
inarching against the emperor at Inmibruek, he extorted
ttxaa him ue peace of Pasiau, which accorded religious
freedom thronghont Germany. Thu^ at the dose of his
life (he died of a wound in battle in 15S3), Hanrice
came to be regarded aa the champion of Oerman national
and religions freedom. Amid the distractions of outwaixl
afiaire, Hanrice had not neglected the internal interests of
Saxony. To the already conspicuoos educational advant-
ages in the country he added the three grammar schools
(Fniateuschnleu) at Pforta, Qrimma, and Meissen ; and for
administrative purpoeea, especially for the collection of
the tazea which bad now become piaoticallj annual, he
divided Uie country into the four " cirdes " of the
Electorate, Thnringia, Leipeic, and Ueiseen. In lfil2 die
firet coal mine vras opened. Over two hundred convents
wen suppressed in Sazacy; Leipeic, Wittenberg, Jena, and
Erfurt hod each a onivetaity; books b«^an to increase,
and the Baxon dialect became the ruling dialect of Qerman
in virtue of Luther's tranalatioo of tlie Bible. Angustna
L (1663-1966), brother of Maurice, was one of the beat
domestic mlbra that B&xony ever had. He increased
the area of the conntiy by the "circles" of Nenstadt
and the Voigtland, and 1^ parts of Henneberg and
t&e silver-yielding Hanafeld, and he devoted his long
reign to the development of its teeonrcea. He visited iJl
parts of the connlry himaelf, and personally encouraged
agriculture ; he introdnoad a more economical mode of
Dining and imelting ailTer ; he favoured the importation
of finer breeds of sheep and cattle ; and he brought foreign
wearata from abroad to teach the Saxons. Under him
lac^-making began on the Erigebirge, and cloth-making
fiooriahed at Zwickau. He was the fint to fortify the
Konigatein, the one fortress in modem Saxony, and he
built other casttee. With all hiu virtues, however,
Augustus was an intolerant Lotheran, and used very eevere
means to eztetmiuate the Calvinists ; in hit electorate
be is said to have expelled one hundred and eleven
Oalviniat preachers in a single month. Under his eon
Christian L (1686-1691) the chief power waa'wielded
by the chancellor Crell, who strongly favouied Calvinism,
but, when Christian IL (1691-1611) came to the throne a
men diild, Crell was sacrificed to the Lntheran nobljs.
^w dake of Wrimai was made regent, and eontinoed tje
peneootioa of ciypto-Calvlniam, io vfitt of tlu bmob wiib
the Beformed imperial diet which tlus eomae iavolved.
CSuistian U. was succeeded Uy his brother John Qeorgo L
(lflll-16G6), under whom ttie country was devastated I7
the Thirty Years' War. John George was an amiable bat
weak prince, totally nnfitted to direct the fortnnes of a
nation in time of danger. He refused the protfered ctowa
of Bohemia, and, when the Btdiemian Protestante elected a
Calviuist prince, he assisted the emperor against them
with men and money. The Beetitntton Edict, however, in
1639, opened his eyea to the emperor'a prqjeots, and he
joined Oastavoa Adolpbns. Saxony now became the
theatre of war. The first battle on Saxon soil was fought
in 1631 at Breitenfeld, where the bravery of the Swedes
made up for the flight of the Saxons. Wallenetein
entered Saxony in 1632, and hie lieutenants Hoik and
Qallaa plundered, burned, and murdered through the
length and breadth of the land. After the death of
Qustavns Adolphus at the battle of LQtsen, not far
from Leipsic, in 1632, the elector, who was at heart an
imperialist, detached himself from the Swedish alliance,
and in 1636 concluded the peace c^ Prague with the
emperor. By this psaue he was confirmed in the
posaesuon of Upper and Lower Lnntia, a district of 180
SQuare mtlee and half a million ■nlmhitfl.Titjfj which ^*^
already been pledged to him as a reward for his services
against the Bohemians. Lnsatda had once belonged to
Conrad of Ueiaun, whoee deecendants, however, had lost
it to Brandenburg at the beginning of the Hdi. century.
Saxony had now to suffer from the Swedes a repetitiou of
the devastations of Wallenstein. No other country in
Qermany was so terribly sconrged by this terrible war.
Immense tracts were rendned abedntely deeol*te, and
whole villagee vanished from the map ; tbo pec^ile were
tortured to reveal their treaauree, or from wantMi brutal-
ity ; famine was followed by plague ; dviliaition was
thrown back and barbarism revived. In eight years the
populatioQ aftTiV from three to one and a hftlf milli<Hks.
When the war was st length ended by the peaoe of
Westphalia io 1618, Baxony found that ita influence had
begun to decline io Germany. Its alliance with the
Catholic party deprived it of ita place at the head ct
the Protestant German states, which was now taken by
Brandenburg. John George's will made the decline of
the electorate even more inevitable by detaching from it
the three subsidiary dnchiea of Saxe-Weissenfal^ Saxa-
Herseborg, and Saxe-Zeits in hvour of his younger sons.
By 1746, however, these lines were all extiiict, and Quit
poesesaiona had returned to the main line. Saxa-
NeuatBdt was a short-lived branch from Baxa-Zeiti, extinct
in 1711, The next three electora, who each bore tiienama
of John George, had uneventful reigns. The first made
some eSorts to heal the wound* of his (JOunliy; the aeoond
warted the lives of hia people m foreign ware against die
Turks ; and the third was the last I^testant elector of
Baxony. John George IV. was succeeded by his broilnr
Frederick Augustas I., or Augustui the Strong (1691'
1733). This prince was elected king of Poland ai
Augustus IL in 1697, but any weight which the royal title
might have given him in the empire was more than
counterbalanced by tbs fact that he, though the ruler of aa
almoat exclusively Protestant electorate, became a Uomsn
Catholic in order to qualify for the new dignity, "ttit
connexion with Poland was diaastrona for Baxony. b
order to defray the expenses of his wars with Charl^ XIL,
which resulted from hia Polish policy, Augustus pawned
and sold Urge districts of Saxon territory, while he drained
the electorate of both men and money. For a year bafoi«
the peace of Altranstadt in 1706, when Augustas gave np
tbe crown of Poland, Saxony was occupied by a Swedlu
■my, Tbi«h bad to be topported at an eimenw tt tireo^
1 A X O N T
IfctM mflHon UmImi. He mn kod •zfa^mMaea of the
•iKtor-kin^ who nguned the Polish Drown in 1T0!>, ws
Mid to bn DOtt Saxony k handred million thklera. From
thu nign d»tM the priTj oooncil (a«beiinea EAUnot),
wUcb lMt«d till 1830. The cwte prinlegM of the ertktea
{Stiade) wen inenMod bj Angutaa, a fact whiofa tended
to alienate them more from tbe paopli^ and eo to decnaoa
th«ir power. Bottger made hiafamonadiaooTerj in 1710,
and the maaafactnra of porcelain waa began at Majwen,
and in thii reign the HoroTian Brethren made thMt
aettlemant at Eembot (1722). FrMierick Angutoi IL
(IT35>1763), irbo (oooeaded hia father in IIm electorate,
and waa afterwards alected to the throM of PoUad at
Angnatna m., waa aa indolent pnaea, mbMj niklar the
iaAiwDoa of Onf too BrthL Brilhl wm an inoompetent
ataleeman and an extisTagant Gaaader, who yet oootnTad
to anuwa laige nmu for hia priTate pnnci Under bia ill-
omened aiupicei Sazoof aided with Fnuda in the Fint
Sileaian War, and with Austria in the other two. It
^ined nothing in the fiiat, loat much in the aecond, and
in the third, the Sctbd Yean* War (1706-1163), again
iMcame the acene of war and nflered renewad miaeriei.
nia eoontij waa deeerted by it* king and his miniater, who
ntind to Poland. Bj the end of the war it had lost
W^OOO men and a hnndred million thalen ; ita coinage
waa debased and its tnde mined , and the whole ooontty
waa in a state of frantic disi^et. The elector died aeren
montha after his retnm from Poland ; BrOU died twen^-
three daji later. The electot'a aon ud anocaaeo^ Frederic
Cluistian, snrriTed hia father onlr two montha^ leaTiog
• aon, Fraduiek .^ignatna lO. (1T63-1837), a bc^ of
tiiirfaMm ninoa Xaver, the elaetor's uncle, waa appointed
onardian, and he aet himself to the sorely-needed work of
Sealing the wonnds of the eoniltrT. The foundation of
the tamona school of mining at Freiberg, and the improve-
nent of the Baxon bread of sheep hj the impoctetioo of
BMTiDO sheep from Spain, were due to hia eare. Fredniok
•asomed the goternment in 1768, and in hie long and
ereottnl nign, which aKW the electorate elevated to the
dtgnit; of a kingdom, though i^pmei of more tl(an half
ite area, he won the nmame of tlie Jnst As be was the
first king o( Saxony, he b nfoaUy a^led FVednick
Angustns L The first ten 7«an of hu actiTe reign puaed
in peace and quiet ; apicoltar^ mann&etnrea, and
indnsbries were (oatered, eoonomical refmna inatitntod;
and the beaTjpoblio debt of forty million thalers was
steadily rednoed. In 1770 tartnre waa abolished. When
the Bavarian sneceHion fell open io 1777, Frederick
Angnstna joinad Pnutia in proteatiDg against the absorp-
tion of Bavaria by the Anstrian emperor, and Saxon troope
took part in ths Uoodleaa "potato-war." The elector
commnted his claims in right of his mother, the BaTarian
princess Uaria Antonia, for mz million fiorins, which he
spent chiefly in redeeming Saxon territory that had been
pawned to oQier German statea. When Baun^ joined tbe
Fflntenbnnd in 1785, it had an ana of I^IBS square
miles and a popnlation of nearly 2,000,000, but its Tariooa
parte had not yet beeo combined into a homogeneous
vAole, for the two Lnaatiai^ Qnerfurt, Hsnneberg, and the
eodeaiactieal foundations of Nanmborg and MeiBebnrg
had each a separate diet and goveniment, independent of
Hm diet of the electorate raoper. In 1791 Frederick
declined the crown of Poland, ^thoo^ it was now offered
as hereditary even io the female line. He remembered
how unfortunate tor Saxony the former Polish connexion
had been, and he mistrasted the attitude of Bosaia towards
the proffered kingdom. Next year saw the beginning
o( the gieat atrnggla between France and O^maoy.
Fredericks eonduct thron^ont was perhapa acm
puailUaimow than nl( aeekiuft bot it anttUed its own
856
Hia fint pdloy waa one rf aellUi afaetention,
and 'from 1793 tmtil 1796, when he ctKiclnded a definite
treaty of neutnli^ with France, he limited his contribntloa
to the war to the bora contingent dne from him as a prince
of Uie empirtt, Wbeo war broke oat in 1806 against
Napoleon, 22,000 Saxon troops shored the defeat d the
Pruanans at Jena, but the elector immediately afterwards
snatched at Napoleon's offer of nentnlltj, and abandoned
his former ally. At the peace of Poaen (11th December
1806} Frederick entered Uie Confederation of the Rhine,
assuming the title of king of Saxony, and promising a
contingent of 20,000 men to Napoleon.
No change followed in the internal affairs of the new
kingdom, except that Boman Catholics were admitted to
equal privileges with nvteslants. Ita fweign policy waa
dictated by the will of Napoleon, of whose irresistibili^
the king was too easily convinoed. In 1807 his sub-
misdon was rawirded with the dnchy of Warsaw and the
district of Cottbns, though he had to soirender some el
hi* fwmer territory to Uie new kingdom of Westphalia.
The king of Saxony's bith in Napoleon was momentarily
shaken bj tbe diaasten of the Russian campaign, in vdiich
ai,000 Saxon troope had shared, and in 1813 he began to
laaa towarda an alliance with Austria. Napoleon's victory
at LfltMn (May 2, 1813), however, snddenly restored all his
•we for that great general, and the Saxon king and the
Saxon anny ware once mon at the dispoaal of the French.
After the battle of Bantsen, Napoleon's headquarters
were anooaarively at Braadan and Leipuc. During the
decisive battle at the latter town in October 1813, the
pqinlar Saxon feeling was displayed by tbe desertion of
the Saxon boopa to the side of the allies. Frederick
was taken prisoner in Leipalo, and the government of hia
kingdom was assumed for a year by the Bowians, vdio
promptly turned its reeonrcea against its late French ally.
Saxony was now r^jded as a conqnered connbT. Nothing
but Austria's vehonent dsaira to keep a powerfnl neighboUT
at a distance from ber boundaries, preserved it from being
CMupletely annexed by the Pnuaiana, who had succeeded
the Boasiana in the government. A* it waa, the congress
of Vienna assigned the northern portion, consiatiog of 7800
square miles, with 864,404 inhabitants to Prussia leaving
6760 squan niilw, with a population of 1,182,744 to
Frederick, who was permitted to retain his royal title.
He waa foroed to acquieece in the dismemberment of his
kingdom, and to cons^ himself with the reflexion that his
■hare, though tbe smaller half, waa richer, man populooi^
and more beautiful than tbe other.
Pn>iB tha nirtitJOD la IStS to th* wuof 18M ths liitoir of
BsiOD J i* nuunlj ■ nundTB of ths iloir growth otconitltnlionaliHn
tad papDlir lib«rt; irilliin It* limit*, ft* inBniiiea on theganenl
hictoij tit Europ* CMsad tIibii- tha old Osnnui ompin wu dis-
•oItwI Id the nsw ampin it li too eomplttaly argntudaind by
Piwd* to hiT« uy objMtiTe importuca Jiy itHU: 7ndiriek
llrad twslv* nus sttar tha diTi^oD ot hi* kingdom. Th* oin-
m*ni*l mi nidilitrial Intansts of th* cooutry contiiiDad tab*
fostntd. bat only a fra of th* most nasT(Hd*bl« political nTortDS
w« putt*d. Th* Gut that BoBM of thiM had not b**n nsotad
Mbia 1* mora dgnificBnt than that tb*y war* gnntad new.
Beligiou equality «** txtm^ to tiia Rrfonnad Cfanrcb^ 1818,
and tha wpaiata diat of fSmu Lonti* i. _.
ADcoatni Taa iDceaedtd by hi* aBptoaganarian hrothar Anlosy
(1SI7-183S), to tha gnat diMppointmant of th* VKipl', vfao b*d
(ipected a mon libanl *ra andar Princa Pndtrick Aainiitiu, tha
king^ nepliew. Antony asnoanad bt* iDlrntion of foIloniDg tb*
line* laid down bj M* predacaMor. Ha aocordad at flrat only ■
few trifling rararma, vhicli wan br ftom nmoTisg th* ncimlar
diaoonUnt, whila ha ntninad tha uupopnUi miniitai Einilidel and
eonUDncd tha anconngeniant of tbe Boman Catholic*. Tha old
tendal *mBe«n*iit at the diet, with ita incoDTOiient diniiona,
vu ntained, and tha prir; conndl continncd to ba the depoaltory
of ponr. AntetiT*appe*itianb«|l*stom>keit*e1f aFldcntin tha
dirt and in tha pnai, and in 1S30 riots in I^p*ia and Dnidag
impnaaed tha kiBgwith th* n»oa»«ilT ofamteealim. Eiuiedel wis
a«hiK*d, Princa Tndcrick Angartn* sMomod a* 0O4Mb^ sad a
sua
SAXONY
ItriKTOVT.
ooDititDtioD imnlwl After nmniltation with th< diet 11m Hog
Gililt|aC«l ■ aeir oinititntiou on SopUmbrr i, 1S31, vliich ii tll«
AiBtrLin »na to nprev Iho dinrautmt by Sora bid befu nfuaej.
TbB trailil Btatea nn rsplooMl b^ tiro diamben, lirxely otcctire,
aad thfl pri^ DDiinci] bjA r»pon«iblo mijilHtry oT lii dFpartinent^
BamluinL tdu Undeiuu wu tha beul of tha £nt nBpouBibU
obioet, uhI tha SnC conititutdoasl usciubl]! sit from Jinumy 127,
IStB, till October SO, 1B34. ^Vbil« Suoaf'i noUtiul liberty
wm tluu anliisHl. Ita a>miner« md credit wens itimulnua by tba
oomtnutloD of nilnn. Actouy had diod in IS38, md FrHlericlE
Ancwtn* IL (18W-1864) bKsma ute kiug. Qrowins intereat ia
poUtie* pcodaaad dlMHtia&ctiou with the compramiH of 1S31, uiJ
Aa Ubanl oppodtioa oraw In atmiban and iuSneace. Tha burn-
ioX quMioDi vara tha pablieity of 1^1 prouediugi and tha
freMlon of th* pnaa ; uJ on theaa Che OoTarnmeDt taaUlnad its
Snt croahin^ defeat in tha lotfet or Kcond chamber in 1842.
Lindanaa tciigued in IBIS. Religioua couiideratioDS aa to tha
recognition of th* German Catholici and a new conatitntion for the
PiDtaatant Ohnrch began to mingle with purely political i^neationa,
tad FHiKa John, « tba aappoaed head of tha Jwnit ^rty, na
iDinlted at a rariair of the contnianal guirda at Laipaic in lS4fi.
Tha milEtaty nahly interfered, and aerenl innocent apeatalon
wwa ahot The bittaniaa irhich tiiia occarieuca provoked vaa
intanniSad by ■ pditioal reaction vhich vtt initiated abont the
■una tina nnder Ton Shnnecita. Warned by tha aynpaChy
eicftMl ia B4iaaj b; tha taToludonar^ erenta at Faiia in 184B,
tha king dtamlaaad hia Taaotionaiy miautr7, and a liberal cabinet
took il> plaae in Uaroh I81S. The diapaled points ware novr
oonoedad to the oonnti;. The pciritegea of tiie noblea were
cnrtaOfd ; tha adkniniatntioa of jnaCice waa pat on a bettor foot-
ing ; tha preaa ma nnabacUed ; publicity in legal procaadinga waa
grantod ; trial by jacj wu introduced' [or aorae tpocial c*s«a ; and
tha Oarnian Catholici vtie ncoguiierl. The feudal chancter of
the But dhamber waa aboliibed, and it* membart made mainly
alaottn trma among the higheat tsi-nayen, while an alinoat
nnlTenal -aoffraga waa iptrodocsd k.t the aecoud chamber. Tha
Irtt d*iiuodofthaoTBrwhelinii^yi.aDiocratic diat returned aader
thif rafonn bill wia that the una ahonld accept the Frankfort
Frederick, all^Dg the danger of acting without the
of fnmit. rafnaad, and diaaolVed tha diet. A public
n faT..nr of th* Frankfort conatitntion
WM Mohibitad h Olagal on May 2, 1849. Thia at onca awoke the
nopiuar tlU7. Tha mob aaiiad the town and barricaded tha itreeti ;
Dnadan ma almoat daatitnte of troou ; and the king fled to the
EoDigataJD. Th* nbela then prooaadad to appoint a prtiiiaioDal
'Oonraman^ aosaiatifig o( TaaUraar, Henbner, and Tult, though
th* tnu leader ot tba insamctian wu the Roaaian Baknnin.
■ m troop* had aniTad to aid the Goi
roa atraet Bghting the riaing wu
DOW baouna aloaer, md Trederid . .__
PrtiHla aod HanoTar fata th* tampnu? "illfano* of the thna
klnn." HawaanotaiBooia, ho«eTBr, Indaabingtoexclnda Autria,
■nd in IStO aeceptsd th* inntatioa of that power to aand dapaCiaa to
rnnkfort The fiat ohambar immediately proteattd agatnat thia
it*p, and ratn**! to Lonndar the qneatlon of a presaing loan. The
king Rtorted by dlMolriur the diet and anmnioning tha old
aetata* ■boU*h*d in 1848. When a quonun, with aome diScnlty,
wu obtained, another period of retro,{[ada legiihition aet in. The
eonatltatioQ of th* chamber* haa nerer been rnitored to ths batia
of 1848. The king himaalf waa carried away with the reactianai;
enrr-T-<, and the people remained for ths tima indifferent Von
B — 4. 1 _:_5-.. r— u-.i: 1. J . — !_j affaira in 18M,
howerer, aWe to irithdraw from the cnitoms nnion, which indeed
conferred the Tory higheat beneBt on ita trade and manufactnmi.
The (udden death of the Idng, by a fall from hia carriage in
Tyrol, left the throne to hia brother John (1884-1873), a learned
and accomplished prinea, whoao name ii known in Gentian
litsratnra ai a tranilator and annotator of Dante. Hia brothar'a
mlniateta kapt theii portfoGoe, bat their Tiewa gradnally be-
came aomewliat libe-' — ' — "■ '»•- —'-' - -' - -- *
howei-er, atill n
When war .waa declared between ?rnaai
aaiony daclinad the former'a offer of
Pmalaa brce croaacd tha border, the 9aion army nnaer ine ling
and the crown prince joined tiie Aoatriana in Bohemia. The
Vitira kingdom, with tha aoUtary sinption of tha Eonigatein, wu
oocnpiti by tha i'miaiana. On the couclunoD of peace Saiony
loat no t«njtory. but had to pay a war Indemnity of leu million
th^era, and «^ compelled to enter the Iforth-Oerman Conftdei*'
tian. Ita army and ita pcatal and telegraph lyatera Kere placed
nnder the control ot Pnuata, and ita rapraaentation at loniga
coort* »» entruatei^ ^ the Prunian embaailet. Banat waa totoA
to realgn ; and libaiil meuore* in both choidi and lUtt wan
actiTely cuiiad throng John «a« atiOMded in 1879 by Ui
.Dutrality, and, when
ilintincHou a> a ganenl
___ — .. _.. . __ bix jffinc* the fjenanl
na of politica haa preeented uothiog of >fi«.-ial iuiputtanoL
ipt poihapa tha iteady spread of the doctrine* of ludal
democracy, which hu Hourinhad eatiarinllr In Saxony. Aa a
loyal member of tho ne\i Oennau empire Baiouy hu gradnally
tiaiufarred ita aympathiea from ita old ally Anatria to lli new
leader Pnuaia. In 1877 Laipaic wu chcieen a* tlia eeM of the
aaprema conrt of law for tha empire.
The political hiitory of the parb of Saiony left by tha eapltnla-
tlon of wittenben to the Emoatine Una, which oocuiiy th* regim
now generally itjle.1 Thuringia (Thitriiicen), ia mainly a ncital
of |«rtitioDi, nuniooa. rediririaiu, and freih combinatJona ot
temlorr among tha Tariona eaua of the lacceaaiTe duka*. Tha
pnndpfe of primogeniture waa not iDtrodnoed nntil the end of th*
I7th oeatnry, ao that tha Ftotaataut Saxon dyuaity, inataadof
building up a iingle compact kingdom foi itaalf, haa *plit Into
four patty duchiei, of no poUtfcaf inBuane* whaterar. In 1G47
the ez^lectoc John Frederick th* Hagnanimona wu allowed to
retain Weimar, Jena, Kiaouacb, Gotba, Hennabe^ and BaalfaU.
Attenboig and a few other dlatricta wan added to the Emaitinw
poeataaioai by the treaty of Nanmborg In lB6i, and other addi-
tion* ware made from other aourcea, John Frederick, who had
retained and transmitted to hi* deacatidant* the tltla of dnka
ot Saiony, forbade hia aona to diyid* their InheiiCaiiea ; bnt Ua
wi*haa ware raapactad only nntil after the death of U* ddert lou
in IGSI). The two aurriTon then founded aaparata JDiiadietiom at
Weimar and Coburg, though arrangement* were made to axehauga
tarritoriea erery three ye^ra. In IBSS flaxe-Oobarg gare off ths
branch Saie.Eiaenach ; and in IMt Stxt-Vetmai pr* off Baxe-
Altenburgi the elder Weimar line •oding and tha Tonager begin-
ning with the Utter date. By 1S3S Weimar haf abaorbed both
Coburg and Blaanach ; Altanbnrg nmaioad till 1ST2. John, dnko
of Sale- Weimar, who died in 18DE, i* regarded u the common
ancaatoroF tba preHnt £niaatine linoa. In lt40UB three mrriTiBA
Bona mled the dachiu of Weimar, Einnack, aad Ootha. SlaeBaeb
fell in In 1814 and Altanburg in 1E73, thna leaving the dukaa et
Saie-Weimar and Saia-Gotha to become tha anceatota ot tha
modem ruling honaea. Shia-Waimar waa atlU repeatedly dirided :
in 1808 a Saie-Uarktuhl appaara, and abont 1873 a Saie-Jana and
1 new Saie-Biaanadi. All theae, however, wen extinct by 1741,
and their poeaeaiona letumed to the niaiD line, which had adopted
the priucipla of ptimc^niture in 17IS. The present grsnd-doehy
ot SAXB-WEtsun-EuBXACa ia saparatelt noticed.
Saia-Ootha wu eren more anbditided ; and th* climax wd
THched about 1880, when Ootha, Coburg, Ueiningan, Bomhtld,
Eieenbarg, HadbnighMwan, and Saalfeld wen each tha oamtal of
a duchy. By the lw>ginw<nf of 182G only tbe fiivt three of thee*
and flildburglianaan ranuunad, the landa ot the othera baring
bean dirided after mnch onarTelliug. In that year the Gotha Una
expired, and a general rediatribntion of the land* ot tha " Kana
Oothauni," u thia groap of dnohiaa wu callad, WM arranged on
12th fiorsmber 1838. The duke of Hildbnrghanaan gave up hia
lands entirely for Altanburg and became duke of S ucx. ALTiu bu no ;
the duke of Cobu^eichai^ Saalfeld for Ootha and became duka
of SAix.CoBnao-QoTHA ; and the dnka of BAiK-MimiKant
iveeiTed Kildbtugtwnaan, aaalfeid, and aona other tattitori**. and
•dd*d HildburghuiaeD to hia titU. The** dochia an lepaiateli
noticed. See 3to Tanamau.
QnooKintT Am STAimioa.
Tha Ungdom of Saxony, the faiitoiy ot which haa ba«n traoed
abore, ia the third coaititnent of the Qerniaa ampin in point of
population, and the fifth in point of an*. With the eicsjitiDn
• ■' " — ilaTea of Zicgelhain in Saie-Altcnbursaud
Leihachwi
n tha borders of Keua, Sax»W*imar. ■
taading from narth-ea«t to aonth-west, and its apex
' It lias between SO" 10' and 61* M" N. laL
nd IS* 4' K long. The total area Is IST89
aqnara mile* (abont half tha sin of Belginm), or S-7 par
tha entir* ampin ; its graataat length ia ISO milea, and ita „
breadth S8 mila*. Ito frontien han a eiicoit of 780 milea. On
the aouth it i* bounded by Bohemia, on tba wnt.by Barari^ and
the Tburingian state*, and on tlu nm^ning odea by Pnuaia.
Except on the aouth, where tha Engebdrg* forma at once th* Unit
of tha kin^om and of th* *inpira the bmmdaii** an entird^
SliticaL f w adminialntiTa pmrpoaaa the kingdom ot Saxony i*
•idedintoth*rouTdi*tiielaofB*ntnaintb*Booth4a*t, Dreaden
in die north-eaat, Iiei»i« in tha north-weit, and Zwickau in the
Bouth-weat
J%jir<cal Anima —Saiony balongi abnott ntiialT to th* «*ntnl
mouBtain tefion ot Oaimany, only tha dlitrict* along tba nora
border and anrand LaipaiB daaoeMing iqto Ih* groat Kortli-
Eoropcan plun. ' Tha arerag* elevation of the oonntrr la no^
gnati and it iamon properly danribsd'Mblllr than a*
ooa. 1lMor^n«iTettisnt£MT*tan«wi4Sbe(«iMMit
pUs, tvc
SAXONY
3S7
gUs, tvo-flfthi M hn omnti;, mil twO'flftli* u iHHutaiB lud.
H ilDpe i> TMj t^ulKrlr rnmi Kiath-tutto Dortb- woat, Id tlM dlnc-
Hi or tha abwtar uii. Tlie efalefmMnUiiinngalithBEiigBbinB,
•tntEhlDg for 90 mila Uons tlu HDth bordgr, ud nuklDg in tha
Tlolitalb^ Jisrs fMt ud SSU I»«tl thO hiehail -' — •'— '- •■■-
kingdoD. Tbamtandioiitli-wiMtidtotSuai
Mnjhd bf tha ruilAcMiou uki mlMJaij gnu
aoa of nlch ii knows hum lt> podticiD u tL.
difai, ud anothn lowar grosp (till hitkar north m tha Ooeluits
KoofL Tho aonth-eart lUiH* of ° ' '-^ "— "■
WB> of tTppat Loaatia (kigiuat r
Ibk betwaaq tka KnnUita and 1
Ibk batwaaq tha KnpUita and Blaaogabf iga is tha nat SodaHo
chain. Norlh'Kort non thb Eranp, and along both baoka of tha
Blbc, whioh diridta it bom tha bigahirga, oitenda thopictDnMiDa
moantaia ngton known ■■ tka Saimi SwitHtland. Tb« leOat of
witor and Ico npoa tbo aoft aandaton* «l whleh tka hOla han are
oUaBf coBPOBM hia piodBaad lomaikabla tomatloaa of Jo^ gorgaa
and laolatad fentaatb pMk^ whtdi, howanr, (haof^ both baantiria
and iatawtinK bv no iMana recall tha okanotanatiin of Sviia
aonan. Tha U^at lomBit attala* a bai^t of ISM fact ; but
Iba Bon lntsMrBfpaak% aa tha Ulianitain, KOnigrtoin, and tli«
Balal, an lowor. With llw trifling exoatidan of tha aooth-aaat of
iHlBn, wbiok aanda Ita waten bj tha Mono to tha Odw, Baxooj
Ika whdtr la tiw buia o( tbt Klba, wUA ha* a navigaUa oootaa
of n BDaa fraiB aoHth-oaat to aoith-wMt Huongb ta* UagdoBL
CtoBpantiTttr fow of tb* nnmaroaa aataUar atreana of Saiao J Bow
dimiljr to Oa nba, and tha laigar tribatariH obIt jola it btroul
tha Bam bMdMa, Tbo Mnlda, fenud ol two bnaekaa, ia tha
■Boond linr of BaioiT; dktn an tha Blaok Blitar, lb* Wblu
Ebtor, tba PMh*, aoa tha Sm*. Then an aq lakaa of an^ daa,
bot mlnaral apiiiiaa an Tair aboadaat Tba baat kaowa !* at Bad
KIMaiia«h«Td«ltaBd.
gWaialfc— Iba elimata of Saxon* fa gaaarallr baaltbjr. It ii
ariUaat la dw TiUora of IM Iab^ Holdi^ and PWm, ud aaTsrart
In Out KnnUiga, whan ibt diatrid atar MiaaDgaotnuladt ti
hsowB aa SaiOB Sbnia. Tbe arenga tMPnntBR, Iika that of
oaatnl Oamany aa a whida, variaa non Ur to NT Fakr. ; In ths
Bba nllor tba dhu la annuui ta (mm OS* to U', and In wiular
aboat 80*; la tha KngtUiga tha nuaa tampantan in aamipar la
b« CP to tr, aod & wiDtar ST or M*. Tba Sngabiiga ia alao
O* niakat diatrie^ IT} to lU Incbaa MUng par aaama; Uw
BBoiint diiTW a* w* piooatil noHhwarda, and Letpalo With aa
aansal Ul <l lU to SI} tawba* a^ii^ra tha driMt oilaiata.
SbO. — Saioaj la on* ot tho nuat hrtil* parte of Oaniaay; and
In nptd to tba prodnstin oeonpatkni of Ita aoil it atanda among
tba luiat adTMoad aatioa* of tha wcvld. Oalj 1 par oant of tha
'*~^' '—' '' ~— M 01 nnnaed. AeeotdlnR to tka Mtsnia for IggS,
nutnn, 11 7 in naatnn uul
sapiod hj bntldingi, n«da,
tba nkoat pndnotLTa, and
t Booond toward* tba aontb, until on tba
Naok oraat of tb* Xtqablm aaltJTatiDn oaaai* altontbar. Saioo
tagriealtan, flMOgh Ming iti origin from ths WondL baa ractind
It* hll dsnlofanaat ontt ia tba praasnt Rutnij. Lang lottond
bjaatbraatadonatDB*. tbaUnd waambdiridediat- ~^' -
H7p*r<
caot of ths ana la nadar
nadar foraal
Tbo lowaat
into amall punla
I a law wa* paiaad
acattarod landa bahmglag to aach
bj aatbpMtad oa
•aaaa^aetMlto
ptoridiag tor tba ttafoa of „._o
popibtor, and that uaj be aonMdarad the dawn of modem Baioo
aarlealtan, wbkk kaa now naebed a var; high pitch of eioallanoa.
It biB baoa foatand both publkly and printtly, and a ipacial
ofloial aasntarj aaaiita tha nlBlatat of the intirior In altanding to
ibbbraadiar national pnapsitr. Ia 1813 the agricaltanl landa
ia SaxoB* wan dirldod aatoag 1K000 bman or prepriaton af
whom OBlr 7M baU SM acraa and apwuda, 1S,SOO batWMn SS
aad 180 aoraa, and the nat leaa than U acraa. The aadl iwd-
nialna baU 38-T par oaat of tha total aim, tba niddla daa
SJ-X and Ike lain ownan 141. Tb* ilcbaat nain diafHota are
•— r lloiaaa, Onmnia, Bantiaa, Dbbalo, and Fina. The chief
eiop ia t;!^ bnt oala a» hardl; aecoad to It 'Wheat and barlay
an grown U mnaidatablr lea anaalitf . Ter)> lu^a qoantitiea of
polUoea an grown, eap«lill; in tba TuigtlaDd. Beat ia ohUflj
grown aa taadtog ttnff (or cattle, and not for aogar. riai (8170
aoM* tn ISS8) ia grown in tbo Engebiip and Laaatian monntaina,
who* tba man^aolan of linen wia at ana tina a flDnnahing
domaalio indaatrr. Baxony owaa lla nnaanal waalth In Knit to
tha aan at tb* patamal alector Angnata* (]6G8-1(8«), wlo I* aid
narar to bare atirred abroad without rrait aeed* (or diatribatiDn
»amg tb* ptaaanb and lamun. Euofmoaa qoantitiea of
ebariMa, idnaiLuid applaa an annually bonie by tb* tnea ronnd
Upaio. Dnadft, and Colditi. Tb* cnltlTation of the jint in
8axaa]r ia rai^aotabla tb* Ita autiqnit]', thoigh the jield ia indg-
aiSoaat V&a b nid to hare baan grawa bare In tha llUi
aaMMT; the Baxon Tttf^aria, chiafly on tba banki of the Elba
aaor HtfaaaD and Diwden, oocnpUd lElfi vtb in 1S8S,
"8 Baiony nm-
"iS,6W piga.
JJm ai**.~AemAtB» to ntonia made for 1888 Baion
(Uaad Ua,8W hacBaa, Ul,8m cattle, 118,087 ibeei^ Ifi&,5N
aqd 119,U7 goMik jnN>«wJiBC of bone* ia carriad on to
attained niy oonaidanbla impOTtauoe o;
the KngabiiE* and in tha Toigtland. Slmp-fa
ably declined within (he lait frw docadea, u in m«t parti of
BOitbem Ocnnaay. While other clanea of domeetio animal* bars
ntaiued nrj much tha aama proportion to tba nnmlMr of tbo
knmaa popnlation, aheap Lbtb decreaaeJ from oua to ererT ilx
inhabitants in 1881 to oaa to evary tirauty In I8SS. In 170S Ibo
regent Priuca Xarer imporlnl 800 merino tbeap fnni Bjain, anrl
aa improrad tba natire braHl by thia uaw atiain that Suoa a!iai|i
wan eagerly Importod by foreign nation! to iionnva their flocka,
and "wion alectorai wool" bKoma one of ILs beat biauda in tha
markaL The high level wai not long tuaiutained; flock-maatcra
began to My more atUntion to quaatltT than to qaali^ of wool,
and the Buon wool hu afconTingly detsrioratad. Id 1BS8 no
laaa thau 1,18^180 Iba. of owl were olTerad (or lal* in tba
wool market* of Saiony, o[ which Leipaio and Dreadan an tba
ebiaf; in 1B81 only 1TS,S<3 lb*. H'era offarad. Swina fnralah
a T«ry large pioportioa o( lb* Biab-diBt of tha paopla. Oaeae
abonnd particnlariy nnnd Leiijaio and in Vpf^r Lnaatia, ponltlT
aboat Bantien. Bae-kaa^iinf noorithaa on the heath* on the right
iMak of tba Elbe ; In laSl&ra wan U,7M bae-blTea in Sunf.
n — 1.._ j._.,, iijj^uj parttidgaa an abotu
been wall oared for both by GoTemmantand by prints praprieton.
Oamo Ii not now
n<^-w
f Baiony an axtaaaiT^ and bar* Img
Tha famooa acbool id fonatiy at Tharandt waa founded in 1811.
Tha Voigtland ia tb* moat danaaly woodad portion of tba kJMilnn^
and nest cornea tba Engabirga. Aboat 8,878,300 acre^ or 86 pai
oant of tb* wbols (oreec land, were planted with oasIlBrooi tree* ;
and abont 1,430,700 acraa or IE par cant, with decjdaona tne%
an»ng which baochaa and Inrchea an th* ooaunoneaL Aboat n
par cant, ot the total balong* to Oararnnunt.
Jffaanib. — Tba minenl wealth of Baxony li toit eonaidanbl*:
and ita minei an amoug the oldeat in Oeimany. fiilTOr wai raiaad
in th* llth centnry, and argaBtUkroaa lead 1* itill tha aual
Talnable ore inined ; tin, inn. and cobalt rank nait; aad aoal
ia one of tha chief exporta. Copper, iIdo, aad bitBoth an alio
worked. Baxon niinea now produoe abont S par oant of tba groa*
7j,j. ¥ba I
dlatrida ^^Fnibu^ when ailTar and lead an tbo eblaf prodaela i
Altanbacg, when tin 1* mainly r*ia*d; Sohnaober^ TieUiaC
oobalt, nickal, and ironatona ; and Johvuueorgaiialad^ with
iiDDslone and aitTer minee. Then an in aU 138 minaa, but
in ISSS only 100 ti thn* wen in oparatian, anploying S8U
banda. In 1870 1£8 minea employed 91S! bandft The total Tain*
of matal niaad in Baxony In 1688 waa £188,300 1 in 1870 it waa
£311,910. Goal ia (mad principally In two flelda, — one near
Zwickan, and tha other in tb* cirol* of DreadBi. Brown coal or
lignite la foand cbiefly in tba north and mtth-waat, but not la
anfficiently lane qoantitiea to be aii-orLiid. Tha number of ooal>
minea ia itwuly dacraasing. thongh the nnmben of minora awl
the groea prodnce an bolb on the iocrean. Tba following table
ibowa the ODtput in toui ainoe the yean named ; —
au«.
R.04..
CoaL
LXXM.
18^0
1888
141
189
ifle
18,811
ia,eis
20,ia«
1,808,706
S, AM, 007
4,088,434
eM,8ar
890,110
848,044
348 lei,083.eiS
848 1,888,780
180 1,810,88)
Fuat ia eapscially abundant on the Engebirga
of briclu an made all oiar tba country. E;
building ia found on tbebilli of tbeSlba
cmployod 1818 hand*.
nmauaa qnaAtitiaa
eut aandatona (br
1883 1« qnairica
elsenberc A Tun predoai atonta an foond
long the aoulbcro mountaina. Boiouy hat no nltmiaea.
Indiairia.—Tht C<utral-Europ«n poaition of Saxony hii
((■tared Ite commem ; and ita uiHunfacturaa ha** bean eoeourtged
by the ibmulent water-power UiroDghont tba kingdom. Heady
one-half of the motive power need in Saxon bctoriea la anppliad n
the atnanim, of which tbe Unlde, in thia napect, ia tbo obief.
The eariy foundation ot tba Lvipxio faira, and tba enUAtaaad
Slicy of the nilora of die country, haioalao dona noch todorelop
DumnionHal and bduatrial reaonrcaa. Next to agiioultan,
which aapportn abont 10 per omt. of the popnlatlan, by tar tbo
moat important indoatty ta tbo textile. Saxony earriea on M par
cant, of tha whole toitile bdnatry in Oannany, a aban Ihr ia
aiceaa of ita iiroportionata nomilatioiL Fraaaii, which baa non
ime* M many inhibitanta, earriea on 4£ par aaat. , and
" - ■ " ' ' IH per eeat of tha
in 1883, by far tb*
aieept Bani* {ldlanrUd*)J
. n* diiiJ • ' ' "
laryeat prouortion in any Geim
wUA W U po oent aoj
368
; A X 0 N T
[axoauPHT Axs niTnnai.
■in in Cb* I
•rertU ii
the
orth of I
t.\]y o[
Olinebao,
and CamAUf, Polfnit^ utd
-tan. Th* centm o( thi
ton honsrr] ii ClumDiti
■ Voigti ■ '•■
pnxluce iroollen
tooiid In Ihe homn ol th
nudfl, etiring to ths kof .
Uuniak it piodncsd >i
loiiBbMn«niiii|iorl
m filial of ths En UoaDtiini.
cotton nuDufutDn (hiwiuI
Ptdtniti aod 11* neighbourhood. "Woollan cloth" inil bncluliin
wnTen mt dineiti, BiuhofiwenU, lud Oromnluiii, nit '
iiorth-««t, woollen ind hulf-woollen underclothing it Vbi
niAhrhaii. Ufwtruia, uiij BflichDnboch ; vhile Bftutzen end Ij
u itocklnf^ Liben ii mMaufictunHl chirflj in tb*
whsre ths loome ire itill to tottis aitsnt
1. The coarser kinds onl; ura now
buua end Neu-fkhonea. &os-
e in the
ow (ojtorod bj OoTem-
lomeetic indtutry emooK
•r-plattiug occDjTia 6000
lundi on the monntiin stapes bstwsen aottleubi tnd LockviU
WiTcloth is ntannraotnred et Loipab, end artificial flowera at
Lflipaio and Dreeden. Stotienan end oerthsDware an muds at
Cbsmoiti, Zwickau, BautUD, isd Ueiaun, porcelain (" Dresden
ehina"} at Meissen, ohemials in and nsar Lelprio. Dfibeln,
Werdau, and Lostnitz an the cbisf shU of the Hnion leather
of Lei[isic, and bats and pisnororlei sC Leitiaic, Dresdan, and
Chemniti. Paper is made ohieflj In tho Test of "-- '-■--'— '- -
doss Dot keop pace with tlia denisnd. Machine
tlRxIocM, from the eewing-mechiua at Dmdt
toccnnotlVBS and marins-enginn of ClienmitL Tha Isst-nsmad
import eva^ ponnd of iriin by railway. The leading biatich is the
macfainery uae^ in tba IndusLrioi af Ebe countrj — mining, papsr-
malcfnfb sod wearing. Tbo vnry larga printing trade (d Leipiio
U aeti>e bnwcriea and S33 diatil-
Lranch of indnitry Is to extingniah
uis ■urHiLDc DBUEiuBiiiuDnui, ^Dti to Itttoi Ur^-o jolnt-stock com-
panies. Tho emoltlog end refining of the metal ores is also an
important industry. The chiaf tuielting works, at Freiberg,
amployed IS 77 bauds in 1983.
TnuU, — Lsiptic, with its romons snd still frtflagnted (sin, is
the focBB of the trade of Saxony. Tbe far trade Intween aaitam
snd w«tanit£nrape and tb* boolr-trBde of Geraiany oentre here.
(Jhemnita, Drexlen, Pliaen, Zwickau, Zittan, and Banttau are the
other chiof commercial citiea. Tbe priucipal exports are wool,
woollen, eottoD, and tincn goods, and tb* other prodiu» of the
of sit kinds is
„ a tb. ]
1B8B-84 flaxony eoutsin*d.7'
id good.
Commuiiiatiat. — The roads of Siiony ara nnaHnms
In 1883 thera were !301 miles of mad in the kingdom.
was th; first Qannan state to ancoangn and develop a railway
avitom, and, iltboogli at first private enterpris* led the way, ths
Kaxon lines are now slniut siclasiTel,v In the hends or OoTom.
nient. The Arat railway, between Leipsio and Althen, was opened
on April 24, 1887. In 1837 then were 9 miles of sUtc railwey ;
In 1810, 71 miles; in 1850, ISO; in 1870, 88S ; in ISSO, I18i;
laai, 135E miles, which, together with 76 milei of pi
lint
rtod by t ^
V no canals in Saxon?, and the 0
PaptilaUiM.—hi 1880 thspopula
- per cenL of tho total popalntioi
'■* ThoproTi.it
oployed ,
ly navigable i
hinda Thon
er is ths Elbe,
u 2,372,aOS, oi
'e a populationof a,17»,ia8. With the exception of th* frei
no, Ssioni is the moet drnaely jieoplwi member of t'
ie larger (icn
. lulS80 Saxony had £18-11
le times as many as Bavaria ;
Fnisein bad SOS'S, and th* av*tae* for the empire was Sie-7.
Mora than half (M per cent) of the psoplo lira in commnnitiei ol
over EOOO inhabitints. The following table shows ths distriba.
tion of the popnlation stnong the four adminLitrative districts. It
... — I .v.» <v. ........^.T ..:..^.( of z„i„ij,Q ;, tho most
DiiMct.
P.^^
S^JSea
KSrJK
SE>1,S2S
8os,fiia
707,8KB
■ 1,105,U1
1976
1377
1827
CU'O
SlB-4
Dresden
Ths growth of th* population sine
xived its -present limitehai been aet
a 18*0, 1,708,27
1315, when tlie kingdom
lows:— in 1815,1,173,802:
inlSSl, a,844,OS4; and
in 1880, 1,40£,0M ;
In Wi, S.iSO.eSS.
Xlw ■nmbn of nartilgei (nt 1000 iohabitsiit* la batworn 8 and
ta is U, and Oia daatlt-ra
dsath-rata in Saxony is iht highest
_.__ .I- lijheit, aicspt in ths small slat* o(
... ._. -.fj -
biitb-Tst*
„ . ^ ... _ _ _. .■{ilterar
Linls). In 1883, oat of l83,S0« bhths, 18,S», or 12-8 par Bent.,.
wen illegitimala, and tsas, or 8-7 per cent, wei* still-b«n, and
theae rates nptnent tolerably accurately the average of the lait
few yaara. In the relative nnmbsT of luicidee (311 per 1,000,000-
inhabitanlaj Baxonj ranka highest among the European states fiBa
Morselli, Itl. Sci, St., toL xiivi.). In 1884 1114 parsons, of'
whom 8fll wars mslea, oommittwl nidda. In theaama yaarl7,T0«.
persons were paniidisd sa vsgranta.
Ths propondarating indutria) activity of Saxony fo*l«n tb«
tandsncy of th* popoIatiDn to ooncentnta In towns j with th*
exception of ths free towns and Anhalt, no Carman tfat* has m>
large a proportion of urban population, C&, inhabitants residing ill
Dorammiitiei of SOOO panoDS and upwards. In the empire a* •
whole 41-4 per cent, of the population ia urban in thia sense; in.
Saiony tbo proportion rises to H-3 percent. Th* largest towns ar*'
" ■ "labitants), the capital aince the middle of tho.
(170,078], and ChBmniti(llO,0>3). Eigbtesn
:n {24E,SiE inhabitants), the cs
IDUi century, Leipiio (170.078), and C , , ,
other. towns, chlellj in tb* mauursetnring dietriot of Zwickan, hsva
over 10,000 inhabitants, and thlrty-flve hetwsan tOOO and 10,000.
the penanlsga M tha tohl popnlatton >-
»» ,™^|
1. Agricultara, forwtry. and fiahing
802,878
»
HI
18
1-7
e
880,076
U.fi84
148,881
lE3,B2t
4. Domestic ssrvantsandganenlUbontari
0. NofrstamBd under 'any occupation...
. , , Teutonic atook ; a pro-
portion ar* Qermaniied Slara, and in tba south at Banlun Iher*
an still about 80,000 Wands, who retain their neealiar cnstonM and
langnago. In aoma vl]lag*a naar Bantien hardly a word of Gennan
is spoken.
Siligiina Slatalitt.--'Abaat 91 per cent of the iohaUlants of
Baxony an FrotattanU ; betwtan 8000 and 7000 ar* Jawi, and tha
ramainder, including th* royal family, are mostly Koman Catholiia,
Acoanling to th* nlwioui c*nsui of IS80, %8S8,80« wen Kvangeli-
eals, 74,333 Roman Otholio. 1467 Oermau CathoHca, 820 Angll-
cani, 463 Oraek Catholice, 8618 Jews, snd Sa» "others," The
KvangaUcai-Lnthsnn or SUte Church hid 1180 rmston and 1SP8
placrs of worship in 1384, Its bead is tlic minister deevangolida"
io long aa the king lb Homan Catholic ; and its management ia
vested in the Eviiigelical Con-istory et Dresden. Its r*|iresentativs
easombly, oonsisting of twanty-nino clorgymsn and thirty-five lay-
men is called a lynod IS^todeU The Roman Calholls Chunh ha*
enjoyed the patronage of tlia loigning family since IIID7, ttioogb il
was the peace of Poacn (1808) which placed it on a level witli the
Lntherans. By the poam of 1*11^*, which transfenwl Up|>et
I favour of the
Uo|«1
ofthf
iin Cetholicd of that region, who ar* eccleiiii-tically In
•diction of the cathednl ehspterof St Peter at Bautzen, tha dean
liich hss a oJScio a int In the first ciismber of tho diet Th«
r districti are msnsjjod by an apostolic vicariate at Diwdon,
„ •!.. j^ — .: 1 .t. ,..;..; tjp gj jmiji,, B-orsbip. Two nnn-
voutua^ eatiblidimenta In Saiony,
on of £e lui
g the I
laller rcligj
Tllhut,
lusoraclioolsandni
ths Saxon aledon at Lripsic, Jana, 'Wittciibri^ and
' its students, Th*
the MonAviAK BKKTunrii (i.f.), whoso
are psrhapa ths most interesting. In 1888 civil rights
to be indepaudent of nligious vonrcHsiou.
^ucotun.— Saxony claima to be one of the most highly ednrated
founded by
Erfurt, onfy
Il i> second only to Berlin in th<
endowed schooli (Funtonschnlen)
long enjoyed a high npntatioii. Ikiidcs these thvre an 12 other
ramniaia, 13 realachulcu of Iha fint claiH, and 19 of the aecouil
dius, tho organiiation of wbicli rtwrnbloa that olniady dcactihsd in
datait under PnuuIA. Thon an nearly 4000 elamontery and im-
paratory scboola ; and aducntiuu is coiiinnlsorr. Of 88Ii8 m.Tuils
in 1883-84 only 13 (-Ij per cent.] wrr* unable to reul and write.
Saiony is larticulnrly woU-rqnijipi'd with tecbnlal sclionla, the
'itils industrios being esgioujslly fostered by unmarona ecbnob or
HTiufb amUroidsry, Lcs-makiug^ ke. ; bnt tlia mining acadony
FraiEeig and tbe eohool of farsatry at Tbaraodt ara probably dio
ntnuAV uxomr,]
I A XON Y
35d
inCtalpm
Minis «|]>r*
la npoUtioa ; not hm tb* *rt-Mll«atloni 4t DrMdan.
IJtfii. — SiKODy b ■ eoDstltatioiiml Boiunhj ud A
Bumbar o[ tha Oirinui «ni>ln, with foir TOtM is tlut Itdatl
oaoDdl tad twenty-thna la tha raiokatig. Tha aauiUUtfcw mti
naa U* pfomnl^lad en 4th 8*pUnb*r 1831, ul abnqantlj
■Bandtil. Tbs crown ii hmdiUr; la tlia AlbarUn* fluaa Una,
witb nroirion to tb< IrDaatlDa lina, of wLicb tha duke of Bua-
Tainur la BOW tha hawi T>MUnc*njafaa dnl lUtot3;l4O,00a
■■rk* or £147,000, whlla tb* ijiaun of Iba ciown, ImeladiRg
tha pajnaDti to tha other mamben of tha TOjU honaa, Mnatmt to
£1t,6;(lnun. Thelrguliitnn<St«adaTaiMmm!a^kbiauD*nl,—
the eoQititalloa of tha co-ordiuU chimban bainc tnallj aattled
fay ■ law of ISM arDoadiiig tho eDtetaant of Itll. The fint
^aoibar oonaiata of tha adalt princea of tba blood, fin beredituj
namban from unana tha nobilitj, nipnHntatWM of the Lntharu
•ud BomiB Ollhollo Chorchea, a rapranantatiTa iirLai{iaia BalTalBtjr,
twalra rapraaantatiTH of pnpriaton with Itadad pnpwtj of to
•nntul TUoa of at laaat ClM, alected for lifa, ud no rapceaantn-
liTai «f tba Mna cImi noniutad for lib bj (Iw crown, tha ahlaf
w^taWataa rf the aight principal town*, ud in Mbar lih
BUUbtn, choaatl withoill uj raatrictiona by the king. The
aceond chambar conaiatB of thirtj-fiT* numban Irom tha town! tad
fottf-Bn h«m tha eonntrr, elected for di jean. All malt '"
twentj-tra jaan old and npwarda wbo ra)
umiiM Ib tuaa ban tha aDRafia ; and all . ,
■ca who par 10 tbabn Id uiniul tuaa ar* aligibU u mnnbara of
a» ditt. Tha ehambara Eonat be eoUTanad at laiat ona (Terr two
Jian ; lad ntnoRlinarr naatiaga laka plae* at tvtrj ehanga of
niar aad ob other epedal fccaaiona. Ono-thtid of tha mambata of
tba nooikl cjimbaf ntira at tha and of aratj period of two jaara.
mth tb* «M»plloa of the haradltarj and aome of tha ai-ottdo
~ leBntehanbar, tbamambanarthedlataraeDtitlad
For thair dailj axpeDaai, aa wall aa their
w aieratlTe otualita of a raponaibta mln-
Mbj (qaaamntWlBlrteilim), with the lii dapartmanta of Jnatioa.
fhMBOi, horn* eStin, war, {nblie wonhlp end edocatiDB, ud
feraigB afiUn. Tlia niBlatai of the roju hooaehold don Bot
bdou to tha caUnat. Tha oonatltatloD slao f rondaa bf tha
OnMUoo t( a triad of [«iTr oonidl <SlaatH>th), oonibtlBg of the
'- — *'-tliald»»
Ided into _._
. o ,__jnt», MibdlTided
IBW DiwHi AntrtenptmuBaehalten and one hnndnd and diteen
Anatir. Tb* citi« ot Dttidan and Ldpsie form dtpartminta br
»bin«elTat The eomme ooatt of lav fee both ol*tl and arininal
•Mea la the ObadanWOofaht at Draaden. anbadtait* to which
■la eeTon other ooort* in the oQmt pcineipal towae aid «» hoBdrad
and flra Inhrior tribonelai The Oarman imperial ooda waa adopted
^BaxniTiBlSrv. Lelpaloiitbaantat tba imperial npemeooart.
ihmamm.—Tbt Bezon Snuelal period embnces a apaoa of two
jian. For lSM-4 tba "eidinaiy" budget ebowed u inooue of
M,lM,<KO, bBlanced hj the expenditBra, which inolsdad a itaarTo
faad of iM,«)0. Ae chief aoDnea of income wen taia
(<1,ITT,39S, Isclnding «M,STt of diiwA taxaa), atata-railwajs
Ul.ur.SW), ud tba mUIc fenata and domalna l£aK,Vi).
Lotterlea bonriit la ^1,170, and the royal porcelain mann*
ftstan 41T,6OT. Tlia chief aipenditnra waa on tha intent
ffilU,Wl) and dnkiiw fuid (£410,000) d tba national debt.
" aibaordinaiyj' boogat, applying axdndTely to pDblic work%
Aowad u Inooma ud eijianditara tell)>lng at £482,800. The
BBtlanal deb^ tneinad alnioat wholly in making and baying
taHwayi, BBoauted on lat January 1SS5 to £S1,«70,S00, BUKtly
p^iBg IntaTaat at tba rata of 4 poi
.^raiK— The Baion anny - —
bmiB 111* Ittb Birny cana ia
dilsof tbaSInlandS4th di\
Bad UpaU ramaotiralT. On ita peaot-footing the Saxon aontingc
inelndei 30,(06 iafkntTy, 4180 caTalry, and SOOO aitiUary ; in w
it ha 711,800 libntty, fSSD cavaliy, and 80H artillerj.
mnmi, umale, l«i» ..,
0»*w JMffiaWiai JajBKlj hyto "« >««°" lj 'M« a
aaa laa laaa aaattanad aadar Pd*4 and brwi-IKh.
JKf JTartevka *•■ «■ - "
_ 4ir OirtI Jit Jh X,r- —J nmlltlm
■M BactHw (e nh, taM«aaalie. lTn-n>. IM aba TMaohwuiB'a 4im
■ etKtidiu ar W ■tifi itn Mi»*r<Ori— a, Ula>. <r.llD.)
BAXONY, Piunuir (0«rm. Proniu &idbm), ons of
the ceoltBl pionnoa of the kingdom of FnuiiB, cpnaiat*
mainfj of what waa forniBily &e nOTthem part of tha
Ungdom of Stxaaj (caded to Prtuiia in 181S), bat alio
compri«M tha duchj of Magdeburg the Altmark, and
other diattict^ tha conoezion of which with Pnmia ia of
earlisr date, ^w area of the pronnca is 97C0 aqnara
milea. On tho W. it it botmdad bif Heaao-Kawan,
HanoTor, and Branawick, on tha N. t^ HanoTer and
Bcsodenborg^ on thb E. bj Brandsaburg and Bileaia, and
on tha S. bj tha kingdom of Saionjr and the amaU
nmringian atataa. It ia, however, reij irregular in form,
entinly anrroimding parta of Bmnawick and the Thuriogiao
atatea, and itaeU poaaaaiing asTeral "exclarea,' while tho
northern pcrtion of tho provinca ii almoat antiidj aeTerad
from the aonthem bj the dnchy of Anhalt 31ie mi^
part ot the pronnea is flat and behnga to the gitftt Ntnlh-
German plain, bnt the weatem and tonth-weatem diatricla
are hillj, im-lniiing porta of the Han (willi the Btocken,
3417 faat) and Uie IliiiriDgiaa Foreat About nine-
tanthi of Pmaaiaii Sazonj belooga to the iTatein of tba
Elba, tha chief faeden of which within the prOTioce ara tha
Saala Biid iha Hnld^ bnt a amall dialrict on the weat dtaioa
into the Wwer. Hie Mltwater lakv batwaao Halle aad
Eialeben are tlw only Ukea of the kind in Prtuaia.
fiaxoDj ia cm tha whole the moat fartila prannoe
of PnuM, and excel* all the otheiB in ita prodnea of
wheat aad baetcoot ngar (aa well aa in wit, bniwn ooal,
and cOfiperX bnt the naton of ita khI ia mr tmaqnaL
The beat cn^pntdnciiig diatiiet* lie near the Mae m the
Han Honntain^ audi at the " Uagdeborger B6tde''aiid
the "Ooldana Ana^' and rich paatue, laiida oocni in the
riTBT Tklleji, bat the aandj pfaona of the Altmark, ia the
nortli part of tba prorinca^ Tield bnt a lean^ letnni for
the bnabandman'a UaL
Of the total area of the prarlnee 81 per gaaL k oeenpiad by
arable land, IS per eaat. by Bieadowi and paatnna, and 10-5 par
east, by tcreata. Wbaat and rye an niaad in aueb abaadanoa aa
to allow of a conaiderable uport, while tba other grain cropa Duat
tha local denuukL The llaatroot for ao^r ii grown chiafly in tha
distriot to tba north of the Har^ *i thr aa the Obia, and on tha
banka tl tba Saala ; and the aaioant ot m^i pndncad (opward*
of 400,000 tone i> lS8»-a4)Ji neorijaa much aa that of aU the
taat ot Fmaia tofatbK. Flax, bopa, and Made fw oil are alas
caltintad to aoma aatas^ and lar|[e qnaBtltiea ot axcallant Ihilt
an growu at the foot of tha Ean and in tha TBllaya of the Uaatrot
ud tbe Saale. The mailet-gafdeniBa of EiAirt li wall-kaawn
tbioivbont OamuT. Wine, of indibcent qaaliqp, it paodaoad
In tbe Tldni^ ot NasBibn^ Saioay ia oomparwTalj poor in
timber, thongh than are aOBe fine Ibnata In th> Han and other
hilly diatriota. Cattla-raariag It oarriad on with mccaaa in the
lirer •allays asd mora gotta m met with beia than in anj otiiat
part of Praala. TlwUT^atonk canaea for 1881 gaTa the following
B^iirea :— hocaea, 1S3,48S) cattle, 6i4,0r8i aheep, I,8H,«1I; pi^
tIs,B!7 ; gcata, 9ai,lS& (Compan tha tahlaa andet Fioaal*.
ToL IX. p. 14.)
The piinclDal aadargioand wealth of Fnuaian Bazony aon^ta
ot ita >alt and ita bnwn ooal, of both of which it poaaataaa larger
atoiee than any other part of tha Oerman ampin. The njck-aalt
miBH and brina aprlngi (tha chief of which an at Btaaafnrt,
BcbBnebeek, Halle, kc.) pr(>daced in lSBS-4 no laaa tnaa 058.000
tone of mli, while the aonual oatpnt of brown coal amoBSla lo
aboot 8 Biillion tana, or non than the antin yield of tha net of
Oamaoy. PmHiaa Saxony tUo paeaaaaaa thraa-toortha ot the
wealth of Oarmanyin copper, the Tiall in 1888 amountiuglo 145,000
* ^ 11,000 tana ot the pore BUtaL The copparniluta
'- ■*- " — *'ilriet He oflier mineral re
iaeloda allrar (ono-tbird of tba total Qanuu yield), pit-coaL
pyrita^ tlma, platter ot Ptiia, nlphar, alabaeter, and aarBal
rarletiea ot good bnildisg-itone, Snmarone minenl aptinga ooeoi
In addition to the ptodnctioB <f eogar already Bottd, the matt
impotttnt iBdutilta ara the mannfaotBrra of aloth, leather, tion
•adftttl warn (aUilT at Buhl aad BtUuMri^, agUta (Kai^.
8 A ^— S A T
Mom) Annietl* <flt>Mftitt), ud danh. Ban In ■!» bnmd '
•^tnuiTilT \n PnuiUn Suray, *hm. th* mnml emimraptioii
nor ImwI (107 qmrti) i> ooBiliMnblT In sicca of tba KTonge for
Uo klDBdoDi \'nJo ii DDcb boiliUtwl by tlu gmt nttmjot
th" Kibe, M •.li M b, . »«y OBBlJot. .«t.ni of nilwij.. Th.
ehUuUolM u* vool, gnin, mga, «lt, lignitt, uid Ui«-pruicipil
awaahitond pndqMi lumail (Don.
Tho popaUtivn of tlw pmvlBaa »f Suioiiy in 1880 *u !,Sia,007,
ImclniUDC 9i1Bl.««t rratatuit^ KE.filS Bomu Cstholio, ud
«T00 Jvn ! in IWH, kMOnlins to imritiouia oennii retnm^ tb*
nopuUtian vu 1, 42r,>e8. TE* giwt balk dI Uu InhabiUnti an
of nnoiiud Qemiu itock, but nuiT of thoH in th< But put at
tbo ntOTinca h«vs Vindidk Wood in tbeir voir* The prorinw
botonM to tba mon thkkty poimktod yx\» of Qurmuif , ths iTsr-
u(b«iuIS7pM«ona to tbsH|(unm[li,inilthentlaortliaiiibui
uinkdon to tha rami k mbont u 1| to 51. Tb« occuMtian
MBMM of 1883 giTH tha Ibllairitis pcrccutagea tor the diffenut
iliMfii of the popniation I — agricuTlnial, SS'TS; iodiutriiJ, SB'18:
tndf^ S'K; domartia aimiiti uid itj Ubonran, 87D) official and
B'll.
I« dlri o-
_ J, and £rfnrt. Utgii
iBpartut towa and tiw BMdqnaricn of an aniij com, bat the
pIMin^ ebanban mart at MnMborc. Tba proiinfa laiidt
tw*Dt7 >wBiban to lb* rachitic and tbiit]r4isbt to the Pnuaian
booaa ot npnaMMif aa. The nlirioni oootiol at tha dutrlct a
in^Iuaibora oonriatoirat Uagdabargi &a Roman CBtholici
balou to tha iHiiiiiaa of Padeibotu. Tbe DnlTenitr of Halla boUa
■ bi^ lank among Gannwi Mata of laandnf , and tba nthcr edaca-
tloBal nqilmnaBta of tba worluce a» adunataly provided far.
Tba illitaiaU noniita ot tbu pcoTinoa In IU8-4 nombaiad only
' — It of Btotalof T8AS, •qutnilaDt taO-17Mr cant, Theprin.
tovDi *ra Hagdeboiv [abont 150,000 Inhabitantt, Indnillr -
~ ^w^n), Haifa ' ~' ~ ""
._ __ _, WO Int^tantt, Indndlna
(81,80), Brfart (58,107), Halbantadt
(81,048), .
Tba biatory of the praarat PrawiiB prtriaea of Baiony m (ach
datai oiIt tram 1816, ud ii, of eoon^ maalr at local tutanab
Tha pnTiOM hiaton ot 11* CMiatitDaat paita, of oonaidnabla mora
latenat and trnportanea, moat ba aonght for undar tha Taiiooa
. huadlaga that ml ■miial thanaalvM, imIi aa Bazoht {mfra),
pRSnu, KaaDUinwjBannT, ke. It ia, bowavu, worth notlnji
IbatthapntTineeeamnriaaatbe Altnark or old North Hack that
fixmad tSa knsal of the Pmnan atata (laa PauMii, roL xi. p.
S), and alas tbt <dd blabopiica on the Elbe aad Sa«le, from which
■aaoenln ^ dhrirtknaation of QainuaiT Dutlnij apread. And
tho laadtag poaMon of tbia pait of Oarmaoy In pomotiiig the
Satdnaation aboald alao ba renambend.
' SAY, Juir BAPTian (1767-1833), an eminent French
^Iiti«l economiat, was mbd at Ljona Stli Jannu? 1767.
Hia father, J«ui Etienae B^J, vbi of k Protsatant fainilj
vhich hod origiaally belonged to Ntmea, but hod removed
to Oeneva for aome time in oonaequence of tlie levocation
ct the edict of Kantea. Toong Btj wu intended to
follow • commerciai career, md wm acctHtUngly sent, with
hia brother Horaces ^ EogUnd, «nd lived first at Croy-
don, ia the hooae of a mercLant, to whom he acted aa
elei^ Kid afterwudi »t London, where he was in tbf
Mcvice o( Rnother empbjrer. When, on the death of the
Utt«r, he returned to Fruico, be was employed in tbe
olBee of a life Miuraoce comp&ny directed by Clavike,
ofterwuda known in poiittca. It waa CUvito who called
hia attention to the Wtallk of Ifatitmi, and tha etndy of
that work reTeoled to him hia TOcation. Hia first literary
attempt wu a pamphlet on the liberty ot the prcea, pab-
liahed in 1789. He worked nnder the celebrated Hira-
beau on the Coftrriar dt Prtnaiee. In 1793 he took part
oaavolnntser in the campaign of Champagne; in 1793
he aainmed, in conformity with the Revolntiooory fashion,
the pre-name of Attiau, aod become aecretary to Clatitoe,
then finance miniater. Hemarriod in 1793 Ulle. Delochs,
daughter of a former avocat mi eorttrt'l; the fonng pair
were greatly straiteoed in meana in couraquence oE tbe
depreciation d the aasignata. From 1791 to 1800 Say
edited a periodical entitled Lit DeavU jAUotopAigue, lit-
liraire, tt politique, in which be expounded tba doctrinoe
ot Adam Smith. He had by this time established his
repntotiofi as a pnblhas^ and, when the consnlor govem-
Bunt wot eatablished in tho yoot VIH (1799), be waa _ _.^
■eUrted 01 <a» ot tho iMMdrad iMnben M Ae tribtmate^ J itmoay^aia if the latt'centnrjr. ' Soldiaia.i
and reaigned, in conaeqnenee, the dindion of the lUeaeU.
He pablished in 1600 Oibie, oh Euai wr U* mtrau dt
riformer fu maun <r«ne nnltoii.
In 1803 appeared hia prinnpol work, the IVnU f
£eonowiU PoCitiqtu. In 1804, haTiDg ihown hia tuwilt-
ingneaa to sacrifice his convictions lor the poipoae of
fortbering the deaigns of Ifapoleon, he waa lemoved from
die office of tribune, being at the Kune Hmt nominated
to a lucrative poet, which, however, he thought it hig
dnty to resign. He then tamed to industrial pnrstiita^
and, haviog mode himself acquainted with the procesaaa of
the cotton manofactnr^ founded at Aneby, in the Vmm
de Calaia, a spinning-mill which employed fonr oi five
handred persons, principally women and children. Ha
devoted bis leisure hours to the imptovement of hia
economic tieatdse, which had for, some tima been out of
print, bat which the censocsbip did not pbmit him to
republish; and in 1611 he availed himself (to nse hia own
words) ot the sort of liberty arising from the entranoe of
tbe allied powers into France to bring oat a aectmd editioBk
of the work, dedicated to the emperor Alexander, who had
professed himself bis pupiL In tho same year the French
Government sent him to stady the ecooomio contUtion of
Great Sritain. The resolta of his obaarvatioDS during hia
jonmey throngh England and Scotland appeared in a toad
De rAagUttrre tt da Aiiglait; and h)« coUTerMtioiu with
distioguished men in those oouoMea contribated, be tell*
US, to give greater eorrectneaa to the ezpodtioa (A prin-
ciples in the third edition of tho Traili, which ^tpeand
in 1817. A chair of indoetrial economy woi founded for
him in 1819 at tbo CooMcratoire dee Arts at UMien, in
which be lectured with ability and incoeM. In 1831 ho
waa made profeis<w of political economy at the Ccdl^ da
France. He pablished in 1628-30 Bis C«trt CompUt
iSetMomie Politique ptntique, which is in the main an
expansion ot the Traili, with practical applicationa. In
bis later years he became sabject to attacks of nerrona
apoplexy, iriiich increasingly reduced bis strength. Hk
loat his wife^ to whom he was fondly attached, in JaanarT
1830 ; and from that time bis health ooostantlj declined.
When the revolntion of that year broke cmt, he was named
a member of the coaucil-genenl of the departmont of the
Seine, bnt fonnd it necessary to reugn that position.
He died at Paris ISth November 1832, leaving behind
liim a well-earned reputation for private worth and polit-
ical integrity.
8ajwaaiaientiallyapTDnigalidiat,BotUDriginBlar. Hlanatt
aarvloo to nuuiUnd liaa In the bet that be dinamlnated thro^oat-
Enropa by msana of tba PKoeh lann^^ and popolarind l^bia
clear and auystrK tba economio dooMnaa of AiliaBnia. It
ia bna that Ua French puagyriata (aod be ii not bimaalt ftaa'
from oanania on tUaacon) are iqjiiit la th-"- -" — "- ■' "-'"■ ~
an eipodtor ; they give Uaa or ennantod tdcaa of Ua obaearttr,
hie prolixity, and Ua want otmatboa; aad thay aeoordla^y aitol'
too hif[h]v tiia maiita of Bay. Tboaa marlla are, boweviK laal
and conalaanbla ; bia vtritinaa ware withoat donbt vary afiaotlra
in dillttidng throogbont Coanaenlal Knrope a taala tat acoDoafe
iDijuiry au * knowledge of its ^indpal reanltak On tbe dda of
the philoaDidiy of soienoe Say ia weak ; hia obaanatiMB to Ibat
aabjeot era ntnally eommonplasa or anpaifidaL Tbia ba aae^ta
tbe ahallow dletnm of Condillaa that MM aeimM m rtiidt i «H
laagiu bitn/aiU. Ha recagnbas political aconony and alatiaties
aa alilu adances, and repraaDla the dlatinetian between Ooa as
haling Dcrer bean made beRva him, thongk ha qootaa what Smith
hid aaid of political arithnatie. WhUat alwaya daatrvins IbO'
Eilae of baiiaaty, aineeri^, and tndapendann^ Misvwy Walior
hia fireat predMCMor in breadth of. view on laonl aad polWcal
aBkin tMN la a-
1 aide of thinn
... ._ . ot tho Fnnoh libaU
thna St«i;hjiully ciuiaiiroa the laritywitb wbi(^ ba
aoDDu cnc uiceaalCy gf a nubile nligioiu cnltna, angnatlng that
enlightcnad natiooa mi^ht diapenae with it " aa the Padllo ialaudars
do. Ha ia ina[Hr*d with the diillke and Jealooay of GavacnBaota
ao oftan felt and expraaed by tbinkara formad In tha social
..^. — o-,^= . lot kill aoi Bw^
which m
S C A — 8 C A
3til
'&^
ot£<
. Jnolln Ubosnn, u Siatth nllail tlian : tbcy mn ntlur
itrnotlTo Itboaran.' "A. utioi) mi^t,' ba Mn 'itrictl;
■peakiDg, labiiit vitlumt > goTenimsat, Moh pnftiaan «fh«ng-
thB fniiti of It* luboaii with th* prodneti of th* laboan of
in, ' — 1 nrnark wbioh twtnf* tht notlan tlut vumDmio ooiii-
ciilN witli loatel lift. TaxM u* nnoampuiutBil pkymsntB ; thsy
>n ^Iwui lik* tuH, wir, or dapndiitiaii ; thsj nuf fitlj be
daKnbad m of tha nktnn of nbbaty. Wbtn ha Hya, ' Lonqa'
on Tona raod nn piinliga, comma la droit da rhiitii. on aaalamrat
da port d'anoM, oa rooa role Totn droit Ditunl d'ltie trtai poor la
Tona Tiadra aprta I'ftTolr Toli.'wawiitliitwaanrtlllintliaTaeioa
ot tlM>«t mtUurm, whiob li« at tha biui of all tha old acoiioiiiiQi.
SftT ifl ooDaidared to hara brought oat tha importuiGa of capital
u 1 IwtoT in piwlDotioii mon dutlDCtljtkan tha EDgltih ecsno-
miata, who 0110111; tmpbiaiiad Uboor. The ipadal doctrinea mntt
oammonlr mantioiud u do* to him un — [1) that of " JmnwttrUl
Sndiuili,^ and (9) what ia called hi* "thjoria dea diboncb^"
bjaotin^ a* Oarioaiii OunJat had done before him, to Smith'a
waU-kaown diattactiaB between pndoetlTe and nDpradnctiT*
laboor, he maintaina that, prodaction conilaling in the creation or
additioQ ot a ntility, all naafnl laboar ia prodactlra. Ho ii Ihua
led to raoognliB Immaterial prodocta, wboaa chuacteriitic qnalitj
ia that tbeyaneoBaiuiadiBaiedialelj'aiidiraiuapable of auiuma-
UlioD ; midar thia head are to be ranged tha irrrictt nudared
rithw bj a paraoD, a eapital, or a portioa of land, ae, (.;., the
■dTantagea dwlved ftxmi medical attendance, orfrDTD a hind hon«,
ot froTD a beanttfol Tiaw. But in working ont the ooneeqnencu of
tbi* t1*iW Say 1* pot trae (■■ Btoroh baa ihown) from olacuritiei
-_j I 1-^ — >^. uhI br hia aomniahmaiouat thaaa immatarial
ha ia confirmed ii
• naafol tnggeationa fo
ulatanciia ; and by hia
within tha domain ot
j> tUa, that, prodocta beings in last analyiia, purchased only with
r)dQcta, the aiteot of the maAats {ta ontlsta) for home prodnota
prnxfftianal to tha qoantity of foreigo prodnotiana ; when the
sale of any oommodityia dnU, Itta becaoae there ia not a mfllcieut
namber. or latbar nlBa, of other oommoditin pradneed with which
It could be pnrehaaed. Aimtber propodUon on which Bay inaiita
IB thaterecTTaliisiaoonaunad and is oraalad only to be conaomed.
Valoea can thanfon be aecnmulated only by being reprodosed in
the oonraa or, a* often happens, by the Tory act of oonanmption ;
hence hia diitinction between reprodnctiTe and nnprodoctiTe con-
Bomptian. Ve find in him other correotioni or new preaentatic
ofTiawB prarionaly acosptsd, an"" ■-' '■ — '— '
Impwremaat of Momanclatora.
fcriwiWat diiL^j Till. ti^alL (
niHtymt* £mmli fVAffw. Uli
*■ Jmawi <»<■ jp a^iifU, IM '
rvatrt, UMt »■—< *• /-„.., . ^_,
Osit^ Mheraflhe t^muT^IMiitUim, wke *■ hu •o^tahw. Te Um
■ten nnue ta akM B addMea aTBtgnari Ctan ^TuhiIi IMKHnmriOga
flar |iaMbba«la UM ■MuM aiereh'a eatlwlaallca, wltli MHa HibDdjitaa a
"sMaiaaMlnatTlnlaiiUL'' a pnHeeOiiit which ttoRb lami niKUd.
Tha W adklan at Mie rnMrt^imb rtmirn wM»a iMarad faflai Iha
U* g( lh> aalhat wai the Ml guf) ; Ike Mk, Mtt rhe sabaA tad eirwSiaia
wu eilM br ^BdaHl Mj^wa taBe ^^^ueir knewa as BB enatBBliI,
rnnd" brC. W riliin[i Qnri lani IHiiaan h| TailiM Htlariok na JAeh
kite k^*krJ<»4(|nTP«L naC»w*r£aiiMKtAFMfatfHMfH.fRn
■nnl lamuiai Imfufaa- An Bn^lih TenMa ot A* Mini t MBilkut
^pw* la raC iML it tbi fmifiuilir, UlL (J. I. L)
BCALA NOTA, Soala. Hdota, or fTurkiih) Eusa-
IVAm, abo known m New EpheaiU) a harbonr on tha
«Mt coAat of Aoift Uinor, in the rilayet of Aidin, oppoaite
the iiknd of Samoa, ^ore the opening of the Smyma-
Aidin railway ita excellent roadstead w largely f»-
qoanted bjr ToaaeU trading with the Aontoliaa coaa^ and
it has oftaa been proposed to oonneot it with thi« ijitem
by a bnnoli lint^ and thna enable it to compete with
Smyma •■ a tndmg oantre. The population ia wtinated
at TOOO to 1(^00(^ of whom abont 3000 are Greeks
BCAUaEB. For aome aaoooQt of the gnat Delia
Scsla (IaL Sealigtr) family, the reader ia referred to the
articlB TxaoxA. Tin name haa alao been bomo bj two
Bcholan of estrarordinarj eminenoe in the world of letters.
L JULIDB Cabu SoAuaiB (1184-1658), so diatin-
goiahad hf hia learning and talents tha^ according to De
ThoQ, no one of tlie artdenta cotdd be placed aboTe him and
the age in which he lired could not show hia equal, wbb,
acmndiag to hia own account a acion of the illnatriona
lionae of L* ScftU, for a hnndiwl and fifty jraan [vinoaa of
Verona, and waa bom in 1481 at the eutle of Ia Itocca
on the Lago de Gaida. At the age of twelve he wbb
preaented to faia kinaman the emperor Uaziiuiliaii. and
plaoed by him among hia pages. Ha remained (ot
aeventeen yeara in the serTioe of the emperor, following
him in hii expeditiooa through half Europo, and diMtin-
guiahing himedf do leas by personal bravery aa a aoldier
than by military akill a* a captain. Itat ho waa nnmind-
ful neither of lottera, in whit^ ha had the moat eminent
acholan of the day a* his iostmctora, nor of art, which he
■tadied with conaidarable sncceaa nnder Albert DQrer.
In 1613 he fought at the battla of Bavenina, where bis
father and elder brother were killed. He there diiplayad
prodigiei of valonr, and received the highest hononri of
chivohy from hia imperial ooostn, the amperor conferring
npon him with bis own banda the spnia, the collar, and
the ea^e of gold. But thia waa the only reward he
obtained t<x bis long and faithful devotion. He left the
aervice of Haiimilian, and after a brief employment by
another kinaman, the duke of Ferrara, he docidod to quit
the military life, and in 1614 entered aa a student at the
univertity of Bologna. He determined to take holy
orders, in tha ezpectation that he would become in dno
time cardinal, and then be elected popes when ha would
wreit from the VenetiaDB hia principality of Verona, of
which the republic bad despoiled bis anceetora. fint,
thongh he Boon gave up this design, he remained at the
nniversity until ini9. The neit six years he paased at
the caatle of Vico Nua*a, in Piedmont, aa a gueat of the
family of Ia Rov^re, at first dividing his time between
military expeditions in tha summer, in which ha achieved
great succeesee^ and study, chiefly of medicine and
natural history, in the winter, untU a severe attack of
rhenmatic gout brongbt his military career to a cloeo.
Henceforth his life was wholly devoted to study. In
1626 he accompanied H. A. de la Bovire, bi^op of
Agen, to that city as his physician. Soch is the outline
of his own acconut of bu early life. It was not until
soma time after his death that the euemiee of his son first
allied that he waa not of the family of Ia Scala, bnt
WBB the Bon of Benedatto Bordone, on illutninator or
Khoolmaeter ol Verona ; that he wod educatod at Padua,
where he took the degree of H.D.; and that his story of
his life and adventures before arriving at Agen waa a
tissue of fableB. It certainly is supported by no other
evidence than his own statements, some of which aro
inconsistent with wall-ascerbiined facts.
Tha remaining tbirty-two yoars ot his life wore passod
almoat wholly at Agen, in the full light of contemporary
history. They were without adventure, almoat without
incident but it was in tbem that ha achieved 10 much
distinction that at hia death in 1Q68 ha bod tha higheat
sdautifio and liteiaiy reputation of any man in Europe.
A few days after his arrival at Agen he fell in love with a
charming orphan of thirteen, Andietta de la Uoqna Ijobcjac
Her frieuds objectud to her marriage with an unknown
adventnier, bnt in 1G28 he had obtained k> mach suoeeeB
as a physician that the objections of her family were over-
comc^ and at forty-five he married Andiettc^ who waa then
sixteen, lie marriage proved a oomplete aiicceas ; it was
followed by twenty-nine years of almoat nninterm|ited
happinesi^ and by the birth of fifteen cbildrun.
A charge of hereey in 1638, of which be was aci|nittad
by his friendly judges, one of whom was his friend Aruoul
La Farron, was almoat the only event of interest during
these twenty-nine years, except the publication of his
boc^ and Ae quarrels and criticisms to which they gfiyo
In 1631 he printed bis first oratioit agunst Eraamns, in
defenoe of Cicero and the Ciceronians. It is a piece of
38?
SCALIGEB
T{gon)m inTCedn, ditpkjiiig, like kU hi« mbseqnsnt
writiflra^ an utODUiluiig knowledge and command of the
lAtin Ungnage, kud mnch brUtiant rhetoric, bat foil of
vulgar abnae, and completely missing the pwat of the
CtMromoiMit of Ensmae. The writor'a indignation at
finding it treated with ailent contempt by the great scholar,
who thooght it wee the work of a personal enemj — Aleander
— cannd him to write a second oration, more vialeat,
more abnmTe, with mora self-glorification, bnt with leu
real merit than the first. The orations were followed by
ft prodi^ona qnantitj of Latin Teiee, which appeared in
•occniTe Tolomea in 1633, 1S34, 1S39, 1S46, and 1074;
of thei^ a friendly critic, Ur Jettison, ia obliged to
ftpproTs the judgment of Haet, who says : " par aes po^ee
K^tei et informea Scaliger a deahonorfi le Famaise ; " yat
their nnmeroni editions abow that tbey commended them-
•elvee not only to bis coDtemporories bnt to succeeding
aebolara. A brief tract on comic metres (Dt Conieu
Dinuiuioitibtu) and a work Dt Count Linffias Latitm —
the earliest Latin grammar on scientific priociplea, and
foUowing a sdentific method — were his only otlier purely
literary works published in his lifetime. His Portia was
left unpQblished, and only appeared in 1C61 after his
death. With many paradoxes, with many criticisms
which are below contempt, and many indecent displays of
violent personal animosity,— -especially in his reference to
the onfortuoate Dolet, over whoae death be gloated with
brutal moUgnitj', — it yet contoina much acute criticism,
and shows that for the first time a writer had appeared
iriio had formed an adequate idea of what sneb a treatise
ought to be, and how it ought to be written.
Bnt it ia as a pbiloeopher and a man «f science that
J. 0. Scaliger ought to be judged. His tostea were for
metapbytira and physica rather than for literature.
Classic^ studies he regarded as an agreeable relaxation
from severer pnnnits. Whatever tbs truth or fable of iJie
first foriy years of his life, he had certainly been a most
oloae and accurate observer, and had made himself
acquainted with many curious and little-known pheno-
mena, which be had stored up in a most tenacious memory,
and whidi be was able te make use of with profit. His
sdentific writings are all in the form of commentaries, and
it was not until his seventieth year that (with the excep-
tion of a brief tract on the J}« Imomniit of Hippocrates)
he felt that an; of them were suffidently complete te be
given to the world. In ISfiS he printed bis DicUogui on
the D» Pltnttii attributed to Aristotle, and in 1SE7 his
SxereitaluMa on the work of Cardan, .Dd SiMlilaU. His
other scientific worki^ Oommentaria on Theophrastus's
Bitlory ef Planit and Aristotle's Hvtory of Anivudt, be
left in a more or less unfinished steta, and they were not
printed until after his death. They are all marked by
the earae characteristics : arrogant dogmatism, violence of
language, irriteble vanity, a constent tendency to self-
glonfication, which we expect to find only in the charlatan
and the impoater, are in him combined with extensiva real
knowledge, with acnte reasoning, with an observatioa of
laota aiid details aimoet unparalleled. He displays every-
where what Nandi calls " an intellect teeming with heroic
thonght" Bnt he is only the naturalist of liis own time.
That he anticipated in any manner the inductive pliilo-
■ophy cannot be contended ; his botenical studies did not
lead him, like bis contemporary Qeener, to any idea of a
natural system of classification, and be rqectad jrith the
Utmost arrogance and violence of language the diacoreriea
of Copernicus. In metepbysica and in natural history
Aristotle was a law to him, and in meditune Oalui, bnt
b* was not a slave to the text at the details of either. He
has tbotonghly mastered their principles, and is able to
KB when Us masters are not true to themsdvM. Ha
cortecte Aristotle by bimaeU. Be Is tn that ftage of
learning when the attompt is made to harmonise the
written word with the actual facte of nature, and tha
result ia that his works have no real scientific valne.
Their interest is only historical. His Eixratattane* upon
the Dt StMUitate of Cardan (16ST) is the book by which
Scaliger is best known as a philosopher. Ite nnmeroua
editions bear witness to its popularity, and until the final
fall of Aristotle's physica it continued a popular text-book;
OS late as the middle of the seventeenth oentnry an
.elaborate commentary upon it was published by Sperling
a professor at Wittenberg. We are astonished at the
encyclopedic wealth of knowledge which the SxerdtatioHet
display, at the vigour of the sudor's style, at the Rcenraey
of his observations, bnt ore obliged to agree with Naud^
that be has committed more fanlte than he bos discovered
in Cardan, and with Nisard that his object seems te be to
deny all that Cardan affirms and to afBrm all that Cardan
denies. Tet it is no light praise that writen like Leibnita
and Sir William Hamilton recognize J. C Scaliger as the
best modem exponent of the physice and metephysies of
Aristotle. He died at Agen aist October 1668.
3. JoBEFH Justus Bcausbb (1610-1609), the great-
eat scholar of modem times, was the tenUi child and
third son of Julius Coaar Scaliger and Andiette de la
Roque Lobqoo (see above). Bom at Agen in 1640, he
was ssnt when twelve years of age, with two younger
brothers, to the college of Quienne at Bordeaux tben
under the direction of Jean Qelido. An outbreak of the
plague in 1656 caused tbe boys to return home, and for
the next few years Joseph was bis father's coiutant com-
panion and amanuensis. The compoeititm of Latin vena
was the chief amusement of Julius in his latw years, and
he daily dicteted to his son from eighty to a hundred
line^ iad sometime* moie, Joseph was also required
each day to writo a Latin thema or declamation, but in
other respecte he seems to have been left to bis own
devices. IThe Latin verse of Jnlini^ faulty as it is in oU
that constitutee ' poetry, yet displays a more extensive
knowledge of the Latin language, and a greater command
of its reeourcesj than is to be found in the veree of
any of his contemporaries ; and this constant practice in
writing aad reading or speaking Latin, under the enper-
viaiou of one who knew tbe language thoroughly, i«as
probably the foundation of Joseph's I^tin scholaiship.
Bat the companionship of his father was worth more to
him than any mere instruction. He learned from Julius
what real knowledge was, and that it did not consist
in discussions on words and phrases ; and to his father he
owed it that he was not a mere scholar, bat something
more — an acute ohterver, never losing sight of the actual
world, and aiming not so mnch at correcting teite as at
laying the foundation of a science of historical criticism.
Inl&58, on thedeath of his father, be proceeded to Paris,
and spent four years at the univeraity there. Of hia life
at Paris we know but littie. Hitherto be had not studied
Greek. Now he felt that not to know Oreek was to know
nothing. It was in the literature of Greece that he must
look for the true key of antiquity, and he forthwith began
to attend the Isctnrea of Tomebna. But after two montiis
he found out his misteke. He had mnch to leom before
he eonld be in a position to profit by the lectures <rf the
greatest Greek acholar of the time. He shut himself np
in his chamber, and determined to teach himself. He
read Homer in twenty-one days, and tben went tluongh
all the ether Greek poets, orators, and historians, forming
a grammar for himself as he went along. From Gree^
at the Buggeotion of Poatel, he proceeded to attack
Hebrew, and then AraUc ; of both he acquired a reepect-
able knowledge^ though not the critical mastery which Jio
I C A L I G E B
poMMMd in Lfttin tnd QtmL ^a nuae of Dont tben
■tood u hj^ H thmt of TiirD«btii fta ft Qreek achoUr, ftod
(ftr higher u » profenor. H« ha* laft notfaiDg to jiutiff
bi< npntfttion u » BohoUr; bnt fti ft teftcbw ha no-
donbtaily powawBd the hi^uit qoBUGcatioiu. He wm
able not otdj to impftrt knowladge, bnt to kdndla anthn-
HMiQ for Ub ntiijact in the minda of hie bettren uid
pnpila. It «M to Dotftt OaX ScftUgei owed the h<HDS
whieh be (onnd for the next thirty jeftn of bii life. In
1563 the pnrfeaaor reoommended him to Lonii de
Cbaatfti^Mr, the jtmag kai of Lft Boohe Poiajr, u ft
corapanioii in hla trftTtk. A clow friendship ipcting up
between the two yoong men, which tenwined nnbroksn
till the death of Lome in lfi95. The trftTallar* firet pro-
oeeded to Rome, Here they found Horetoa, who^ when
ftt BordeMis snd ToaloaBa^ b»d been ft gnftt taTotirite
ftnd oecMuxiftl xiiitor of Jnlitu CMaar ftt Agen. Hnretni
•ooQ recogniied SoJiger'e merita, ftnd devoted bimaelf to
mftkiiig hu it«7 at Borne ■■ ftgreeftbla aa poaaible, intro-
dndDg him to all the men thftt were worth knowiog.
After viaitiDg a large part of Italy, the tiaTellera pamed
to Eoglftad ftnd Bootlftod, taking aa it wonid aaem La
Etoche Puftj on thur iny, for Scaliger*! preface to hie
Gnt book, the Co/^edaiua ui Vammem, is dated there in
Deoember lfiS4. Scaliger formed an nnlftTOonble opinion
of the Engliah. Their inhomas diepoaition, and inhoe-
pitable treatment of foreignera, eapeciallj impreaaed him.
Ha wai alao diMppointed in finding few Greek mann-
scripta and few leaniad men. It waft not until a much
later period that he became intimate willi Richard
Thompaon and other Englishmen. In the conne of hie
tnTeli he had become a {^teatant Hie father, tbongh
he lived and died in the commnoion of the Chorck of
Borne, bad been atupected of herea;, and it ia probable
that Joaepfa'a aympathiea were early enlisted on the aide
of Protaatontiitm, On hia retnrn to Fnnee he ipent three
yaaia with the Chaatugneie, aeeompanyiiig them to their
different duiteanx in Poitoo, ob the calla of the civil war
requirad their preeence. In 1670 he accepted the inTita-
tion of Cqjaa, and proceeded to Valence to atndj juris-
prudence under the greatett living jnrisL Here he re-
munad three years, profiting not only by (he lecturea but
even more by the library of Ch^aa, vlucb filled no leaa
thaa seven or eight rooms and included five hundred
mannseripta.
The msMarrn of St Bartholomew — oocurring as he waa
about to accompany the bishop of Valence on an embasay
to Poland—induced him with other Hognenots to retire
to Qeneva, where he was received with open arms, and
was appointed a profesaoT in the academy. He lectured
on the Or^non of Aristotle and the J>t FinAut of Cicero
with much satisfaction to the students bnt with little to
himself. He hated lecturing, and waa bored to death
with the importunities of the fanatical preachers ; and in
I9T4 be returned to France, and made his home for the
next twen^ yeate in the chateaux of his friend the lord of
la Boche Poxay. Of hia life daring this period we have
for the first time intereeting details and notices in the
Lettitt fntitfiaKt inidiut d* Joteph SecUigcr, edited by H.
Tamisey de Larroque (Agen, 18S1), a volume which odds
much to our knowledge of Scaliger's life. Constantly
moving from chateau to chateau through Poitou and the
Limousin, aa the exigencies of the civil war reqnired,
ocosMonally taking his turn as a guard when the chateau
waa attacked, at least on one occasion trailing a pike on an
Bipedition a^nst the Leaguers, with no acceaa to librariei,
and frequently separated even from his own books, bis life
during this lieriod seems in one aspect moat nnsuitad to
atn^. He had, however, what ao few contempowy
•eht^ftra poaaeaaed— leisure, and freedom from pecnniftry
cftrea. In ^enenl he eoold devot« his whole time to
study ; and it waa during this period of his life that he
oompoaed and pnbltilied'the booke which showed how far
he was in advance of all his contemporariea as a acholar
and a critic, and that with him a new school of historical
eritieian bad ariaen. Hia editions of the Cataltdit (1G74),
of Featns (1676), of Catnlln^ 'Kbullua, and Provertiua
{1611), are (he wixk of a mas who writes not only booka
of instruction for Isameis, but who ia determined himaeU
to discover and ootnmnnicata to others the real meaning
and force of hia author. Diacarding the trivial remnrks
and groundless auggeadona which we find in the editions
of neariy all bis eontemporariea and predecessors, be fint
laid down and ^iplied aoond rules of criticism and
emendatioo, and chuged textual criticism, from ft series
of haphftsftrd and frequently baseless guesses, into a
"rationftl procednre subject to fixed laws" (Pattison).
But these works, while proving Scaliger'a right to the
fmeniost place among bis contemporariea as far as latin
acholarahip and criticism were concerned, did not go beyond
mere scholarship. It was reserved for his edition of
Ifanilius ( lST9),and iueDtBrnatdalioiu Ttmpormn (1563),
to revtdntioniie all the received ideas of the chronology of
anoent history, — to show for the first time that ancient
ohronologj was of the bighaat importance as a corroctor
aa well aa a supplement to historical narrative, that
anctent history is not confined to that of the Qreeks end
Romans, bnt also comprises that trf ihe Peraiana, the
Babylonians, and the Egyptians, hitherto negleeted as
abaolutaly worthleaa, and that of the Jews, hitherto treatod
aa a thing apart and too aacred to be mixed up with the
others, ud Uiat the historical narrativaa and fragments
of each of theee, and their several systems of chronology,
must b« carefully and critically compared together, if any
true and general conciusians on ancient history are to be '
arrived at. It is this which constitutes his true glory,
and which places Scaliger on to immeasurably higher an
eminence than any of his contemporaries Yet, while the
Bcholan of his time admitted his praeminenc«^ neither
they nor thoee who immediately followed eeem to have
appreciated bis real merit, but to have coniidered his
emendatory criticism, and his skill in Greek, as constitufr
ing his claim to special greatness. "Scaliger's great
works in historical criticism had overstepped any power
of appreciation which the succeeding age poasessed "
(httiaon). Hia commentary on Maoilius is really a
treatise on the aatronomy of the ancienta, and it forms
an introdtiction to the D» Smendaltoiu Ttmperum, in which
he eiamioas by the light of modem and Coperaican
science the ancient system as applied to epochs, c^endara,
and compatationa of lime, ahowing upon what principlea
(hey were baaed.
In the remaining twenty-four years of bis life he at
once corrected and enlarged the basis which he bad laid
in the Dt Bnendalvme. With incredible patience, some-
times with a happy audacity of conjecture which itself is
almost genius, he succeeded in reconstructing the tost
CkronicU of Eusebius — ooe of the most precious remains
of antiquity, and of the highest valne for ancient
chronology. Thia he printed in 1606 in hia Thaatmu
Tempontm, in which he collected, restored, and arranged
every chronological relic extant in Greek or Latin. In
ISM Lipaios retired from Leyden, where for twelve years
be had been profesaor of Roman hiatory and antiquities.
The university and its protectors, the statea-generol of
Holland and the prince of Orange, resolved to obtain
Scaliger aa his succeasor. He declined their offer. Ho
hated the thon^t of lecturing and there were thoae
among hia frienda who errooeoualy believed that with
the raecaaa of Henry IT. learning woold flourish, and
364
8 0 A L I G E E
ProtwtMtwni bo no hu to diatinetion And ftdTaiiMmaiit.
THb inTitatiiM wu nnewed in tha mot gratifying and
flattaring muiaer a yeu kter. BcUiger woald not be
required to leotara. The tuuTerntjr only widhod for his
preaeuce. He wonld be in oil nepects ike muter of his
time, THia offer BcaJiger promtonaJly accepted. About
the middle of IC93 he started for HoUaud, where he
pnwind the lenuining thirtoen ygan of hia life, never
returning to France. Hie receiition at Lejrden waa all
that he conld wish. A handsome income was aranred to
him. He was treated with the highest consideration.
Bi» rank as a princs of Tarona was recognised. Placed
uidwa; between The Hague and Amsterdam, he was able
to obtain, beaidea the learned circle of Leyden, the advant-
age* of the beet society of both these capitals. For
Scaliger was no hermit boried among hia booka; he was
fond of social interconree with persons of merit and
intelligence, and was himself a good talker.
For the first eevea years of hu reeidence at Leyden his
repatatioa was at its highest point. His literoijr dictator-
ship was noqaestioned. It waa greater in kind and in
extent than that of any man siuoe the revival of lettera —
greater even than that of Erasmns had been. From his
throne at Leyden he ruled the learned world, and a word
from him could make or mar a rising reputation. The
deetric force of hie geains drew to him all the rising
talent of the republic. He waa surronnded by young
men eager to lieten to and pro&t by hie conversation, and
he enjoyed nothing better than to discnsa with them the
books they were reading, and the men who wrote them,
and to open up by his snggeitive remarks the true
methoda and objeots of philologieol and historical study.
Be encouraged Qrotius when only a youth of nxteeo to
edit Capella ; the early death of the younger Dousa he wept
' ae that of a beloved son ; Daniel Huusias, from being
hia favoorite pupil, became his moat intimate friend.
But Scaliger had made numeroos enamiee. He hated
ignorance, but he hated still mora half learuing and moet
of alt dishonesty in argument or in quotation. Himself
the soul of honour and trathfuLuew, with a tingle aim in
all his writingi, namely, to arrive at the truth, he had no
toleration for the disingenDOtts argnmenta, and the mie-
itatemeat* <A I»eta, irf thoae who wrote to support a theoiy
or to defend an nnsoond eaate. Neither in his converaa-
&Mi nor in his writings did he conceal his contempt for
the ignorant and the dishonesL His pnngent sarcasms were
•ooo ouried to the ean of the penons of whom they ware
ottered, and bis pen was not leae bitter than his tongue.
He tetembles his father in his arrogant tone towards
those whom he deapisea and those whom he hatea, and
he despises and hatea all lAo differ from biTn. He it
conscious of his power as a literary dictator, and not
always sufficiently cautions or sufficiently gentle in its
ezecdse. Nor, it mnst be admitted, was BcaJiger always
right Ha trusted much to his memory, which was
occasionally treacherous. His emendations, if frequently
happy, were sometimes absurd. In layingthe foundations
of a science of ancient chronology, he relied sometimes
upon groundless sometimes even upon aheurd hypotheaee,
frequently upon an imperfect induction of facts. Some-
times he misunderstood the aslronoBiieal science of the
ancients, sometimes that of Copemicut and Tycho Brah&
And he was no mathematician. But his eaemiee were not
merely those whose errors he had eipoeed, and whose
boetility he hod excited by the vioieDce of hit laogusge.
The results of his system of historical criticism had been
adverso tn the Catholic controversialists, and to the
authenticity of many of the documeols upon vliich they
had been accustomed to rely. The JeMiito, who asjiirod
to be the expounder* of antiquity, the wane of ail
Bcholanhip and oritidsm, perceived dutt the wiitingi and
authority of Scaliger were the moot formidable barrier to
their chum& It was the day of cuiversions. Mnivtiu
in the latter part of his life professed tLe strictest ortho-
doxy ; Lipsius had been reconciled to tha Church of Borne ;
Casanbon was supposed to be wavering; but Scaliger was
known to be hopeless, and as long as ids supremacy wot
nnqueatioDed the Protestants hod the victory in Icamiag
and scholarship A determined attempt must be made, if
not to answer his criticisms, or to disprove his statements,
yet to attack him as a man, and to destroy hit reputation.
This was no easy task, for his moral character was ab-
solutely spotless.
Aftac several scnrrllons attacks by the Jesuit party, in
which coorseneae and violence were more conspicuous than
ability, in 1607 a new and mora Encceasful attempt was
made. Scaliger's weak point was his pride. Brought up
by his father, whom he greatly reverenced, in the heViet
that he was a prince of Terono, he never forgot this him-
self, nor suffered it to be forgotten by others. Naturally
truthful, honourable^ and virtuoua in every respect, he
conceived himself eapecioU^ bound to be so on account of
his illustrioos ancestry. In 1694, in an ovil hour for his
happiness and his reputation, he pnblished his Spitlola dt
Tftvttati tt Spiendort Gentit Scali^rrm et J. C. ScaUgen
TUa. In 1607 Qaspar Scioppins, then in tha service of
the Jeanitt, whom he afterwards so bitterly libelled,
published hit Seaiigtr Hypobolimmu (" The Supposititious
Scaliger"), a quarto volume of more than four hundred
pagee, irritten with consummate ability, in an admirable
and incisive style^ with the entire disregard fcs truth
which Bcioppitw always displayed, and with all the power
of that sarcasm in which he was an accomplished master,
Every piece of goeeip or scandal which could be raked
toother respecting Scaliger or hia family is to be found
there. The anthor professes to point out five hundred lies
in the Epialcia dt Titiutitlt of Scaliger, but the mam
argument of the book i* to *how the falsi^ of his
pretension* to be of the famih of La Scalo, and of the
narrative of his father's early life, and to hold up both
father and sou to contempt and ridicule at impadent
impoaton. " No stronger proof," says Mr Fattisou, " can
be given of the impressions produced by this powerful
philippic, dedicated to the defamation of an individual,
than that it has been the source from which the biograpby
of'Bcaliger, as it now stands in our biographical coUoctioos,
baa mainly flowed." To Bcaliger the blow was cruahing.
Whatever the caae as to Julius, Joseph hod nndonbtedly
believed himself a prince of Terona, and in hia E^itloCa
had put forth with the moat perfect good faith, and
without inquiry, all that he had heard from his hther ss
to hi* family and the early life of Julins. It was this
good faith that laid the way for his humiliation. His
Spidoia it full of blondera and mistakes of fact, end,
relying partly on hia own memory partly on his fatber'a
good faith, he has not verified one of tike atstementa cf
Jalin(^ moet of which, to apeak moat favourably, sis
characterised byrhodomontada, exaggeration, or ioBccurocy.
He immediately wrote a reply to Scioppins, entitled
Conjvlalio Fabuim SurdoaupL It ia written, for Scaliger,
with unusual moderation and good taste, but perbcqis tor
that very reason hod not the success which its outhor
wished and even expected. In the opinion of the highest
and moat competent authority, Ur Pattisoo, "ss s
refutation of Scioppiut it it moet complete"; but there are
certainly grounds for dissenting, though with diffidence
from this judgmenL Bcaliger undoubtedly shows thst
Scioppios hss committed mors blunders than be hs)
cotrectod, that hia book literally bristles with pore lie*
and baseless calunnie* ; bat he due* not ancoead Is
SC A — SC A
365
kddneing & rias^e proof eiOieT rf Iiii hlHm'» deacant from
tha 1a Bcala fwnOj, or of any nugle event nmrratad by
Jnlioi M bappening -to hinuelf or uij member <rf lui
Family prior to his arrirat at Agea. Nor doea ho eTcn
(ittempt a refutation of what Beems really to be the crucial
point in tba whole eontroTeny, and wliich Sciojipios bad
|)roved, as tar as a negative can be prored, — namely, that
William, the laat prince of Verona, had oo eon Nidiolaa,
the alleged grandfather of Jaliua nor indeed any eon ^o
conld have been soch g.andfather. But whether complete
or not, the CmfiUatio had no enccesa ; the attack of the
leeniu was anccessf ul, far more eo than they conld poeubly
have hoped. Scioppiui waawoot toboait that hia book had
killed Bckliger. It certainly embittered the few remaining
months of his life, and it ia not improbable that the mortift-
cation which ha Bnflared may have ehortened hia daya. ^Hie
CiMfiUatio waa hia laat worL Fii>e montba after it ap-
peued, "on the Slat of January, 1609, at foor in tha
morning, he fell aaleep in Heinaioa'a araia. He aajuring
■pirit aecended before the Infinite. He moat richly stored
intellect which had erer apent itaelf in aeqniring know-
ledge waa in the preaence of the Omniadent" (Fattieon).
Of Jaopb Sealigsr tb* obIt Uosnpli; in ur wit adaiiiuta ia
tint or Jaoob Bhdit* (Bnlln, ISBS). It <w rsvlnnd by tba
lata Uiik PttCi*» la an •icellaat utida in tlia Quarttrlr ^R^ns,
ToL oTiii. (tsea). Ur Fattboa had nule many UB. colltctiou
for a Ufa ot Joaaph BcaUf[tr on a maeh more eitaiuin acala,
m to and marda much oi
of jnlina Cteaar Scaligar written aona Ttaia ^e*. Foe tha Ufa
or Joatpb, baaulaa tha raoantlj pabliahad lattara abon nfaned
to, Uia two old eolloetloDa of T«tin and Itanch lattara aad the
la WaraadI
P<w tha lOa of Jalioa Caaar tha Uttara aditad by hia aoo, thoae
aabM^aantly paUiihad In IfllO by tha Pnaidant da HinoM^ tha
5eaJi^miu, and hii Own wriUoga, which an Toll ot antobio-
sraphlcal mattai, an tha chiat anthoritica. IL Da Bonronaaa da
^ ^ ■ '- ■ ' • ~- T, it iMcaU (Agen, 1S«0) and H,
Lai^'i &»<> ■»■ JiOu O
Ua«D'a DBoimitU mr JuKm Cmar Seaiiftr it m famUU (Ageo,
187S) add important datalla lor tha liria ot both bthar and aon.
~iai!nab7JI. Cbulca Nlaatil— that orjoliiu in Za) OloiIiiXnir*
Ira SB aaCnlnu aUett — are aqnallT onworthy of thalr anthor
idr mbjaota. Joliiu ia limslj haU np to rldionla, while
I of Joaaph iaalmat wholly baaad on tha book of Booppioa
1 Bealigimia. A Dompleta liat ot the worka ol Joaiph will
ill la K^puUlgw da LMtra, and that of Joaaph ia Li Triummrat
UfMmira sa aaCnlnu -"-■- " .v_ .. •v...._.v..
and their
aail the Bealigtmia. A Domplete liat ot the worka ol JooBph
be found In fau Utg by Bemaya. (R. 0. C;
I SOAMUONT. Under thia name tba dried juice of tba
root of CoiVKilmLbu Scammtmia, L. (onvwui), ia naed in
mediciiu.* It appears to have been known to the Qreekt
aa early aa the 3d centor; ao., and b (apposed to have
been one of the medicines recommetided to Alfred the
Oreat t^ Heliaa, patriarch of Jeraealem {CookajfM LttA-
domt, -laL a. pp. xdT., 269, 175; ST3, 381). The team-
mony plant is a nativs of the connttiea of the eMteru
part of the Heditertanean boain, growing in boahy waste
placea, from Byria in the south to the Crimea in the north,
its range extending westward to the Greek iaiands, but
not to northern Africa or Italy. It Ia a twining perennial,
bearing flowen like thoae of CaxMfevfti* arveniU, and
hanng irregularly arrow-ebaped leave* and a thick fleshy
root He drug ia odlected priadpall}' in Asia Minor, and
near Al^po in Syria, althon^a little is obtained from the
Deighboorhood of Monnt Cannel and the Lake of Tiberias.
Tha principal places of export are Smyrna and Aleppo
(Scanderoon), bat the drug often bears in commerce the
name ot the dialriet where it wae collected, «.y., BroosM,
Angora, &o. Formerly Aleppo Bi^mmony was considered
the beat and commanded the highest price, but at present
the purest article cornea from Smyrna. The very variable
quality of the ilrug has led to the use of the reaiu prepared
directly from the root, which affords it to the eiteiit of B j
> fl -mtf fnrmni; nallail diigrjidhn, probablr fnm lii^, a taar,
IB allaaloB to tha nanaer the Jaic* siBdaa Iroaa tha incUad noV
It, aonaiBtiag of parttaUj dried taan, Mlas added. On tlu
^ abont one drachm ia afforded by ea^ iaoialOD) a plant fom
per cent, and an eatabliahment for its mannfactnre was
fonnded at Brotiaaa in IS70. The dried root is also
azporlod to England, and the rvun prepared from it
there. By ptirification the reain can be obtained almost
white. He crude reain obtained from the root, being
free from gam, doea not present a milky appearance
when mbbed with a wetted finger, and is thus easily dis-
tiogaiifaed from the natnral prodncL
Scammony ia naed in me^cine aa a safe hot mergetio
purgative, and ia frequently prescribed in combination
widi calomel and colocynth. Its medicinal activity ia
Am to the reain scammonin, whioh ia also called jalapin
from its oeeorrence in tbe root of the male jalap (Ipomma
irisiinuu), and of Tamptco jalap (/. amxUan*) (see iuux).
The eynrtof acammony from Smyrna in 1881 was only 67
bozea, valued at £011, theamonntliaviDg decreased of late
yeaia owing to the increased export of the root from Syria.
Mors than half of thia quantity waa taken by England,
about oue-fonrth by France, aod tha remainder by Italj,
'merica, and Anatria.
Tb* dnu ii obtained tma the toot b^ alidng off DbKqnalj one
' two InohiB tttm tha crown and allowiDE tba milkr jam wbieh
--.-ndaa to dtaln into a araall ahall (ganainlly that of a frtahwatal
muaal], whleh ia Inarrtad in tha root jnat balow tha baaa ot tha
Incialon. To praTanI tha Juice from baooming aoUad, the aaith ia
eerapad away ao aa to leave expoaed fonr or IItb Incfaaa of tba root
Tha ahalla era oolloctad in tba avaoing aad thalr oontanta amptiad
into a e<^paror leathara vaiaal, — tha accapinn ttom tha atr'-- ~'
"^ oonaiBtiag of parttaUj dried taan, Mlag i
-....-V-, -boat ona drachm la afforded bT«
dtaohma 1 _ ..
laoally tskea plaoa when tba plaat ia in Sowar teward* the and ot
aommer. Tha pcodnet ot dlffaiant roota aatBially vaiiaa in qnality,
sad the imhbbIb tharelora, on aniral at their homca, raider it
nDifom by mixins It with a kaff*. It la than apraad ont in tha
sir to dry. Bomatiinea tha ptharing ol saver*] days la allowed to
aooaamlats, sad than moiataaed, knsadad, and made np into cakift
During tha drjlag it ^p**" tn andeigo a kind of farmentation,
which givaa tha drag a ahghtly porou appaannea and dork colour.
Frequeptly it t* adnllintad by adding 10 per oast at Boar and
aarthj matter. It than aaaomaa a ualar eolonr and opaqoa appear*
anoB, and 1«*M ita biittlenSK Tbfe adnltnalcd artiob ia known aa
"akilip," and tha pnnaitiela aa "virgin" Mamnoey. Tha latter
i> met with in tba fomi of aattioed meoa half an Inch at mora in
thickDm, with ■ blackiah, nainoaa fraelnn, thia IVagmanta being
tranilnnoL Eatamallj it ia often oovend with a greTiah powder.
The odoni, when a pieea ia fceahly brokan, t* efaefay; whaBehawad,
it laavaa an aorid aanaatJon in tha throat, Scammony of good
Satlity iboald jleld to ether 80 to M par oant of nain; thaieiuin-
BT conalati of gum and mineral matter.
SCAITDEBBEa, i.t., Iskaoder (Alexander) Bey, ' ia
the Tuckiah name and title of Qaonoi CugraiaiA, the
jonngeat son of John Castriota, lord of an hereditary prin-
cipality in Albania. He was bom about the year 1101,
and as a boy was sent aa a hoatage to the Ottoman court,
where he waa brought up aa a Moliammedan for the
Torkiah military aervica. He early distiogulahed himself
aa a aoldier and received high promotion under Amnrath
IL In 1113 he was of tha expedition against the Mag-
yars, but shortly after taking the field be heard of hia
father's death and reaolved to strike a bbw for freedom.
Availing hinuelf of the opportunity afforded by John
Hanyady's defeat of the Turks at Nish, be fnxed from
&e principal secretary of tbe anltan a firman making him
governor of Oroya, hu native town, and forthwith left the
camp with 300 Albanian horsemen. Once master of the
placa, he al^jured Iblam and produmed his independenoe.
The Albanians soon reoognized him aa their head, and
flocked to bis sCaodard, and pasha after paaba was vainly
sent to crush him. Amnralh IL in person unsacceeafallf
bealBged him in 1100, and Mohammed It found it neces-
sary to grant faim htonrabls terms of peace in llSl.
Instigat«d \f[ the legatee of Fine IL and the ambaaaadoia
ot the TenetiaD republic, Scanderbeg again proclaimed
WW in llGl, aod at ImmI wm aucc«Hfal u npeUiog th«
S C A — SC A.
nlbui, who liftd innded Albuiift. E» died in Jtaoaty
14167 ftt Alanio, leaTing an infftot bod uuned John, whom
he comniBiided to the care of the Tsoetiiuu. After e twelTO
jears' war, the Tucks fiuoUj gained poaaeesion of Ooya, dia
Tepreeeotattvea of Scaoderbeg aettluig in Calebria.
BCANDEBOON (IscAjniiBfta), or Auxakdrbtti, Lea
(^rdled by green hille on the pictnieaque baj of the H&me
name, the sncieot Simu Imciu, at the extreme north
of the Syrian ccoit, where it forms an angle with thAt of
Asia Minor. Alexandntta nic«eedad en older town of
Alexandria (Little Alexandria), fotinded by Alexander the
Great, but does not perhaps occupy qnite the same site.
The harbour is the beet oa the Syrian coast^ and Bteamen
call at it regularly, but the Iowa is woDrged with fever
and has only soma 2IK)0 inhabitants, mainly Greek
Chriatians. It is the port of Aleppo, and would naftually
be the port of an " Euphrates nJway."
SCANDINAVIAN LANOUAGEa "By this eipres-
aioD we understand the cloeely allied languagee which are
and have been spoken by Uie Germanio popuiaUon in
Scandinaria, and by the inhabitants of the conntriee that
have been wholly or partially peopled from it. At present
the territory of these languages emlnaces — Sweden, except
tiie moet northerly part (I&pland and inland parts of
Vesterbotten, where Finnish and Lappish ezclnsiTely or
chiefly prevail); certain islands and districts on the coast
of weetem and southern Finland, as well as Aland;' a
■mall tract on the coast of Esthonia, where Swedi^ ia
epoken, as it is also to some extent in the Esthonian islands
of DagS, Nargo, Nukko, Ormso, and BtgQ;* Oauunal-
STeuskby ("Galsvenskbi") in ■onthem Russia (govem-
meut of Ehenon),' a village colonized from Dagd; the
Livooian island of Bono,* where Swedish b spoken, as it
formerly was on the island of Dael; Norway, except
certain regions in the northern part of the country,
peopled by Finns and lAppa (diocese of Tromao) ; Den-
mark, with the Faroes, Iceland, and Greenland, where,
however, Danish ia only spoken by a very small put of
I Nmih America. ScandinaTtan dialects have besides
been spoken for varying periods in the following places :
Norwegian in certain parts of Ireland (800-1300 a.i>.)
and northern Scotland, in the Isle of Uau, the Hebrides
(800-1400, or longer), the Shetland Islands (800-1800),
and the Orkneys (800-1800) ; < Danish in the whole of
Schleswig, in the north-eastern part of England (the
"Danelsg"), and in Normandy (900-1000, or a little
longer);' Swedish in Russia (from the end of the 9th to
the beginning of the 11th century).''. At what epoch the
Germanio population settled in .Scandinavia we cannot as
yet even approximately decide. It ia quite certain, how-
ever, that it already existed there before the Christian
era, — nay, most probably as early as the beginning of the
so-called Stone Age (three thousand years before Christ).
' Bag A. O. Fr«ndgatb«l, On Sttiuka aUmDOtmiUt i Jftiand,
1870 ; UileT dm Jfirpttdialtd, 1378.
. ' A. O. Frandenthut, Upptyninaar «■ Rigt- oeh WUkUrpalmilet,
I8TE; a.Vad<n,Lata-undFonnUl^tdcrSiAmiitelimMi0idarUn
is dm Eirck^Mt» Onuj) md JfutiS, IBgl.
• H, V«nd.ll "OmoohfrtUiO»BimiJ.Teiiil;l>r"(«M* Tidihi/l,
1882). ■ * H. V™U«n, Swidmiliit Ijud- ochJorvdOra, 1882-6.
• J. J. A. WotMSB, Minder on di Dant^ og Jfirdmmdtnt i
Mngland, SkcOand, ng Irland, 1351 ; A. LAoreiuu ud K. J.
iTiBbj, "Oai iprogot pu BjiaUindibtrM'' {Ann. /. Xord. Oldl^tid.,
1840); P. A. Munch, Samlay A/handiingtr, iii.. It., 187S-78.
■ Wonuw, le. ; J. C. H. B. St«nitnip, Jtantloj/, 1382; El
Tfgncr, "Nomoliii elln Duikir I KonnuOie," vid "ytUrllgm
mn il< Dordixlii ortjumjao ! KonLsndl. " {Iforduk Tiditrift, 1 88«).
V. TliDnuan, Ryila tiktU irnatdlaggninff ^num Skandinavma,
18S3 {Tin Xtiatims Mmat AneiaU R^awia a~t acaKdinaoia,
1877); a Bagi^ "OMaTWtktnsnia i Biulaiid"(..1rtw/«r JTmiub
rUalBgi, 11. 1886).
If this view be oorrec^ the Scandinavian lasguagM hava
had an existence of more than four thousand years.*
But we do not know anything about them during the
period before the lurth of Chnst It is only from that
epoch we can get any information coneeming the langnage
of the old Scaudiuavians, which seems by that time not
only to have spread over Denmark and great parts of
southran and middle Sweden and of (southern) Norway,
but also to have reached Finland (at leaat Nylaod) and
Esthonia. In spite of its extension over this condderable
geographical area, the language appears to have been
fairly homogeneoua thronghonC the whole territory. Con-
sequently, it may be reguded as a uniform language, the
mother of the yonnger Scandinavian tongues, and accord-
ingly haa been named the primitive Scandinavian (iirNor-
dui) language. The oldeet Bources of our knowledge of
this tongue are the words which were borrowed dnring
the first centuriea of the Christian era (some of them
perhaps even earlier) by the Lapps from the inhabitants
of central Sweden and Norway, and by the Finns from
tbeir neighbours in Finland and Esthonia, and which
have been preserved in Finnish and lAppish down to our
own days.* These borrowed words, denoting chiefly
atensila bdonging to a fairly advanced stage of cnlture,
amount to several hnndred^ with a phonetdc form of a
very primitive stamp ; aa Finn, ttrva (0. Sw. Uttra, Germ.
Ottr), tar; airo (O. Sw. ar), oar; hinta (0. H. G. Aaiua),
people; napalaira (0. H. G. nabagSr, O. Sw. nnoar),
auger ; ruUa (Got iJfla, 0. Sw. nal), needle ; mmu, (Got
oni, O. Sw. at), beam ; I^pp lytt (Got mum, O. Sw.
«i), sow ; garva (0. H. O. ganuaSr, O. Sw. gSr), finished ;
divraiO. Sax. dmri, 0. Sw. dgr), dear ; si^po (O. E. G.
Mi/o, Sw. tipa\ soap. These wtnda, with thoee mentioned
by contemporary Roman and Greek authora, are tbe oldest
existing traces of any Germanic language. Wrested from
their context however, they throw but little light on the
nature of the original northern tongue. But a aeries of
linguistic monaments have come down to ns dating from
the end of the so-called early Iron Age (about 4S0 A.D.), —
the knowledge and the use of the oldest nmic alphabet
(with twenty-four characters) having at that period been
propagated among the Scandinavians by the sovtbem
Germanic tribea. In fact we st^ll poeseee^ preserv«d down
to our own time^ primitive northern mule inscriptions,
the oldest upon the utensils found at Thonlffay, dating
back to about 300 a.d.>°, which, together with the HS. '
fr^menta of UlSla'e Gothic translation of the Bible,
about two hundred years later in dat^ eonatitnta tbn
oldest veritable monnmenta of any Oermanio tongue.
These runic inscriptioua are for the moat part found on
stoae-monnments (sometimes on rocks) and Imtcteatea (gpid
coins stamped on one side and used for ornaments), as
well as on metallic and wooden utensils, weapons, and
ornaments." Up to this time there have been discovered
more than one hundred, but of these only Lbout one-half
give us any information concerning the language, and
most of them are only too short The longest one, tiie
stone-mouument of Tvtte, in south-eastern Norway, con-
tains only sixteen words. Their hmguage is somewhat
later in character than that of the oldest words borrowed
by the Lappa and Finns : accented i, for example, is
already changed into a (if. marts — Goth, men, renowned ;
but the Finn, borrowed word nUla — Goih. nfpla, needle},
and the voiced t into a kind of r (ef. dn^oB •• Goth. Jofff,
' 0. MoDUlioi, "Om Tin roiUklt
{Xordiik Tidiktift, ]8St).
' W. ThociMn, UOtr dm Si
FinjtitA-LappiweAai, 1870.
^ a UonUllg*, DU KvUm ,
plita la Q, Bkuligtii'
1831,
isvudring till Nonlui"
dtr CItrwL. Spmlm inf iii
SCANDINAVIAN LANQUAGES
367
dty ; but f^Dn. <t.
— (}oth. ami, poor). Od the other
tliBD dke UngiMgo of ooatemponry Gotliio mftimaaripl^
KOA no doubt apnoaebM more neulj tbao enj Oennania
idiom the primibM taim of tbe Oennaiuc tongne. YfX
the Bike of compAriaon, m gire a Qotbie tnLuaUtion of one
of tbe oldest of tbs primitiTa Scandin&Tian ioBoription^
that on the goldea horn of QaiUInu, found on the Dauith-
Gerntan frontier, uid dating from about 400 a.s. : —
EkUlli : XE HLlWlOAilTlSi HOLmOAjt. HOIXA. TIWIDO ;
Qoth.: a lliilt3(Vtt. Jtultlgti. Itauru, tainida;
Eng], ; I, HlanguUi, loa of Holta, mule ths bom ;
M well aa tbe iiuMriptioi] on the itono-monnmeut of
Jaftbdr^ in veetem Bweden, which is at least a hundred
yoare later : —
Souid. : DBXJi niT*. 31BABUUJ irrr uh h iuiaJ! luvof
Ooth. 1 ^v Ma, hralmi teOjaA a ainit HMt vrtti,,-
EngL : In msmorj of Hltu. Ws botb, Hinbuua mnd I Erilii,
VTots the ninn.
Allliongh Tei7 brief, and not yet tboronghlj inter-
preted,' theu primitive ScandinaTian inscriptions are
neverUieless m^iant to liable na to dstermioe with some
certainty the relation which the langnage in which they
are written beua to other langoagea. Thn« it is proved
that it belongs to the Qermanic family of tbe Indo-Enro-
pean stock erf laDguages, of which it oonstitatM an iuds-
pendsntand indindnal branch. lie nearest relation being
the Oothie, theoe two branches are sometimes taken
together under the gmeial denomination Satltnt Girmanic,
as opposed to the other Oermania idioms (Qensan, Eaglish,
Dntcli, &e.), which are then called WeUent Otrmnnic.
The most eseential point of correepoadence betweeii tbe
Gothic and ScandiDftTian brauahes is the insertion in certain
eases of gg before v and j (ggi in Gothic was changed
into d4f), as in gen. plur. 0. H. O. notiio, 0. £n(^ iatga
(two), compated with 0. IceL, 0. Norw. tMggja, O. Sw.,
O. Dan. tvigsith Ooth. tii>ad4ii ; and, still, in Germ. tre%,
EngL trru, compared with 5w., Norw., Dan. trygg, IceL
Irj/gr/r, Goth. Iriggtn. However, even in the primitive
Scandinavian age the difference between Qotbio and
Soandioaviao is more clearly marked than the resem-
blance; tfatu, for example — just to hint only at some of
the oldest and most easential differences — Goth, nonu sing,
ending in -* comaponda to primitive Scandinavian -as, -is
(as Qoth. daijM, day, ffoitt, gnest — Bcand. daga^ gattia.) ;
Goth. gen. sing, in -u to Scand. -at (as Qoth. dagit, day's —
Scand. dagat) ; Goth. dat. sing, in -a to Bcand. -* (as Goth.
biuma, com — Soaad. tunu); Goth, let pers.nng. pret
in -da to Scand. -do (as Goth, laivkla, did — Scand. (atnde).
As early as the beginning of the so -called later Iron
Age (abont TOO A.D.) the primitive Scandinavian language
bad nndergone a considerable transformation, as is proved
for example by the remarkable mnio stone at lilabf in
the M>nth of Sweden, with the inscription —
jiit-n iiAiiwui.^1^ nA^iTwuL^rfi B*MMnnn,^rUt v^rati
iniciJi )iaia£ ;
EogL : In mtmerj of Hsrlwnlfs, BstnimUB, ml of Hsniirelfa,
kafmButa^ with hoilingoR on ths golden horn), and
ploial ending -ob into -<ib (f/. nani& with nmoB on the
Jiirabirg-«tone). At the beginning of the so-called Tiking
Period (abont 800 A.D.) tbe ScandinaviaD language seems
to hare nndergone an eztiaordinorily rapid development,
which in a comparatively short time sjmoet oompletely
1 Foi ths IstupTtUtloiu in sn prloolpallr lodalitad to Prof. 8.
Bagi(g'< Inmilou InraitisitiaDa, who In IBSS HtUrKtorilr kiii-
OHilad in dsolpluriiig tli* luerijition of ths goldn horn, ud lij tbii
IMK» stbnA ■ And (tutlag-pofot for firthar THuntus. A aliort
m of tUr mon ImportuM ranlti It glTra bj F, Bug, Dit aUtrm
att Importun
iBas.
transformed its character. This change is eqwcially
noticeable in the propping of unaccented vowels, and in the
introduction of a certain vowel harmony of different kinds
(" Umlant", vowel cbangeH, caasod by a following •' (j) or m
(v), as knSi for Lvd^i. jioem, end "Brochung", as henlpa
instead of Mp", to holp), different asiiimilations of conaon-
ils (ai> U, nn lot /b, n^ ; II, vn, rr, aod n for /a, Mt, rs, and
:), dropping oE "• baforo u and v {a" nri,nJ/r for i»w<l,word,
tnU/i, wolf), pimplifiod infloiion of the verbs, a new {]assiTB
formed by moans of afGiiuf; the rofiexive pronoun lit to tbe
aoUre form (as knllmk, to call ono'ii ralf, to be called), Ju^
At this epoch, thoroForo, tbo primitive BcandinaTian
language must be coDfidarod a* no lunger ousting. The
next two oonturiu form a perioil of transition as regards
the laognagD as troll aj the aiphBl>et which it employed.
We poBsesi) some inMriplions belonging to this puiod in
which the old rnnic sJpluLl«t of twenty-four chvacters is
still ussd, and the Ungnage of which doaeiy resembles
that of the primitive Scandinavian monuments, as, foe
example, those on ibo stones of Sltxli/icn and BjDrketorp,
both from soathem Sweden, probably dating from the
10th century, and being the loogeat inscriptionB yst found
with tho old mnic alphabet. On the other band, inscrip-
tions have come down to ns dating from about the middle
of the 9th century, in which tbe later and exclusively
Scandinavian alphabet of sixteen chaiaotera has almost
completely supereeded t^s earlier alphabet, from which it
was developed, while the langxiage not only differs widely
from the original Scandinavian, but also exhibits dialec-
tical peculiarities snggesting the existence of a Danish-
Bwedioh language as opposed to Norwegian, as the form
rtm// on the stone at FlemUM in Denmark, which in a
NorwB^n inscription would have been written knml/
corresponding to Srolf in Old Korwegian literature.
These diSerencei, however, are unimportant and the
Scandinavians still considered their language as one and
the same throughout Scandinavia, and named it Dymk
ttmga, Danish tongue. But when Iceland was colonised
at the end of the Sth and the beginning of the lOth
centniy, chiefly from western Norway, a separate (wastem)
Norwegian dialect gradually sprang up, at first of course
only d^ering slightly from the mother-tongue. It.wss
not until the introduotion of C!hristianity (abont 1000
±.T3.) that the language was so far diflerentiated as to
enable us to distinguish, in mnio inscriptions and in the
literatore which was then arising, four difierent dialects,
which have ever mnoe existed as the four literary lan-
guage*— Icelandic^ Norwegian, Swedish, and Daaish. Of
these the latter twc^ often comprehended within the name
of Eaittnt iSecmdmavian, as well as the former two, Wattm
Seandauman, or, to use the Old Scandinavians' own name,
Jforr^int mdl, Northern tongue, are very nearly related to
each other. The moat important difforencee betweeii the
two branches, as seen in tbe oldest preserved documents,
are the following .—-<1) In E. Scand. far fewer cases of
" Umlaut," as vdri, W. Scand. ntrt, were ; land, W. Scand.
ISNuf (from landv), lands; (2) K Scand. "Brechung"of
i into >u (or io) before ng{a), «*(»), as tiimgm, W. Scand.
tyitgva (from tingtia), to sing; (3) in K Scand. mp, ni,
n( are in many cases not asaimilated into j^, it, tl, um
hiimpn, W. Blind, hvpiierui, shrunken ; xidbm, W. Bcand.
dJga, widow ; bant, W. Scand. bolt, he bound ; (4J in E.
Scand. thedative of the definite plural ends in -0)n«n instead
of W. Bcand. -oKom, as in haadomtn, hfndmom, (to) the
hands ; (D) in E. Scand. tbe simplification of the verbal
inflexional endings is far further advanced, and the passiva
ends in -I for -si, Bs in iallat, TT. Scand. iaUaJi, to bo
called lu several of theee points, and indeed general^
speaking the Western Bcandinavion langnagea have pre-
eerved the more primitive forms, as ma^ be teaa in tht.
368
SCANDINAVIAN LANGUAGES
oldett Eutern 8e»ndiTtHrian ninic iDBcriptinriE, dating from
k period before the beginniug of the literatarf>, on tqI) u in
maaj modern Eastern Scftadinavion dialects. For, haTinp
regard to the HcandioaTian dialects generally, wa mnHt
adopt quite a different clanification from that indicated hj
tho dialect* which are npneented in the litemtarvL We
BOW paaa on to reriew the Utter and their hiitorj.
I. loltJtRnio. — In kndent timn iMilindlii na bj bi ths locut
important af tha BcudiuaTiui laii(puiffiia, in rorm u wall u lu
Utanlnn. To itoIU unbigaitjr, thg Udkiwhs bofon the BifonDB-
tton (iboDt ItSO-tD) ii oTten allsd OM rnliudio.
1. OIiI/MlaiuffcnuapakiiniiotDiiIf ioIcBliDd.bntalaoinOnMn-
Und, where IcsUodk colouisU llrcd for ■ lanrthened period {M3~
■boat ItOO). Oar knowlcd^ of '.U ehuutor u ilmrat eidoiinlr
deriTSd (nim ths rvmukiblir Tolniuinoiu litentun,' dutiiig trom
the middln of Cbe ISth untarj, uid writtaa in ti < Latin ilnhibat,
ulipted lo tho ipscloi reqnirs^aaDti of thi> laogugB. ITotbbg ii
preeotrod o( older mnio liUrmture.' Indeod, Old lcol»ndiD po«-
■OM* onlj TflTj few nmlo ni0DBm«nti (aboat forty), bQ of them
■Imoit worthlsia from a {ihilologial point of TJair. Th» oldeat,
tha iusription on th« choreb dooi of Vi1>jdrata'tSr, date* from tba
beginnloR of the 13th wntnrj,* and ia couaxnentlT Utir tban
the oldMt preaerred nmnuBcripta* in the Latin alphabet, aoine of
wbioh >n aa old u the end of the t2th centni?. A email frag-
ment (Cod: AH. SST, foL) of a Boot -^ fftmilia (of whioh ■ abort
■psciman ia giren bolow) ia oouidered tbe oldeat of >1L About
oontemponrj with thia la the oldeat part of an inranlory onlltlad
BiyijaAaUi miUilage. FromabcDt 1£00 wejiiHaen ifnucnwntlCoO.
S. old lign. 1S12] of the onlj eiiatiiig Old Icalindio sloaarg,
trom tha flnt yaata of the Itth centarj the StsclAoIn Boot of
Smilia {CoA. Holm. IB, 4lo), which ffom a philological point of
«iew b of tha greatot imporlAnca, chiall; on acooDnl of ita Taiy
aconrata orthographj, which ii eapocidlljr noticeablB la tha indica-
tion of (jDantiiy; fnim tbe wrlr part of thaaama canluiy comae
tha rimpnant (did. AIL 838, a, 4to) entitled .^jrlp ("abridgment"
of the aktoi; of Norway), prebobljr ■ copj of a Norwagian oiigtnal,
alao orthognphloaU^ Importanti Among later manucripta wa maj
mention, aa phlloloncallj btenatinib the AniuiUt JUjii (Cod. Rag.
SDS7) mm tha ba^tunii^ of tha 14th Bentnr;|, orthographical If of
arMtTiIne; th« ruh manaaoilpt of miacelUniai, ifaiiiiM (Codd.
lu. S71, 644, 870, 4to), a giwt part of whioh ia written with
HaukrErlandiK>a'>(+lS3t) own band; an<1, above all, three ihort
aaaajra, in whioh aome Icelandoni hare triad to writ« a gnmmatiiiiil
and orthognpblctl treatlae on their own mother- tongue, all three
upeuing aa an appendix to tha manucripta of the Prrm Bdda.
The oldeet and moat importuit ot theee eauji (praaarrad in the
Cod. Worm, from abont 1830) ia bj an nnknown anlhot of ebont
llEO, aid is probabi; intended te be a coitin nation ot a loat work
of tha fint grammarian of Iceland, ^roddr Riinameiitari (who
flontiahod at the beginning of tbe llih centary) ; the eecond {the
oldeat known manuscript of which la preaerra*! in tha Cod. Upa. , e.
1290) b peibapi tbe work of the famous Snorri Stnrloaon (tl!41) ;
the third (tho oldeat mannecript In Cod. AM. T4S, ilo, of the begin,
ning of the 14th century) li W Snoni'i nephew (il.fr Hritaakild
(+taS9), and la no donbt baaed partly npou )hJrodd'> work aboya
mentioned, parti; and ohieflj npon Pciacian and Donatiu.*'
The oldest form of Che Icelandic lengniga ia, howerar, not pre-
aarrod In the iboTo-mentioned enrtiott mannecripti of the end ot
the ISth centnry, which are written in the knguaga of their own
age, Imt in fat liter ones of the lltb cantnrj, which oontaln poemi
bj tbe oldeat loelandio poets, each aa the renowned Egtll Slcalla-
nimsoD (about iSO) and tha nnknown authora of tha ao-called
Kdda.eoDga. In spite of the lata date of the manuscripts, tha
■aeiant langnage. But, as Dimply remarked, dnrlng tho 10th and
11th cantunsa thIa dialect difFon but little from Norwegian, thongh
In the laih this is no longor Ibe case.
Va may here contrast a specimen of the abore-mentloned oldeat
Ir-^landio manuscript (from the end of tha 12th ccntnrj) with an
. „ lebelow):—
rwegian one (Cod. AU. S19; see U
Iat.—T.u hat e* ffmc— En bat er Ajfl.— And that ta
vitanda, at allt ma rltanda, at allt ma ta be kuovu tlmt all
audlega nerkiasa oo ; idlega marldaaa oo that la nvouod tut
fyllaaa I oae, >i(t sa ArUaao 1 as, >at « the decaratiou of tho
til kirklu buninga dl kirkia bnninp chnrch or tho .•'rrive
e}B Jdonoato fait at eSa tU )Flunasto tarf may, apiritnallr, Im
luna, af Tar linom at hah, af TJr lifnm found and imitated
an hiainle^ at ytr an tainlega, at r4r within ni, IT we lira
sun Tar^ at callaao aam rorCiT at kallaae N cleanly that wa era
go>a noatcra. guth myatarL warthf to l« called
Qod'i tamplb
Apart html tha fkot that tha langnigs is.geneianyapeakln^t, archaiii,
wa Bnd in tha Icalsndio teit two i9 the oldeat and moet eaHUtial
diaractariatica of loelandiu as oppoaed.to Harweglsn, tIi., the
more completa Towel assimilation ()><Dii<ii'D, buaaite ; ff. also, a.;.,
IceL ttUolim, Norw. talUMuiH, we called) and the retantlon of
lnitb< k before r (An<»/epa, ruinlega), I, and a. Other differ-
encea, aome of which oucnl at this period, othen a little Iitor, are—
in IceL lengthening of a, o, u before //, 7v, I*. <«■ and Ip (aa IceL
Ad/Zr, If orw. and ofdeat IceL liatjr, half) ; later still, aLia of a, i, »,
nu ! ■ *
9 ny and nl; IceL it and rv for older i sud t^ (aa in
htyra, ITorw. and oldeat IceL djima, to deem, iij/ra, to
•erbs in 4
r, (ojbr.yon tako). Tbeaa
IB language of the oarlior
Icel- diitut^ '^'yro, Nor'
hear) ; IcaL termination of End plnr,
Norw. often in -r (aa loal. taUB, 4, 1
pointa may be aafficient to cluuacteriie the language ol
''dssical* period of Icelandic (abont IIBO-ISSO). At the middle of
tha IBIh century (lie written luignage nndergoee miterlsJ ebaugi^
owing in a gnAt meaanra, no donbt, to tbe poweriol ioilnance m
Bnorn Sturfooon. Tbna in unaccentsd syllables i now appears for
older s, and u (at first only when followed by one or more con-
sonanti belonging to the same svllablo) for o ; the passire aniU in
-* tor -at The other dilTarencce Iroin Norwegian, menlimied ohoio
aaoocnrrtnglater, inDowoompletelyMlahllehed. Vith tlic Ix'gln-
nlng of the 14th oenCorT there appear Berenl new lin^nlatio pLoiio-
(as ia rttur, ml^ty) ; g (pronouDcod aa an oi«n o) psssea into I
(the charsetar O wia not introdaccd till tho IBtJi century), or before
IV. Hit Into au(aa Ifiw.jltll, pronounced laung, jiili) ; a before luf,
ni pastel into t( ; a little later i paasea into u, and tho pasaiiP
changes Ita termination from -t, oldest 'li, bto -Ml (or ■*■<) (n iu
tanati, to be celled]. The poet^clsnicel period of Old loelandio
(13K>-I530), which la, from a literary point ot Tiaw, of bat IlLllo
imiiortanoe, alreadr ihows marked diBoieneea that are oharaclor-
istlo ot Uodern loelandio ; aa earlr as the IGth centnij wa find liil
for » and rl (as /ol/o, pranoanosd/iKfil/a, to tall], lUa for nn and
ra (aa Asm, pnn. JoUn, horo); abont the year ISOO « after A
paaeee Into K>, in other poeitions to vS (as hmlpr, pron. x"^/""^'
whelp; Itesm, pron. kvBn, mill), tntj.
Although (Ualeolical dlffaranoaa an not altonthar wantiiw, the;
do not occnr to any great aitant in tha Old loelandio litaiaiy
Ungnega. Thus, in eoine manuscripts wa find Jt leplacsd by /it
{ift, qfd, often) ; in minuicriptB from tho wntom pnit of the iaiind
than appaara U tba 13th and 14th ceutnriee a tendency to eban|te
(f, 1-/ Into It, r« (lot/*, ma, twelve ; toy, >ori, want), ko. To what
Client the langoaga of Qreenland dilfereJ from that of Iceland wc
cannot Judge &om the few runin monnmenta which haro como
down to na from that oolony.
Apart from ttie oomparatiTely inronelderable attempt! at a
gnunmalJoal treatment <^ Old Icatandlc in the Middle Agsa which
we bare mentioned sboTe, grammer as a soionee can only be said
to hare commenced in the 17 th centnry. The Ent grammar, written
by the Icelander Rnnolphni Jonaa (tieB4), dates tmm ISSl. His
contamporaiT and oompatriot Qudmund Andreie (tlSM) compiled
the Orat dictionary, which was not, howanr, edited till IflBI (by tha
Dane Petms Besenius, tlSSS). The fiist suholirt who studied
Old Icelandic .yilcmatically were H. K. Bask {W87-183ai whrae
worka • laid the fonndntlon to our knowlodge of the luicnage, snil
bia great oontemporaij Jao. Orimm, in whose DntU^ GramiruU'k
(ISIS *f.) particnlar attention Is paid lo Icelandia. Those who
ainee tha time of Haak and Orimm ba'e principally daiwred well
ot Icelandlo gismmar are — the ingenionn and leamed Norwegian
1'. A. Unnch, 1SS3,' to whom we teslly owe the nomsliwl
orthography that baa hitherto been most in nsa ia editing OhI
Icelandia taits; the laamsd Icelander K, OiHlssan, whoee works
are cblsfly deroted to pbouetlo reeourchea ;' the Danish scltalin
K. J. Lyngby (tlSTlX the author of an eaxay' whioh is of funda-
mental importanoe In Icelandic orthography and phonetics, awl
L F. A. Wimmer, who haa rendered Kreot aerricea to tho study ol
tho atymologjy.i* Tha latest Icelandic ^cimar is kjr tho Swoda
NoraanT'* As laiioographen the ii
; la held by tl
BOAKDINAVIAN LANGUAGES
ledmidai S*. ZgllMOB (tIMS),' Q. Tlgfteon,' ud J. foAOt
- ■on,* and th* Kwwwiui J. frlCnw. *
3. Madn ktbauUe ii «s«nJlT datod from tba Intndoctioii at
th* tUrornaUon into IceUndi tbs book Bnt printed, tba Nav
Totunant of IHO, mar ba conudeiad u tha aarliart Unlani
loalaodio damnMnt. Altliangli, on account of ths amadiiislj
OMuerratiTa tandenoj of Icolandic orthognphj, tha laqgnago of
Uodsm iMlandio liUratDn itill aaemi to ba atmoat id«Dtu»l with
the langBigD of tba ITtU ceDtoT;, it liu io mlitf nDdgif[OD«
■Dck aotlion aa Jdnaa HaU^ilnuaoii and Eoar. Olalaaoo; but thaa
atlampla ptOTcd abortiTa. Of mora Temarkable (tjmological
chugea !n Modara loaUndla wo roa; note the loUowiog : — alceadf
(beat the jaai IGSD tba pasiTa tarmiiutlon -tt (-uO paaaea lEto
llio till then nrj ran tsnoiiuitlon ••» (aa in leaOat, to 1x> caiLad) ;
t, t. and ea at tba beginning of the 17tli oantniy coincided iritb f, <,
and ci i the long Towali d, i, and i haia |iaa»d Into tha diph-
thonga m (at Jeait abont 11150], ai (abont 1700], w (aa ndl
Ungnue, naia, to apeak, lUlt, chair) j f IwforB <, y ia changad
into 4 (after ■ conaonant} or / (after a towei),^-*.!/., lig^ia,
to lie. (uri. uot : la cortaln other caaca g haa paaaed into
^tgn, (0 lie ; Initial g bcrotn
*~ "--i paaaed into Aa,—
_.out,— *(., (ff)Mjo, to gna»;
e.g., ta«Ur, knot j n, ft Into ff, fi ; tt, id, gg are prononn
B JtfS ^ 0it, and U, rj, HIS n> nov In moat powtiana (net,
horeiar, before rf, 1, and ^ and In abbrerlited nanea) aa dll, dtit,—
tt,ffaU, monntiln, ^Om, bear; /befoTsoia now pTancuncedaaip, —
imhf^fii, raren, kc Both in Toeabnlarj and ifntax ve Bnd earlji
t.g., in tfaa lawbooh J&nMt, printed in lS7a(-S0), Daniah eiercic
ing an important inEuence, aa might be cipacted from political
drennatanoea. In ths 18th cenlnry, howorar, we meat Kith
pntin teodcDcia. Aa om oC tbo Jeading man of thia centurj ma;
be mentioned tho poet Eggert OUCmoq (11708), vboae poems
mm BOt prinlod till 1832. Worth; of inanlion in the hialorr
ot Modom IccUndic langnaga are tho leaned aociotita which
appealed in tha aame centui;, at which tho firat, Qndoi the Dime
o["Hi(li)a^ni]eKa,"wjaeetablii>h9dinl780. At thia time archaia
landenciaa, gciog bacli to the Old Icelandic of the IBtb and 14Ut
Cantnriea, wero continnally gaining ground. In onr century tiic
followltuc bare WOQ special renown In leclapdic literature : —
Rianu piianaseu (tlSlI), Icatand'agRBteatljiio poet, and Jdnaa
HaUgrlniaaan (+ 1S4S), perbapa ila moat [nuniaant proM-uthor in
Tbo dialectical diffarencea In U odem loeUndlc are compantiTet;
triOiog and chieflT phonetic. Tha Veitland dialect haa, foi
namplo, preeerred the Old Icelandic long a, while the other
dialecta haro changed It to the diphthoog ou) in die Northland
^ "^ "'" 1, in the othera changed into in ; in
larta of tbo iiUnd OTd Icelandic ir
dialect inidal in i>
> pert of soath^astem'lcal
rofcu
n the othei
appesra M .... . _ ^ ..
dialoctaaaMD,^-*.o., AwJjfr, whelp. Aaai
be DOlad thkt on tna wesletii aid eaatem cuuu Lncn us louua ui
a Fraich-Ioelandla langoags, which aroto fiom tba long aojonin of
Frsnch Sihernicii there.
Owing; to the Biclniire tnlfrcat taken In tha ancient langnage,
bat lime attention ia giren eren now to the giajnmatical
treatmeikt of Hodem Icelandic. Some noticca of the langnage
a the abora-mentioned
of tba 17th centaij may ba obtained ft
grammar of T ^ ■ - ■ - ..— ..
of tba lath froi
onr own time there ii
■on'l worka, ItUiak mdlmyndaltttng, 18SI, and Stfrinf hini
alntaaiu wi^/niBuligtt hugmynda, 188*, which, howarr- -
not ajiiciall; defoted to the modem atate o( philology i i
ak's grammatical warkb For the language of
ii hardly anything to lefar to but N. FriOrika-
d to the modem atate of philology ; oomnara
a Toleable piper "Znr neauIaQdiachen
atammalik"" (Otrmanio. iiviL, 1B82).' A dictionary of merit
waa that of Bjiim HslldorHn (+1794), edited in ISlI by Raak.
Cleaaby.Tigfiinon'a dictionary mentioned abore alao paya aome
attention to ths modem langnage. A reallj^ conTenicut Uodam
Icelandie dicdonary ia atlll wanting, the dcddcmtupt being only
jartlT *ap|>1i«I by K. Olaloaon'i excellent Daniah-Icalandio Dintl!
II. NoaWEOiAH OS Hoiiai.— The Old yonee^tian _
Iho Beformatton) waa not, like the modem language,
Korway and the Fanwa, but waa, aa already atated, lor .
north c/ BootlMd, the U< ot
Eifctn In EHti <if Inland and the north r/ BootlMd,
in, the Hebrides Bbetland, and Orkney (In ths last
of ialanda It eontinnsd to anrTiTe down to modem time
Out knowledge of it i» d . - - ..
Inacriptlona,' for theea are ooioninitlTdy lew in number (a
little more than one hnndjvd) and of tridinjc importance Ih>m a
Chilologicsl point of Tiew, eapocialiy aa they almcat wholljr belong
I tho period between lOGO ami 1350,* aad coneoqacntly are
contemporaiTwith or it loait Dot much earlier than the eatlint
lilermture.' Ths whole literature preaerved ia written in Ibe Latin
alphabet. Tho earliest manuacripta are not mncli Uter than Iho
oldest Old Icelandic onoa, and ol the grtotcet Interest. On tho
whole, howsTor. the earliest Norwegian litcratnre ii in quality a* well
entity inconipumU;
ef any litanry Talne.
Itai
Fragm. U., A. a, o), a collection oF Icgeuds, no doubt written a
little bofoT* 1200, is n^ardod aa Ibe earliest eitsut mnnnscript
From ths very boglnnins of the 131h century we hays Oio
Iforvtglan Bfok of llomUia (Cod Atl. SID, Ito) end aevcral
fragments of law-books (the olilcr Otlapitig^iia end the older
S&itapini/^al. The chief msuescript (Cod AU. 243a, fd.)
of tha principal work In Old Ncrwi'giin litarttura, the Svccvlum
Srgalc, or Xottungulniggtji (" Mirror for Kinps "^ ia a little laUr.
Of aliU later manoacripta the so called legendary Olitf'aaga (Cod.
Delag. B, Fol.), from about 1250, desorret mentien. The mown ot
ehartors which— occurring throughout tlie whole Middle Ago of
■" ly' from the beginning ot the ISth oeoturj— afford much
-.] — — ^-j.n — _ ?__..L. !■ 'pctical differences of tlio
., „ . ... a - importanoe.
Aa in Old IceUndic so in Old Norvcgian we do not find tlio
moat primltiTa forma in the oldeet MSsTthnt have como down
to UB ; for that purpose wo mnsC recur to somewhat lUtir ones,
containing old poems from times se remote aa the days of Diage
Boddawn (the beginning of the 8th centnir) and pJ^Coltr of Hvin
(end of the lamo ceotur^). It haa already boon stated that tho
langnage at thia epoch differed so little (rem other ScandinaTiau
dialects that it could scarcely yet be called by a distinctire name,
and alao that, aa leclandia separated itMlt from the Norwegian
mother- tongno (about 900), the diSereoco between the two languagn
waa at £nt iniinilelv small— as far, of courie, aa the literary
language ia eoncoraei From the lath rontarr, however, they
Bihibit more marked diffcroncei ' ' ■
kgrot ext
ind politic
ibly bflacnced by ths
Eastern Seandiaaviin langnagea Tha moat Important dilTcrencea
between Icelandic and Norwegian at the epoch of ttie cldeat HSS.
(about 1200) havealready been noted The tendency in Norwegian
to retain Uie use ot the so-called ti-Umlant haa alnady tuun
mentioned. On the other hand, there ippoen in Norwegian in
the 13th century another kind ot vowel -asiimilalion, almost
unknown to Icelandic, the vowel in terminations being in soma
degree influenced by the vowel ot the preceding syllable. Thns,
(or Inatanoe, we find in some mannscripts (as tho above-men tioncJ
legeDdsty Oli^Baga) that the vowela s, o and long a, «, tf are
followed in terminations by (, 0 ; (, V, f, and abort a, a, (i. on
tho other hand, by i, u,— aa in tfititr, pcajeis, bmor, women ; hot
i(Kir, times, (imjur, tonguaa. The aame fact ooonis In certain
Old Swedlah manuacripla. When Norway had been united liter
with Sweden under one crown {131») we meet pure Sueciems
" )hB Norwegiiia literary Isnpuage. In addition to tlli^ the
- r. „[ liifforences from the old language" !
iktod into II, an.- as kail (elder iarl),
vrd^itiur {pratamir), the priests t i
hyrOirihiiVir), shepherd, lyi^HIytill),
]4th centniy eihibi
rj, rTt are sometim
man, jtonn (b/m),
keyi final -r after
only t, -«,— aa ktiUr {hair), horse ; bfixr (btir), books ; the
namsa folUI/mr iPn-Ui/r), 0\alK^» IChaiei/r). About tbo
beginning of the 16th century initial tt occur* for old hv (nol,
howerer, in pronoun^ which take kv only in western Norway), as
tha local name QeilaeX (Actfr, white). Dnring the IGth century,
Norway being united with Denmark, and at mtervala alao with
Sweden, a great many Daniama and a few Saecisnu are im-
puted into tho language. As Soectsnu wo may mention the ter-
mination -in of the 2d pen. plnr. instead ot -ir, .tC (aa eilin, you
will], the prenoonyni instead of at, I. The moatimportant Daniama
SCANDINAVIAN LANGUAGES
■rathalbDowlBa: t, 4 and v in mbstlttitad Inr p, t, Htdt,— uin
tin local BUM* Xi^ (suliac Fapa), Tfim ■«■ (fnita i6kn) ; -a
isuMttntai,— «'M*[A«irn>),tohe)ir,«lfrA<(jM)<>),
■* ■ ■ ■ ,B»int™lo«d,-«;at(«i), l.fitjA),
k, kc Toviinla th« and ol tfaa Uiildls
i& tnmiutiani suMt :
to*Mkirin^*I>uiih
Am thiftinSlnflam
niirb tha giwliwl dwilina of Konreguui Ktsntnn, notil at laat
Horwtgiaa aa litarary Ungtuign in ooniiJotelT mpplanled by
Daniah. Daring tiia IGtli c«atiu7 Korwnj bu hanll/ any iitsn-
tnn «Hiept durtata, aud u early u tba end of tbat nmtiiry by fiu
thamateat nBinhoroftliM'areimttniiii almoiit punDaniah. Id
tha iBth eantnij, (giin, ohartan 'writltn io Honregian oocnr
only M lan aunitiona, and from tha Bafonnation onward, >bos
tlM iUbta and Xb» old lam wero tnuiilated into Diniah, not
into Monnaian, Uaniih wu not only tha oadiipatsd litanry
langDaga ^ Nonray, but alio the coUaqoial lingna^i^e of dwellen
in loinia and it tbou *ho had learned tn read, tot tho riw in
TeoenC tlmoi of a new Norwului Ungnage, employed in lilsnton
and tpoknD by the educited diiioi, see p. 378.
Dialectical diOerencei, u aboTa hintMl, occar in gnat nambat
is tha Norwrguin charten of the IStli, lltL, and IGth cantnriea.
bpeciallT mf-' -" = ■ ■"
a Iforw
> tbe diVerence between t
painllal to that of Icelandic, and tl
which eihibila atilt ""■■- -"in-"
ponuy Old Bwediah,
angoaga of eastern Nonvay,
I atlikliig comapandeneea with eontem-
B moat remarkable cbaractariatiCB of the
'•a dlalecta of thia ajnch an tha following : — a a changed into
« in the prononna >aiHi, thia, >■!, that, and the particle t«-. there
(Uia lattn at early la tha 13th centnry), and later on (in tba 14th
contwr) alao in terminationa after a long root iyllable, — aa mdu,
to aand, Myrm, to hear (lint oara, to do, vita, to know) ; ia paaMa
{aa in Old Swodiafa and Old Dasiab) into i*i— aa Mmrta (l«L tgaria).
heart; y aometimefl ' paaan Into fu bafora r, l^- — aa ItiurdtT, abep'
herd, iyki\il, key, Inelsad of kyt«jr, Ifleyl (older atUl, ktr«tr,
tykill ; aea abon, p. 3119] ; Bnal -r after a oonaotianC oftsa pasMa
into -or, aamatimea only Into -a,— o prular (frMr\ priaat, btkar
{bttr). hooka, 'dat alng. br^Ba {irtBr). (to a) brothn ; a puaaa
Into III, il, -aa litla [itUd), (the] little, the name Atilc, AOi {AtU);
n gi»ea a "thick" a-animd (trritten li), — u Bamioii, genitiTa of
the name Bersbirr; nd. Id are animiloted Into nil, iC— aa (wtn
(band), band, the local name Wul/M ( Fn^old) ; and (aa far lack
aa tbe ISth centnry) traceg oocnr of the Towel uaimtUtion,
"tUjtarning," that is ao highly charaoterlatic of the modem Vor-
w^[un dlalecta, —aatoio, vi^u, forwttu, (loal tffai, -«), accnstiTa
^gular of vaia, wake, mf/kfll for mfinll, mnch. On tha other
hand, aa choraclariitica of tbe weatam dialact* may be notad tha
following !— final -r after a consonant paiaea into -w, -or,— aa tmiiB-
(Htr), winter, nttur frittr), right, o/Ior (ly^r], again ; (f paaaea into
ii, — aa ayttia (tfiala), charge ; Aa ia changed into n alao in prononn^
— aa jtnr [hvcrr), who, jhuaru (AaerTu), how.
ThI* splitting of the langntge into dialeoti aesma to hara
conduned to gain groand, probably vitb graatar rapidity aa a
Korwegian literary language no longer eiiitBd. Thna it u Tary
likely Uiat the praaatdialrcticaldiTisionwaalDallaBaaatialaaeeara-
S'iahed abont the year ISOO ; for, Jadging tram tha flnt work on
orwegian dialectology,' tbe B^d^onffWaatera Norway) dialect at
least posaasacd at that time moat or ita pnsant tUtnna. A llttla
clog-calendar of the year 1641 •seina to prora the aame Taoaiiling tha
Valden (Sontbern Norway] dialect How tar tbe Old Korvegiaa
dialocU on tha Faroes, in Ireland and Scotland, on tbe Bcottiah
iaiandi, and on the lile of Man differed from tha mothar-tengaa It
b impossible to decide, on account of tbe tew remnauta of theaa
dialecta which eiiit apart from local names, rii., aome chartera
(from the br'ginning of the 16th centnry onward) from the Faroes ■
and OrkneyB,'aod a few runlo inscriptions from the Orkneys [thirty
in nnmbcrVand tho fele of Uan [fonrteen in numberX* Theae
muic inscriptions, howerer, on acoonnt of their imperfect ortho-
graphy, throw bet little light on tba sabject Of the Orkney dialect
«a know at least that initial hi, hn, Arstil! preaarrad h In tha ISth
oantory^— that is, two bnndred years longer than in Nonray.
Old Norwegian gnnimar liu hitherto always been taken np
in oonngidgn with Old Icelandic, and confined to notaa and appen-
dicaa inaerted in vorka on IceLindio grammar. A ayitamatic
traatiie on Old Norwegian gmnimar is still wanting, with the
aiception of a abort work by the Danish echolar S. If. Petersen
(tlWa),' which, althoogh brief and decidedly antintiated,deaerTca
all praiae. A moat Tiluable collection oF materials siiata. how-
forair, 0^ ir^t^ fprof Mi
■a JTit'ti/ittm. lUT tf.i 10
1 langmga la asDad OU
in. SwBDian.— The Pra-Kafom
Swediab.
I. Old SmiKt*.— The tetrttory rf the Old Swedish oompre.
handed-~<l) Bweden, except tlia most nortbarly |iart, whan
Lanpiah (and Finnish F) was spoken, tbe most aentborly (Slutna,
Halland, and Blakinoi)— «ie bolnw. p. S7S), and certain puts Jl
westani Sweden (sea above, p. SOU] : (Ij citmiiTe maritime tracta
tl Finland, Eithonia, and ijTonia, with their anrnmnding ialaa.la;
and (3) aertain placrs In Buc'ia. whore Sa-odwh was spoken
for a short time. The oldest hot also tbe moot meagre acmtota
of oat knowlodKs of Old Rwadiali are these wotda, almoot ex-
clnsiTely pereonal namca (nearly one linndred), which war*
introduced into the Ronian langiuge at tha fonndatim of
tha Knaaian realm by Uwsdei (in 362), and which ace for tha
most part soaiewhat in9nenaed by Bnulan phonelio laws, pr*-
•erred in two Bnaaian docnmanta of the yean BIS and 94B,'~a>
Tgm- (0. Sw. iHtvar), liurit (Br^tr), Olra (Bialji, aerondary
form of Eilat), Olpa (Builga, Btlga). Of abont tha sano data,
bnt of an {nflnitefy greater TorieCy, are tfaa mnic inscription^
amonnting in number to abont two tbonaand, which have been
found cnt on ilonei (rarely wood, metal, or other materiali] almost
Siredan, tboDgb thpy occur moat iroonently (about h "
LB total n
le 8>>darnu aland, Ostergiitlai
ler) in the provineo of Unptaail, nei
which
iroe principally
Hsasoil nbtirea, rarely public noticea.
ical, in port at least. Vast of |]iem an
lame of the man who ordered them ia
era named, abont serenty in nnmbar, the
e [Jhir, Bali, end Aaranndr Karaann, all
}«e<Lb,
forty, the 0
;ripaona Tary rary mnch in age, bell
ig in Upland ; the first-mentionad
"^- then on nearly twenty atones cacn.
_ , nchin age, belonging to all centuries
of Old Swediab, but by far tbe greatest number of them data frora
tha llch and 13th centnriea. From heathen tlmea-~aa well aa
from the laat two centuries of the llidjlle Agea — we haTe oom-
paratiTely few. The oldest are probably the Ingalatad inacrip-
tion in Dstei|;iltland, and the Oorsten one fonnfT in tha north
of Smlland." The rune stone from Rak in OstergOtUnd prob-,
ably dates from the first half of tba 10th csntuiy. Iti inscrip-
tion aurpaaaea all the othera both In length (more than one
i... j_ . ..jj g(jy worda) and in the importance of ita contenta,
inacriptiona of Aamnndr Earaian, an
In SodermanlaBdi In honon" ■' "■-
eaatem Europe under the ci
out by Bali belong to the
inacriptiona cut by Ublr, bt
from the be^nning of the I
ineoriptio- - "-
ooDtunin
thaK^led
noatoftbam
hononr of iise men vfao fell in a great war in
r the command of a certain IHgrar ; the atonea
D the aaraa period. Boraewbal later an the
int contempcjai7 witli them, n^ ,
2th century, ia the remarkable
the door-ring of the church of Fona in Halaingland.
OODtuning the oldeat Scandinavian atatute " now preaarrM, aa
wall aa <dier inacriotions from the aame proriuoe, written In ■
nrtiinilar variety of the common runic alphabet, the (o-coUed
' ataUBa " (atafBtoa, witbont the parpendicniar atall] nine^ aa the
long oanaakigicU inacription on the Halatad-atona. Tha inicrip-
tiona" of tha following cantoriea an of Iblesi phQologioal intateat,
beeonte after the ISth centnry there eiiata another and man fnilt-
ful aonree lis Old Swadiah, vu., a litaratnn in tha propar amae of
the word, which was only In a limited degree written in runes.
or the nmic literature haraly anything has Man pressrred to our
days," while the literature in the Latin tetten ia both in qnolity
and extent incomparably inferior to Old Icelandic, thoi^ ii
at leaat In qnantil?, conaiderahty snTpaasca Old Norwegian. In
age, however, it is inferior to both of them, banning only In
the ISth oeutaTT. The oldeat of the extant mannacnpta is a
oodex of tha OlStr rtrtfOlalaa (Ood. Holm. B E9), written about
the year 13BD, end 'philologically of the greatest importuioa.
Not mnch later is a codex of the UplatidilaK (Cod. Up. 12) of
the ^ir 1800. Of other •watka of vsluo bom a philological point
1330, tha two maiuBcripta o
SCANDINAVIAN LANGUAGES
. . tuiamii (l»tn«D 1*90 uS 1460),
■nd Ok* gfttt Oxnutiarniiin muiiuorip^ wMoh -"■«'■'- ohtaflj oi
■ ooUMlion of knsd« writUn br tu raort put in IISS. Thi
rmj BDinnnu OLl Swtdiak 6baiiaa, from 1W8 downwaidi, ui
aba ot gnat importnaot.'
Old BwHliih, during iti wUwt pn-Utenir pvlad (M0-1»0),
ntaiui ^la u orlgbiiLl m chanulai h oontiiiipomT OM loeUndio
*ad Old HonrwiaB. TLa flnt |iart (rf ths inHriptum of tlu BCk-
IR nlali> BTflrri. BDHtJI >iJ in UAmiv va>i fa>i2 att
TAixitK mnr,*
and pnbablj imnounoed —
Bft Wimdd ituda rfnar biiB ; aa Tanim OBt blkm aft
1 l^idttt ■
WDoId, no donb^ bar*
' ■ Uo, aia^ tilt lul , _ _^
tlie 1mi oil^al lonn imii. Tha taraul iihiiijia of the SmdUb
laogDwa duriag tbia pariod tn, gananllT •pMUSft nKh at amaaT
•boat tha ama fima in all tha maoiban of tlM ponp,— at tha obuB*
loola^io, au^ ibt lait vnjd, irblcli wool^ pnbablr bar* bai
oltlMgninp,-
of uft B into oommon r (tba Sek-atoaa r«M>, lain _, ..M~ ,
thia appeand vrliiat iftsr daotal orauonantiL latai aftar aa acoanUd
Toiml), andthashangaolt^intoil [inlKa 10th Mutonrrali^ Utai
fvMi, ni«d} ; or tbar an at bait, khddkhi to It witb Honnglan,
—— tlu dnpping of X banns t, B, and r {in Iba lOUk eantorr mukt,
Toongar rOr, cam), and tba ebaogiag of naad Towab (UM long
OMi Uttrt) into Bon-nawHiwl, A-nnoldapaidlbiBwadidiGbaiaa-
taiiti(i,lu>waT«r, iathanllttiagDpoif into <Hb«hn«;t^ nhe, —
aa rttwifo, to alng, Munln, to link, fram primltlTa Bandluriu
iHVnn, itahB* (loaL-Horw. tgKfta, (flCtM). Bot tha oaw 1*
altonthsr diibroDt dnrins what wa mav all the Blantml p*rtod of
Old Bwadiah (laXI-lSM), tba Onu <a Sia btar runic inaoilptiona
~ MiaalnadT
and tha oldeit litantan. During tliii priiod tha iingUM* ia unad;
diatinotlj Mpaiata tram tha (litararji] loalandic-Jf onnglu (thco^
not 7«t finm DanJshJ. Tlw woidi of tlia Oldtr FiMgaalaiit'
>KIK, Kir VIM FAB B*B' U— *
would in ooiitampon>7 Icalandls b»—
Uli klukka nitb 1 befiitt manni, MU »Skn mlAnn frin,
nwaa bw word* aihiUt Initantta tt tha toUowing innoTBtJona In
Smdidi -.—i ia inautad bstwaan U (na) and a fcllovlng r {u f
betwaon « and t, r, and f betnsn in and t, b,— aa tomtmr, IwL
' ' ' mnt tt^tharwtlb}; an anxiliaij
n>«al ia inaattad batwaan final
precadlng
-I tha prat
impratant
Towal (if tha infisit
indbstlvaplnral).
pncadiflgoa
.) avinlba
flu
itlra (and tiia pretaiita nibJnnetiTa tbat of pntaiits
Othai impratant chann, appearing at ma auna
biat, of ■ aomawhat eldv data.
tlaa, bot probabl;, partlr at taiat,
am tha (blumrtng ^--4I[ diphthong ar
(Wfo, aja; iTtma, lotL or^f/vut, to
; drtma, lotL ih^imai to draam; Mn, .
. ioaa of wbiiib n find ■■ aarly aa the Ilth csutnrj)} i
hu paiaad into m (aa but, loaL tnt, knee) ) ia into <«, aa in
XaMam Kormgian {a» 'Uwta, loeL_ Ajorto, h»art) ■ '" '-'
. . +[>«/«**, IooL.«i<l7o, to fiT); tha
fonna of (ha thna paraooa lingiilai of Tsrba hais uaimibtad
(azaapt in ttw ao-oJltd atraog jsatarite); the Sd pan. plor.
«Dda in -4b (or -A^ and tba paaaiTa Toioe in -a for tba earlier
•at; tba dat idoi. of aabrtaatiTea irlth anffliad article end* in
-«ai<a (leal, -nun, ai mmttpti*. nawum, to tha aona). The
tnuiHon to llw Utb oantBi; ia maAad b^f Important ohangaa :-~
aknt v, Bf., paaad into * la man poaitioDi (aa dir tot dgr,
door, Me.), iai t^ Itoma of flw datf*« and the acouatlTe ol
prononna gradoallr became tta ■
Tba oombel of bomvad
itr <aa km, cmm, M; a^atla, aMI, Bidiool,/rw*r, priaat, (dmoas,
abaa). At tba middla of tba Utb OMtwj &» litoarr laoguga
■nd^oaa a lamarkabb tefbna, daraloping at the Mnw tlnia to ■
" riknrtk,' a nnilixm langnage, oonnHB to tba vbola ooontiy.
Tba ohiel e&aiBoteilati(a^th& later Old Swedbh an tha follov-
ing:— the Inig a hai pamad into ' (that ii, aa open e), and u
(axaqit babie n^ rt) into U (u *M, m^ bka)i at the aanic
time tbne flfttn a ao-salled law of Towal baluott aoeordlng
ta lA^ dia Towab t and « an alwap Ibnod in taminitioDa
altar a diort toot tjtUaUa, and— at beat wban no eouonant tol-
lova— * and a aflar a bag oaa (aa OiM, to God, M taiu, for aala,
bBtJgarKln the owirt:,;br»<w>, aeeaJadlj); f andt(«t) bafo-
tUtal roweb are eoftuud lata 4 and |f M; t Bod I in Wuto-
inlad arllablea oRoi paw into it, A (aa BtirifiU tor AwOa
nden, ttteU br KM, a Uttla); tha artidea >hi (or Ub), tba, and
L littli later) m, a, oume into nee ; the dual prononna Tukhi tbe
iatira ar, that, b obangad with mm; dia rreaan t paitlolple bkia a
ODodarT (oim In ■« (ae gmfondm, WA sarngtatdt, going), i.
ttla later the following (Pangea aj^itar t-a ehort Towalb Iragtb-
led befon a tingla oonaonaot, flnt «Aan tba oouonant belwiga
, the aama nllaMS (u Mai, hate), aftatwaida ebo whan it bekingi
I tha (bllowlng one (at Mo, to bate) ; en anxlliaiT Towel b in-
rted be twean 1 or B and a pncadiig oonaonant (aa j«al, gahla, ttm,
_Mrt) i ahort i, endiog a i^flbbla, peaea into t (aa Ina, to Ute) i
tk paaaea into I; anew oomngetioa ia formed which baa no inflni-
tire tarmioation, but doDbTu tbe aign of tha preterite (te fa, toili^
bM, to dwell, dwelt, dwelt). Owing to the inlitlcal and coni-
nuidal tUtt of the conuCiT tha language at thb period ia delnged
rrowed wordi of Low Qerman origin, mMtlT aooial and
d tannt, aooh aa the great nmuber of lerba In -am [a.^.,
, to handle), the anbetaotiToa in -m[r»(i«-(,robbarj), -(mbb
ifinUiiwa, piiBcaat). -Jul (Jromhtl, \Mtj\ >*■ (Moio, to paf},
and a great many othart {tin, neak, *i4a*i, to tuate, fmur, Ug,
' '^diacipline, iru:bi, toiue, fn(<.qnarraI,iM<iiJ.boat,
.fnkotUr. loach, it). Owing to the political oir-
nnd towntda the end of the period a jerj powerful
a^ which eitendi tlaa to nhonelica lud etymologr,
ao that, Ibr eianjile, netrtr all the tenninal Toweb are mppUntnt
bj the nniAnm E«niih a, the hard ooaaonanta p, t, h )>j i, d, f im
io Danith, the aaoond paraon ploral of the imperaUre endi in -ar,
baalde -«b (at (wW, for older taUn).
Dialectical diffueDcaa tnconCaatthly occur ia tbe nrnlo iuaorii>-
tlona aa welt la in the litentore ; In the fomier, boneTST, meet of
them are hidden from oor ejea bj tha chmctec of the writing,
which il, from t phonetic point of *icw, highly unaatitftctory,
indicating the moat difftreat Btindi by the uine lign (for eitm-
Ele, 0, «. y, and aire donoted by one tnd the eame rana) ; in the
tamtore tgun they are rodocsd to a minimum by Uie awakening
deain to form a uuform litenry laugoags for the vhoU oonutry,
and by the litenry prodnctiTity and couaeqnent predominant
infinenoe of certain proTiDc^et (aa Oitei^btland). Thia queation,
moiaoTcr, baa not hitherto been inraatigated witb tofllcient can.*
Only one dlatinct dblwt hat been handed down to ui, that of tha
lalandofOotUnd, which diffsra aovaentially from tha OldBwadiah
of the mainland that it bat with good reaaonbnu characteriiad, under
the name FantjubtUka, ta in a certain aenaa a Hpanta language.
Hatariab for ita itady art nry abundtnt' : on one band ue
piMiim mora tlitn two^ hnndrad runic InHriptiona, among them a
Tarr remarkable one of the 12th or llth century, conntina npwarda
of throe bnndiad ranea, cnt on a font (now is Atkirketiy on the
i^and of Bomholm], and lepreeenting the life tt Chriat In a terica
of pictBiaa and wordt ; on the other band a litsiutore baa beau pra-
aarred coiuietlng of a mnlc calendar from 1838, the law of the
Island (tram abont ISBO), a piece of tradltlonBl bbtoij, tnd i
guild ttatnta. The language b dbtingniabed from the Old Swediah
of the mainland eapraidly by the foUowing Dhanstariatice :— (ho
old diphthonga are preearVed («.(., auga, Bjt, inuna^ to dream,
KoiB, atone), and a new triphthong baa arlaen by tbe change of M
intofcrti[aajHa«jo,tofly); the ling vowab t, m, s, hare pased
into {„t, t) (aa tii, knee, mtia, to apeak, ilysia, to deem} ; abort
D tatsly oeonra eicept belbre r, being in other poaitiona ohanged into
H 1 » b dropped before r [la roiK wrmth) ; tha genltiFe aingnbt
of feminlnn ui -a enda in -w for -ii (tt Hnh'ur, of the chnnb>
Owing to the entire abaanee of docnmanlaiy erldecoa It b impoa.
aibb to determine how fcr tha dialecta eaat of the Baltio, which na
doubt had I aapartte indiridoali^, differed from the mother- tongue.
The fliat to pay attentton to tba atndy of Old Swediah* vta tha
Bwtdbh aarint 1. BnrwDa (tl<U>3), who by aeraial wo At {tnm
IGin onwtrdt) oalled attention to tnd eiidted a liTelj inlanat In
the nmio monomenta, and, by hb edition (IBM) of tbe eioellent
Old Bwadbh work Um %ribi KmaapB at BVfiiisa, ia Old
Bwedbb Uteratore eleo. Hb no longer eibnt ftxcwwi/H".^
JAnmim Scatitiiaim p.i» but a rery thort nriaw of Old Swediah
Infleiione, bat b renurkahU aa the fint otiay of lt» kind, and b
perhapa the oldaat attempt in modem timaa at a grtmmatloal treat-
ment of any old Qanuaniu bnguege. The atudj of ranea wtt Ttry
popular in tha 17th century; M. Colaoa (tlOM) deolpW the
'WBoat"mnaa{aBetboTe.p. »7a),andJ. Hadorph (tlflM), who
abo did good work in editing Old Swediah taxtt, oopied moaa thtu
a thoutand nmlo inaoriptiona. During the 18tb oantnry, igain,
on Swediah waa almoat oompUtaly naglaotad ; bot ia tha pmant
oanturythe atndy of ranaa baa bean waU npteaantad by tha o^-
botionof tba3«wdeLa]egnn(tlBt7)>nd bythaHMwaglBBS. -
SCANDINAVIAN LANGUAGES
Bngga'i jugeniont Intorpntirim lad gmnniatlml tnatmoit of
■onu of tbsmcKtnmulubls iDKriirtioiu. Old Smliali litenton
tu mlK> bean nude the obJMt of cnmEjuticaL nvHTchn. A £nt
oulline of ■ hutOTT irf the BwtijMb lingiun {■ to be fonnJ in
the work of N. H. Fetsnon (I8S0) montiaiiea ibore ((i SIO), ud
■ acbsme of in Old Sw«liih gnmmiir in F. A. Hnnch't tmn,
F<muKtiuJcaai ocA Fannuntaxa iprakbsggvxd (1B49){ bat Old
Bxedbh gnmmv vu oarei trailed u an inJependeni bnnch of
KisDce ODtil Ibe tppunuia cf J. B. B;dq>igt'e (+ 1S77) iqoiin-
meittBl work iSkiwU ipriixii lagar (in B roll., 1850-83), which
wu followed in Sweden b; t whola Utenlare on the ume anbject
ini nhonetics, which wen compinitiKil; Diluted by B^fdqTist,
iTB bean iareatinted with gmt succsib, eepecially ts; L. F.
rffler ind A. Kock ; vhile tha other larte of gTunmar hiTe bem
BiUbrK. F. SSdcrwiU, tha ohtafDfDontemponiT
faolus. Hb principtti wotk, OnOck ^'Mr Stm^
iiwMKiimnttK(ia84HAneviDtioanaDrpobli«tion,glTeitheliit
dI wonk in the Uur Ola Swedltb bngutn and— t^an ilong with
the (MMMItBt •■ -" ■ ■ '- -" '
Schljrtat, the mil-
Old Bi
gtlMfsK VAn'^dUHnJa tagar (187T), hjC i
-known odltor of Old Swedidi tut^ which «on
3. Jfoimi A««fu4.— Thtfint completetniislatlanottheBibK
edited in lEll bT the bnthen Oling ud lanjentdas Potri, Uld
gniiEnllir colled the Bible of QnatiTiu L, mxj be repmrded u tha
earliest unportaut monnment of this. Owing to teligioiu udpoli-
logictl end biitorico-polltlciil works propoDden.ta in the Swediih
litentnre of the folIowinE period, which thenfora (Sbrdi bot
■untT metarkl for pbilarogicil nanrch. It ie not until the
middle of the ITth century that Swedith liUntnre adequate];
txanpUfta the Uogaige, for at that period liteiatnra fitit began
to ba onltiTalad ai ■ fine art, and iti principal nprBsentatirea, mch
>a Stumhielm, Colombaa, and Spegel, wer« in realitT the firet to
■todj it H a mauu of aipreation ud to derelop ita monrcea.
Amongit the anthen oF the ISCh centQrj wa have to mentioa in
the Bnt place SaUa, who waa to nme extent the creator of the
proaa i^le of that epodb ; while of the end of the oentnrj Kellgren
and Bailmaii an tha moet noteworthy exunplea, raprfaenting the
higher and the mora familiar atyle of poetry reepectlraly. The
langnge of the 10th oaotDiy, or at aay rata of the middle of it, ia
iMMt reprelentad in tha work* of Wallin and T^n^r, vhioh, on
■GBonat ot tlieii eoormona oirmlatioD, h*T* had a greater inHnnnwi
Hkan then of any oUur anthon.
A* to tb* \aiiugt itaalf &» aarlieat Kodem Swediih teita, ai
Gatam I. "a Bible, diflkr SDU^darabl; from tha latest Old Swediih
• We find a deddad tendency to — ' — '— '- "--'
„ e linguue:
all ganitiTea (lingolir ind plDnl), t.j., and in -i, which in earlier
timea wm the proper ending tt only cortaiu declenaiona. In ipita
(tftiiaarchaiadcaobrtaof Dany vritera, both in forma and Inroca-
bnlaiT, tha langnaga narattbalaai nndanrant tarad changea daring
tha 16th and l7th ceotnn« Thm «[ and <«F ^original aa well aa
daiiTad IhHa it ba(t>ra a palatal Towd) aarimjlate into a rinpla A-
aoond ; iff (original ai wall aa darired from ; befon a palatal Towal),
at laaat at tin and of the 17th cantniy, dropped ill d-aaand (oom-
nara nuh apellinga a« dU^tttr, giaUar, amgi, lot fi^Kr^ adder,
fiUlar, gianti, eninft, auToy] ; V paaacs into j (aach apallingi an
tonnd aa jerl for Igirt, hMt, and l^SiV 'or JSrpe, hazel gnniie] ;
* --' f tnieitad in anoh woida ai JUnNor, heaTena, liamirar.
in full
gradnillj loeee all
ative, daliro,
middle of the..
tha iM method
Inral of the Terb takea tha form of tha
, JOT, want); by
/, yon, the™ ariaee a secondary form yi,
tha spoken language about 1650 j tho adjcctiTa
liammare, /Ompn, even, amuil, togither with (aee abore, p. 371), are
dropped ; the fint panon plnril of the Terb takea tha lor ' ' '
thirf person (la t< /am, /(TO, for ri/onwi, /o
the aide of the pronoon /, yon, than ariaea
' in Cha iboken lammaoa about .«,^. ,
ibatautiTi
oeiuitiTe take tiia aame form aa early as tha
SDtui^ ; in the decIeniloD with lalSied arlida
iprsnmg numbeT and cuo both in the eubelan-
tfra and the artiele ie changed, eo that the eabalsntirD alono takea
tha nnmber^infloxion and uib article alone the caae-ending ; nauter
anbatantiTea eniling in a Tonel, which proTiooily bad no plural
enilinit take tho plural ending -», aome -er, — aa U-n, booa, ftojcri-w,
lukerigi. About tha year 1700 the Old Swediah inHeiion may, in
general, bo conaidarei ai almoat oompletoly gircn np, althongb a
work of mch impi^auoo in the hialoty of tho laogong* ae Chnrlca
XII. 'a Biblo (a-udlod) of 1708 (edited by Biahop J. STodboroJ,
by a kind f' uuBcions irchaiain hai prtaervod a good many of tlia
old fomu. To thoes archaittie tendendei of certain anthon at tha
end c' iia 17th Dantatr wa owe tha greU nnmbor of Old Swedlah
l*^ Icelandia borrowed worda then introdnoad into the language, —
(knUi alni«7 )a tae ar« prlal la H
AMltH) (»■>,!■,«.
rataeo, fa
nen^ laiUi^ ganiae^ Unu,
p_^ , _, thii, owing to humantitio
loflnenca, loarnad aiiBs™ioni wore borrowed from lilin dnring tha
whole ISth and 17th centujioe ; and from Gorman, chiefly at the
Reformation and dnring tha Thirty Yean' Wu, umuberlna worda
wate introdooed, — taapriJc, Uogniffo, 'or^jvr, braTe, j^roifc', DiagniH-
oenee, huriif, Iniik, kc ; anioDg tntae may be noted Hpociallj a
great number of woida bagianing in on-, tr-,far-, and gt-. Owmg
to tha conatantly increaong political and litamy imtdomiaanca of
Fnnce French wotiU ware lately borrowed in theI7th century, and
to an equally great eitaat in tha ISth ; nch are KiSSt, bumncaa,
nHpoH, rcapact, taiang, talen^ aJtar^ani^ charming fco. In the ISth
centary, again, oapaclalty about the midile of it, we anew meet
with coDscious and enenpstte eOorts after pariam both in the forma-
tion of new wordi and In the adoption of worda flom tha old
1aogoiie« {id, ditigenoa, nUUo, to •peak. /gUang, battle-amr, be. \
and fnm thedialecti (Uigo, lo nie, /ii. Sako, itroUi;, bad, fceA
Consequently, the preaent Tocabutary diflon to —
Aum that ot^the Utaratnn attha 17tti et
1 eantury. Ae
I."?-
gti»to;
In the lath century,
us reform, alowly bnt flrmlr earned on almoat unifomily
; all periodi of the Swediah language, is the throwing back
principal aocant to Aa bennning e( the word in caaea wbeie
ury, howerer, ua a^ratee lU and gi paaaed into
dand^dltarlandrintoy'},— ailogfor (Of*, law irftf for k&U,
bnad ; Aa rweed into e {in dialect* ainady about the year ISOO).—
aa (Of]) for Ab^w, whelii ; {)' li^ewiae into j',— thns {fUi'A', leister,
occOra written JMiltT. In our time ni, fl, m, n , and r« aro pwiag
into aimple aonndi (' aapradantal " d, (, %, t, and t), wliile the
•ingnlar of the reriia ia gndnally npplanting tha ]>lanL
of the'principal aocant to Aa bennning el . — ..
pnriooily It etood neaier Ae end, a tendency that is characteriatio
of all the SotndinaTiaB lingnagea, bat no doubt eegiecially of
Swediah. In the primitlTa BandluiTian age the accent wai
remoTed in moet aimple worda; the oriEiuatly accented eyllable,
howerer, preeerred a mnaically high [dtcb and stnaa. Thna then
aoe«Dt»d flail sylUMe, aa in leeL ttifr (Or. mix'i'), thou goest,
tha eomfvatin bdn {if. Or. rieair fnm nxit). bottsr, the
other, with aaoondan atreaa and high pitch on the final, aa in IceL
prat; ploT. iuSon (Han^. TniJmdhim^ wa bade^ part, iiret KIma
(Sasaki. Uiniiiii), bittoi. The same change aftarwirda took place
in thoaa compoond wotda that bad the princlpil accent on the
eecond member, ao that inch contnaCa la Oemian iiTlhcil und
fr«*U™ wen giadnally btoaght into conformity with the formor
accentuation. At the preeent day it ii quite exceptional ly (mJ
chiefly in borrowed words of later data) that the principal accent
in 8wa(Uih ia on laj other lyllible thin the fint, ai in Itkdatn,
body, vOUIgna, to hlna.
The acientiGc itndy of Uoden Swedlrii ■ datee ftuni Sweden'*
Sloiiooa epoch, tha but half of tha 17tb eentnry. "Vbt £nt r^ulai
wadiih mmniit was written in 1S84 (not edited tilt 1884} in
Latin by Er. AniiTilliui ; the Gnt in Swediah ii tn N. Tiiillmu,
ISflD. BottiiBg, howerer, of Ti]ne wu produced before tha gnat
mA of RydqTiet mentioned ibore, which, although chiefly dealing
with Che old language, throw* a flood of light ou tha iDoJom alio.
Among the worke of lite yean we must call ipodal atlentian to
tha reaearehea into tbehiatory or tha language by K. F, Sbderwall,*
F. A. Tamm,* and A. Kock> Bnt little atndy, and that only in
iaotated fuia, hu been devoted to tha grammar of the modeni
language, if the advanced itate of ]thilo!ogy ii oonsidered. A
COM thongb short abetnot ii given in uT Sweet'i eaiay on
''Sounda and Forma of Spoken Swedish" (TraM. Phil. Sec, 1877-
70). Attempla to eonetmct a dictionary were made In tho Iflth cfo-
tuiy, the earlleat being the anonyinoni Fariarmn Serum VKobubi
earn Stuea Inltrpnlalum*, in 16^ ind tlie ^yiuR}FiReri«a LAcUum
by ZhiTui Petri Hehifn^us, in 16S7, both of which, however,
followed Oermaa originala. Tlie flnt n^Iar dictionary I> by
H. Bpegel 171S; and in 1789 Job. ]hn (t 1780). probably tho
gnateaC pMlolcffical geniuB of Sweden, publiehed hli Olimariitin
Sviogoliaim^ which atill remains the most copion* Swediih
dictionary in existence. In tha preaent century the diligent
letlcognplier A. F, Dalln baa pnbUehcd sgvatal naofnl worka. At
Sreaont Uia Swediah Academy haa in prcpintloa a clgantio dio-
onary ou aboot the same plan as Dr Mumy'B Ifaa SnyliA
DiMmatry ; then will also appear aa sooji a* poasjblo a complete
list (with grammatical and otymokwcal nota), dnwu up by A.
Andenaon, Ad. Koroon, and J. A. Tamm, of tto word* in nse in
the ntteeut languago. Tho cluirauteristia dilTcrcaon Intwoon tiia
SwoJiah literary Iiuiguaga nieil in Finland and thit of Sweden
an axhfUtsd iu the FiMk TiiUri/t, toL ill. pta. «, 0. 18SE
("BtudierpA Bvenak aprlkbotten i Finland." by Karl LindaWttn)-
< 4JISlw7SIi°%d
3glc
SCANDINAVIAN LANGUAGES
IT. Duna, Ilka Bwadidi, t* dhidad lata tha two gmt Pn- I
tutd Poat-BiforniitlDD apoclu of Old ud Uodan DuiiL
L Old IlaniA.—1ht Mrrltcur of Old DanUi isdoded —- '
OBlj Iht iMwnt Deamu^ bnt ako tba aonthani Svediih uv. oniq^na purity and oicaUeDce of It* luigBtgt, tha duloct of AmlDud,
viiUM of Hallud, SUna, and Blokingo, tlw vbola of ScIuh- thm inaontaelahly promolsd to ba tba kngtuga of tba kinmlom,
wift, and, u itatod aboio, tor a abort parlod alio a gnat tsrt Tba Snt aocular vork dHairinK of tha umo pniu ii Vodal'*
of BugUnd, and N'oniuiidj'. Tba oldaat monDmauti i^ tba lan-
soaga m nmio iniotiptioDi, allogathar abont S60 In nnmbi*.*
Tba oldirt of tham go la {ai bask u to ^ b^lniiiiiK of tba Btb
omtory, tba Snolddar^tona for Initanc* on Bwlind, and tha
Fl<tii]fla».atDae on FUnan. Fiom d>ODt tba nar MO data tba
TaiT Ions iuacriptloni o.' T^ggaralda Rcalaiid) and OlaTaodnip
(yiman); rrara tha lOtb eantiuy wa lutTi tba •tona* or JkT-
-k (Qorm aud Harmid] ; wbila fmni aboiit 1000
B loma at I>umnlrke (Scblnirig), raiatd by lb* DODqnsior oi
Eoglaad, Bveu inngiukien. Balici of aboat tha iamo an an tba
worda tlut wara intnxtBiica b; th* Dana* into SnglUi, tba oldeit
of whicb data ftom tba and of tba fttb oantuiy, tha tima of tba
fint Daalab lattlamanl In Ei^land ; noot of tlMaa an to-ba found
-'n tba early Ei^iab work Omuhim.' Ko Daniib Klantnn aroaa
and conlalnlii{[ tba law of Skina. ?n>in abont
pcica» a DUBoaciipt Wrlttan In Latin cbaiutan and cDntaining
Valdamai'a and Erik'a lavi of Baaland, tba JlanaboiE mannicript
of tba law of Jntland, and a raaoDaoript of tba mouicIpK] Um of
Flniabon. Titan tana maniKripta laprwant tbna diflarapt
dialecta, tba^ Mnalji, of <ffrf«- Hallaid, and Blaklnga, that ~
Saaknd and tho oth« Uandi, an^ diat of Jmtiand aodSdilanri
_ dOaawJg.
1 tba Old Danidi
nrki of tba IGtb
cantaiT. "^ u Hiebaal'a AaMt and Uia SKysui CVmfeb (tba
paiiod, altbon^ »
lort iBHTtUt <
It and Uia SKyi
flrat book printad In Daid^ in UM), on aooonnt of th^ aioallanl
diction, oootilbatad natariaiJy to tha Inal pnputdatanoa of tboii
dialao^ that of Baaland, towCda tlw Krfonmtlon.
Am to tba ftom tt tha laognaga, it baldly dllTen at all dnrins
tba ptriod botwoin 800 and 19O0 A-S. fion Old Bwadiab. It fi
only in tba oldtat Utatattua that m can tiaca any natkad dilbl-
•noia; thaoo va not rary lipportant, ud an genaially atlribntabla
lo tha bet that Danlab underoanc a llttla aarliat tba aaiu dui«aa
that aftarwaidi took place in SwaJiah (<.;., t in Aa and V ^
Daniib wia mnto aa garly la tba and cf tba Kth sontaryi rf.
p. STl aboTa). Tba lam raTanad to abova only agraa in ditWIng
Crom tha SwaiUali lawi In tba following pobta i—tha nominatira
■liHdv takta tha fom o( tba aoctuadva (ai ka^, odf, bat Old Bw.
nom. jtniotr, ace. ka^ ; tba ascond panon plonl ondi in ^a (ai
klpm, bat Old Bw. t^ln,' jan bny) ; in tba mljanotiTa no diSar-
•noea an axpnaaad batwaan ponona and niunban. Among tham-
aelra^ on the aoutniy, th^ ibow aonaidanbU-diiraancaa ; tba
law of Bklna moat nearty comapond* with the Swtdiih lawa, Choaa
of Saalaod keep tba middle placo vblla tha law o( Jutland
axbiUta tba moat diitinetiK indiridnality. Tba Sklna law, i.j.,
rataina the Towali a, t, H in tanminationt, which otharwiaa in
Daoiab have baeoma nniformlr ■ ; tba aama law iniaFla b and d
batwaan eartain cDiiMiiaata (like Old Bw.i taa p. S71), hu pre-
nrrad tha dative, and in tba pnaaat tsnoa takaa tba foval of^tha
inBnitiTaj tba law ef Jntland, aoio, doaa not inaert i and d, and
hii dtopind the datire, wblla the pteaent tauaa {nndannlng an
" Dmlast n bai not alwaya accapted tlia rowel of tba ioSnitin ; in
all Ihraa cbanetsrlitica tha liwt o: SaaUnd flnctnata. After ISEO
wa meat ao eaaeatially altered laaguaga, inwblcb ne moat fint note
tba cbaDge oi k, p, I after a Towel Into s, i, d (aa lag, roof, Ittt, to
inn, mU, to eat) ; lApuaaalnto t [ai tt%f, tiling), f/t Into w (ai lou
for 2agA, goild) and uito i tf* fi tor tnyA, way) ; Id, nd gn pro-
noanoed uka ^, an ; a ia tba ganaral genitiTa ending in lingular
and ploral, ko. Tba ToeabvXuy, which in earlier titnei only
tnmiwed a few and thoaa moatly aocleilaitical worde, ia Dow
— elilefiy owing to the pndamininl inHnene* of tba Hanie towni—
Immdated bj German woida, nch ai tboae beeinning with (•-,
^1 /*-> fii^i uid Mud-, and ending in -htd, and a gnat nnmber
of othna, aa blive, to become, ajbe, to happen, fri, fne, trig, war,
haw, pantaloon!^ (■"u^i qnita, Ae.
An Old Daniab grammar ia itill wanting, and the preparatory
■tndie* which silat an, altboogta excallent. bnt few {■ nnmber,
Wng chiefly eaaaya l>y tba Dumo S. '
Wimmar, with H. IL Frtaraan'a tmtl
Svfiutt tpngi UHari*. Tid. i. (1S»), o_. .. ._.
paid an; attention to Old Dantdi, whiob till th
plelelr na^eolaiL A diotinuiy on a large ecala o
«t Old Daniih lltontnn, eunit the raiy oldei
baa been In oonna of liaUtoation einot IMl ; ol
Cbi. llolbcob'a Auut alomarium (1857-4(1).
rcring the who
by O. Kalki
' ~ - --'iuOprladclH>U>r*M'>r'*^Ma(MWMiait).
thttbtbe
tranaiation of tba Bible, by C5ir. ^ " - -
othara, the eo^caUwl Chriatien 111. 'a Bfbla(llSO), Iknone for tba
ilqna parity and eicallance of ita langaag^ tha dialoct of Pcalnnd,
- ■ - ■' ....... of tha V '
tnuubtion of Sana (IB7E). The anccwdlnR period until 17S0
w worka iu really good Dnnlih ; aa perfectly cljmical,
.. . J have to mention tba lo-callad CbnetLen V.'el.aw of
Denmark (188S). T " - - -
lAtia.Trencli chan
itki of tba principal writer of thii period, Holboig. Itnt aboat
a year 1750 there begini a new movement, diemctariiod by a
utlon igaioit the lasgnige of tba precedinc period and puriit
uileadea. or, at leait, afforta lo oiinch tlia Isngoage with new-
formed wordi (not Kldom after the German pattern^ aa mnbxdi,
periphery, iclttUmdlglici, iodeptndenca, tnlg^mtn, deTiie, diafer,
poet. The loading repnwDtaliTta of thtw teudeuciee veia EilKhow
and Snacdorf. Fnm their time Duiih may be nid to hnvo
acqnired ita preicnt eaaentlil tpnturoe. though it oaniiot be deniod
I itampad a highly
, __ _, A OhleaJ ^_.. ...
Hd a comidenilila iufluenca on tha )>i»tictl etylo. Ai 1
laportaDt dilTereDcea betveeB the gnnilDalicnt faniii of I
nd ISthcencurieion ana hand and tlioea of the leth mid V,
the other may be noted tha following :— niojt neu
ending ; thoaa endioir In a ydxtdI fo
_ .batantirei taka a pli
their plural by ■-i*'."'
kingdom), and many of thoH ending in a coDionaut by adding -«
(ai Ahm for htu, of Sui, houic) ; lubetantirea roding in -ire drop
thaiT final * (aa dommtr for dminnTi^ judge) ; the dcclemion with
implifiod in 11
aboT^ p. S7£) ; the plural of lerbe
Init for drukkt, we dnnlc) ; and tha yntarita n
Elantad by tba InfinitiTe (aa nr fo
liniab gramoMr ie by £■ Fonto]
nffliad uticle becomaa ._., . .
■" ikei the ringular lotm l»a
tarita luljnnctive 1i anp- '
wwe). the fint Modem
Diniah gramoMr ie by £. Fontoppidan, 168S, but in Latin ; tba
■nt in &niiti ii by the famone Peder Syr, l«Se. The worki of
the aalf-tangbt J. Hjfjagiard {e.g., Accntatrti eg raiaonaim*
*■■-- 1717)poaaew great merit, and an of eiiiccini inijiort-
_Mila acoant and lyntai. The carluir part of thia
ocotniy «Ta ni Kaak'agrammu (IBSO). A thoroughly laliitactDry
Uodvn Daniab gnmmir doea not eiiet ; perhapa the beat ii that
by Th. lUbiai [1871). Ti.e vocabulary of tba 16lh and 17th
eantnriea ia ooUacted in Kalkar'a Vrdbug, mentionad abov^ that of
tha 18th and IVtb oentnria- in the to uninooi and ai yet
nnflniihad dieUonaiy of Yidaukabemaa Selikab, and in C
Uolboch'i AlMi Brdheg (id ad. laU).'
970), Diniih at tha Reformation
' ' cntod claiaaa of
became the langnige of the literary and adocBtad claiata of
Korway and retnaiued ao for three hundred yean, altboni^
" -■ inot be denied that many * ^— — •>■ J-J—
jeriod wrote a language w
Borwogian authon ei
th a dutiuct Noniegian colour,
proH-atylist Peder Claoie^ Priia
ir Dais (t 1708), and, in a cortaiu
_.„.._, ._. .... literary maitan of tha I Sth . centurr, Hol-
baig and VetuL But it ia only eiace ISlt, nbco Korway
gained her Independence, that ire can clearly p*rceiie tho ao-
callad Dano-NoTRigiim ^adually developing ai a diatincC olTahoot
of the general Daniib language. The fint reiirenntatlvaa of
thia new language an the writer of popular life U. Hanian
(+ 1843), the poet H. 'WergeUnd (t \U6), and ibore all the tale-
wtiUr P. 0. Ail^^mien Pt 18BE). In our own daya it Ilea been
further deTelopad, iipeeially by the great poeCa t been and I^flniaon
ud the norelut Lie ; ud it baa >7en mid, not without raiaou, to
bare attained ita clamical perfection in tba irorki of Ibo flnt-uin^od
author. Thia langniga diOen fiem Daniih particularly in ita
Tocabnlarj, baring adopted rery many Norwegian provincial word*
(fiOOO to 7000), leaa in ita infleiioni, bat to a very great extant
in Ita pronunciatlou. Tha moit itiiking dilTorenca in thia ra-
rct an tha following :— Norwegian p, i,k anawer to Daniab t,
3 in caaea when they an of Iilor date (aoe above),— ae !#*,
DanliiL Itbt, to run, IOch, D. Ii'dn, little, tot, D. bat, hack) ; to
Duiah Ic, g before palatal vowel* anewar Korwei[ian Ij. j ; r (point-
trill, not bock.trill aa in Daoieh) ia uaimiial«rin eonio -nj with
following t (if], I, n, and i into eo-called tupndental aoundi {m«
p. J72) ; both tha primitire Scandinavian ayetsina of accentuation
are ItiU kept leparata from a uuaicil point of riaw, in oppoiition
to the monotonoui Daniib. There are eevenl other ohancter-
iotici, neeily all of wldch are poind of corroapoudonca with
Bwodiab.* Duo. Norwegian le gnmmatically treated by J. L^ka
(JfudertmaoMj /otWjhv, ISSK), K. Knudian {Daiuk-limk mog-
Imn, 18&B), ud K. Bnkke {Bidrag til Ikaa-XorOxiu lyiUmn,
1881), and other*.
At tba middle of thii oantuiy, howarer, fu m
lanaionf wan urged to "~ '~' '-~' '"' '
''^tiiitt^i^c^^'^SiS^''^^'*^^^'''^-
S C A-
«»ch of which 00
iM^ug^ Old Norwecmn, t
to UDdert«ka the bolil projf ^ ,
two wmr«, tnil on th« buii of hia niitiva ^tlecC (Sfiadiiiiln),
a Hotwtiiiiui-Noriieguui (" Nonk-Nonli "] lugoue, Uia to-cilleu
"luidim&l" Is lSs3 hs eihibiud t )p«imaii of it, ud, thuki
to gach eicoUsnt Triten u AueD hiomir, tiis poati 0. Vinja (id
K. JiuoD, md tha nDnliat A. Gubois, u well u > lakloui pro-
'[■euidiBm of tha loaietT " Det Nonka Suulag " ({oondsd in IMS),
thsra hu liDca uiun a Tiluble thongh not tctj lu^ UtsntaTs
in th* "LtodimtL" Bat it isnoKheiaipokau.' Ita enrntnatiul
■tmctuie lad Tocabuluy ire aihibitad in Auan'i aor^ grnvt-
natik, ISSt, and JVoni mBcp, 1873.
SoAHDriiAViAH DIALECTS. —Aj aboTs nmukad, tha SctudiiuiTUD
diUscta am uot groDpod, >o fu M their nktiouhip '
41 might be expected J adging from tha liteT-
" — ' ' ~'"ig out otaocoontthB
thoia of the Fmroef,
j»iui(a * aepsrats ntiap,
ij be thua cluajhed . —
(1) IVat^Nonotffutn DicUedt, — apokoaoD
the waatarn oout of Somj between
Cfaiutunauid ud Uolda.
(S) JfortA-SenndiHorian, — the tenuiniDg
NonregiiD and the Swedidi dialects
of VeatcunlaDd, Dmlama, Korrluid,
FinUnd, uid ftuuie,
(S) The dialect* on the iiUad of OotUnd.
(1) MiMU'SwIiih.-MpoVea in
ot Swoden, eioapt the " " "^
petti (No. B).
(C) jS>uM-£candiiuvten,— apokeii in the
KHtar part of Smiland and HaUand,
tha whole of Skln^^Blekinge, and /
Denmaik, and the D*niib.*peakinjg ^
part ot Selileawlg. Thia gronp u
dbtinctlj dinded Into three (mailer k
gronpa, — tlta dialecti of aor-"- — ~
Sweden (with, the ialand of
holm), of the Daokh iaianda, and of *
^ Jatland (and Sohlowig). B
The atudv ot tha Modem ScaDdinavlaii ^
dUleotahailweaTeijriuieqiialljproeecated. s
HantlraDTtluDg baa bean done towatda the 2
lnTeattsationofthaIc*IaDdfodialecta,wbllB i
thoaa of the Faroea have been atodied chiefly
bfHammanhumb. naKorwasiau dialect!
luve been thoniughlf eiaminad by Aasen,
whoaa worka give a general aocooDtotthani ;
while in oar own da j> Joh. Storm, above all,
displaja an nnwsar^g activitj, espaciallr
in the minnta imeatintion of their phonetu
dialccta. We hod remarkable piogiEaa
in acientiSo method^ eapecially with regard to phonetio — in the
conatantlj increaatng litaratora ; apecial mention may ba made of the
dataiied deictiptioa* of the dialect) sf Tumland. Gotland, and
Dalarna by Ad. Monen, and A, P. Frendenthat'i monograpfaa on tlie
Flonitb and Eathonian Swediah dialacte. Sinca 1679 the Swediib
dialect aociotioa have pnbliahad a magaiine on a compreheneive plan,
Dc Sveiuia Laitdimilm, edited by JTA. Lnndell, who haa invented
for thii parpwe an excellent phonetic alphabet (parldallj baaed on
C.J. enudevaU^workOnjAiifwHttehiMif/twr, 18G6}. (A. NO.)
SCARBOROUGH, ft nrliaiMatary boroogb of EnglMul,
freqoentl; G«U«d " tha Queen of Wktering Flacea,' sita-
towWt
Th<
igahon of their phon
;h Aaaen had paid
itsi^ of
reaearchei in tfia Norwegian dialecta l&a !•-
Gently been preaentad in a magazine, called
tfonegia, of wMcli the Qiat volame i*
coona of publication ; itomploye
bet invented by Storm. "- "■-
deficient The3clileaw^diiilect,on
traiy, haj been admirably treated of by E.
Hagerap [18B4) and K. J. Lyngby (ISSe).
paration,— H. F, Fgjiberg'a gnat dictionary
of the dialect of Jatland, and J. C. Eaperaen'e
of tha dialect of Bomholm. There ia no
oonnUy in which the dialecta have bean and
are atodied with greater leal and more tmit-
fnX nanlta than id Sweden' during the laaC i. Old Ton Has. 1 1. Vi
handred and fifty yean. Arehbiihop E. ■. Cniunn Rdiui. t. T)
Benialina tha younger [t 1743) made eollec- J; Sf^fj;?* J" H
tioxa of dialect word., and on hia work i. * "**" "^ ' '■ "
baaed the dialectical dictionary ot Ihre of 1788. An excellent
orit considering its ago ia B. Hofs JXaltctut Vatngotiita, 1772.
I 1 _....,„ r.-.., , ^^ ^^ ij^^ dialecta of Gotland
with extraoriinary animation
at the middle of the 10th oentarj ; in 18«7 i. E. EiotI publiahed a
Tolnmiaoaa dialect dictionary ; the number of ipecial laeaya, too,
iBdmaaed yearly. From 18?g ao-called " landamUsfdnBingar (dia-
' Bee J. Storm, "DrtJJonkomaaktf»iv"(A'or*sl JViiahVl, 1878).
■ Bee J, A. Luidell, "Om da Svenaka fblkmllans fiUdakaper"
{,Ati»tBp:^>githt aAtUmav Tidit^l, 1880).
•8ss J. A. LnndaU, "Orveralkt af de lenaat* ftrttondsnaa tIA.
MnlMt Cr kUmsdom om folkmll " ( Aoute ZmxlMid;*!, L, 1S80).
HUB. 1 11. Iiuii]iaid't Do. I Coan^ Baak. | U. Tliutn.
ated on the east coast of Torkihire, in the North Ridiig,
40 miles from York, and between H* 15' 0" and 64' 17' 16'
N. Ut and 0* 22" 25" and 0* 26' 24" W. long. Its two
ports, north and south, each with a fine stretch of aand
ftnd bay, ue divided by a rocky promontory 300 feet above
the sea, on which stand the remains of th'> castle. The
cli2 is moch exposed to denndation by the sea, which has
been proceeding dnring the present ceutorr at the nte of
1 yard in 17 yean. The plat«an forming the castle yard
in 11&(^ uoordiog to William of Newborgh, compriMd 60
S 0 A — S C A
■erei, btrt it ia uot now more thia 17 mtw 10 perehe*, or
4S ticim, including store yarcU^ d;ke«, and btdou. The
fint cattle ma biult in the Anglo-Norman period, and ii
referred to u being in decs; in LlSl — • fact which
throwi back ita origin earlier than 1136, the date aaeigned
for ita erection hj William Le Oroa, earl of Albemtrle
and Boldameea, ita fint known governor. The liat of ita
govarnora atretcbca from that date to 183S. The atreeta
of the older part of the town, immediatelj aooth of the
eaatle hill, come down to the aea, bat the newer parta of
iba aontb be well aa the north aide are boilt upon riling
ground. A deep vallej (Bamadale) which dividea the
anatb aide ia bridged from St Nicholas Cliff to the Bonth
Cliff. The approach by rail ia throngh the upper part of
thia valley, by tha aid^ of which there ia a marah known ai
the Mere. The town is thna attnated in a kind of basin,
which opens ont to the north towards eiteoaire and lofty
moorland ranges. The modem period of ita hiatury date*
from 1620, when Urs Farren, a lad; redden t, firatdiacovered
ita mineral apringa. The town contained 80,504 inhabi-
tanta in 1881, but during the eeaaon, which laals fnun
Hay to October, its population ia angmented by from ten
to twenty thousand viaitOTa, for whoae oonvenience there
ia increaaingly ample accommodation. The Orand Hotel,
fronting the aea on the aonth bay, atanda on St Nicbolas
Cliff, at the north nde of the Bamadale ralley, and is
one of the largest in England. An aqnaiinm (1877)
atuida beneath the Cliff Bridge, and doee by ia the
mnaeom, a Boman-Dorie rotnnda, boilt in 1828. The
apa aaloon, opened in 1800, ooDtaina a hall in the Italian-
Benusaanoe atyle, a theatre, and refreahment rooma.
Then ia a promeDtde in front protected hy a aea waU.
The aonth apring is aperient but containa aome iron, while
tlie norUi or chalybeate spring is more tonic in ita pro-
pertiea. The waters, however, are aeldom taken now, the
town being mainly freqaented for the aea-batbing. The
gronndi of the present apa are tastefoL; laid out. A
foreshore road, made in 1878 by the OMporation, and
shmtlj to be extended ronnd the castle cliff to the north
aide, makes an excellent drive or promenade, ^e north
aide has fine aandi, a hoist, and a promenade pier, but is
not io atliaetiTe aa the aonth aide^ not are the honaas
then of ao good a character and atyle. The aalubritj of
ScarbcTongh is attested by ita vital atactica. The mean
aannal mortality from J673 to 1682 waa 18-1' per lOOa
The death-rat« from eontnimptdon in all England ia 3'4
per 1000 ; amongst the indigenoua population of Scar.
boKM^ from 1873 to 1882 it waa 1-7 per 1000. The
mean annual tempemtnte ia 479 Fahr. In December,
JannarTi *<kI Fetmar; it is only 0'6* colder than Brighton,
whllat 10 the anmmer montha Brighton ia 3-S warmer.
The town is a royal borough, its charter of incorpora-
tion dating from 1161. It returned t^o memben to
pariiameat from 1283 to 1886, when one of the seats waa
taken Away. The limits of the mnnidpal and parlift-
roentary borooghs coincide, — the area being 2348 acres,
the peculation 31,259 in 1671 and 30,604 in 1881. -.
Bhlpbidldiiig, ■alt-mumbohin, and kmh-makbig wara fcrrmnlT
oomBum, bnt tb« only cralt law ismaining ii jat-muiDfutDn.
Tha AahiiiK tnda ia, hoireTar, tsit caniidaiahliL Diipntos about
dnis for tha oM pier md tha nsh-tiths tasapj a conipicaaiia
plaoa in tbe town ncorda ; tba piar senna to hara auflared
Kraatl; tn tbe Toiiona nwei to irhicli the ton, atler it ma willed,
bacama expoaed. The old tawn-UII In 8t Bieholaa Street, the
Daw town-baU in Outla fiowL the mukat-hall in 8t nslen'a
Sqein, la flu Toaoaa atjlt^ ud ih» new post office la Hantriia
Bow an eonaploaona amnigat the public bnlldiiig]L Thera ua
two tiusBaa. Ot tba monssHc baiblinga belonging to tba Qnj
Tiiua, Domlnicaua, and (kimelilaa tban a» ne ramalni, bat the
pariifa dumb of 8t UaTT, cenaidoiKiiMly aitqated on a moend to
tba aontb af Osstle Hill, Dounpis tha aita of tba old CiatnoUn
noiiaitarT. Tba old cbiucb was nude tba ^la of a battarr in thit
riagaoftbaoaatleinlBUiHdoaaoritatswtafalllBlMW. Ih*
375
laatontian of tba pnaant bniliUng took plaai ia 186% Tbara na
otbar ehnnhaaana cliipaliol ■ niDoh more reoaot data, indndiDS
■ Roman Catholb cbnreb. Tb* nMoouraa li oa tbe top of a bill.
CDmmindlng Ina Tiewi of the moon ud ot tb* eoa.
The old nune ef tbe Iowa waa written Skerdabarga. It ti not
mentioned b Domeadaj Book, bnt it *u probably wuts, a> Toetl,
count of KortbDmlierlud, had ravaged and bnmt it aoma time
prerionelT. Thorklen mBntiom it ai heiing been raiigwl bj
Xdelbnnht, king of Northnmberiand, and hj Harold Henlrada.
Doaglai. tba SsotUeh chief, elw burnt it in 1813. Henrr II. aom-
Klled tbe oDnntot Anmale to eturendertba oeitla In 1I6S. Siag
ha Tlritad'tlM eaatle In ISOA and ISIS, and tbe "bocae and
oaitle of Baarbanngh " are mentionad in 123$. When not naed aa
a tamporaiy loyal raaUeaea tbe caatla wia a tofal prison. In
ISl! tba aarl at Paabroka bealagad' it, and in the Pilgrimage
of drace isenrrectjon (lUA) it waa unaacceHTallj beaieged bj *
Sir Bobert Aike. A deUiled anrraj of It, made in IGSS, U
(till extant, the oaatla yard and bud tbenin deeonbnl, with tba
bnildiagi, oornapondiDg with a inmj made in ISSV. It was
Bgaio bodegad in lSll-16 and in 1918. In lUi Oaorge Fox the
Qnaker waa impriaoned in the cutle. In IfllS tba town wai
eaptored b; taaanlt, and ijt later f«n Ita Inhabltante were mmh
itnporeHabed by military eiactioDB and ex|wniaa A view of tba
taws and oaetle In 1MB la etlU eiurit The prHdie data when the
town.walla wen diamantled ia not known. In 17S0 Daniel Defoe,
writing from tba plaoe^ eaid; "The town la well-bnilt, pleaiant,
and populona, and we fonnd a great detd ot eonipanj here, drink,
ing the waten, who have not only coma trom tha north of Sngland
, lir 1. HaTUu^na.
SCABLAITJ, Alubxhdbo (1669-1726), oompoeer of
sacred and dramatic mudc^ waa bom at Trapani in Sicily
in 16G9, and became in earlj joath a pnpil of Cariadmi.
In 1680 Queen Christina of Bweden appointed him her
maestro di cappella, and commissioned him to writs bis
first opera, J-'One^ lulT Amort, for performance at her
palace in Rome. In 1693 he prodaced his first oratorio,
I Dolor* di Maria ttmpre Vergine. In the following year
he was appointed maestro di cappella to tbe viceroy of
Naplea, and from that time forward his works multiplied
with aatoniahiog nipidity, his time being spent partly in
Naplee and partly in Borne, whero he entered the eerrice
of Cardinal Ottoboui, as private maestro di cappella. His
Erodigious fertility "^ invention did not; however, tempt
im to write carelessly. On the contrary ha did his beet
to neutralize the evil caused by the founders of the
monodic school, whoae insane hatred of cougterpoint and
form reduced their dramatic music to the dreary level of
monotonous declamation. He vras by far the moat teamed
contrapuntist of his age ; and it was to this circumstance
that bis oompoeitions owed their reaistleas power. More-
ovw, his sense of form was as just bb his feeling for
harmony, and to this he iras indebted for tbe originality
of many of his finest conceptiona. He baa been credited
with two vet^ important inventiona — accompanied recita-
tive and tbe da capo. That he rcoUy did invent the first
there is very little doubt. Instances of the latter have
been found of earlier date than moat of hie works, bnt he
waa certainly the first to bring it into general nse. He
also struck out ide6s in his orchestral accompaniment*
which must have seemed bold indeed to the musicians of
the period, using ob&liffaio paaaagee and other combitia-
tions previously unknown, and introducing rilornelU and
tmfbnU with excellent effect In 1707 Scarlatti was
appointed principal maeatro di cappella at Santa Maria
Haggiore, and aoon afterwards be waa invested by tbe
pope witii the order of tha Golden Spur, with which
ainck and Mosort were -afterwards honoured. He reaifcned
hi* appointment after two yeate' servic«^ and died at Naples
October 2*. 1725.
Vary few of floarlattl'a works have bean rnblitbed. H!a com-
poaiUona include IIG operai (41 oril; of which an nowlinnwn to
fxial^ aul thaae only in Ua), 300 maaoa S oratorloa, more than
378
80 A — SO A
■ inullar ^«sti^ Mli mend tnd
noolar. USB. of thn* irf Ui optTM, Smmi,
and Z« fluNiEim Ampula,m piMHTsd is 11
Ohor^ Oxford : ana J) frlaiatlm rOHnntglo fonu pirt at tba
■Dncnwttt OollwtiaD" ia Om BritUk UnMam.
BOAEItATTI, DoKKHioo (16M-1T5T), Km o( the pre-
eedinfb *» 1>o™ ^ Naples in 1683, and studied mnoo
Snt under hia father and then under Guparmi He
began hie career b^ compOBiDg a few operas, among them
AmiOo, produced at Rome in 1T16, and remarkable aa the
earlieit known attempt to poae Shakeapeare'e hero ai the
pruno wrnio of a drimma per la mkmdd. But hia real
strength la; ia the excellence of his perfonnancee on the
harpsichord and organ. Daring Handel's first eojonni in
Italy in 1708-9 D. Scarlatti was invit«d to a tdal of skill
with him on both instromentB at the palace of Cardinal
Ottoboni, and all present decided that the harpsichord
performanccB terminated in a dmwn battl^ thongh Handel
jiad a decided advantage on the organ. The Justice of
Ibe verdict oannot be doubted ; for, whenever Scarlatti was
afterwards praised for his organ-pla}riQg, he uaed to oroes
himself devonti; and say, " Ton should hesr Handel I °
On the death of Bai in 1715 D. Scarlatti was appointed
maeatro di o^ipeUa of St'Peter'a in Home. In 1719
he eondaoted the performance of his Ifaroito at the
King's Theatre in London, and in 1731 ha played with
great etic«aaa in liabon. He then returned to Naples ;
but in 1739 he ww invited to Madrid, with the appoint-
mnit of teacher to tiie princen of Astuia^ and remained
there twenty-five years, returning in 17S4 to Naples,
wbtn he died in 17S7,
D. BsacUttl'a conpodtioits toe Hit lurpricbord are dmiMt fa-
anmanUay and manT of tbora h*i» bsni pnbllihsd. In tha
chamctir of their Uamiqut ths; are lufinitalT In advance of tbe
MB In wbieh Om vers written and ptiyad ; aad maa; oT them ara
dlffloiilt Mioa^ to tax tha powna of tha bst parfonnen of tbe
p««aant day.
SOABLET FEVEB and SoisumrA are names tpplied
■DdiSerently to an acute infections disease, chaiact«iied
by high fever, accompanied with sore throat and a diSnae
red rash iqran the skin. This fever appears to have been
fint aeeuatelj described by Sydenham in 1676, before
which period it had evidently been confounded with small-
posand measles.
In oonnazion with tha caoiadon of this disease^ the
following pointshave been ascertained. (1) It iaahighly
contagions malady, the infective material being one at
Ae most subtle, diffose, and laatiag known in fevers. It
would seem that the disease is communicable from an
early period of its occnrrenoe, all through its progress,
and especially durii^ convalescence when the proceas of
desqnamation is proceeding, aud whan tbe shed-oS
epidermis which contains the germs of the diaease in great
abundance is a^t to be inhaled, to become attached to
article* of clothing, to find entrance into food, or to be
transDutted in other ways to health; persons. ^3) It
is a disease for the most part of earl; life, young children
being ^«cialt; snscsptible ; bat adults may also enffer if
the; have not had this fever in childhood. (3) It occnrs
boUi in isolated cases (sporadical!;) and in epidemics.
(4) One attack in general, although not always, confers
immunity from a second. (5) Certain coostitntional
conditions act as predisposing causes favouring the
development of the fever. Thos, where overcrowding
prevails, and where the hygienic state of children is ill
attended to, the disease is more likely to prevail and
spread, and to assume unfavourable forms. Further, in
the puerperal state in women there appears to be a special
susceptibility to suffer in a dangerons manner should there
be exposure to the infection of tha fever. As to the
nature of the infecting agent, nothing positive is known,
althoogh from the anak^ of simiiar diwwoiim It ia
piobable that opedfla aAKxn^abma or gwma m«
oonoemed tn its prodoetion.
The pwiod of ioeabation in scarlet fevei; (that i^ tha
lime elapsing between tbe noeption of ttw poison and the
devel^ment d symptoms) e^psais to vary. Sometimes it
wnold seem to be as short as one or two days, bat in meet
inatanoea it is probably about a week. The invanon of
this fever b generally sadden and sharp, consisting in
rigors, voodting, and sore throat, together with a rapid
rise of temperatare and increase in the pulse. Oocsuonall;,
eepecially in yoang children, the attack ia ushered in by con-
vulsions, lliese premonitoiT symptoms oanally oontinne for
017 sym
when ti
about twenty-four boors, when the cliaracterisUo eruption
makes its appearance. It is first seen on the neck, chest,
arms, and hands, but qnickly spreads all over the body,
although it ia not-distinctiy marked on the face. This rash
consists irf minute thickly-set red spots, which coalesce to
form a general diff nse rednes^ in appearance not unlike that
produced by the sftplication of mustard to the skin. In
some instanoes tiie redness is accompanied with small
vesicles containing flnid. In ordinary cases the tash
comds out completely in about two days, when it begins
to fadis and by the end of a week from its first appearance
it is nsaally gone. Tbe severity of a ease ia in some
degree measnred by the eopionsness and brilliancy of the
raui, except in the malignant varietiee, where there may
be Uttle or no eruption. Hie tongue^ which at first wss
fnned, beoomee abont the fourth or fifth day denuded of
its epithelinm and acquires the peculiar "strawberry'
wpearance characteristic of this fever. The interior of
the throat ia red aud somewhat swollen, especially the
nvnla, soft palate, and tonsils, and a considerable amount
of secfstion' exudes from t^e inflamed surface. Ilete is
also tendemeas and slight svelling of the glands under Uie
jaw. In favonrable cases the fever departs with tbe dis-
appearance of the eruption and cmvaleecenee sets in with
the commencement of the. process of "desquamation' or
peeling of the cuticle, which first shows itself abont the
neck, and proceeds sldwl; Qver the whole surface of tiie
body. Where tbe skin is thin tba desqaamation is in tba
form of fine bnum; scales; bat where it is thicker, as
about the hands and feet^ it oomce oS in large pieces,
which sometimes asmine the form of caste (rf the fingen or
toea. The dniati^ ot tbie proeeel is variably bnt it is
rarely comfdete befon die end of ux or eight weeb, and
not unfreqnently goes on for several weeks beyond that
period. It is during this stage that complications are apt '
to appear, particolaily those due to cold, such as infiam-
mation of Uie kidneys ; aud all throughout its continuance
there is the further danger of. the disease being commoni-
cated to othen bj tbe cast-off epidermic scales.
Scarlet fever shows itself in certain well-.iiiarked
varieties of wbidi tbe following are the chief : —
1. ScarbMna Simpla U the most oonuaon form; In thia tho
ajmptiHna, botti local and gsnant, anmodaiJa, and the case moally
nua a fatonnbla ooune. It ia always, howeTar, to be borne in
mind that the duratiaa and tbe infectiTen«a oT tbe diaeaae, is-
eloding it! coDvalanence, are nninflnerued by tbe mlldneaa of iba
attack. In aome rara instenca It woald awm that tha aridencii
o( the diaeaaa an BO aliabt, aa re^rda both fever and raah, that they
aaoapa oWrrstloa and oal; becdtne known b; the patient laha*-
Joenllv Buffeiing from wnne or the eomplicatloBi aaaociated with it
1 auch oases the nama lotMl aorU /our (larlaitiia laitKt) ii
applied.
2. SearlaOaa AHginem is ■ mors severe form of the few, par-
ticBlariy aa regards Uia threat gjinptDSa. Tha raali may be mil
marked or aot, 'bot ft fi often alow in davelot^g and la aabdding.
Than to intense ioBamnuitian gf t]is thrott, tha tonail^ nvula, and
soft palate batng swollea uid akoated. or >>avliif| upoD th^ Dua-
brai^ patches not unlike those of dipblherbi while Hionallr
fl>e ^and tiisnea In the neA an enlarged and Indnated aiid not
nnfreqnently beoome the aaat of abectaaaa There la difflonltr tai
opening the mouth ; an seiid dia^arge •lOdes l»m the noatrila
aad eieoilata tit* Iqi* t sad the sosateaaace Is sale and wtuy.
SCARLET FEVER
377
: Thfa fem of Hw iHmmi h mirkti br gn»t PMrtntton ef
id It U much mora fnqkniUr bul tliu tfa< nnasuinE.
"■ ' — ' — ' — if ilL Tt«
of Buladiu
MiginiMS mtf uqntn nch ■ HTtn chMneUT, botb M to tfaront
uiu Reognl irfflptomi, u npldlj to pnxliu* proronnd uhinitlaD
■od dHth. But the tjiAalij nttliguot tanat an thma In «hlch
th« ittack a«ls ID with gnat tIdIbum ud tb* latlnt rinln IkvB
th< Terr tint In anch Inatinjai tli« tMh oluar doM not ooBa
out at tU at i> of Cha allghttrt amoiuit and of Urid imthar than
ippaaraon, wbila tha throat nmptOTM an oftOD not
Daath ii
mat MTnt])ii
irto fortj -sight hoon, and i* (TainMatl j ]Hwda(t bj gratt (lark-
m of tha lampgnton of tha bodj and bj dallrinm. ooma, or
w atha uaTTona pbenomana and npld daath (Dparrim.
The complic&tioiu «.nd affects of acarlot feror ore, m
ftlrMd; iDdicat«d, Among the moet important fefttoree in
tbi> ditewe, utd, althongh their occutrance it Dzeeptional,
the; aiipew wili sufficient freqnsncj, and are of snch s
nature, as ooght to make the medical attendant earsfuliy
watch every case for anj of their early indications. The
most common and lerions of these is inflammation of the
IddneyB, which may arise daring any period in tba oootae
of the fever, bnt is ipecially apt to appear in the con-
valescence, while deeqnamation is in progreu. It* onset
is BometimeB snaoonced bj a retnm of feverish symptoms,
accompanied with vomiting and pain in the loins; bat
in a targe nnmber of instances it oociua withoat these
and coma on inaidioiiBlj. One of the most prominent
symptoms is slight swelling of the face, partiealarly of the
eyeUds^ which is rarely sbeent in this oomplication. If the
urine is examined it will probably be observed to be
diminished in qnantity and of dark unoky or red appear-
ance, due to tiie preaenoe of blood ; while it wiu -also
be found to contain a large quantity of albumen. This^
together with the microscopic eiamination which raveals
tiie presence of tube casts contauning blood, epithelinm,
Ac, testifies to a condition of acnte inflammatioo of the
kidney (glomemlar and tnbal nephritis). In favooiable
COM thne symptoms may soon disappear, bnt th^ may
on the other hand prove ezkemely serious, — tiie risks
being the soppneuon of urine, leading to anemic
poisoning and oaosing omiTulsions which may terminate
fatally, or, fnrther, the rapid devekipment of general
dropay, and death trom thu cause. Although thus a
very formidable complication, it is yet one which is
Mnenable to treatment, and by the prompt and judicious
appUeatioQ of remedies lives may often he saved, even in
despente circamstaocea. Oecasioadly this condition does
not wholly psas oS, and ccHueqaently lays the fomidation
for Bkiobt's Disbui (?■*.). Another of the more common
complications or Raalts of scarlet fever is suppurstion of
the ears, doe to Uie extension of the infkmmatory proens
£r«m the tbnjat along the Enstacliiaa tube into the middle
ear. niis not unfrequently leads to permanent ear-
diacharge, with deafnem from the disease affecting the
inner ear and temporal bones * condition implying a
degree of risk from its proximity to the brain. Odker
nuUadtea affecting the heorti Inngs, pleura, Art., occasionally
arise in connection with scarlet fever, bnt they are of lees
common occarrence than those previously mentioned.
Apart, however, trom such definite forms of disease there
may remain as tb« mtdt of scarlet fever simply a general
weakening of health, which may render the patient delicate
and vnlneiable for a long timcL
In the treatment of sctriet fever, one of the first require-
ments is the isolation of the ease, with the view of prevent-
ing the q)read of the disease. Li large honses this may be
poauble, but in most instances it can only be tatisfsctcmly
aooonpliahed by sending aw^ thoaa other members d Hm
family who have not soffered from the fever. The
establiahment in many large towns of hospitals for infec-
tious diseases, wliich provide accommodation iot patients of
all classee, affords the best of all opportunitiw for thorough
isolation. In Urge families, where few or none of the
members hevs hod the disease^ the prompt removal of a
case to such an hospital will in many instances prevent
the spread of the fever through the honsehold, as well as
beyond it, and at the. same time obviate many difficulties
connected with the cleansing and purification of the
houses which, however carBtuUy done, may still leave
remaining some risk in the case of a fever the contagions
power of which is so intense.
When, however, the patient ie treated at homes the sick
room sboald contain only such fumitore as may be le-
qnired, and the attendants shonld come as little as possible
in contact with other members of the household. Should
other children be in the house, they shonld be kept away
from school during alt the tims that the risk of infection
continues. The possibility of the fever being commnni-
eated by letters sent from the sick room should not be
forgotten by those in attendance. DisinfeclaDts, such as ca^
bdio acid, Condy's fluid, &&, may ba used freely in the room
and passages, and all body or bed clothes when removed
should be pkced at once in boiliag water, or in some disin-
fecting fluid. In convalescence, with the view of preventing
the transmission of the desquamated cuticle, the innncticm
of the body with csrlxiliied oil (1 in iO) and the freqaenl
nse of a bath containing soda r'e to be recommended.
All books, toys, 4k^ used by the patient daring the
illnesa should be earefnlly destroyed or given to fever
hospital^ as their pieasrvation has frequently been known
to cause an outbreak of the disease at a subsequent time.
With respect to the duration of the infectiTs period, it
may be stated generally that it is seldom that a patient
who has suffered bom scarlet fever can safely so about
before tiie expiry ei eight weeks, while cm the o£er hand
the period may be considerably prolonged beyond thiis
the meaauro of the time lieing tjie completion of the pro-
cess of desquamation in every portion of the si face of
the body. As to general management during the progreu
of the fever, — in favourable cases little is reqnired beyond
careful nursing and feeding. The diet all through the
fever and convalescence should ba of light character, con-
■iiting mainly of milk food. Soups may be taken, but
solid animal food should as far as possiblD be avoided.
During the febrile stage a asefnl drink may be mode by a
weak solution of chlomte of potaiih in water (1 drachm to
the pint), and of this the patient may partake freely. In
the more severe forma of the disease, when the throat is
much affected, the application with a brush of a str(»^
solution of Condy's fluid or other disinfectant, such as
boroglycerides glycerine of carbolic acid, quinine, ic, may
be required, or gargling with these lubstances when this
con be done. In the malignant variety, wher- the eruption
is not appearing, or is bnt ill developed, stimiUante inter-
nally, and the hot bath or pock, may eomstimea afford a
chance, or the hypodermic nse ot pilocupin, — although it
most be confeeeed that in snch cases little can be ekpected
from any remedies. The treatment of the kidney com-
plication and its accompanying dropsy is similar to that
for acute Bright's disease. Depletion by leeching or cup-
ping the kins, and the promoticn of cutaneous action by
a hot air bath or a hot wet peck, or by pUocarpin, are
the moot useful measares, and will often succeed in saving
life. The abscesses of the neck which oocasionslly occur as
eomplieatioits shonld be opened antisepticoUy, while the
ear disorders, which are apt to continue long after the
termination of convalescence, will demand Aa special
attention of the mrist. (■>. o. jl)
XXL -- 48
378
S C A — S C E
SCABBON, Path. (1S1O-16S0), poet, dnmatu^ Dovel-
iit, and tnuband of MadAme de Mainteoon, ma bom
or at leaat baptized on the 4th Jnlj 1610. Hu father, of
the Mine name^ iraa a man of position, and a member of
the parlsmant of Paria. Paul the jonnger (who is «aid
to naTo qnarrelled irith hia stepmother) became an
abbi, was not ill-allowanced, and traTelled to Borne in
1634 He retUTQed and became a well-known figoce in
liteiaiy and fashionabla society. A wild atoiy used to
be told of hia having (when in lesidence at hia canonry
of La Mans^ tarred and feathered himself aa a carmval
freak, of his having been obliged to take rafnge from
popnlar wrath in a swamp, and of hia consequent d^ormiCy
bom rhemna^m. The simple fact seema to ba that in
163T he had an attack of fever with the nsual seqnaloi of
rhenmatic attack^ and tiiat he pnt himself into the hands
of a qnack doctor. This at Iwit is how Tallemant telle
the story, thongh ba aabetitntei a less creditable disease
for tever. What ie certain is that Scarron, after having
been in perfect health for nearly ttiirtf yean, passed
twenty more in a atate of miserable deformity and pain.
Hia head and body were twisted, and hia legs became
aaaleaa Nevertheless he bore up against his anfferings
with invincible courage, though they were complicated Irf
hia inheriting nothing from hu father, and by the poverty
and misconduct of hu sisters, whom he supported. For a
few years he really held a benefice at La Mans, but was
then in no case to play pranks. It ia said, however, that
here ha conceived the idea of the Jionaii Comigiu and
VTote the drama of Joddel, which ^ve a nickname to the
actor who performed it. In 1616 he returned to Paris
tad worked hard for the booksellera, from the name of
one of whom ha is said to have called literatnre pleaauitly
his " marqnisat de Qninet." He Iiad also a penaion from
Hanrin and one from the qneen, but lost luth fiom being
aecnsed of " Frondenr ' santimenta. Tka moat aingnlar
action of his life remains to ba told. In his early years
he had been, as hinted, something of a libertine, iai a
young lady of some family, Ctleste Falaiseau, had openly
lived with him. Bot in 16iS3, siiteen years after ha had
become almost entirely paralysed, he married a girl of
much beauty and no fortune, Fran^iie or Francine
d'Aubign^ gianddanghter of Agrippa d'Aubignd, after-
wards famous as Madame de Hainteoon. Scarron'a house
wae, both before and after the marriage, a great centre
of society, despite hia narrow meana Tet only the moat
malignant and nnacmpnloua Ubellers of the future favourite
accuse her of light condoct during tlie eight years of her
mairiaga to thia strange husband, and the well-informed
anthcw of the SutorUtia distinctly acquits her of any
•nch. But Scarron, who had long been able to endure
life only by the aid of constant doses of opiam, was at
length worn out, and died on the 6th October 1660.
SouTim'i work ia rsiy ■bnnduit, and, writtni u it ma cndcr
nasnra of *«nt «nd [ihi. it is rtij onaquiL The pi«a msrt
tmons in hia own dij, tij FirgiU rratHti (1M8-63), ii now
thongbt, ud Dot nnjtutly, i •omswhit ignobig isd UDproGtibla
wtlta of aingnlni powan for bnrluqiio. But tliB Roman Comigai
riSM) ia a work tba marit of which a.a b* dtnitd by no compsteat
jndgg who hu raid it Unfiniahtd, and ■ littla dsnltorv, thii
hiitory of ■ troop of atrolliaj uiton ii atmoat the fint Frmoli
novel, la point of data, which ahowa raol power of puixting
maiiDen ud character, aod ia alnpilarly vivid. It f\inilahed
Th^bila Qantiar iritli the idu and with aoma oT tha datuli of
bii CapUaitu Fraaut. Sesma (lu wrote Hma abortar norala
Both these ud the othcn which h<
sreofconraa aomewhet lotiqtutad Id atyle, bnt with Coracilla'B
Jfmfciir they eUnd abota BTwrtbiDgela* in comedy belbra Htdiira
He eleo prodaced nunj miacallaileoiu piecea.
Setnon is nnanllT epekaa of ud t£aa{^t of as s nptsieststire
writer of barleeqne, bnt in leslitj he poaHaaed fn abnnduoa the
tutally of tnw eoniedy. The noat oom^als edition of hif work* \»
heldtobathatofir>7aOToli,AmslwdsiB),bathliBi<
pieoes, inalndlng ill thoea manliDned sbava, bars been biqasi
nprtDtod.
SCAUP,— tiia wild-fowler's ordinary abridgment of
ScAUP-DucK, meaning a Duck so called "because she
feeds upon Sau^, *.«., broken ihelfish,'' aa may be seen in
Wiltughby's OmitAolops/ (p. 365); bnt it wouhl be more
proper to say that the name comes from the " Mussel-
scaups," or " JUnsBel-scalpe,'" the beds of rock or aand on
wliidL Mussels (llytiLtu tdvlU, and other speciea) are
aggregated,— the Anat autnla of LinmEus and Fniiffula
marila of modern systematic writen, a very abundant bird
around the CMSts of most parts of the northern hemisphere,
repairing inland in spring for the purpose of reproduction,
though so far as is positively known liardly but in northern
districts, as Iceland, Lapland, Siberia, and the fur-conntriea
of America. It was many years ago lielieved {Edm. K.
FhUot. Jounxd, u, p. 23 3) to have been found breeding
in Scotland, but assertions to that effect have not been
wholly substantiated, thongh apparently corroborated by
some later evidence (Proe. !f. M. Soe. Glatgou, u. p. 121,
and Froe. Pky: Soc Editdmrgh, vil p. 203). The Scaup-
Duck has conatderabb likenesa to the Focsau> (voL xiz.
p. 252), both in habits and appearance ; but it much more
generally aSecta lalt-water, and the bead of the male is
black, glossed with green, and hence the name of " Black-
head," by which it is commonly known in North America,
where, however, a second species or race, smaller than the
ordinary one, is also found, the FtHiffuia a^tiit. The female
Scaup-Dnck can be readily distingiushed from the Dunbird
or female Pochard by her broad white face. (a, k.)
SCEPnCISU signifies etymolof^cally a state of doubt
or indecision in the face of different mutually conflicting
statements (m^wrofitu, I consider, reQect, hesitate, doubt).
It is implied, moreover, that thia doubt is not merely a
stage in the road to certainty and true knowledge.
The provisional auspenae of judgment recommended by
Descartes and others as the true beeinning of pbiloaophy
is no more than a passing phase of uie individual's mind
in his search for truth. But the doubt of the sceptic is
professedly the last result of investigation ; it' la the
renunciation of the search for truth on the ground that
truth or real knowledge ia unattainabte by man. An
account of the chief historical appearances of scepticism
and its different motives will aerva to illnstiate and amplify
thia statement, and will lead up to any farther coonidcra-
tions of a general nature. At the outset, and in general
terms, icepticiam may be summarily deSoed as a thorough-
going impeachment of man's power to know-— as a demal
of the poBsibility of objective knowledge.
Tms^ not distrust, is the primitive attitude of the mind.
What is pnt before us, whether by the senses or by the
statements of others, is instinctively accepted aa a veradous
report, till experience has proved the possibility of decep-
tion. In the history of philosophy, in the same way,
affirmation precedea negation; dc^matism goes before
scepticism. And this must be to, because the dogmatic
systems are, as it were, the food of scepticism ; withoot
them it would be withoat motive^ without a batit oper-
atuli. Accordingly, we find that sceptical thought did not
make its appearance till a succession of positive theories
as to the nature of the reel, by their mutual incon-
sistency, had suggested the possibility that they might
all alike be false. The Sophistic epoch of Qreek philo-
sophy waa, in great part, such a negative reaction agaiitst
the Inxnrianco of self-confident assertion in the nature-
philosophies of the preceding age. Though scepticism a
a definita school of opinion may be said, ir '--'
SCEPTICISM
witk old pracadeot, to dkte onlj from tlie time of lyrho
et Rl'»i tasr« om b« no donbt Uut ttie main cumnta ot
Sopliutii; thouf^t irere iceptical in the wider teoie of tliat
term. The S^hisU were the fint in Greece to dinolve
knowledge into indiTidW and momentary pinion (Protk-
gors*), or dialeoticallf to deny the poamluHtj of koow-
ledge (Qorgias). In tlie«e two examplea we ees how tb«
weapons torg^ by the dogmatic philoaopbeis to aasitt in
the eetahliahment of their own theeei are sceptiaLll;
turned againit philoeoph; io genersL Am oyotj attempt
to rationalise nature implies a certain process of (ritici«ii
and intarpretatioD to which the data of sense are mlijected,
and in which thej are, as it were, transcended, the anti-
thesis of reason and sense is formnlatad earlj In the
bistoiy of specnlation. Tbo opposition, being taken aa
absolnte, impliee the impeachment of the Tsradtjr of the
senses in the interest of the rational trtith proclaimed by
the philoeophets in question. Among the pnyfiooratic
natnre philosophers of Greece, Heraclitne and the Elaatks
are the chief representatives of this polemic againtt the
" lying witness " of the senie*. The diametriMl iqtpoai-
tion ot the grounds on which the veracity of the SMiees i«
impugned hj the two philosophies (tIe., by Henolitos
because they teati^ to an apparent permaaeneo and
identity in ^da by the Eleatics because they testify to
an apparent mdtiplicity and diange) was in itteU aaggea-
tive of soeptical reflexion. HoreOTer, although theso ^lo-
sopben an not in any nrosa tbemstlTea soeptical, their
arguments are eaidly nuceptiUs ot a wider ^>idkation.
Aocordingty we find that tb« a^oments by whiA Benolitns
nipported hia thaoity of the uuTersal fltiz are enpk>yed by
Protagoras to nndermine the posMUUlj of olijiectira truth,
by disaolring all knowledge into the momeatary sanMtkn
or permanon of the bdividnaL The idea of on objectiTe
flax, or law of change oonstitnting the reality ot things, is
abandoned, and s&bjectiTe points of sense alone remain, —
which is tantamount to eliminating the real from hnman
knowledge.
BtiU mon nnoqtiivooal was the sceptical nihilism ex-
pressed hj Gorgias in his three celebrated theses : — (1)
nothing exists ■ (2) if anything existed, it would be un-
knowable; (3) if anything existed and were knowablt^
the knowledge ot it could not be communicated. The
argnmenta of his book, " Concerning the Non-existen^ or
Nature," wei« drawn from the dialectic which the Eleatiea
had directed against the existence of the phenomenal
world. But they an no longer used as indirect proofs of
ft unireraa of pure and unitary Being. Tha prominence
given by most of the Sopliiets to rhetoric, lieir cultira-
tioD ot a sal^jectiTe readiness- as the essential equipment
for life, their lubatitntiDn of persuasion for conviction, all
mark the sceptical nndertone of their teaching. This
attitude of indifference to real knowled^ passed in the
younger and leas reputable generation mto a corroding
moral scepticism which recc^uiied no good but pleasure
and no right hot might.
What Bocratea chieSy did was to recreate the instinct
for truth and the belief in the poasibili^ of its attain-
ment. 'Rie scientific impulse thus communicated was
snfBrisnt to drive soepticiam into the background during
the great age of Greek pbiloaophy (>.«., the hundred years
preceding Aristotle'e death, 329 b.0.]. The captious
logio of the Hc^aric school, — in whidi the Eleatio in-
fluence was strong, — their devotion to eristic and the elab-
oration of falladea, was indeed in some cases closely related
to soeptioal results. The school has beuu connderad with
some tmth to iorm a connecting link with tite later soep-
ticiam, jnat as the cont^nporan Cynicism and Cyrenaicism
' e held to be imperfeet prelndes to Stoicdsm lad
Tha azbeme ""■"'"»" ^" of rana of Iha
Cynki alao, who daniiid the poadUUty of any but identical
C' pnent^ mart be mmilaMy regarded aa a solvent of
wledge. But widi these iusigniflcant exoeptims it holds
true that, after the soeptieal wave marked by the Sophists,
sceptjdsm does oot reiq)pear till afte/ the exhaustion of
the Booialia impnlse In Aristotle.
The first man in antiqnity whose scepticism gave nama
to his doctrine was Vjrrbo of Elis (about 960-370 >.&).
I^ho proceeded with the army of Alexander the Great
sa fiv sa India, in the company of Anaxatehua, the
Domocritean pbiloeopher. He af tuwardi returned to his
native city, whwe ne lived in pon eircnmstanoes, but
hi^y honoured by hia feUow-oitiiena. I^rrrho hbnself
left DO writings. Mid the accounte of his doctrine are
mainly derived from hia pupil Timon of Fhlius (about
995~39S B.a). TimoD is eslled the Sillographist, bom hia
satirical poem (SAAoi), in which all the juukwophers of
Greece are held up to ridicule, with the exception of
ZeoophaBsa, who htmestly son^t, and Fyirbo, who
BDOoaeded in flnding the truth. OUier disaipleB are
mentkned bemdes Timon, but the school was short-lived,
its place being preaentiy taken fay the a
cultured doubt of the New i
„ . tbe ri^t attitnda
towards them is to wiJibold JodgnieDt; tte naossMiy
raaolt ot withhoUing judgment is impertorbalnlity. Ilw
tediniwJ language <^ Uie sdiocd exprcsana the first podtloa
by the word inraAHfb; things are wticdly iDOompra-
insnwsible ; against evray statement tba
opposite may be advaoeed with equal justioe (bewWtsw
Tw \iym). The soBptical watdiwwd irikidi embodies tli
second pontion is imxi, reserve of jodgm '
put by Timon, oflSlr ^^^Aw, that is, no a
buer than another, jliia eoni ' '
also expressed by Uu tsmis ifMla, or aqoiliiaiom, and
i^aoia, or refusal to ^sak, as irell as by oAar nuinMsliini
The I^yrrhonists were coiuistent enough to extend thttr
doubt even to their own prindpto of doubt. They thus
attempted to make thur sceirtidsDi nnirersal, sjtd to
escape the reproach of basiDg it upon a fresh dogmstism,
Itental impertnrbabili^ (drapaffs) waa the les^ to be
attained \^ cnltitating soch a name ot mind. He
happiness or MttisfactiMi of the individoal was the end
wMch dominated this scepticism aa well as the eontem-
potary systems of Stoicism and Epwnreanism, and all three
philosophies place it in tranquillity or seIf-oentt«d indif-
ference. Scepticism withdraws the individual oompletely
into himself from a world of which be can know nothing.
It is msn's opinions or unwarranted judgments abo^
things My the sceptics, which betray them into desire^
and painful effort, and disappointment. From all this a
man is delivered who abstains from judging one state to
be nreferaUe to another. But, aa oompMs inactlvi^
would have been nnonymoos with death, it qipean to
have been admitted that the soeptio, irtiila retebing his
consdonsness irf tiie complete mMertuntyenvek^iing every
step, mi^t follow custom in the ocdinaiy affairs ^ lif«
The scepttdsm of the New Academy {or, to qieak nun
strictiy, of tha Middle Academy, nndw Aroedlans and
Cameade^ faundera lespsotiTdy of die scKalled second
and tliird Acadamies) dtferad very little from that of the
^rrrhonista. Tha diffwenoea sinilrd ^ later writen are
not borne out on inTnttigstiftn But ttie attitude main-
tained by the Aeademiaa waa obMy that ot a negative
critadsdi of &» viswa of othen, in particnlar of the some-
what crude and imperiotiBdORiutiBm of tiie Stoics. Thej
also^ in the abssooe of eertwitj, allowed a large scope to
probability as a motive to adwn, and defeoded their
dootrios on this point with gnatar cars and AiU, IStt
380
SCEPTICISM
wltola pontiod mw atet«d witb mon nrbftnity and cnl-
ton^ ud ma Mi[^><»t«d, hj Carneftdei in pwticnlar, by
kq^nmentstioQ tX once mora copiotu uid mon ocnte. It
nnrmn »ito tme tlwt the Acadsmica were less oTerbome
thui the I^rrhomatB bj the practical iwne of their doubts
(impertnrbabilitj) ; t^eir interast wu more paralf iutel-
lecbial, and tkaj had aomething ct the old delight in
mental exercitation for its own Hike. Arceeilita or
ArcMilaua (aboat 316-240 b.o.) mode the Stoic theory of
iimistibia impraaaioiu (^oiTacritu miTaXTimW} the special
object of Ma attack. More irreeistibleoeaa (laTaXiTfic),
ha maintained, i* no criterion of tmth, aince faUe
penwptiona may equally poawn thia power to awaj the
mind. He iirnmn diiefij to have sapported hia position hj
■ddodag &e already well-known argamenta of former
philoaoimen agatnat the veracity of the aBoaea, and be
•ridently held that by these argnments Qifi poasibility of
knowledge in general waa snffioiently aabverted We i
know nothing, he concluded, — not even this itseU, that
know nothing. He denied tiiat the wont of knowledge
rednoea na to inaction. Notiona influence the will
immediately, apart from the question of thair truth, and,
in all qncationa of oondoct, probabili^ {rb rlXoyoy) ia
OUT Buffloient gnid«s as it is onr hij^est attainable
(tandard. It ia stated that Arceailans mada hia n^ative
oritioiam merely a preliminary . to the inculcation of a
modified Flatomam. But tlua aoconn^ though not in
itself incredible, ia not borne ont by any evidence at our
diapOML The theory of Gameadea (213-139 b.c) rapre.
•ents the higbeat development of Academic scepticism.
"Die dogmatic syatem wUch Cameadee had in view waa
that of Chrysippna, the Btoic, whoae main positions,
whether ip the theory of knowledge, in morola, or in
tiieology, he Ki1::rjeoted to an acnte and thoroogh-going
criticiam, Aa to the criterion of troth, Cameadei denied
that this oonld be found in any impreaaion, aa such; for in
order to prove ita troth an impreenon mnat teaUfy, not
only to itself, bat also to the objecta eaniing it. We find,
however, admittedly, that in many cases we are deceived
fay onr impreasiona ; and, if this ia so, then is no kind of
impreaaion which can be regarded aa gnaianteeing ita own
troth. According to hia own examples, it is impoasible to
distingniah obgecta so much alike aa is one egg to another ;
at a certain diatance the painted anrtace seems raised, and
a square tower aeemt ronod; an oar in water seems
broken, and the neck-plnmags of a pigeon aasomea
different colours in the sun; objects on the akon seem
moving as we pass by, and so forth. The same uiplim,
be argued, to purely intellectnal ideas. Uany fallacies
cannot be aolved, and we cannot, for example, draw any
absolate distinction between nmch and little, or, in abort,
between any quantitative difieienceo. Our impreedons,
therefore, fonush us with no tset of truth, and we can
derive no aid from the operationa of the Qnderstandlni^
which are purely formal, combining and separating ideas
without giving any insight into their validity. Besidra
thia general criticism of knowledge, Cameadu attacked
the cardinal doctrines of the Stoio achool, — theii doctrine
of God and their proof of divine providence from the
evidenoaa of deaign in the airaugements of the univeiae.
Hany of hia arguments are praaerved to ns in Cicero's
Acadfmia and Dt Nat*tra Deorynt. Hts critidam of the
contradictions invdved in the Stoio idea of Qod really
constitntea the first diacnaaion in ancient times of the
personalis of Qod, and the difficulty of oombining in ena
conception the characters of infinity and individnaii^.
Aa a poEttive ofiet agunat hia acepticiBm, Carneadca
elaborated mora fully the Academic theory of probability,
for which he employed the terma Ifi^ains and n$arin]t.
Baag neoetsarily ignorant of the relation of ideaa to tiie
objects tbay represent, we are reduced to judging them by
their relation to ourselves, i.e., by their great«' or lew
elearoeaa and appearance of trotL Though alwaje tailing
short of knowledge, this appearance of truth may be
strong enongh to determine ua to action. Carnaadea rect^-
nized three degreea of probability. The first or lowest
ia where onr impression of the trothfnlneaa of an idea
ia derived aimply from the idea itself ; the second degree
is where that impression ia confirmed by the agreement
of related ideas ; if a careful investigation of all the
individual ideas bean ont the same oonoloidou, we have
the third and highest degree of probability. In the first
caae, an idea ia called probable (n^onj) ; in the aecond,
probable and nndisputed {nSarii vol irtptvraimt) ; in
the third, probable, undisputed, and tested (nAiv^ ml
irtpumumt Ktd npuuSn^^)- The acepticiam of
Carneadea waa expounded by Ms auecessor Clitomachns,
,bnt the Academy waa aoon afterwarda (in the so-called
fourth and fifth Academlee) invaded by the Eclecticism
wMch about that time began to obliterate the distinctions
of philosophical doctrine which had hitherto separated
the aohoola. Cicero also, who in many respecta waa
strongly attracted by the Academic acepticiun, finally
I took refnga in a species of Eclecticism oaaed npcm a
doctrine 1^ innate ideas, and on the argument from ibt
1^ later acepticiam — which ia aometimes ap(A»n of u
the third sceptical school — claimed to be a continuation oF
the earlier Pyrrhoniam. ^neaidemna, though not abso-
Intely the first to renew this doctrine, is the first of whoae
doctrine anything is known. He appears to have taught
in Aluandria about the beginning of the Christian ma.
Among the anooesaora of .£uesidemns, the cMef names
■re those of Agrippa, whose dates cannot be determine)^
and the phyaidan Sextus Empiricus (abont 300 a.i>.),
whose PjprhiMie Hypoli/potet, and his work Advertm
MatkemtOioot, oonstitute a vast armoury of the weapons ti
andent sceptieiam. They are of the ntmoart valne as an
historical record. With Satnrninua, the pnpil of Sextn^
and Favorinns, the grammarian, andent acepticiam may
be aaid to disappear from history. What speculative
power remained waa turned entirely into Neoplatradc
ohauneli. To .fneddemns belongs the first emuneration
of the ten so-called tropee (rpimi), or modes of sceptical
argument^ thongb the argnmentz themselvss were, U
coarse, currant before Ms time. The first teope appeals to
the different oonstitation of different animals as involving
different modes of perception ; the second i^liee the
same argument to the individual differences irtilch are
found among men ; the third insists on the way in which
the aenaea contradict one another, and aoggests that an
endowment with more nomerons sensea would lead to a
different report aa to the nature of things; the fonitb
a^nes from the variability of onr phydcal state »nd
mental mooda ; the fifth brings forward the divenitiea of
appearance due to the poailion and diatance of objects;
the sixth calls attention to the fact that we know notMcg
directly, but only through some medium, auch aa ur or
moisture, whose influence on the process cannot be elimi-
nated i the seventh refers to the changes which the snp-
poeed ol^ect undergoes in qnanti^, temperature, colour,
motion, Ac. ; the eighUi really anms np the thought which
underlies the whole series, wb«m it argues frmn the lebr
^vity of all onr perceptions and notions ; the ninth paints
out the dependence ol our impnaaiona on cnston, the Ww
and atianga impteMog ns much mrae vividly than the
cnatomacy; the tenth addneea the divwaiS of enatomi,
mannef% laws, dodrioea, utd opinions among men
.foesidemns likewise stta^ad the notion of cause at con-
aiderable length, but jieither in his ugnmeiita nor in the
SCEPTICISM
381
numoroos objectioni 1'roagtit 4gaiiut tlie notion hy Seztue
Eiii]uricu3 do WB inaet n-itli the thouglit which furnished
ttie DorvB of modern KOpticism in Hums. The precticaJ
restilt of hi? KspticUm .Eneaidemcu aought, like the
r^nhoniste, in arapaiia. Ho ii somewhat stmngely teid
to hare combined hie Bcepticism with a renviil of the
philosopb}' of Eemclitua ; bnt tbe uaertioa perhaps rests,
as Zeller contends, on a conftuion. To Agrippft is attri-
buted the reduction of the tceptical trapes to five. Of
these, the first is based on the discrepancy of hnman
opinions; the second on the fact that STerj proof itself
requires to be proved, nhich implies a regimut in injiiii-
lina; the third on tbe lelatiTitj of onr kooirledge, which
raries according to the constitntion of the percipient tnd
the circnmstancei in which he perceivea. The fourth is
resit}' a completion of the second, and forbids the assump-
tion of nnproven propoiitioDs na the premises of an argu-
ineDt. It is aimed at the dogmatists, who, in order to
avoid the rtgrttiat in infinitutn, set oat from some principls
iUegiCinutely awnnted. The fifth seeks to sliow that
reaaooing is essentially of the nature of a drailut in pro-
banda, inasmuch as the principle adduced in proof requires
itself to be supported hj that which it is called in to prove.
The attack o-xAe in several of theaa five tropes npon the
possibility of demoastration marks this enumeration as
distinctly superior to the first, which cousistB in the main
of arguments derived from the fallibility of the ssnses.
The new point of view is maintained in the two tropes
which were the result of a further attempt at generaliza-
tion. Nothing is selt-sTident, says the fimt of these
tropes, for, if all things irere certain of themselves, men
would not differ as they do. Nor can anything be made
certun by proof, says the second, because we most either
arrive in Ae process at something self-evident, which
is impossible, as has just been said, or we mtist involve
oanelves in an endless regresa.
When wa review the history of ancient thought, we
find, as Zeiler pats i^ that "the general result of all
acBptical inquiriw lies in tbe propcaition that every asser-
tion may be opposed by another, and every reaaon by
reasons equally strong — in tbe IraiiSirna rur Xiytar. Or,
OS the same thing may be expressed, what all scepticai
proofs come bock to is tbe relativity of all our idesa. We
can never know tbe nature of things as they are, bnt
always only the manner in which they appear to na. The
criterion of the sceptic is the appearance. Not even his
own proof can claim truth and universal validity : be does
not assert; he only seeks to relate how a thing strikes ^m
at the present moment And even when he expresses his
doubts in the form of nniversal statements they are
intended to be included in the general uncertainty ot
knowledge" {Phil. d. Gneehmt, iii. 2, p. &8> Both
Zeller and Hegel, it may be added, remark npon the
difference between the calm of ancient scepticism and the
perturbed state of mind evinced by many modem sceptics.
Universal doubt was tbe iastromeut which the sceptics of
antiquity recommended for tbe attaiament of complete
peace of mind ; rest and satisfaction can be attained, they
say, in no other way. By the modems, on the other
hand, doubt in portrayed, for the meet par^ as a state of
nnreat and painful yearning. Even Hume, in various
noteworthy passages of his Treaiite, speaks of himself as
recovering cheerfulness and mental tone only by forgetftil-
neas of his own argnmenta. His state of universal doubt,
so far from being painted as a desirable goal, is described
by him as a "malady" or ss "pbiiosophical melancholy
and delirinm." The difference might easily be interpreted
either as a sign of sentimeDtal weakness on the part of the
niod«ns.or as a proof of the limitation of the ancient
■ceptica which rendered them mora easily aatisfied in the
absence of truth. It aeemn to prove^ at all evsnta, that
the ancient sceptics were more thoroughly convinced tliau
their modem successors of the reasonableness of their own .
attitude. But whether the ancients were tbe better or
the worae sceptics on that account is a nice question
which need not be decided here. It may be doubted,
however, whether tbe thoroughgoing philosophical scepti-
cism of antiquity has an; exact parallel in modem times,
with the single exception possibly of Hume's Triatia o»
Smvum Naturt, It is true we find many thinkers who
deny the competency of reason when it ventures in sny
way beyond the sphere of experience, and such men ere
not unfreqaently called sceptics. This is the sense in
which Kant often osea tbe term, and the usage is adopted
by others, — for example, in the following definition from
Ueberweg's Hiriory of Fhilotop&y :—" Tbe principle of
scepticism is univenal doabt, or at least doubt with regard
to the validity of all judgments respecting that which lies
beyond the range of ezperienca." The last characteristic,
however, is not enough to constitute scepticism, in the
sense in which it is exemplified in the encient sceptics.
Scepticism, to be complete, must bold that even within
experience we do not rationally conclude bnt are irration-
ally induced to believe. "In all the incidents of life," as
Hume puts it, "we onght still to preserve our scepticism.
If we believe that fire warms, or water refreshes, 'tis only
because it costs xu too much pains to think otherwise "
{Trratiti, bk. i. iv. T). This tone, which fairly represents
the attitude of ancient sceptics, is rare among the modems,
at least among those who are professed phUosophers. It
ia more easily matched in the unsystematic utterances of
a man of the world like Montaigne.
One form of scepticism, however, may be claimed as
an exclttuvel; modem growth, namely, philosophical
sceptidsm in the interests of theologicd faith. Theee
sceptics are primarily Apologists. Their scepticism is not
" de bonne fi^ " ; it is simply a means to the attainment
of a further end. They find that the dogmas of their
church have often been attacked in the name of reason,
and it may be that some of the objections urged have
proved hard to rebuL Accordingly, in an access of pious
mge, as it were, they turn upon reason to rend her. They
deny her claim to pronounce npon such matters ; they go
furdier, and dispute her prerogative altogether. They
endeavour to show that she is in contradiction with her-
self, even on matters non-theologicaL and that everywhere
this much vaunted reason of man (la superbe raison) is the
creature of custom and circumstance. Thus tbe "im-
becility " of reason becomes their warrant for the reception
by another organ— by faith — of that to which reason
bad raised objections. The Greeks had no temptation to
ditide man in two in this fsshion. When tbey were
scaptiei, their scepticism had no ulterior motives; it was
an end in ilaelf. But this line of argument was latent
in Christian thought from the time when St Paul spoke
of the "foolishness" of preaching. TertuUian fiercely
re-echoed tbe sentiment in his polemic against tbe philo-
sophers of antiquity : — " Crucifixus est Dei filius ; non
pudet, quia pudendum est. Et mortuus est Dei filius;
prorsus credibile est, quia ineptum est. Et sepultns
reanrreiit ; certum est, quia impoasibile eat." But, as
Chriatianity became firmly entabliahed. Christian writers '
became more tolerant of speculation ; and, instead of
' Thi. ■
la Tatuf/al al- FiUiifn ("Tha
Aopkictl Bupticitm in thi liitflrottj of Drtfaodox
orthodoiT which pmad, bomTer, in fail own cu« Into i ipgdH o[
" didliliwarkardHlroiitkiBKtbonnigblT'UiitAnlilsa
oot aftsv U> tian In Um lead of ila unli.
S82
SCEPTICISM
fUncting the irrecouotltabl* OppOution irf nucm and
dogm*, thoj labonrBd to rodocs tlis dootriDw of the cfinrch
to K ntiDiial tjvtBTO. Tliii tbs tho long ta>k eaayed by
BcholAiticuiBi ; and, though the great Uchoolmeo of the
13th century rafnined from attempting to ratioiuJize ench
doctrinee u the Trinity and the Inoamatioo, they were
far from coDaideriDg them n eoentially oppoeed to reuon.
It wu not tii] toward* the clora of the Uiddle Agea
thdt ft wnae of conSict between reason and reTelation
beoame widely prevalent and took ahape in the asMntially
■ceptical theory of the twofold natnre of tmth. Fhilo-
Bophical troth, as dedaced from the teachiog of Aristotle,
it wsB laid, dbectly contradict) the teaching of the ehorcb,
which determinea tmth in theology ; bnt the contradiction
loATea the aathority of the latter unimpaired in it* own
■phere. It ii difficult to believe that this doctdne was
«ver pnt forward sineetely; in the meet of tfaoae who
profoned it, it wot oertoinly no more than a veil by which
thej iongbt to cover tbeli' hetsrodoiy and evade its
conseqneDcea. Bightly dirimDg h mnch, the chorch
oondsmned the doctrine as early « 1276. Nevertbeleaa
it waa openly profeseed daring the period of the break
up of Scholaatie Ariilotelianiam. Pompooatiiu, the Alaz-
Mtdriat c4 Padua (ob. 1S26}, waa one of ita beat known
advocateai
The typical and by far the greateat example of the
diriatian loeptio it FoksI (1633-1662). The form of the
PtHtitt forbidd the attempt to evolre from their detached
utterances a completely coherent ayatem. For, thongh he
declare* at times "La pyrrhaniame est le Trai,* "Se
moqner da la philoeophie c'eat -rraiment philcoopher,* or,
again, " Enmiliez-vous, roiaon impoisaante, taises-voua,
iwtare imbteile,' other pauagea might be quoted in which
he aaaumea the validity of reason within ita own sphere.
Bnt what ha everywhere emphatically denies is the
possibility of reaching by the anasaiatad reason a satis-
factory theory of things. The contradictiona which meet
ns everywhere are anmmed np and concentrated in the
Batore of man. Han is a hopeless enigma to himself, till
he aee* hiinaelf in the light of revelation aa a fallen
ereatnre. The fall alone eiplaina at once the nobleness
and the meanness of humanity; Jeans Christ is the only
solutioa in which the baffled reason can rest Theae
are the two pointa on which Paacal'a thonght tnma.
" There ia nothing which ia more shocking to ooi
reason ' than tbe doctrine of original sin ; yet, in his own
words, "le n<snd de notre condition prend ses replis et
see tours dans cet ab^e; de sorte que lliomme est plos
inconcevable aana ce myttire que ce myst^ n'est incon-
oevable k lliomma.' Far, therefore, from being able to
ait in judgment npon the mysteries of the faith, reason u
unable to solve its own contradictioos without aid from a
higher aonrce. In a somewhat siniiUr fashion, in the
present eeotnry, lAmenoais (in the firet stage of his
rpeculations, represented by the Suai lur flndifirtJKt en
ifjtiirt Bitiffinuf, 181T-21) endeavoured to destroy aU
rational certitude in order to establish the principle of
authority; and the same profound distrUBt of the power
of tbe natural reason to arrive at tmth is ezempIiSed
(though the allegation has been denied by the author) in
the writings of Cardinal Newman. In a different direction
and on a larger scale, Hamilton's philoaophy of the con'
ditioned may be quoted aa an example of the same religiona
•oeptiinam. Arguing from certain antiaomiea, aaid to be
inherent in reason as anch, Hamilton aonght to found
theology (in great part at leaat) npxm our nescienoc^ and
to Bubedtuta belief for knowledge. He also jmitatad
Puca] at times in dilating upon the " Impotence " and
"imbecility* ol our faoulliea ; but, as with Faseal, this
va.- nlliur in raferenoe to thMr fauapaeity to evolve an
"abaolnte* systam than to their veracity In the otdlnaiy
delaila of ezperlence. The theological appUcatlou and
development of Hamilton's argnmenta in Mamel'i Barapton
I^otnrea 0» (** LinUt of Btligivu* TAoufflU marked a
still more determined attack,-in tbe Interests of theology.
Paming from this particular vein of aceptical or acmi-
Booptical thoogbt, we find, as we should expect, that the
downfall of Bcbolasticiun, and the oonfliot of philosophical
theoriaa and religions confessiona which ensued, gave a
decided impetus to sceptical refleiiou. One of the earliest
instances of this spirit is afforded by tbe bookiof Agrippa
of Nettesbeim (1*87-1335), Dt IncertUudint rt Tanilate
Scimiiarum. Sceptical reflexion rather than Byvteinatie
Bcopticism is what meets us in liicbsl de Uonlaigna
(lS33-lC92),thoQgb the elaborate pcesentation of ecopticat
and relativistic arguments in his "Apologia de Kaimond
Bebond ' (EuaiM, ji. 13), and the emblem be recommende
— a balance with the legend, " Quo scaj-je I ' — might
allowably be adduced as evidence of a more thurongbgoing
I^rrboniam. In his " tesmoynages de noatre imblcillit4,*
he fcUowi in the main the lines of the ancients, and he
■oma np with a lucid statement of the two great
argnmenta In which the sceptical thoogbt of every age
reiumes itaetf ~~the impossibility of verifying our facultiet^
and tbe relativity of all impressions.^ Tbt argument from
tbe mutability of opinions and customs was probably the
one which appealed moat ationgly to himself. In the
concluding lines of thia esaay, Uontatgna seoms to torn
to " nostra foy chrsstienne " as man's only bqccout from
his native state of helpleasneas and uncertainty. Bot
undoubtedly hia own habitual frame oE mind ia better
repreaented in his celebrated saying — " How aoft and
healthful a pillow are ignorance and incurionsnesa ....
for a well-ordered head." Uore inclined than liontaigne
to give a teligious turn to bis icfledons was his friend
IHeire Charron (1G41-1C03), who iu bis book J>t la
Sof/tttt systematiied in aomewhat Scholastic fashion the
train of thought which we find in the SaaU Francis
Sancbei (1C62-1633X professor of medicine and philo-
sophy in Toulouse, comlMted the Aristotelianiam of tbe
BcbooU with much bitteraeaa, and was the author of a book
with the title Qmd niiil tcitur. Of more or less isolated
thinkers, somewhat later in point of time, who wrote in
the same sceptical spirit, may be mentioned the names of
Francois de U Mothe le Yayer (1688-1673), whoae Cinq
Dialoffva appeared after his death under tbe pseudonym of
Oroaina Tnbero ; Samuel Sorbi6re(lG15-16T0), who trans-
lated the HgpolypoKi Pyrrhotua of Bextua Empiricns;
Simon Foncher (1644-1696), canon of Dijoo, who wrote a
Eiilory .of tJu AcaJtmia, and combated Descartes and
2[alebrancha from a sceptical atandpobt The wtn-k of
Hieronymui Himhaim of Prague (1637-1679), De Typha
Gmerit Bumani tite Sfitnliamin Btimanarum Inani at
Fenloio Tvmorf, was written in tbe interests of revelation.
This is atill more the cose with the bitter polemie of
Daniel Hnet (1630-1721), Ctnmm FhilotopMim Carit-
tiaiue, and bis later work, Traiii PAilotopAiqw dc la
FaibltiK de TEeprit Humain. The sccpticiam of Joseph
OUnvill (1636-1680), in bU two worts The TmUy <4
Ikigmuivxng (1661) and Bcrfit Sci»iHi^ai(liGi), has more
interest for Englishmen. Glanvill wsa not a acepUc at all
a dn mbjint^ B
" Voor Jncar d« appaniiDW qn* Bi
LI lanldn us itbtaiuDaDt Jodicatoln ; poor t«ifl«r est tu
~ " ; ponr veriflsr la damonatntiH^ di
finlt da la dunotutnlLoB
oonrtuiU flklBtvbH, nj da uoilTe nbe nj di calaj dn ab^cti ; M
soiu, (t DoMn Jii,(aiii«it, at toatii cbou> bidiUIIh, vodE ooolutt ct
rcmluit UDi oan ; alDdn, Q na n pwlt HtaliUr rian da attttla da
ran t I'aultra, at la jnfaaoL M la Jogl aaUnti an ooctlnDiUa aotstlaa
at bruala ' (,ibm4t, Oankr, L KO).
SCEPTICISM
pointi, aMiiiS thftt he ma full of enLbtuiuiii for tha
•dvuice of phjiical acieiice and for the oewly-faniidad
Biajtl Society. Bat he attacked uoBpftriDgly the Ariitotal-
iBnum of the Khoole, which wu still domioknt M Oxford.
Against thia, ittd also against the materialistic dogmatiun
of Hobbes, lie invoked the weapons of scepticism ; and be
was led by his own ai^muents to query " whether there be
any science in the Hnse of the dogmatists." He based
this conclusion portly npon the groimd that oar knowledge
of caosea, being derired simply from " concoiiiitajic;^," is
br from being "infallibly conclu»iw." "The canMlity
itaelf," he says, anticipating Hame, " ia insensible " ;
accordingly, " the foundation of scientiGcal procednre is
too weak for so magnificent a superstructure." More
celebrated than any of the above was Piette Bayle (1647-
1706), whose ecepticieni lay mora in his keen negative
criticism of ait systems and doctrinee which cane before
him as Bterary historian than in any theoretic Tiews of
his own as to the possibility of knowledge. Bayle also
psnded the opposition between reaaoo and revelation ; bnt
the argument in his hands is a donble-edged wesfMn, and
when he extols the merits of sabmiaiTe faith his sincerity
is at iDMt qQeetiDoable.
Hone, the most illottrioua and indeed the typical sceptic
of modern times, is treated at length in a separate article.
Here, therefort^ it is only necessary to point ont shortly
in what his scepticism consist*. It is sometimee placed, as
we have seen it is by Kant, in his distrust of our tLbility
and right to pass beyond tii« empirical sphere. But the
mere denial of the possibility of " divinity or school meta-
physics," as we find it in the /Nfutry, combined with an
apparent confldsnce in " experimental reasoning concern-
ing matter of fact tnd existence," does not constitate
scepHeism, bnt rather what would now be called
agnosticism or poaitiTiBDi. It is essential to the sceptical
position that reason be dethroned within experience as
well as beyond it, and this is undoubtedly tha resnlt
at which Hume arrivea in his larger and more thorough-
going work. More generally, therefore, his scepticism
may be considered to lie in his relation to preceding
philosophy, ^le Trtatue is a redudio ad dlim^vM of
the principles of Lockianism, inasmuch as theae prindples,
when CDD^stently applied, leave the structure of experience
entirely "looaened" (to use Hume's own exprasion), or
cemented blether only by the irrational force of custom.
Hume's scepticism thus really arises from his thorough-
going empiricism. Btorting with " particular perceptions "
or isolated ideas let in by the sensee, he never advancee
beyond these "distinct exiitenees." Each of them exista
on its own account ; it is what it is, but it contain
reference to anything beyond itself. The very nation of
objectivity and trnth therefore disappears ; the Sduia a.
appearance of the moment ia the only reality. Hume'i
Hulyeis of the conceptions of a permanent world and a
permanent self reduces us to the aensationalistio relativism
of Protagoras. He expressly puts this forward in various
passages as the conclusion to which reason conducts us.
The fact that the conclusion ia in "direct and total
opposition " to the apparent testimony of the senses is a
freah justification of philosophical scepticism. For, indeed,
scepticism with regard to the sensea is considered in the
IivpUrg to be sufficiently justified by tha fact that thay
lead OS to suppose "an external univene which depends
not on onr perception," whereas "this univeraal and
primary -opinion of aU men is soon destroyed by the
alightest ^uloeopby." Scepticism with regard to reason,
oa tha other hand, depends on an insight into the itrational
character of the relation which we chiefly employ, vii., that
of cause and effect It ia not a real ration in oliject* but
ntlur % mental habit of belief engendwed by fteqoant
ipetition or custom. Tiaa peint of view is applied in
tlie TredttM nnivenally. All teal connexion or relation,
therefora, and with it oil possibility of an objective
system, disappeara ; it is, in ^t, excluded by Hume ah
BHtto, f or "the mind never perceives any real connexion
among distinct existences." Belief, however, just because
it rests, as has been said, on custom and the influence of
the imagination,' survives such demonstrationa. " Natnre,"
as Hume delights to reiterate, "is always too atrong for
principle." " Nature, by an absolute and uncontrollable
neceasity, has determined us to judge as well be to breath*
and fed." The true philosopher, thereforis is not the
%rrhoni«t, trying to maintain an impoHible equilibrinm
or suspense of judgment, but the Academic^ yielding
gracefully to the impressions or maiims which he Ends, aa
matter of fact, to have moat sway over himself. " I may —
nay, I must — yield to the current of oatnre, in submitting
to my senses and undentanding ; and in this blind sub-
mission I show most perfectly my sceptical principle^" for,
after all, " if we believe that fire warms or water refreahea,
'tis only because it costs us too much poini to think other-
The system of Ean^ or rather that port of his system
sxpounded in tha Critiipu of Pvre RttucM, though
expressly distinguished by its author from scepticism, has
been included by many writers in their survey of sceptical
theories. The difference between Kant, with his system of
pure resNon, and any of the thinkers we have passed in
review is obvious ; and his liioitation of reason to the
sphere of experience suggests in itself the title of agnoatie
or poettivist rather tlian that of sceptic. Te^ if we go a
little deeper, there is substantial jnstification for the view
which treats agnosticism of the Kantisn type aa essentially
sceptical in its foundations and in its result*. For criticism
not only limits our knowledge to a certain sphere, but
denies that our knowledge within that sphere ia real ; we
never know things as they actually are, bnt only aa they
appear to us. Our knowledge^ in Eanfs language, does
»ot (bow us "the inward essence of the object in itself,
bnt only the relation of the object to the subject" But
this doctrine of relativity really involves a condemnation
of our knowledge (and of all knowledge), because it fails
to realize an impossible and self-contradictory idcoL He
man who impe&ches the knowing faculties because of tha
fact of relation which they involve is pursuing the
phantom of an apprehension which, aa Lotie exprcesaa it,
does not apprehend things, but is itself things ; be ia
desiring not to know but to h« the tilings themselves. If
this dream or prejudice be exploded, then the scepticism
originating in it — and a large proportion of recent sceptical
thongii' does so originate — loses its rtiuan cf Are.* The
prejndka, however, which meet* ns in Kant is, in a tom»-
what different form, the same pt^udice which ia found in
the tropes of antiqnity~-what Lotte calls " the inadmiwible
relation of the world of ideas to a foreign world of objects."
' ' Baliaf ii Bion pnptrlv u set at tlu sanritlTe thin til tl)
euitstiv* put of DDT nitiTe.'
* llndi the ana emdiulao Is resdMd In vkst la fiAipi tl)
sUHt En^lih upniltlaii of pus pUioaoplili scigpttdim aUwa Him
—Mr Artimr BsITobt'* DiftMi ^PUlo40f»iit DtM (1879). "«
rwdtr Buy wbh to know," —.jm Mr Bslfau, "whst eoattltat* tl
'cUlmicmoaTbelltt' wbleh I UMit to b* poNSMsd sUka bf KiiBi
ud IhMlogy, umI whidi 1 pat torvud ■■ Uh mU jatOiai tonndj
tlog on wUcb our ooavleUau nltiiutslr rsM. . . . ynatmt thi
nu]r bt, tli*r m not ntiowd grouidi of oonviatkn. . . It mai
be mora pmpar to dswilba tbin as a kind af wi
4p™i-''(pp. BV-7)-
• It me; b* M w^ to idd that th« teaptlail aide of K
malnlr mnfinad to tha CHli^ 4^ i'vn JiHwit, bat this dd* <tf Ki
tlionght biu beu BiaBt vldeljr InfluaDtlal. ^ui ramuka mads
would not apply lo tha cohenat ijilam of tdaanro which m
evolved itt«a Kent^a writing and whLch hudt would eonildsr
384
S C E — S C E
For, u lis rightly points oat, whether we mppoee idealUm
ot realism to be trae, id neither case do the thinge them-
tcItbs i«sa into our knowledge. No standpoint ie possible
from wliich we conld compare tbe world of. knowledge
with euch an independent world of things, in order to
judge of the conformity of the one to the other. Bat
the abstract doubt "whetber after all things maj not
be quite other in themseWes than that which by the laws
of DOT tbooght thej neeesserilj appear" is a scepticism
which, though admittedly irrefutable, is as certainly
groundteas. No argnmenta can be brought against it,
aimplj becvuae no argnmeDts can be brought to sapport
it; the scepticism rests on nothing more than the empty
|ioBsibility of doubting. This holds true, even if we admit
the " iodepeodent " existence of luch a world of thtnga.
But the independence of things maj with much greater
reason be regarded as itself a fiction or prejudice. The
real " abjective " to which oar thoaghta must show con-
formity is not a world ot thinga in themselTes, bat the
system of things as it ezista tot a perfect intelligence.
Scepticism is deprived of its persistent argument if it is
seen that, while our individual ezperieoces are to be
jndged by their coherence with the context of experience
in general, experience as a whole does not admit of being
jndged by reference to anything beyond itself.
To the attack upon the possibility of demonstration,
ioasmoch as every proof requires itself a fresh proof, it
may quite fairly be retorted that the coDtradiction really
lies in the demand for proof of the self-evident, on which
all proof moat ultimately depend. It is of course always
possible that in any particolor case we may be deceived ;
we may be assoming as self-evideatly true what is in
reality not so. But such incidental lapses are fonnd to
correct themselves by the consequences in which they
involve us, and tbey have no power to shake our trust in
the general validity of reason. It may, however, be
granted that the possibility of lapee throws us open to the
objections, ingenuous or disingeDaons, of the sceptic ; and
we mpst remain exposed to them so long as we deal with
our first principles as so many isolated axioms or intui-
tions. But the process of seU-correctbo referred to points
to another proof — the only ultimately eatisfactoiy proof
of which first principles admiL Their evidence lies in
thw matual interdependence and in the coherence of the
aystem which they joiotly constitute.
Of a scepticism which professes to doubt the validity
of every reasonine process and every operation of all our
faculties it is, of coune, as impoeaible as it would be
abaard to offer any refutation. Here, as Butler iuciiively
put it, " we can go no further, For it is ridiculous to
attempt to prove the truth of those very perceptions
whose truth we can do otherwise prove than by other per-
cepliona of exactly tbe same kind with them, and which
there is just the some ground to suspect^ or to attempt to
prove the truth of our faculties, wluch con no otherwise
M proved than by means of those very suspected faculties
Awnselves." Tlus absolnte scepticism, indeed, can hardly
be regarded as more than empty words ; the position
which ^ey would indicate is not one which has ever
existed. In any case, such scepticism is at all times
auffioiently refuted by the imperishable and joatifiable
trust ttf reason in iteeli. The real function of scepticism
in tbe history of philoaopliy is relative to the dogmatiam
which it criticises. And, as a matter of fact, it haa been
Men that many ao-caUed sceptics were rather critics of the
effete systems which they found cambering the ground
than actual doabters of the poesibility of knowledge in
geaetaL And even when a thinker puts forward his
donbt aa abaolnte it does not follow that hia soooessors
ace boaod to regard it in the some light The progreas
of thought may show it to be, in tmtli, relative, aa when
the nerve of Hume's sceptictsm is shown to be his
thoroughgoing empiricism, or when the scepticism of the
Cntique of Furs Beaxm is traced to the unwarrantable
assumption of thiags-in-themeelvee. When the assomp.
tions on which it rests are proved to be baseless, the parti-
cular scepticism is also overcome. In like mannu', llie
apparent antinomies on which such a scepticism builda will
be found i« reaolv^ themeelvee for a system based on a
deeper insight into tbe nature of things. The aeriona
thinker will always repeat the vrords of Eant that, in
itself, scepticism is "not a permuient restiag-plaee for
human reason." Its justiEcation is relative and it* faiio-
tion transitional
AvOoritia. — Andnt seaptidsm is tnll v treatid in the ralativa
put! of ZaUat'i mb>Kj*i» dn- Britclmt, with which mav ba com-
pand ZinimBnnuin'a SanUttiHit d. Pyrrlumitoitit nilttofMi
(1841), and Uthtr Un^nrng u. Sid4>UvMg d. Pyrrk. PSO. (ISIS) ;
Wtchnanth, If Tim»n» FUiano {18SB); OeSm, Jk AnttUa
(ia4B)i Nomua UuCslI, Orwl SetpHa/nM Pyrrhi (o ^srtiH
(IBSS) ; Hu^ Dt FMlotapltonm Seeittiamm SnamiimSmt (laTSX
Amons Dthar worki nuj ba mentianed Stiltidliii, OfdudUtmid
Snri d. SttpOdmut, wnOglich i* SMMdU ai^Jfoml u. Sdligion
(1764); Ta/dl, Oaduc/iU d. Se^Hidtmu* (ISM)i S. SsiBst, £t
SupUatmi.- ^n/tMnu, PaiaU, £anHWi), (A. 8K)
SCEPTRE. Though tbe acaptra is now oaed prin-
cipally as one of the insignia of royalty, the word uigin-
ally had a more extended meaning. Among the early
Greeks the aic^por was simply a long staff nsed by aged
mea (R. xviiL 416; Herod., L 196), and tiiua came to
be used as a sign of authori^ by officials of many kinds
— judges, military leaders, priests, heralds, and otliera.
It is freqnentiy represented on Greek painted vaaae aa a
long staff, tipped with metal in some ornamental faahion,
and is borne by some of tbe gods. Among the Etroacana
sceptres of great magnificence were nsed by the kinga and
also by the upper orders in the prieethood. ifany repre-
sentations occur on the walla of the painted tomba of
Etmria. Some specimens which still exist are among the
finest examples known of anpient jewellery. The Britiah
Uuseum, tiie Vatican, and the Louvre possess Etroacan
gold sceptres of the most minnt« and elaborate wtxkman-
ship. Borne of these are hollow gold batons, aboi^ nine
to twelve inohes long and half an inch in diameter, com-
pletely covered with tliat very delicate ornament for
which the Etruscan goldsmiths were so famed, produced
by soldering thousands of microecopically minute globules
of gold arranged in rich patterns on to the plain gold
cylinder which forms the ground. One magnificent speci-
meu in the gold-ornament room al the British Huaenm
has its top formed like a Sower, with onter petala of
beaten gold and an inner core made by a large emerald ;
it is of the greatest beauty both in workmanship and
^e sceptre of the Romans, like most of their insignia
of rank, is said to have been derived from the Etrascuis.
An old and laon Latinised form of tbe word is tcipia
fsee Liv., v. 11). Under the republic an ivory sceptre
{Keplnm eimnieum) waa one of the marks of oonaular
rank. It was also need by victorious generals who re-
ceived the title of mptrator, and thia use still survives
in the modem marshal'a baton. In Boman paintings the
long staff-like sceptre is frequently represented in the
hands of Jupiter and Jnno, aa chief of the gods.
Under the empire the tgitnim Avffutli (Soeb, G<Ma,
L) was specially nsed by the emperora. It was often of
ivory, tipped with a gold eagle (Jov., StU., x. iS), and is
frequently shown on medallions of the later empire, which
have on the obverse a half-length flgore of the emperor,
holding in one band the short eagle-tipped sceptre and in
tbe other the orb surmounted by a small figure ot l^ctorj.
The older staff-like form of sceptre still survived under
I C H — S 0 H
tlM Btoia iatia pura ; It is Bhown on Ihe revenea of manjr
Roman ooius in the hand of deitisa and of the empenir oi
wnoreBB, thou^ originallj the hatla pum had a Tei?
jjigftTftnt vaB, being limplj a mark of distinction given bj
Roman genenla to eoldien who had ahova nnnsaal
brawT (IW., AitM., iil 21). Alter the introdactioa of
ChratiMutj aa the atate religion, the imperial sceptre wa«
fraqosntlj tipped with a cnw« instead of the eagle, tbongh
both were need. AH tbrougli the Middle Ages both these
iorniB MU-TiTed, and sceptrea of gold itndded with Jewell
were lued by most MTereigns of Europe. The gold
■ceptie of Charlemagne, a magnificent specimen of eoilj
jemllor's work, etill exists among the r^alia at Tienna.
Some mediiETal eoeptrea were of ciT^tal or norj mounted
in gold. Sevenl fioe ancient examples existed among the
legalia of England till after the death of Charles L, when
the whole set were broken np and melted bjr order of the
Parliament.
At the Restoration, four new tceptres were made for the
ooronation of Charles IL {see Ardkaaoiogia, zxix. p. 362) ;
ftod these still exist among the regalia in the Tower.
Tbej are— (I) the a»«alled Bt Edward's staff of gold, 4
feet 7 inches long, set with jewels, and snrmonnted with
a croaa and orb — a copj of Uv. older one which contuned
in the orb a fragment of the true crosfi (thia eceptre is
borne in front of the Bovereign during the proceeeional
p«tt of the ceremony of ooioDation) ; (3) a gold soeptre
tipped with a cross, which at the coronation is placed in
the sovereign's right hand bj the archbishop of Cknter-
bnry ; (3) a similar sceptre tipped with a gold dove, which
is placed in the sovereign's left hand ;> (4) a smtll gold
jewelled eceptre for the qneen consort. Noa. (1) and (2)
fire both studded with diamonds. In addition to these four,
there is a gold-mounted ivory sceptre, which was made-tor
the queen of James II. ; it is tipped with a gold dove and
ia atuddod with jewels. A sixth gdd aceptre is that which
was made for the qneen at the coronation of William and
Mary.
Among the Scottish regalia at Edinburgh a fine IMh-
centnry gold sceptre still exists ; and others of the same
or eartiet date are preserved among the royal insignia of
Eoveial European conntries.
SCHADOW, a dialdnguished name in the aunola of Oer-
I. JoHim OoTTFBiED ScBUMw (17€4~18(SO), an
eminent sculptor, was born in IT64 in Berlin, where his
father was a poor tailor. His first teacher was an infetior
Bculptor, Tossaert, patronized by Frederick the Qreat ; the
master offered his daughter in marriage, but the pupil
ptefGrred to elope vrith a girl to Vienna, and the father-in
law not only condoned the offence but fnmiahed miwey
wherewith to visit Italy. Tbe young mop made the moat
of advantages which in those days fell to the lot of few ;
lis gained in competition a prize for a group of Peraens
and Andromeda ; throe yoara' study in Rome formed his
style, and in 1 768 he returned to Berlin to succeed hia
former master, Taasaert, as sculptor to the court and
secretary to the Academy. Prussia in rising into a great
kingdom had need for much sculpture, and Schadow
brought timely talent and exceptional training. Over
half a century, crowded with commissions, hs persistently
produced upwards of two hundred works, varied in style
as in subjects. Among his ambitious efforts ore Frederick
the Gnat in Stettin, BUicher in Rostock, and Luther in
Wittuuberg. His portrait etatues include Frederick the
Great playing the Bute, and the crown-princess Louiae end
' Botb thoa Keptiw (or rather Urn oldu odm) Ten ihown, ona
In uch buid or tb* floe bruDis tm~r of Edninl IH. In Wtatmiutar
Abbey, Ul M 1 ml* tajtl eineiei vers repnunlal wllh onlj one
her sistw. His busts, whicb reach a total of mMe tlian one
hundred, comprise seventeen colossal heads in the Walhalla,
Batisbon; from tlie life were modelled Ooethe, WieUnd,
and Fichte. Of church monmneDta and memorial works
thirty ate ennmerated ; yet Schadow hardly rank* amtmg
Christian aculptws. Be i* claimed by daandsts ana
idealists : the qOodriga on tlie Brandenbnrger Tbor and
the allegorical frieze on the facade of the Biij»l Min^
both in Berlin, are judged aiiKmg the liappieet growths
from the aotiqae. Fauns, aymphs, cupids, and figures of
fancy, scattered among plam portfut work, k^ aHve to an
advanced age eatfy associations formed in Italy. Sdiadow,
as direetaw of the Berlin Acaduuy, ga*S proof of intellectual
powers which made him a leader and secured many and
devoted followera. Personal infinence he extended and
fortified by hia books. He wrote on the proportions of
the human figure^ cm national physiognomy, Ae, ; lad
many vdnmea I7 himself and others describe and Ulostrata
his method and his work. He died, full of hononi^ at
Beriinin ISfiO.
n. BimoLPH SoBuioir (17a$-182a), aculptOT, son <A
the preceding was born in Borne in 1786. Hi* father,
who returned to Berlin in 1788, was bis first master.
Rudolph in 1810 obtained the pension for Rome and
reeeiTed kindly help from Oanova and niorwaldsen. Hk
talents were versatile ; hfs first iad^endent work was a
figure of Paris, and it had for it* cempanioD a qrinning girl.
Following the example set by Issuing Geriaan artists
then settled in Rome, he exchanged the Protestant for the
Catholic faith, and gave pledge of his convictions by ststnes
of John the B^tist and of the Virgin and Child, In Eng-
land be became known by baa-relieTs executed for the dnke
of Dev<HisliiTe and for the marqnis of Lansdowne. His
last oompositioik, commissioned by the king of Pmoia, was
a colossal group, Achillsswith the Body of Penthesilea;
the model, nnivenally admired for its antique character
and the largeness of its styles had not been carried out
in marble when in 1832 the artist died in RomeL
III. FaiXDBIOH WiLBILX ScHADOW (I7S9-1863),
painter, bom in 1789 in Berlin, waa the second son of
Johann Qottfried BchadoW the sculptor, from whom h«
received hia earliest instruction. In 1S09--7 he served as a
soldier; in 1810 he went with his elder brother Rudolph to
Rome. He became one of the leaders among the Owman
pre-Rapbaelite brethren who eschewed clasMciam and the
Italian Renaissance and sought to rebuild Christian art
on th; principles and practice of eariy and purer times.
Following the example of Overbeck and others he joined
the Catholic Church, and held that an artist must believe
and live out the truths he essays to paint The sequel
showed that Bchadow waa qualified to shine less as a
painter than as a teacher and director, the Pmsnan
consul, Oeneral Bartholdi, befriended bis young com-
patriots by giving them a commission to decorate with
fresco* a room 24 feet eqnare in his house on the Hndao
Hill. The artists engaged were Schadow, Cornelius,
Overbeck, and Teit ; the subject selected was the at(»7 of
Joseph and his brethren, and two scenes, the Bloody
Coat and Joseph in Prison, fall to the lot of Bchadow.
These well-studied and sound wall-p^tinp brought re-
nown to the brethren, who wero further fortified by the
friendship of Niebuhr and Hansen ; the former writes —
"They are all men of talent," and "Bchadow is parti-
cularly refined and intellectoai." Schadow wss in 1819
appointed professor in the Berlin Academy, and his ability
end thorough tiaining gained devoted diacipleo. To this
period belong pictures for cburches. In 1826 the pro-
fessor was mode director of the DUmeldorf Academy, and
so highly were bis character and teachings esteemed that
some of the beet acholars accompanied their master. Tlie
XXL — 49
S C H — S C H
high and saerod ait matnred in Rome Schadow trons-
pUnted to DiisBeldorf ; ha reorganized the Acodemj, which
in a taw years grew famous as a centre of Chriatian art to
which papib flocked from all eidea. In 1837 the director
■elected, at request, thoaa of his scholars best qualified to
decorate the chapol o£ St Apolliaaria on the Rhine with
frescos, which when finislied were accepted as the fullest
and purest manifestation of the Diiaseldorf school c
spiritual side. To l!J12 belong the Wise and Foolish
Virgins, in the Stidel Institute, Frankfort; this large and
important picture is carefully considered and wrought,
but lacks power. Schadow'a fame indeed reals less od bis
own creations than on the school he formed ; he imparted
to others nobilitj' of conception, bututf of form, refiue-
ment and delicacy .in expression and execution. Yet the
master in DiisseldorC encountered opposition; a reaction
set in gainst the spiritual and sacerdotal style le had
established; a younger generation rose who stigmatized
his system as narrow and bigoted ; and in 1809 the party
of naturalism and realism after a severe struggle drove the
venerable director from his chair. Scbadow died at Dussel-
dorf in 1S63, and a monument in the platz which bears
his noma was raised at the jubilee held to commemorate
hb directorate. (j. b. x.)
SCHAFARIK (in Bohemian Si.rA£is}, Paui Josefb
<1795--1S61), was by origin a Slovak, and was bom in 1T95
at Kobeljarova, a village of northern Hungary, where his
fttber was a Protestant clergyman. It was not till his
aliteenth year that any enthusiasm was aronsed in him for
the language and literature of his race. At this time an
essay of Jungmann's fell into his hands, and at once gave
a direction to his studies. His first production was a
volume of poems in Bohemian entitled Th^ Mute of Talra
vrifh a Slavonic Lyre, published at Levocia in 1614. After
this we find him collecting Slovak songs. In 1816 he
began a course of study at the university of Jena, and while
there translated into Czech the Clovda of Aristophanes
and the Maria Sutarl of Schiller. In 181T he came to
Prague and joined the literary circle of which Dobrovaky,
Jungmann, and Hanka were members. In 1819 he was
appointed headmaster of the high school at Neusatz (Novi
Sad) in the south of Hungary; he remained occupied with
the duties of this office till 1833. Bnt besides his edaca-
tionol functions he bnsied himself with the study of Servian
literature and antiquities, and acquired many rare books
and manuscripts. In 1826 his GaehkhU dtr Slawixhen
Spmeht vnd Literalur nach alien Jfmidartm appeared at
Peeth. This may tmly be called an epoch-making book
in the history of Slavonic studies. It was the first attempt
to give anything like a systematic account of the Slavonic
languages, the knowledge of which was at that time in
such a rudimentary state that even Schafarik is not able
to classify properly the Bulgarian language, but has
grouped it with Servian. In 1833 appeared his Serbitcht
Lefk&mer oder hittoritch-hntitchtBdeuelUimg der Serbitehen,
Miindart, a,Dd in 1837 his great work £/ovfin«i(^i?f(iTOiirno((t
(" Slavonic Antiquities "), by which ha is at the present time
beat known. The "Antiquities " have been translated into
Polish, Hussian, and Clerman, and we are promised an
Engli^ version shortly from the pen of Mrs Alexander
Kerr. Thia valuable work was enlarged and improved in
the second edition, which appeared among the collected
works of Schafanfc, edited by Jireiek after the author's
death. In 1840 he published in 'conjunction with Palack/
Die alterten Denknuiler der BokmiKAen Sprache, in which
he defended the authenticity of those Bohemian docu-
ments which have been declared spurious by some scholars.
In the year 1837 poverty compelled him to accept tbe
uncongenial office of censor of Czech publications, which
I 1847 on becoming enstodian of the
Prague public library. Id 1843 he published hisTalnabk
work Slovantklj Nirodopit, which gives a complete account
of Slavouic ethnology. In 1848 he was made profesaorof
Slavonic philology in the uniiersity of Prague, bnt rssigned
it in fhe following year, probably from cam>es in tome way
connected vrith tbe political troubles of that period, of
which Prague was one of the centres. He was then made
keeper of tbe university library, in which oliice he con-
tinued till his death in 18S1. He had long been in broken
health, — his pains of body being augmented by brain di»'
ease, which had been brought on by his severe literary
labours and also by family anxieties. His latter days were
devoted to philology, one of tbe chief subjects treated of by
him being tbe antiquity of the Qlagolitic alphabet, about
which he held very different opinions at various periods
of his life. He was also for some time conductor of the
"Journal" of the Bohemian Museum, and edited the first
volume of the Yybor, or selections from old Czech writeiii
which appeared under the auspices of the literary sodety
in 1845. To this Jie prefixed a grammar of the Old
Bohemian language. His correspondence with Pogodin
has been published by Prof. Nil Popoff of Moscow ammg
the lettera of that eminent scholar.
Schifuik wu ■ min of tliB paral; litenry tvp«,'~an injebf i^blg
worker, so entboBiut and a sincere patriot The study of Staroaic
philology and athnoiofj^ hu iilnmced tinco hi) tima, bnt tlia
ffToaCer part of hit worfc lA porrnaiient and monaraantaJ. Beaides
Eii collected writitigi [Sebrant Spity), irhich wen Rpriot«d at
Ptwie after hia death daring tbe join Mii-lWS, a txHthutaoiu
wort bj him alio made ite apjie.irance, edited by J. Jirrfak,
OucAuUa der Sodalawiachin Liliralur.
SCHAFFHAUSEK, in area (III-7 square mUea> and
actual population (38,348) the 19th and in relative
density of population the 7th of the cantona of Switier'
land, forms the most northern angl^ of the Swiss territory,
and lies on the right or German side of the Rhinc^ which
separates it from the cantons of Thurgan and ZuTich. It
is divided into three distinct portions by spurs <^ the
grand-dnchy of Baden, which also possesses the small
enclave of Busingen on the Rhine. Qeologically it
belongs for the most part to the Swabian Jura, and
directly or indirectly it alt drains to the Rhine, which
forms its famous falls in the neighbourhood of the chief
town (see R^ihi, voL zx. p. C19). In the broad straths
of the IClettgau vine-growing and agriculture go hajid in
hand (the wines of Hallan being in high repate);, the
more elevated districts of Rauden and Reyat (highest
point 3040 feet above the sea) raise tbe groin-pntdnction
of the canton above the home demand, and also [wovidg
large quantities of potatoes, hemp, and frail. Under a
careful regime the forests are recovering from a state of
comparative exhaustion. The Sckaffhausen cattle are
partly Swabian and partly Swiss ; Elettgau has k ipecist
breed of pigs of its own. Mannracturing industries have
their best development at SchafFhausen-NenhatiseiL Ihs
population, which increased from 35,300 in 1850 to 38,348
in ISSO, is almost exclusively of German speech (230
individuals only using other languages). Protestants are
to Roman Catholics as 8 to 1 (33,897 and 4164); the
latter are attached to the bishopric of Basel SchaShauaen
has been a member of the Swiss confederation since 1501.
By the new constitution of 1876 it became remarkably
democratic. The great council consists of representatives
of the people elected for four years at the rate of one for
every five hundred inhabitants. On the petition of any
thousand of the electors, a measure may tw introduced to
the chamber or submitted to the direct vote of thecitizeoa.
The five members of the administration are also popularly
elected. Education is well endowed, primary education
being compulsory. A reformatory for deetitnta children
ia maintained at Friedec^ new Bodb . . . .
S C H — S C H
S87
SCHAFFHAUSEIf, the c^tal of the abore canton, ia
•ituted on the twnk of the Biiiti^ 301 miles bj nil west
of Otmitance and 60 east of Basel, ud commnnicates by »
tnidge with the village of Fenerthaian (1000 inhAbitaots)
io Znrich. It i« a city of controita — meduBTal anbitec-
tura of the trae Bwabun type and modem mannfactntes
min^tng onrionsly together. The catbedtal, formerly the
ehnnh of the abbey of A.lf Saintt (AlierheUigen), ii i
maBsive basilica founded in 1 104 and completed in 1453
its graat bell (1486) bean the inscciptioa Fimi voeo._
mortnot ytanga, fiilj/urti /r<aigo, which BUggeated Schiller'a
"Bong of the Bell" and tbe opening of LongfelloVi
QMm Ltgmd. On the Bebhiigel above the town rises
tha cattle of Hoooth (1564-1590) with bomb-proof case-
matci, and a tomr whose top ii reached by a spiral asceot
np which one can ride or drive. In Herrenacker Flats
■bnda the Imthnrneom, aboilding erected (1B64) and pre-
■ented to the town by a Swisa citizen, resident ia London,
iat the "promotion of Bathetic and scientifio coltare"; it
contains a theatre, concert-rooms, &c The public library
(38,000 volumes) possessea the printed and HS. collections
of Johanri von Mliller, who was bom at Schaffhausea in
1753, and his monument adorns the promenade of the
TesanslAnb. In the mnsenm is preserved the famoos
KsoUerioch "find." Among the induatriul establishments
of the cit7 and vicinity are ironworks, waggon and carriage
factorica, woollen and cotton factories, breweriea, distilleries,
and champagne factoriee. The population of t^e commone
waa 10,303 in 1870 and 11,795 in 1880.
SclufRunHn (lAtiaiMd ■■ Satfaria or Graciiwl into PnlxUapalit)
fint kppnn in ths 90i Mntarj, uul twd aliwdj attunid tha nnk
of an impsiial city in ISBl.
SCBALCKEIf, QoDFRiBD (1643-1706), genre and por-
trait painter, was bom at Dort in 1643, and studied under
Tan Hoogstraten, and afterwards under Oerhard Doaw,
whose wotka his earlier geure-picturea very clo«eIy resemble.
He visited England and painted several portraits, of which
Uie hatf-leugth of William EX, now in the Museom,
Amrterdam, is a good example. In this work he shows an
effect of candle-light, which he also introduced — frequently
with fine effect — in many of bis aubject-picturea. These
taay be studied in the collections at Buckingham Palace,
tha txinvre, Vienna, and Dreeden. He executed several
Bcriptural sal^ects — snoh as that of the Wise and Foolish
Virgins, at Munich — of very indifferent merit. He died at
The Hague in 1706.
BCHAHTIi (>.«., Sakur.), prophet and hero of the
Caucasian mountaineers, was born in 1797. Bee CAcraABcrs,
voL V. p. S58. After his defeat and capture he passed
leu years in Russia, where he was well treated. In 1870
he went on pilgrimage to Mecca, and died at Medina in
March of the following year.
BCHANDAU, a small town of Sozony, is situated
on the right bank of the Elbe, at the mouth of the
little valley of tha Kimitisch, 31 milee to the sonth-east
of Dreeden, and 4 milee from the Bohemian froatier. Ite
position in the heart of the romantic "Sazon Switzer-
land" gives it an importance to whicb on other grounds
it is not entitled, and thousands of toaristi make it their
beadquarters in summer. The stationary population in
1880 was 3301.
8CHABNH0EST, GBitniBD Johanm David vob
(176&-1813), Fmrnan general, celebrated as the author of
tbe sd-called " Ernmpersystein,'' or short-service system
(aee voL iL p. 594), by which the Prussian nation was
prepand for tlie wai of liberation, was a Hanoverian by
biTth, and served in the Hanoverian army from 1778 to
1601, when be passed into I^ossian service, and aoon
tMaiaa iba leader in the reconabiiction of its forces. In
>>>» war with France in 1S13 he Moompaaied BiOchei at
chief of the general itafl^ but received a severe wound in
the first battle (Qrosagiirtchen), which aoon after was
followed by his deatL The list part of an extensive and
important biography of Schamhont by Lehmann haa
recently appeared (Leipeic, 1886).
SCHASSBUGO (Hung. Stgeudr), chief town of the
Transylvanian conn^ of Nagy-KUkilllo, Hungary, stands
on the river Nagy-Kiikiillo, 24 milea eastsouih-east of
Maroe-Vfairhely, in 46" 10' N. Iat, 24* 47' £ long.
It consists of two parts, — the one which formerly served
as a fortress on the top of a hill, and the ot^er in
the valley below, — the two being connected by a covered
passaga. Scbassburg is the seat of various public office
and of a dtatrict court of jnstiee ; its other institutions
include a Franciscan convent, a Protestant uf^wr gymna-
sium, a teachers' institute and seminary, two savings
banks, a free library, hospital, barracks, Ac. As a station
on the eastern system of the Hungarian Stato Bailwayt,
SchJkssburg has a good woollen and linen trade, as well as
export* of wine and fruit. Among its principal buildings
an old Gothic church and the lofty town-hall are specially
worthy of mention. The population in 1884 amounted to
6810, the majority being Germans (Saxons), and the
remainder Boumanians and Hnngarians.
Sdiaubarg wufoonded by Buon coloniiti it the end of tbslSUi
MntuT ; it! [Attn nims nu Caitrum Sa. Tbe most importut
evsnt m in history wu the bitUe on tho Slat Juir 184B, ia which
the HnngsriBH ■raiy under Bflm wu defaated hj tho oTorwhelming
nnaiben of the Riwien GsDenl Ludera. Tho gm% lulIoDsl poe^
Fetdfi, »u but seen, aod ii gsDenll J belie Tud tohkra mathii nTnl.
in thiiei
BCHAUMBUBG-LIPPE. Bee Lippb.
SCHEELE, Eabl Wilhblm (1743-1786), an e:
chemist, was bom at Stralsund, the capital of Pomerania,
which then belonged to Sweden, on the 19th December
1743. His father was a merchant, and Earl Wilhelm was
the seventh of a ftunily of eleven. In due time the boy
' — sent to school, but he did not care for the tangnages,
as he showed a Btmng -taste for pbarmscy he was
apprenticed at the age of fourteen to an apothecary in
Gothenburg, called Bauch, with whom he stayed for eight
years. He was thoughtful and silent, and very punctual
and precise in discharge of his duties. His spsae time and
great part of his. nights were devoted to the experimental
examiimtion of the different bodies which he dealt with,
and the carefnl study of the standard works on chemistry.
By these means he acquired a large store of knowledge
and great practical skill and manipulative dexterity. Jn
1T6S he removed to Malmii, and resided for five years with
Ealstrom, an apothecary, whence he removed to Stockholm,
to Scharenberg, also an apothecary. While here be wrote
out an account of his experiments with cream of tartar,
from which he had isolated tartaric odd, and sent it to
Bergman, the leading chemist in Sweden. Bergman some-
how neglected it, and this caused for a time a reluctance *
on Scheele's part to become acquainted with that savant,
bnt the paper, through the instrumentality of Retrius, was
ultimately communicated to the Academy of Sciences at
Stockholm. In 1771 Scheelefinishedaaelaborale inquiry
into tbe compoaiUon of the beautiful mineral fiuot-epar,
and showed tiiat it consisted of* lime and a peculiar acid
which he called fiuor acid. He misunderstood, however,
the true character of the deo^npoeitioo he had effected,'
and gave an erroneous explanation of it. His experiment!
had been conducted in glass vessels, and he was not
a that what he actually got was Uie fluosilicic acid.
This mistake was subsequently pointed out and corrected
by some other chemists. He left Stockholm in 1773 and
took up his residence at Upsala. Here he made the
acquaintiQce of Oahn, assenor of mines at Fahlnn,
through whose mediation be wu at length introduced to
so H — SC H
^ ; Qm two MOD beoune eseelleDt frienda, In
1774 Scheele publiahed bu epoch-makiDg inTesti^tioQ
ioto tba black oxide of mknganese, which had occapied
him for two or three jean, and in ITTS his memoirs on
benzoic end oraenic acidic la the same year he left Upeala,
in order to settle at.Eoping; a uoall place at the western
oxtremiCj of lake M^lv. Having heard that an apothe-
(sry's shop was vacant, he applied for it, pawed a brilliant
eiamination before the medical college, and was appointed.
Bnt, instead of a small flourishing business, he found that
he had to face confnsiouaud debt. Undismajed he set to
work, introduced order and some prosperity, and in two
Tears booght the buBineas from the widow of the former
proprietor. During this unfortunate period Sdieele most
have worked Tery hard, tor in spite of debt and difEL-
coltiM he publiahed in 1T77 his treatise vpoa Air and
Firt, one of the moat remarkable books in the whole raoge
of chemical lite/atoi*, whether its originality, itB_ close
reasoning, the number of discoveriee which it contains, or
the enormous amount of experimental wc^k it represents
be considered. About this time Bergman obtained for
him from the Academy a grant, Scheele's appreciation of
which was showu by his reserviog on&«izth fn his personal
wants and devoting the remainder to his ezperimeots.
Subsequent to this period, and for the remaining nine'
years of his life, the only events to be recorded are the
papers which he composed. Every year he published two
or three, and almost every one contuned a capital dis-
covery, either the explanation of a phenomenon or reaction
previously misunderstood or the description of some new
compounds. He was at the zenith of his now European
fame aa a profound chemist and unfailing experimenter,
and in the beet years of his life, when his career was
suddenly arrested. Jhe common account ia that his
unremitting work, especially at night, sxpoung him to
cold and draughts, induced a rheumatic attack, to which in
the counse of a couple of months he succumbed. Possibly
his strength bad been exhausted by long yeois of privation
and neglect of himself. He had intended, as soon as his
circnmstances should enable him, to msrry the widow
of his predecessor. His illness, however, increased very
fast, and it vras on his death-bed that he carried out his
a^gn on the 19th Hay 1786. Two days Uter he died,
bequeathing to his wife what property he had acqiured.
He was only forty.four years of age.
Ths diBDVorin with which Scliede enriched ebsmiatry are
numAroas snd inportaDt.. B«reTAncfl hss been ftlreadj msda to tha
discovery of tuisriciioid KadorthscompwillaD at auoT-ipor. The
aDAJyeiA ol nungmese oxids in 1774 led him to the ducovery of
DbloriDs and of DSTjti (Itrra prndenaa, as it wax called), to ii^
vidutUxing the ealte of nuuiganess itwlf, iDcludiog the greoD und
purple coroponndfl with poUeh, end to the explanetioQ of hov
muDgancM coloiin and dtcolorine glm. In 1775 he ehowodhow tt
Crepan benzoic acldbyprocipitatiugitfrom seolution in Unje, snd
9 inveeti^ted anenio uid sad its resctionB with dillbreDt nib
stances, discovering usoniuretted hydrogen snd the green coloni
" 8chBBln'» green," — > procoo for preptriog which on the lug* »cali
hs pabliihed in 177S. Othsr reiasreha of this [loriod were con.
eerned with the dsCujs of qnsrti, cliy, and slam, sod with u
animal concratjob or ealcalni from which he got for the ^t time
uric add.
The trealtss on Air and Fire appeared in 1777. It ii nnneoeeaai^
DOW to enlM into Scheele'* argument, for, howorsr admirably It
be worked ootf it etartsd from an emineoos bams, and iL ia equally
impoanble in limited epace even to ennmerue tbe eiperiniDntH and
tha diwoveries which fill Ihii book, and which bsvo renuincd u
.to Bcicnce through all aubsequent chanj^
I moat importsDt of theas ia hie demonetn-
bfl mainly of two gaaes, — one which BiEpporta
...1 ,-... . ,. Thujho Bhowed
whiohhebsd
In 17B0 he ihowed
It acid, now called
irles of actions, aaemiBgly ths ffloit dlvoBs in obsiwter, t^ln|t to
bring them uniW one general law and piaking st sveiT stq) ths
." — .. ..jj fai-reaching obeervationa and diacovttuw saw
^ i aaw leactioBS. Thns he incidentally nuda and
dwcnbed anlpbuietted hydrogen aat, and he oiiiUinad tha ohNsleal
tSect of light upon componnds of bIybi and other aubatanoea
In 177a ho proposed a new method ot making aalomel and
powder of algaiolE He abo eiamined a minoisl, ttolyUa^
niim, which had been rapposed to contain lead, tot whjch he
.howed waa quite distinct, and he got from it molybdio acid. Ho
damonstiated in 177S that plnmbago coneim almoet solely at
carbon, and ho publiahed a record of aitimetioDe ot the BI • -•
pore air, i.t, of oiygen, contained in the atmoap
carried on daily during the entire year aS 177B.
that the acidity of aour milk waa due to a pecoll
lactio acid ; aiid from milk augar, by boiling it vilu uiuw ~.™, —
obtained mucic acid. Hia neit diacoyary, in 1781, waa the cnm-
poaitinn of tuugeten, einoe called BchoeUte, which ho found oonmted
of lime combined with a psonliar aoid^tunptic acid. The tollow-
iog year ho examined the mods ot producinif ether, and in 17S3
dlMoverod glycerin, the aweot principle of fata and oila. In 1782-
1783 appeared a reioarch which— ot all lho« Schoele amductsd—
eihibite hia eiperimental gonina at its very beat. By a waDderfnl
■uccmion of oiperinienta he showed that the colouring mstter
of Pmniati bine could not be produced without the prsssnca ^s
aubetancs of the natum of an acid, to which we* uttimataly |^vea
the name of prustic acid. He showed how this body waa uom-
pond, doicribed ita propertiei and compounda, and mentioned its
amsll and tsate, utterly uuawste of ita deadly character. Nothing
bat s atudy of ScheoJe'o own memoir can pve an adequate notion
of the manner in which he attacked and aelTed a problem aa
difficult and complicated aa thia waa at the period hi the hlatorv
of chemistry irben Ssheele lived. In 17SJ-85-M he retained
to the subject with which b« bad b^ia bis canei, tUat ot the
vwetabla acdda, and dEscribed tou new onaa — ^trio, m^^ oxaJic^
(^ galUc acida.
The preceding is a bare list of tbe men pTomlnant of Beha*|e's
discoveivs, for It most bo remembered that he was not Dwrrij ths
first to prepare these bodies, bnt that he made all the compodnds of
them poesiblB at tbe time and explained the caDditiena nndtr wliieh
he poduced than. Hotablo ai is the liet, and ot snpfsnM im-
portanrs aa are most of the bodies thamaeltee, no conception cu ba
gathered from it of Bcheele's Immenss power ot expniisstitsl »■
eesrch,— a power that baa aeldom, if aver, been sorpansd. His
natural endowments ware cultivated by nnwssiied pcsctic* and nn-
divided attention ; tor scientillc work was at once hia occupation
and his nliiation. To appreciate this tttlly Us own seeonnt ot
his n^w*rchea mnat be atudied. It will thna be seen that his dis-
coveries were not made st bsphaiard, tot were the outcome of
experimenta carefully plumed to eubetsntiata the aconraoy of
theontical views nt which he had arrived. He thna saved bimsett
nnneccassry labour ; his eiperimcnta tell decisively on the qneation
at issne, and he renahed hiaoonclusionsby theshorieatandaunplest
mwns. At the same time he left nothing in denbt if eiperiment
would eatsblish It ; he grudged no latour to nuke the Imtfa India-
potsble; and be evidently never ooneidored hia work complete
atont any body onless he could both nnmake and remake it. For
him chemistry waa toth an analytic and a synthetic acienca, and bs
ahowB this prominently in hie researches on Pmaaian blue.
His accutaoy, qualitative and (quantitative,—
ot theory.
the bomiDS of bodiea, tha other
both analytically and Bynthetica..j . rj-~i -■ •
or oxygen, he obtainecf for his syBtheaia from acid of nitre, from
vltpeba, from black oxide of maDgaseae, and from severo] other
bodiea After the discovery of this anhstsnce Scbeele applied it to
sooonnt t<r ft great namber of sctions, snd.en»cully for its function
Is TSa^iataii sod ths grow^b of dIsoIs. He went through a long
the a
rivalled. The w
maiderins hn
X of reeidenes,
a man to do. The i
n It—wiB the experimental
like many other short-lived
ling to be added
the power of an all-
ot Scheele'a life— and lia
diflcovery of the
nen of genina he
managed to do it ia a mystery to
gifted. What he might have achieved had be lived * littls lonsw
esq only be surmieed i but it may to suppoeed that, under tM
newer theory of oombnatiDa to which he himself had nnwittin^y
ittisf^y
vasciiUiicUdanil|HbUib«i1birniidL EiiKllih,I^B,BBda«nna:
Jl Oawti, 1 Tola, FvH HBI-SS; Climiiiml Jfuamt, tf IbeVH
BoJdoea, ] tvl., UvdoB, 17M: oiwfefa, famtfiled ^ ScUla; eSltcd M
HcMnitrMi, 1 Tolk LiiAviTSs-sa ; amwtutht Ww*4, tttut »r BenatMK
1 ToU,, BetUa, ITS). ■niriwalmomAtramdrtniffmniittliimm.Om!^
m&L9lptitj\t^'t,unia^^in'iT^'t to Engliib, ly J. E. FBaster, LcaJoii. dBBs
SCHKBTER, Adt (1795-1868), Dutch painter, who wu
bum at Dort on lOtb Vebmary 1795, repneenlB UttmntL
8 O H — B C H
aeirt^ pbMS of Aa RotaaiOio mmment in T^uee.
After dis early death of hii [ather, a poor pojoter, A17
«u taken to Fara and placed in the itodio of Ouetio bj
Ilia mother, a womui of gnat energy aod chaiacter. The
moment at which ScheBer left Qn^rin coincided with the
oommenoMUent of the Bomantio movemeat. Hs had
littk lympathj vith the directioiu given to it by either
of ita moot oonepicootu lepreeeatative*, Sigalon, Dela-
Croiz, or Qerieaolt, and made varion* tentatire «fforti —
Quton do Foix (1824), Soliot Women (1827>~befoTa
be fbtud bi> own yatii. Immediatel; after the exhibition
ot the bat-named work he turned to Byron and Ooethe,
aeleetiuK from Faml a long seriea of Bubjecta which had an
aztiaordinaiy vogne. Of theae, we may mention Margaret
M her Wbeel ; Fanat Doubting ; Margaret at the Sabbat ;
Maifjant Leaving Church ; the Oarden Walk ; and lastly,
perh^M the moat popnlar of all, Margaret at the Well.
The two Mignona appeared in 1836; and Franceaca da
Rimini, which is on the whole ScheSer'a beat work,
belonga to the nme period. He now tnmed a religiona
MiL^eeta: Chriatoa CooaoUtor (1836) waa followed by
Chrittiu Bemueeiator, the Sliepberda Led by the Star
(1837), The Hagi Lt^ing Down their Crowna, Cliriat in
the Chirden of Olives, Christ Bearing his Croaa, Christ
Interred (1646), Bt Angiistine and Monica (1846}, aftw
whiii he ceased to eihiUt, but, ahnt np in his atndio, oon-
tinned to [Mtidnce moch wliich was fint seen by the onter
world after his death, which toA place at Araentenil on
the IMh Jnoe 1858. At the poeUmmoni exbibi^ou of
Ui worka there fignred tbe Botrowi of the Earth, and the
Aiucl Aluioiuuang the Beramction, which he bad left
unpil^lnnl Amongst his nnmwoiu portnits thoae of
L« F^ette, Btranger, Lamartine, and Marie Am£lie were
tbe most noteworUiy. HU repntation, moch ahaken by
this poathumoQB exhibition, was further nndennined by
tbe sale of the Patorle Qoliery, which contdned Diany of
his most celebrated acblevements ; tlie charm and facility
ot their compo&ition coold not save them from the con-
demnation provoked by their poor and earthy colour and
vapid sentimenL ScheSer, who married tbe widow et
Guieral Bandiand, was only made commander of tbe
L«airai of Honour in 1848, — that ia, after he had wholly
wiuidntwn hom the Salon. Hia brother Henri, bora at The
Ibgue S7th Beptembw 1798, ma also a fertUe painter.
/ Bm yUtti notii!* Bnfiied to ™"g*"— *■ pnblleatian of worki ol
Etax, Jrv SOiiffer ; lln Orota, L^i ^ J. ScK^tr ;
'■ OoMMi drrfiinaanKhe* K%HUl.
Zealand. Tlw wkds of tba bwlanda to tba north of
Ghent aro to inteiweted with caoali, and the natoial
cbutnela an ao intermingled with thoee partially or
entirely artificial, that it is imponible to diaoover with
certainty what has been the real history of Uie lower
course of the Scheldt.' Tbe Hont ot Wsatem Scheldt, the
principal estnary by which nearly all .Belgium commerce
is conveyed, was probably opened np by a storm in 1173
and about 1058 mnst have been a mere narrow creek.
The Eastern Scheldt, which then received moat d the
J haa gradually diminished in importance and unce
the construction of the railway bridge across it between
the mainland and South Bevekod in 1867 haa become
completely obatrocted with sands. At Antwero the depth
- high water ia 49 feet.
BstWBii 1048 Btid 17B3 Iba T>ntiih clnad tlia noDtbi of the
aoheldt ignitut fonign comnnra. The «npcraiJa«]iIi of Auitria,
■t thit tiim ruler of Aiiltteri>, prol«tod i^ffaiM tliii ncliou in 1 ?a3,
bntin IfM, hy tho trenty of VodUinfbloiia, ho iwogniwd, in return
for coDcnioni o[ tarritory and SI 10111100 floriui, Hid right of [ha
Dutch to Bdhcra to tha tama of th« p«><M af W»lp)iilia. In
7BS b]r oonqnat of Dnmoariei, and ju 17tU> L; treaty bctnoD
'ranu uid Halhind, t)i» Behclilt wu decland opan. Uoring tho
inlon of Holland and Balgium tha qneatiOD natarally hy in
.beyuiea. tThen Belginn became indepandent (1839) Holland to
ir naumad her exeliieiTs policy, tnit in 1603 tho itaoa whioh ibo
[u allowed to larj by the troaty of aajKimtion wue «iiitaltud by
klniim paying 17,141,MO Aorioi, s mni which wm Ut^ly npaid
^ Belginni by titanty other coQDtriHWho felt they had an blonat
in the ftte navigation of Uw Scheldt Ortat Britain'* sbaie wia
S,7B3,M0 fWHS.
- - VIf«nU, Dm Vttm jrarigsUan BilftfiM, IHl; Wnnnnm, "Inr ki
JoUn* Mayer'i
SCHELDT, oc Sohildi (Fr. Stetait, UX. Sealdu, 0.
Dutch SAonuk or AAmiuc), a river of north-weat Eniope,
belonging for 7e> miles of its oonise to France, 137 to
Betgiom, and 37 to the Netherlanda, Kiaing at a hdght
of SBS feet above the sea, in a amall lake (7 sqnare miles)
»t tbe old abbey of St Martin, near Catelet, in the French
dqwtment of Aisna (IKcardy), it becomes navigable by
the jnnctioD of the St Qneatia Canal, below Catelet, and
BMsea by Oambray, Denain (where it receives the Selle),
Talendwrnea, at the month of the Rouelle, Cond^ at the
month of tha Haisne or Heime, and Cb&tean I'Abbaye, at
the moath of the Scarpa. Entering Belgium between
Hortagne and Hollain, it eontinnes by Fontenoy, Toomay,
and Oodeoaide to Ghent, where it is joined by the Lys
from the left, and by the canals wbit^ nnite this town
With Baa aad Brngsa. At Ghent the tide rises 3^ feet
aod kata (or four boors; and it would ascend much
larUier wan it not for elnices. 6nt the river, instead of
noceediag atnight towards tbe sea, aa it appean to have
oooB pmiiaps as late at the time of Charlemagne, makes
a great bend towards the eaat to Deodermonde (the month
of tha Dendei) and Antwerp, wbanoa it agiin tarns north-
«frt and 1om> itaaU in tha Mtnariea amcng tba iikada of
L'UUL dDOoan4e rEanat'' ai>< Vmohil '■CamMsiau
Is a^ . A te Sh. Si^i*Mi«r, istl.
SCHELLINO, Fbikduoh Wilbklk Joupb voh
(177&-1854), a distiognished Germao pLiloaoptwi, was
boni on 27tti January 1775 at Leonberf^ a smaJI town irf
Wiirtembero, otherwise notable as aeene of the eariy yean
of Kepler's Jjfe. Tbroogh both parents he was connected
with families of distinction in the Rtiteetant chnrch ooin-
mnnity. His father, a solidly trained scholar of Oriental
languages, was called in 1777 aa ch^>lain and jvoteswir to
the cloister school of Bebenhaoaen, near Tiibingen, a pre-
paiatory seminary for intending atudenta of Ueology at
Tubingen. Here Schelling received his eorlieat education
and gave the fint evidences of what afterwarda so
eminently disUngniahed him, remarkable precoci^ and
qnickneas of intelleot. From the I^tin school at Kflrtin-
gen, whither he itad been sent in his tenth year, he waa
retnmed in two year* as having already acquitod all the
school eonld give him, and bis father with regret vaa
compelled to allow him at so abnormally yonng on age to
stu^ with the seminarists at BebenbaQsen. In 17{K^
with special parmiDion, for he was yet throe years under
the prtacribed age, Schelling entered the theoIo(^caI
seraioary at Tubingen, where ne had as fellow students,
contemporary as scholars though elder in years, Hegel and
HolderUn. The character and directitm (rf bis studiea m»
be gathered snffidently from the titles of the tsaays whi^
tat varitius purposes wera accomplished during the five
years of his stadent career. In 1TS2 he gradnoled in the
pbllosoidiical facnlty with a thesis AtOiquitumi d» prima
mt^orum kumauntm origitu p^Ltnopktmatu explieandi
laitamt* eritieum U p/tiioi>j^iaaH i in 1793 be contri-
buted to IWns's Memorabiiien a paper Uelitr Mytkut,
hidontdie Sagt^ and PhUomphenie der nHntat WtU ; and
in 1795 hie thesis for his theological degree was He
MareioHt PmiUiKai>m epiiloianmi tmatdaiorL The in-
finence of thaae early studies over hi* later literary cateor
■ BylaBlt, Bripaln, Ilaiufd, vA Waa.ai
TUqatiB, Tan " " — "■ — ' ^
w vlUdB biitorie
nltolbast
390
SCHELLING
boa beoD of l«D eiapvonited, but doabtluiia tlio; contributed
to BtreogtUoD liLt natund tendoacy to dwell nLtbor on tbe
Urgo h is toiico-iil>oc Illative proUama than on tUo difficultica
of abstract tbiaking. Before tho duto of big hst emaay
Doled above, a now and muob moro imjiortaut iafluBDCo
bud begun to 0]>crato on liim. Iti cotijanctioii ^yitb some
ot-hM follow-Btudentsho waain 170-1 studying tlio Kantion
Byatem. TUo difficulties or imjierfcctioDi) of that eysteni
ho claiinu soon to bavu perceived, and no doubt tbe per-
ception mu quickenod by acijuaintance with the first of
thoso writings in which FiGbt« put forward his amended
form of the critical philo!io|ihy. Tho " lloviow of ^nciiidB-
miia" and the tractate On the Noiiun of Winensrka/tilrltri
found in SchelliDg'a mind most fruitful EoiL With
characterifltic leal and impetuosity Schelling had no
sooner grasped the loading ideas of Ficbto's now mode of
treatiog philosophy than he threw together tho thoughts
■uggeated to him in tbe form of an c»iay, which appeared,
under the title UeUr Jit JlSglic/ii'it elnir Form der Phila-
io]ihii iilierhavpt, towards the ead of 1704. There wod
nothing origiDol iu the treatmeol, but it showed such
power of a()prociatiug tho new Ideas of the Fichtcao
method that it waa hailed with cordiol reoognitioa by
Fichto hinuelf, and gave the author tmmodintcly a place
in popular estimation as in the foremost rank of existing
philosophical writers. The csaay was followed up iu 1795
by a more ehiborate writing, I'om leh all Priaci/i Jtr
PAiliMojiAif, mltr UUr dm l/nOedtafflt (it taentc/ilic/ien
Wiaen, which, ■till remaining witliin the limits of the
Ficbteau idoalisra, yet oihibits unmistakable traaoa of a
tendency to give the Fichtean matbod a more objective
application, and to amalgamate with it Spinoza's more
realistic view of things.
The reputation so quickly gained led soon to its natural
lesult. In midsummer 17d8 Schelling was. called aa
extraordinary professor of philosopby to Jena, and thus
stepped into the most active literary and philosophical
circle oE the time. The intervaDing period had not bean
unfrnitful. While diumaTging for two years at Leipsic
thti duties of companion or tutorial guardian to two
youths of noble family, Schelling had contributed various
articles and reviews to Fichte and Niethammcr's Journal,
»nd had thrown himself with all his native impetuosity
into tho study of physical and medical scieoce. From
1T9G date the liriefe iiW Doffiuiiliimui vnd Knfinniiut,
an admirably written critique of the ultimate isauea of the
Kantian synteni, which will still repay study ; from 1797
tho essay entitled A'tui DtdmHon det XatKntflitt, which
to some extent anticipated Flchte's treatment in tho
OrHndOi-jt da XattirrefAti, publbhed in 179G, but not
before Schclling's essay had been received bj the editors
ol the Juui-nal. The reviews of current philosophical
literature wore afterwards collected, and with needful
omissioad and corrections appeared under the title "Ab-
handlungen lur Erliiuterung dos Idealianiua der Wiason-
schaf tslehro " In Sclielllng's i'hUoi. ScAnfifn, voL i., 1809.
The stttdieii of physical science bore rapid fruit in the Id<m
!H tiner rAit-i^i/Aie der Xntur, 1797, and the treatl'ie Von
der Writmvir, ITOS, tbe drift ol which will bo noted later.
Schotliu);'H {irofessoriate in Jena lasted till tlie early
part of lr<03. His lectures were extraordinarily attrac-
tive ; his productive powers were at their boat ; and the
cireumstanuas of his surroundings developed forcibly the
good and evil i|aalities of his character. Of bis u-ritings
durinfc thin period a merely cbronologiL-ot notice will mean-
while suffice. In 17U9 apiKtarcd tho Erritr Eiilintif liaet
Sji'Ifiitt tfrr X'tlMriiliilimiiihir, with an indei>endent and sub-
sequent Eiideilnnn ; in 1800 the Sj/tlein dti tmiucendety
liden Jd"di4iH¥*. in form one of the innst finished, in
»uV*Uuce one of thv moat tatlKfactot? of his works ; in
tho same ysM, in the ZtiiiiArift fUr t/telmlaiivt P/iysilk,
edited by him, "Altgemeine Deduction des dynamischen
FroccBBes"; and in ItiOl ibti DaritiUv»Q mtints Hyaartm der
i'lalM-l>li'u: : in 1H02, in tho Xeuc Zalichr.fiir qxk. Phyni,
the " b'orncro DamtoUangon aus dem System der Pliilo-
nopbie'': also in lU02thoduxlogue.AruitoandthBexcellentl7
written Vurliatmgeu iUrr dit Alrllinde del atadeBtiacJkot
Studiaiat. In conjunction with Ucgul, who in 1801 at
Kuhelling'a invitation had come to Jena, be edited tha
Kritisrim Jourunl /iir Pkiloiop/iie, the greater pert ot
which was written Ly HegeL Regarding tbe anthorebip
of certain articles in the volume and a half of this Journal
a discussion of no grcut significance baa arisen, concerning
which [icrhapB the best statement is that by Schelling'a eon
in the preface to vol v. of the ^Unimtliehe IVerte, Ablh. i.
The philosophical renown of Jena reached its culminat-
ing point during tho year« of Schelling's residence tbere^
iu no small meaf<ure through tbe imposing force of his
character and teaching. Uecogaized as of tbe first rank
among living thinkers he was received with evety mark of
distinction, and bis intellectual sympathies soon luiited
him closely with some of the moat active literary tenden-
cies of the time. With Qoethe, who viewed with interest
and appreciation the ]>oeticel fashion of treating fact
characteristic of the A'alur/Jidoao/Jiir, he continued on
eiGoUent terms, while on the other band be was repelltid
by Schiller's loss eipanaive disposition, and failed alto-
getlicr to understand the lofty ethical idealism that
animated his work. By the represenlativea of tbe
Romantic school, then in the beigbt of their fervour aod
beginning tbeir downward course, be was hailed as a m<Mt
potent ally, and quickly became /xir exnltmct the pbUo-
sopher of the Romantic type. The Schlegels and their
friends, who bad found at least one fundamental pria-
cipie of Romantic strain in Fichte, had begun to be dia-
satisfiod with tbe cold and abstract fashion of viewing
nature that seemed necessarily to foUow from tbe notion
of tbe IFiiseiucAnftalehre, and at the same time the deep-
seated antagonism of character between Fichte and the
impetuous Htteratenra of the Romantic school was begin-
ning to be felt Iu Schelling, essentially a self-conacioua
genius, eager and rash, yet with undeniable power, thejr
hailed a penionabty of the true Romantic type, and in his
pbilceophy a mode of conceiving nature adequate to tbe
needs of poetic treatment. During the Jena period the
closest onion obtained between Schelling and those who
either at Jena or at Berlin carried on warfare for the
Romantic idea. With August Wilhetm Schlcgel and his
gifted wife Caroline, herself the embodimsnt of the
Romantic spirit, Schelling's rehitions wore of the most
intimate kind. Personal acquaintance made at Dresden
before Schelling began his professorial career at Jena
rapidly developed into a warm friendship, to which circum-
stances soon gave a new and heightened cotonr. Caroline
Schlegel, a woman of remarkable receptive and apprecia-
tive power, emotional to excess, and full of the ardent ill-
balanced sympathies that constituted the Romantic tone,
felt for Schelling unbounded admiration. In him ebe
found the philosophic view which gave complatanesa and
consistency to the tumultuous literary and ]>orsonal feel-
ings that animated her, and she was not less attracted by
tbe dominating force of his i>ersona] character. It is pro-
bable that in the early stages of their friendship a future
marriage between Schelling and Carolina's young dang^ter,
Angusto Bubmer, was, if not definitely understood, yet
vaguely contemplated by both, and that in conwquenco
neither was fully an-are of the nature of tbe feelings
springing up between them. The untimely death of
Augusto in the enminer of 1800, a death in which Sdiel-
ling's rash contidonQQ jn bis medical knowledge was nnfci>
SGHELLING
famktolT bndnd, wUIo % HTen blow to both, drew tbein
ttmeh Dion cloaelj together, bnd in the foUowing jeti,
A. W> Soblegel ^nng removed to Berlin, and Cuoline
TOntumng in Jana, a&in lo deTeloped themielTei that
qoiatlj, amictiAily, and in appMentij tlie most friendlj
muuMT, ft diroiM waa unnged uid carried to ita eomple-
tion in the early nUDiner of 1603. On the 2d June of
th« laiiM yva Sdialling and Ouoline, after a Tiait to the
former^ father, were married, and with the marriage
SdieUin^i life at Jena came to an end. It was fnll time,
for ScheUing'B nodonbtedly oTerweening self-CMifidenM
ftod moat arrogant mode of criticiMii bad inndved htm in
* aeriM of vimlent diapntea and qnarrela at Jena, the
dotaili of which are in lhenuel*es of little or no iateita^
but are Talnable a* Ulaittatioiu of the evil qnalitiee in
Schelling'a natnra which de&ee much of bia j^seophic
work. The bwling ferroor which the Bomanticiata priied
■■ deplorably ineffective in the clear ooU atmcaphere of
specolatioo.
A. freak field waa found in the neirij-ooDatitated tini-
Tanity of Wiiixbnrj^ to which he wm c^ed in September
1803 aa proteosOT of "Katnrphiloeopbie," and where he
remained till April 1806, when the Napoleonic conqneeta
compelled a enanga. 'nte pnbliahed writings of tbla
period {PkitMophie mdSelifficM, ISOi, aod Utber dai Var-
/taUnim da Beale» taut IdaUem ut der Natitr, 1606), and
still man the nnpubliahed draft of hia lectnrea aa con-
tinned in Tolnmes v. and vi. of the Sdnmilichi Wtrle,
exhibit an important internal change in hie philoaophie
Tiewe, a ohanga which waa accentuated by the open breach
OD the one hand with Ficbte and on the other band with
Ht^^aL Bdielling'a little pamphlet J>artigw»g dtt wnArm
VerkdUKimt der ifaturpkUotopkit wr teritmrte* Fieht-
woUa Ltkrt waa the natural aeqnel to the difference which
bad bron^t the com^ondMKe of the former frienda to a
cloee in 1603, and to ftcbte^ (^>en condemnation in the
Grtmdi^ d. ffegmMorL ZeitaUtn. Hegel*! preface to
the PMmmtHOtoffie dm Otiftti waa in like manner the
aeqnd to the aeven treatment which in bia Jena leettuee
he bad beatowed on the emptinees of the Schetlingias
method, and with the appeaniKe of that work correapond-
eme |tnd friendahip between the two ceaaed, and in
BehelUng'i nind there remained a deeply rooted aenae of
iiy'sry and injoatice.
The WBribnrg pnrfenoriate had not been without ils
inner triala. S^ieQiog bad many enamiee, and hie irre-
eoDcilaUe and lof^ tone of dealing with them only
inrmatmt the TfraluKO of their attocka. He embroiled
himeeU with bla ct^aagnaa and with the Government, so
Uiat it «w dMibtlesi with a eenae of relief that he found
•ztemal eventa king hia teotire of the chair to a cloee.
In Hnnkh, lo which witii hia wife he removed In 1806,
be found a long and qniet reeidenoo. A poeition aa etate
official, at firat aa aiaociate of the academy of acieneee
and lecretaiy of the academy of arta, afterworda aa
aeeretary of the philoeophical aection of the academy of
eciencea, gave him eaae and leiaure. Without reaigning
bia official poeition he lectured for a abort time at Stutt-
gart and during aaven yean at Erlangen (1620-37). In
1609 Oarol^ died, and three years later ScheUing
married one of ber doeoet, moat attached frienda, Pauline
Getter, in whom ha fonnd a true and ^thfol compejiion.
During the king atay at Hanicb (1806-1841) Scbel-
Kn^s literary Botivity eeemed giadnally to come to a
ttandetilL The "Aphoriema on Natnrphiloeophie " con-
Uinad in Um JoArMeW der Medicnt oit Wiuentchaft
(1606-6) are for the moat part estraeta from the WOn-
bn^ Icetnea; and die Dntkmal der Sekrift «m dm
gmlichm Di^fm da Am JaaAi wia drawn forth by
t^ fecial in^dent of JmoU> wgrk. The txij wtittag
of id^ificanoeietbe "FhiloBopblBchetTntenaclinngen liber
das Wesen der men«cb]icben Freibeit," wfaich appeared in
the PhiloKphitiAe Sdiriften, voL L (1809), and which
carriee out, with increasing tendency to mysticism, the
thonghta of the previoua work, Pkilox^kie M«d Ktligion.
Id 181S appeared the tract UAer die GoUheiiai ni ^nnio-
tkraie, oetenaibly a portion of the great work. Die WeilaUer,
on which Bchelling waa nnderstoDd to be engaged, a woik
frequently announced ae ready for publication, but of
which no great part was ever written. Frabably it was
tbe overpowering strength and inSuence of the Htgeliao
eyetem Uiat constrained ScheUing to eo long a aiience, for
it was only in 183i, after the death of Hegel, that, in a
preface to a translation by H. Beckers of a work by Cousin,
he gave pnbtis ntterance to the antagonism in which he
stood to the Hegelian and to hia own earlier conceptions of
philoaopfay. The antagoniam cerUinly waa not then a
new fact; the Erlangen lectures on the history of philosophy
(Sammt. Werke, x. 121-e> of 1822 express the eune in a
pointed fashion, and ScheUing had already begun the
treatment of mythology and religion which in his view
constituted the trae pceitive complement to the negative
of logical or apecnlative pluloeophy. Public attention,
which had been froin time to time drawn to Scbelling's
prolonged silences was powerfully attracted by theae
vague hints of a new system which promised something
more positive, aa regards religion in particular, than the
apparent reenlta of Hegel's teaching. For the appearance
of the critical writing of Strausa, Fenerbacb, and Bauer,
and tbe evident disnmonin tbe Hegelian school itself, bad
alienated the aympathies of many from the then dominant
philoeopby. In Berlin particularly, the heodqoarteiB of
tbe Hegelians, tbe deeire found expreaeion to obtain
officially from Scheltiog a treatment of the new system
which he was understood to have in reserve. The realisa-
tion of the desire did not come about till 1611, when the
appointment of ScheUing aa Pmseian privy coiincillor and
member of the Berlin Academy, gave bun tbe right, a
right he was requested to exercise, to deliver lectures in
the nniveraity. The opening lecture of his course was
listened to by a large and moet appreciative audience;
and tbua, in the evening of his career, ScheUing fonnd
himself, aa often before, the centre of attraction in the
world of philosophy. The enmity of bis old.foe H. K Q.
Fanlus, sharpened by Schelling'e apparent success, led to
the surreptitious publication of a verbatim report of tbe
lectnree on the philosophy of revelation, (tnd, as ScheUing
did not succeed in obtaining legal coodemoation and snp-
preesion of this piracy, be in 1815 ceased the delivery of
any public courses. No authentic infonnation sa to the
natnre of tbe new positive philosophy was obtained till
after hia death in 1854, when bis sons began the issue of
his collected writings with tbe four vukmea of Berlin
lectures ; — voL L, Jiiindvetiim to the Philoeophy of Mytho-
logy (1666); ii., Philotapk^ of MyiMogy (1837); iii. and
iv., PKUotophy of Revelation (1856).
miatavarjDdgmnitonBmsrrann of tli« totsl wortli of Scbelling
H a philoM>pb«r, hu plies in ths histoij ot that importuit mave-
ment odled gener^y Ginnui philosophy is Dumutslceble end
aaanid. It ^ppeued to him, u he hieualf olaimed, to torn a
pig« in tlu biiUny of thougli^ ud oea csmiot ignore the actul
■dnnce apon hit prtdecauar schiersd bj him or the brllliint
fartilj ty of the genina bj which tbat scbioTumaii t VM sceomplitbed.
On tbe other hjuid ituODttobo dented thit SclieUiDg, towhon
mnuDiU^ long period o<
wu acconled, i
« SDceecdii
urr
long period of u
ig the roonded compleb
philocophiol vritjega, eitecded ovet a
lie before ns, not M p«rt» of one whole, hut «« tbe ■ .
fattitioni of ■ rstleo bighlj endowed apirit, eti'viDg contiauoaily
bat nniDceeettUJj efler s ulutioe of iti own problem!. Snch
nnity m the; poena !■ s noity of lendBocj and aednivoiu' ; they
en not puta ot t. whole, and In lome renwcts the final form thev
asM)i|ieaisthelfaitNlis6«torysfalL Bwfe it b«i tome aocnV
392
SCHELLING
nf hlstoriod Tilae
work* htTB for the moat pan osaaea nov » obts man [oku
hiitorifl intgrHt. Thiaqghont bii thiakiiiK b«ra ths Hinfnl
imprm of hnrry* fnooajpleteano, and nHimodifl itriTing after on
MhI which codU only ba ittunad by paliaDt, UborioDa, ftnd
mathodio sffort. Brilliant contributions there aro witbont doubt
to the aTolation of & philo«phlo idea, but
■11 into-a whole. It u not oufair to conne
ol Bohalliuff'B phito*ophlzing with the Tor
■nd with tba histomad ucideuti of bu
ia soil; maahiwd. fot
_p ifatufpkiloaopAU, o
QTidancoa of taatilj-acqiiirod knowledg
labour of minate thougbt, OTar-oonfiden
eeiiina, and deaire inatontanaonaly t-
impstienc
intliaforc
raLlingB
m'l^
the D
I dawned Qpoa the 'thlakar.
-'- "-- ---tiou of a foremost
_ i period of qniet
_ it laat forced npoa him there nnTortunatoly lay
before him ft •j'atam which achiered what had dimly beou iniolrad
ia bia ardont and impetnona daslrol. It ' ' ^^ .. r.
SahalliDz of a oortain dialnganiunMi'en i
philosopb; ; and if m olAim for him perfect diii
Tlevr va can do ao only by impoaing on him the ktwvl vuuudu
notion of defioiiBnt iuigbt,
ft nfttnnl eoDOomitant^ <^ tbia oontinnonB hurry nndi
t ia not posaibLe to acquit
I in regard to the Hegelian
oairied ont that lie ahoold hava been fonod at all atagtie lupportiiiB
MmMlfbj oilliagto hiatld ths form* of aome otlier ayatam. The
■ooceaHiTa phaaea of bia deTalopmont mfgbt without irguatice be
ehar»:terized by nferonce to these citemaf aapporta. Thus Fichte.
Spluou, Jakob Boahma and the Myatica, ftnd OiiallT, the neftt Oreeic
tfibkan with their Neoplatonic, OnoeCic, and SchoUatio oommtn'
tator^ gire rHpoctlTely colonnng to partloular works in which
Schelling nnfolda himself. At the aame time it would ba si^Jnet to
TBpraaen t Schelling aa mflroly borrowing from Aeae axtaraal eourcaa.
■mall meaaure of philosophic insight. Ot tba philosophio aflatuM
he wai in uo want ; and it might be fairly added tbftt, undar all
the diflertnces of eipoaiCiDa which seem to conatituta lo nuuiy
differing Bchellingian ayatems, there is one and the same philo-
■ophia effort and apirit. Bat what Schelling did vant was power
to work out •cienti&cally, methodical It, tba ideas with which hia
apirit was filled and msatared. Hanca he oonld ouly find aipreagiou
Ibc himeelf in forma of this or that earlier philoaophy, and hanca
too the frequent formlesinen of hia own thought. Uie tendency to
nlapeg into mere Empatiaat deapair of eTei fading an adequate
Tahicla for transmitting thoughts
It ia thus, moreoTer, a matter of indifferenoe ho* one distrihntN
or oluaiflaa the aeveral forma and periods of BchelllDg'* philoeophie
ftotiTity. Whether one adopts aa paaia the external tbrm, t.i., the
torelgB mode ot ipecnlation laid under contribution, or endcftTOun
to ftdhsre oloMlf to inner difference of view, the reault i> vary
tunoh the aama. There ia one line of spacnUtiie thought, in the
daMtopmant of which ineritable poblema oall for new methodi of
h>ndlin^ while thB ranlli only in part can claim to bare a pUca
■ccoidad to them in the hittory of philoHphr. It ia fair in
dealing with Schelling'B dcTelopment to take into iccouut the
indioatioua of hia own opinion regarding ili more lignf&ouit
momenta. In hia own Tiaw the tuming pointa aeem to have been
-^1] the traoaition fnat Fichta'a method to the mora objectiTa
conception of nature, — the advance, in other wotdi, to Votur-
plaloiji/iU ; d) Che daGnite formulation of that which implicitly,
aa Schelling daitna, waa inrolvad in the idea of NatutphitoKipMi,
Til., tlie thought of the identical, indifferent, abaolute anbetratum
of both nature and apirit, tha advance to IdtHtiUUrohiloiipMs ;
(B) the oppoaition of negfttire uid podtire philosophy, an oppoai.
tlon which ia the thamB of tha Berlin lecturea. but the germa of
whicli may be traced back to 180t, and oF which more Sian tba
gumu ate fonnd in tha work on freedom of IBOt. Only what
falli under the flnt and Moond of tha djtiaiona ao Indicated «n ba
aid to have discharged a function In daraloping philosophy ; only
BO much oonstitatea Etehslling's philosophy proper. A. Twy brief
notice of tha charftcteristia featont of Uie three atndia mnst here
(1) JToAtrpMIiMiipUa.— The TichtMn method had itriTan to
exhibit the whole itrastaTa of reality as the necaaasrr implication
at aelf-winaoionanaM. The fundamental featurea of knowledge,
whether aa aotivity or a* aam of apprehended tact, and of conduct
had been deduced ai elementa neceaaar; in the attaiDment of aelf-
conaoionsneaa. FIcbtaan idealism thaiafore at onu alood out
negativi'Iy, aa absliahing Che dofpnatla conception of tha two real
worlda, Bubjact and object, by whose Interaction cognition and
practice ariiv, aad u amending the critical idea which retained
with danggroua caution too many Ingmeati of dogmatiam ;
positively, m iiisiating on the unity of philoeopbioal iutetpntatioD
and aa anpply ing a key to the fonn or method by which a completed
philoBophic ijstem might be conalructed. But tha Ficbtaui t(«ch-
ing appeared on the one band lo identify too cipaaly the nltim^to
ground of tha universe of rational conception with tha ftnitfl, indi-
vidual apirit, and on the other hand to endanger the rtaiity of the
world ot nature by regarding ft too much after the fashion ot aub-
jectlve idealism, as mere moment, tliongh naocaaitated, in ths
existence of the finite thinking mind. It waa almoat a natDtml
consequence that Fichte sever sucoeodad In amalgamating witb hia
own aystsm the nsthetio view of natnro to which the Kritik ef
Judgrml bad pointed as an eaaential component in any complete
pbllouphy.
From Fichte's poaitian Schelling started. Fram Kchte he
derived the Ideal of a oompleted whole of philotophic eonceptioa ;
from Fichia he derived the formal method M which for the moit
piirt he continued true. The earliest writinga tended gnidiully
towarda the £ist import«nt sdvaucs. Nature must not be con-
csivad as merelj' abatract limit to the infinite striving of niirit, as
a mare seiiea of neceaaarj thoughta tor mind. It most be ijiat
and mora thui that It muafhave TaalilT for itself, a reality
which atands in no conflict with Its ideal character, a ieftltt]r the
reality the root and aprin^ of
ot which ia ideal,
which is spirit. Nature aa the
intelligence aa the compli
all t
. of that which is 0
ip up
■elf-
and transcendental philosoph; ate the two couiplementary portJons
of philoeophy as a whole.
Animftted with this new c
rnah to JVatvniA£JdSDpAu, ai
mentary knowledge of contemporary Bciantiflc :
off in quick succasDon the Idien, the WtiUttU, and the £^slfr
£nfUTui/. NatoTphHoniphie, which thns became an bistoriol fact,
baa had acant mercy at the hands of modem ecienee; and un-
doubtedly there ia much Jn it, even in that for which Schelling
iloDe is rtcponsihla, for which only contempt can bo onr feeling.
Schelling one mstt ttj, had neither the strength oE thinking nor
the acquired knowledge neceiaary to hold the balance between the
abetrftct treatmant M coamolwical notions and the concrete
retearchei of special icienceL Hia eSorta after a conatmction of
natural reality are bad in themselves and gave
loo frequently untrue.
> with which scientific
that are scattered throughout the writii
thoughts to which ScheUIn^ himself is
Regarded merely as a criticiam of the nc
interpretation proceeda, theae writings have stiiL importanco anil
might have achieved more had they been untainted by the tendency
to hasty, ill-considered, a priori antidpstioos ot nsturs.
Natnre, aa having reality for iCaelf, forms one completod whole.
Its manifoldnesa is not then to be taken as excluding ita fnada.
mental unity; the divisious which oar ordinai-y perception and
thought iatrodncB into it have not absolute validity, but are to be
interpreted as the outcome of the single formative energy or
complox of forcae which is the inner aapcct, the aoul of nature.
9ne£ inner of nature we an in a position to apprehend and
conatanotively to exhibit to onraelves in thesuccesilTa forms which
its devslopmant assumes, for it is the same spirit, though uncon-
scious, of which wa become aware in self-conscioosoeM. It ia the
realizarion of apirit. Kor ia tha variety of its forms imposed upon
It from without ; there ia neither external teleology in nature, nor
mechanism in the narrower aenss. Nature ia a whole and (bnus
iteelf ; within its range we ate to look for no other than natural
explanations. The fnnction of NaturpkHotafhit is to exhibit tha
ideal as ipringing bom tbe real, not lo dednos the real from the
ideal Tlie incaasont change which experience bringa before ns,
lakcn in Bonjnnc.tion witb the thought of unity in pn^nctlra force
of nature, leads to tbe all-important conception of the duality, tlif
polar opposition through which nature expreeaea iteelf in ita varied
produclo. The dynamical seriea of stages in nature, the forma in
which the ideal structure of astnre ia realized, are matler, aa the
equilibrium of the fnndamentftl eipanrive and contnctive forces ;
light, with ita subordinate proceasea,— msgnetiam, electricity, and
chemical action: organism, with its component phaaea of reprodnc-
tion, irritability, and aemlbility.'
Juat aa nature eibibite to na the aeries of dynamtcal stages of
proceSBas by which spirit struggles towards consciounea of ilsel^
BO the world of intelligenee and prectice, the world otmind, eihitata
the series of sta^ through which aelr.<ioDKiooniesi with it*
inevitable oppoaiiions and teconcilialicns davslops in ita ideal
form. The theoretical side of inner nature in ita Baoceaifve giades
from senaation to the iuriicat form of spirit, ibe abstracUng naaon
which emphasises the dSatenoe of subjective and obj'eoliTe, Imvss
S C H — S C H
unlTalprabh
1, tb* iadiTUn
and tbe ipptnutlf nto
oljaetin world. \ath
^it
nbtani wUeh ncuTM Mtiafietian only in ths piu-
-idiTiiariliiiig ictiTity. Tns prutial, igun, taken in
1 witli tU tbgonticul, fonn on ths queetiDn of thi
iMondllBtioD liatwani tha fn* comcioiu oniniuiion of thoaglit
l{ ntOMriteUd tod BDcoDKioiu mechiiiiim of tha
~ ■ teloological coaaeiion mid in
it whiali tor ipirit ii iti labjectin eipreiaian, rii., at tad
gMUOi, Ae nliiMtin xcd obJMtin End tbeir point or luios.
<S} HataTCudipiiiU Jfaliirr'ai<>K<lAu ud TrvriKodimlalpliib.
KfM*, thai (tuid u two nlitivolj omnplete, bat complomentuj
putt of tha wbolt. It WM impoinblo for Scballing, ths animttiiig
prinapleatwhoMthoDghtwueTerUienuiDciliitionof dilTeFencs,
not Id tab uid to tak* niMdiJr the itap tovunig tbs connptiaa ot
th* wiling but* ot which niton ma ipirit in miniratiitioni,
fonu, or aonMqnancM. For thii cammon Iwiii, howeyer, he did
not MoOMd tX nnt in finding any other thin the menly negitire
unrioD of indiffennca. Tha idantitr, ths ibBlnta, which
niulvrUj all diOentice, all tbs nlitiTs, ii to bo shinctniMd
tfmpl; w ntutrum, u abealnts ondiffcttntiattd Mlf-equjTiltnce.
It lay in tha Tsrr natnn of this thooght that Spinoia should now
obr himaeir to Schslliug aa ths tbinlicr whose form orpssentatioB
caOMiuanattohiaiiawnnbloin. Tkn DanUUuitg miiHa Sy^iat,
and th* mo» sipandsd and mon canful tnatment contained '
ths UetuM on Sytlim inr fsiamnln PhUntafMi vmd der A'lUu
■Hi/siepto imbitmitrt given in Viinhnrg, 1804 (pnbliehed only
n Uu SamnHidic Wirki. toL tl p 131-57B), an thonnghly
6piDSsiitia in form, md to a laigs extent in •atataoes. They are
not withoDt nine, indeed, aa eitended comment " '
With all hii tSbrts, Ekhellinf; doea sot aacued
MooapliDni of nature and epint into any ritil con
primal idantity, the abaolota indiffennce of naMin. Vo tma eoiution
codU b* achiarod by naort to the men ibaencs of distingaiihing,
diflanochv tsatnn. The abeolota wai lott with no other fonetion
than that Mramoring all tbe differenca on which thoo^t tnma.
Tbs criliciain* of I^dits, and nuai particularly o( Uessl (in ths
"Toned*" to ths i>AAu«u>uby<< iu CMtttt), point to ths iatal
defect in tha oaa«ptioa at tha abaolota aa men feaRiraleM idantitT.
(t) Along two dutinct lines SohsUing fa to be found in all bia
later wtiUngi striTtng to amaDl tha coacaption, to which he n-
maioed traa, or abaoluts naun aa the nttinute gnmnd of reality.
It waa aeceoary, in the ftnt place, to glre to this abeolnla a e^r-
ado; to make of it something mot* than empty lameneH ; it waa
ntaassarj, in tha eeoond place, to clear np in some wiy the nlatjon
in which Uia actuality or aj^iarant utiwUty of mtim end apirit
■tood to the nltinuta raaL Schsllias liad already {in the Sj/iUwi
dtriu. FhS.) begnn to eodaaToor anei an ainalgamatioa of the
Spinoiiatio conoeptlon ti enhatanca with tha Platonic Tiew of an
ideal nalm, and to find thenin the meani of enriching the bare-
nan of abaolate naaon. In Brvia, and in PhUoi. «. BtUgian, the
lame thought finds azpnaBcn. In the realm of idaaa the abao-
Inta finds itsslf, haa ita own naton oTsr againaC itwlf aa objectiT*
OTBT against aulyectiTs, and thui ie in ths way of oTsrcommg its
ahatractnew, of becoming csnonta. Thia conception of a dlBer-
ance, of an internal Mractiin in ths absolute, finib otber ind not
laei oUonre aiDrsarioni in tha myatical contribotiooi of ths
and in the echoluCic epacolationa of the
"■ • gy. At ths same time it oonneoti iteeit
. . , tain in conjnnction with the
■bsttactly ntional character of ths abaolnte an oxolanatlon of
BCtoalitj. Thinga, — naton and ipiiit,— hare an actoal being. Thsy
in tbem, an antagouietic
- T600)(-
Itetnra which in all tima philosophen hive been driren
nils, and which they here deecribad in Tirisd faabion. .
ality of thing* ia a dsfection from the ataolote, and their existence
sompals a neoniidaration ot oar conoeptlon of God Than moat be
noogniied in Ood aa a completed actoiliCy, a dim, obacan ground
or had*, which can only bs described ae not yet being, bnt aa con-
taining in itself the impales to eitemalization, to aiutonce. It ie
Orwi^ thia ground of Being in Ood Himself that ws mnit find
^^ m of that Indspsndence which thinga uaert orar againet
y to aee how from tbii poaition Scbelling was
t in the ntional oonception
^ to bs found, nay, that all
nuuuu nioception eiteodt but to the form, and toachsa not ths
rsal,— that Ood ie to be coneaived as act, as will, aa eomathing oyer
and aboTe the rational conception of the diTine. Hones the etresi
laid on will aa the realizing fictor, in oppoaitlon to tboafrbt, a
tisw throna^ wliich Schelting connects himeelf with Schopenhauer
and Ton fiartmann, and on the groond of which he hia been
racOROiasd by the latter ea tha recoooiler ot Idealism and raaliim.
FinaUy, thai, than amsrgca the oppontiDn of n^atire, i.e,, menly
ntional philcaophy, and ftodtiTS, of which tbe content i) the red
arolutlon of ths dirine as it haa taken place in fact and in bietory
and aa it ia raoorded in the Tuied mjthofiwies aad raligiotis of man-
kind. Kot mnch ntiahotJOD aui be telt with the axpoiilion of
aitlMr a« it appaan in the Tolnmta of Bariin lactoiw.
SCHEMNITZ (Hnng. SdrntoMnya), a miniog town in
the Cls-Donubiu coitDtj of Hont, Haagary, lice aboat 65
miles north from Budapeat, in 48' 27' N. Ut., 18* 52' E.
long., on an elevated site, 2300 feet above the level of tha
EBB. Its ioBtitutioiia indnde b Bam&a Catholic and a
Frotaatant gjmnaaium, a high achool for girls, a court of
Justice, a hospital, and several benevolent and scientilic
societies. Schemoiti owes its chief importance to the fact
of ita being the miniog centre of the kingdom. Con-
nected with this local industry are important Qovernment
institutjons, snch as varions mining snperin tendencies, a
chemical analytical laboratorj, and an ezoellent academy
of miniog and foreatrj (with a met«orologicat observa-
tory aod a remarkable oollection of minerals), attended
hf pupils from all countries of Europe and also from
America. The mines ara chiefly the property of the state
and the corporation ; the average yield annually is —
gold, 332 ft; aUver, 15,000 lb; lead, 11,600 cwL;
copper, 180 cirt. Iron, arsenic, &C., to the value of about
X1!K),000 are abo produced. There are slso flourishing
pottoriea where well-known tobcu»o pipes are manufactured.
With Schemniti is conjoined the town of B^IabAnya ; their
united population in 1884 was 15,265, chiefly Slovaks, of
whom nearly 3000 were engaged in mining.
Schemniti, which was already noted for ita mines in the time of
thaHomans, baa played coaaidenblepart in the history of Hnngaiy.
After tha Tartar invaaion in the 1 Eth century it waa coloniied by
Qermana, but had becotna quite Slavoniud befon tha academy <M
minbg waa fonnded by Uarii Xhenea (ITSO). The tchool ot
forestry wet adde4 in 18(». The coiiwntion ii wealthy, having
RceiTiid ipecial commercial privilegea Irom the crown in coniiders-
tion of pecuniary aid afforded in timaa ot emergency.
SCHEKECTABY, a dty of the TJoited Statea, county
•eat of Schenectady county, New York, in the valley of the
Mohawk river, 17 miles l^ rail north-west of Albany, with
wbich it is also connected by the Erie Canal. It is best
known aa the seat of Union College, an institution founded
in 1796 by a noion of several religious sectS) and now
poBsessed of large endowments, extensive buildings, and a
valuable library, and along with the Albany medical and
law schools, d(c., forming the Union University. Beddea
manufacturing locomotives, iron bridges, and agricnltoial
implements, Schenectady has shawl, hosiery, carriage, and
varnish bctorioa. The poptilation was 9&79 in 1860,
11,026 in 1870, and 13,656 in 1880.
Occupying the site of one of the council groanda of the Uohawka,
Schenectady was chosen aa a Dutch trading nnt iu IS20, was
chartend in 1M<, and became a bonogh in 17SE and a dty in
" s burned by ths Fnnch and Indians, and
aiity .three of iti
BCHETKY, JoHif Alkxakdik (1786-1824), a younger
brother of J. C. Schetky (sea below), studied medicine
in Edinburgh university and drawing in the Trueteee'
lemy. As a military surgeon he served with distinc-
nnder Lord ^eresford in FortugaL He contributed
excellent works to the exhibitions of the Royal Academy
and of the Water-Colour Society, and executed some of the
illustrations in Sir W. Scott's Provineial AntiquUitt. He
died at Cape Coast Castle, Sth September 1824, when
prepanug to follow Mnngo Park's route of ezptoration.
SCHETET, John Cbbisthit (1776-1674), marine
painter, descended from an old Transylvanian family, was
bom in Edinburgh on the Uth of August 1776. He
atndied art under Alezandec Nasmyth, and after hafing
XXi — SO
394
S C H— S CH
tranUecI on tbe ConUneat be settled in Oj^ford. aud
teoght for MX years an «, draiving-uoatcr. la 1808 lie
obtained a poat in tbo milibLry coUet'e, Great Marlow, and
tbree jreara later bo received a cou),^uia! niipointmenC as
proEesaur of drawing in tlie oaral college, Portmnoutli,
where he bod amjile opportuiiitiea for tbe stud; of bis
fafourite moriDe Bubjecta. From 1836 to 1SG5 he held a
iimilar professorship in the military college, Addifcombe.
To tbe Royal AcaOemj exhibitions he cootributad at
iQtervoIs frora 1805 to 1ST2, and he was represenled at
tbe Westrainsler Hall competition of 1817 by a large oil-
piunting of the Battle of La Bogue. He was marine
painter to Oeorge IV., William IV., and Queen Victoria.
Among bb pubUsbod works hre the illuBtratioDB to Lord
John Mannere's Civile in Smlch Waterg, and a Tolume of
photographs from his pictures and dmwiugs issued in
18G7 under tbe title of Vein-am of the Sea, He died in
London, oa the 28tb of January 187 4.
Om of hia bent norki, tbe Lf« of tbe Raytl Qaoxm, ptint^ in
ISM, ia in llio Natiouil Caller/, Louiloo, lad the Unilal SerTJcn
Club poHcuu Biiotlicr iinporUnt miiriDe lubjsct from hia brush.
Ilia meuoii by bis (Uughtcr ns publiihul in 1S77.
SCHEVENINQEN, a fishing village and vratering-phice
in Holland, on the North Sea, about two miles from Tbe
Hague, with which it is cunnect«d by a shaded avenue
with a tramway. There ia a fine sandy beach below the
line of dunes that eaparate tbe village from tbe sea. Tbe
terrace crowniog the duces serresas a promenade. Fopu-
latioD in 1879, 7713. Schereningen has a cooaiderable
herring fieet. In a naral engagement off tbe coast in
1673 De Kuyter defeated the combined forces of the
French and English.
. SCHIAVONETTI, Luioi (176B-18IO), engraver, was
born at Bassano iu Venetia, on April !, 176G. After
having stndied art for eoveral jeara he was empbyed by
Testolioi, an engraver of very indifferent abiiitlea, to
execute imitations of Bartoloizi'a works, which he passed
off as his own. In 1790 Teatolini was invited by
Bartolozzi to Join biiu io England, and, ft having been
discovered that S:hiavonetli, who accompanied bim, had
executed the plates in question, he was taken by Bartolozzi
into his employment, and, having greatly improved under
his imitruction, he bocorue an eminent engraver in both tbe
line and the dot manner, " develojiing an individual style
which united gi-andeur with grace, boldness, draughtsman-
like [)ower, and intelligence with executive delicacy and
Snisb." Among hia early works are four plates of subjects
from the French Revolution, after , Benazech. He also
produced a Mater Dolorotta after Vandyck, and Michel-
angelo's cartoon of the Surpri;<e of tbe Soldiers on tbe
Banks of the Arno. From 1805 to 1603 ha vras engaged
in etching Blake's deaigna to Blair's Grave, which, with a
portrait of the artist engraved by Schiavonotti after T.
Phillips, ILA., were published in the laat-named year. Tbe
etching of Stothard's Canterbury Pilgrims was one of his
latest works, and on his death on the 7th of June 1810
the plate was taken np by his brother Niccolo, and finally
completed by James Heath.
SCHIEDAH, a town of the Netherlands, in the pro-
vince of South Holland, cot far from the confiuence of the
Schie with the Kaaa, 3 mlloa by rail from Botterdam, It
is best known as the seat of a great gin maoafacture, which,
earned ou ia more than two hundred distillorieB, gives
employment beeldes to malt-factories, cooperages, and cork-
cutting eutabliahments, and supplies grain reCuee enough
to feed about 30,000 pigd. Other industries are ship-
building, glass-blowing, and candlfr moulding. Schiedam,
which bos recently been growing rapidly towards the south-
west in the Mieaw-Frankenland, ia not behind the larger of
the Netherlauds cities io tbe magnificeoce of iti private
public buildings an of modi
note. It is enough to mention the (iroote or Jaaa-Kerk,
with the tomb of Cornelis yia-'^p^ ambasnador to Turkey,
the old Boman Catholic church, the synagogue, the town-
honse, the exchange, the Muais Sacrum, the post office
(Blaauwhuia), and a mined castle (Huis te Riviere). Tlia
population oif the commune increased from 9157 in 1811
to 12,360 in 1840, 21,103 in 1875, 23,035 iu 1880, and
24,321 in 1884 ; tho population of tbe town was 18,85-1
in 1870.
Schiedam, which Bnt ippuin En ■ docament o( ISSl, obtaiued
pritiltgw from Fiona V. in 127B, and mUnally a&iuina im-
purtaiice ■■ n commercial town, la tba 16lh nntur; it had a c»u-
lidemlila ahHta in tlm liirriug Hiilisrj and csrricd ou aalt-makiiie,
tUlJDg. The town waa flDodod io I77I1.
SCHIEFNER, Fbasz Awtom (1817-1879), lingaiot,'
was born at Beval, in Russia, ou the 18th July 1817.
His father waa a merchant who had emigrated froiu
Bohemia at tbe end of last century. He received bin
education at the grammar school of his native place, where
also bi£ subaequeut colleague, the celebrated naturoliKt
Karl Ernst vou Baer, had been brought np. He nutricu-
lated at St Petersburg as a law student in 1836, but wliilu
qualifyiog for this profession be pursued with keeu iu-
terest the study of tbe classics, and subsequently devoted
himself at Berlin, from 1840 to 1842, exclusively to Eastern
languages. On his return to St Petersburg in 1813 ho
was employed ia teaching the classics in tho First GramrDar
School, and soon afterwards received a post iu the Imperial
Academy, where in 1652 tbe cultivation of the Tibetan
language and literature was assigned to bim as hid s|iocial
function. Simultaueoosly he held from 18G0 to. 18T3 tho
professorship of cUasicat languages in the Roman Catholic
theological seminary. From 1854 till bis death he was an
extraordinary member of the Imperial Academy. He died
otter a fortnight's illness on the 16th November 1879.
■k in literary roMiirch iu thrM ilinctivi
Fint. he ,
buled t
the ilm».
,d broLglit oi
iudcprndently, a
roliublo articlo and larger publication* oa the tangunn anil
litsraton or Tibet He jaiaeewd b1«) a n-uiarkable a«]iuintKiin>
with Uongolinn, and wlico dealb overtook him liaJ Just finislinl
■ nviaion oF tbs New Tmtimciit in that Ungnaga with ttliieh llio
Britiah and Foreign Bible Society bad eutmalod biin. Futlher,
heiriia opaor thegruteat aiitborilied oti the philoiog; sad etbiwlnjor
or tba Finnic tiibca. He ediloil and ttaualattd the gloat Finnic cine
KalnaJa ; he arraiigeil, oompjeted, and brought out in tw.lvf
Tolumes the literary itmalna of Alsunilor Caitieu, Uvring on Iho
lenguagsa of the Simoyedic tribea, tho Koibi], ICan^gau, Tuuguiian,
Buryst, Oatiik, and Kotlio tongaes. and jitEpared several valnablo
paperaon Finnic niytholop for tbe ImiMrial Academy. In thelhirJ
.self tt
loCaucu
■oatigstic
IS into
eh, thanka to hii hicid analyiae,
Illy-
been placed within riich of Euroimn philologiiti. Xbu
he gave a full analysii of the Tuih lanruige, and in quuk ■uccH'
aion, fi-om Bsron P. Uilar'a inieatimtioni, coni|irehoui.iie lapoM
ontLeAwar, [hie, Abkhaaian. TchctcT>eui,Eui-Kumiik,Hiir]tuiuu
and Kilriuiin langusgea He bid aJu conipletclj maiUred tbe
Ouetic, end hrought ont a -number of traualatiena from tbat
language, aevoral of them acconipnied by tlie original text. For
raauy of his lingulHllcal inrtatignlinna he had, with aa aneb taci
aa patience, avnile.1 himaeir of the pn-Mnce in St Petemburg of
nativea (eoldiera chiefly) of the dUtriets on tho -langlugo of
which he hippcD>i! to be eneageJ. The imjiortinoo, boitaver,
or the Teat meia of linguietical mutoriU tbua openoduip by Mm,
' ' ' '' ' hich hia in vimCiga Lions led, baa not yoi
■icept ao far, i^rbi
>w ledge of Eaatem
been fully realiiod, a
whieh brajieh of liten
With a rare philological acnmen, which with equal
the morpholoEical and idiomatic porta or a llngi
of tvaun-h which
lagged. He viaited Englmd three tiinae for purgnaai of
1,— in 1863, 1807, and 187S,— when he endeuatl himaeir to all
igbt in contact with him by hia modeaty and aingl*-
(waiving devotion tc
S C H — S C H
39ft
MfOmltrtt, UM ; "-■— -- "-
SCHILLER, JoBAKir Chkistofh Frmdbioh (1769-
1B05), Oernum dnmatiit wid poet, was bora at Marbftcb,
in Warteinbei^, dd the lOti or 11th (probably 10th)
No»Bmber 1759. His gianilfftther and great-grandfather
lud boeo bakeiB to Bittenfald, a village at the point where
the Benu flowi ioto the Neckar ; and the family wa«
probfcblj deMBudod from Jacob Georg Schiller, who wa«
bom in Qroaaheppwh, another Swabian village, in 1587,
Sdiiller^B father,. Johann Eaipar Bchillor, who waa about
tbirtj-Ei( years of age when hia ion was bom, waa a mao
of remarkable intelligencB and energy. In 1749, after the
War of the Aiutrian Succeniou, in which be had served aa
# aargeon in a Bavarian regiment of hiueais, he v/ent to
viail a married aiater &t Marboch, a little town on the
Neckar ; and here, a few montha after hia arrivi.i he
married Elirabeth Dorothea Kodwrasi, a girl of seventeen,
the danghtec of the landlord of the inn in which he had a
lodging. She had great aweetneaa and dignity of character,
•nd exerciaed a strong influence over her husband, who,
ftlthongh aaeentially kind and thoronghly honourable,
*»• apt to give way to a aomewhat harsh and imperioaa
temper. Th^ had aix children, of whom the ■ eldest,
Cbristophjoe, waa bora eight years after their marriage.
Next came Schiller, and after him were bora four
daughter*, of whom only two, Lovia and Nanette, nirvived
Until Schiller was fonr years of age hia mother lived with
her patenta in Marbach, white hia father served in the
Wiirtemberg army, in which he gradoally rose to the tank
of miyor. In 1761 the elder Schiller was joined by his
family at Lorcli, a village on the eastern border of Wurtem-
berg where he served for abont three ymrs aa a recruiting
officer. Aflerwarda he wae tranoferred to Lndwigriaorg,
and in 177S he waa made overeper of the plantations and
nursery gardens at the Solitude, a country residence of the
duke of Wartemberg, near Stuttgart The duties of this
position were congenial to the tastes of M^or Schiller,
and he became widely known aa a high an^orily on the
•nbjects connected with his daily work.
At Lorch Schiller had been taught by the chief clergy-
man of the village. Pastor Mcoer, whose neme he afler-
wards gave to one of the characters in Bit Riiubir. When
the family aettied in Lndwigaburg he was sent to the lAtin
school, which he attended for aii years. He took a good
place iu the periodical examinations, and was much liked
by his masters and fellow-pupils, for he was active, intelli-
gent, and remarkable for the warmth and constancy of hie
affections. At a very early age he gave evidence of a
talent for poetry, and it was carefully fostered by hia
mother, who was herself of a poetic temperament. His
parents iDteudsd that he should become a clergyman, bat
this decision was abandoned at the request — practically by
the order — of the duke of Wiirtsmberg, who inaiiited on
his being sent to the military academy, an institution
which had been established at the Solitude for the training
of yonths for the military and civil services. Schiller
entered this institution eady in 1773, when he waa
between thirt«en and fonrteen yean of age, and he
remained in it until he was twenty-one. For some time
he devoted himself to the stndy of JuriBprndenee, but the
subject did not interest him, and in 1775, when a medical
faculty was instituted at the academy, he was allowed to
begin the study of medicine. In that year the academy
waa transferred from the Solitude to Stnttgart.
Schiller was often made wretched by the harsh and
narrow discipline maintained at the academy, but it had.
no permanently ii^nrious effect on hia character. With
several of hia fellow-a'tudenta he formed a lasting friend-
ship, and in association with them, notwithstanding the
vigilance of the inspectors, be waa able to read many
forbidden books, including some of the writings of
Ronsscao, Elopstock's Mttnak, the early works of Ooetbe,
translations of a few of Shakespeare'a plays, and a German
translation of Hacphetson's rendering of the poems of
Ossian. Under these influences he became an ardent
adherent of the school which was then protesting
vehemently against traditional restrictions on indi-
vidoal freedom ; and he contrived to make opportunities
for the expression, iu more or less crnde dramas and
poems, of his secret thoughts and aspirations. For abont
years work of this kind was interrapted by the pres-
of professtODol studies ; bnt in the last year of his
reudence at the academy he resumed it with increased
fervour. In this year be wrote the greater part of DU
XauAer, the most striking passages of which he read to
groape of admiring comradea.
On the 11th December 17S0 Schiller waa informed
that be had been appointed medical ofGcer to a grenadier
regiment in Stuttgart, and he almost immediately began
ew duties. He was not a very expert doctor, and he
too paaaionately devoted to literature to take much
trouble to excel in a profesaion which he disliked. Die
«r was aoon finished, and in July 17S1 it was
pnblished at his own expense, some persona of hia
acquaintance having become security for the necessary
amount This famous play is ill-constructed, and contains
much boyish extravagance, bat it is also full of energy
and nvolatioDory fervour, and it captivated the imagina-
tiou of many of Schiller's contemporaries, Early iu 1782
it was represented at the Mannheim theati^ and it was
so warmly applauded that Schiller, who had stolen away
from Stuttgut to see hia play, began to think it might be
possible for him to devot« his time whoU; to th» work of
390
SCHILLER
k drtmktuL By md \>j he mw penoaded to go again to
Hanaheim without leave ; and for this offenct^ of which
the duke of WBrtan))>erg was ioformed, ha me condemoed
to two weeks' ureet. Shortlj aFtenrarda he wai ^er-
emptorily forbiddsn to write booki, or to hold commonica-
tioa with penoiu who did not reside in Wilrtamberg.
Thia tyrannical order filled him with k> ranch indignatioo
that he reeolred at bU ccets to tecnre freedom, and on the
ITth Beptember ITBS, acoompanied by his friend Stteiuher,
a joong miiiician, he fled from Btat^art.
Schiller had now before him a time of much distress
and anxistj. In. the coone of a few weeks he finished
FUtco, a [Jay which he had begun at Statt^rt; but
Dalbetg, Ue director of the 'Mannhaim theatre, declined
to pnt it on the stage, and the unfortunate poet knew not
how he was to obtain the means of liTiog. At the same
time it was thonght ^ohable that a request for his
extradition might be addressed to the elector of the
Palatinate. In this perplexity BchlUer wrote to Fran von
Woliogen, a friend at Stuttgart, atking to be allowed to
take refnge in her house at Banerbach, a village in the
Thnriogian Forest, within two hoars' walk of Meiningeli.
This request wm granted, and at Bauariiach Bcluller
remained for nearly seven months, working chiefly at the
play which he ultimately called CahaU mid Lithe and at
Don Carta:
In July 1783 Schiller returned to Hannheim, and this
time he obtained from Dalberg a definite appointment as
diamatio poet of the Hanoheim theatre, ryeteo, which
was aoon represented, was received rather coldly, bnt for
this disappointment Schiller was amply compenaated by
iiit admiration excited by Cabait vnd Lubt. These two
plays express easentially the same mood as that which
preTtlls in Die SavBer, but thef indicate a striking
advance in the mastery of dramatic methods. This is
eapeeially true of Cobalt w%d LiAe, which s1^ ranks as
one of the most effective acting plays in Qerman literatnre.
In addition to hii dramas Scliiller wrote a good many
lyrical poems, both before and luring liis residence at
Mannheim. Few of these pieces rise to the level of his
early plays. For the most part they are excessively erode
in sentiment and style, while in some his ideas are so
vagne as tb be barely intelligible. Perhaps the beet of
them are the poems .entitled Dit Framdtchuft and
BttKuean, both of which have the merit of expreeaing
thoughts and feelings that were within the range of the
writer's personal experience.
Schiller's engaigement with Dalberg was cancelled in
Angnst 17S4, and,.aE he had now a heavy bniden of debt,
he thonght for some time of resaming tin practice of his
prdession, bnt in the end he decided te try whether be
could not improve bis drcnmiBtances by issuing a periodi-
cal, TMid, to be written wholly by himself. This plan
he accomplished, the first number being published in the
spring of IT85. It contained the first act of £o» CarUt
and a paper on "The lluabe as a Moral Institution,"
which be had read on the occamon of his being admitted
a member of ttie German Society, a literary body in
Mannheim, of which tbe elector palatine was the patron.
MeanwUlc^ he had been correepooding with four
admirers who bad written from Leipeic to thank him tot
the pleasure they had derived from his writings. Theke
frimids were C. O. Edrner, L. F. Huber, and Minna and
Dora Stock. Weary <A incessant straggle, Schiller pro-
posed to visit them ; and Komer, the leading member o{
the party, not only encouraged him in this deugn, bat
readily lest him money. Accordingly, in April 178C
Bchitler left Hannheim, and for some months he lived at
Ooblia, a village in tbe Bosenth^ near Leipeic. Ib the
wnmer of the same year KSmer and Minna Stock WM»
married, and settled in Dresden, taking with them Dms,
Minna's sister. Schiller and Huber also went to Dreaden,
and Schiller remained there nearly two years. Almost
every day be spent the afternoon and evening at Komer's
house, and he derived permanent benefit from this in-
timate interconrse with the kindest and most tlioughtful
friends he bod ever had. While in Dresden, he pnbUshed
in Thalia several prose writings, among othera Pkilota-
pkiechi Briefe, in which he set forth with enthosiasm some
of his opinions about religion, and a part of the GeitUr-
iMer, a romance, wbicb, although written in a brilliant style,
was so imperfectly planned that he was never able to finish
it. He also issued Dtm Carlo*, which he completed early
in 1787. A considerable interval having passed between
the writing of the earlier and that of the later parteof'this
Eky, Don Carioi represents two diSerent stages of intel-
ictual and moral growth. It lacks, therefore, unity of
deugn and sentiment. But it has high imaginative quali-
ties, and tbe Marquia Fosa, through whom Schiller gave
utterance to hie ideas regarding sociJ and political progress,
is one of the most original and fascinating of bis cieationa
Fosa is not less revolutionary than Earl Moor, the hero of
Dia Rdube ; bnt, while the latter is a pnrely deatrnctive
force, the former r^resents all the beet reconstractive
energies of the 18th century.
In July 1767 Schiller went to Weimar, where be was
cordially welcomed by Herder and Wieland. For seveial
years after this time he devoted himself almost exclusively
te the stodj of history, and in 1786 be published hu
QtKhichie det Abfalli der vertiniglea Nitdn-Umde von der
Spanitehen Begitnaig. This was foUowed by a nnmber of
minor historical eaeays (pnblisbed in Tkulia), and 'by his
Oetchiehte dei dreiaigjdkrigtn Eriegee, which appeared in
1792. Theae writings secured for Schiller a high place
among the historians of his own time. In every instencs
he derived his materials from original authorities, and
they were presented with a freedom, boldness, and energy
which made them attractive to all classes of readers. One
result of tbe publication of his history of the revolt of the
Netherlands was his appointment to a profeesonhip at the
university of Jena, where he delivered bis introdnctery
lectnre in May 1789. He lived in Jena for about tan
years, and during that time frequently met Fichte, Scbel-
ling, the two BcblegeU, Wilbelm von Hnmboldt, and
taany other writers eminent in soiencoj philosophy, and
literature.
On tbe 2Sd of February 1790 Schiller married Char^
lotte von Lengeteld, whom he had met at Rudolstadt about
two yeara before. She waa of a tender and afbctionaU
nature, bright and intelligent, and Schiller found in her
love and sympathy a constant source of strength and
happineiE. They had four children, the eldsat A whom
was bom in 1793.
About a year after his marriaga he was attacked by a
dangerous illness, and from this time he was always in
delicate health, suffering freqnently from paroxysmi of
almost intolerable pain. In the autumn of 1793 he went
with bis wife to Wurtembeig in the hope that hii natiie
air might do him good ; and be did not return to Jana
until the spring of the following year. He waa anaUsd
to obtain this period of rest throngh the kindnen of the
hereditary prince of Aogustenburg and tbe minister Oonnt
von Schimmelmann, who had jointly begged to be allowed
to place 3000 thaleis at his disposal, to be paid in yiarty
instsdmenta of 1000 thalers. Schiller heartily enjoyed bu
visit to his native state, where he bad much pleasant inter-
conrse with his father, mother, and sisten^ and with some of
bis early friends. HedidnotagainseehisfatherandmotlieT
'e former of whom died in 179G, tbe latter in I80S.
Tbe 'OmMAU da drniM{giakr^/t»Kritga^a^ th« last
1 C H I L L E R
897
ImpOTtint bistorical work written hj Bchillcr. He
kbuidoDed hiatoir in order to stady philosophy, which,
under tha jmpojia commnaitiated b]r Eaot, wu then
fiirnti"g kwa interest among the ednc&ted cImhh of
Gmuuij. Bchiller'B pbiloBOphic&l stodiei reUted chisSy
to MstMtie^ on which he wrote a Mriea of teeajt, aome irf
them being printed in Naie Thalia (issned from 1T32 to
1794), others in the Sortit, a periodical which ha begu
in 1794 and continned nntil 1798. The most remarkable
of these BssayB.BTB a paper on "Die Annrath nnd Wiirde,"
« series of latteis eddrased to the prince of Angostenbnig
on "Die Isthetische Erdehang des Meascben," and a
tnafin on "Bie NalTS nnd Seotimentalische Dichtnng."
In [liiloaopbical ape«olation Schiller derived inspiration
mainly from Kant^ bnt be worked bis way to many
iodspendent judgments, and his theories liave exercised
ooosidenble inflnence on tbooe German writers wbo bave
dealt with the nltimate priodples of art and literatiire.
Goethe w«a of opinion that in "Die Naire nnd Benld-
meotalische Dicfatnog" Bchiller had laid the foundation of
modem criticism. In that powerful essay the vital dis-
tinction between daasical aod romantic methods was fur
the first time elearlf brooght oaL
8chiUei had been introduced to Goethe in 1788, bnt
they did not b^n to know one another well nntil 1794,
when Goethe was attracted to Schiller by a conrersation
tbey had after a meeting of a scientiSc society at Jena.
Afterwards their sc^tuintance quickly ripened into inti-
mate friendship. To Schiller Gosthe owed what he him-
self called "a second yonth," and this debt was amply
rtqiud, for by constant association with the greatest mind
of the age Sduller was enconraged to do full justice to his
genius. Horeover, bis inteUectoal life was enriched by
new ideas, and he was ted I7 Goethe's indirect inSnenca
to balance his lipacolatiTe judgments and idealistic concep-
tions Ire a keener and more accunte observation of tbe
facta of ordinary life.
Daring the years which followed his departure from
Mannheim Schiller bad written An dU Frfvde, Die Getter
OriXkadaadt, Die KiHulUr, and other lyrical poems, all
of which are of Tery much higher quality than tbe poems
of his earlier period. But he had been so absorbed by
labonn of a difTerent kind that he bad bad litUe time or
inclination for his proper work as a poet. Now, stimu*
lated by intercourse with Goethe, he began to Jong once
mme for the free exercise of his creative faculty ; and
from 1794 he allowed no year to pass withont adding to
the list of bis lyrical writings. Among tbe lyrics pro-
duced in this the last and greatest period of his career the
foremost phue belongs to the Litd von der Olocis, but
there is hardly leas imaginative power in Da* Idtal vnd
da* JMm, DU IdeaU, Der Spaiiergang, Der Geniut, Die
Bntarttmg, Dae SletuieeAe Fat, and Cattcatdra. Few of
Schiller's lyrics have tbe charm of simple and spontaneous
fesling ; but as poems giving eipression to the results of
philosophic contemplation the beet of them are unsur-
passed in modem liteiatnra. Schiller bad a paadonate
faith in an eternal ideal world to which the human mind
has access ; and tbe contrast between ideals and what is
called reality be presents in many different forms. In
developing tbe poetic significance of this contrast bis
thongbte are always high and noble, and they are offered
ia a style which is almost uniformly grand and melodious.
In 1796 Schiller and Goethe together wrotg for tbe
Miumalfitamaik (an annnal volome of poem^ issued for
Mveral yean I7 Bcbillar} a srain of epigiams called
XsNMM, eadi consisting d ■ distich. Most of tliem
woe directed agaiut contemporary writers whom the
poets ■««Hfc«.<j ud mndiMnimomty was eidted by their
duvp^ aatiiKal tone. A higher intenet attecDM to
Votivta/eln, another seriea of epigrams, written at tho
&me time as the Xeaim. They are among the most
suggestive of Schiller's writing for, as he e^lains in the
introductory epigram, tbey embody truths which he had
found helpful in the experience of life. Soon after finiih-
ing these ffne poems Schiller began, in rivalry with
Goethe, to write bis bellada, whidi surprised even his
most ardent admirers by the boldness of their conGaptions
and by tbe graphic force of their diction. As a writer
(rf faeUada Ooethe yielded the palm to Schiller, and this
judgment has been confirmed by the m^ority of later
Scbillec never intended that Ihn Can«* should be hfa
last drama, and from 1791 he worked occadonally at a
play dealing with the fate of Wallenstein. He was unaUe,
however, to satisfy himself as to the plan until 1798,
when, after consulting with Goethe, he decided to divide
it into Uiree parts, Walleiuteine Lager, Die Pieeolamim,
and TFalientfein* Tod. Waileneleitu Layer was acted for
the first time at the W«mar theatre in October 1798, and
Die Pixelomini iu January 1799. In April 1799 all
three pieces were represented, a night being givw to each.
The work as a whole prodaced a profound imprwioli, and
it is certunly Bcbitler's maslarpieee in dramatic literatnre.
He brings out with extrawdinary vividness the ascendency
of Wallenstein over the wild troops whom he baa gathered
aronnd him, and at the same time we are made to ua how
the migbty general's schemes most necessarily end in ruin,
not merely becaose a plot against him ia skilfnlly pre-
pared by vigilant enemies, bnt because be himaeU is Inlled
into a Bsnae of security by superstitions belief in bis
supposed destiny as revealed to* him by the atara. Wallen-
stein is the most subtle and complex of Schiller's dramatic
conceptions, and it taxes the powers of ^le greatest actor*
to preeent an adequate rendering of the motivea which
explain bia strange and dark career. The lov»atory of
Max PiooDbmini and Thekia is in its owu way not Um
impressive than tbe story of Wallenstein with which it it
interwoven. Max and Thekia are purely ideal figures,
and Schiller toocbea the deepest sources of tragic pity l^
his masterly pictore of their hopeless passion Kpd of their
spiritual freedom and integrity.
WaUeiuUM was received with w> much ivmat that
Schiller resolved to devote himself in future mainly to tho
drama ; and in order to be near a theatre — paitly, too^
that ha might have mom frequent opportunitiea of Inter-
conrse with Goethe — he bansferred bia rnidenc^ in
December 1799, fmm Jena to Weimar, where be spent
tbe rest of bis life. He took with him to Weimar three
acte of Maria Stwtrl, and early in the summer of 1800
he finished it at Stteraborg a conntay house of the dnke
of Weimar. Tbe technical qoalitice of Maria Slwirt are
of the highest order, but the subject does not seem to
have interested Schiller very deeply, and it cannot be said
either- that the characters are finely conceived or that the
closing scenes of Queen Mary's life am presented in a
truly poetio spirit. In hia next play. Die Jwigfratt tott
Orlnatu, completed about a year afterwards, Schiller hod a
more congenial theme, and the vigour with which he
handled it commanded the warm admiration of Goethe.
Tbe scenes in which tho maid ia misled hj her passion for
Lionel are slightly perjdaxing, as they do not appear to
accord with the essential qualities of her character ; but in
the earlier and later parts of the play Schiller displajn
splendid dramatic art in reveaUng the lofty sonrue uid
entbamasm with which she fulfils her mission, ui Die
Braut von Mmitta, which was acted for the first time at
the Weimar thHttra in March 1S03, Schiller attom|<ed Co
combine romantio and "''""'it' elements. Tim experiment
is not perfectly soecMsfn^ and eveD in its moft •trikiiut
398
C H— S C H
pouagen the plaj ia reniMluiblo ntliBr for brilliant rfaetoric
than for pure poetrj. His last ori;;inal dnuna, Wilhrlat
Tell, the first lepreeentation of which ti-ok ]>liKo in March
1 801, is ia some respects greater than anj of those which
preceded it, Waitfittltiit ercepteit. It hu some obvious
faults of coDstruction, but these defects do not eeriousl;
mar Uie impression produced by its glowing picture of ft
lomikutto sod truly popular struggle for freedom.
Besides his complete origins! playj, Schiller left some
drtmstic skotDhen and fragments, ths moat im[>ortant of
which, Drm^riv, hoa been fiaiahod in Schiller's manner by
setBTal later writeni. He also jiroduced German versions
of MnebeUi, of Qozii'u Tumndoi, of two comedies by Picard,
and of Phidre. Hia reodoringB of ]Kcard'8 comedies are
eotitlad Der Par<uU and Der Jfeffe alt Onitl.
In his last years Schiller received manf tokens of
growing fame. In 1802 he was raised hi noble rank, and
in 1804 be was informed that it he |>leased he might be
iavited to settle in Berlin OD odrantageoDS terms. He
went with his family to th$ Prussian capita], but the only
result of the negotiations into which he entered was tbst
the duke of Weimar, alarmed at tbe prospect of losing
him, doubled his sala^of 400 thalera. His health was at
this time completely undBimiDed, and from the summer
of 1804 work was often rendered impossibla by serious
illness. Oa the evening of the 29th April 1809 he
returned from the Weimar theatre in a state of high fever,
and from this attack be was unable to rally. Ha died on
the 9th May 1805, in his forty-airth year.
Schiller WM tall, slight, and pale, with reddish hair, and
eyes of an nncertaia cdlour, between light-brown and blue.
At the military academy he acquired a manner somewhat
formal, like that of a soldier ; but in carrying on conversa-
tion that interested him hebecame eager Mid animated.
He bad little appreciatioii of hnmonr, and even in the
treatment of subjects which be mode bis own he was apt
to Tsciu' too frequently to the tame ideas and the same
types of character. But when be is at his beat he is
excelled among the poets and dramatists of Qermany only
by Ooetha in the power with which he expresses sublime
thooghts Euid depicts the working of ideal passions. As
a man he was not loss great than as a writer. He started
in life with high aims, and no obstacle was ever formidable
enough to turn him from paths by which be chose to
advance t« bis goal Terrible as his physical snSeritigs
often were, he maintained to the last a genial and buoyant
temper, and those who knew him intimately had a con-
stantly increasing admiratiou for his patience, tenderness,
and charity. With all that was deepest and most humane
in the thongbt of the 18tb century be had ardent
sympathy, and to him were due some of the most potont
of the inSnences which, at a time of disaster and humilia-
tion, helped to kindle in the hearts of the German people a
longing for a free and worthy national life.
Tboni hsTS been man; edilioni of Schiller'a collected woi):).
The lint wsa imupd in twdio volumes it Stuttgart and Tiibingen
in 181E-1G, the editor being hia trifiid C. O. Komor. Them at
•iso * itood nunj volameg of Schiller'* cormpondonce, the moat
grajilUDi of aoliiller, C»rljle'»— pnblisliod in 1826-^Hai one of the
cutficst BHtUoSchiOertLtbai, by Fnu von Woliogen, gchiller'e
•ietot-in-Uw ; SAilltrtLeini, bj HofTmciMer (eitendwl by ViobotT);
&haiert Ubm, br Bou ; SMUm Letm uni iTirkt. by Pallcgike ;
Sciiillcri LcioL, by H. Dilntnri sad BtkOlir, by 1. Sima [in
" Foreign Clainca for EnglLih Keaden"). (J. SI.)
SCHINKEL, Kakl Fbitokioh (HBl-lSll), architect
and painter, and professor in tbe academy of £ne arts at
Jiorlinfrom 1820, was born at Neurappin, in Brandenburg,
on March 13, 1781, and died at Berliu, on October 0, 1841.
lie is esteemed one of the moat original of modern German
architects. His principal buildings ore in Besuh \q.B.)
S'ld its .noii;1ibourhood. They ioclude tbe Bau&kademie,
which contains a mnsenm of bis designs. His SannU-wnff
archiltUanwIu^ EntwUrft (1820-1837 ; 3d ed. 1857-58)
and Wrrke drr hahtrm BautunH (lU^-i ; uewed. 1874)
eiempiify his stylo.
SCHIHMER, FaiEBWOH WiLHiLM (1802-1866), land-
scape artist, was bom in 1802 in Berlin. As a yoatb be
painted Qowers in the royal porcelain factory ; aftenrarda
he became a pupil of F. W, Scbodow in the lierlin
Academy, but his art owed most to Italy. His first
journey across tbe Alps was taken in 1827; bis sojonra
extended over three years ; he becams a disciple of liis
countryman Joseph Koch, who built historic landscajie on
the PouBsins, and is said to have cangbt inspiration from
Turner. In 1331 Scbirmer established himself in Berlin in
a studio with schohin ; in 1839 he was appointed prof esaor
of landscape in the academy; in 1845 he a^o visited
Italy, but duties soon brooght him back to Berlin. IllnBiiii
compelled him in 18SQ to seek a sontbero clime; be grew
worse in Borne, and died ou his way home in 1866.
Scbinnar's plsoa in the hiitor^ of art ia diitinrtiva : bii iketcbea
in Italy were mora than traaecn^tB of the ipats ; ha stnJted nsitara
with the pornoso of compoiing hislorio and poetio landicanea. On
the completion of the Berlin Unaenm of Aotiqoltiu oiora bU
opportunity : upon tlia walli ha p«intod claaaic aitea and t«nin1cH,
and elucidated the calleetiona by the Usdacape acenerj with wbicb
to make hia art the poetio interpretatioii of natnra. Hia rietnrr*
appeal to the mind by the ideas they embody, by beanty of tonn,
harmony of line, aignificann of light and colonr. In thia oonstn^
in^" "the aubjective," "^e ideal," And Siiiirmer tbns formed
a school. Nevartheleaa at timM he painted poor pictana, partly
beanie he deemed tschni^ne aeoondary lo oonception.
SCHIRMER, JoHANK WiLHELM (1807-1883), land-
scape painter, was born in 1807, at Jillich in Bbenu-h
Prussia. This artbt, only a namesake of the preceding bad
similar aim and career. He Erst was a student, and subae-
qnently bocame a professor in the academy of DQsseldorf.
In 1854 be was made director of the art school at Carlsmhe,
where in 1863 be died. He travelled and sketched in
Italy, and aimed at historio landscape after tbe manner of
the Poossins. His Biblical landscapes wiUi figtuea ara%eU
in good esteem.
SCBIZOHYCETES,ateTm proposed by HEgeU in 18S7
to iticlude all those minute organisms known as Bacteria,
Microphytes, Microbes, itc, and allied forms. Theae terms
have been used at various times by different antbcos with
widely diflerent meanings in detail, bat it is now agreed that
tbe Schizomycetes are minute vegetable organisms devoid
of chloropbyll and multiplying by repeated bipartitions.
Theyconsist of single cell^ which may be spherical, oblong,
or cylindrical in shape, or of filamentous or other aggre-
gates of such cells. True spores occur in several, but no
trace whatever of sexual organs exists. From tbeir mode
of growth, divisioD, and spore-formation (in part), ns well
OS their habit of forming deliqaesceut, swollen cell-walU^
and other peculiarities, there can be no doubt of tbe close
alliance between tbe Schizomycetes and certain lower
Alga; whence both groups have lieen conjoined under the
name ScJiiiophyla. No one character except the want of
chloropbyll — which of course entails phyeiologicaj differ-
ences-— separates tbe Schiiomycotcs from other SchiiopKgiitf
morphologically and phylogenetically the two groups are
nnited. From this jxtint of view we relegate all tbe so-
called bacteria which contain chlorophyll {f.ff., Engelmann's
BiKtcrium thlorinum, Van Titghem's i). tttic^ and Baciilia
virmt, Cobn's ilurroeoceut --Jdoriniif, il-c) to the Alg».
Schizomycetes, then, are saprophytic or parasitic iSc&isa-
pliifta devoid of chloro[ihyl1, though they may secrete other
colouriog mutters. In size tbcir collj ate commonly abont
0001 mm. (called 1 micro-milliinetre-l;i) in diunetor.or
from two to five times that length ; bat smnlloi onw nnd
BCHIZOMYOETES
A fow lugw MO kaowiL Tia ntrtoaa ihspoi Mmnied b^
tba celk ue aboim in fig. I ; die fikmeuhnu and other
■ggr^ates will be dcaerib«(l below.
L.'sr
""-(•1 », MrVhMi; I, "(VUr««iM- {(
•oi' rrinilnili ■. 4plncJtM(; •,
n pvtWH 0( islphij.
i ubiqnitoiu m Hpropbytai in still
ponda and ditcbes, in ruoaing Rtnanu and riven, and in
the aea, and eapedall; in diaioB, bogs, refuse beapi, and in
the aoil, aod wbeieTer organic infnsLODa &re allowed to
■taad for a ihort time. An; liquid (blood, luiiie, milt,
beer, kc) coDtainiog oigacic matter, or anj aolid food-
stuff (meat, preaerTes, Tegetsblea, &c), allowed to stand
exposed to the air sood swarms wilb bacteria, if moisture
is present and the temperature not abnormsL Thoogb
tliey occur all the world over in the air and on the surface
of exposed bodies, it is not to be supposed that they are bj
anj means equally distribnted, and it is questionable
wliatliw the bacteria suspended In the air erer exist in
soch enormous qoaatities as was once believod. The
evidence to hand shows that on heights and in op<
country, espedaUy in the north, there may be few or eti
no Schisomycetes detected in the air, and even in tow
their distribution varies greatly ; sometimes they appear to
«xist in minute clouds, as it were, with interspaces devoid
of any, but in labofal«riea and closed spaces where their
cnltiTation has been promoted the air may be considerably
laden with them. Ot course the distribution of bodies so
luht and imall is easily influenced by movements, rain,
wind, changes of temperature, dux As parasites, certain
Schiaomycetes inhabit end prey upon the organs of men
aad «.Tiirn«.l« in varying degrees, and the eooditions for
their growth and distribution are then very complex.
Plants ^ipear to be leas subject to their attacks, -^poesibly,
as has been soggeated, because the add Boids of the
hitter vegetaUe organisms are leas suited tot the develop-
ment of Schizomjrcetea; neiwthdeas some are known to
be parantio m phnts. Sduiomycetee exist in every part
of the alimentary canal of »l^illn»l«^ except, perhaps, where
acid ioeretions prevail ; these are ^ no means necessarily
htrmtul, tltoo^ by destr(7ing the teeth Ux iattuice,
eertun forms may incidentally be the forenmners of
damage which they do not directly eaose.'
Little was known about these extremely minute organ-
tuns before 1S60, Leeuweuhoek figured Rieteria as far
back as the ITth century, and O. F. Huller knew several
important forms in 177!^ while Ehrenberg in 1830 had
advanced to the commencement of a scientific separation
and grouping of them, and in 1838 had proposed at least
sixteen species, distributing tbem into tour geuera. Our
modem more accurate though slitl fragmentary knowledge
of the forms ot Schizomycetes, however, dates from Cohn's
brilliant reaearches, the chief results of which were pub-
lished at various periods between 1853 and 1873 ; Cohn's
classification of the £aiUma, published in 1872 and ex-
tended in 1875, has iu fact dominated the study of then
organisms almost ever since. He proceeded in the main
on the assumption that the forms of Bacteria as met with
and described by him are practically constant, at auy rate
within limits wtuch are not wide : observing that a minute
spherical Micrococcut or a rod-like BacUlvi regularly pro-
duced similar micrococci and bacilli tespectivety, he based
his classification on what may be considered the constancy
of forms which he called species and genera. As to the
constancy of form, however, Cohn maintained certain reser-
vations which have been ignored by some of his foUowera.
The fact that Schiiomycetes produce spores appears to
have been discovered by Cohn in 1857, though it was
expressed dabiously in 1872; these spores had no doubt
been observed previously. Iu 1876, however, Cohn had
seen the sporea germinate, and Eoch, Brefetd, Fratmowaki,
Tan Tieghem, De Bory, and others confirmed the discovery -
Hie supposed constancy of forma in Cohn's species and
geoera received a violent shock when Laukeater in 1873
pointed out that his BacUrimK ntAcKnu (since nsmed
Brggiatoa rotto-penidna, Zopf) passes through conditions
which would have been described by most obsecven influ-
enced by the current doctrine ss so many separate " species"
or even "genera," — that in fact forms koowaasiltwferiHn,
Microeocciu, Saeiilut, Leptothrix, &&, occur as phases in
one life-history. Lister put forth similar ideas about the
same time; and Billroth came forward iu 1871 with the
startling view that Hie various "form-species" and "form-
genera" are only different states ot one and the same
organism. From that time to the present the discussion
as to the limits of " species " among the Schizomycetes has
been maintained ; much extravagance has resulted, as well
as valuable additions to our knowledge of the forms.
Eleba (I8T5) and Nageli (1677) upheld similar views to
those suggested by I«nkester ; and the researches of Cien-
kowski, Zopf, Kurth, and De Bory have rendered it cUar
that forms employed by Cohn to define genera and species
(it should be borne in mind that Cohn recogniaed their
provisional nature) occur as phases in one and tbe same
life-history. Zopf showed (1882) that minute spherical
"cocci," short rodlets ("bacteria"), longer rodlets ("ba-
cilli"), and filamentous ("leptothnx") forms as well as
carved and spiral threads (vibrio," " spirillam"), &c.,
occur as vegetative stages in one and the same Scbuomy-
cete {cf. fig. 16). In the meantime, while various observera
were building up our knowledge of the morphology ot the
Schizomycetes, others were laying the foundations of what
is known of the relations of theee organisms to fermeuta-
> Bh D* 'Otij, MarTMoffU unJ Biolotit dtr Pita, ISM, Mul
Yurloimtn abcr BaeUnm, ]S86 ; Zopf, Dit SpaUpOiie, 3d ad.,
18SS : CohD, Btitr. •ur BioL der PJL, HfL 2, 187! ; Xignls, La
BaeUria, 1878 ; BnrdoD-ScDAenoii, Quort Jirur. Micro: 3c, 18TI ;
landau, Fteating Matttr nf Ou Air, 1881 ; Hiflgt, In CoAa'i Aofr.
BrBiol., ilL Hft L, 1879 ; pHtnr, Jixir. i* CKim. tt A Fhf.,
HT. 111., 1S«S ; MtqtMl, CboipMi AmAh, ia7S, tad Aaamtn A tit-
1B77»I.
400
CHIZOMYCETES
tion andduaue, — thfttftncient Will-o'-the-xiBp " spontane-
ous generation " being revived by tbe way. Wben Pas-
teur in 18&7 showed that tbe lactic fermentation dcpecda
on the preoance of an organkm, it was already known from
the reaearches oE Schwann (ItiST) and Hclmlioltz (1H43)
that fermentation and patrefaction are intimately con-
nected with tbe presence of organisnlii derived trnm the
ail, and that the preservation of putresctble sabetances de-
pends on this principle. la ISG! Pasteur placed it beyond
reasonable doubt that the ammoniocai fermentation of urea
is due to the action of a minute Schizomycete ; in 1864
this was ODoGrmed by Van Tieghem, and in 1874 by
Cohn, wha~named the organism ificrococcut urtx. Pasteur
and Cohn also pointed out that putrefoj^tioa is b
special d^m of fermentation, and before 1873 the doctrines
of Pasteur were established with respect to SchizomyceCea.
llMDwhile two branches of inquiry had ariseo, so to speak,
from tbe above. In the first place, the ancient question
of "spontaneous generation" received fresh impetus from
the difficulty of keeping such ininut« organisms as bacteria
from reaching and developing in organic infusions; aod,
Mcottdly, the long-suspected analogies between the pheno-
mena of fermentation and tbose of certain diseases again
made themselves felt, as both became better understood.
Needham iu ][74G bad declared that heated infnsions of
organic matter were not deprived of living balngs ; Spai-
[anzani (1777) had replied that more careful heating and
other precautions prevent the appearance of organisms in
the fluids. TariouB experiments by Schwann, Helmholtz,
8cbult% Bchroeder, Dusch, and otbera led to the refutation,
step by step, of the belief that the more minute organ-
isms, and particularly bacteria, arose de novo in the special
cases qaoted. Nevertheleu, instances were adduced where
tiie most careftd heating of yolk oE egg, milk, hay-
intosioDs, Ac, had failed, — the bailed infnsions, &c., turn-
ing putrbi and swarming with Scbizomycetas after a few
Id 1863 FiMtenr repeated and extended such experi-
ments, and paved the way for a complete explanation of
the auomoliea; Cohn in 1872 published confirmatory
results i and it became clear that no patrefaction can take
place withoat Schizomycetcs. In the hands of Brefeld,
Burdon-SaDdeiBOn, De Bary, TyudaU, Boberts, Lister,
and othera, the various links ia tbe chain of evideoce
grew stronger and stronger, and every case adduced as
one of "spuutansons generation" fell to the ground when
examioed. No case of so-called "spontaneous genera-
tion " has irithstood rigid investigation ; but the discussion
contributed to more exact ideas as to the ubiquity,
minuteneas, and high powers of resistance to physical
agents of the spores of Schizomycetes, and led to more
exact ideas of antiseptic treatments. Methods were also
improved, and the application of some of them to surgery
at the hands of Lister, Koch, and others has yielded results
of the highest importance.
Long before any clear ideas as to the rchitiong of
Schizomycetes to fennentation and disease were possible,
various thinkers at different times had suggested that
resemblances exist between the phenomeoa of certain
diseases and tbose of fermentation, and the idea that a
virus or eontagium might be something of the nature of a
minate organism capable of spreading and reproducing
itself had been entM'tained. Such vague notions began
to take more definite shape as the ferment theory of
Cagnianl-Latour (1828), Schwann (1837), and Postenr
made way, especially in the hands of ^e ladt-named
Htvant. From abont 1870 onwards the "germ theoiy of
dirwaaa" has passed into acceptance. Hayer in ItiSO and
Davaine had observed ihe bacilli in the blood of animals
dead of aatbraz (splenis fever]^ and PoUender diacovpred
them anew in 1895. In 1SA3, imbued with idns derirvd
from Pasteur's researches on fermentation, Davaine re-
investigated the matter, and put forth the opinion that
the anthrax bacilli caused the splenic ferer; this waa
proved to result from inoculation. Koch in 1BT6 .pul>-
lUhed his obaervations on Davaine's bacilli, placed boyomi
doubt their causal relation to splenic fever, discovered the
spores and the saprophytic phase in the life-history of tho
organism, and cleared up important points in the whole
question (figs. 10 and 11). In 1870 PasUur had proved
that a disease of silkworms was due to a ferment-organinni
of the nature of a Scbiiomycets ; and in 1871 Oertel iihowocl
that a Micrococcm already known to exist in diphtheria is
intimately concerned in prodacing that disease. In 1873,
therefore, Cohn was already justified in grouping together
a number of " pathogenouB " Schizomycetes. Thus arose
tbe foundations of the modem "germ theory of didcaae ";
and, in the midst of the wildest conjecturen and tbe worst
of logic, a nueleus of facts was won, which has since
grown, and is growing daily. Septicemia, tuberculosis,
glanders fowl-cholera, relapsing fever, and a few other
diseases are now brought definitely within the range of
biology, and several other contagious and infectioud
diseases are known to be also due to ijchizomycetca.
Other questions of the highest importance have arisen
from tbe foregoing. A few years ago Pasteur showed
that BariUta anthradi cultivated in chicken broth, with
plenty of oxygen, and at a temperature of 42-43° C. lost
its vimlemn after a few " generations," and ceased to lull
even the moose ; Tonseaint and Chaveau confirmed, and
others have extended the obeervattons. More remarkable
still, animal* inoenlated with such "attenuated" bacilli
proved to be curiously resisteut to tbe deadly effects of
subsequeat inocnUtions of the non-attenuated form. In
other words, animals vaccinated with the cultivated bacillus
showed immunity from disease when reinoculated with
the deadly wild form. The questions as to the causes sod
nature oi the changes in the bacillns and in the host, as to
the extant of immunity enjoyed by the latter, itc, are now
burning, — Metachnikoff's recent observations (1884), show-
ing that the white corpuscles eliminate the bacilli from tbe
blood, being one of the most startling contribntions to
the ausweis.
Another burning qnesEion has already been in part
touched upon. Experiments have shown that Schizomj-
eetes are pleomorphic^ they are also very aensitive, so to
speak, to ths influences of the environment. The investi-
gations of Cohn, Pasteur, Koeh, Nigcli, Kurth, De Bary,
and others leave no doubt that msny Schizomycetes are
sensibly affected by the media in which they ore cultivated :
not only are tbe forms modified, but also the physiological
activity varies in degree, and even io kind. These and
similar facts seem to be largely responsible for recent ideas
to the possibility of being able to cultivate or "educate"
rtain Schizomycetes. One case only need be teferred
BaeUCiu tinlhracii and S. luUilii are only distinguish-
able with great difficulty morphologically (i/. Ggs. 10-12);
the former is parasitic in its vegetative stages, the latter
always a saprophyte. Now B. anihracu, as Mud, can
become harmless by cultivation, and so it has been thought
that the two forms were convertible. Bnchoer even went
r OS to declare that he had transformed S. anihi-ani
S. tnbtilii, i.f., that the differences which botanists
t are only dne to the influence of the environment at
imo. These assertions cannot be regarded as proved;
but the question whether harmless forms con become edu-
cated, as it were, to a parasitic mode of Itfe within periods
which we can control is of coume of the highest import-
ance. Such are a few of the questions now under' discussion,
tt^ether with otberH as to the mode of acticm of patho-,
SCHIZOMyOETES
401
genic SduzomTcetes, u to the lutnM of iminaaity, tad u
lo the limitalion of "apeciea" among Bucb Bimple forma.'
Morfholoot. — Site*, Fomu, StrtKtvrt.^. — TheSchiio-
mjcitsB coDBJat of mngle cella, or of filamentiwB or other
groDp« of cells, according as the diviaiona are completed
at once or not While some unicellular forma are less than
1/1 ('001 mm.) in diameter, otbera have cella measuring 4/i
or 6n or even T/i or 8fi in thickneea, while the length ma;
vaiy from that of the diameter to man; times that measitre-
ment. In the filamentous fornu the individual cella are
often difficult to obeerve until reagents are applied (t.g.,
fig. ]4), and the length of the rows of cjlindrical cells ma;
be nanj handred times greater than the breadth. Simi-
larlj, the diameters of flat or spheroidal coloaiee may vary
from a few timea to niany hondred times that of the indivi-
dual cells, the diviaiona of which have produced thecolony.
The shape of the individual ceQ (Sg. 1) varies from that of
a minute aphere to that of a straight, curved, or twisted
filament or cylinder, which is not neceaaarily of the aame
diameter throughout, and may have flattened, rounded, or
even pobted enda. The rule is that the cella divide in
one direction only — i.e., traoeverM to the long axis — and
therefore produce aggregatea of long cylindrical shape ;
but in rater cases iM}-diametric celU divide in two or
three directions, producing Hat, or spheroidal, or irregular
coloniea, the size of which is practically unlimited. As to
the atracture of the cell, little more can be said than that
it conaiats of a moss of homogeneous or very slightly
granular protoplasm, with a pearl-like lustre, and without
vacuoles; this ia enveloped by a membranous envelope,
which is so delicate as to be scarcely perceptible. In the
actively vegetating or mobile conditions this cell wall
appears ver; thia and sharp, and is extremely flexible and
elastic, but at other times it is swollen and diffluent, fur-
nishing the intercellular gelatinous matrix of the Eooclcca
condition (fig. 3). It iadoubtfitl whether the thin envelope
closely applied to the protoplasm is not always simply the
Innennoet layer of a very difllnent covering, which is con-
tinuously thickening and throwing off its outermost
swollen and disorganized lamelhe. The facts to hand
seem to show tha^ while in some cases this envelope
consists mainly of cellulose, in others (zooglica of Badtria,
t.g.y it contains relatively large proportions of nitrogenous
compounds. In some cases the cell-walls form a lamel-
lated sheallL No cuticularization occurs, nor ore deposits
of lime or ailei known in the ceil walls. Colonring
jiigments, however (red, yellow, and even green and bine),
ore Bometimea met with, and a mety or brown tinge Is in
eome coaee produced by the precipitation of iron oxides in
tlie walla. In the typical Schizomycetes the protoplasmic
contents (which are aaid to consist largely of a pecnliar
substance named mycoprotein) are colourless, or more
rarely tinged with colouring matters — bright red, yellow,
ix. — which cannot be mistaken for chlorophyll The few
forms described as containing a green pigment, allied to
or identical with chlorophyll, will not be considered here,
but relegated to the Alga. The occurrence of starch or a
gr«nalo«e-like aubatanca in some BacUria is undoubted ;
it yirids a deep blue colour with iodine aolntions, is
diSosed in bonda or patches, and arisee in coaee where
' IrnddlUontoIh* rongDlng, cainpin Ntgell, [^lIl<mlallI>l0n<U«^
Ilt•IlIr■ /Uh, list; Bncbm, ieu/.,ud In VircK. 4tnK,j.dL. 1883;
NMgali, Huorie dtr OMnvtg, I STB ; Chiruo la Conplti Jimdia
1370-1881 ; D>nlD«, Md., ISii-tti and 1S78 ; E. Riy Unkettcr,
OiBrt. Janr. (/ tficm. St., 1873 juid 1S70 (mlxi mluibls pipen
in Q. J. M. 3. fTDDi 1870 to ISSt) ; Puteur, nuiiieroDi papin In
Ompta Andnj— oipsciillj ISSa ud 1S77— and In Ant. di Chi,*.
t Pktt., 1868, 1882, fct; Koch In CMm'* Btitr., U, Hft. 2, 1878 ;
KoTtta, Bal. aumg, ISSt ; SchUlnnbarger, FenuKtaliiin, 1878;
MtaOaHua, Virth. Artk., 1SS4 ; ifalurc, tuiooi Mpen from 1871
I* 1878.
the Schiiomycete is uonrished by a matrix which does not
contain starch. Tr6cnl noticed this formatioD of amyloid
snbotance in Clottridium, Van Tieghem in a ^riUMo.
and several other casea are known ; Ward detected starch
in a Baciiliu found in decaying coffee seeds, and in other
media devoid of starch. In the filamentous Bchiiomycelea
ISeggiatoa, e.g.) are found extremely niinnte dark gran-
ules ; Cramer and Cohn have shown that theae consist of
sulphur in fine crystals (fig. 1*). Oily or fatty subatances
and minute granules of undetermined natnre occur in the
protoplasm, bat no nucleus has as yet been discovered in
any Schizomycete.
Ytgetalivt Slata. — While many forms are fixed to a
substratum, others ate free ; and in certain conditions
single cells or groups may be motile. lo some casea the
are mere oeciUationi, in otbere there ore rapid
of tranalatioo, sumetimea ascribed to the action
of flagetta or cilia ; theae movemenla ore of coarse not to
be confounded with the dancing "BrowniaD motion"
observed in the case of all such minute bodiea snapeoded
in fluida. Cilia have now been deacribed in some of Ihe
smallest Saderiii W several good obaervers (Dallinger and
Drysdale,' Cohn, Koch, Zopf), though, on account of their
finenees, and the di^cuUy of fixing them, mneti
taken pUice oa
to their natura, * C
functions, origin,
numbers, and
even existence ;
that they occur
ia proved by the
photographs, but
whether they are
mere filaments
the cell-walls ia
very doubtful
(figs. 2 and 13).
Wbile some Schi-
zomycetes appear
to have no active
stage, and many
are only motile
conditions when
swarming, others m. i.— ttp" -
even three die- (,nii of il» an
tmctactiveforma. ™,<»,»,*;^,ii^
When vigorously ta^^i miw im »
growing and di- iTu(™'«S"iIo™i««?'«5T^'T"*-
viding, the Schi- — « " ;™ cw^min ji. Tb. wmIb ui. 4. j. ^
zomycetee as a
rule present certain definite forms, which are at any rate
so constant under constant cooditione that they can be
figured and described with such accuracy and certainty
that good obaervets bave regarded them as fixed apeciea,
or at least as "torm-epooieB'' or "form-genera." We now
know, however, that many Schizomycetee pass tluongh
aeveiol such phaaea, and ve may therefore regard them in
theae cases as "vegetative forms," which pMS into one
another too gradually to admit of tbeir being employed as
sharply distinctive of genera.
As the chief of these forms may be mentioned the
following (aee fig. 1) :—
I DsniaaCT and SrnUe, ManOln Mieni. Jar., 187S.
.m~-^^^ .
402
SCHIZOMTCETES
™bij .]«>,
Ooe^-- iphariial or •phsroidU calK vlii
ralatiia (not toft well ddflntd] ■im
Jbdi or mfliii ; aHKhtly or mon coiuld
which in cjMniniai, biscuit- ihapod,
ni* Cflindrici] farmi an shot^ i.e., uuij lum ui
timH u long u broad (Bacttriun). or longer [BaciUat]
bi«ai(-*h>]«d ansa *re Aidiria in the nrlj iCign ol
■ion. (71ii(<ri<f>a, kc, an iiiinOts-ihapod.
Kavmiit ILepMArix /oma) ntily coniiat of aloDgkted ojlindri-
oi caUg which remiiD united and to end srier d' ' '
dsKribed ■baiD. Soch tUunents on not di
■una dUmatir llironghoat knd their aegmenUtion Tuie*
conaidermbly. Tliair Bay be five, or attached at ona (the
** baeal ") aad. A diatiDction ii mftde batvoen timfU fila-
manta ( tg., Leplotkra) and each aa aihibit a tolae
OMmduii ^ral (otaa. Laj of tha alonpted forma dMcribed
aboTamaj becurroj, oi arnuooa, or twiated intoaoorkacrsi
like apinl inilead or alnight. If ttie ainuoaity ia ilight •
■ --e tho riii ■ ' -_.. .1. -_._-i _._
g welt msrhed, the fonna
'onna are kiiown *i SpirOluni,
id nmilar terma have bean applied
otten tafilunect* oon-
Grovik and Z>»ruuiii.— WhatevH the ihtpt and ■
of the individanl cell, cell-fikmeiil, or mU-coIodj, i
immediate visible ro- ,
BoltB of active outritioa ' j|
Bra eloogation oE the
cell and ila division
into two equal halTes,
acTOBB the long axis,
by the fonnation of a
■eptom, which either
the difflcnlt; of defining tha tarma theniHlTea.
oboarron hiTS, monoTar, deacrlbed particatar a
the cells or csU-Alimenta exhibit irregalaritiee
aneh " inTolntion tortna," "tonila tonna, ' Ik., ai
fairly K " ' '
Id addition to the abote, however, cartain SohiiontyoatMpnaent i „„j ^.
•gHffUa in the form oT pUtn, Vt aolid or hollow and iiragnlar i 't ,
the chaiac tet« of the
parent-cell whose
diTision gave rise
to thami in the
second case they
form filaments, or,
it the further elon-
gation aoddivLsions
of the cells proceed
in dilTerent direc-
ttcHis, plates or sphe-
roidal or oUier-
shaped colon iea. It
not nnfreqneatlf
happetu, . however,
that groups of cells
break away from O
their former con- °
time. This procea is then repeated,
lo the fint case the separated cells aasuma
no. *.— Tn« at loDdm. (Ariel Zof'-} *. »
pdlleU OB Iba lariua si nnubli Infoiloai, tc; II
ftoa ecaulDa eoHd (b) andrallcb, In HriH lAud fX J
LaikaaUT) ; lai leUtlaou nDlhA ■alia Dt tha Inn
0, »i(kaa U AMiriini wirriimiifiutdit, Ze)il,
branched colooica. Thi* may be doe (o th
oiKurriuciu two or throe pliiioa iiiatoad of oh
(Amt'iia), or tn diaplaoemauta o( tlio c.lli al
loocliBa condjlinna, ka., bm Bg. S).
DainUilOff «Krt anVMi
anccaaite dlriaio
racroB tholonpai
"ir^.VJi!
multicellular pieces indogm™ w*« o( iw kij lariiiia. &■■*■*
ot equal length or -"US^ V?^.«"SS^JS»S
nearly so is a nor- "^I^T^ii^^a^^JHi^:^
mal phenomenon, rib-iD-iikt (ci ud ^irattm-WH (*. t, « im»
each pertial Ela- "'™;„''i™J™-.fi'.'J^?SfS«i.T5
ment repeating the oanDu uihcrm^ i
growth, division, i
and fragmenUUou SSiJ!r^oi'u>.'^nr^,ul?^*i.S,ilSli.'-
as beFore (r/*. £gs. 16 uis n>«* eitiii luj bMiiiufs. nMuui— ikiuB
and 1 6). Finally, \^ ^he^tmir uta ??La nura. L, ^ ' . --
such filaments may *''"''"'"'/^Tl**'''1;"^^^
break up into their "" "' *" '
individual cells, forming " bacilli," "bacteria," <h
this cose maybe. By tliuaa uiuanahuadreditof tl
celLi may be produced in a few hours,' and, aoeordiog U> the
t\A haa ohaarved tt
d Ila progiar rrp
a might Ibofi pre
SCHIZOMYCETES
f",^^
■pecie* and tba coadilioDti {llio tncdium, tctuinrnture, Sce,\
eDoimoua coUecCiona of boIutHl cclla nmy cloud tlio fluid iu
which they are cultivated, or foiiu dujioaiu bvlow or filuin
OD its surface ; . a ii p
Taluabla chikrac- ', "" . . - " '• ^^^
toredtesomatiuiea" ' * . ,-. •_ "^
obtained from • i '. ■. ' ^^ -. ^ i i
Wheu these dense ■■ " Jf" , i i *
getative colts be-
come fixed in a f,a. t..
matrix of their ^'^''
onn tiTollen con- mDim
tiguoua cell-Wftlls, ^'^^''
they pass over into a
loogloca (fig. 3).
One of the most n
hutory of the Scbiiot
zooglcca stage, nhich ci
dttiou of the lotcer
A/ya. This occurs
OB a membra ue on
tbo Burruco of the
mediuiu, or as irro-
giilnr clutuiis or
bruDchol niassoj
(sometimes several j
inches across) sul>- ^
nnrkable pbcDomena in the life-
ycL'tcs is the formation of this
rrejiwnds fi (lie " juiluiella " con-
coDsiats ol
lea geUitnoiis ma-
trix BDclosipg in-
numereblo "cocci,"
" bacteria," or olbcr
elements of tbetHi. I^JmtimiUllrmU. (Alln- Colm.) u
Schiiomjceto con- [Ti^rlilc^Si'r (Ii iT" """""^
cemed. Formerly
regarded as a distinct genus — the natural fate of all the
various forms — the zooglcca is non known to be a sort
of resting condition of the Schizomycetes, the varioui
elements b^g glned together, as it were, by their
enonnoosly swollen and diffluent cell-waUs becoming con-
ttgnon*. The zoogloea ii formed by active division of
single or of several molliBr-cells, and the progeny appesj
to go on Mcreting the cell-wall «ub«tanoe, which then
absorbs many t^iies its volomo of water, and remain* ai
consistent matrix, in viLich tbo cdla ci ~
matrix — i.r., the awuUco cull-wolls^
mainly of ccUiilow, io
otbera cbiolly of " my- /Q.^' A*
coprotein," the substance />' C
said to be o * ■' ' -
[bo pTotoplaai
liorny and r
ivith i
; thenu
0
solution of gum. H ifl <S.&v>?
intelligible from tho jj *-
mode of formation that tJj^ //
foreign bodies may be- Oi tf
come entangled in the ' ^
gelatinous nialriit, and ^
compound looglu'jB may
arise by tbe apposition ^'^^r"""''
of several distinct forms, in^.iiiE tl^'i
cerating troiifibs (fig. 3, 'oui KimMni
k). CharrlctcriGtic forms Haeninibtd
may be assumed by the ' ™"f[ •"""'
young zooglcca of diSer- uim in uk
eat species, — spherical, i'/'InJ^i^'^
ovoid,reticular,lilameaC- ti<^ a' "" q
OUB, fruticoso, lamellar, "
&c., — but these vary considerably as tbe mass incresaea or
Gomea in contact witb-otheni. Older looglccm maypreeipi-
tate oxide of iron in the matrix, if Uiat metal bxista in small
quantities in the medium. Under favourable conditions
the elements in the xoogltcaagain become activa, and move
out of tbe matrix, distribute tbeQuelvea in the surrounding
medium, to grow and multiply as before (lig. i). U the
zoogltBa is formed oDasoUdanbstratnm it may beoome firm
and homy; inimernoDiD water softens it as described above.
.iViiS;
«bi ilwitnnhw.
4k\
/Co -Hi > '
^i->?
il(
isting-cells oie now known in many
SchiEomycetee (fig. 5). They ma^ be formed in two ways.
In Leueonoitoc, Sadrriitm zopjii, Crenothrix, Stpytatoa,
and CladoOtrii tho spore is simply one of tbe smallest
segmenta ("cocci") into which the filament at length
breaks up. De Bary terms such forms "arthrosporoua"
{cf, Sgs. S, 13, 14, and 16). In others the formation of
the spore is " endospofona " (De Baiy). It begins with
the appearance of a minute granule in the protophktm
of a Tentative celt ; this gisnala enlarge^ and in a few
_1
404
lOHIZOMYCBTEl
boon Iiu taken to itwlf all the' piotopUsm, secreted k
deitM eDvelope, and is a ripe oroLd spore, smaller than the
mother«ell, and I^lng loosel; in it {cf. Egs. 9, 11 , and 1 2).
la tlie cue of the simpleat and most minute Scliiiomfceles
{MkroexKiMi, ka.) no definite iporea
have been discovered ; auj oae of t!ie
Tegetative micrococci ma; commence
a new seriee of cells b; growth and
diTiuon. Wa may call these forms
** antoroDs," at aajrate proTisionnll;.
Xka spora may be formed in sbort
or long segmeots, tbe cell-wall of which
maj Dodergo change of form to accom-
modate itself to tbe contents. As a
rule only one spore is formed in a cell,
and the proceu nsnally takes place in
a bacillu segment In some cases the
aporo-forming protoplasm gives a blue
leaction wi£ iodioe solutions. The
■pores maj be developed in cell* which
are active!; swarmiQg, the movements
not bung interfered with bj tbe
process (fig. 5, D). Tbe so-called
"Kopfchenbacterien" of older writers
are simpl; bacterioid segmente with
asporeat one end, the mo^r cell-wall
having adapted itself to the outline of
the spore (fig. 5, F). Tbe ripe spores
of Bchiiomjcetes are spherical, ovoid,
or long-ovoid in shape, and eitramet; (a. "r
mioate if-g., those of BaeUlut tuHilit ^^^.
raeasDTO 0-0012 mm. bng by 0-0006 ™,^';
mm. broad according to Zopf), highlj > :iitie i
refractive and colourless (or veiy dark, '^^ti-^
probably owing to the high indei of ^ ^jn
refraction and minute size). The mem- iAti« di js,sy.) i,
bcane may be relatively thick, and even J^f"^" Jo-Jirw!
exhibit shells or strata. bwcmJw lum in ib*
The germination of the aporeshas ftalSlllSjS u'/^
now berai observed in sevenil forma [lS|SSr*('''JliV™'^°^
with care. The spores are capable of
getmination at once, or they may be kept for months and
even yean, and are very reeistent against desiccation, heat
and cold, kc In a auitable medium and at a proper tem-
perature the germination is completed in a few hours. The
apore swells and elongates, and the contents grow forth to a
cell like that which produced it, in some cases clearly break-
ing throQgh the membrane, the remains of which may be
PItomorphum. — As already stated, some SchitomTcetoa
have been shown to present as vegetative forms, or phaees
la and the same life-history, "cocci," "bacteria,"
" leptothriz-filomenls," and even spiral and curved forms
known as " epirilluoi," " vibrio,' kc On the other band,
several Schizomycetes which have been long and diligently
investigated by the best observers abow no soch pl«o-
morpbism. As examples of the latter we may select
SanUu* megata-ivm (fig. 9) and numeroos itierococd
which produce similar cells generation after geoenttion.
A remarkable example of a pleomorphic form is Otado-
thrix dicholonia (fig. 16). According to Zopf this species
uses tnccessivply through the stages known as " coccus,'
bacterioid," " bacillar," and " leptottuiz," by mer*
elongation and division by transverse septa; the obaarver
named declares that these
simple filaments have formerly
received generic and specific £
a {LfplotArix paratiUta
f('
B,mouJDmnatiCX 1000). C, deTuLtpDvil ottffotaiK BOO).
seen attached to the young germinal rodlat (figs. S, 9,and 1 1);
in other casea the surrounding membrane of the spore swells
and dissolves. Tbe germinal cell then grows forth into tl
forma tr^iical for the particular Schiiomycete concerned!'
*
ATHDlea In tha fllanieiib ; la t aoam gl Ul* HMiiHiitl ut n^flnntaji kmsl'
Itdiul u «vJI u tniHTBnq dlvWou prkc Ifl nnilu OHtt tMoarmh s. Hod
tMDDiIiisLwUMOlKmOjL »■«• w imMis «o w»™« ^ "™
and L. ocAraeea, Kiitz.). Certain of the thread* than
partially break up, and the portions become slightly dia-
plaoed from the linear series ; these portions go on growing
in a directbn at an angle with the previous one, but still
in contact and thus produce the "false-branching" to
which Cladothrix owee its name. Finally the fliamenia
break up into segments corresponding with the septa
which have been formed across them. This fragmentation
is peculiar in that the filaments separate flrat into shorter
filaments, then into rodlets, and finally into "coed."
Portions of the filaments or bianches may become separated
and travel with a gliding movement, or even become
more active and swarm by means of i-ilini Such portions
may break up into shorter filaments or rods which also
sxtCDt in th« woA* (dtnl.
8CHIZ0MYCETER
■MH
•wun. Bat, In ■diUtion io than atni^t
Imb rigid lorBB {wUeh, it will ba
berg lAd Ccdm'a "gonen
uid LtpMiria m doMly
tli»t uir of them obMrved
alone would nndoabtedlj
Iwve been fonnvlj pUced
ftpftrtinoQeof tboae "gvie-
t% "), it i* interaeting to find
that tome of the filuiiaiita|
baoome apinJlj twiitsd and
dmnlate Spirilbim, Spiro-
tkmU, toA FtMo, tlM dis-
tincliou dapwtding on the
rakliTe (enetli tM thiek-
lamtA the UuMat, kdA tha
glidijw <
L wlui£ I
length
"eOMfMbBfora.
A bmiched KMf^BM form
buna eoed, btetarinm-Uka cnvi vn «u*i Km
wbMilhrradsiOcftUBenU ttS!%^^t^
tmibling LvloUmiM or m^ji^^^jtwmwi,
Yibno Moording te *!—"•»-
'iLulu
■ vluoh !■ variable in
oth«r SehiaonToetei ha*« n
or Imi piaoinac{dtl(^
andtherwcareheurf
. Kigali.
Zopf, Killer, Knrtb,
£>a Barjr, and othen
hare laid tbe foon'
dation for a know-
ledge of die nr-
•peciea an plaomor-
[due aD moat be ac^
mTcetea— at only
{oa-axiat at allj'S.'
thoaa who deny the y '^Xl^'lS,*
BiiatelKe of apociea cj««i— *' *'
mycetei on the e»i- ™g^V
dsnoe to hand mnat, ™™'
to be logiaally eonaiatant, deny the
altoflethar. But enn if thit ba allowed,
aimilif intention nnat be emiJoyed to denota any group
of organiama which within onr ezpeiienea azhiUt periodi-
cal rapetidona of a procaaa of develapment, i.t., all the
individnalt of aoccaaaiTG generationa go throDgh the eame
phaaea periodicallj. It mattera not that Tahationa — ill-
daGnad demtiopa fnnn an arecagB or "^pa" — oocnr im
tha paft of individnala or genentiona^ ue- periodically
repeated life-hiatoty or development marks what we term
The difficnlttea preaented by such minate and Ample
organiama aa the Bchizomycetea are dne partly to the few
"cbataetera" which they posaeaa, and partly to the
dangers of error in manipnlatiog them ; it it anydiing bnt
an eaay matter either to trace the whola devek^ment of a
•ingle form or to recognize with certain^ any one stage
in tha development nnleaa the othen are known. 'Oaa
being the case, and having regard to the minntenaM and
abiquity of theae organiimi^ we ahoold be Tery careful in
accepting evidence aa to tha cootinnity or oUurwiae of any
two forma which falla short of direct and nnintempted
obaervation. The outcome of all theae eonaidetationa ia
that, while recognidng that the "genera" and "apeeiea"
aa defined by Cohn must be recaat) we are not warranted
in uniting any forma the continnity of whid haa not bean
directly obeerred; or, at anyrate, the atrietest mlaaabonld
be foltowed in accepting the evidence addoced to render the
union of any forma probabla.'
CuannoiinaH.— Tha limiti of Ihli utid* pnmt ear ai-
amlnli^ in dttall tha tjtiraa of eluii&atuia pnipond tiy Cobn,
or tba modiflatiiHu of it roUow^ by otiur tiatbiilllta. ZmT,
ia tiM tUid «dilion of hii work (ISBt) nnpoH ■ nlndM busd (»
Oanodam tinn u to tha phaawriihuai : w* most rato to Aa
oaigiBal tor tha detaila, dmpty naiarking tba^ i[iait frtai tlw «-
' ~' — auaptad In tha aatbor, hta mtcm ia iaipnwtloaU* to
t teoogniiad bj him aa prariuoaal aalj. Isdaad aav
attcn mutt ba praviiionsi, for <•• an at th* thnsbdd
aat b« proviiioiisl, fat
sf tliB SchiBomycetaa.
(tilr of a koowUdp
Tba baat atarting-poinC Tor i madaru iludfloatlon (^ tb(-_
afiaolma la that tuggntad bj D« Buf — tha two modta of fonna-
tton of tba apora^ — and sa a proTinoDal achem^ and riaply to
ftdlltata oanFaiiaDD of tha graujia, wa might pgcbapa amplov
Da Barv'a tvo gnmpa, and a third ona to Induda thoae rimpla
fonna vUcb ahow do tnoa of apon-fonnatian. Uanv gapa axM,
and manr ahangaa will {wobably hava to be aiada. itaiuiwhlla It
might ba advinbla to elawify tha Sohiiosycataa jnivWonally aa
Tbua an no (porta diitinct from tha vigatatlva oalla.
L Coocjkcu (Boa. A ai
OanaiB : 1, Ifiefwi
ZopfiJ
Qumr B. AHhnapona (Da Baiy).
Th* vagatativa ealla diffar la abapa, dia, growth, or odui
ehanctan from tba iporta : tha latlar ara prodwad by aigBMta-
IL ARTHMiaAomucsak
f [and StTtftneBceuM); % 3
Ml (and
«■
IIL LcrroraicHi'.
Oaoan: T, OnolMc (fig. 11); 8, BigiialM (Sga U and
IS); 9, PkngnidtOrix (t) i 19, ZtftMrtt,
IT. OunoTaiDHaM.
Qm-a*: 11, CbuMirix (flg. 16).
Oaour C. Endo^oMa (Da Baiy).
ONura: IS (flo. S-ia), BaaOttu (and OhXHdtea]; U;
rOria (I); U, SptriUwn (at laaat in part).*
> Rar Lanliatar, Qmrt /wr. Micr. Oe., 1S71 and 18T«i Nlgalt
■od Bncbuar, y44iltn Film, ISSS) Bilbnth, Pwtofwirtwigiii «iir rf>»
Vigilatiimi/iirrHii dtr ClxeoIiacUna •rpHea, Btrila, 1871; Klel^
smnaroiia papan Id Aniiit f. azp. i'liMal. tavf y-JhonMot ; Kaitb,
Out. JlMims, lata ; Pnuniowiiki, Aioi: (JtiitnMaU,imt; Eopf, Ar
MtrpIL dtr Spaai^iMU, Laip^ ISSS; Otnkow^ Xnr ifarpila-
tegU d. BaelKritit, 18TA.
• Por tha dalnitloiu of tba ganna (and iptalaa) tha laadaa la [*■
famd to tha iFViiil vroika, lapadallj tbsM of topt aod Da Baiy ;
alao WlntacRabanhoiat, Eryflagamm Flam—PUm, L, lUl | aal
Qma, atlxifi* nf&t Baeltna and Yaut-Fmti, lUl.
SOHIZOMYCETEI
PsmroiJMr.— A* Id ths cua of oUiet idanti, wa an Iian
coucaninl witk tli« fnnclioiu of tlis SchiiDmycetea ind theii
nl&tioDi to the eoTiioninont; fur conTciiicucc, tha aubjact aaj b«
tnatad under Tirious liMduiga. Liintt*tioa of i<iBca nnTcnta our
doing mora tliiu tooch liglilly apoQ mtch liutten u tlia utioa oT
tho Scliuomjcataa u faraientu, aud their ivUtioni to dissaae,
though both aabjoct* belou); itrictly to ttis phjiriology of their
yutrilimL—HnviHK no cblorophjil, tlie Schizomycctci of conraa
detiend ou other organi-oiis For their cirboniceuiu food, and an
rilliersiprophytcH— i.e., lire on tha nmiina of duad ornMiisina —
or poraaitaa— f.f.f obtain tlii-ir food dirart from living ornniama.
E^lanr, Ndgcli, anil otUara liave ahanu that these orruiiami an
darirc their corboa from Tsrj nuiueroiw and widdj different
organic aabstancii, cy,, angara of all kind), Qiatmite, glycerioa,
Uiuric iinti other TcgeUbla tcida, kc, and even from ethyl-
alcohol, benzoic, aalicylic, and carbolie acidi to aome aitent.
Carbonic, Torinic. and oiilic acida, cyBnogen, area, and oumida
are, however, naeleai for thia |iniTKiae. Tha uitrogau and carbon
together maj be obtained from leuciu, afparogiu, methjlamina,
Itc, or the nitrogen alone frara these or urea, and compDanda of
ammonia nith vegetable acidi cr phoapliorua. The beat nntritiva
■nhatxncea are proteida (paptonea) and aagira (glocoai*) ; othera
moat be paaed over here. The natnra of the particolar Schizo-
mycete hu to be atodied aa well as the solution, and external
agenti aSect tlie matter also. Certain miuetsls are of conrse
nectaaarj,— anlplinr, vbosphoma, poluaiam (or mbidinm or
otdum), and colcinm (or magnoinni, barium, or atrontium) being
indiapouaable. i* one of many suitable uatriliTB •olntiona ws
■laj aalect the folloniug : —
Di-potoaainm phosphate 0'20 giainm.
Magnosinm anluh»te 004 „
Calcium chloride 0-02 „
Peptone I'M „
Water lOOOO „
The chiaf sources of error iu culCtires of theae veiy minote forma
an the intmdnction of ipona, kc, from without into tha Teasels,
and on the iiutmments, JLc, snd tha difBcolty of oontinuously
. obeoning a dereloping indiviJnal with tha ueceaaary high powers.
Numerous errora have arisen from iufaroncea being amplojed to All
up ^pa in lifs-hiatories which have ouiy been pertly observed.
'IliB first object of the cultintor, then, is to guarantee tho pniil7
of hii materials, instrumenta, tc, and then to keep one form (or
even a aingle specimen) under obaerration for a aofficiently long
period and under suitable couditione. The pnctiol difllcutcin
an anormoua, of contae, snd are Tery rarely entirely overcome for
Briodi at all lonR. Hire s)iain we must refer to the special works
r detaila as to the besutifnl and refined methods now devised or
employed by De Biry, Cohn, Koch, Brefeld, Lister, Nilgeli, and
otheiB, oalliog yiecial attention to tha gelatina method deviaed by
VittJLdini and Bnfeld and so saccsssluUy used and imoroTod by
Koch. Thoroughly conducted cultivationa should decide in what
medinm the Schiiomyccte flouruhea best, and how it behaves in
others, — what vegetative forma it preaenta normaUy, and how
ehangaa in the environment affect these. They should alao decide
the chancten of the s^^e^tes or coloniea ; at what temperatum
germination, growth, (nvision, spore-formation, tc, take place or
oaaae, aiid ao on i the necessity or othervriae of free oiygen ; the
eSecIa of the orjjaniim on its aubatmtnm or medinm — whether it
canaa fermentation, or putrefaction, or excrete aolnble fermenbi,
and »0 on. Moreover, the piodncta of these aotiona ahonld be
detail. Whore the particular Schiiomyceta la a
pormsite (wholly or partisjly) ths methods of culture
nficed. Heraihe Auida or tiasnee of the boat muat _ . _
~ h (by means of " infection, " "inoculation, Ac.) the
It with tl
La the anbje
I compietity of the msdinrn ((.a..
remark that, having regard to the compietity ol
blood) and the organization of the boat, the difflcnltjei of manipi
tion became greater than ever.
Tci,iperalun.~At with other plants, ao with the Sehiaomycele^
their varioue functions, e.g., Rrmination, growth, division, fortna-
tho best aretai^ temperature ia about SS'C, hut the optimum may
diifer for each apecius and for each function. The aame ia generally
true for the minimum and miiimum tempenttares, which have to
nected with the death points of certain Bacilii, Ac. The aporaa
of aome of these form, have been frozen for days or wseks ivithout
injnrr, and some are said to have reaiated terapeistnrea as law as
- 100' C. , or even lowers It appears to be all but Iniposiibla to kill
Mub ipom by osld. High tsmpantiuDa we man btal i bat Uw
■poiea d Baam hava gsrminatKl after the llnid contaiHlu tbcB '
waa boiled for an hour, and even a tempentute of 110* C. aud
higher haa been witbslooil. The ve^lative atalea mze lea )e-
sittont : nevcrtheleas tho bacilli of autlirsx were not killed by |
heating the tliud to 7S-S0' for an hour or more. SpeakUK
generally, ripe aporei are meet reeistout and gerai' '"
'— ' " ■ •■ illa Ol ....
^ast ao ; dry cella or apona reaiat aitn
than normally aatnratecl ones. Of coun
□ktiUg OHH
loyeJ iu
ir three il
. .lie matter, <.^., aiightiy I
ban neutral or feebly sUuIiuii ou^ |
[enttrii pariius), and ao on.
ce uf these tacts we may at>l« "^B- |
uona heating"; by boiliair
II 6-10 minulsa daily all tt
oughat
isure of K
if 100" C. t
repeated. Tbe erplanstion ia that the apona which raaiat the
first or aecood ahort boiling have time to bogiD germrtiatiDK in
the interval, and thsy then succumb at one* trbeu ths liquid ia
again boiled.^
Light, EUctriaty, OraviUiium, be— Ths relations betweon these
and tbe (unctions of Schizomyeetea have been partly inteatuated,
genera show polarity — or at any rale diSennca bettveen base and
apei.'
EffeeUi:fCI\eniiialAgaiii. — (^cygen.— Faatenrahowedthat, while
eoma Schizomyeetea require free oiygeo like other plants, there
is peihapB itill donbtful ; but " anaerobiotic " forms like Au.-ii'iu
btityrietu atand in aharp contrsat to such exquiaitely ** eerDbiatic "
oavtu BaittriiimnrMi,Bacilliitnihtilii, fcc A few are known ta
flotLriah best — or at any rate they are more active — when supplied
vrith oxygen in preportion Iras thsn that in the atmoapbore.
Engelmann showed that, while some species congtrgated uloaa to a
came nearer «ben the bubble contained lees oijgea. Thu uno-ii
true for the lame apecles when brought near au Alga which il
sTolving oiygen— the aerofaiotib forms collect nhiin the oiygen is
being evolved (in tha yellow-red, Ire, of the spectrum). Some
B(dilzomycet«s are powerful deoiidiiing and nduciiig afenta: it
has already beta stated tbat Brqjiaioa depositi pnre aulphur in it*
filamenta. Baeteriurn aali and othera, on the contrary, tnnafer
oiygen in large qnantitiei to the medium in which they live, and
the rarbon in that may be entirely consumsd. Permentation ODoe
started may go on without free oxygen or not (scconling to the
particular Schiiomycete, Ac), but it ta nacceaary at the commence-
_. . ^ ... _» ^ fijj. (jjj respiration of the
ths lite and gnwth of the
lycetea, but the spores [and to s las extent tha ragetative
cells) of some can resist desiocatiou for long periods ; othen {«.g-,
Bacttriam ispJU) soon die. Those of BacUtia nMili* have bean
kept air-dry for yeara ; and thoae of B. antiraeu wen not killed
after aaveral we^ in absolute aleofaoL A year in water failed
to kill the aporee of B. tuidiliM. Zuoglcea and vegatatin oella
of some reaiat drying for some tim«-.-how long is uncertaiB.
In the dry stats spores and cell* are diueminated by currenta
of air : haw far aporaa may be buried and atill retain life (carried
down by nln, be.) is uncertain. The importance of theae facta,
however, ie obvioua.*
Addi, FBinmi.kc — The reader mnit be referred to the literature
for detaila aa to ths quantitjt* of acida snd other products of their
own dacompoaition which can be endured by given Schivoniycetca
(see especially the literature on fermentation and cultivatioB, and
abo rmpecting the action of poiaon^ antiseptics, Jkc).>
AKraMon lovardi Prdeid Food-Sabttmctt. — Bacteria have long
been known to awarm areund pieces of orgunic food-matsnals, hut
although Ehrenberg and Cohn noticed the fact it waa not Investi.
gated in detail untQ quite recently. PfelFer finda that Badena
and Spirilla are attracted in a definite manner towards minute
tubes containing extract of meat or solgtion of aspangia, jott aa
be finds antheroioida and looaporea of various kinds attracted by
definite aubatances into tubes Jeeigned to unitate arcbegonla. ta
Ffeffer's proofi tbat the anbstuicea mentianed exert a apsdBc
.growing fichizomycete.*
Water ie ahaolntely neonaary for
:he Bpotes [snd te
i Robaita, na. n*H,
jtllnwitelM.
Aiilr. w SS. 4. nClH- B . .
SCHIZOMTCETES
Uttos DO A* orRudm tlu mdei ji nrnnd to bU trwtlM,
" Loeamotoiimht Bichtangabaweainii^n ilurcli chimiichi Sslio,''
In (Tiiton. mti dm M. Inil. n> TdMn^cn, i. Hft 3, 1884,
AnwnMJm md fUra/iietliiii.—Tlie growth and dsrslDpmeuC
of ft ScUionijcata in uij qrpiiia mAdimu mnlU in ■ bruldng
down at i1m complex food -mate ritli into limplsr bodla, whicn
nuij dial b*com« oiidiud and itilL fciTther decompoAed. Bach
imieiM m knewa n r«mieiiUtdaii !□ tlis widir tenat, Tbe
ptTtionlw kind of fermantation dependa on th> mudiam and on
tba ipaciea of SohlioinyeMa, and mtj bt affw^tsd bf other citeum-
poHd by Sdhiiomjcetea and eyil-»melling gaiea eacapa, tha fer-
mSBtatiOD is apoken of aa patrsractloD ; in nrtun etna, wh«re
iatonaa oiidatian foUowa and atill fnrthor conanmaa tlia prtxincb of
decompoaition, tlia procan hu been tarnied eremocaniis. In a kn
Inatsncc* » procam of nduetion aeta la, aa vhen aulphnr siti an
daaompoaed b; Begglaioa. The Iheorj of Ferkentation (f.v.)
ouuMJt be tce^od In detail here, but it ia important to po^ that
■id* bj aids with ths aotiona referred to another kind of action
majgoon. Uaitj Sctiizsmycetea excrete what are called '
fcnnanti^'' which are capable of changing proteida '~''~ ~
■npr tnto glaeoa^ and ao on. Tbcee proceBsea at :
reaolt aimptj in an alleracien ef the proteid, &c, from the non-
diffhiibla and non-aBiailable canditicn to the diiTuaible and
■eamiJabla one, and are in no way dettructiTe aa are the fennenta-
tioiu doaoribcd abora. Keverthelees it is the cnetam to apeak of
both u neee of fgrmantation ; the one aerioa of changea renden
tbo medinm Um and lewi ciiiable of IDpporting life it every itage,
tba other leriea doea not do ao, yet the aims iinnie ii frcriuently
siTon to both kiuda of action. It ie a airinui feet that the lame
Behiiomyoele niaj^hodnca a different fcnnontetion in each of two
different media. TTie Tariooa fermentationi ate diatiiieaished and
Tilned according to the nroilueta which reenit; theie hye-produc
o peptone*.
-e oeuQf injoBoit
Of important fermrn
Dijaulini aa tlioj iccnuinUte,
J iateetintton.
tationa doo to SchtiomyFeloa ma; be men-
in tha making of Tinegur and cheeee, in tha
[HTparation of Bti, bemp, tte., in the aonring and <tieeaiea of beer,
winea, he, tha deatmction c/ Eogara, preaerred food, Etc Othen
■re of importanee in the loil, and in tha dejtmclion of organic
mftttsr in ponda, riven, draina, fcc. In fact, much of the mum
<FMrf of lanitaij HJlSBca ma; be refeirvd here ; and it may torn
out ta ba (till mora tnw than we now know that Scliitomyeete* are
Important in agTicnltnre.
In pathology the cbauga* dna to theae organlame are at length
Wng duly teeogniied. Jlpart from the compantlrely harmleaa
■cttona of thoaa loima Donnallj existing In the ajimenlaiy canal—
ttflMria aida in tha decay of teeth, io.— it [a nOw certain that
■ODU iBTiaiana are dangerona. The Iqjnriona effect! of •aonis
Scbiiomnietea when lntnKiac«d into open wonnde, lie., igiintt
"■ h the r ■"" ■ • ■ - ■- . f
t Imlliant laboan of Liat
direetsd, ait aoknowladged steiTwhere ) bat it ia Important
tBttwnlia that on the whole the diMaaea dna to orginienu in b
blom depend fandanwDtally npon changea of the aame category
tboaa nfened te. Of conree the fluids of a livi
n to sncceasrolty
eatthebaae
, onditiona, and the action of a pBthogenona bchizo-
tDToeta cannot be treated and studied simply aa a typical fsnnecta-
tloni bol; although the condtClona preeented are ini ' '
•Meial, It eiDBot be doubted that common princlpk- '"
of all the phenomena, and that the fluide of tbe dieeaeeu aiguiimi
moat ba tiealad, ao to apeak, aa fermentable media.
Nnmarooa other farmsntationa of tdcntiGo interest are due to
Schiiomycetca : i.g., theae in which coloun an formed, certain
«■•*■ irf' phoaphoieaoenoe, tbe BDimoniaoal fermentation of urine,
hizomycetea
D DlBUlK— The preaenc
[n the blood, tiaanea, or organa of animala and „
oartaiu tpeciflo diaeaaea ia admitted, and haa naturally aoggested
tba qnaatlon— An they accompanimenta only or have they any
aanaal relationa to the dlaeaaed condition* I Thoir conatancy in
na to how the oaneal connexion eomee about and in what it conaiata,
a diaenaslon which is atlll going on aa to the detaila. The chief
poinla DOW eatabUahed may be eTpraased generally aomewhat a*
tn a glTon snecifio diKeaae, dne to the action of a doGnila
Sohiiomycete, the latler may be conceived to be injurioni in
other Talnable conatitaent, or if ita act
tion of poleenona enbatancea or in thrii
dcgrailation of tha matrix, or II it aim
mechanical olatruction or irritant, — in ai
result to the delicately a'ljuitpl orgnnii
i( oiyarn or of any
emlU in the excre-
ition a* prodncCt of
(,! the liOTil. It b
'mU(
side the
)nijcetoii > bound oil o
body, their npid growth and ninltiplica
only be eiplained aa dua to their auccau in tbe pabula then met
with, and an indicationa that they produce changea there which
must reeait in abnormality ao far ee the host ia ooucempd. This
doea not end the matter, however. Tlii' living tiaousi of a healthy
animal eiert actiona which ire aiiti^inuiBtlc lo thoae of the jiaraaltic
invader ; anditis now generally ad mitteil Ihnt the msnidnilvion of
a Schiiamyeete into an animal doe* not nece*i*rily caaee dissoae.
Wen it otherwise K ia difficult to aeo how the higher nreinlsni<t
conld eacape at ell. T ' ' ■ '-'-'■ . _ -i— ^ -_.i
the body, but mauyan ahie to<
placed to the action of the tiiai
can "nalBt" the attempU of a Achinunj ''ele to wtlle, grow,
maltiply with fatal elTect tin^h oan DudDu)>le.llT he eiiila.um
those of thehealthy tivuee Invadal. Bnt the higher onaninna,
tinne-fDrmation, kc, may be mentionod. Thnanot every Bchlio-
mjcels met with In the ImkI;' CHn do harm.
But L /en when a Srhiii>inyiYla haa gained acecw to the hlood.
I, lympL.ia-iBaj^a, &ci and has eiicceedad in ettabllibing
astoiterelilioni
lu the flnids of
SoU]etIiinE ninnt therefore bo
lealthy
itaelF ■
mnltiplving, then
ifore we didmies the qi
obetractive ac
to many circnm-
tho still tiartiallr
I invaded organism ; whether the (lanalta
J . iply robs the host, or distributes injoriona
a^nta of any kind, it f> clear that everything which favoon it
aid* in intensifying ita action. And this may db local or general
also according to complei circnnutancca. Of conree eotes, (fwn
— ider the acceaa of a given Bcliiiemycala very
1 in the tieenea,, ic , difltosnt
ay render th.
leeway fori
.. -. ayforit
itiata of ohlch may be eiei ...
ittacka. Tha study of ^ie i
rea'iata
^ _. _,.__ .__ _.jtbods
m surgery devised b* iJster. It may be mentioned
that Bchizomycetn which prodnc* bad eifecta on injured or dead
tiaiaea of wounda an not neceaaarily al>le to live in the health;
organiem, however deadly the poteonone prodnct* of their action
may be when they auoeeed in eatahliahlng tliemaelvca.
aQ these and many other beta, then, point to the condnirion
that the men presence of a Bchiiomycete In an organ or tlaana
to the following reqolremente to be eatlsfled before any anoh
relation can be edmitted (Koch) ; — (1) given a ipecifie disease in
the
-thia
haent from ii
mil
fr»
fnm the diee
>e -, (S)
Schizomyeete ah
old b« cultivi
t-l
n r
trient media
.utslde
th
e quantity by th
hi;pure.^ltlv.t<
B means ; (3]
iuocnlet
of
-Ini
th
si'eciBo dlMiaee In a
healthy animal ; (1)
bo
clearly delected in
the tiamee of
BOW
aa before.
The aaliafylng of alt these requlnments It dHHonlt, and tha
neceeatCy of overcoming tbe dlfflcnUiea hauled to what may almost
ho termed a apedal branch of medical art At tha aame time tha
m^orily of the principle* which an hero becoming rroogntnd
have long been known to biologieta, and eeiiecially to botanlala,
and then are etill nnmentue iiidioalioui of a want of botuikal
training on tbe part of writen on theae anhjecta. It ia Impotaibla
hen to even mention all tbe metbods ilevised for staining, ]B«p*r-
lag, and examining tieeuca, kc., and the Bchiiomycetea they coat^
on BterlliiBd potatoa
ito, jelly, blood-sentm, feo., <
o; the 11. ...
(H. U. W.)
d potatoes, bread-paato,
inf naioaa or fluida, sc . . . .
points in cultivation have already been nlerrw! to ]^ the litera-
ture mnit be consulled for further Hutails.'
408
S C H — S C H
SCHIiOrNTWEIT-SAKtJNL1>ireKr, HraKANw von
(1836-1883), the eldsat of b band of brothers, all more or
Isu noted u scientifia explorers or Btudents of foreign
eonntriea, iona of kd ocnliat of Uanich. Hermuiti wu
born on the 13th of Uaj 1836. Hii fint icientific laboun
were itndiea in the Alpa, carried on between 1846 and
1648 in UBOciftldon with hia brother Adolf (bom Jannarj
9, 1BS9). The pnblioation of ths Stvdien iiber die
pkyniaiitdu Qtographie tUr Alpen in 18S0 founded the
Ktentifio repntatioa of the two brothers, and their reputa-
tioa wu increased bj their subeeqaent inTeatigBtioni in
the MUna field, in which the third brother Robert (bom
Oct 37, 1837) also took part. Soon after the pablication
of the Neu» Unttmdamgtn iiber die phyi. Geoff, u. Geoi.
der Atpen (I8S1, 4to), the three brothers received, on the
Tecommendation of Alex. Ton Enmbold^ a commiuion
from the East India Companj to trsTcl for scientific por-
potes in their territorj, and more particulArl; to make
obcervationi on terrestrial magnetism. Their explorations
flxtended over the period 1854-57, dnring which they
travelled, lometimes in company, sometimes separately,
in the Deccan and in the region of the Himalayas, even
prOBecnting their investigations beyond the frontiers of
the Company's territory into the region of the Karakorum
and Kuenlnn Uountains. Hermann and Robert were the
first Europeans who crossed the latter ftiountains, and it
was in honour of that achievement that the former had
the title or surname of SskQnlQnaki bestowed upon him
(in 1861). Ths two returned to Europe in the aummer of
1857, bat Adolf, who remained to prosecute his explora-
tions in Central Asia, was put to death by the emir of
Kaahgar on the 36th of August. Between 1860 and 1866
Hermann and Bobert published in four volumes the
"Besnlti of a Scientific Uiidon to India and High Asia."
The extensive collectiona of ethnography and natural history
made by them were ultimately deposited in the Burg at
Nuremberg through the intervention of the king of Bavaria
(Uay 1B77). Hermann (pent the last years of his life
chiefly in literary and scientific activity, partly at Munich
partly at the caatle of Jigemburg near FoKhheim. He
died at Unnich on the I9th of January 1882.
nil brother Kobsrt wta tppoiattd pror«s*or of gtogrrpbj it
Oinwn in ISM, but his tckdunial labonn ware umetiraH intsi-
nipUd by tuTela, npsckllj ia the Uaited Stito, which ramiihed
biro with mtUrlBl for man or le« importuit wotka. H« died *t
OiHHD, Jane t, 1835. Of two other brothen, one, Edwird (bom
Ksnh at, Ittl), killed in battle tt Kioinf^ in 1360, rntda bim-
■elf known bj an sccoDnt of the Spiniih •xpediljon to Morocco
In ISfift-eO. Emil (boni Jal^ r, I8SG) la the lathor of ananl
tauned works relating to India and Tibet.
BCHLANOENBAD. See Scqwalbach.
BCHLEOZL, AnonsT WiLHiLif ton (1767-1845),
Q«rman poet, translator, and critic, was bom on the 8th
September 1767 at Hanover, where his father, J. Adolf
S<^egel, was a pastor. He was educated at the Hanover
gymnasiom and at the university of Qottingen. Having
•pent some years as a tntor in the house of a banker at
Amiterdam, be went to Jena, where he was made a pro-
' feasor, and received from the duke of Weimar the title of
"Bath." Here he began his tranalation of Shakespeare,
which was ultimately completed, under the auperintend-
ence of Tieek, by Tieck's daughter Dorothea and Count
BaiuUssin. A revised edition of this rendering, which is
conaidared one of the best poetical tranelations in the
Oerman language, has been issued by the Qerman Shake-
speare society. At Jena Schlegel contributed to Schiller's
periodicals the Hortn and the Mutetudmanack ; and with
his brother Friedrich he conducted the AthtHmim, which
ranked among the most powerful organs of critical opinion
in Qwmany. He alao published a volume of poems, and
Mcried on a rather Utter cooboversy with KoUeboe. At
this time the two brothers were remarkable tor ttie wi^iMtr
and freshness of their ideas, and commanded respect at
the leaders of the rising Romantic school In 1803
Schlegel went to Berlin, where he delivered kctnrea on
art and literature; and in the following year he iaoued
loK, a tragedy in the antique styH which gave rise to a
auggestive discusuon on the principles of dramatic poetry.
About the same time appeemd hia Spimiik Thtaire, in
which be presented admirable tronalations of five of
Calderon's plays ; and in another volume be gave transla-
tjona of Spanish, Portuguese and Italian lyrics. In 1807
he attracted much attention in France by an essay in the
French language, in which he compared Racine with
Euripides. His lectures on dramatic art and literature,
which have been translated into meet European language^
were delivered at Vienna in ISOS. Meanwhile he had
been travelling in France, Qermany, Italy, and other
countries with Madame de Stael, who owed to him many
of the ideas which she embodied in her work, lit
rAllemagne. In 1613 be acted as the eeeretary of the
crown prince of Sweden, through whose influence the
right of his family to noble rank was revived. Schlegel
was mode a professor at the university of Bonn in 1818,
and during the remainder of his life he ocen^ed hitnsell
chiefly with Oriental studiee, although he continued to
lecture on art and literaturt^ and in 1828 he isaned two
volumes of critical writinga. In 1823-30 he published
the Inditche BibiiolAek ; and aa separate works appeared
n823) the Bhagatad-GUa with a Latin translation, and
(1839) the RUnU^jana. Schlegel was twice married — first
to a daughter of Prof. Michaelis of Oottingen, then to a
daughter of Prof. FanluB of Heidelberg. Both wivea
separated from him soon after their marriage. He died
at Boon on the 12th May 1845. Aa an original |>oet
Schlegel is unimportant, but aa a poetical translator be
hoa rarely been excelled, and in criticism he ezerciBed a
strong inSnence by the emphasis with which he marked
the distinction between classical and romantic literatare.
By hia study of Sanskrit he helped to prepare the way for
the development of the science of langnage.
Id 18<S-t7 SchlegaE's Garaian worki wars imaai In twehs
Tolunea bf Bixkuig. There ia alio an aditlon of hii tKian^
IcriUi nt/ran(aif, and of hia Opuacula Latijia.
SCaiJ^QEL, JoHUdf Eliab (1718-1749), a Oernuw
dramatic writer, was bom at Meissen on the 2Bth January
1718. He was educated at Schulpforta and at the uni-
versity of Leipsic. In 1743, having finished his atndiea,
he became private secretary to hia relative, Ton Spener,
the Saxon ambassador at the Danish court. Afterwards
he was made professor eitraordinsry at the academy of
Soroe, where he died on the 13th August 1749. Schlegel
was a contributor to the Brtmitchen Beitrdgn, and for
some time, while he waa living in Denmark, he edited a
weekly periodical, Der Fretnde. He waa also known as a
writer of clever poetical epletlea. Incomparably hie best
works, however, are his dramas, which did mnch to
prepare the way for the dramatic achievements of Leasing,
by whom his senioa was warmly appreciated. He wrota
two lively and well-constructed comedies, the TriittKplt
der gtOen Frauen and the Stumme Sdi&tiliat, the latter in
alexandrines, the former in proee. Btrmatut and Kamit
(in alexandrines) are generally considared his beat
Hia worka were odilsd after hia death by hU brother, J. H.
Schlegel, who had a conaidiMalile r«putalian aa a wntsr on Dtxiih
history. Another brother, J. Adolf Schlcjtel, an emlnant mschar,
and author of tome volamsa of vtrse, waa the father of Anjtoal
Wilhehn and Friedrich von Schlcgol.
SCHLEQEL, Kakl WiLBKija Fsikdrich Ton (1772-
1899), known chiefly as an histmian of literature was the
brother of Angnit Willielm too Schlegel Ea waa bom
S C H — S C H
ftt SuioTer «B the lOtk yueh 1773. E*riiig ttodud it
Oottingen knd Leipsic, ha «ttr*ct«d totae attention by &
book OD ths GrUcAm tad £l>mtr (1T97), which wu
pnusad bj HeTiis. This work wm toon followed bj bii
Gackieitt der Ponie tier GritcA^it laul BHairr. At Jeiu,
where he lectnred m a privat-dooent at the murenity, he
cODtribnl«d to the JfAmJmm many itrikiiig critical arUcUa,
and a nuinber of lyrical poema which were afterward*
iocloded in * Tolnme entitled Oedichlt. Here alw ha
wrote Ltiditdt, an nnSnUhed romances which wm held by
■ome of tha best of his contamponuiM to be of a deeply
immoial tendency, and Atartot, a tragedy, in which he
attempted withont mnch succees to^ combine romantic and
claaucal elements. In 1803 he went to Paris, where he
edited Suropa, lectured on philosophy, and carried on
Oriental studies, some results of which he embodied in a
well-known book, Ueber di« Spradu und TfeiiAeit der
Indier. In 1603 he and his wife joined the Roman
Church, and from this time he became more and more
oppooed to the principles of political and religions freedom.
He went to Vienna in 1808, and in the following year
was engaged as imperial court sacretary at tha head-
quarters of the archduke Charles. At a later period he
was for Bome time conncUloc of legation in the Austrian
embassy at the Frankfort diet, bnt in 1818 he retomed
to Yiuma. Ueanwhila ha had published two seriea of
lectnrea. Utter die tteuer* GctAichtt (1811) and OacAichU
der altai wtd nau* Liitratur (ISlSi Aftw big retnm
to Vienna from Frankfort he edited Caneerdia, and began
Ae iHue of his Sammtiuht Wait. He also deliTwed
tectnrea, which were republished in hia PkUo4ophU da
L^mM (1828) and in hii PittlaK^tAu dtr GoMeMe
(1829). He died on the 11th January 1829 at Dresden,
where be was delivering the coarse of lectures which
mpptazoi in 1630 under tite title PkiUtopliiadit Vorta-
tmgtn, intbttondert Hbtr dit PiUotopiit der Spmcht mtuI
As WorttL. Hia own oollection of bis works included ten
TolnncB, and to tbia number five Tolnmea were added
after his deatL A permanent place in the bintory of
Qeraun literature belongs to Friedrich Scblegel and bia
l»other Augnat Wilhelm aa the critical leadera of the
Bomantio acbool, which derived from them moat of ita
governing ideaa aa to the charactcriatica of the Uiddle
AgM, and aa to the metlioda of literary expresaion. In
their writings, too, there is the fullest and moat impres-
sive statement of the mystical spiritoal doctrioea of the
Bonutntio achooL Of the two Inothers, August Wilbelm
did the hifflnM pmnaneDt aervice to hia countrymen
1^ lua tran^ationa from Shakeapean and Calderon. The
beat of Ftiedricb'i works b hii Gtichichti der alttn tind
neuat Xtlsratar, in which was presented for the first time
ft ajntninatin aocovnt of the development of European
literatnre as ft wbot&
TtisdriiA BoUtgal's vif*, Dantbia, ■ dsnghtar of Uom Uin-
dataoha, WB> bora it Barila about th< fwr 1770, and died at
nuMort ia III*. 8h« wai la eciwDtrio bat rtnurkiblT claTar
woiBin, aiid wrota or adilad aarenl worki, lausd by her huibuid, —
tha ufinldud raauDM FUmil% (1801), ttao ftnt Toloms of tha
Sammlumg rVMuHMclitr XKeUwifn da ilimUUtrrt [t toIi., 1S04),
■nd LoOur iMd Ifailn- (IMS), fij har Ant miiriiga ih« bad a
«n, Rkillp Tall, whc bacama ona of tb« moat aiahunt paintan of
Ua da; in Otnnany.
8CHLEI0BEB, Adocst (1821-1866), bom at Meinin-
gon oa Febraary 19, 18S1, studied at the nniversitiea of
Letp^ and Tubingen, became aztiaordinaiy profeseor of
philiAigy in Ptagoe in ISfiO, removed to Jena aa ordinary
nofMcr in 1807, and died there Deoe
^ 8CHLKIDEM, MiTiHua (1804-1881), waa bora
HunbaM Ib 1604. He itadied law at Heidelberg a
409
ndvtMate in Hamburg till 1831, but oot
succeeding be studied botany and medicine at O^tingen
and Berlin, and graduated in Jena in 1839, where he
ftftarwarda became professor of botany (1846-60). In
1863 he was called to Dorpat, but resigned the followiog
year and returned to nermany, where he lived as a private
teacher. He died at Frankfort in 1881. His title to
remembrance is twofold. Uniting the labours of two
centnriea of worken in vegetable butology, from Malpigbi
and Qrew to Uirfael and Bobert Brown, ha proved that a
nudsatad cell ii the only original conatitnent of the plant
embryo, and that the development of all vegetable tiisnes
must be referred to auch cell*, thua preparing the vray for
the epoch-making cell theory of Bcbwann ; and hia J'rwi-
npfa of Seiaitifle Bota»f, which went through several
editions (1842-fiO), did much to ihake the tyranny of the
purely systematic Linnean acbool, whose accnmulationt he
was accustomed irreverently to describe as " hay." Deapite
a certain inabili^ to criticise and verify his own
hypothesaa, be gave, both by hi* apecnlative activity and
I^ the introduction of improved technical methods, so
vivid an impulse to the younger botaoiata of his tame aa
te have earned from De Bary the title of reformer of
scientific botany. Hi* botanic^ labours practically ceased
after 18!K), when be entered on various philoaophical and
hiatorical atndies. See Boswaxx.
8CHLEIEBUACHEB, Fkixsuch Dakiu. Eukt
(1768-1834), theologian and pbiloaopber, was the son of
a Pnuaian army-ehaplain of the Beformed confeMion, and
was born November 31, 1768, at Brealau. In hia fifteenth
year the bt^, who was of a weak conatitution, waa placed
by bia parents in • Moravian acbool at Nieaky in Upper
IJiaatia, and two years later in the seminary of the same
sect at Barby near Halle. Here Moravian theology proved
inadequate to satiafy the deep religious needs and awak-
ening intellect of the youtL It was particularly the
doctrinM of eternal punishment, <A the deity and the
•nbatitntionary aufterings of Chriat, and of the total
corruption of bnman nature that wen atumUing-blocks to
him. He wiB abu unable to make hia own the pecnliar
religious ezperMftoei of his Uonvian and pietistie teachers.
The eSbrts of bia etrictlj orthodox father and of the heads
of the seminary to lead bim to «m*b bis donbts aa sinful,
and to abnn modem theology and literatnrts tended only to
strengthen his desire to exphxe the great world of know-
ledge. Belnctantly his father gave him permiamon to leave
Barby for the nniveraity of Halle, and the correapond-
enee between the father and the eon on thia painfnt
crisis in Friedrich's life aoppliea a itrlking itlnstration of
ft typical pbaae of distressing modem mental biatory.
When Bcbleiermacher entered the university of Halle
(1787) the reign of platiam there bad ceased, having given
way to the rationalistic philosophy of Wolf with the
critical theol<^ of Bender, thou^ die new pbiloec^y of
Kant was rapidly displaeing Wi^s. Aa a stndent ho
pursued an ind^endent course of reading and neglected
to bis permanent kn the study of the Old Testament and
the Onental langnagea. Bnt be frequented the lectures of
Sender and of J. A Eberhard, aoqniring from the former
the principles of an independent criticism of the New Testa*
ment and from the latter hia love of Plato and Ariatotla.
At the same time he atndied with great tftnestnes* the
writings of Kant and JacobL He commenced thus early
hia duiracteriatic habit of forming hi* opimona by the
procaaa of patiently examining and wnghing the poaitiona
of all thinker* and partiea. Bnt with the receptivity of
a great eclectic be combined the reoonsbuctire power of
a profoundly original thinker. While yet a student be
begNi to a^ly ideas gathered from the Oreek pbilOBophen
in ft nootwtrnetion of Esnf s mtem. At the ecnipbtion
^-^o~
4l6
sChleiebmacher
of hi« three jwrt' eonne ftt Halls he obtained through tha
bflnence of the conrt-dutvUin ^ck an appointmont an
privatB tutor in the family of Count DohoSrSchlobitteo,
which he held npwarda of two years, duvolojuEg in a culti-
Tatsd and arutociatio bouHhold hiii deep love of family
'and locial life. After ahort engagimeata in tuition and
as locuM feiien* to a clergyman of the small town of
lAndjiberg^hB received (1796) the appointment of chaplain
to the Cl^itd HoMpital in Berlin, a poeitioQ which he held
nearly uz ye&rd, and which offered no scope for the
decelopment of his powers as a preacher. He was the
more iodaced to seek the Batiafactioa of his mental and
apiiitoal necBHsities in the cultivated society of Berlin, and
in profound philoaophical studies. This was the period in
which ho wa» conntracting the framework of hid philoio-
uhical and raligioua system. It wsa the period too when
be made himself widely acquainted with art, literature,
Mience, and modern culture generally. He was at that
time profoundly affected by Oerman Bomanticism, as
represented by his friend Friedrich Schlegel, and it
required all the energy of his moral nature and the force
of hie intellect to preserve himself from its moral and
ment«J estraTagancea. Of this bis Conjiileitlial LtUert on
Sehlegel's jMitwU (liJOl), as well as bis periloas relation
h. Eleonore Qmnow, the wife of a Berlin clergyman, are
proof and illustration, aradnallyhis sound moral oatore,
bis deep reli^nmees, sod his powerful intellect enabled
bin to emancipate himself entirely from the errors and
weakueasea . of a transient phaae of mental and social
history, and to appmpriate at the same time the elements
of troth and goodness which it posseHsed in rich measure.
Bomanticism nnlocked for him the divine treasures of life
and truth which are stared in the feelings and intuitions of
the buman soul, and thns enabled him to lay the fouoda-
tiona of his philosophy of religion and his ethical systam.
It enriched his ima^nation and life too with ideab ancient
and modem, which gave elevation, depth, and colour to all
his thought Meantime he studied Bpinoa and Plato^
and was profoundly inSnenced by bodi, thongh he wae
never a Bpinoiist; he mods Eant more and more his
master, though he departed on fundamental points from
him, and finally remodelled his philosophy ; with some of
Jaoobi's positions ha was in sympathy, and from Fichta
and Schelling he accepted ideas, which in their place in his
system, however, received another value and import The
Lteraiy fruit of this period of intense fermentation and of
rapid development was hia "epoch-making" book, £«fm
abar dit Seliffion (1799). and his " new year's gift " to the
new caitory, the Honotoffm (1800). In the firet book he
vindicated for religion an eternal place amongst the divine
U^iterie* of human nature, distinguished it from all
current earicaturaa of it and allied phenomena, and ib-
•cribed the perennial forms -of its manifestation and life
in men and society, giving thereby the programme of his
■nbaequent theological syatem. In the Monoloffcn be
threw out his ethical manifesto, in which he proclaimed
bis ideas as to the freedom and indepeodence of the epirit,
and as to the relation of the mind to the world of seme
and imperfect social organiiatioDS, and sketched his ideal
of the future of the individnal and society. In 1803, to
' his great advantage morally and intellectually, Schleier-
naoher ezchangad the brilliant drcle of Berlin Romanticista
for die ratired life of a pastor in the little Pomeranian
town of Stolpa. Hera he remained tvro years, which were
fall ot pastoral and literary work, as well as rich in
pereonal and moral pr<^;ren. He relieved Friedrich
Schlt^l entirely ot his nominal rcoponsibility tor the
translation of Plato, which they bad together undertaken,
and regarded the completion of it as the work of hit life.
The first volume was published io 1804, and the latt (the
Stpublie) in 1828. At the Kame time another work, Grtaid-
liititn finer SrUik dtr bithtrigeti HittaUthrt (1803), the
flnt of bis strictly critical and philoBO|ibicel prod&ctions,
occupied him. Thid work is a severe criticiam of all
previous moral systems, edpecially tlio,^ c^ Kant and
Fichte, Plato's and Spinoza's finding moat fnToar ; its
leading priociples are that the teatu of the soundneaa of a
moral system are the completeness of its view of the laws
and ends of human life as a whole and the hannoaiouB
arrangement of its subject-matter under one fundamental
principle ; and, though it ia slmodt exclusively critical
and negative, the book snnocncoii clearly the division
and scope of moral science which Schleicrmecber snb-
sequently adopted, attaching prime* imi>orIance to a
" Gtlterlehre," or doctrine of the ends to k>e olituined l:^
moral action. But the obscurity of the style of the book
as well as its almost purely negative resuICd proved fatal to
its immadiata success. In 1804 Schlciermarher removed
as university preacher and professor of theology to Halle,
where he remained until 1807, and where he quicUj
obtained a reputation as professor and preacher, and
exercised a powerful influence in spite of the contradictory
charges (^ his being an atheist, SpinoziHt, and pietist. Is
this period he wrote his dialogue the Wahnwht^'der {\SOS),
a charming production, which holds a place midvay betireen
his Rtden and his great dogmatic work the CkritUiche
GtaM.be, and presents in the persons of its speaken phaaes
of his growing appreciation of Christianity as well aa the
conflicting elements of the theology of the period. After
the battle of Jena he returned to Berlin (180T), wae soon
appointed pastor of the Trinity Church there, and the
next year married the widow of his friend Willich. At
the fonndation of the Berlin university (1810), in which be
took a prominent part, he was called to a theological chair,
and soon became secretary to the Academy of &cienc«a.
He was thus placed in a position suited to his powers
and in domestic and social surroundingd adapted to meet
the want* <4 his rich nature. At the same time he
approved himaelf in the pnlpit and elsewhere as a large-
hearted and fearless patriot in that time of national
calamity and humiliation, acquiring a name and place in
his country's annals with Amdt, Fichta, Stein, and Echam-
hont Be took a praninent part too in the reorganisa-
tion of the Prussian church, and became the most powerful
advocate ol the union of the Lutheran and Reformed
divisions of Oerman Protestantism. The twenty-four
years of his professional career in Berlin were opened with
his short but important outline of theological study
{Kuru DanttUung da iheologiteluit StuJitmu, ISIO), in
which he sought to do for theology what he had done for
religion in his Rtde*. While he preached every Snnday,
he also gradually took up in his lectures in the university
almost every branch ot theology and philosophy — New
Testament exegesis, introduction to and interpretation
of the New Teatament, ethics (both philosophic and
Christian), dogmatic and practical theology, church history,
history ot philosophy, psychology, dialectics (logic and
metaphysics), politics, pssdagogy, and nstbetict. His own
materials for these lectures and his students' notes and
reports ot them are the only form in which the larger
proportion of his works exist, — a circumstance which has
greatly increased the dilfieul^ of getting a clear and
harmonions view of fundamental portions of his philo-
sophical and ethical system, whUe it has effectually
deterred all bnt the moat courageous and patient students
from reading these posthumous collection). As a preacher
he produced a powerful effect, yet not at all by Oie force
of his oratory but by his intellectual ttrength, hia
devotional ^iri^ ajid tbe philusophicsl breadth and unit]
of his thought In politics he was an earnest friend of
8 0 HLEIKRMACHEE
liberty and jgogrw, tiad in tha period of leaetion which
followed the oTBrthrow of NftpoleoD hs wm ebwged bj
the Pnuuui QcTemmeiit with " denugogic agitatiQii " in
conjunction with the great p&triot Arndt. At the mzhb
time he prepered for the preee hii chief theological work
Dir ekriillicit Glaubc nach den OrundtdUen der eta*-
ffeludteii KircAe (1831-22; 2d edition, greatlj dtered,
1830-31). The fundtunental principle of this claBaical
work ii, th»t reUgions feeling, the eenee of ebeol&te
dependence on Qod ae coAmanicated by Jean* Christ
thiongfa the chnich, and not the creeds or the lett«c of
Scriptnre or the lationaliatia nndarntanding, ie the sonrce
Knd law of dogmatic theology. The work i» therefore
simplj a deecription of the facta of religiooa feeling, or of
the iuner life at the eoul lA ita relationi to Ood, and
these inward facta are looked at in the Tarious stagea of
their deTcIopment and presented in their eyateniatic con-
nexion. Tiie aim of the work was Ut reform Prot«el*nt
theology by meana of the fnndamenUl ideaa of the Reden,
to pnt an end to the nnreaaon and anperficiaUty of both
•operaatiiraliam and rationaliini, and to deliver religion
■Dd theology from a relation of dependence on perpetually
'•1pit"8'"e ^yatemi of philoeophy. Though the work added
to the lepntation of ita anthor, it uatuially arouied the
increued oppoaition of the theological ediools it was
■ntended to oTerthrow, and at the same time SchleieT>
owchgr'a dafence of the right of the church to frame ita
own litnrgy in oppoaition to the arbitrary dictation of
the monarch or hii miniatera braoght upon him freih
troahloh He felt himself in BerliD more and more
innhitud, althongh his ehnrch and hia lecture-room con-
Ijimed to be largely attended. Bat he prosecuted his
tnuialatioa of PUto and prepared a sew and grcAtly
altered ediUon of his CkruUiAe Qlavbt, anticipating
tfae latter in two le'tten to his friend LUcke (in the
Awfioi Md ZWlOfls 1629% in which he defended with a
nUBterly hand hie tbaologieal pceition generally and his book
in particiilar againat opponents on the right and the left.
TIm aaine year he lost his only eon — a blow which, he said,
" diOTe the nails into hia own coffin." But he continued
to defend bia theological poaition against Hengsteoberg's
p*r^ on Uia one hand and the rationalists Ton Colin and
r>. B<JmIa on the other, protesting againit both anbacrip-
tion to the ancient creeds and the impotttion of a new
Hstionaliatic formulary. In the midat of such laboura,
and eqjoying still fnU bodily and mental rigour, he was
carried (rft ^ter a few days' illness by inflammstioa of the
langl. He died thinking "the profonndeBt apeculatiTe
idsM which were one with his deepest religious feeling,"
Mid putaking of the sacrament of the Lord's supper,
February 13, 1634.
Beiilaiermaclter's friend, the nattualist and poet Bteffens,
baa left the fallowing description of his appearance about
the beginning of the eentory; — " Schleiermacher was of
■mall stature, a little deformed, yet hardly enough \ia
diafignre him ; all his movements were animated, and his
featvea in &e highaet degree eipreadve; a certun keen-
nes hi his glance prodaeed perhaps a repellent effect;
indeed, ha ^ipeared to see through every one ; bis face
rkthec lonft all hia features sharply cut, the lipa firmly
cloeed, the diin projecting, the eyes animated and flashing.
Ilia look always serious, collected, and thoughtful."
BAUtrmatlia't PKiioKflUeai SyUm.—ti. gnat utitliaria lias
at du barii of sU thought uid life_that of the rul and the Idosl,
ofoqiaabia.ocHiua, ud intellBcC. But theantitbniiia DOtsbK-
Isle, lor in life and bgiafr both elemsnti aiBimiUd— tboogh witb-
OQt its pitaiDOa life lod thoa|;ht nould ba impoHibla. In tb«
astoil world tba utitlieui ipp«n t» riMon lod lutnra, ta eieb
irfwhiiili, bowtvar, then ie ■ combinatioii ofit* two sLstmiiti— tba
idasl and tba renl, — tbe rauou builDg s prepaiideri,oc« of tba flnt
and nattin s prepoDdersDce of the Mcoud. At tbe buie of s
Uh DUinnsl rauon u iti orguiziDg principle, and when r
ft Snda hseU In eenBiot u wall
a. Tba vhols aCnt tnd snd of
bumw tbougbt ud utSon ii tlia gradosl rtdootian of tba ratlin
ud tba powai of thia utitbadi ia tba indiTldasI, tba isoa, ind
tha worlO. Tbongli the inlitbaA is rial and dwp, tba honun
mind acoot adinit ita ibaolnta nstnr* ; w* ars eompellad to aop-
pcae ■ truunndaDUl ntUty or tatitj in which tba real and tba '
idaol, bsiiiK and tboogbt, aabject aud objaet, are oaa Coi
uaa iCailf hinilTei tha luuDa of tb* aDtTtbetic alamanta, aj
to moral action natnn la foond oiganiied and n
real and tha ideal, of thought and beiag
ita, and prior
n both, oar aall-
ono* aapplying tba axpnaion o( the tact At we bar* la
'-latanoa of tbe Identity of tbongbt aud beiog: we
> aajmaal IdanUty of tbe IdtaJ and real bahind the
and in tb* end inipoadbla. I
feeling, ahicb la tha Immediata canadoiitDett of tbi nnj^ oil tba
--Id, of tba abaoliita uienaM behind the inBniU multipUdty o(
banoa of nllgiooa
tba nni^ oif tb*
oontnuU ; indtcd, it it tbt rallsioDi eonrietkn <^ tb* unity wbidi
it tha beat gdatanla of tha tratE of tba tappoaitioiiB of pbibaoiihf.
Itia'th* religiaiu otmtdonaM* (^ tha uiity of tb* inUUeotaal
and pfajtkal irerld In God " whidi is to ovsreom* the acmtldim ot
tha critical pUloopby. Bat, thoa A tbia nnlty noat ba laid down
bails ot fcaowledoo. It it abaalnt* and tranecendantaL In
atwiCbthe''worid,''is fl» totally of being in Ita diffenu'
tiatlon, tbia abaolnta nnuT, or Ood, In whom the real at minifold,
and th* tpirlt as one, find th^ unifying boat, bjr Itt verj nalnr*
b nnpbanoDiana], lodaflDabla, and InconoeirabEa. Tha idea ie
culalda tb* boBndaiy of tboogbt, tbonrii Its atceeaaiy pootnlal*,
and it ie no leaa inaoMaalbla ta tellglonB faeliiiK, tbon^ it la Ita life
and aonl. Nei thar member of th* snlltb**!* olu* nu end tht ideal
b* ooneoived as pradDdng tbe other : they an both •qoally
mC and aqnaUreonititnentdenienta of the world; bntlnOod
. .., are ont^ and ui*refoi« tb* world muit not be identified with
Him. Tbe world and Ood are dialiuct, bat corTe1atlT^ and neither
n be Donotlved without th* other. The world witboit Ood
lold be "obaoe," and Ood without tb* world an empty "phan-
im." Bnt tbongh God ia trantcandent and nnknowableUa Is
inunant iu tbe world. In aatf-CDnadDuaneaa Qod la prtaant aa
of IcnowledM to in set of will, and vie* twio. At far aa man ia
the naity of tbe laal and tba idadf, Ood la in bim. H* it also la
all thing*, inaamneh aa in evarjUung the totality of tbe world and
" tranacendental baaia ia pnaoppoaed by virtue of tb^ bting and
—'--'— Xh* anity of onr miaonal life amidat the mnltipltdn
ou la tb* lymbcd of God's immanaooo la tb* world.
of ita fuactions
thongh we mw nol
Idta of the woAd at the totality of being ia,
idea of Ood, only of ngelattv* vals* { It It tnuuoendenl; aa we
. Lpproaobee to a knowledge of th* tn_ ._
being. Tbe one idta it tba tranaoandantal CamtHiu a ouo and tba
other the tiauoandsntal (enwlnvi od jvna ot all knowledge. Bnt
tbongh tbe world cannot be eihatiitlvelT known it can be hnowa
very titenilvely, and tbongh tht poaitiTe idea of God mnat alwajrt
remain nnattainaMo w* are able to i^eet thoat Idtst which involve
a eontradlctton of tb* poatnlate ot the Abaolnta. Tbm tbo pan-
tbeietla and the tbeiatio oonotptioDi of Ood aa th* aapnm* power,
aa the flnt cans*, at a p«aoa, are alike nsallowible, line* tb«y all
bring God within tbe ipbere of antitbeala and pcaolnd* Hia abaolate
nnit;. On th* oth«r baud, tba world can ba known a* tbe realm
of antilheaiB, and it ia tbe comlatiie of Ood. Tbongh He may
not be cascoived aa the abBilntA caiiia ot tbe world, the idea of
abaolnte canaalltj aa ajmbolitad bi it may be taken u tba b*it
appioximat* oxpreaaion of tba cootanU of tha religiona eonedout-
Dut. The unbroken oonnaiion of cant* and albct thronghoot the
world bacomei tbnt a manifaitallaB of Ood. Ood 1* to be songbt
only la oniMlves and in fli* worfaL H* Is oomplatdy hnouncnt
in th* nniveiia. ItfebnpCMJU* that HiacBnatli^abonUhavean
other tpber* than tbe world, which it tb* tottllty of bdng. "No
OodwitboataworldiandnowarldwIUuietOod.* Tha dlvina omni-
potence ia qoantitstivaly ropneentad by tha sum of the forca of
uatore, and qnalitatiVDly dilliogniabed fiom thorn onlfai the unity
of iuGnita oauaality bum the mnltipllclty of ita finite phonomtna.
Throughout tbt world— not ajo*-"— "■ '- -' -'--* -'—'-'-
nacantity prOTaila Aa a wbol*
a world oonld poaaiblT ba, -*
neceeaary plat* in the wl . „ . ...
neceaaary limitatian of individual bting.
Scblobrmacber'a piycbology take* a* Ita baaii tb* pb*noB*ni
dnallam of th* (go iiid tha um-ego, and regards the Ufa of man i
412
SCHLElERilACHEK
body 1
both bi
thought. bKomi
tfao HDW
the intarutisD of tliMa (Ismaau with tholi tntoriKRutntion u
Its Inilnito dMtilutum. Th* aullon ii Ihsnfon not ilaolats,
ud, thongh prsHUt in min'i on coniUtatiou u oompoial irf
'-' : aool, ii nU(i» oDlj (TOD than Th- ago li ItwU
f uid unl. — lbs conjunction of both coiuIitat« It ; onr
" it* orginir dimoDt Tbttt ii so mcb thLni » ' jinn
" pnn bod*. ' Tht ong gtnenl fonctlun of the i^,
com« Id nlition to tba non-eini QJtbn roHptive or tpou-
ion. and in both fomu of fection ita org^oic, or Hua, and
its intall«tnal (UarglM co-opcnta ; ud in niation to man, Ditnra,
and tba nniTsrde tho ago OTadnillj fladu Itn tnu indirlilo^tj bj
booaming a part of tbam, "' avcry utHuioa til coluvlotwnai bting
hJghar lifa. ' Tbg apscldo tuacUoiu of tha ^o, ai dotarmiaad by th*
■ -e p»domin«na! of aonaa or intallaot, m dth«r funetloa* irf
--w (or orgsnldtD) or fiuc'tioiii of tba IntollacL The romier
o the tiro eUsMi* of fMlingi (nt^aaCira} and pamptioua
lobJHtiTB) ; theUttir, Bieoflingai thonotptlTeortheapontanooiu
element predomiiutoB. into coffEiition and ToUtion. lu oo^ltinn
being Li the ohjnt and in lolitioa It ja the porpoie of thonght : in
the fint cmw >a noalrl (in oar faahion) the ohjoot of thonKht Into
onrselTBi; in the latter waplint it out Into the world. BoW cognl-
tion tivl Tolition are f onotloui of thought aj well u fonna of moral
action. It i> in ttaws two functlona that the real life of the ego 1>
DunifHted, bat behind them ie t^f-eoiuctftmem pennuentl;
D>« dF DnnelT«4Dii of the non-ego. Thle aelf-o
third aimlut form or function of thonght,— wl
fnling and inunediits knowledg*. In it we oogniie our oon inner
life BI affootwl b; the non-ogo. Ab tha non-ego help* or hindera,
onlargM or limili, our Inner Ufa, w« feel pleuure ot ptin. ^thetia,
monX and nliRlotu feelinge bm reapectlTelj produced bj the
tecoptlon into oauflouniai of largo ldeaa.^natnra, nunkin'T, And
tba world 1 thowi feeling* are the WDae of being one with thoaa
THt objecti. fieligiotu (eellng therefore 1b the bigbeat farm of
thonght andoFlife; jn it wa ue cosiciDUii ol ooruaitT with the
world and Ood ; it i* tboa the aesie of ibkilata dependence.
i*.'hBr'« doctrine of hnowlodgo aecepta tlie fiu)d»mont»l
o oiled
0 Kuf.
IT Bciautifio Ibongbt aa .
BcepuflifliD u ID knowledge of the Dii^
rmuihu'* lann li. The Idea of knowledge
diitingnlabe ■ - ■■ ■ ' ■
1w »C Ibii
All knowlodge tiki
judgnMut (Oeihiit), th* (ormor conceiving the ViriBty o7 being u
' " plnnlity, and the latter elmpi)' connecting
lught which 1* prodnced
ih tforrflf^ndfl to beinf.
ipl (.BijTif) or the
th(
io«i|t with CI
:u IndiTi
I 0bj*!(
iccpt tl
and in the judgment the organio or
dement predominatu. Tha unlTerialnnifonnitj of tha production
ot Judgminti preinpi>ilM>' the nnilormitr of onr relitionn to the
outward world, and the nnirarmitf of oonoeptu md dmiUrl; on
tha likrntH of our inward uaturv. Thi> uuiformltj ia not baaed
alone, bnt on the n)mi[xiiidgBr« of tho foruu of thought and
aeUiiatiim with tho formi ot being. The eeeentlal nature of tha
concept ti that It combjuM the general and the special, anil the
aame comTjiqalion rvcuia In bein^ ; in being th* 4^t*m of mb-
■tantial or pormanont lorma, andWin to the lyBtem of concept* and
At relatiun of caude and elTed to the ajratem of JndgmenB, the
higher conropt anawering to " force * and tiu lower to the pheno-
nena of fonn, and the judgment to tha contingent Interaction of
thing*. The mm ot being conaiata ot tha two •ytgrni ot anb-
-intial forma and InteraDtloual relation!, and it roai>poan in the
and judgment, the coueopt npT*Bntir - ' ' '
It being in
nowledf^ be* u
form of
. . rclatJTe dilTennoa of' the two being tli
the conceptual form predoniinatn w* bare epeculatJTB ecignce and
when the form ot jud^ent pn*ailji we bare empirical nr historical
■cieuce. Thronghont the domain ot knowledge tb* two fonnii are
fbnnd la con-^ut mutaal nlation*, another proof ot the funila-
mental nnitf ot thonghl and bein« or of tha objutlTitT of know-
liign. It i* obriona that Plato, Spinoa, and Kant had rontri-
buted chuBCIerutie elemeuta of their thought to tbii- avatem. and
dliectlf or Indlreotl; it waa largelj ladobtM to Bchelling for
X. — Next to religion and tbeoliwj it waa
which, indged, the phenomena cff religion
and theologj wer- in hb natouu onlj conatituont elemenU, that
h- liKClnlly doroteii hlmaefC In hid earliat eeaajrahe endeaToured
to ]>]int ont thu defecta ot aoeleDt and modem athlaj thlnket*,
mrllcalarljr of Kant and Fichte, Plato and Bpinoia ouIt finding
EaTonr in hid eved. He failad to AiaooTer in praTiena moral BTatem*
any necavarj Win in thongbt, anj oompleCeDee* la regardi the
pheuouana ot moral astlon, any ajetenutio artangement of ita
|iar^ and any clear and diatinct treatment ot apecine moral acta
■nd relations. Uia own mutal ajatam ia an attempt to anpplj
theao deficioncio*. It oonnoeti the moral WOfld Vj a iladnctiw*
procoM with the rnndaniautal iden of knowledge and being; it
Direra a view oC tha entire world ot fanman actlm which at all vrni tB
matter ot tba Kdanoa which tabulate* it* eonatiLueula tttar tba
-loilatof tha phTBlcul acience*' anu it auMiliea aaharvly dcflnMl
lUt of apecifip mi
lental idea ot hi
■cienoe It la
'orli! of B.
te elTaotii pradncod by hi
— ■ 4» « theoroticJ OL _, .
not practical, botng oc
ily deacriptlTO
d to pbyneal k
Ita method 1b the aauia a* that ol phjaival acieDce, beiag Oja
tlognlihed from the latter only by il* matter. The ontologic»
baaia of etbl« la the unity of the rml and the ideal, ainftlio
paychologii'al and actual boiii of the ethical procci* la th* tendenrjr
of rea«n and natnra to unite in the form ot the cainploto ontanixm-
tion of the Utter by the former, lie end of thi> ethk'nl proocas
ia that naCun ((.(., all that ii not mind, tha hnnian body an welt
u eitemal nature) may beromo the porrtct lyubol and urgau of
mind. Conadence, ai the sohjectlTe eipreaion ot the pmujiLnncd
identity ot meon and nature in their Immm, guaiaulim tlio
practlcnbllit; of our moral tooatioft. Mature in preordainnl or
conatitnted to baoomo theeymboland organ of mind, jut aiiuinil ia
endowed with the impul« to reallto thia end. But tha moral law
mnat not ba eonooiTad under the form of m " imncTatiTa " or a
' &)i!ta " ; It differ* from a law ot nature only as being doacriiitlTa
ot th* fact that it rank* the mind aa eonacioua will, « •wakdtJuna,
-'■ tnra. Strictly apeaking, tha antithcBut of good and bsd
y ha»» no j.Uca In su ethi.-fl .yntcm, but
ituJwith
and of fne and ueceaniT
bnt aa far
apren the mle or the contrary i
trary of the particalar and the
ae op]ioeed to neoeneair eiprtaaaa aimjilj the fact that the
canpropoae toitnelf enda, tboughaman cannot alter hiaown a
In untront to Kant and Fichte and mo-lcm niotal philox:
•igned ipra-emlncul iiujioi
*c«ii™, or highcBt gnoi
nd aim ot the tutini lilo of
induct ot iDdltidoah lu n!
reerltb ronatitutiug a phi1o*oi>hjr
ina with the Idea ot the higheat
I (OtUr), or Iha chief fenna ot
kintrodnced and aaaigned
[D [ue aouinng of the tUMmtita *c
rgpreaeud In hi* i^stem the Ideal and
rl tuil of ita I
L ot the tntini lilo of uiau,
ot iDdltidoah lu nlation
tne, and tliereerltb ronatitutiug a]' "
and nature, SchlaiBrmacher'i
into tha doclnna of monJ anil^ Oii . ._
doctrine of dntiea ; in other wordi, aa a deTelopnient of the Idea of
the aubjection of nature to nsMu it become* a dcMriptiao ot tha
feilod therein, and of the ipocilia uiitlioda eui[>lof<>l LTeiy moiat
good or product baa a fourr^Id chatacter: it u inJividual and
nnlrerial ; It ia an organ and lyiubol ot tlie teeiun, that iis It it tho
product of the indlndaal with relation to the] i-oiiini unity, and
rapnaonti or mauifnta a* well an claiaiDe* and rale* nature. The
lirat two charaoteriMtic* proridc for the fnuctiuna and right* oT the
iniliridual aa well a* then of tho i»mu.uuity or race. Though a
of FtrengOi, it o*asa to be moral if one of Ihcui ia qnita at«nt.
All moral jiroduola may be claealfied auording to tba ]i[*dominance
action prodnoaa the forma of interconnu, and univsraal ayiuboliilng
Botlon produce* the Tariou* torma o( BcieuM ; indiiidnal ornuii-
Ing action Tialda the forma of propeHj aud Individual Bynibolii.
In^ action the varion* npreaontationa of faBling, all thaia conalitut-
injj the Fplatiouri, the prodnctiTa apbero*, or tho norial conditioDa
of mora! ai.tion. Uonl Ianctiou» onnot 1>a porfotmcd by the indi-
vidual in isilatlou but only in hi* nlation to the family, the Blate,
tho •chool, tha church, and •ocioty,— all form* ot human life which
'comiiliahod by th*
I (phcrua, and the
each individual hi
bv which thptoUlityotm<
cnjeiermacnar claMine* thu virtuB* u
•aixnuna and Firii-jira, tba Gnt eoiuL
louiont b acCiou au<l the ■»coDil the fom
1S£
tba two ilivjnlou nf Hiidaui and love aud of IntaQlgi
cation. Inhi* ayBleui Ihodoetriue of dotyli the dd ^ ...
method of tba attaiuuienl of ethical end*, the conoeptiou at dnty
Ko action tolfil* the couditiona' of duty except aa it eomhina* the
three following antithoea* : referenea to the monl idea In ibt whole
axt^oit and Ukewiae to a definite moral apheie ; connexion with act-
ing conditiona and at the aaue lime abaolute peiaonal prodoelion;
the tnlfiluant of the entire moral Tocntlou eTery luoiuant thuugfa
S 0 H — 8 C H
It en Mljr ba dans in ■ dalBita q>bm. Dntler ui diridHi with
FeftnoM to tfaa prindrla Uu>t nay mms auka hu own tha entiia
UonX pnblam mod act at tba nma thn* in mo aiuting mon]
aodMr. ThiiainuiiUinifiTaalbnrBaMnl oUnaaoCditr: dntln
of ganiial aMooution or dnttaa wiUi ntatanca ta llia patoraunitr
IBKUtpJlim. and dntiaa of rooathn (&iV<B*fc*0— both with a
fuirenal nhnnix, duliM of the coDacienca (la whkb th» indi-
ihlaal ia aola jnilgc), and dnti» of lora at el pai>oiiaJ aaaociition.
It wu Md; the £rat of the three aeetiotu of tha aeianoa of athica
■^tlie dootiuia o( moimt enda— that Scbtaianuacher hindlad with
approiinuts campletoiieaB ; the other two atctiona vera tnated
Ter7 lummarily. In hi) Chrittian SOia ha dealt iritfa the anhjoct
ftvni the boata of tha Chriatiin conacionaiKaa iiutead of from that
or raaaon genanlly ; the etUeal phmenicna dealt iritb are tha
Bino in both eralanii, and thaj throw light on each other, while
the Chriatian ayetam treabi more at langth and leaa aphoriaticallj
tho piiadpol clhioil realitiea-^hmrh, aUta, tamilj, art, aeienoi,
and aDciatjr. Bothe, amonjtet other moral phUoeophan, haaaa bia
Bjatam anUtaatiallT, with important departuraa, on Schleiar-
nuchet'ii. In Itenoke'e moral tjttam hia fUndamenUl idea waa
workad ont in ita pajchological relatiooa.
Se/JeurmarAci't Siligiaia System. — Prom Laihniti, Laning,
Fiehte, Jaisbi, and the Bomintlo achool he had imbibed a pro-
•foand and mj^tioal view of the inner deptha of tho bsman per-
■mulity. The ego. the peraon. ia an individual iution of DoiTanal
raaiaon } aod Che primary act of aetf-conecioneneaa La tha flrat oon-
jnnetion of uniTcmil and iadiridoal life, the immediata onion or
marriage of the nnirerae with incarnated raaaon. Tlina ererr
pcraon iMComea a epccUio aad ori^aal rapraaentatloD of the nnl-
wnrld ia immediatiily ren«tad. 'Whija therefore we rsanuot, aa wa
IwT* aaen, attain tha idea of tha anpretna nnitj of thonght and
baing In either cognition or Tolilion, we can Rod it in oat own
panoDalltT, in Iminfdiata aelf-ODnacioiianeaa or (which ia the lame
w fldileiermaehar'a terminologj) feeling. Fratlng in tliia higher
aanaa <aa diatin^nlabad from 'organio ''^ Baniibility, Empfaidutui),
which ia tha minimotn of diatinct antithetic conacioaineu. the
wim tha anitr of oar being, in which the oppoaite tnnctiona of
oo^tian and Tolttion haia thrir fundamental and pemunant
backgronnd of penonalitT Uid their tranaitional link. Haring
ila aeat in tbia coutial noinC of onr being, or indeed conaiating in
the eaaential fact of aetrconadDnaneaa, raligian liea at tha baiia of
all thon^^ht and action. At rarioni pariodi of hia life Schlaier-
Yoacfaer uad dilTarant larma to repraaent the character and relation
of religiona fMling. In hia aar&er daja he called it a feeling or
istDitionotthaDuirew, conacioameaa o( the anil j of naaon and
tamporaL In later life bo deacribRl it aa the feeling of abaolota
dcpandeuca, or, aa meaning the aame thing, the consdooaneaa of
being in reUtlDn to Qod. In onr conacionaDeea of Che world the
feelingi of relative dependence and nlativa independence aia fonudi
ira am acted upon, hot wa alao react In onr rolifpou oonaciooa-
naaa tha latter altroDDt ia eidudad, and eTeTrthing within and
without na i* nrprn.iI to Ita abaolnta cauae, that ia, Ood. But,
when we call thia lb«1at* canae Ood, tha name lUnda aolely aa
indicating the unknown Kuree of oor receptive and active eiiatence ;
on the one hand it mMoethat the world npon which we can nact
fa dot the aonroa of tho fealiag, on tha other, that the Abaolula ia
Bot an object of tlioui;ht or foowledga. Thta feeling of abaoluta
■cionineaa. Vit itarive the idea of a totalitv by meana of It) parte,
nnH the tmnacendentat baaia of lieing comet to ua throngh the agency
of iadiviiiaal pbenomena. Aa in every iSection of oar being by
Individual phenomena wa are brou^t into contact with tho whole
onivaraa, wa an brought into contact with Ood at tb* aame time
M ita tranacendantat eanae. Thii relic;ioDi feeling la not know-
ledge in tba ptrict aonae, aa it ia purely anhjectiva or immediate ;
bat it Uea at tha baaia of all knoirladirB. Aa immediat« know-
]c<1ga, however, it ia no mora than tha conaciouaneaa of the nnity
uf tha world, a nnity which can never be reached by human
inqairy. Bali^ona trnth^ >noh aa the dotarmination of all thing)
by 0«, are aimplv the inipli'^Ationa of the feeling of abaolnta
dapendeuca. mfle that ferling ia th) ohamctariatio of nligion
world. Tha ao-called nntunl an diatin^iebed from poaitiTe nli-
gion, or the laliglDU of raaaon. !■ a mere ibatraction. All religiona
at* poaitire, or their charactariatica and Talaa an mainly detar-
minedhy thenunnorio which the world ia con oeivad and imagined.
But theaa varying conceptioni with their nlixiona meaning becoma
religionily productive only in tha aoul) of nligiooa heroaa, who
an tha anthora of naw Teligiona, mediaton of the nligiooa life,
tousden of nligiooa communitiea. For nligion ia eaaentiall;
BOciaL It every whar* forma chnrchea, which an tha necaaaary
inatramant* and organii of ita highaat Ufa. Tba apeeifle [catun «
Cbriatlanity i) Ita madia toria! tlement, ita profonnd feeling of tha
■ttiving of the Snita individual to reach tM vadtj tt tha iniiiiita
whole, and It) concaptioD of th) w»j in which DeiCj dealt with
thie effort by mediatorial agenda^ which ara both divine and
human. It ia tba nligion tt madiatorlal aalvatian, and, M
Bchleiermaeher amphaticalty tanght in hia riper woriiii, of aivatioD
throngh the mediation of Chriat ; that ia, if '•"-—— -
aciona of having been delivered by Jeana of 1
ditionln which their rellgiooe conacionaneaa *
eenae-conacionaneaa of tb* world and nut into one in whict
nalea, and everything ii anhordinited to it The oinacio
being lavtd in tbia aeaae ia now tnaamitted and mediated by tha
Chriatian chnrch, bnt in tha caaa of Jau), Ita oHgiaator, it waa an
antinly new and original factor in the proceai of nligiou develop.
. —J ; ,,. ... . Ui_i__ ^^^^ g, j„^g_ ,
Jen by tl
anparnatunl n
ment, in a* (u
hnmau hiatoiy ia tt
tho 18th
Itwi
tt the ai
tuted
uthorityj yet feeling cognition, and
I in tha unknown Abaolate, thou^
ilwtuCely beyond teaton, aad tha cfntrnrtny M
gronnd), load) to wrong laauea, and each party la right and
„ ,iee SlTIOMlLIaH). Aa r«arda Clirtatian throl<^, ittanot
ila bnaiDeM to formiklata aad aatabliah a ayatem of objective truth,
but aimply to pneent in a clear and connected form a given body
of Chriatian ftutb aa the eontanU of tha ChristiAU conacioumna.
Dogmatic theology ia a connected and accurate account of the doc-
trine bald at a pirticnlir tiro* In a givea tactlonof the Cbriitian
ohnnh. But auch doctrinea aa conatitote no intwral part of the
Chriitiao conacionaneaa — i.g,, the doctrine of th* Triniqi— mnit lj»
excluded from the theological ayatem of tha evangelical theologiam
Aa ng&rd) tho rel)tioa of tbaology and philoaophy, it ia not ooa of
depeadencs or of oppoaition on either aide, but of complete inde-
Rndenc*, ei^oal authoritv, diatinct functiona, and perfect liarmon*.
eling i) not a mental ninction aubotdinata to eomition or voli-
tion, but of equal rank and authority j yet fealini
Tohtion alike conduct " '
by different path) and ,
The marked feature of Bchleiermacher'B thonght in arerr depart-
ment i* the effort to combine and roconcila in the unity of ■
ayitam th* antithetic concepdona of other tbinken. He u nal-
iado and ideallatio, indivjdualiatic and univeraaliitic, moniatic and
duilietic, aenaatlonaliat and intetlectualitt, ntturaliat and anper-
natnraiiat, ntionaliat and myadc, Enoetio and agnoatic- He ia
the prino* of tb* FtmUlItr in phQoaophy, ethica, nligion, and
tbrology. Bnt he doaa not aeek 10 reconcile the antitbeaea of
thonght and being by weakening and hiding tb* pointa of
difference ; on the contnry, h) bring) them out in their eharpeat
ontlinea. Hia method i) to diatinctly define the oppoaiag elementa
Bad then to *e«k their harmonloua eoDibiaation by the aid ol a
deeper conception. Apart from the poiitive and permanent valoa
of the higher nnitiea which he anccoeda in eatabliihiag, the light
aad taggntiveneaa of hia diacnariona and treatment of the great
pointa at ieaue in all tb) principal Selda of human thought, no-
aatiafacton aa many of hia poaitiona may be oonaidered, make
him one of the moat balpfol and inatmctiva of modem thinker).
Aad, alace the fooua of hia almoat nniveraal though t and inquiry and
of hia rioh culton and Ttri*d life waa religion and theology , b« mnat
ba r*nrd«d aa Che elaaaioal npreaantativa of modem effort to
raconnle acianoa and philoaophy with reliaion and theology, and
tb) modatn world with the Chtiatiaa charch.
L neeXaleal. n. Sanxna lit PliUeaiifilMI ea4 JucaUaiooiu. Beclta, IM-N,'
lo ao Tsit. ot Una at aim the int an hl> <f»» »rreiB»aeniia. 4*t tcUn^-
madur'i Utt* *• BrW. peblbhaa 1v W. Mlluy iBerlls, lHS-IH>,latvek.,
Eii|.mul.tTB°iraii)i ^>«n*aMiniMtar'>IirWlllieliiI>Utbar(veLI,tha
[lanod fi™ ITU-laM. ill pGbOifced ea jal}-. nMPM &Me<inaa4ir, it*
iitmi- m. ntvatiirKM, bj D- MwBkel (EnarMA, MM). Tba aeeauata aat
ciVbieae ef tM pblieaialiT, tOila, an! Ihaalep an numaraaai idih t< Ike neM
•aluble in— ^ MiellB, Vwliiaam «ler MhfcnuaeUrniaBa, iM) ; 1
rrt
lait. K. tu M.i F, Veritodv, MnfanHWk^i MMiMn(Ka^»Bq[,U>l);
W. Bender, aAuimnadrnv fWalcali latt Ana aMMHyMiriM Ormilmgm
iiaia-in. CeadaeuwhuieilaaelpUigHTaxiBdUieetoaTWZellet.DaberWn.
tbain^Cenw, eii4 OiM BBJIheeRlcIa by tta Umtviad la HaWe
SCHLESWia (Dwiiih SUniff), tie capital of tho'
Pnuaitm pRmnce of 8clil«awig-EolBt«iii. ia litiutAd at
the weat end ot the long narrow arm of the aea called
the BchlM, 30 miles to ^e oorth-weat ot EieL The
town cODiiata mainly of a nngla atreet, SJ milea long,
forming a aemicirde ronnd the Bchlai, and is divided into
the Altstadt (with the Holm), the Lolifoso, and the
Friedriohiberg. Tha principal chnrch, erected U a
cathedral aboat 1100, bnt renewed in the Qothia styl? in
the 16th eentnry, eontaint a ver; fine carved oak altar-
acreen, leeaided m Um moat nloable work of art in
414
SCHLEBWia
Schleswig-Eoliit^. BstwMQ FriedriebBberg and LoUfoiB
is tho old.chatsBQ of Qottoip, now deepoUed of its ftrt
treamirM And and m bftnAcks. The fonnei commBrciol
irnporUnce of the town hM duappe&red, and the Schlei
DOW afiordi occMS to «m&U iMaeU oolj. Fuhiag and the
DULnufactarD ot ft (eir uticU* of common nw are the chief
Dccapaliona of the inhabilanta. The popnktton in 1S8S
WM 1S,187, aU ProteatanU except about 2S0 BoDum
Catholics and TO Jawa.
Sclilnvig (ancioiit Ibnni BlitMoTf, SliatiBtt, it., ths toim or
b*j of Ilia Slii or fichlei) ii t town of Terr noioti origin, ud
Boiu to hart Inoa a trwlLiR plan of coniiilenible importanaa u
otrlj ai the Btli contnry. It Bired u a modium of coimnveial
intorconno bctwaon the Horth S« ond tha Baltic, and m knoim
to tho old Aiabian KeoEnphcn. The fint Chrutiau chutch in tliis
diatrict vu built ban hy An^nriiu aboot 8S0, and it bacame the
Mat of a buhop about a eentur; lator. The burn alio bwanui tho
■eatotthadukuofSizhlning, but tt> commaroa graduallj dwindled
owiD^ to the rirnlry of LUbeck, the Dumeroui wan la which the
dijitriL't waa InroirHl, inil the (Ilting up at tlie SchliL At tho
rirtitiou of ISU the old cbateaB of Gottorp, origiaallf bailC in
ISO for tba binhon, bacame tho naideuca of the dncal or Gottoip
llae of Schloiwis-Holatein, which romained hen till atpclled by
Fradarick IV. in ]7ia. From I7St to ItW it wai the laat of the
Danish ^remon of Iha dnchlaa In tha wan of 1818 and ISfll
SohlHwig waa an Iraportaat stnti^icd point on account of ita
praiimity to tho Uauowerk, and wai occapiad br the diffenut
contendiuE partial in tank It haa been tha eaidtal of ScMaawlg-
Holitain alnce ita Incorporation by Fnuaia.
To the aonth of Schltiwig are tho aouity remains of the Dantatrh
or Dnxncmrit. a iina ot entnnchmaDta between tha Schlai and the
Trcane, betiarad to hara been orivijuilly thrown np in tha SIh
century or even earlier, and aftarwarda npaatadltltnnRthened and
enlarged. After the anion of Schleiwig anil Halatein Itloatiti
importaDce a* a frontier defence, and ne allowed to fall Into
diuipair. Tha Danewark waa atorraed by the Pnuaitni in 1S18,
bat waa afterwards *o greatly extended and ilnn^ened hy the
Danee that it wonld have bean almoat impraf^nablc if dafcoded by
a anfficiant nnmbar of troop*. In the vir of 13S1, however, tha
W> hi
:o the Dasaa and lad to
«( tha gentraL ffince then the work) hare been entirely lerelled.
BCHLESWIO-HOLSTEIN', a tnftritiine {Mrinee in
the north-we«t of Pmsua, formed out of the odcb Danish
dnchiea of Schlecwig-Holitein aod Lauenburg is bonnded
on the W. bj the Gennait Ocisu, on the N. by Jutland,
on the E. by the Boltie, Mbeck, and Uecklenborg, and
on the B. by Hecklenbnrg and the k>wer cooiae of tha
Elba (aep&rating it from Hanover). It thai conaietB of
the aoathcm h«tf of the Cimbrio peninmla, and forma the
oonnacting link between Oennanf and Denmark. In
addition to the mainlfttid, which decraaaee in breadth
from aonth to north, the province inclodw Berera] iilands,
the most important being Alsen ftud Fehmam in tho
Baltic, and Rom, Sylt, and Fohr in the North Boa.
Hhi total area oi the province ia 7260 aqoare miles,
460 of which belong to the nnall duchy of lAuenburg
in the touth-east corner, while tlie rest are divided
Almost equally between Holatein to the aouth of the
Eider and Sdileswig to the north of it. From north
to south the province ii about 110 miles long, while its
breadth Taries from 90 miles in Holatein to 35 miles at
the narrower parts of ScUcawig.
Schleawig-HoUtein belones to the great North-Oerman
plain, of the chamcteristic features of which it aSordi a
faithful reprodaction in miniatnre, down to the continua-
tion of the Baltic ridge or plalean (Bse Qeriunt) by a
range of low wooded hilla akirting its eaatem coast and
enlmioating in tKe Bungsberg (S70 feet), a little ta the
north of Eatin. This hilly district contains the moat
prodactive land in the {norince, the soil conuitdng of
dilnvial drift or bonlder day. The central part ot the
province forms practically a cttitinnation of the great
Ltinebn^ Heath, and its thin sandy aoil la of little uae in
onltivation. Along the w«at coast eztenda the "Uatah-
land," a belt of rich allavial aoil formed by the depoiita of
the Qerman Ocean, and varying in breadth from flw« to
fifteen miles. It is seldom more than a few feet abo««
the sea-level, while at places it is Hctnatly below it, and it
has cooiequeotly to be defeodod by an e^nsive eyBtem
of dykes or embankments, 25 feet high, resembling tlio«e
of Holland. The more andent geological fonnations are
scarcely mat witb in Schleewig-Holstein. The contrast
between the two coast-lines of the province is wer?
marked. Tha Baltic coait, abotit 300 milei in leogth,
has generally steep well-defined banks and ia very irregular
in form, being pierced by namerons long and narrow fjord^
which run deep into the ioteriorof the land and oFten afford
excellent harboura. The ialanda of Alsen and Fehmnnt
are aeparaled from the coast by very narrow channsla.
The North Sea coast (200 miles), on the other hand, is weoy
low and flat, and its smooth outline ia interrupted only \>y
the estuary of the Eider end the peninsula of Eiderttadt.
Dunee or nnd-hills, though tare on the protected mftin-
land, occQi on Sylt and other islands, while the bd]«U
lib called " Halligen " are being gradaollj
away by the sea. The namefous islands on the
west coast probably formed part of the peninsola at no
very remote period, and the sea between them and the
mainland is very shallow and full of sandbanks. The
climate of Schleawig-Eolstein is mainly determined by
the proximity of tha sea, and the mean »"""«! tempera-
ture, varying from 46* Fahr. in the north to 49* Fahr.
in the south, ia ' rather higher than is usual in the santa
latitude. Bain and fog are frequent, bnt the climate
is on the whole very healthy. The lower course pf the
Elbe forma the southern boundary of Holstein for 65
miles, bnt the only river of importance within the pro-
vince ia the Eider, which rises in Holstein, and after a
course of ISO miles falls into the Korth Sea, forming an
estuary 3 to 13 miles in breadth. It ia navigable from its
mouth as far as Bendsburg, and the waterway between
the two teas is completed bjr a canal from Bendsbnrg to
Kiel Tie new Baltic Canal, which ia to be navigable for
large vessels, will also inteiMct Holstein. There ore
numerous lakes in north-east Holstein, the largest of
which ore the Floner See (13 square nulesjaodUie Belenter
See (9 square miles).
Of the total am of the provincs SB "S par cant ia occnpled by
tilled land, 28 E per cant by meadowa and ptaturo, and only O'l
per cent by foreata. The ordioary careali are all coltiTatad with
nocaaa and there ia generally n cODiidenble aiuplia for exportation ;
rape ia grovn in the manh landi and ttai on the enit ooaat while
large qnantitiii of applet and other tmit ata nisad naar Altona for
the Himbiirg and Engliah marketi. InlSSStheproriacaoontaiiwd
1W,GS1 honaa, 72r,E0E cattle, 320,708 ibaap, 2«8,0tl pi^, and
42,S80 goati. The manh lands sETord tdmuabla paatnn, and a
greater proportion of cattle Ifii per 100 inhabitants) ia ttar«d in
Sebleawig-UoliteiD, mainly by imall owuen, than in any other
Proaaian province. Great numbera of fat cattle are aipotted to
England. The Holatein horaei are alao in rtqotat, bnt aheep-
farming la comparatively neglactad. Bas-keaping is fonnd a
prodUEtiTe jndnatiT, and in 1883 the province poaaeieed 113,B3t
hivaa The hilla akirting the bayi of the BalUs cout are gtnatally
pleanntlj wooded, but tho foreali are nowhere of ftnat extent
except in the duchy of tauenburg. The fiihiag in tba Baltio ia
prodnctiTa : Eckmmrbrde ia the chief Hahing itation in Pniiaie.
The oyaten from tha bade on the vert coaat of Schlaiwig are
widely known under the mianomar of " Holatein nativea." Tbe
mineral reaourcea of the province are almost confined to a fewlayeia
of rDok-aalt nrar Scgeberg. Tlie manutactsring iudnatry ia alio
Inaigni&cant and iloaa not extend much beyond the large t^nrti^
inch aa Altoni, Kiel, and Flonsbur^. Tbe ghipbuUding of Kid
and other aaaporti ia, however, important ; and lace ii made by the
peaianta of Korth Schleawio, The commateo and ahipping at
Schleawiff-Holitein, alimulatsd by iti poaition between two aeaa, at
wall ai by Ita aicellant hirboun arid waterways, an mnch more
uvmineut than ita manufactuna Kiel ia the chief ■saport of
Fmsaia, while an ovenea trada ia alao carried on by Altma asd
Flenebnrg. The main eiporli are gr^u, cattl^ hotaea, Ifah, nA
oyitan, In return for which cogu timber, cot^ nit, wine, awl
SCHLE8WIG-H0LSTEIN
415
onkl iindBa
iiirtKd of TI
".'•«
Tha trading ll»t ot SchlHwii-HoIiMii In ISU
: TMMla (14S itiuntn), aith > totel barthta oT
119,600 tou ; men Uiui half tha ihipa brlongnl to tba ITiirth
8a cout, but RO par cant, of tba naunan ud U par cant of the
tonnags mini ba crtditrJ lo tfao Uillic.
Tha jwpulaliaa of ihe [woTinca ID ISSO vu 1,1IT,11B| oompti*-
ing 1,H1,S83 l^ttaUiata, 8903 Romu Citbolia, and tiii Jan.
The nrban aod runl commnnitln in In tha jHnportiini of i to 0.
About U par ctat. of tha population u* lappcntad b]r lericultiin,
SS par cacL by iiijuufailuriDg indutrj, 10 pai cant, b; tmlc.
nhiJa 13 prr «ent. niv domnrio Mn'inti uid daj-Ubounn, t par
cent, ii Bhaoibcil hr the oficial ud profa^onil cluaa^ and 6^
par cent br thoar who n-tnmrd no ocmpMian. Tlia giMl bulk
of tha HsUtrinrM and mora thu hilT tba ScUan*igatm in ot
ganniaa Oermaii (Io.k, bnt thrn an about 150,000 Dtam in th*
uortb fart of ^UlronSg. Among tlia Oarmau tha pnraliDt
tonnia u Lsv OiTiiian. but thr Xorib Fiioaiu on tha vtatcor* '
SchlnTig in J Thi' :<>irlb ^a iihiu Ji laboBI SO.OOO in all) atUI I
■ Frisian dialei-t, vhirh, howtTar, ii gndniUj djine oat.
. bctncn tha OnlTDt Flautboij aDd thaSchM,
ra bHn tbt original ant of th* Eugliih, ud moat
obaerrcn prafcai to •;« i itrikiog rtaantblanoa battraaa thii
diiCrict and tha connLiM of East aud Snrrtj. Tba MMasti of
Dithmanchm alao retain many of th«lranelcBt|i*cttUarttiafc Tha
boDDdarr bttraan the Diniih inJ Gennn langntgei toamoxi-
matalf lUoa batvwn Fleniburj ind Tondam ; notmonlhiu IE
par cent, ot the entire popnliCion of the prorlnea ipaik Diniih
■a tbeir mother-tongUb The chief aduralioiial initilution in
Schleiritt-Hi^atain ia the anirenitr of Kiel; and the aiHllenea of
theoTdiniiT achoot ijBt*m ii proTad bythafiet thit in 1833^4 tha
SchleaKig-lloUtein ncraiti ahowad a (mailer pmportiao of itlilir-
•c; (Oil per cant.) than thoia from anf other part of the Ganuan
ampin. ScUeaaig i) tba oOeial ca|iital of the prorinca, hot
Altona and Kiel in tha lirgeit tonL tha formrr bting alas tba
haidqnaitai* oF an aiuiT oorpa and tha lattat tha chiat aaral itatioB
af Oernunj. Kiel and Friedrirhaort an fortified, and tha old linai
of Ddppal an itao miintaioad. The nrorinca aande tan memban
to the nichateg and nineteen to Iha Pnwdan honia ot dcpntiaa.
Tha BrOTincial eetitea meet in Randiburg.
.ffuUry.— Tha hiatorj of tha toatham put ot tba Cimbiio
peninmla ia the record of a atrugglo batwaen tbe Danes and the
uarmaita, rnding in the umatima in faroar of the iatler. Tha
bsTe been of Qerroan Mock, and German anthorltin maintain that
it wu the emirntion to Englan<l of tha Jotea and AoglM tlut £nt
diatrict. In the earlf part of the nlath nntiirf w* find
Charlemania In cnnflict nith Iha Daniih rulan of South Jntlnnd or
ScblaaviK' ami eitabli>liiDg a " Dinuh m>rk " betsctn tba Eider
and the BchleL Some atUmpt to intioduce ChrisUanitj wai alio
made at thia time by Biahop Aniganui. bat it *u not till the
middle of the foUofrin^ century tliat the neir cnad foand anytliing
general acceptance. In 1027 Ih* Dmiah king
n Conra.
of SeUaairig') iodepaudance of ttio ampin, nod hancaforth tha
Eidar became the recogniud boandarj brtiraan GermanT and
Denmark (" Eidom Romani terminu imperii"]. Schlnnig. tboogb
lanieh nro.
imarli, \>nt
other
• ot
i anjoj-ed a eertaio meainn of indepandi
tha Tula of ricaniyi or dshei choaan ^m tha yoaoget eoni of the
royal hooaa^ One of tbe pwet ngorone of theaa rulen wai Knnd
Lanrd (lllS-1131), who aiteodcd hie iirty over tha Wendiih
diatlict of Wigria (tee belov) and held it as a fief of the Oarman
empire. He irai ihie tha Ant rslnr ot Scbleairig to hold that
lingnlardonbla relationship to the king ot De o mark and tha Oennan
ampin ithich if tar»ards became ao important a factor in thebittory
of the conn'bT. Vatdemir, eon of Rnad, Ijecame king of Deniuark,
d Knud'i gnndson Kinf Taldemar II.,_conremd the_duchj of
Sonth Jutland or Seklenng on hiiao
nUaotof
batman tba d^ti and th< crown, tha fonnai ouintainiag tbat tbty
bald their land is an henditair uid tnilianaUs fief, wbila tha kinp
irgaed thit Uia flaf w** rerocable at pleuur*. Th* dnkea, howarer,
aaiisled by their hinimen. the cousta of Holitein, anccaaded in
oatablisbing their pwiitioa and Anally nmainad in nndiaputad
pinainai f Ihiili ilii bj In 13SS DokaTaldamar V, orSohlesvig
irai raised to tha throne of Dcnmiik through tha infinenea of
hie nnele, Count Oerhard of HoliCein, to whom in ntnin ha ceded
his dachj. Valdemar bad to abdicate in 1)30 and recairad hi*
docby back igain, gnntiBg, bowarer, tb* " Coustitatio Tilda-
maiia," wbicbaniiuadtksTl^tiotaTantniliaooMrioalnBablaviria
to ttw Hol*tBiD oonntiL Tu* cami>aet canM to ftnitioi in IS7C
whan the mala ducal line bwam* aituict, ud Harpnt of DanmaA
formally lacognised tha union of tb* two tamtorla* in ISM.
Hencatcrtb w* have th* aaraa ptine* nling orar Bchleawig and
•ThewNff (cUfnli <M aet leM Bhi (aaanl aaa tv tUa pan M uia
rtnilii h eeinili nil i( IM MA taatair.
.1 in tbe foregoing j«n^ph. Nordalbingia, or tb*
th of the EILie, «u iiiliablltd by tha Saxons, nndar
Holatcin, boldlDg tha flnt is a flaf of tha Duoiah crown and tbi
other ae a flef oF tha Oamun empire.
Tba biat«7 ot Halitsin bafon ICi union with 8chl*«rig baa bssn
Ctly Indiciteil in '' * . —
d to tba north o1
(I.k] on the nasi, Holetoin proper « Holtuteu ("men of tba
forait ') in tba middle, Wagria on tlie taat, aud Stormira on ths
south. The Hordilbiiifciaus iren the List of the Buons to ba inb-
do«d by Charlemagne (S04), who cave Wagrii to his AVandlah alllH
■' " "■ 'led a Wondiih mark on their tmntier at
labtiahad a Danish mirk on tha Ifider.
Tba other Ihraa gius wen Incorpontsd with tha duchy of
Dithmenchta being inrtmUd m Iha oounlahip of Blai
Holitain and Storinai- ■— ' — -' "■"
the countahlp of Holj
Behaneubniv, who found*
nlad Bfat Schl«wig-HoM
iMginniDg of
ay over aS a
ineate wen confirmed b
>e Obotritea, ai
that be eatabliahad a Danish mark on tha £ld
_: ;si.
In 1110
conferred upon Adol|Aai I. of
_ . . . Influential flna that OTentudly
nlad Bfat Schlaawig-HoMain. Wagria was sddad ta Holstsia by
Addpho* II. about 1140. In tha baginniut of th* IStb enitnly
tha liauiib Ungs extended their away over all Oennan territory Hi
tba north of tliB Elba, and tbeir eonqneate wen confirmed by ~~
imperial ^nnt in 1214. This i^te of aSain, hawerer, waa of
IDE contiBuanre. and Adolphns III. of Holstein inccseded In n-
aaUbliihiuR hie independence In 112G. Tha Holstain family now
beeims aplit up into seTaral branch-linei, of which that id
Recdiburg pioed Ibe most lasting and important A danahtai
of this line mairitd Duke Abei oT »chle¥Wig, aud tha HoUain
coonti lent failiifal aid to their kinsmen in reuiting tha ancroach-
mtnta and clsiins of th* kings of Denmark. In tha dlitiactad
atate of Denmark at tha banning of tha 14th eaotoiT Count
Gerhard of Holalain became the practical ruler ot tha hinnlsui, but
pnFerred lo jilnca the crown on the head of hti nephew ValdraMT.
l^ally epnking, HoUtein remainad a mediate flet of Baxony ;
but with tha declina ot ths Baion duchy thia nlationahip b*c*mt
obaenrad, and, when ths Holetoin lanin wan cnated a daehy in
1474, tha new duke held his lands dinctly tntn th* *mp«nr.
In 141S the royal Una of Denmark became eitinci, ud tb*
crown was ofTtred to Adolphna VII. of ScUeswig- Holstain, who
nfnead it tor himaelf but exerted hie inSuenea to aacun it Air bl*
nephew Cbriatian of Oldenburg. Adolphna died in 145S, laaTinig
no aona. Christiu was tha legal heir of Schleawig, bat U* clalmn
toHolitcin werebynaajeaaiKitroDg. The aatatea of Schlmrto- .
Holatein, howeTer, decided in his &7onT on th* ulea that t£*
duchies* could not be sepormted, end eiactsd from him a confirma-
tion of this indiaaolubl* connexion. It was alao Fonnally ttipnlatad
that Lba duchiee ehoold nerer ba actuaUy incorporatM inth ths
kingdom of Denmark, while the hereditary nstan of ths fist waa
given up and the eatatea acquired th* right to chooaa a* thaii duka
any one of Christiin'e desceudinti. This Succeaaion Act was tb*
laais of tb* union of tb* two duchia* for the next fonr hundred
eauDeiian end tbeir feudal dnty to diflerent soTenigna is at omia
the ranss and the explanation of the complicated "Schleawlg-
Holiteinqneitiaii."
»nw follows a series of endlees rhlFtings, divisions, snd renDioni
ot the two duehie*. After IBSO tha various eollatenl Hues oF lbs
Oldeuhnrg family thus formed sn npresrnCed by two main
bnnchea,— the nyal or GluckFtadt line and the Oottorp or dues]
iin*. In the dilisioD of Schleiwig-Hoti-tein between three two DO
r^ard waa paid to the boundary oF tbe Eider ; eHrh of them ra1«d
over detach^ parte of both dncbies, though ths whole of Schlenric
was still under the soienignty of Denmark and tbe whola d
under that of Germany, Ptscticilly 6cl<lcswij( came to b*
icker of iudependencs. In 1480
Lienmerx Mcsme au aueoJute monarchy and tha r^ndple of female
auccridon waa acknowledged. Ae in Schlenrig-Holslain tha ri^rt
of inheriteuoe was confined to the male line, the policy of Denmark
was rigomualy directod tovatda doiog away aa far aa poadtda with
all sepsnte ri^ts in the duchy and to getting th* Oottorp or
ducal portioD' into tfag pcii«Brion oF ths crown. This policy
was natiinllr mon succeiaful in Schleawig than in Ho&tain,
and in 173] Frederick IT. wae able to gain the guarutas of tb*
powon for tha inoorpontion of tha whole of SelUeawig witb tha
Danish monaichy. He hed, howerer, to give up bis claim to
Uolalein. In 17BS tha Holstein.ODttatp liB* )neo«id*d to tha
throne of EsBus in tha noTHia oFPetor III., and this lad in 177Sto
ana^;r*emeutby whichthe Gottorplinenaigned itsabanoFHoIetein
to th* king of Daumark in exchange tor Oldenburg ud Dalmen-
boevL The whole ot Schleewig-Holstein thu* cam* ooco mon
iud*T th* sway ot a ruler who was at the lania time king of
Th* period from ITTt lo 1840 wis one of peaoa tot tba ducblai^
with ooniidcrahle progreaa in material pnaperity. The Jail of tha
416
S C H — S C H
GcrauD mtfiM la ISM hUmmI H^iUb tat ft tima from ■» oon-
Milan wid t pomi svbdili of Draiuik, \nt in 181S tba Iknlah
■Moueb hid to aittr tii* (hnnui Confadintlos (or HoUUln and
/or tht neantif wqolnd dndif of LADKsiDia (;.*.). A itrang
(Mlioe of Oormin patriotUn endullj stom iu HobUtiL tSaeting
put >f Bclil(**i( *1m, uul lEmtiifictioii vitk thi diU7 et the
buiiik crown In mgniildCtliaooMtitattoD*] lightt of tha dnchlH
Iwl to tlia tTuts ftnniu th* ncsat Uiilorr of BchleiwIg-HalMgliL
Than vOl ba Iband daMilbad nHk mm» dataU In tbi articlia
Dixnuti <ToL til. pp. B8, SB) aad Oimuxr (roL x. pp. M7,
BOWia). (J. f.K.)
SCHLETISTADT, » nHll town in Lower Alnoe,
•Unda on th« HI, 26 ittilM to the tooth of Strwbnrg. It
poneaaee two fine chofdiee, Klin of ft period of fixmet
importance, and ewriet on nunnfaetuiet of wire gauze,
and a eonmdenble trade in eonntrj produce. The popu-
lation in IStiO waa 6979 (7755 Boman Catholic*), thowing
a alight decrewe nnce it naa paaaed into Qerman hands.
3chtatt>t*dt i« a pUoa of inj aariy oti^n, uid Vcam* a froo
tows of tba uiip<TB in tha Itth cantorj. In the IStb antnry it
irii tha aHt of a ealabntsd aademj, foiindad bf A^ticoU, vhicli
epntribatad not ■ littla to tha riTinl of Itaming ia lUi put of
OamiaDj ; Enimni of BotCatdam wu ons ot Its ttndenti. Is IMl
It^rad 1
qEFni
BOHLOZER, Auonai Urowio tok (1736-1809),
German hiatorian, waa boni at Oaggatedt, in the oonnl^
of Eohenloha-Eircliberg on the Gth Jnlj 1735. Having
■tndied at the nniTanitiea of Wittenberg and Qottingen,
be want in 1755 aa a tator to Stockholm, and afterwarda
to Upaala ; and while in Sweden he wrote in tJie Bwediah
language an Buaf on the Siitorf <tf Tr^t (1TS6).
In 1759 he returned to Oottingen, where he began the
atudy of medicine. AIt«rwarda be went to St Fetarabnig
with llUUer, the Bnisian hiatoriographar, aa UQller'a
literary aaaiatant and aa tutor in hia familj. Her«
Bchloier learned the Buaaian language and devoted him-
ielf to the study of Bnaeian history; and in 1763 he
waa made an adjunct of the Academy and a tMchar at
the BamtnoTski educational institute. A quarrel with
Httller placed him in a poaitioa of aome difficulty, from
which he was happily ddivered by a call to a profenor-
ship at the nnirsraity of OSttingen. He began hie
career at Oottingen in 1T6T, and soon r&nked among the
fcremoat hiatori^ writen of his da;. Hia moat import'
ant works were his Allgtsuiiu itonlucht GacMehtt (1772)
and hia translation of the Husaian ebroaider Nestor to
the yoar 980 (1803-9). He awoke much intelligent
interest in nuiTenal history by his WeliffacMiAU im
Atuiugi und ZiuammnAanfft (1792-1801); and in several
works he helped to lay the foundations of statistical science.
He also produced a strong impression by hia political
writiogi, the Brufunxhtel (10 vols., 1776-S2) and the
StaaUantngtn (18 vols., 1782-93). In ISOI he was
ennobled by the emperor of Rnaaia. Ee withdrew from
active life in 1805, and died on the 9th September 1809.
B«* Zomulo, Aiiguit Ludicij Bchllur (1S76). lud "WMeadonk,
D!t BigreMiUAf dtr ntiur* iiuitciitt OtrAiiUteKreiturv iunA
OatUnr %rd ScUtar (laTfl). BchloMi'. daughWr, Dorolhaa,
born on tha loth Augiut, 1770 «u ooa of flia moat Ifimad
■■OBian of her time, and rtceiTMl In 1787 tha degm of doctor.
8ha wu TKogniisd u m oiithorily on several antyecti, aapacislly
on Budin toiniga. Aflar har rasniug with Roddt tha borgo-
mutat ot LdtMck, >h* davotad hanairto domSitia dnHaa. 8ha
died on the ISth Jalj 1831. BoUOmt'b ion Chriatiaa (bora 177*.
diad IBII) wu a proroMor at Bonn, and snblidiad An/ajvutrtadi
isr Sli,aU<>i7lM.Aaft (IMM) ^ Ui &ther-s OtfMJIwUt uni
Prttat-Libn na Originalnrkjtikin (1828X
SCH^fALEALDEir, a town of Frassia, in the pro-
vince of Hease-Nassao, liea abont 30 miles to the aooth-
west of Erfurt, and in 188H contsuned 6788 inhabitanta,
chiefly employed iu the mannfactnre of hardware artidea.
It still poaseasea the inn in which the important Pro-
tMtont Laagne of Scliiiialkald«n or Smalkald wm eooelnded
in 1631, and also the hooaa In whicb (lie artidM wtn
drawn up in 1537 by Lnther, Melanchtlww, knd othsi
BeformeiB. Bee QiKiuvr, toL x. p. 498, and LCTHn,
vol XV. p. 83.
BCKKMDElttiHL (Polish FUa), a smaU town of
Prussia, in the province of Posm, lies on the tiuddow, 45
miles north of Posen and 140 miles eaat bj north of
Berlin. It is a railway junction of soma importances
carries on a trade in wood, grain, and potatoes, and pos-
sesses an iron foundry, several glass works and machine-
shops, and other industrial astabliahments. In I S80 the
population waa 12,269, of whom 7700 were Protestaota
and aboDt 1000 Polea,
8CHN0BR TON KAEOIBFELD, JnuM (179'4-
1873), of a family of artists, was bom in 1794 a.t Leipuc^
where he received his eaiiiest instruction fi«m hia father,
a dianghtsman, engraver, and painter. At levDnteen he
entered the Academy of Vienna, from which Overbeck and
others of the new school who rebelled against the old
conventional style had been eip^ed abont a year before;
In 1818 he followed the founders of the new school of
German pre-Raphaelitee iu the general pilgrimage to Borne.
This school of religijos and romantic art abjured modem
styles with three centuries of decadenoB, and teverted to
and revived the principlee and practice of earlier periods.
At the outset an effort was jnade to recover fresco painting
and "monumental art," and Bchi)<»t soon found oppor-
tunity of proving his powers, when commissicmed to
decorate with frescos, illustrative of Arioato, the entrance
hall of the Villa Massimo, near the Lateran. Hi* fellow-
labourets were Cornelias, Overbeck, and Veit. His
second period dates from 1835, when he left Home, asttled
in Munich, entered the service of King Louia, and trans-
planted to Germany the art of wall-painting leamt in
Italy. He showed himself qoalified aa a sort of poet-
painter to the Bavarian court; he organized a stafi fi
trained executants, and set about clothing five halls in the
new palace with frescoa illnstrative ot the Ifibeltngenlied.
Other apartments his prolific pencil decorated with acenes
from the historiea of Charlemagne, Frederick Btrbarossa,
and Budolph of Hapsbnrg. These vast and interminable
compositions display the master'a merits and defects : thej
'are creative Isamed in composition, mssterly in drawing
bat exaggerated in thonght and extravagant in style.
Schnorr's third period is marked by his "Bible Pictares"
or Scripture History in 180 designs. The artist was a
Lutheran, and took a broad and unsectarian view which
won for his Pictorial Bible ready curreuoy thtongbont
Christendom. The merits are nnequal i frequently the
coropositions are crowded and confused, wanting in
harmony of line and symmetry in the masses ; thns thq'
snfier nnder comparison with Baphael's Bible. Chrono-
logically speaking, the style is severed from tho simplicity
and severity of early times, and surrendered to the florid
redundance of the later Heaaiasance. Yet throughout are
displayed fertility of invention, acadenuc knowledge with
facile eiecntion ; and modem art has produced nothing
better than Joseph Interjireting Pharaoh's Dream, the
Meeting ot Hebecca and Isaac, and the Return of the
Prodigal Sou. The completion of the arduous work was
celebrated iu 1862 by the artists of Saxony with a
feetival, and other German states offered congcatnlations
and presented gifts.
Biblical drawings and cartoons for freeeoa formed a
natural prelude to designs for dinrch windows. The
painter's renown in Germany secured commiaaions in Qreat
Britain. Schnorr made designs, carried out in the royil
factory, Munich, for windows in Glasgow cathedral and
in Bt Paul's cathedral, London. Thid Munich ^aM
provoked controversy i modimvaliut^ ol^ected to its want
. C H — S C H
417
of Imtr^ and itigmatiMd tbe windowi u ooloored blind*
and picture tranap«r«acia. Bat the oppodng part;
claimedfoT these modern revivalB "the nnion of the seTere
nod azcellent drawing of aaij Florentine oii-pUDtingH
'with the colouring and amngemsnt of the glMi-p«iiitiags
of the Utter half of the 16th century." Schnotr'i btuy iife
closed nt Muoich in I6T2.
SCHOLASnCISU ii the name tunallj emplojed to
denote the moat typical product* of medusTal thooght.
The final dieappeftrance of ancient phlloaophy may be
dated about the beginning of the 6th cecttuy of our era.
Boetiui, its Uit lepresentatire in the West, died in 925,
and four yean later the Athecian (choola vere closed
by order of the emperor Justinian Before this time
Christian thongbt bad already been active in the fathen
of the chnrcb, bat their actirity had been entirely devoted
to the elaborating and systeinatiiiDg of theological dogma*.
Although the dogmas anquestionably involve philosophical
aHaamptions, tbe fathen deal with them throughout simply
as chorehmeo, and do not proFeaa to supply for them a
philosophical or rational basia. Only iQcidentaliy do some
of them — like Angnstine, for example — digress into strictly
philoaopbical discosaion. After the centuries of intellectual
darkness daring which the settlement of the new races
and their conversiou to Cbristiaaity proceeded and the
fonndation* of the modem European order were being
laid, the Bnt symptoms of renewed iotellectual activity
appear contemporaneously with the consolidation of the
empira of the West in the hands of Charlemagne. That
enlightened monarch endeavoured to attract \o his coart
the best scholars of Britain and Ireland (where the
claoical tradition had never died ont), and by imperial
decree (787) commanded tbe eatabliahment of schools
in connexion with every abbey in hi* realm*. Peter of
I^sa and Alcnin of York were his advieers in directing
this great work, and under their tostering care the
oppodition long auppoaad to e»st between godliness and
■ecular learning speedily disappeared. Besides the cele-
brated school of the Palace^ where Alcnin had among his
hearers the members of the imperial family and the
dignitaries of tbe empire a* welt as talented yonths of'
hnmbler origin, we hear of the e|iiEcoi«l schools of Lyons,
Orleans, and St Denis, the cloister schools of fit Martin
of Tours, of Fulda, Corbie^ Fontenelle, and many others,
beaidea tbe older monaateries of St Oall and Beicheoau.
These schools became the centre* of medinral learning
and speculation, and from them the name Scholasticism is
derived. Thoy were designed to communicate instruction
in the seven liberal arts which conatitut«d the educational
tmrriculnm of the Middle Ages — grammar, dialectic, and
rbetoric forming the trivinm of arts proper, while
geometry, arithmetic, astronomy, and music constituted
the qnadrivium of tba scienceu. The name dodor tcho/at-
tien* wad applied originally to any teacher in such an
occleuastical gymnasium, but, as the study of dialectic or
logic soon became the object of ahdoibing interest to the
beat intellects of the time, it tended to overshadow the
more elementary disciplines, and the general acceptation
of "doctor" cams to be one who occupied himoelf with
the teaching of logic and the diacu:»iou of the philo-
•ophical qneatioud arising therefrom. The philosophy of
the later Bcholoiitioi is more extended in its iicope ; but to
the very end of the mediaival period philcMophy centres
in the dlKUMion of the same logical problems which began
to agitate the teacher* of the 9th and 10th centarie».
Scholasticism in the widest sense thus extendi! from the
Bth to the end of tbe 14th or the befjlnning oi the ISth
century — from Erigona to Occam and his folloven. The
Iwlated Scholaitire who lingered beyond the loat-mentioned
^ate wrved only a* inirka for the oblotiny heaped oi«n
the schools l^ the meD of ths new time. Bn^ althouf^
every systematic acoonnt of ScholaaticiBm finds it necessary
to begin with Erigena, that philosopher is of the spiritu^
kindred of the Nooplatonists and C^instian mystics rather
than of the typical ScholastJe doctors. In a few obscure
writings of the 9th century we find the beginnings of dis-
cussion upon the logical qnestioDS which afterward* proved
of anch absorbing interest ; but these are followed by the
intellectual interregnum of the 10th century. The activity
of Scholasticism is therefore mainly confined within tbe
limits of the 11th and the 1 4tb centuries. It is clearly
divisible (by cireumstances to be presently explained) into
tvro well-marked periods, — the first extending to the end
oF the 12th century and embracing as its chief names
Roecellinua, Anselm, William of Champeaux, and Abelard,
whils the second extended from the beginning of the I3th
century to the Renaissance and the general distraction of
men's thoughts from the problems and methods of Scho-
laaticiam. In this second period the namee of Albertus
UagnuB, Tbomaa Aqninoa, and Duns Bootna rspreseut (in
the 13th centuiy and the first years of the I4th century)
the culmination of Scholoatic thought and its consolidation
It is a remark of Prantl's that there is no snch thing oa
philosophy in the Middle Ages ; there are only logic and
theology. It pressed literally tiie remark is hypercritical,
for it overlooks two facts, — in the first place that the main
objects of theology and philosophy are identical, though
the method of treatment is different, and in the second
place that logical discussion commonly leads up to meta-
physical problems, and that this was pre-eminently the
case with the logic of the Schoolmen. But the saying
draws attention in a forcible way to ths two great in-
fluences which shaped mediEeval thought — on the one side
the traditions of ancient logic, on the other the system oF
Christian theology. Scholasticism opens with a discussion
of certain points in the Aristotelian logic; it speedily
begins to apply its logical diatiuctions to the doctrines of
the cbnrch; and when it attains its full stature in St
Thomas it has, with ths exception of certain mysteries,
rationalized or Aristotelianiied the whole churehly system.
Or we might say with equal truth that the philosophy of
St Thomas is Aristotle Christianized. It is, moreover, the
jittitude of the Schoolmen to these two influences that
yields the general characteristic of the period. Their
attitude throughout is that of interpreters rather than of
those conducting an independent investigation. And
though they are at the same time the acutest of critics,
and oSer the most ingenious developments of the original
thesis, they never step ontside tbe charmed drcle of the
system they have inherited. They appear to contemplate
the universe of nature and man not at first hand with
their own eyes bnt in the glass of Aristotelian formnln.
Tbeir chief works are in the shape of commentaries upon
the writings of " the philosopher. " ' Their problems and
solutions alike spring from the master's dicta — from the
need of reconcihng these with oae another and wilh the
conclusiouB of Christian theology.
The fact that the channels of thought during the Middle
.Ages were determined in this way by the external influence
of a twofold tradition is usnally expressed by aaying that
reason in the Middle Age is snligect to authority. It
has not the free play which characteriza* its activity in
Greece and in the philosophy of modem timea Its con-
clusions are predetermined, and the initiative of the
individual thinker is almost confined, thereFore, to formal
details in the treatment of his thesis. . From the ude of
the church thin characteristic of ths peHlod ia expressed in
the saying that reason has its proper station as the hand-
' llHM
II of Anat«tl( In IK* Ulddli Abh.
.™--^-
418
SCHOLASTICISM
maid of taiih (aiteitia fideC). Bnt it ia taiy fair to add
that Que principle of the mboTdinatioQ of the icuoa
wean a different aspect ocoording to the ceatary and
vritsr referred to. In Sootna Erigona, at the l>egioiiiiig
of the Scholaatic eia, there i* no Buch sabordioation con-
templated, becanae pliiloeophj and theology in hia work
are in implicit umtj. Ac«>rding to his memomble expres-
uon, " Conficitor inde Terom ease phllosophiam Teram
nligionem, convenimqae veram religionem esse Teram
pUloaophiam " (De Divitioae Naturae, LI). Beaaoa in its
own strength and with ita own initrameats evolves a
ajstem of the nnivena which coincides, according to
Erigena, with the teaching of Scripture. For Erigena,
therefore, the speculative reason is the supreme arbiter
(as >-e himself indeed expressly asserta) ; and in accordance
with ita results the ntterancee of Scripture and of the
chnrch have not infrequently to be subjected to an alle-
gorical or mystical interpretation. But this is only to
ny again in so many words that Erigena ia more of
a Neoplatonist than a Scholastic. In regard to the
Scholaatics proper. Cousin suggested in respect of this
point a threefold chronological divisioa, — at the outset the
absolute BubordinatioQ of philosophy to theology, then the
period of their alliaoce, and finally the beginning of their
osparation. In other words, we note philosophy gradually
eztonding its daims. Dialectic ia, to begin with, a merely
secular art, and only by degrees are ita terms and distinc-
tions applied to Hbe anbj act-matter of theology. The
early results of the application, in the hands of Berengarina
and RoscellinuB, did not seem favourable to Christian
orthodoxy. Hence the strength with which a champion
of the faith like Anselm insists on the subordination of
reason. To Bernard of Cloirvauz and many other con-
•errative churchmen the application of dialectic to the
tilings of faith at all appears as dangerous as it is impioos.
At a later date, in the systems of the great Schoolmen, the
rights of reason are fully established and amply acknow-
ledged. The relation of reason and faith remains, it ia
true, an external one, and certaia doctrines — an increasing
number as time goea on — are withdrawn from the sphere
of reason. But with these exceptions the two march side
by side; they establish by d^erent means the same
results. For the conSiets which accompanied the first
intrusion of philoaophy into the theological domain more
profound and cautious thinkers with a hi ampler appa-
ratus of knowledge had substituted a harmony. "The
constant effort of Scholasticism to be at once philosophy
and theology"' seemed at last satisfactorily realized. But
this harmony proved more apparent than real, for the
further progress of Scholaatic thought couaiated in a witii-
drawal of doctrine after doctrine from the possibility of
rational proof and their relegation to the sphere of faith.
Indeed, no sooner was the harmony apparentiy established
by Aquinas than Duns Scotus began this negative criti-
eism, which is carried much farther by William of Occam.
But this ia equivaleat to a coufessioo that Scholasticism
had failed in its task, which was to rationalize the doc-
trines of the church. The two authorities refused to be
reconciled. The Aristotelian form refused to fit a matter
for which it was never intended ; the matter of CSiristian
theology refused to be forced into an alien form. The
Scholastic philosophy speedily ceased therefore to poesesa
a raiton detre, and the spread of the sceptical doctrine of
a twofold truth proclaims the deatmctioii of the fabric
erected by medieTol thought The end of the period was
thus brought about by tha internal decay of its method
and priociptee quite aa much as by the variety of external
causes which oontnbaled to tranafei men's intereata to
other subjects.
I UUmu'f Latin CArMmi^i Lx. 101.
Bn^ although the relation of reasoa to
authority thus constitutes the badge of medinval thonght,
it would be in the lost degree unjust to look npoa Scholas-
ticism as philosophically barren, and to speak as if
teasoQ, after an intcrregnnm of a thousand yetat,
returned its rights at the Beoaiesance. Such laoguftge
was excnaable ia the men of the Benaiasance, fitting
the battle of daaric form and beauty and of tha many-
sidedness of life against the barbarous terminology and
the monastic ideals of the schools, or in the protagoniats
of modern science protesting against the complete absorp-
tion of human talent by metaphysicii — an absorption never
witnessed to the same extent before or since. The nsw ia
never just to the old ; we do not expect it to be ao. It
belongs to a later and calmer judgment to recognize bow
the old contained in itself the germa of the new ; and a
closer study of history ia invariably found to diminiah the
abruptneu of the picturesque new begitinings wbicti fomiah
forth our current divisions of epochs and periods. In the
schools and univeritities of the Middle Age the intellect of
the semi-barbarous European peoples hod been trained tor
the work of the modern world. It had advanced &om a
childiah nideoess to an appreciation of the snbtiest logical
and metaphysical distinctions. The debt which modem
philosophy owes to the Schoolmen for this formal training
has been amply acknowledged even by a writer like J. 8.
UilL But we may go further and say that, in spite of
their initial occeptajice of authority, the Scholaatics are not
the antagonists of reason ; on the contrary they fight ita
battles. As has often beax pointed out, the attempt tc
establish bj/ arjumeal the authority of faith ia in reality
the unconscious establishment of the anthori^ of reaaon.
Reaaon, if admitted at all, must ultimately claim the whole
man. Anselm's motto. Credo ut inttUigaTOy marks well
the distance that boa been traversed dnce TertuUian^
Credo juia abturdim eit, The claim of reaaon haa been
recognized to manipulate the data of faith, at first blindly
and immediately received, and to weld them into a system
such aa will satisfy its own needs. Scholasticism tiiat has
outlived its day may be justly identified with obacuMit-
ism, but Qot so the aystems of those who^ by their might;y
intellectual force alone, once held all the minds of Enrope in
willing subjection, The scholastic systems, it is true, are
not the free products of speculation ; in the main thay an
tunuiiu theologia, at they are modified versions of Aristotlcb
But each system is a fresh recognition of tha rights of
reason, and Scholasticism as a whole inay be jnstly
regarded as the history of the growth and gradual emao-
cipation of reason which vaa completed in Uie movementa
of the Benaiseance and the Reformation. Indeed, the
widening of human interests which then took place is not
without ita prelude in the systems of the second period of
Scholasticism. The complementary sciences of theology
and philosophy remain, of course, the central and dominat-
ing interest ; bnt Albertus Magnus was keenly intereeled
in natural science, and a systsm like that of Aquinas is tt
wide as Aristotle's ia its range, and holds no part of
nature to lie outside its inquiries.
Id speaking of the origin of Scbolastieiam — name and
thing — it has baen already noted that mediaval specula-
tion takes its rise in certain logical problems. To be
more precise, it is the nature of " univeiaols " which foons
the central theme of Scholastic debate. This ia the caae
almoat excluaively during the first p^od, and only to a
less extent during the second, where it reappears in a
somewhat different form as tha difKcnlty concerning the
principle of individnatiou. Otherwise expressed, the
question on which centuries of diacnasion were thnl
expended concerns the natore of genera and qwciea and
their relation to the individtuL On this, Komiuoliala and
SCHOLASTICISM
419
RMliito taka oppoBitt udea ; wtd, •zdwinly logical m
the point may at fint tight wem to ba, MJlheraiKa to one
tide or th» other ia an aeconte indicatkni of philotophie
tendeney. Ths two oppcnog th«oriea mnm at bottom,
in the phraseohigj of thair own tims, ttis radical direr-
gence (rf pantheiBm and iodividoaliam— Uie two eztremea
between which philosophj eeeou peadolam-wiae to oacil-
Ut«, and wliich may be aaid >lill to await their perfect
reconciliation. Fint, bowsTar, «s moat ezamine the
lorm which thia qneetion aaaumed to the firit medintal
thiDkere, and the aouroe from which the; derived it. A
aingle eentenee in PorphyrT'a Ittffv/t or " introduction" to
the Caltffonei ot Ariatotle fumiibed the text of the pro-
longed discuiaion. The treatiu of Porpb}Tj deala with
what ore eommonly called the predicabln, t.«., the notiooa
ol geooa, tpeciet, difTenoce, propertj, and accideat ; and
he mentiao^ bnt declinei to diuuia, tbe Tarioni tbeoriet
that have been held u to the ontological import ot genera
and apeciea. In tbe lAtin transktion ot Boetina, in
which alone the Itagoya was then known, the lentence
tuns u folloWB : — " Uoz de generiboi «t Epeciabna illnd
qnidem utb tabeiilaat, sire in eolii aodis intellectibaa
poeita Eint, aife tuheiateiitia eorporalia lint an incorporiHa,
St Qtmni separata a aenribilibiu an iu uogibilibuB poeita at
circa haec conaiatentia, dicere rectuabo; altiuimau inim
Degotiun eat bi^namodi et mtgorit egena inquiaitionia."
The teeond of thaae three qoeationa may be lafelj nt
atidei tbe other two indicate with anfficient clearne«
three posaible poeitiona wiib regard to oniTenala. It
may be held that thej exiat merely aa conceptions in our
minds (i» tolU wadit iiilditelibia\ ; tbii ia Nomioaliun ot
Conceptnalism. It may ba held, in oppoaition to the
Nomtnalistic new, that they have a enbatantial exiatenoe
of their own (tiJitittaitia), independent of their exiatence
in our thonghta, But Eealiam, as tbia doctrine is named,
may be again of two variatiea, accoidiag aa the anbatan-
tially existont Qsireraala are supposed to exist apart from
the aenaible pbenomena (lepamla a tnuibilibiu) or only in
and with the objecta of senae aa their eatence (I'l* tauibiJUmt
ponla et eirta kaee anuittentia). Tbe first form ot Bealiam
correaponds to the Platonic theory of the tranacendence of
the ideaa ; while tbe second reprodooBS the Ariitotelian
doctrine of the essence as inteparable from the indindnal
thing. Bnt, though be implies an ample preTiona treat-
meat of the questions by philoaopbera, Porphyry girea no
relerenCBi to the diflerent syatema of which such dis-
tinctions are the ontoom^ nor ooea he give any bint of hii
own opinion on ths anl^eot, daflnite enoogh though that
waa. He simply seta the discussion aside as too difficult
tor a preliminary discoutse, ajd not strictly relennt to a
pntely lo^cal inquiry. Porphyry, the Neoplalonist, the
diacipla of Plotinus, waa an nnhnown personage to thoee
early students of the Itagoge. The passage posseaed for
them a mysteriona charm, largely due to its iaolatioQ and
to their ignorance of the historic speculations which ang-
gesled it- And accimlingly it gave rise to tbe three great
doctrines which divided the mediaival schoola ; — Bealism
of ths Platonic type, embodied in tbs fonnola mtiotnalia
aaU rem ; Realism of the Aristotelian typ^ Mnivertatia in
n ; and Nominalism, inclading Conoeptoalism, ezpreeaed
by the phrase Mniverialia pint rrm, and also claiming to be
baaed npon the Peripatetic doctrine.
To form a proper eatimate of tbe first atage of Scholastic
discussion it is requisite above all thinga to have a clear
idsa of the appliances then at tbe disposal of the writers.
In other worda, what waa the extent of their knowledge
of ancient philoaophyt Thanka to the researchea of
Jonrdoin and other*, it ia powible to answer this queatioD
with aomething like precision. To begin with, we know
that till tb« IStb centucy the Middle Age waa ignocaot
of Qraek, and poaawaad no philoiophtoal works Id tbtir
Oteek original, while in translationa Qieir stock waa
limited to the Categontt and the D4 luttrpmatumt of
Ariatotle in the vaniona of Boetina, and the Tintmit of
Plato in the venion of Chalcidina To theoe mnat be
added, of course, BoeUus'a translation of Porpbyry'a
IiagoQt already referred to. The whole metaphyii<»l,
etbic^ and physical works (rf Ariatotle were thos unknown,
and it was not till the IStb century (after the year 1128)
that the Anaiytia and the Topia became accesaible to the
logicians of tbe time. Some general information aa to
tbe PUtonic doctrines (ehieSy in a Keoplatonic ^b) waa
obtainable from the commentary with which Chalddiua
(Sth cent.) accompanied his translation, from the work ol
Apuleins (2d cent) D« DogtnaU PlaUmit, and indirectly
from the commentary of ilacrobius (c. 100) on ths ^oasisHias
Sdpumii of Cicero, and from the writings of St Augustine.
As uds to the atndy ot logic, the doctors of thia period
passesaed two eonunentariea by Boetiue on the Itagoga {Ad
PorpAfrivM a Fictonno IntmtlatvM and In Porpkynvm a
m tniiu/afsn), two commentaries by tbe aame author on
the Di Iiiltrpniatiolu and one on tbe Categoritt, aa well
aa anothsr, mainly rhetorical. Ad Ciemnii Topiea. To
these are to be added the following original treattaea of
Boetins : — Itilroductio ad Categorieot Bjfiogiimot, Dt Sjfio-
gitmo Categorieo, Dt Sj/Hogitino ffypolhettea, Di Divinene,
Dt Df/lnilioiu, aod Di D^tmtiiM Topieit, the last dealing
almost exclusively with rhetoric There were also in eiren-
lation two tracts attribnted to St Angnatine, the fint of
which, Princtpia Dialtetiau, i» probably bi^ but ia mainly
grammatical in it* import Tb« other tr«c^ known aa
Caiigoriaa Dtcevt, and taken at first for a tranalatioa of
Ariatotle'a treaties, is really a rapid auuimary of it, and
certainly does not belong to Augustine. To this liat than
must ba added three works of an eneycloptedic chatactar,
which played a great part as text-books in tha schoola. Of
these uie oldest and moat important was the Satyriam of
UardanuB Capella (cloae of 0th century), a cnriona medln
of proaa and allegorical Teraa, the greater part of which ia
a treatise on tha seven liberal arta, Ute fourth book dealing
with loffic Similar in its contenta is the work of OmIo-
dorua (4eS'-G62), Di ArtSnu ae Dudptinii Litrratitm
Literaruiit, ol whjcb the third work refernd to, tbe Origimti
Ot Isidore of Seville (ob. 636), ia little more than a n-
prodoction. The above eooatitutea irithoat exception the
whole material which the earlier Middle Age bad at its
The grandly concuved ayatam of Erigena (aae EaiaKHA
and UTSTicim) stands by itself in the 9th oentnry like
the prodnct of another age. John the Boot waa ttili
acquainted with Qreek, seeing that he tnuulated the work
ot tbe paeodo-Dbnysins ; and his apecnlative genioa
achieved tha fnaion of Chriatinn doctrine and Neopla-
tonic thou<j'ht in a system of quite remarkable meta-
phyvcal comptetenaaa. It is the only complete and inde-
pendent ayatem between the decline- of ancient tiiongbt
and the ayatam of Aqninai in the 13th century, if indeed
we ou^t not to go further, to modem times, to find a
paralld. Erigena prononneea no expraaa o^nion npon
the qnntion which was even than beginning to ooeopy
men's minds ; bnt hia Flatooico-Chrittian theory <d ue
Eternal Word aa containing in Hlmaelf the exemplan of
created things ia equivalent to the assertion of miiu»rtatia
antt ma. His whole system, indeed, is based npon the
idea of the divine as the exclusively real, of which tbe
world of individual exiatence ia bnt the theophany ; the
special and the individual are immanent, tberafote, in the
generaL And hence at a jnnqh later date (in the be^S-
ning of tbe 13th century) hii name waa invoked to cover
the pantbaittic hereaiea of Amalrieh of Bena. Erig«na
SCHOLASTICII
doM not mpinSn his natanie theoi; of pT««zut«nt
exempUn fram tha Anatotdiui doctiriiM of tA» nni*«iMl
M M thaindiriduftb. A» ITeberweg pmnta out, his tlwocy
ia nther » Mmlt of tlu tnoafennee of tlio AiutoteliM
in which th^ inhan with that of the indiridiiala to th«
Idaa o( which, in tha Platonie doctrine, th^ am oopiea
(But. tf PkilMopkg, L 363, Eng. tnuu.). Henoa it m»,f
ba aaid that tbe niiiTenala are in the indindnala, cooatitiit-
ing theii eaaential Tealitj (and it ia an eipr««a part o(
Erigena'a ^item that the created but creatiTe Word, the
aeoMid dinaioB of Natnn, (hoold pan into the third atage
of created and non-eraatiiig thii^); or rather, perhaps,
we ought to aaj that the indiTidoali eziat in tiie boeom
of their DDiTerMl. At all eTenta, while Erigena'a Realiam
ia pranooDoed, the Flatonio and Ariitot«lian fornu of the
doctrine are not diatingniahed in hia writing Prantl has
pcofeaMd to find the naadatream of Nominal Jam also in
Beotna Erigena ; bnt bajond the fact that he diacnasea at
Bonaiderable length the catagoriaa of thought and their
mntnal teUtioni^ occaaianall; odag the term "Tocea" to
ezpraaa hia meaning Isanti appeara to adduce no raaaona
lot an aaaertion iriuch. directly contrsdicta Erigena'a moat
fundamental doctrinea. UorsoveT Erigena again and
again dedacea tliat dialectic haa to do with the stadia of a
real or dirine olaaaification : — " Intelligittu qnod ara ilia,
qoaa dindit genera in apaciea at apeciea in genera Teaolrit^
quae SuXurucq dieitar, non ab hnmanis mactunationibna
■it facta, aed in natora remm ab anctore omoiom artinin,
qoaa vaiae artea aunt, condita et a lapientihaa inTenIa "
{Dt Smtiim* Ifaturae, It. 4).
The immediate inflnenee of Erigena'a ajatem cannot
hare been great, and hia worka aeem aooo to hare dK>pped
eat of notice in the ceotoriea that folloired. The real
germs of Bealism and Nomioalism, a* thay took ahape in
mediieval thooght, ara to be fonnd in the 9th century, in
aeatteied commentariea and glosses (mostly atill in mana-
acript) upon the statemants of Porphyry and Boetina.
Boetiua in oommentlog apon Porphyry had already
started the diaciisEion aa to ^e nature of nniveraala. He
ia definitely anti-Platonic, and his language Bometimea
takea even a nominalistic tone, as irhsn he dedarea that
the apeciea ia nothing more than a thooght Or conceptioii
gathered from the aobatantiaL similarity of a number of
disaioiilar individoala. The expreaaioa " anhetantLal simi-
lari^ " ia adll, howerer, sufficieatly ragne to cover a
mnltitnda of viawa. He conclndes that the genera and
apeciea exist aa oniveraaU only in thought ; but, inaamnch
aa they are collected from singolan on account of a real
resemblance, they have a certain existence indepeodently
of the mind, but not an existence di^oined from the
aingnlara of aenaa. "Sabaistuut ergo circa seoaibilia,
inteUignntnr anlam praetor corpcaa." Or, according to
tiie phraae which ncuia bo often during the Middle Agea,
"nnirenale intelligitur, aingulare seDtitor." Boetins ends
by decliniug to a^adicate between Hato and Aristotle,
remarking in a asuii-apologetic style that, if he haa ex-
pounded Aristotle's opinion by preference, his couiae ia
juatiRed by the fact that ha is commenting npon an intro-
duction to Ariatotla. And, indeed, his lUscassioo cannot
claim to be more than aenii-popalar in character. The
point in dilute baa not in his hands the all-abaorbing
importance it afterwarda attained, and the keeoneas <rf
later distinctions is aa yet nnhnowa. In thia way, how-
ever, though the diatinetiKia drawn may adll be corapara-
tively vagne^ there exiated in the achooU a Peripatetic
tradition to set orer againat the Neoplatonio influence of
John the Scot, and amongat the earLeat remaina of Beho-
U«tic tLonght we find tbia tndttion Maerting itaalf aome-
I HDong theae early thinken,
Aknin, Ue first head of the school of the I'alaee, dcx
la, pre-
),t£w«
nothing more in his Dialtaie than abridge Boettna ■
the other oommentators. Bnt in the school of Fulda, j
aided over by bis pupil Hrabanua Maoma (776-866), tT
are to be fonnd aome fresh oontribntiona to the diacoMion.
nia ooUeetad worka of Hrafaanna himaeif contain nothing
new, bnt in aoma ^oeaea on Aristotle and PorphTxy,
fint exhumed by Conain, there are aereral noteworthy
eipreaaiona of opinion in a Nominalistic aenae. The
author intetpreta Boetina'a meaning to be "Qood aadem
res indiridnnm et apeciea et genna eat, et non eaae aniver-
salia individuia quasi quoddam diTeraum." Ha also
cite*, apparently with approval, the view of thoae who
held Porphyry'a treatieo to be not <i« jmn^ue rtbtia,
bnt de qumqM voeilmt. A genua, they aaid, ia eanen-
tially Bomething which ia predicated of a anbject ; bat ft
thing cannot be a predicate (ru «tun no» praedieafur).
Theaa gloesea, it should be added, however, have been
attributed by Prantl and Kauiich, on the ground of diver-
gence from doctrinea contained in the published wofka of
Htabanus, to some disciple of bis rather than to Hiabuiiw
himaeif. Fnlda had become throngh the teaching of
the latter ui intellectual centre. ^ic or Heirico^ lAo
studied there under Haimon, the ancceeaor of Hrabanna,
and afterwards taught at Anxertt^ wrote i^oaaea on tha
margin of his copy of the paeudo-Augnatinian CattfoHa^
which have been published by Conda and EMirtea.
He there says in words which recall the langnage of Lotie
{Euay, iiL 3) that because proper namea are innumerable^
aitd no intellect or memory would anfBce for the knovring
ct them, they are all as it were comprehended tn tba
apeciea {" Sciendum antem, quia propria nomiua primmn
aunt ionnmerabilia, ad.qnae cognoscenda Intellectus nnlloa
sen memoria auffidt, haec ergo omnia coartata apeciea com-
prehendit, et fadt primnm gtadum"). Takui in their
atrictness, thcae words state the poaition of extr«ma
Nominalism ; but even if we were not forbidden to do aa
by other passagca, in which the doctrine of moderate
Baalism ia adopted (under cover of the cnnent distinction
between the lingular as felt and the pnie univeml as
understood], it would still be unfair to preM any paoaaga
in tha vrritingB of this period. As Cousin says, " Realiam
and NominaUsm irere undoubtedly there in germ, bat
their true principles with their neceasary consequencea
remained profoundly unknown ; their connexion vrilli all
the great queations ol religion and politics was not even
suspected, ^e two systems were nothing more aa yet
thain two different waya of interpreting a pbraae td
Porphyry, and they remuned unnoticed in the obseori^
of the achoola. ... It waa the Itth century whidi gave
Nominalism to the world." ^
Remi or Remigiua of Anzene, pupil of Erie^ became
the moat celebrated profeasor of dialectic in tha IWiaian
achoola of the 10th century. Aa he reverted to Realism,
hia influence, flrat at Kheima and then in Bari^ waa
doubtless iostrumental in bringing about the general
acceptance of that doctrine till the advent of Boscellinua
as a powerful disturbing influence. " There is one genus
more general than the rest," aaya Remi {apiui Hatiriau,
De la PkiloaopkU Seolaitiqut, i. H6), " beyond which the
intellect cannot rise, called by the Qreeka oMa, by tha
Latins atmtia. The e8senc«s indeed, compreheoda all
natures, and everything that exiats ia a portion of this
eeaenee, by participation in which everything that ia hath
its existance." And similarly with the intermediate
genera. " Homo eat multorum hominum anbatantiali)
unitas." Hemigina ia thus a Bealis^ as Eaurian ynarks,
> (hnrftt ittUiU (T^MEwri, latrod. , p. luxv.
SCHOLASTICISM
421
Dot M mnek in the mum of Plato m in the ^rit of
I^nneiudeB, uid Hanrten appliM to thU torm of Itcalum
Bayle'i deMiiptioa of B««liuu in genenl u " le Spiaouime
non dsTsloppA." Tht lOthceatDryua whol« ii «epeci&llj
marked ont u a dark tge, being pHtlj ItUed with citU
troablea and partlj ohancterind bj a reaction of faith
«gainit reaaoo. In the monaaterj of 6t Gall there wat
connderable logical actiri^, bot oothiug of pkilotophical
iatereat is recorded. Tb« chief tiame of the centiuj is
that of Oerbert (died u Pope SjlTseter H in 1003). He
Btodied at AnrilUo ondei Otto of Clagoj, the pnpil of
BemigiQi, and later among tbe Hoors in B)iain, and taught
fttterwardi hiniBeU in tbe Mbool* of Tooc^ Flanij, Bern,
ftod Bheiins. He wu a man of noiTersal attainment,
bnt 0DI7 his trMlJM Ik Eatioitaii tt Batiimt lUi need be
mentioned here. It 11 more int«reating u a difplay of
the logical acqniremeots of the age than •• poMcaeing an^
direct philoaophical bearing. Hie echool o( Charbea,
founded in 990 by Fnlbert, one of Oerberf • pnpils, was
diatingniihad for ctaarlj two ceatoriea not eo mndi for itt
dialeoticB and phikaophf as for ita humanistic coltnre.
The aoconnt which John of Salisbor^ girea of it in the
first half of the IStli oentnrj, nnder the preaLdencj of
Thaodorie and Bernard, giTe* a Teij pleasant glimpae into
the hishnj of the Middle A^ta. Sidm then, m]« thaii
regretful pupil, "Ibb time and lea ear^ hare been
bestowed on grammar, and persona who profeas all art^
liberal and mechanical, are ignorant of the primarj art,
widiont which a man proceeds in rain to the rest For
albeit the other studies assist literature, jot this hu tbe
■ole privilege of making one letteted."'
Hitherto^ if dialectical stodisa had been eometimes
viewed askance bj the stricter ehnrchmen it wm not
becaoae logic had dared to stretch forth its bands towards
the ark of Qod, bnt aimpl; on the gmnnd of the old
opposition between the chorch and tbe world ; th««e
■ecnlar stndiee absorbed time and abilitj which might
h»TB been employed for the glory of Qod and the eervice
of the church. Bat now balder spirits aroM who did not
■hrink bom applying llie dlEtinctlons of their hnman
wisdom to the mysteriea of theology. It was the ezcite-
ment caosed by their attempt, SJid the heterodox con.
elusions which were its first result, that lifted these
Scholastic disputaticma into the central position which
they henceforth occupied in the life of the Middle Ages.
And whereas, np to this time, discoMion had been in the
main of a punly logical character, the next centoriee
show that peculiar oombioation of logio and theotosy
whieh is the mark of Scholasticism, especially in uie
period before the 13th century. Fcv rwsnn, haTing
already aseerted itself so far, could not sunply bs put
under a ban. Orthodoxy bad itself to put on the armour
of reason; and so panoplied its champions soon proved
tbenuelTes superior to their aotagonisia on their own
battlefield.
One of the first of these atta4:kB was made by
s of Tours (999-1088) npoo the doctrine of
utisllon ; he denied the possibility of a change
of substance in the bread and wine withont some oone-
aponding change in the accidenta.
studied at Clhutres, where his eiclnsii
dialectic caused Fnlbert more than oaco to remonstrate
with his pupil According to the tcetimony of his oppo-
nent and former fellow-studeot, I^nfranc, he seems even
in his student daye to hare been by temperament a rebel
against aoth(»ity. "When we were in tbe schools
together," wye Lanfrane, "it was your part always to
collert authorities against the Oatbolia faith." M. de
> JfftobviMt, L 17, <^^aM b ToM* tOmlrttlMm ^ JtiUmml
TiuugU.
Bimnsat chaiaeterina his view on the Eac'jaiist B
spedfie application of Nominalism {"\
epedal ou reatreint k une seule question"). More inti-
mately connected with the progress of philoaophical
thoQ^t was the bitheistie riew of the Trinity propounded
by BosceUinUB as one of the rcsolts of his Nominalistic
theory of knowing and being. The sharpness and one-
sidedness with which he formolatod his position were the
inunediate occasion of the contemporaneous cryatallimtion
of Bealism in the theories of Ansel m and William of
Cbampeaux. Henceforth discouion is carried on with a
full consdonsness of the diflerencea inTolred and the issues
at stske; and, thanks to the heretical oonclnsion disclosed
by Boscellinns, Bealism became eatablished foe several
centuries as the orthodox philosophical creed. Bcseelliniu
{oh. e. 1125) was looked upon by later timea as tbe
originator of the ttUaOia tomm, that u to say, of Nom-
inalism jsoper. Unfortnnataly, we are reduced for a
knowledge of hia poaition to the scanty and iU-natnred
noticea ei his opponents (Aneelm and Abelard). From
tbeoe we gather that he refueed to locogniM the rsali^ of
anything bnt the indiridaal; he treated "the univmal
substance^" says Ansalm, m no more than " flatnm vods,"
a verbal bcsathing or eonnd ; and la a similar strain he
denied any reality to the parts of which a whole, such m
a house, is commonly nid to be composed. The parta in
the one case, the general name or common attribntes in
the other, are only, he seems to have argued, so many
eobjectivs points of view from which we ^oow to regatd
that whidk in its own essence is one and indivisible^
existing in its own right apart from any connexion with
other individnals. ^is pnre individoalism, oonsistently
interpreted, involves the denial of all real relation what-
soever ; for things are related and classified by means of
their general chancteristica. Aooordingly, if theM general
characteristics do not passSM reality, things an reduced
to _a number of characterlcaa and mntnally indifferent
points. It is posaible^ m Eaurteu maintains, that Boaoel-
linoa meant no more than to refute the imteaable Bealism
whidi . asaeria the subatantial and, above all, the inde-
pendent existence of the nniversals. Some of tbe expraa-
sions used by Anselm in controverting his |Meition Uytni
this ide^ nnea they prove that the Realism of Anwlia
himself embraced pontiona discarded by the wiser advo-
cates of that doctrine. Anselm upbnida Boecellinna, for
example, becaoM he was usable to conceive whituiess
apart from ita existence in siHnethiag white. But tbis is
predsely an instance of the hypostatiiatioit of abetrao-
tions in exposing which tbe chief strength and value of
Kominaliam lie. Cousin is cwrect in pointing ont, from
the Bealistio pmnt of view, thai it is one thing to deny
the hypoatatuation of an aoddent like colour or wisdom,
and another thing to deny the foundation is reality of
those "tme and legitimate onivereals" which we under-
stand by the terms genera and speciea. "The human
race is not a word, or, if it is, we are driven to assert that
there is really nothing common and identical in all men —
that the brotherhood and equality of the human bmily
are pure abstractions, and that, since individuality is the
•ole really, the sole reality is diSerence, that is to say,
boatility and war, with no right bnt might, no duty but
interest and no remedy bnt despotism, ^um are the
•ad but nebasaary consequences which logic and history
impoM upon Komioalism and Em^nrioism."* It is not for
a moment to be stfppoaed that the full scope of his docUina
WM preaent to the mind of Boecellinns ; bot Nominalism
would hardly have mado the sensation it did had its
assertions been is Innocent h Eaurteu woald make
them. Like most Innovatorst Hosoelllnua slated hia yosl-
' Omrnfm iiMtU £4Uiard, IMred., j. od, . . _
422
SCHOLASTICISM
tion in bold Ungiuge, vbieh ampliuued ia ot^wMtion to
Sreeepted doctrinaB; and hb words, it not his intentions,
involved tlie extreme NomiuftliBin wliicb, bj makiiig
nniveiaality merelj sabjective, palveriieg existence into
detached particolus!. And, Uiongb we ma; ftcqoit Boecel-
Udub of consciously propounding b theoij ao BubreruTS of
ftll knowledge, his criticism of the doctrine of the Trinity
U proof at least of the determination with which he was
prapared to carry ont his individoalism. If we are not
prepared to say that ' the three Persons are one thing — in
which case the Father and the Boly Ohoet must have
been incarnate along with the Son — then, did usage penult,
he njt, we ooght to speak of three Qoda.
It was this Uieological dednction from his doctrine that
draw upon Boscellinua the polemic of his most celebrated
opponent, Anselm of Cauterbnir (1033-1109). Boscel-
tinuB appears at first to have iiflogined that his tritheistic
theor7 bad the sanction of lAnfranc and Anselm, and the
latter was led in conaeqnence to compose his treatise Da
Fidt Trinitalu. From this may be gathered, in a some-
what indirect and incidental fashion, hia views on the
nature of univenals. " How shall he who has not arrived
at nndeist&ndiug how seveial men are in species one man
comprehend how in that most mjsterioos nature several
parsons, each of which is perfect God, are one Ood t" The
manner in which humanity exists in the individual was soon
to be the subject of keen discussion, and to bring to light
divei^Dg views within the Realistic camp ; bat 8t Ansebn
does not go into detail on this point, and seems to imply
that it is not sonounded by special difflcnlties. In truth,
his Bealism, as has just been seen, was of a somewhat
nscritical type. It waa simply accepted by him in a broad
way as tiie orthodox philosophic doctrine, and the doctrine
which, as a aagacions churchman, he perceived to be moat
in harmony with Christian theolo^. But Anselm's heart
was not in the dialectical subtleties which now began
more and more to engross the schools. The only logical
treatise which be wrott^ De GVanunattco, falls so tar
below the height of his reputation that it leads Prantl
into undue depreciation of Anselm's eminence as a thinker.
Anselm's natural element was theology, and the hi^
metaphysical questions which are as it were the obverse-
of theology. Haur^u calls him with truth " the last of
the fathers"; the sweep of hia thought recalls St Angus-
tine rather than the men of his own time. On the other
band, as the first to formulate the ontological argument
for the existence of Qod, he joins hands with aome of the
profonndeat names in modem philoaophy. This celebrated
argument, which fascinated in turn Descartes, Leibniti,
and E^^I, not to mention other names, appears for the
first time in the pages of Anselm's Proilcffittm. To
Anselm specially belongs the motto Credo ttl inlHligam, or,
as it is otherwiae expressed in the sub-title of his Prot-
lagium, Fidet q)taertnt mldleetttm, " His method, " says
Consin (p. cL), "is to set out from the sacred dogmas aa
they are given by the hand of authoiily, and without at
any time departing from these dogmas to impregnate
them by profound refiedoo, and thus as it were raise
the darkness visiblo of faith to the pure light of philo-
sophy." In this spirit he endeavoured to give a philo-
sqihicU demonstration not only of the existence of Qod
but ahio of the Trinity and the Incarnation, which were
placed by the later Bcholastics among the "mysteriea."
The Chrirtological theory of satisfaction expounded in
the Cur Deia Uomo falls beyond the scope of the present
article. But the Flatonically conceived proof of the being
of Ood contained in the Monologima shows that Anselm's
doctrine of the univereals as substanees in things (iiiiiwr-
tal'ut in n) waa closely connected in his mind with the
thought of the mUterKUia mUt rtm, the exemplars of
perfect goodness and trath and justice^ by p«i-UcipM)c»
in which all earthly Qungs are judged to pooseaa thea*
qualities, In this way he rises like Plato to the abaolnte
Goodness, Justice, and Truth, and then proceeda in Neo-
platonic fashion to a dednction of the Trinity as involTed
in the idea of the divine Word.
Besides its connexion witli the speculatious of Aiuelni,
the doctrine of Roscellinos was also of decisive iufliiencB
within the schools in crystallizing the opposite opinion.
William of Champeaux is reputed the founder of a
definitely formulated Bealism, much as Roscellinns is
regarded as the founder of Nominalism. William of
Champeaux (10T0-1I2I) was instructed by Rcwcelliniu
himself in dialectic His own acUvity as a teacher
belongs to the first years of the I2th eentuxy. He
lectured in Paris in the cathedral school of Notre Jlante
till the year 1108, when he retired to the priorj- of St
Victor on the ontskirls of Paris. But soon afterward^
unable to resist the importunities of his friends aad pupils,
he resumed his lectures ther^ continuing them till hia
removal to the see of ChUons in 1113, and thus laying
the fonndation of the repotation which the monastery
soon acquired. Unfortunately none of the philosoi>hic^
works of William have survived, and we are forced to
depend for an account of bis doctrine upon the etatememts
of his opponent Abelatd, in the Eidoria Crtlantitatum
Iteanan, and in certain manuscripts discovered by Cousin.
From these sources it appears that William professed
snccesuvclj two opinions on the nature of the nniveraaJt^
having beui dislodged from his first position by the criti-
cism of Abetard, his quondam pupil. There is no obacori^
about William's first position. It is a Realism of the
moat nncompromiaiag type, which by its redaction of
individuals to accidents of one identical substance seems
tb tremble on the very verge of Spinosisn. He taught,
says Abelaid, that the same thug or sobstance was
present in its entirety and essence in each individual, and
that individuals differed no whit in their essence bnt only
in the varie^ of their accidents. "Erat autem in ea
■snteoIJa de communitate nniversalinm, ut eandem a
tialiter rem totam simnl singulis snis inesse adatrt
individois, qoornm qoidem nulla esaet in essentia diver-
silas, ted sola mnltitudine aocidentium varietas." Thus
" Bocratitaa " is merely an accident of the substance
"humanitas," or, as it is put by the author of the treatise
Dt CnKTihu tt SpecMm,' "Man is a species, a thing
essentially one (ra una eumtialiter), which receives certain
forms which niake it Socrates. This thing, remaining
essentiallj the same, receives in the same way other forms
which constitute Plato and the other individuals of the
species man ; and, with the exception of those forms which
mOnld that matter into the individual Socrates, there is
nothing in Socrates that is not the same at the same time
under the forms of Plato, . , , According to these men,
even thou^ rationality did not exist in any individeal,
its existence in nature would still remain intact * (Coosin,
Introduction, JK., p. CIX.V Robert Pulleyn expresses the
same point of view concisely when he makes the RealiBt
say, "Spedea una eat substantia, ejus vero individus
multae personae, et hae multae personoe sunt ilia una
substantia. " Bat the difBculties in the way of treating
the universal as snbetaoce or thing are so insnpetable, and
at the same time so obvious, that criticism was speedily
at work upon William of Champeaux'a poaition. He had
■aid expressly that the universal essence, by the addition
' TUi tmUH, flimt )>Dbllitwd hy Cowla la U* Otitraga inUili
SAMard, waa Mttibutcd b; Urn to AbeUnl, ud ha vu fsllawid Is
lUi Doiuka bf Hnoriu ; bst Pnatl addaMi numu vhlch met
for baUtrlBg It to ba ths irork of bd noknawn writsr of
ittT dita (■*• l>rull. n<w*Mkb 4. legik, U. lU).
SCHOLASTICISM
423
of the indiTuIlud forau, vu individiuiued and prfwot
tecun'hm Mam num ^uai%tilatem in each indiTiJoAl. But
if Aomo is whoUy kod eaaentiollj present io bouistea,
then it ll, M it were, absorbed io Socrates : where Socrates
ia not, it cannot ba, conacquentlj not in Plato and the
other iiuHndua AomtHu. This was called tha argument
of the AnsM Soeratieta ; and it appears to have been with
the view of obviating aneh time and apace diflicnitiea,
einptuuixod in the erittciHin of AbeluxL that William
latterly modified his form of expression. . But his seoond
position ia enveloped in considerable obocuritj. Abelard
sajii, " Sic aat«m correiit sententiam, ut deincepa rem
eomdem non esdentialiter sed lndividQ&Iit«r dicaret* In
other wordH, he merel; aonght to avoid the awkward con-
■equeoced of his own doctrine by subetitating " indiridu-
aliter " for "esaentialiter " in hia definition. If wa are to
put a sense upon thin new eipreuion, William ma; pio-
babtf have meant to recall any wordi of hi« which seemed,
bj locating the nnivenal in tlia entirety of its ssdeuce in
each individoal to confer apon the individual an inde-
pendence which did not belong to it — thus leading in tha
end to the demand for a lepante oniverval for each
individual. In opposition to this Nomioaliitio view,
which implied the reversal of bi* whole poaitioo, William
may have mMot to say tliat, iutead of the anivertal being
mnltiplied, it is rather the indiriduala which are redaced
to unity in the nniversaL The species is esaentiaUy one,
but it takea on individual varieties or accidents. If,
however, we are more ill-oatared, we may regard the
phrase, with Frantl, as simply a meaningless makeshift in
extremities ; and if so, Abelard's account of tha sabae-
qnent decline of William'a reputation vroald be explained.
But there is in some of the manuscripts the varioos reed-
ing of "indifierent«r" for " individualiter," and this is
accepted as giving the true eenae of the paasage by
Cousin and R^muaat (Hanriau and IHntl taking, on
diSerent grounds, the oppoajte view). According to this
reading, William sought to rectify his position by aasert-
ing, not the numerical identity of the nniversal in each
individual, but rather its sameness in the sense of indis-
tinguishable similarity. Ueberweg cites a passage from
hid theological works irhich apparently bean out this
view, for William there expressly distinguishes the two
sensea of ths word "same." Peter and Paul, he says, are
the same in so fu as they are both men, although the
humanity of each ia, strictly speaking, not identical but
similar. In the Fetsonaof the Trinity, on the other hand,
the reUtioo ia one of absolute identity.
Whether this view is to .be traced to William or not, it
is certain that the theory of "indifference" or "non-
difference " {indifereniia) was a favourite solution in the
Healistic schools soon after his time. The inherent diffl-
culties of Bealism, brought to light by the explicit state-
ment of the doctrine and by the criticism of Abelard, led
to a variety of attempts to reach a more satisfactory
formula. John of Salisbnry, in his account of the oon-
trovarsiea of these days (Metitlagimi, iL IT) reckons up
nine different views which were held on the question of
the nniversala, and the lidt is extended by Prantl (il
1 1 B) to thirteen. In this list are included of course oil
shadai of opinion, from extreme Nominalism to extreme
Realism. The doctrine of indifference as it appears io
later writers certainly tends, as Prantl points on^ towards
Nominalism, inasmuch as it givee up the suUitautiality of
the nniverwls. The universal couMits of the non-difforont
elements or attribntee in the separate individuals, wliich
alone exist substantially. If we restrict attention to these
non-different elementa, the individual becomes for us the
species, the genns, tc; Everything depends on the point of
view Iron which weretcard it "Nihil omninosat prMt«r
individirom, sed et illnd aliter et alitm attsntnm species
st genus et generalisaimum est" Adelard of Bath (whose
treatise Dt Eodm et ZHierto most have been written
between 1105 and 1117) was probably the author or at all
uventa the elaborator of this doctriae, and he sought by
its means to effect a reconciliation between Plato and
Aristotle: — "Since that which we see is at once genus
and species and indtvidual. Aristotle rightly insisted that
the univetsals do not exist exce|it in the things of sense.
But, since those nniversala, so far as they are called genera
and species, cannot be perceived by auy one in their
purity without the admixtnra of imaginstiou, Plato main-
tained that they existed and could be beheld beyond the
things of sens^ to wit, in the divine mind. Thus these
men, although in words they seem opposed, yet held in
reality the some opinion.' Frantl distinguishes from the
system of indiffarence the " status* doctrine attributed
by John of Salisbury to Walter of Mortagne (o*. 117i),
according to which the universal is essentially united to
the individual, which maybe looked upon, e.j., aa Flato^
man, animal, kc, according to the "status" or point of
view which we assume. But this seems only a different
expression for the lame position, and the Kame may doubt-
teas be said of the theory which employed the outlandish
word " maoeries " (Fr, maniiii) to signify thst genera and
species represented the different ways in nbich individnaU
might be regarded. The eoQcsaaionH to Notoioalism
wMch SQch views embody make them representatire of
what Hauriau calls " the Peripatetic section of the Beslii'tic
Somewhat apart from carrent controversies stood the
teaching of the school of Chartrsa, humanistically nourished
on the study of the audenta Bernard of C3iartres (fib.
1167), called by John of Salisbury " perfectissimns inter
PUtoniccB seculi nostri," tanght at Chartres in the begin-
ning of the 13tii century, when William was still lectui^
ing at St Victor. He endeavoured, according to John of
Salisbnry, to reconcile Plato and Aristotle ; but his
doctrine ia almost wholly derived from the former through
St Aogustine and the commentary of Chalcidiua. llie
Mtavrrtalia in re have little place in his .thoughts, which
are directed by preference to the sternal exemplars as
they exist in the sujMraenBible world of the divine thought.
H'< J/r^acociniu and i/VrrcKoiniw are little more than a
poetic ^DBS upon the Timanu. WiUiam of Conches, a
pupil of Bernard's, was more eclectic in his vien-s, and,
devoting himself to psychological and physiological ques-
tions, was of less importance for the specific logico-meta-
physicai problem. But Gilbert de la Forria (Qilbertus
Forretann^ or, from his birthplace, Poitiers, also called
Fictaviensis, 10T5-1 154), who was also a pupil of Betnard's,
and who was afterwards for about twenty years chancellor
of the cathedral of Cbartreii before he proceeded to
lecture in Paris, is called by Haurteu the most eminent
logician of the Realistic school in the I2th century and
the most profound metaphysician of either school The
views which he expressed in his commentary on the
paendo-Boetdon treatise, De TritutaU, are certainly much
more important than the mediatiring systems already
referred to. The most interesting port of lbs work is the
distinction wliich Oilbert draws between the manner of
existence of genera and species and of substances proper.
He distinguishes between the qmuii tH and the g^ta *)f.
Genera and species certainly exut, but they do tiot exist
in their own right as substances. What exists as a sub-
stance kud the basis of qnalitiea or forma {q-tuid at) may
be sud n^ntart; the forms on the other hand bv which
such an individual substance exist* qualitatively Igwt ut)
tubaittunt, though it cannot be said that they oAtbuU.
Hie iot«Uect coUecta the luuversal, which exist* but not
■■-■■-■■■ o~
424
CHOLASTICIS:
U ft tnbatanee (e$l ttd mm mlntiH), from the porticnkr
things vhicli not meralj are (tmii) bat abo, u subjects of
ftccidenta, have Bubstontiol existeace (nbttant), by cod-
■idering only their substantial similarity or conformity.
He nnirenals are thus forms inherent in things — " native
forms," according to the eipresaion by which Qilbert's
doctrbe IB coQciMly knovm. The individual consists of
an uaemblage of such forms; and it is individual becaose
nowhere else is exactly snch an assemblage to be met
with. The form exists concretely in the individual things
{teiuibilit Ml re leiuibili), for in sensible things form and
matter are always united. But they may be conceived
abstractly or non-eeasuousty by the mind (ttd vimtt con-
dpUw uufNnMu), and they then refer themselvea as
copies to the Ideas their divine exemplars. In Qod, who
is pare form without matter, the archetypes of material
things exiet as eternal immaterial forms. In this way
Gilbert was at once Aristotelian and Platonist. The dis-
tinctions made by him above amount to a formal criticism
of categories, and in the same spirit he teaches that no
one of the categories can be applied in its literal sense to
God. Gilbert was also the aaUior of a purely logical work,
Dt Btx Principiii, in which he criticized the Aristotelian
list of the ten categories, drawing a distinction between
the first fonr — sabstance, quality, quantity, and relation
(«.«., according to Gilbert, indeterminate or potential rela-
tion)— which he called /ttmuu inhaermlet, and the remain-
ing six, which he muntained belong to an object only
throogh its actnal relation to other objects (raptetv alie-
n'tu). To these six^ therefor^ he gave the name ot format
attalaUa. This distinction was adopted in all the schoohi
till the 16th century, and the treatise Dt Sex Principiit
was bonnd up with the Itagoge and the Cattg^iet,
But by far the most outstanding figure in the contro-
versies of the first half of the 13th century is Abelard
(Petms Alnelanlus, also called Palatinni from Pallet, the
place of his birth, 1079-1U2). Abelard was snocessively
the pnpil of Roeceltinus and William of Champeaox, and
the contrast between their views doubtless emphieizeJ to
him at an early period the extravagances of extreme
Nominalism and extreme Realism. He speedily acquired
ft reputation as an nnrivalled dialectician, the name Peri'
patelicDS being bestowed npon him in later years to signify
this ominenee. Almost before he had emerged from the
pupillary state, he came forward in public as the acnte
and Tehement critic of his masters' doctrines, especially
that of William of Champeaux, , whom Abolard seems
oltamately to have superseded in Paris. Aboat Abelard's
. own system there is far from being perfect unanimity of
opinion, some, like Ritter and Erdmann, regarding it as a
moderate form of Bealism, — a return indeed to the poeition
of Aristotle, — while others, like Cousin, lUmusat, ^ur^n,
and TJeberweg, consider it to be essentially Nominaliatic,
only more prudently and perhaps less consistently ex-
pressed than was the case with Roaceltinus. His poeition
is ordinarily designated by the name Conceptnalism,
though there is very little talk of concepts in Abelard's
own writings ; and Cooceptoalism, Hauriau tells us, " <^tai
le nominalisme raisonnable." There can be no doubt, at
all events, that Abelard himself intended to strike ont a
•M mtdia between the extreme Nominalism of Roacelliuns
and the views of the ordinary Realists. Aa against Realism
he iwaintninj consistently Set de re non praedimtvr ;
genera and species, therefore, which are predicated of the
mdividual subject, cannot be treated aa things or sub-
stances. This is manifestly true, however real the facts
may be which are demgnated by the generic and specific
names ; and the position is folly accepted, as has been seen,
by ft Bealist like Gilbert, who peihaps adopted it first from
Abelard. Abelard ahio perceived that Kualism, by separ-
ating the nniveraal substance from the forms which iodt-
vidnaiize it, makes the universal indiSerent to these fornus
and leads directly to the doctrine of the identitf of all
beings in one nniversnl substance or matter — a pantfaoium
which might take either an Averroistic or a Spinozistiu
form. Against the system of uon-difToreuce Abeldttt has
a number of logical and traditional arguments to bring,
but it is sniEcieutly condemned by his fundamental
doctrine that only the individual exists in its own right.
For that system still seems to recognizo a generic sub-
stance as the core of the individual, whereas, according to
Cousin's reEidering of Abelard's doctrine, "only individuals
eiial^ and in the individual nothing but the individuoL"
The individual Socrates may be said to be nude Socrates
by the form Socratitdt ; now "the subject of this form
is not humanity in itselF but that particular part of bunian
nature which is the nature of Socrates. The matter in
the individual Socrates is therefore quite oh much indi-
vidual as his form" {p. clxxiv.). Holding fast then on
the one hand to the individual as the only true substance,
and on the other to the traditional definition of tbo genns
as that which is predicated of a number of individuals
{quod pi-aedicat'ttr de pJaribui), Abelard declared that this
definition of itself condemns the Realistic theory ; only a
name, not a thing, can be so predicated, — not the nam^
however, as a Jiafti* voeii or a collection of letten^ but the
name as used in discourse, the name as a sign, as having
a meaning — in a word, not vox but lermo. Sermo <«(
pratdiatbilit. By these distinctions Abelard hoped to
escape the consequences of extreme Nominalism, from
which, as a matter of history, his doctrine has been dis-
tinguished under the name of Conceptualism, seeing that
it lays stress not on the word as such but on the thought
which the word is intended to convey. Moreover, Abolard
evidently did not mean to imply that the distinctions of
genera and species are of arbitraiy or merely liumflo
impoeition. His favourite expression tor the universal is
"quod de plnribns natum est praedicari" (a translation of
Aristotle, Se InirrprttatioMt, T), which would seem to
point to a real or objective counterpart of the products of
our thought ; and the traditional definitions of Bootina,
whom he frequently quotes, support the same view of the
concept as gathered from a number of individuals in
virtue of a real resemblance. IVhat Abelard coniLote is
the lubstantjation of these resembling qualitieii, which
leads to their being regarded as identical in all the
separate individuals, and thus paves the way for the
gradual undermining of the in^i^idual, the only true sod
indivisible substance. But he modifies his Nominalicm so
as to approach, though somewhat vaguely, to the position
of Aristotle himself. At the same time he has nothing
to say against the Platonic theory of v»i»rr>aha "'t'
rtM, U)o Ideas being interpreted ss exemplars, existing in
the divine underatanding before the creation of things.
Abelard's discussion of the problem (which it is right to
say is on the whole incidental rather than systematic) is
thus marked by an eclecticism which was perhaps the
source at once of its strength and its weakness. lUmusst
characterizes his teaching as displaying " rather an origin-
ality of talent than of ideas," and Prantl says that in tlie
sphere of logic his activity shows no more independence
than that of perhape a hundred othere at the same tima
Bat his brilliant ability and restless activity made him the
central figure in the ^alectical as in the other discussioos
of his time. To him was indirectly due, in the nuiD,
that troubling of the Realistic waters which resulted in so
many modifications of the original thesis ; and his o«)i
somewhat eclectic ruling on the question in debate came
to be tacitly accepted in the schools, astbe ardour of ths
disputants began to abate after the middle t4 the oectaxy-
SCHOLASTICISM
425
Abelvd'* BpplicktioD of dialectia to tboolog; betnyed
tho Nomiaaliftio baiu of bii doctrins- Bb letloailj
(M>mbfttod ths Tritheiua of HoKsUinni, but bii own Tiem
on the Trinitj wen cooiiBiniMd by two coonoiU (>t
SoiMon* in 11!!l tnd at Sen* in lUO). Of the iJtonia-
UvM — three Ood» or him m — which his NonunalintiB
logic preeented to Boacellinn*, BoioeUiDiii bid cboeen the
first; Abelard reooited to the other extreme, reducing the
threo Poraoni to three wpeda or attribntee of the Uvine
Being (Power, Wiidom, end Love). For thii he «m
called to ecconnt by Bernard of ChurTanz {1091-US3),
tho recognized guardian of orthodoxy in Fianoo. Bernaiil
dodnred that he "saTOored of Arim wbea he (poke of tbe
Trinity, of Felagi Hi when he apoka of grace, and of Neetorina
when he apoke of the perwo of ChrieL" "While be
laboured to prove Plato a Christian, ho rbowed himaelf a
heathen." Nor can it be eaid that tho initinct of the
Hint wu altogether at fanlL The garms of Gational-
iam were nnqneetionably preeent in eeveml of Abelard'e
winioni, and still more bo, the tiaditionaliHt* miut have
tSongb^ in his general attitude toward* theological
qneationa "A doctrine is believed," be taid, "not
because Ood has Baid it, bat beeanu we are convinced by
reason that it is no." " Doubt is the rood to InquirT, and
by inqniry we perceive tba truth." (" Dubitando anim ad
inqaiMtioaem venimna, inquirondo veritatam percipimoa.'^
The applieatioD of dialectie to theology woe not new.
Anselttt had made an elaborate employment of rewon in
the interest of faith, bnt the spirit of pious eabordination
which bad marked the demonitratiouB of Anselin aeemed
wanting in the argumantationa of this bolder and more
rastleai spirit ; and the eburch, or at least an inflneoCial
section of it, took alarm at the encioachmeDts of Rational-
ism. Abolard'B remarkable compilalioD Sit tt JTon was
not calculated to allay their Bospicioni. In bringing
logetber the conflicting opinioos of the fathers on all the
chief points of Christian dogmatics, it ma; be admitted
that Xbelard's aim was simply to make th«e contradic-
tions the atartiug point of an Inqniry which ahonld deter-
mina in e«oh ewe tbe tnie position and via media of
Christian theolt^. Only snch a determination conld
enable the doctrines to be aammsrily presented as a aystem
of tboogbL The book was undoubtedly the precnraor of
the famous Bcoli o/SetUaica at Abelard'a own pnpil Peter
Lombard and others, and of all the SvmBnu Tieologiat with
which the ehnrch woe preaently to abonnd. Bnt the anti-
nomiea, as they appeared in Abelard'a treatise, without
their Bolntions, could not bnt seam to insinuate a deep-laid
■cepticiem with regard to authority. And even the pro-
posal to apply the unaided reason to eolve qnestions
which had divided the fatbera must have been resented
by the mora rigid churchmen as the neb intmsion of on
over-confidant Rationalism,
Realism was in the b^DDiog of the 13th centnry the
dominant doctrine and the doctrine of tbe church ; the
Nominalists were the innovators and the eepecisl repre-
■entativee of the ItatiooaUstie tendency. In order to see
the diflerence in this teapect between the schools we have
only to eompare the peaceful and fortnnate life of William
of Champeenx (who enjoyed tbe friendship of Bt Bernard)
with tbe agitated and persecuted existence of Roacelliaus
and, ID a somewhat less degree, of Abelard. But now
the greater boldnees of the dialecticians awakened a spirit
oC genera] distrust in tbe exercise of reoeoQ on sacivd
subjects, and we find even a Realist like Gilbert de la
Porr6e arraigned bj Bernard and bis frienda before a
general council on a charge of heresy (at Rheims, 1148).
TboDgh OUbert wm acquitted, the fact of his being
bron^t to trial illuattates the growing ipirit of suspicion.
Those bwesj'hnnts >bow m the worst side of St Bernard,
yet they are in a way just the obverse of his deep myitical
piety. This is the judgmeut of Otto of Freiaing, a con-
temporary ; — " He was, from the fervonr of his Christian
religion, as jealous as, from bis habitual meekness, he was
in some measure credulous ; so that be held in abhorrence
those who trusted in the wisdom of this world and were
too much attached to human reasonings, and if anything
alien from the Christian faith were said to him in reference
to them he readily gave ear to it." The same attitnde is
maintained by the mystical school of St Victor. Hugo
of St Victor (1097-1111) dsclarEs that "the uncor-
mptod tmth of things cannot be discovered by reason-
ing.' The perils of dialectic ore manifold, eepecially ip
the overbold spirit it engendera Nevertheless Hngo, bjr
tbe composition of his iSiimnia SmtttUiarua, endeavoured
to give a methodical or rational presentation of the con-
tent of faith, and was thus the first of the so-called Sum-
mists. Bicbard of St Victor, prior of the monastery from
11C2 to 11T3, is still more abeorbed in myeticLsm, and bis
successor Walter loeea his temper altogeUier in abuse of
the dialecticians and tbe Snmmiats alike. Tbe Bummista
have OS much to say against tbe existence of Qod as for
it, and tbe dialectidans, having gone to school to the
pagans, have forgotten over Aristotle the way of solvation.
Abelsjd, Petor Lombard, Gilbert de la Porr^e, and Pot«r
of Poitiers be cailB the " four labyrinths of France."
This anger and contempt may have been portly justified
by the discreditable state into which the stndy of h^c
bad fallen. The speculative impulse was exhansted which
marks the end of. the Uth and the first holf of the 12th
century, — a period more original and more interesting in
many ways than the grtit age of Scholasticism in tbe 13th
century. By tbe middle of the century, logical studies bad
lost to a great extent their real interest and oppllcotion,
and had degenerated into trivial displays of ingenuity. On
tbe other bond, tbe Sammists ' occupied themselves merely
in the systematizing of authoritiea. The mystics held aloof
from both, and devoted themselves to tbe procticol work
of preaching and edification. The intellect of the age
thus no longer exhibited itself as a unity ; disintegration
had Bet in. And it is significant of this that ttie ablest
and moat cultured representetive of the second half of the
century was rather an historian of opinion than himself a
philoeopher or theologian. John of Salisbury (Johannes
Sonsberiensis) was educated in France in the years
1136-48 — in Paris under Abelard (who had then returned
to I^ris, and was lecturing at St Oeneviive) and Bobert of
Melon, at Chortres under William of Conches, then again
in Paris under Gilbert de la Porr^e and Robert PoUoyn.
The oatobiographicol account of these years contained in
his Mtlalogitvt is of the utmost value as a picture of the
schools of the time ; it b also one of the historian's chief
sonrcea as o record of the. many-coloured logical views of
tbe period. John was a man of affaire, secretory to three
Bucceaaive orchbishopa of Canterbury, of whom Becket
was one. He died in 1180 as bishop of Chartres. When
a pupil ther^ be bad imbibed to the full the love of close-
ic&l learning which was traditional in the school. An
ardent admirer of Cicero, he was himself the master of an
elegant Latin style, and in his works he often appears
(oS. 1104], etUti th* Itatiltr SmioKiorvH, whoH
wnklHeuis I)i* tait-bnok of tli* Khooli, ud rairtlHd lofar o*a-
tBilM. Hnndrads of cominHitijiH wan vritteD npoB IL Pater of
PoiMan, tba pupil of Pater tht Lonburi, flonri.lisd .bont 114O-70.
Olker uma in Bobait at MalaD, Ha^o «' Amfriu, Btepbin
IvigloB, ud WIlUui of Auam. Hon InpoTtut li AUln da Ulla
(AluiudaIuii])i],<'1iodl«lMut>dTiticw)le1lBl£0S. BitDiAtU
mu i* AiHailiM CaOulim Fidti li i. fiUMnu of ChHatiui Uieoloar,
' wltli I giMtor InfmloB tlun nmal of phllaiophla] "--
426
SCHOLASTICISM
, Bcholurtic
(nore u a coltiTfttad hnmaniet tbftn m
divine: Hia Folieratieut, it bu b«en uid,
BZtent ftQ eDcyelopndia of the caltJTated tliaagbt of the
middle of the IStlt eeotoij." Tlie MetaUffictu in ft
defence of logic agoiiut those who deapised tU philo-
sophicftl traiiiiDg. Bnt John recoiled from the idle
CBSuiBtry which occupied hii own logictJ contemporaries ;
Kod, mindful prDbAbl7 of their nimlesB ingenuity, he adds
the caatioD diat dialectic, Tainable and naceaaarj as it is,
i> " like the sword of Hercules in a pigmy's hand " nnless
there be added to it the accoutrement of the other sciences.
Catholic in spirit rather than dogmatic, John ranb him-
self at times among the Academics, " eince, in those things
about which a wise man may doubt, I deport not from
thur footsteps." The list which he gives of thin^ which
may be doubted {quae naU dMlabiiia lapieiUi) is at once
enrious and instructive. It is uot fittiug to rabtilize
overmnch, and in- the end John of Salisbury't solution is
the practical one, his charitable spirit pointing him in
particular to that love which is the fulfilling of the law.
The Erst period of Scholasticism being thus at an end,
there is an interval of uearly halt a century withont any
Dotsworthy philosophical productions. The causa of the
new development of Scholasticism in the 13th century
was the translation into I^tin for the first time of the
complete works of Aiistotie. An invenU^has been given
of the scanty stock of works acceasiblo (o students in the
9th centDiy. The stock remained unentarged till towards
the middle of the 12th century, when the remaining trea-
tises of the OrganoH became known. Abelard eipressly
slates that he knew only the Caltt/ofia and the De Intev-
mlaliom ; but it seems from passages adduced by Prautl
that he must, before the date of his Dialeaica, have had
some indirect and hearsay knowledge of the contents of the
other treatises, though without being able Iiimnelf to con-
eolt a copy. The books made their way almost noiselessly
into the schools. In 1132 Adam ds FetitPont, it is
stated, made a version of the Prinr Analytici. Gilbert
de la Porr^e, who died in 11S4, refers to the Analytici as
carrently known. Hia disciple Otto of Freising carried the
AnalytKi, the Topica, and the S<^ih. Eleiichi from France
to Germany, probably in the translation of Boetios.
John of Salisbury was acquainted with those and also with
newer and more literal tiauslations. But, while the fuller
knowledge of the ancieut logic resulted in an increase of
formal acuteness,' it appears to have been of but small
benefit to serious studies till there was addod to it a know-
ledge of the other works of Aristotle. This knowledge
came to the Scholastics in the first instance through the
medium of Arabian philosophy. (See Arabian PniLO-
BOFHY.) The doctrines and the works of Aristotle had
been transmitted by the Nentorians to the Arabs, and
among those kept alive by a succession of philosophers,
flnit in the East and aftenvaids iu the West The chief of
these, at least so far as regards the infiuence which they
exerted on medieval philosophy, were Avicenna, Avem-
pace, and Avetrjea. The unification by the last-men-
tioned of Aristotle's active intellect in all men, and his
Donsequent denial of individnal immortality are well
known. The universal human intellect is made by him
to proceed from the divine by a eeries of Neopjatonio
emanations. In the course of the 12th centoiy the writings
of these men were introduced into France by the Jews
of AndalnuB, of Htrseilles, and HontpeUier. " These
writings contained," Bays Eaur^u, "the tert of the
Oiyanon, the Phyiia, the Metaphgtia, the Slhiet, the De
JntDM, the Farta Ifatvralirt, and a large number of
other tieatisee of Aristotle, accompanied by conCinuons
onmmentaries. There arrived besides by the same channel
the glouM* of Heophrastus, of Simplicioa, of Alevoder
of Aphrodisias, of Philopouti^ annotated in the Mine aenae
by the same hands. This was the rich bat dangeroas
present made by the Hnssulman school to the CiiriHtiaa"
(i. 382). To these most be added the Neoplatcnically
inspired FuKt Yitat of the Jewish philosopher Mid poet
Ibn Gebirol, whom the Scholastics cited as AvieebrQn and
believed to be on Arabian.
By special command ol Baimnnd, archbishop of Toledo^
the chief of these works were tionslated from tha Arabic
through the Castilian into Latin by the archdeacon
Dominicns Gonsolvi with the aid of Johannes Aveudeatb
( — ben David), a converted Jew, about 1150. About
the same time, or not long after, the Liltr de Cavni
became known — a work destined to have a powerful
inflnence on Scholastic thought, especially in the period
immediately succeeding. Accepted at first as Aristotle's,
and actually printed in the first I^tin editions of hia works,
the book is in reality an Arabian compilation of Neo-
platonio thesea Of a similar character was the paeudo-
Aristotelian Thtologia which was in circulation at leant aa
early as 1200.
The first effects of this immense acquisition of new
material were markedly ui>settling on the doctrinal ortho-
doxy of the time. The apocryphal Neoplatonic treatises
and the views of the Arabian commentat«>H obscured for tho
first students the gennine doctrine of Aristotle, and the 1 3th
century opens vrith qnite a crop of mystical heresies. The
mystii^ pantheism taught at Faris by Amalrich of Bena
{ob. 1207 ; see Amalrich and UysTiunui), though baaed
by him upon a revival of Scotus Erigens, was doubtless
connected in its origin with the Neoplatonic treatises which
now become current. Tha immanence of God in all things
and His incarnation ss the Holy Spirit in themselves ap-
I>ear to have been the chief doctrines of the Amalricans.
They are reixirted to have said, " Omnia uiium, quia
quictguid est est Deus." About the Name time David of
Dinanl^ in a book Pe ToinU (rendered by Albcrtua De
DiviaonAiu), taught the identity of God with nmltQc (or tho
indivisible principle of bodies) and nouj (or tie indivisiblu
principle of iDtelligencoi) — an cxtrumo licilism culuiina ting
in a material[i>Uc inntheiKin. If they were ilivcrw, ho
argued, there mui^t exist above tbctii stioto higher or
common element or being, in which canu thid would be
Qod, nous, or the oiiginal matter. The ajimid of the
Auialrican doctrine bd to fieico ^icifcciitioiifi, and the
provincial council which met at Paris in 1 209, after con-
demning the heresies of AmoJrich and David, cxiirci>sly
decreed "that neither the bookn of AristoUo ou natural
philosophy, nor commentaries on tho uamu, nhouhl be' read,
whether publicly or privately, at l^s." !■ \i\fi this
prohibition is renewed in the statutes of the nnivcnity of
Paris, as sanctioaed by the papal legate. " Et quod legant
libroe Aristotelis de dialectics tam veteri quain do nova- . .
Non legantnr libri Aristotelis de metaphynica et natnrali
pbilosophia, uec suQima de ii-dem." Permidxion is thus
given to lecture on the logical books, both thoM which
had been known all along and tho»e introduced since 1 1 28,
but the veto upon the Phyuft is extended to the Mrta-
phytic! and the summaries of the Arabian commontator*.
By 1231, however, the fears of the church were b^inning
to be allayed. A bull of Gregory IX. in that year makes
no mention of any Ariatotelian works except ue Fkytio.
As these had been "prohibited by the provincial council
for specific reasons," thay are not to be nsed in the
nntvereity " till such time as they have been examined and
porged of all suspicion of errors." Finally, in the year
]2M, we find the nnivetsity officially prescribing how
many hours are to be devoted to the oiplanatiw of tha
Melapiyiiet and the principal i)hysical treatises of Aristotle.
. Thew cUtes wftlilo U* to meosnre accnratoly the stages 1^
SCHOLASTICISM
427
'wriiich the church acoommodated itMlf to, &ad u it ware
took poweuioD of, the ArutoteLkn philoaophj. Orawiog
knowledga of ArUlotle'B works and tbs multiplication of
traiiBUttOD« enabled atudents to diitingniih the geDQine
Aristotle front the questionable accompamments vit1>
which he luul made bie first appearance in Weetara Enrope.
Presb tniDslationa of Ariiitotle and Averroes bad alreadj
been made from the Arabic bj Michael Boot and
Heimannns Alemanniia, at tha inatance of the emperor
Frederick IL; ao that the whole bodj of Ariatotle'a works
WAS at band in Latb tranalationa f rom abont 1210 to 1235.
Boon afterwarda efforts began to be made to tecura
more literal trandatiooa direct from the Greek. Bobert
Oroaaeteate (ob. 1253) «aa one of the fint to atir in thia
tnattor, and he vrne followed hy Albertoa Magnna and
Thomaa Aqninaa. Half a centnrj thus anfficad to remove
the ban of the ckoreh, and aoon Aristotle ma recognized
on all baoda as " tba philosopbar " par (xcdlaux, the
nunter of those that know. It even became customarj to
draw a parallel between him aa the praeainar Chritti in
naluralibtu and Ji^hn the Baptiat, the praeeurtor Chri^
in graluitit.
This unqnestioaed Bupremacj was not jdelded, however,
at the Tcrj beginning of the [leriod. The earlier doctors
who avail themselves of Ariatotte's work^ while bowing to
bill anthoritj implicit!)' in matters of logic, are generally
found defending a Christianized Platonism against the
doctrine of tbe MtiaphgaeM. So it ia nith Alexander of
Hales (d6. ISlf ), the first Scholastic who was acquainted
with the whole of the ArLstotsliau works and tbe Arabian
comnienteries upon tbom. He was more of a theologiaa
than a philosopher i and in hia chief work, Summa E/nt-
vtitje Thtologine, he simp!; emploTS bis increased philo-
sophical knowledge in the demonstration of tlieological
doctrines. So great, bowevar, did bis achiaTemeaC seem
that be was honoared with the titles of Dodot IrrefToga-
Ulu and TAeoleffomm ifonarcka. Alexander of Hales be-
loDgad to tbe Franciscan order, and it is worth rematking
tha-t it was the mendicant orders which new came forward
as the protagonists of Chriatian learning and faith and,
as it were, reconquered Aristotle for the ehnrch. During
tb» first half of the 13th century, when the nnivendtj of
Paris was plunged in angrj fends with tbe mnnicipalitj,
feuds which even led at one time (1229) to tbe flight of
Uke atodenta in a body, the friais established teachers in
their conventa in Paris. After the univereit; had settled
its qoarrela these continued to teach, and soon became
formidable rivals of tbe locolar lecturerd. After a severe
Btraggle for academical recognition they were finall;
admitted to all tbe privileges of tha univenit; bjr a bnli
of Alexander IV. in 1253. The Franciacaos took tbe lead
in tbu intellectual movement with Alexander of Hales
and Bonaventura, bnt the Dominicans were soon aUe to
boast of two greater names in Albert tbe Qroat and
Thomas Aquinas. Still later Duns Scotus and Occam
were both Franciscans. Alexander of Halea was ancceeded
in his chair of instruction by his pupil John of Rochelle,
who died in 1371 bnt taught only till 1263. His treatise
Dt AiuBUi, on which Hanrten lays particolar stress, is
interesting as showing the greater scope now given to
psychological diacnsaiooa. This waa a natural reanit of
aciuaintanca with ArisCotle'a De Aninia and the numerons
Greek and Arabian commentaries upon it, and it is
olMorvalile in most of the writers that have still to be
mentioned. Even the nature of the nnivanals is no lougar
diunsMtd frtHS a purely logical or metaphysical point of
view, bnt becomes connected with psychological questions.
And, on the whole, tbe widening of intellectual interests is
the chief feature by which the second period ol Scholasti-
citu may be distingoislied from the fint In some respect*
there ia more freshness and interest in the speenlations
which burst forth so ardently in the end of the 11th and
the £nt half of tbe ISth century. Albert and Aquinas
no doubt stood on a higher level than Anaelm and Ahelard,
not merely by their wider range of knowledge but also by
tha intellectual niaasiveness of tbeir achievements ; but it
may be questioned whether tbe earlier writers did not
possess a greater force of origioality and a keener talent
Originality was at no time the strong point of the Middle
Ages, bnt io the later period it was almost of noceadty
buried under the mass of material suddenly thrust upon
the age, to be assimilated. On the other hand, the
influence of this new material is everywhere evident in
the wider range of questions which are diacusaed by the
doctors of the period. Interest ia no longer to the same
extent concentrated on the one question of the univcraala.
Other questions, says Hanriau, are "phiced on the order
of the day, — the question of the elementa of substance,
that of the principle of individuation, that of the origin of
tbe ideas^ of the manner of their exiat«uce in the human
understanding and in the divine thought, as well as
varions others of eqtial interest" (i, 120). Some of these,
it may be aaid, are umply the old Scholastic problem in a
different garb ; but tbe extended horiion of wtuch Haurian
speaks ia amply proved by mere reference to tbe treatises
of Albert and St Thomas. They there seek to reproduce
for their own time all the departments of the Aristotelian
John of Kochelle was ancceeded in 1263 by John
Fidaum, batter known aa Bonavantura (1231-74), who
had also been a pupil of Alexander of Haleo. But the fame
of " the Seraphic Doctor " is connected more closely with
tbe hiatory of myaticiam (aee MTsTiciatc) than with the
main stream of Scholastic thought. Like hia master, he
defended Plato — or what he conaidered to be the Platonic
theory — against the attacka of Aristotle.. Thua he de-
fended the tmivfnalia antt ran as exempiara existent in
the divine intelligence, and cenanrad Ariatotle'a doctrine
of the eternity of the vrorld. Among tha earlier teachers
and writers of this century we bate also to name William
of Anvergne {ob. 1319), whose treatiaea De Uiiieeno and
DtAnima maksextenaivenaa of Aristotle and the Arabiana,
bnt display a similar Platonic leaning. The existence ot
intellections in our minds is, he maintaina, a aofficient
demonstration of the eiiat«uce of an intelligible world,
just as the ideaa of aense are sufficient evidence of a
sensible world. This archetypal world is the Son of God
and true God. Robert Grosseteste, importaat in the sphere
of ecclesiastical politics, haa been already mentioned as
active in procuring translations of Aristotle from the Greek.
He also wrote commentaries on logical and physical wbcka
of Aristotle. Michael Scot, the renowned witardot popular
tradition, earned his reputation by Dumeroas works on
astrology and alchemy. His eonuexion with philosophy
was chiefly in the capacity of a tiaDsUtor. Vincent of
Beauvais (ob. 1364) was the author of an encycloptedic work
called SpMulum Ifqpu, in which, without much independent
ability, he collected the opinions of ancient and medisval
writers on the most diverse pointy banscribiiig the
fragments of their works which be deemed moat interesting.
Albertus Uaguns introduces ns at once to the great age
of Scholasticism. Bom in Swabia in 1.193, he lived to the
greet age of aighty-aeven, dying at Cologne in 1280. The
Umita of bis life tiins include that of hia still greater pupil
Thomas Aqninaa, who was bom in 1337 and died while
still comparatively yonng in 1374. For this reason, and
because the system of 'Diomas is simply that of Albert
roanded to a greater cam[>tetenesii and elaborated In psrta
by the subtle intellect of tha younger man, it will be con-
Yenient not to sspaiate the vivws ot master and scholar^
428
SCHOLASTIC I I
exotpt whom tlioir difierencw mnke it Qecenoiy ; and in
giving ftn Kcoont of tlieir common Ejttem it viU be well
to pnaent it at ooce in its moat perfect form. Albert was
"the £iBt Scbolaetic who reproduced the whole pbiloaojihy
ot Aiiatotle in Rjstematic order with conatant reference
to the Atabie comments tors, »nd who remodelled it
to meet the requirements of ecclesiastical dogma"
{Ueberweg,' i. *36). On this account he was caUed by
his contemporaries " the Universal Doctor." But in Albert
it Toaj be sud that the matter was still too new and too
multifirious to be thoroughlj mastered. The fabric of
knowledge is not'fitlj jointed together in all its parts;
the tbeolc^ian and the philosopher are not perfectly fused
into one individual, but speak sometimes with different
voices In 8t Thomas this is no longer so ; the fusion is
Almost perfect. The pnpLE, entering into his roaster's
labonn^ was able from the first to take a more coropie-
henuve Borve; of the vhole £eld ; and in addition he was
doobtleas endowed with an intellect which wu finer,
tlioagh it might not be more powerful, than his master's.
Albert had the moat touching affection for his distinguished
ecbolar. When he went to Paris in 1245 to lectors and to
take his doctor's degree, his pupil accompanied him ; tad,
on thw return to Cologne, Aquinas taught along with his
master in the great Dominican school there. At a later
iait, when Aqoinaa proceeded to I^ria to lectore inds-
peodentlj, be occupied the Dominican chair at the sanus
time that Bonaventora held the Franciscan professorship.
Thej received the degree of doctor in the same year, 1257.
EUvala in a manner though they were, and diSering on
pcunts of philosophy, the Angelic and Seraphic Doctors were
united in friendship and Cbriitian charity.
The monotheistic influence of Aristotle and his Arabian
commentators shows itaelf in Albert and Aquinas, at the
oatsBl, in the dofiaitivB fashion in which the "mysteries"
of the Trini^ and the Incarnation are henceforth detached
from the sphere of rational or pbiloeophical theology. So
long as the Neoplatooic influence remained strong,
attempts were still made to demonstrate tiie doctrine of
the Trinity, chiefly in a mystical sense as in Erigena, bnt
also by orthodox churchmen like Anselm. Orthodoxy,
whether Catholic or Protestant, has since geaentUy
adopted Thomas's distinction. The eueteoce of God
maintained by Albert and Aquinas to be demonstrable by
reason; but here again they r^ect the ontological argu-
ment of Anselm, and restrict themaelvea to the a potta-ic/ri
proof, riring after the mannei of Aristotle from that
which is prior for as {rportpar Tpo« ^pas) to that which
is prior by nature or in itself (wpinpm ^urii). Ood
is (tot fully comprehensible by ue, eayi Albert, because the
finite is not able to grasp the infinite, yet he is not alto-
E ether beyond onr knowledge ; out intellects are touched
y a ray of his li^t, and tluoogh this contact we
brought into communion with bim. Ood, as the only
•elf-Euhustent and necessary being, is the creator of all
things. Here the Scholastic philosophy comes into con-
Sict with Aristotle's doctrine of the eternity of the world.
Albert and Aquinas alike maintain the Iwginning of the
world in time ; time itself only exists since the moment of
this miraculous creation. But Thomas, though he holds
the fact of creation to be rationally demonstrable, regards
tho begiDDtng of the world w Unu as only an article of
faith, the philoaophicol arguments for and against 1
T\iB question of nnivenab, though fully discossed, no
longer forms the centre of specolation. ^e great age of
Scholasticism presents, indeed, a substantial unanimity
upon this vexed point, maintaining at once, in different
sentfs, the existence of the nntvera^ anU ran, in rt, and
pod rath Albert and Aquinas both profess the moderate
I
Aristotelian Bealism which treats genera and apecies ool;
0* lubitoMiiae ueMiulae, yet as really inherent in the
individuals, and constituting their form or esdence. The
inaU, therefore, have no existence, ad onivenals, ta
a natura ; and Thomas ondorses, in tMs sense, Ht
polemic of Aristotle against Plato's hypout&tized abatraC'
tions. But, in the Augostiuian sense of ideas immanent
the divine mind, the universal unit rem may wlU '
be admitted as poesedsing real existence. finally, bj
abstraction from the individual things of aense, the mind |
is able to contemplate the univerBal apart from its accom-
paniments (atUmal fine Aomtn«, aiinc, et aliia iperifbiu) ;
these sabjective existences are the tauvenatia pott rm of
the Nominalists and Conceptaalista. But the difGcoltiei
rhich emharrasaed a former age in trying to conceive the
lode in which the universal exists in the individnil
reappear in the systems of the present period as the pro-
blem of the prindpium indiuidmUioKU, Th« univenaj,
as the form oc essence of the individual, is called il«
qmddilat (its "what-neaa" or nature); but, besides pos-
sessing a general nature and answering to a general defi-
nition (>.«., bMug a "what"), eveiy man, for example, ii
this particular man, here and now. It is the quesUoe of
the porticolarity or " this-ness " (Kaeeceitai, as Duns Scotoa
afterwards named it) that embarrasses the Scholastics.
Albert and Aqnioas agree in declaring that the principle
of individoation is to be found in matter, not, however, is
matter as a formless substrate bat in determinate matter
(nuUeria ngtutia), which is explained to mean matter quan-
titatively determined in certain respects. "The variety
of indinduals," says Albert, "depends entirely upon ths
dirision of matter" (yndinditorum vaiUitudo Jit ontnu per
divuitmem niafrruie) ; and Aquinas says " the principle of
the diversity of individuals of the same species is the
quantitative division of matter " (ili'vuto mai<riat seetM^n*
ijunniUiittm), which his followers render by the abbreviated
phrase maieria qnuata. A tolerably evident ahortcoming
of such a doctrine is that, while declaring the quantitative
determiuation of matter to be the individual element in
the individual, it gives no acoount of how such quantitatite
determination arises. Yet the problem of the indiiidoal
is really contained in this prior qoestion ; for determinate
matter already involves partienlarity or this-nees. Thu
difficulty was presently rowed by Duns Seotus and the real-
istically-iacliued opponents of the Thomist doctrine. But,is
Ueberweg points out, it might fairly be ursed by Aquinas
that he i£>ss not pretend to explain how the individual is
actually created, but mtrely states what he finds to be an
invariable condition of the existence of individuals. Apart
from this general question, a difficulty orisea on the
Thomist theory in regard to the existence of spirits or
disembodied personalities. This affects first of all the
existence of angels, in regard to whom Aquinas admits tbst
they are immateriEd or separate forms (formal itparatae)-
They possess the principle of individuation in themselves
he teaches, but plurality of individuals is in such a cs^
equivalent to plurality of species (in tu tot ntni tptcit
qua tmU indindua). The same difficulty, howe'c'i
affects the existence of the disembodied human spint.
If individuality depends in matter, must we not cmcliide
with Averroes that individuality is extinguished at deati,
and that only the universal form snrvivest This condo-
sion,,it is needless to say, is strenuously opposed both t?
Albert and Thomas. Albert wrote a sjiecial treatite ^
HHilate iHielUrtiu nntm AnnviilaM, and Thomas in h»
numerous writings is even more explicit It is still odiiu*-
nble, however, to doubt whether Elic hateful consequence
does not follow consistently frcm the theory laid down.
Aqninas regards the souli of men, like the angelf, ■*
immaterial forms ; and he includes in the sod-unit, w to
SCHOLASTICISM
429
rk, not marelj tlie nuima iyKkhuiju of Ariitotla, but kIm
TBgetatiTB, aensitire, appetitire^ and motire faacCioiu.
The Utter dspend, it id trae, od bodily orgaiu dnriag
OUT earthly Bojonra, but the dependeDce u not necewar;.
The soul is created by Ood when the body of which it ii
tliB eatelecfay is ^irepared for it. It i> the natnnd stftta
of the Boul to be united to • body (Animat pritu eoH-
etnit tut (mifaim eoifion jium an a an-fxire tepara-
I'lni), but being immaterial it is not affected by the di<-
BolutioD of tho body. The loul must be immaterial dnce
it has the jiower of cognizing the uniTeraal ; and iti immor-
tality in tuTther based by St Tliamas on tbe natural longing
for unending; erLitence which betangn to a being whoae
thoDshta are not confined to tbe " here " and " now,' blit
are able to abstract from eveiy limitation.
Thomiam, which was deetiued to become the official
philosophy of the KomoQ Catholic Church, became in the
first instance the accepted doctripe of the Dominican
order, who were preiiently Joined in thia allegiance by the
Aogtutinians. The Franciscan order, on the Other band,
early showed their riraliy in attacks upon the doctrinaa of
Albert and Aquinsa. Ooe of the fint of theae waa the
Rtprtliauorntn *» Corrtctoriwn Fratrit Thotnae, pablished
in 1285 by William Laman«, in which the AvaiToistic
conaequcDcea of tbe Thomist doctrine of indtTidnation an
already pressed home. More important was Richard of
Middletown (died about 1300), who anticipated many of
the objections urged soon after him by Dons Scotoa.
This renowned opponent of the Thomist doctrine waa bora
in the second luJf of the 13th century, and after achieTing
an extraordinary snccflM aa a lecturer in Oxf(«d and Paris
died at au early age in tbe year 1308. Hia ayatem ia
cQuditioued throughout l^ its relation to that of Aquinas,
of which it is in effect an elnborato criticiam. The chief
characteristic of this criticism is well eiprenad in the
name bestowed on Duns by his contemporariet — Doctor
Suitiiu. It will be sufficient therefore to note the chief
points in which the two great antagonists differ. Ia
general it may be said that Duos shows le« confidence in
the power of reason than Thomas, and to that extent
Brdmaon and others are right in looking upon his system
as the beginning of tbe decline of St^olastidsm. For
Scholasticism, as perfected by Aquinas, implies the har-
mony of reason and faitb, in the sense tbat they both
tcttch the nme truths. To this general poaition Aquinas,
it has been seen, makes sereral important exceptions ; bat
the exceptions are few in nnmber and precisely defined.
Scotoa extends the number of theological doctrioee wbicb
are not, accwding to him, susceptible of philosophical
proof, inclikding in this class t^e creation of the world oat
of nothing, the immortality of the human soul, and eren
the existence of an almi^ty divine cause of the nuiversa
(though he admits iJie poeaibility of proring an ultimate
cause snperior to all eUe). His destmetiTe criticism thus
tended to reintroduce the dnalism between faith and
reason which Scholasticism bad laboured through oen-
ttuitts to OTercome, tbou^ Bcotos bimsaU, of eourta, had
no inch sceptical intention. But the way in which he
founded tbe leading Christian doctrine* (after confossing
his inability t« rationalize them) on tbe arbitrary will
of Qod was undonbtedly calculated to help in the work of
disintegration. And it is significant that this primacy of
the undetermined will (voltaUat niperior HiC<Mee<w) was
the central contention of the Scotista against the Thomist
dcictrine. Voluntary action, St Thomas had said, is action
originating in self or in an internal principle. As com-
pared with the animals, which are immediately determined
to theii ends by the instinct of the moment, man deter-
mines bit own course of action freely after a certain pro-
cess (rf rational compariaoa (as eoUatioiu qoadam rtOiimu).
It is erident that the freedom here spoken of is B freedom
from the immediacy of impulse— a freedom based upon
onr poaenion of i«auon as a power of comparison, memory,
and forethonght. Nothing is said of an abeolute freedom
of the will ; tbe will in, on the contrary, subordinated to
the reaoon in so far as it is supposed to choose what
reason prooounees good. Accordingly, the Thomist
doctrine may be deHcribed as a moderate determinism.
To thia Scottti opposed an indetercoinism of the extremest
type, describiog the will aa the poaaiblLty of determining
iteelf motivelessly in either of two opposite senaea. Trans-
ferred to the divine activity, Thomas's doctrine led him to
insiat upon the ptnatru bom. The divine will is, equally
with the bnman, subject to a rational determination ; Qod
conunands what is good becanae it ia good. Scotns, on
the other hand, following oat his doctrine of the will,
declared tbe good to be so only by arbitrary imposition.
It is good beeanse Qod willed it, and for no other reason ;
had He commanded precisely the opposite course of con-
duct, that course would have been right by the mere fact
of His oommanding it. Far removed from actuality as
such speculations regarding the priority of intellect or will
in the Divine Being may seem to be, the side taken is yet
a sue index of ^ general teuflency of a philoM^y.
Aquinas is on the side of rationalism, Scotns on the side
of scepticism.
While agreeing with Albert and Thomas in maintaining
the threefold existence of the nniversals. Duns Scotus
attacked tbe Thomist doctrine of individuation. Tbe dis-
tinction of the nniveraal essence and the iudlTidnaliiing
determinationa in the individual does not coincide^ hs
maintained, with the distinction between form and m^ter.
The additional determinations are as tmiy " f<vm " as the
nniveisal essence. If tbe latter be spoken of aa qtmldiiat,
the former may be called hoieeaku. Just aa the gwus
becomee the species by the addition of formal determina-
tions called uie difference, so the species becomes the
individual by the addition of freeh forms of difference.
At amimal beetHnes hoaio by the addition of AiawMtfow, so
homo becomes Socrates by the addition of the qo^itiea
signified by SocratUa*. It is false, therefore, to spei^ t^
matter as the principle of individuation ; and if thia is so
there is no longer any foundation for the Thomiat view
that in angelic natures eveiy individual constitutes a
species apart. Notwithstanding the above doctrine^ how-
ever, Scotus holds that all created things poasess both
matter and form— the soul, for example, possessing a
matter of its own before its union with the body. But
the matter of spiritual beinp is widely different from the
matter of oorpcneal things. In hia treatment of the con-
ception of matter. Duns shows that he inclined much
more to the Realism which makes for jtantheism than was
the ease with the Aristotelianism of Thomas. A perfectly
formlets matter (wotma prma) waa regarded by him aa
the uniTersal substratum and common element of all finite
existences. He expressly intimates in thia coimexioa his
acceptance of Avicebron's position. Ego awtm ad poii-
tKmem Awie^ireHU redea, that is, to the Neoplatonically
conceived Font Yitat of the Jew QebiroL
In the end of the 1 3th century and the beginning of the
14th tbe ThomistH and Scotiata divided the philosophical
and theological world between them. Among the Thomists
may be named John of Paris, Mgidjta of Lessines (wrote in
1278), Bernard of Trilia (1240-93), and Peter of Auvei^e.
More important waa ^gidina of Colonna (I34T-I316),
general of the Augnstiniau order, sumamed Doctor Ftmda-
(ummtu or JSmdanmftiriiM. HerVEeus Nalalis ^oi. 1323)
and Thomas Bradwardine (oi. 1349) were determined oi^kk
nents of Scotism. Biger of Brabant and Oottf ried of Fon-
taioea, '■*i»jia*11«' of the uuivenity of Paris, tan(^t Tbomiom
430
SCHOLASTICISM
at the Sorbcmne; and tbroagh Hambert, abbot of Pinlli,
the doctriue wod admigaioD to the Cistercian order. Among
the disciples of Dun« Scotua ore mantioned Jolin of Bas-
Bolis, Francisciu de MaTTonis (o£. 1327), Antonios Andrete
(ab. e. 13:20), John DumLietoQ and Waller Burleigh
(13TG-135T)of Ozford, Nicoianaof L^ra, Peter of Aqoila,
and others. Henry Goethals or Henr/ of Qheat (Hen-
riiaa OandaTsiuiB, 1217-93L snmamed Doctor SolennU,
occupied oa the whole an independent and pro-Thomist
position, leaning to an Augustiniaa Flatonisnu Gerard of
Bologna (o£. I3I7)and llaoul of Brittaaj are rather to be
ranked with the Thomista. Bo abo it Petrua Hiapantis
(died I3TT as Po[>e John XXI.), who is chieflj important,
howcTBr, an the author of the much-used manual Smn-
mvl/i Laffiralet, in which the logic of the schools was
expanded by the incorporation of fresh matter of a semi-
grammaticai character. Fetnis Hispanua had predecessoTB,
however, in William of ShTreswood (died 1249 ae dian-
cellor of Lincolii) and Lambert of Aoxerre^ and it has
been hotlj dispnted whether the whole of die additions
are not origiiuiUy due to the Bjiantine Syiuptu of Fselloi.
Bj far the greatest disciple of Aquinas is Dante Alighieri,
in whose Divina Conunedia the theology and philoaophy
of the Uiddle Ages, at fixed b; Baint Thomas, have
received the immortality which poetry alone can bestow.
Two names stand aiiart from the others of the century —
Baymond Lnlly (1234-1315) and Boger Bacon (1211-
94). The Art itngna of the former profeased by means of
a species of logical machine to give a rigid demonstration
of all the fnndamsntal Christian doctrine^ and wag
inteiided by its aothor as an unfailing instrument for the
conversion of the Saracens and heathen. Boger Bacon
was rather a pioneer of modem science than a Scholastic,
and pereecntioo and imprisonment were the penalty of
his opposition to the gpirit of hie tim&
The last stage of Scholasticism preceding its dissolntion
is marked by the revival of Nominalism in a militant
form. This doctrine ia already to be found in Petnu
Aareolos {<A. 1321), a Franciscan trained in the Scotiat
doctrine, and in William Dutand of St Poor^n (oi.
1332), a Dominican who passed over from Thomism to
bia later position. But the name with whicb the Kominai'
ism of the 14th centoiy is historically associated ia that
of the "Invincible Doctor," William of Occam (oi. 1347),
who, as the author of a doctrine which came td be almost
universally accepted, received from his followers the title
F«Kra5t/u Ineeptor. The hypostatiziog of abstractions
is the error against which Occam is continnally fighting.
His constantly recurring maxim — known as Occam's razor
— is Enlia nun nnt mititiplicanda praettr necatitatm. The
Realists, be considers, hate greatly sinned against this
maxim in their theory of a real universal or common
element in all the individoals of a class. From one
abstraction they are led to another, to solve the diffictd-
tiee which are created by the rwliiation of the first
Thos the great problem for the Healists is how to derive
the individual from the imivecsaL But the whole inqniry
moves in a world of anreaiities. Everything that exists,
by the mere fact of its eiistence, is iodividual IJinaelihel
TO, to ipK quod ttt, ut hate m). It is abenrd therefore to
■eek for a cause of the individoality of the thing other
than the cause of the thieg itself. The individual is the
only reality, whether the question be of an individual
thing in the external world or an individoal state in the
world of mind. It is not the individual which needs
explanation bnt the universal Occam reproaches the
"modern Platonistt" for perverting the Aristotelian
doctrine by these speculations, and cjainis the anthori^
of Aristotle for his own Nominaltstic doctrina. Hie nni-
tstmI ia not anything rektly existing ; it
predicable (whence the followers of Occam were at Gnt
called Terminiats). It is no mora than a " meotal con-
cept signifying univocally several singulais." It ii t
natural sign representiog these singolar^ but it has no
reality beyond that of the mental act by which it is pro-
duced and that of the singulars of which it is predicated.
As regards the existence (if we may so speak) of the uni-
versa! t» menu, Occam indicates his preference, on llu
gronnd of simplicity, for the view which ideatilies the
concept with the aetia inielliffendi (" una modality pa>-
sag^re de Time," as Haurteu eipreesea it), rather than
for that which treats ideas as distinct entities -within the
mind. And in a similar spirit he explains the vntKranJin
attle rem as being, not substantial existences io God, but
simply God's knowledge of things — a knowledge which ii
not of nniversals bnt of singnlars, since these alone exist
rtaliler. Such a doctrine, in the stress it lays upon the
singular, the object of immediate perception, is evidentlj
inspired by a spirit differing widely even from tiie
moderate Beolism of Thomas. It is a spirit which dis-
bnsta abatractions, which ^akei for direct observation,
for indnctive research. Occam, who is still a Scholastic,
gives us the ScboUstic justification of the spirit which HA
already taken hold upon Boger Bacon, and which was to
enter upon ita rights in the 15th ajid IGtfa ceutnries.
Uoreover, there is no denying that the new Nominalisai
not only represents the love of reality and the spirit of
indnction, bat also contains in itself the germs of tlat
empiricism and sensualism so frequently aasociated with
the former tendencies. St Thomas had regarded thv
knowledge of the universal as an intelleotual actiritj
which might even be advanced in proof of the immortalit}'
of the soul. Occam', on the other hand, maintains in tbe
spirit of Hobbea that the act of abstraction doea not pre-
suppose any activity of the understanding or will, but i>
a spontaneous s«)»ndaiy process by which the firat set
(perception) or the state it leaves behind (haibUni rUrtlidia
« primo ocfu — Hobbes's "decaying sense") is natorallj
followed, as soon as two or more similar reprceentatious
are present.
In another way also Occam heralds the dissolution of
Bcholasticiam. The union of philosophy and thedogy i«
the mark of the Middle Ages, but in Occam their sever-
ance is complete. A pnpil of Scotus, be carried his
master's criticism farther, and denied that any theological
doctrines were rationally demonstrable. Even the exist-
ence and unity of Ood were to be accepted as articles of
faith. The Ceniiioqitnim Thtolofficum, which is devoted
to this negative criticism and to showing the irration^
conaequencBs of many of the chief doctrines of the chares,
has often been dted as an example of thorongbgoiDS
scepticism nnder a mask of solemn irony. Bat if th>'
were so, it would still remain doubtful, as Erdmanii
remarks, whether the irony is directed against the churcb
or against reason. On tbe whole, there is no reason to
doubt Occam's honest adhesion to each of the two gui'^'e
whose contrariety he laboured to display. None tbe iM
is tbe position in itself an untenable one and the |>aieatot
scepticism. The principle of the twofold nature of tTOti
thus embodied in Occam's system was unqaestioniU?
adopted by many merely to cloak their theological unbelin;
and, as has been said, it is significant of the iutenul m-
solution of Scholasticism. Occam denied the title i^ ■
science to theology, emphasizjog, like Scotus, ita prscti»
character. He also followed his master ia laying itreea on
the arbitrary will of Ood as the foundation of moialici'.
ill prinoiplfl Appeared ooculooaUj St u
80H— SOH
431
Haadi sad the coiiMitotad uthoritiM. & ISW OeeunV
iiM wwe put andw * bMi by tlw ■DtvMiity of I^TM^
n tbs followiiig joai N — ' — " ' '
NevertlialaM Um __ _ __
IttudL Dominicuu Uk« Aim^ it Vmmnk (06. 1394)
ftod Oregon ol Bimini Heepted tt. It «m tught hi
Puis b7 Albort << StMoj (ftbont ISMMtO) utd MmUini
of iBgbui (ftboot 1364-77. ■fftnmiA M Haidelbetg)^ M
well aa bf JohMiiWi BnriduiH, vho wu iwtor of the aai-
Tandtf M Mtrlf H 1337. We tad, iomm, m kto m
1473 tkt Attempt iHde to bind aU tMehm b Oe laifar-
BJt; of Pvii bj oktb to teadi the dootriaea of Itwliem ; but
this enariDg effort WH natonllj iiuAetiul, utd fnai 1461
onward even the dtow of obedMnoe ma im> lomac TTwrttd.
I^erre d'Ailly ( 1 3M>-1 420) and John Genoa (Jmd Chariier
de Qenoo, 1363-1439), both chaneaOon of the am<
of Paris, tad the fttmer » oaidinal of the dinrdi, are Ika
chief flgnna amoog the ktar Nomliialiete. Both of th«^
howerer, baaidea their phikiBOphiaBl writingi^ aie the
anthora of works of leligiona edi&»tioa and n^etioal [daty.
The; thna combine tempOTarilj in their own poaona lAat
was no longer combined in the qurit of the tiiit^ tx rather
they atiUj bj toraa the daima M reaaoe and faith. Both
are agreed in placing r^entaooe and faith itr abora
philoaophical koowlet^ Ih^ bebng indaad (OfAon in
particolai) to the hiitoij of niTiticiBm rathar tlauf of
Scholaatieum, and th« aame may be Hid of aaothv
cardinal, Nioolaoa irf Cnaa (1401-64)^ who ia •raaetiniaa
reckooed among tha bat of the BnhAiric, but who haa
more aiBnitjr with Saotaa Erigana thaa with anj intW'
veDing taachv. Hie title "lart of tha Bcholaatiea" fa
commonlj giveo to Gabriel Bial, the -■—"■■■" tl
Oeeam'i docbinet who taught io TttUngen, and diad in
the Tear 1496. The title ia not aotoallj oDtred^ and
might be more fltlj borna by Fraoeia Boaie^ wbo died in
1617. Bat after tha banning at the Ifitk eenUiy
Scholaaticiam was diroroed from the ^irit of the tiHe^
and it ia nsekai to follow ita hiatocy further. Aa haa
beeo indicated in the introdnetory tanuufc^ the end eama
both from within and from withovt. The harmon of
reaaon and futh had girea plaae to the doctrine <R the
dual natnre of buth. While thia aoeptieal thesiB waa
ambraced by philoaopben who had bet their bterast in
leligiDa, the ipiritDally Binded eoodit their Htiafaction
more and dum« in a ayaticiam lAieh beqnentlj Mat
itaeU looae from BBolwiMtiral tnaunela Tlie 14th and
15th ceotnriaa were the great age of Geemao myitieiaiD, -
and it waa not on^ in Gennany that the tide aet thia way.
Boholaatidam had bean the espnarioa of a nnivenal
cboTch and a oomawa baraed laagaaga Tin iiBi*eTM^
of Ruia, with ita a^okia of all natioM nombeted 1^
thoiuanda, waa a mnbol of the intellectnal nnity of
CSmatendom ; and En the udTenity ct Aria, it may
almoat be Mid, Soholaaticiam waa reared and flooriahad
and ^ed. Bat the diCHeot natioaa and tcmgnM of
modern Enrc^ were now '^""■"g to aMert their indl-
vidn^ity, oad nau'a intwaata eeaaad to be predominatingly
acdeaiBaticaL fluhnlaatiriii. tbarefot*^ which waa la ita
aaacoce eochaiaatical, had no longer a umw ield bwita
aotirity. It waa in a bmbbm dqtrind id ita aMoatoMad
iubjeot-matter and diad of inanilioD. Ruloaophy, aa
Haoiiaa finely Mya, waa tha paarion erf Uie 13th century;
bat ia the 13^ hnmaaiaai, ar^ *iMt the beginninga of
aeieaoe and of practiMl dieoorery were bnay cnating a
new world, which wai^aatined in dne time to giro buth
to a aaw phikaophy.
-BoIdH tb* jCMraoi wetia 3m11u with tadl-
*ldu] pUltaostMeL th« cUtf hlitDrte tt ScdNbrtkdoi m tboM
«f UMfiu (iSta nam^fi amlMttm, I **la, UW; nttod
ud amadad fa 1170 *■ BMtin dt la no. Betl.), lanlioh
«»fci«ir^ BeraJmrntaij d.Ml. an glnn in HaurJui-*
M^iOmUti AWaHfiM* t LUUntrm, IMl, md i« K. L VoMt
1609 entered ti
(A.8K.)
. FasDraioK Akmahii, Dun or {e,
0), maiehal of Fnutoe and EnglJah general, waa
nom aa old family of the lUadnate, and wh
it 1619. He began hia military career nnder
" priace of Orangey aod aftar hia death in
I aerrice of France, acquiring nltimately
m istiuKuuD ■■ ■ santtal aeoond only to that "f TnmiiTM
And the prince <tf Qon&k In Faria he made tl
anoe of CharlM it, ato aooofding to hia o
" admitted him togreat familiaritiM with him." In 1660
ho waa aaot to FMtngal, and on hia wi^ thither pnaaed
throoi^ Bn^and to concert with Ghadei oteaanrea for
aapporting that oonDtcy b the coateat with ^lun. Fm
hia aerricM to PortDgal he waa in 1668 made a graade^
aod reoeired a MDWHi of £6000 a year. In 1673 ha waa
inrited by Change to England, with the t'
IB acqnaint-
of the anay, bat ao atrong 1
aentiment mainat the af^wintmeat as Mroon^ a Jfteneh
infloaaM that it waa not carried into effect He therefore
^ain entered the aerriceof Franca, and after hii captnreof
BeUegaide, 3»th Jnfy 167S, noeived the rank <i manhaL
In aUMaqnant eampaigaa be continued to add to hti
nfnMkia antil the revoMtiaa of the edict of Nantes (23d
October 168S) eon^elled him aa a Protestant to quit hia
admited conntiy. ultimately he was choaen ownmander-
in-dtief of the fomea of the elector of Brandenbnra, and
with the eleetort oonaent he joined the [Hince d Orange
OQ his ezpeditian to E^^^and in 1688, as second in com-
maod to tha primea 'ne following jeai he was made a
kni^it of Hie Garter, created BucceBnTely baron, manjoia,
and dok^ and reeetTed from the Honae of Cranmons a
vote of £100|00a In An^nat he waa appoiiited 00m-
maader-in-cfaief cf the eniedition to Ireland against JamM
IL After c^tnring C^iriekfergoa he lAarched onowoaed
thn»^ a oonntry deaolated bmne him to DoDdau, bnt,
as the balk of us forcM were law and nndiseiplined aa
well u ioferior in nnmben to the enemy, he (uemed it
iniffadent to liak a battle^ and entrau^iing himaelf at
Dnadalk daelined to be drawn beyond the circle cf hia
defencea Shortly aftBrwarda pestilence broke ont, and
idten he retired to winter quarters in Ulster hia forcM were
re ahatlered eoaduioa than if they had anatained
defeat. At the same lima competMit aathoritiM
were agreed that the poli^ of masterly inactdri^ iHudk
ha pwsaad waa the oiuy one open to him. In the iqiring
ampaign with tae captnre of Charlemont,
BOOthwaid waa made nntil the arriTal of
At tbe Boyne (July 1, 1690) Schomberg gave
hia opinioo apinat the determinatioo erf William to croM
tha riYer in iaca of the oppoaing anny. In the battle he
hdd oommand of the eenbe^ and, while riding throo^ the
ar withoat his cuiraM to rally hia men, wm soTTOonded
a hand of Irish horsemen and met instantaneous death.
> was buried in Bt htrick'B cathedral, Dnblin, where
there ia a monument to him, with a Latin inscription ty
I^a* Swift ScboAberg ma gmeiaUy I'^rdad in K^
hapwaaad wa
be bagu the
432
1 C H — S 0 H
Und with, gnat respect, and bia munen uid bMting
nndeted bini aniTeraally popular.
BCHONBEQf, Ckkbtiait Fmedbjoh (1799-1868),
froin 1838 professor of chenuiby at Baael, u koown a*
tha diuoveter of Ozon (q.^).
BCMONEBEOK, a town of Pmnian Sanwj, oo tbe laf C
bank of tha Elbs^ 9 milas aboTs Hagdeburg. It contains
maiiDfactoriat of (Atemicali^ macliuier;, pereiueion capi,
■tamh, white lead, and Tarioos other articles, bat is eliiefl;
noted for its extenure salt sprioga and works, whicli pro-
dnoe about 70,000 tons of salt per annom. I^rge beds
.of rock-salt also occur in tlis nBighbonrhood, in which
■hafts have been sunk to a depth of more than 1200 feet.
There is a harbour on tbe Elbe here, and a brisk trade is
carried on in grain and timber. In 1886 SehSnebeck con-
tained 13,316 iohabiCants {incloding the a4J°>'>'og ooni'
momtiea of Salie, Blmen, and Frohse, abont 80,000).
SCHONEBEBQ, a so-called FrouiaD "Tillage," in the
piovinee of Brandenburg, is now really a suburb of Berlin,
whidi it ac(joina on the south-west. It eoQUins the royal
botanio garden, a large maison de sant^, and mannfactoriea
of wpve eollms, enamels, tailvay rolling-Etock, and chem-
ioib. -The population in 1880 was 11,180. The fonndar
two of Alt-8ch5neberg is ascribed to Albert the Bear
(13th eeatury), while Neu-Schoneberg was founded by
frederiek the Great in 1750 to accommodate some
Bohemian weavers, exiled for their religion (c/. Rixsou).
BOHONGAUEB, or Skosh, Martin (UGO-c 1186X
Hie most able engraver and painter of the early Qerman
■dtooL His father was a goldsmith named Caaper, a
native of An^borg, who had aettled at Colmar, where the
chief part of Uartin's life was apent.> BchongaoBr aatab-
lished at Colniar a very important scboot of engraving, out
of which grew the " little maaters " of the snoceeding gene-
ration, a^ a large group of Nuremberg artists. As a
paiutw, Sehongauer was a pnpil of the Flemish Roger Tan
oar Wtmlen the Elder, and his rare existing pictures doeely
reaembfe, boQi in splendour of colour and exquisite minute-
neaa of execution, the beat works of contemporary art in
Flandeia. Among the very few painting which can with
aertainty be attributed to him, Uie chief is a magnificent
altarpieee in the church of St Uartizi, at Colmar, repre-
■euting the Virgin and Child, crowned t7 Angels, witk a
background of roses — a work of the highest beauty, and
large in scale, the figures being nearly life siie. The Colniar
Museum posesaes eleven panels by his huid, *."^ a small
panel of David with Qoliath's Head in the Munich OalleiT
IB attributed Eo him. Hie miniature painting of the Death
of the Virgin in the Engliah National Gallery is probably
tbe work of aome pupiL' In 1188 Bchongaoer died at
Odmar, according to Uie register of St Martin's church.
^Hw main work of SdionnaeT'i Ufa wu ths prodnctian of a
lans nnmbtr of moat highly ftaiihsd and bewttiful sogriTiiin,
whboh win largely lold, not only in Qfiimuiy, bat lUo in Ituy
. and artn in Kagland. la thli nj hii iDflaencs wu Tsrj widdy
•itBodid. Tuui apiiaki of him with much enttinUHm, aud on
that HichaUanlo ctipisd one of hii ananviDn — the Trial of Bt
Anlhoay.' Sehongauer WM tnown in Italy by tha mmM "Btl
DJuall J gfvea wtoaglj at
Dflnr ai
HuDliih Pliukotluilc I* no* kioii
•Rw IGIO, fiom an original si
pcHd. The'daU^ot Schongauer'i dealh, li
HU ai
,«iial hy Bnrgluual
Jfaamaan'i ArMt, 1SS7, p. iiv, ana naniucn, m. xwrng"^.
Tlanoa, ISBO. Thg« eantrndlct the tI*« of OontiwUJer, Id hia
MarUn BcJumgaiur H iini Seolt, Puii, 1876. C/ BclinaaM, "QtHh.
it. SehuBgaiun," Inllia MiWuil. dtr K. K. ConmiuioH. 18«S, Ko. 7.
* Another painting ot the tame iubject In the Durii Pilaa is
Rone (luoallT attTilnited to Danr) ii ginD to 8clu)ng>.iwr by Cnwa
and CBTalaaalle, FUmiik PaMnri, LoDdan, IB79, p. IM ; bnt tba
auoDtlon la not aqul to Betumgua') wmdaifnl toocb.
* iBpla at SchongiBfi'a popataiUy la Italy I*
Ifartino" sod "Hutina d'Anram." Hia ntjaals an a}inn
rallgiooa ; mora than ISO jsiota from eopijer by Ui hanil an ^
known, and aboat 100 more an the wodoetion Dt hia ieUim*
Hoat of ilia pnpila' platra aa mli at hli an m slgBad M+ft.
Among the moat beantlfal o( S^onnoar'a aBsrarliugt an th
•ariat of Iho Paidon and tb% Daath aod Covoutimi oftba Vitgi^
and the leilea of Iha Wiaa and looUth Vt^na ; at mnciiatUlO
has bean givao for a Ana atata of tba Oatniathin i^mtt. AH an
lamaAaUa (01 tbair minlatDia-Uka taatBo^ their brilliant tao^
and thali ohcMsatlB lona. Sana, anoh aa Aa Death *( tha VMn
and tha Adoiation of tha Haal aie tichlytJled compoatdona of
many flgllna, treatoil with mnu largentat of aQle in apita of thair
' — ■■■- '^ of hia a|p and
Elf poaa; and in taohnioal powai
laia. (caH^ for baauty
powai over nit naTer aat
graver aad eapiiar
The Britiih Hoaanm potaeaaaa a Una eoUacUon of Sehongaiat^
prints; Tim hcatmile* of Ui cagnvinn hav* been pndnced by
Ankand-Dniand with laxt by DnplMaia, Ari^ 1881.
SCHOOLORAFT, Hurst Rowi (1793-1804), a North-
Americao traveller, ethnologiat, and autfaor, wan bmu 36tk
March 1793 atWatervUet<iiowealbdQnild«land), Albany
county, New Teak, aod died at Waahington lOth DeoeBtbn
1 864. After atodying diemiatiy and mineralogy at college
he had several yeara^ axparieoM of theii practical applica-
tion, eqwdaUy at a glass-factory dl whidi hia .father was
manager, and in 1817 published his 7itr*aio</g, ■ In the
fallowing year he was ^tpcnnted to the Qetriogical Surrey
of Mlsmiri and Arkansas, and in 1819 he published hu
Yim (f Ot Ltad Miaa o/Miuoitn. Soon after he accost-
panied Oeoenl Om> as geolo^t in his expedition to tha
Lake Superior copper rtfpon, and evinced such capacity fcr
good exploring work on tbe frontier that in 1823 he wii
appointed "agent fm Indian aSain." He then married
lie granddaughter of an. Indian chief ; and during aevenl
years' official work near I^ke Superior he acquired a vast
fund of accurate informatiDn. aa to tbe {^yrique^ language^
social habits, and tribiJ institutions of the American nativaa
From 1838 to 1682 Bcboolaaft was an active marobtt of the
Michigao legislature^ during the saiM period deliveiing be-
torce on tlie grannnatieal stmctnre of uia In^an langnage^
which procured him the gold medal of the n«noh Institnta
In 1S33 also, when on an unbaasy to SKiie Indians, he aacaf-
tained the real aouroe of the Mississippi to be Lake ItasOk
Prsvioni to 18S9 ha bad pobUihad TntA l» Of CMrof Ar>
How 4r Ma jrOMee^ TalW, and in lBt> appaaivd Ut JIgll
it«Mrdla*,oontaiBinc "Hamciia of a BtaUanoa of Thirty Tean
witli tha Indian TriCoL" mkI alac^ notably, "Tha Mph of Hia-
watha and other Oral Laganda,"--pcobably Om Irat oocmram of
tba nanw Immorlaliiad (Ei ISW) la LoB^aliow'a poam. Sobaol-
oraffi lltanty aotJTi^ waa Indaad ismukabltk rinoa. baaidea Ut
athiwlagloal WTitluga, ha oonpoaad a omddiinUa qnanli^ of
poatiy and aevanl minor prsaa wcakt, tapaeitlly Jraa as It*
InfuoU (1S18), SiatiMa «■ Ot Ax yaUoKtJlMSi, Aaaa a*i
tldoiuiim in UU Otark JUohuMM (IBU). Hia principal book,
EiMvricai and Slatiitiial InformaOan r-ptUnt Ou Indian TrAa
^1*1 UniUd SlaUt, illnttratad with IM wall-«ueal«d nlatea bva
DiigiDal diawingt, waa lanud nndar tha patranaga of CongrMa ia
ail qnarto volomea, bom 18GI to 18677 It ia a vaat misa of
atbaologieal reaaarcbn aa to tha Bad Hen of Anwriea, mtematl-
cally amnnd and fnlly, if not aibanitiTal)' ilataUad,— daaaribiaf
not only Oair origin, Uatoty, and auttqaitH bat tha phyow
and mental " tj^ tba tribal ehanolatbtie% tba voeabobiy aad
grammar, tha lallgioa aud mytlialogy. Bohoolmalt'a dlplMaatk
work on tha Indiwi Erontiec waa important, — man than >i'^*'*i
miiliou of aarta being added to tha Blataa' tanitary by meant af
tiaatlea whiah ha negotiatod.
SCHOOLa See EDUCAnoir, Bldtd, Duf axb TJtna,
CoNanrATOiT, Aa, and the relative sectiona of the artaelff
on individnal eonntriee and states.
Sivaa by Uu lovalf FaeaB plato ta tba Billiih Maaenn, oa rtUi H
piintad a aopr of UartU'a baaolifBl eagiHiag at tba Daafli cf ^
~ [ta ; eat PomBT, voL xiz. p. 417.
Saa BartKh, iMXra AodHr. and WlUahln, J adaiK i^M^ b^
loB of 1877. AeurdlBg to a Oarman toadlUon &Jm^»x •"»
th* IsvtBtOT of prioting fnim metal platai ; be eotalnly wea ooe «
tha flrrt wlio bna^t ttu art to parfecllDn. Saa aa intanatlv uttda
byBidnayCalrlalatlM/BJWtKAllrLsi - ■ - -
vi. p. «B, Bau^ laac
433
SCHOOLS OF PAINTING
THE word " achool " as applied to painting' ia used nitb
Tftrions more or leu comprebeuBiTe meBningi. In
its widsBt aenw it indadea «]] the painten of one coootry,
of every date, — u, fot exampla, "tbe Italian »chooL" Id
ita oarroweet sense it denotes a group of painters wlio all
worked under the iDflucDce of one man, — as, for example,
" the school of Raphael" In a third sense it U applied to
the painteiB of one citj or province who for saccessiie
generations worked under some common local inBuence,
and with aome general similarity in design, colour, or
technique, — as, for example, " the Florentine school," " the
Umbrian sehooL" For many reasona the existence of
well -defined schools of painting is now almost wholly a
thing of the past, and the conditions under which the
modem artist gains his education, finds his patrons, and
carries out his work have little in common with those
which were prevalent throughout the Middle Ages. Painters
in the old timea were closely bound together as fellow-
membera of a painters' guild, with its clearly defined set of
rules and traditions ; moreover, the universal system of
apprenticeship, which compelled the yoang painter to work
[or a tenu of years in the botttga or studio of some estab-
lished freedman of the guild, frequently caused the impress
of the genius of one man to be very clearly stamped on a
large number of pupils, who thus all picked np and fre-
quently retained for life certain tricks of manner or peculi-
arities of method which often make it difficult to distinguish
the authorship of a special painting.* The strong similar-
ity which often rtins through the productions of several
artists who had been fellow-pupila under the same master
was largely increased by the fact that most popular
painters, such as BotticelU or Ferugino, turned out from
their batUghe many pictures to which Uie master himself
contributed little beyond the general design, — the actual
execution being in part or even wholly the work of pupils
ar paid assistants. It was not beneath the dignity of a
great painter to turn out vrorks at different scales of prices
to snit rich or poor, varying from the well-paid-for altar-
piece given by some wealthy donor, which the master
would fiaint wholly with his own hand, down to the
humble bit of decorative work for the sides of a wedding
eaafmt, which would be left entirely to the "prentice hand
of a pupiL In other cases the heads only in a picture
would be by the master himself or possibly the whole of
the principal figures, the background and accessories being
left to assistants. The buyer sometimes stipulated in a
carefolly drawn up contract that the cartoon or design
should be wholly the work of the master, and that he
should himself transfer it on to the wall or panel. It will
thus be seen how impossible it is always to decide whether
a picture should be classed as a piece of botttga work or
as a genuine production of a notod master; and this will
explain the strange inequality of execution which is so
striking in many of the works of the old masters, especially
the ItaJjaoB. iosong the early Flemish and Dutch painters
this method of painting does not appear to have been so
largely practised, probably because they considered minute
perfection of workmanship to be of paramount importance.
1. Itatian.
In Italy, as in other parts of Europe, the Bycantine
school of painting was for many centuries nniversally
prfvalan^* and it was not till quite the end of the 13th
I For elMslad ptiatiDe, Ha AjioBaoLoaT, toL U. p. SU . .
alM FiSBoo, Kdul DKoaiTioH, TUpiai, 4Dd tlis «tid« m
wpanle uiiiten.
century that one man of extraor*1inary talent — Oiotto —
broke throtigh the long-established traditions and inaugu-
rated the true Ilenaisianco of thiH art. According to Vaaari,
it was Cimabne who first ceased to work in the Byantina
marmer; but the truth iii tliat hiu pictures, though certainly
superior to thow of hid predecescMrs, are thoroughly charac-
teristic specimens of the Byzantine style. GhibeitL in hia
ConiMflttary (a century earlier than Vasari's work), with
greater accuracy remarks that both Duccio of Siena and
Cimabue worked in the Byiantine manner, and that Giotto
ts the fintt who leamt to punt with naturalistio truth.
In the 12th and the early part of the 13th century Fioa
and Lucca were the chief seats of what rude painting then ex-
isted in Italy. A
ijuniber of works
of this date still-
iwinted Cruci-
fixions treated
in the most ec
ventional I
Giunta Rsano,
who was paint-
ing in the tint
half of the 13th
century, was a
little superior
to the otherwise
dead level of
hieratic conven-
tionalism. He
is said to have
been Cimabue'a
master. In the
I4th century
painting in Pisa
was either Flor-
_.otno(« triplych, byDntciodl Baonin-
entme or Bien- i^Ui—th* ll4iloiuu with Angibi, ud, kbon,
ese in style. Dirid sod lii FrophstL (Hatlowl OtUerr,
No city, not ixmiion-)
even Florence, was so fertile as Siena in native punters
daring the 13th and Uth centuries. The earliest, work-
ing before 1300,
did not emanci-
pate themselves
from the old
Byzantine man-
nerism ; Gnido
da Siena, Duc-
cio (see fig.
1) and Segna
di Baoninsegna
of the peculi-
old schod, — its
rigid attitudes,
its thin stiff
folds, and its
greenish, sba-
flesh tints. In
the first half of Fik. l— Usdouu, by CImil
the! 4theentury GMtrj- )
a number of very able painters were earrjing on at Siena a
panllol development to that which Giotto b«d iuugn - ' - *
434
SCHOOtS OF PAINTING
ht Florence ; cbiet amoDg tliem were Simone di Uftrtino,
Lippo Hemmi, and eipeciaUy Ambrogio Lorenzetti, a
Fia. 1. — ¥ietci> b tb« dinrcli of But* Cnue, Plonoc*, br Olotto—
tli« DUcIplH of St Frucla dlKsrsiiiig tit BtlgnuU on tu* BdiIj.
punter of both panels and large frescoi, wliich diov ricli
and nqble imaginatife power and mncli technical skill. It
is important
and probablj other
painters of hia time
■were, like the ear-
lier Piaan Niccola,
beginning to ttudj
|he then rare ex-
wnplea of clasricai
■enlptore. Qbiberti,
in his Commmlary,
'P^'il!' ^^' fto- *-?"«« ™ . d™ in th. dairt« rf
ausm Ol the beanty thseonrmtofR Uuwit FlonoM.bjrPn
of an antique BtatOa Angditn— Chrlit msatliig 8t DomMliI ud
which he knew only St ftmd*,
from a drawing by Ambrogio Lorenzetti. In the
aecond half of the 14th century Siena produced a large
Pla 6.— Pldnre n
number ot more mediocre painters ; but tlie«e were sno-
ceeded by an abler generation, among whom the chief were
Vta. S. — Th* Anmmiiiition, b]r Uppo LippL (Nitknitl QaUtrj.)
prnfiapa Sano di Pietro and Matteo di Oiovanut, whOM
grand allarpiece (No. 1100), recently acquired, is one of
the glories of the English National Oallary. Many ci-
cellept masters were
working at Siana
thronghoat tha ICth
century and even
later; the last rtamea
of any real note are
those of Peruzd and
Beccafumi. 6odo-
ma, though bssettled
in gtcna in 1501,
does not belong to
the school of Siana ;
his early life was
pasted at Milan,
chiefly under tha
inflnenee of Da
VincL His talent
was developed at
Bome among the fol-
lowers of Kaphael.
On the whole the Fia 7.— PortnJt haul, bj Ghirluirtiio, from
Florentine school "»• i^ ^^ ff*"* >" *^* "trMhw of &
eurpwses in import- «"• So'ii-. 't Fio™«.
ot hi> cud pictnm. (Bulin OiUarj.)
did not emancipate himself from the Byzantine manMr,
was a painter of real g
genius {see fig. 2), g
Oiotto is perhaps ?
the most important _
painter in the his- T
tory of the develop- r
ment of ' art, for jj
during the whole of ^
the 11th century
the painters of Flor-
ence may be said
to have been his~
?upUs and imitators
lee fig. 3). Orcag.
na alone developed
rather a different .
line, more richly da- ft
corative in style aod «
brighter in colour, — V
a linV between the K
art of Oiotto and «
that of Siena. In the ^ .
15tb centnry Flor- Fio. ».— f™™ of Ii^b, by HicltlupK
ence reached its pe- '""'' **" """ "' "" SintiH Cbi]*'-
riod of bigheat artistic splendour and dereloped an alni'*'
S C H O O L I
OF PAINTING
435
Mttoralutie tcliool, which *pp«at« to hav« been inaugurated
bj ita^oiiao aod U«uceio. Some few p«intera, auch as
Fn Ang«lico (■«« fig. i) and hU pnpU BenozHi Oozioli,
prodacad mon purely sacred and decoratiye work, foUow-
ing UiB Uad of Orcagoa. As Baroa Ruinohr has poiated
out, the maia bulk of the Florentine ISth-centui^ painters
raaj be divided into three groapa with different character-
iatiea. He fint, including Uasolino, Hasaccio, Lippo
Lippi, Botticelli, Filippioo Lippi, and iheir pupils, aimed
espadally at ationg action, dramatic force, and passionate
expreoion (see figs. 5 and 6). The second, including
Biidorinetti, Rm-
■elli, Ohirlandaio,
and his pupils, are
remarkable for real-
istic truth and vigor-
ous individuality (see
fig. 7). To the third
belong Qhiberti, vha i
began lifoaaapainter,
PaUaiuolo^' Terroc-
chlo, and his pupils |
Loonardo da Vinci !
•Jid Lorenio di Credi, '
— a groap largely in- '.
flnenced by the prac- '
tic« of the arts of the
^Idsmith and the
■culptor. fiignorelli,
wbow chief works
are at Orvieto and
Uonta Oliveto near I
Biena, was remark- Fio. 10.— Bnptianof Giriit, by Fiero
able, for his know- Fnn«»c», . [NstioMl Gullwy.)
lodge and maaterly treatment of the nude (see fig. 8),
and had mnch influence on the early development of
Uichelangelc^ whose gigantic genius in later life produced
the most original and powerful works that tiie modern
vorld baa seea (see fig. 9). Andrea del Sarto was one
of the last artists of the golden age of painting in
Florence; the toft beauty of his works is, however, often
marred by a monotonous mannerism. To him are wrongly
attributed ntaoy paintings by Puligo and other scholars,
no. II.— Th* Adoration of tha BlKphcrtJi, by Fmicbio <li Lunnio.
(0nll«7»t Perngit)
who imitated his style with various degrees of closeness.
The IGt^ centory in Florence was a period of the most
rapid declins and waa for long chiefly remarkable for its
feeble caricatures of ^ichelangelo'ti inimitable style.
Between the end of the 14th and the beginning of the
> It b InUrtrtlng lo DoM kow Aat. PoUdnalo'i tins tamrs of SI
BrIHtiu In Uh Nttioiul Oillary (LondoD) nHtubla Uia lUtne of the
nnw (Obit iB Lbms catlwdnl by lUtlM Ciiltila.
16th century the Umbrian school produced many lointera
of great importaoce
grouped around a
number of different
centres, such as Qub-
bio, where Ottaviano
Nelll lived; San Se- ,
verino, with its two
Lorenzoa ; Fabrijuio,
Nuzi and Gentile da
Fabriano ; FoMgno, '
whence Hiccolo took ;
his name; and above j
all Botgo San Sepol-
cro, where Piero della
Franceeca was bom.
Piero n-aa one of the
moat charming of all
punten for his deli-
cate modelling, ten-
der colour, and beauty
of expression (see fig. b
10). His maaterpiece, I
a large altar-painting I
of the tfadonna en- 1
thn>Bed, with stand- 1
ing saints at the side 1
endinfrontakneelingL
portrait of Duke Fed- fj^ „ „. . ^„
erigo da Slontefeltro, ^lattd for tb« C«rtoii"nw pitU
in the Brera gallery, tioma Cillery.)
I. 11— Ctntr. of triptlcli, by Ten
Flo. 13.— Tbe tliilaDns bclivcen Bl John Baptiit mil 8( Uwy Uig.
daleDc, by AcJrea Uutcgiii, on canvu. (Nitiotul aalltrj.)
is, strange to say, attributed to his pupil Fra Camovale.*
' Thi ittribulion of tlili migniflMnl pirtn« to Fn CMBoriik mU
nbolly on 1 itatom(nl. eviJtntly crrnneom. of Pungilioui ; lad litnn
many olhtr works by Pttro, tucli ai tin St MLcSmI in Hie NaHouol
Calkrj, m wioaEly itl»(n lo Carnov.lt 1( i, rtoubtful »l,eth«r my
grnDini pirturs by lh« IKler Is now knovo : if tlie B«ra pictur. vera
nally by him hs nould not only ba cremler Dus hii muter Plan, but
would l«onB of tbe cbitf paiuten of the IfilhceHtiUT. _
436
SCHOOLS OF PAINTING
Oontile 6a Fkbnano ^'orlceit in the [lurel^ reliKioiu had
richly deoontJTe etjle that charactoriied I'm Angelico at
PoragU. Fiorenio di Lorenzo (toe fig. 11) »nd Bonfigli
prepared the w»y for Parugino {see fig. 12) and his jiupiU
Finturiochio, Raphael, Lo Spagna, and others. Timoteo
Viti ma anotlier Uralwian pointer of great ability, whose
portrait by Raphael in blaclc and red cbaik is one of tho
most beautiful of the drawings in the Print Room of tlie
Britiiih Kluseum.
The Paduaii school
name of AndrM Man
firm and aculptureaqui
log is comliined will
beauty of colour and
mu expreauon (see fi
Hia pupil Montagn
■tndied under Oian.
«t Venice. Andrea ib
inflnenced and was in£
by the Tenetion sch<
him an ■ttribut«d n
the euly paintings
brother-in-Uw Qian.
■nch as the Tatican Hi
other works more rem
for Tigonr than for gr
The Kbool of Arei
early in its derelc
Uargaritone, who ie a
OTerpraised by his
townsman Vsoari, 1
artist of the most
abilitiei. In the 14
tury Arezzo produce
able paiatera as Spii
Lnca, Niccolo di Qet
15th century it poe
cording.
Venice did not con
toiy ; the Vifarini fa
the middle of it, and
were perhapa infla-
enced by tiia Gar-
man ityle of a con-
tempocaiy painter
from Cologne, known
aa JohanneaAleman-
tms, who had settled
in Venice. Some
years later the tech-
nical methods of
Flanders were intro-
duced by Antonello
said to IWTe learnt
the secret of an oil
medium from the
Van Eycks.1
velli, an able though
mannered painter of
the second half of
the 15th century, BJUdI. (KattoDilQsUery.)
adhered to an earlier type than his contempoiarieB (sea
fig. 14), Oian, Bellini is one of the chief glories of
ary degree bin brotlier Oentiie and his pupil Titlore
t'lu. 18.— 3o-cillfl Sured uul Pni[aiM Lore, bj TlUu.
(Boishw Gill«7, Romi.)
Carpactio.* In the following century Venice posseesed a
Bchool which for glory of colour and technical power hts
neT»r been riTallwl, i^-
' AutoMllo oertninlj la^nHi IwlmUzil l(n(iwl^g« layon.l Hial
1 MiiH«nponiri.i. Id VaaW, ninHlj, thot of gloilng <n tromini
I ulonn oTsr i Umpm gRnmd, ud fas Dut (Itlxr in Ttsly o
hool ; mMBj of Iha thitt Pttmbh i«luL(n di-itKl IMj Id the 1
though it B
the sweet religioon ;
sentiment of the ear- .
lier Venetians. The j
chief names of thin
epoch are Pabna
Vecchio, Oiorgione,
Titian (see fig. 16), j
and Lorenzo IiOtto,
— the last a magnifi- ^
cent portrait painter, |
a branch of art in I
which Venice occu-
pied the highest
rank. In the 16th
century Tintoretto
and Paul Veronese ^
were supreme (see ■}
fig. 17). In the 17th i
and ISth centuries J
Venice produced j
some fwrly good Fio. 17.— Ywtoiu niaU, bj f»BI hiomh.
^rk. (BnmOiJl^.lliUn.)
The Br»cian school has bequeathed two Tery illostriont
names, — Moretto and bia pupil Moroni, both portiait
-painters of extraordinary power during the IBth century
(see fig. 18). Mo- " — "
retio also painted
some fine largo
al tar-pieces, remark-
able for their deli-
cate silver -gre}-
tones and leGned
modelling. Bo-
tremety able painter
of frescoe aa well b>
of easel pictures.
The school c
Verona, which bj
iated from the I3t1i
to the 17th century,
contains few n
of highest import-
ance; exce|>t that of
Ptsanello, the chief
were painters of the Fiu. la.— Portmft el s T»lkr. b> llonw-
endof the ISth and (KiU™i G.IIW7.)
the early part of the I6th century, as Domenico and Ttm-
cesco Morone. Bonsignori, Oirolamo dai Litai, end C»Tai-
■hDuM U Dotcl tlut tlim H* ■ Urga nimibn ol forg^ BP^
nf Gun. Ballini, nun]- of tfacni attachaa to tMl OVS {MUM
piiliUi, nub u CalHH unl fi
CHOOLS OF PAINTING
437
■oU. I^ul Teroncw, thoosh ftt fint he p«iat«d in lii*
natire town, toon itlMhed himBelf to ilia Tenetion schooL
Femra powcaaod % Bm&ll natiTs school in the IGth and
16th eentnrio^ Coaimo Txu%, Enwle Onndi, Do«80 Dotii,
tod OMofalo being among thp chief artists. Ths paiatiDg*
of this Khool are often Tigorous in drawing, but lather
mannered, and luuallT eomeffbAt hard in colour. After
Pia !».— Pirti, b/ Fniicu. (Nilioual QtUuy.}
1470 tliere was an intimate connexion betwwn the ichoote
of Ferraia and Bologna,
The Bologna kIiooI existed, thou^ not in a verj char-
aetemtte form, in the 1 4th centui;.
Francia and Lorenzo Coata of Fer-
rara were its chief ]iainter« at the
end of the 19th cantui; (see fig.
19). It waa, however, in the 16th
and ITth centuiiee that Bologna
took a leading place as a echool of
Italian painting, the beginning of
which dates from abont IISO, when
Mvenl able painten from Ferrara
settled in Bologna. The three Car-
aoci, Odido (see fig. 20), Domeni-
ftiiiin, and Qnercino were the moBt'x>' SO.—Eus Uomo, by
admired painter* of their time, and f^ (».Uod.I M-
continiud to be Mteemed far be- ^'
Tond tliHi raal Talna till abont the middle of tli» 19th
centoiy. Binee then, howBTer, the itiung reaction in
faTosT of earlier art hai gone to the other extreme, and
the raal merit* of the Bobgnese school, such as their
poiwerful drawing
and skilfiJ tlioagh
naiblj ichoUatic
nnniUly OTertooked.
Both Hodena and
Fama poaseeted me-
diocre painters in the
14th and ISth cen-
tnriee. In the 16th
Ct»reggto and hii
pnpil Farmigiano
attained to a Tery
high degree o( pc^n-
laritf . Correggfo,
who wai largely in-
llaenced b<r ue Fer-
rM»-Bologna school,
is aomelimee weak in
drawing and affected
in compoaition, but
will alwaj* be es-
teemed for the rich
ling and the delicate ho. 31 "ttu Edaation of Copld, bj Cor-
peariytoneofhUfleeh "«** (K.ti<iii.iOmUw7.)
tinta. Fig. SI is an axatnnt exunple of hii itjlt, thoogh
The small school of Cremona occupies ODlf a tnbordi-
DAte position. Bo«eaccino waa its ablest painter : his rare
works ai« remarkable for conscientious finiah, combined
In the ISth and early part of the 16th centnry Ullan
bad one of the moot iin-
porUnt RchooU in Italy.
Its first member of any
note was Vincenzo Fo[)-
pa, who was painting
in 1457 and wan the
founder of the early
schooL Ambrogio Bor-
gt^none (bom r. 1459)
merit and strong reli-
gious sentiment. He
followed in the foot-
steps of Foppa, and his
pictures are remarkahle
for the c*lm beaoty of
the faces, and for their
delicate colour (see fig.
22), which recalb tho
manner of Piero della
Franceoca. Leonardo
da Vinci, thoughtrainedp^o. 22.— Tiw u^tic
in Florence, may be said dlKwui* o( Altiudrfa ud Bt C)i(li<r-
to have' created the •"• "' *•»• " '^'^^ ^T Ambrogto
Uter Hilane-se school. b^b^P"™- (N.tKmU G»u«]r.)
Fig. S3 shovB one of the very feir pictures by his hand
which stiU exist. The marvellous and almost unircnal
genius of T "
nardo caused
influence to
powerfully
tended, not <
among hii
mediate pu
but also Ao
almost all
Lombard p
ers of hia ,
and the mn
ing general
Hia cloaeat
lowers were
luno, Lnini,
sare da 6
Beltraffio,
Marco d'C
ono, and i
lesser degrac
drea Sol
Oandenzio
doma, who i:
duced a newi
of painting intof'* M.-Tli.]
tii\ ttodied in Flanders, and in Venice under Oian. Bel-
lini, so that a cnrionsly composite style is visible in some
of his magnificent portruts {see fig. 24). Uost of the
pictorea and many drawings nsnally attributed to Da Vinci
are nally the work of his pupils and imitators. Luini,
in bis magnificent frescos, was one of the last painters
who preserved the religions dignity and simplicity of the
older medieval schools. Fresco painting was practised
by the Milanese after it had been generally kbandoned
438 I
Borne baa tlmyt
native talent in an]
fine arta, and near^
membera of the a
Somftn idiocil can
other citiea. liaa t
fint conidsted of ;
eon&I pnpik of Ba
Fran. Peimi, Da Ini'
lio Romuio, and D
SasBofenato and Oi
ratta were (eeble t
|>opulaT ptuoters in
tentiuy.
The MTI7 hiatoi?
Neapolitan ecbool if
mTthioil; it bad :
vidoal enstence till '
centnTj, and then
in the penoD of C
toiy manj irorks ol
painten were impo
.were afterwards clai
as paintings by earl
ginarj names and 1
tones were inTonl
The Spaniard Bibt
Balvator Roao, e
Oiordano were its cl
meaibeTa in tlie 1'
centniy.
ICHOOLS OF PAINTING
3. 6erman.
It ■.
«11V
Colore in Weatphi
and in the Bhiua [
Tincea genemlly t
Gknnan painting 1
developed at an ea
time. William of (
ogne, who died ab
13Tt^ painted pai
with much delicaej i
lichueBs of cobur {
fig. 25). A number
large and highlyfioisl
altarpieces were pain
in tluspart of Qemu
during the 15th cent
painlen of that time
are known. Artiats
snch BB Schouganer,
Von Ueckenen, Cia-
nach, and others
were more at home
in the engraving of
copper and wood
than in painting, and
to soma extent the
same might be said
of Albert Diirer, an
artist of the highest
and most varied ta-
lents, who especially
excelled as a portrait
painter (see fig. 26).
The Eana Holbeins,
father and son, ea-
pecialljr the latter,
attained the highest rank a
can exceed the vivid trnthfulnesa and exqiuBit« irorV/
manship of t^e' por-
traits bj the yowiger
Holbein (see fig. 27),
who also painted very
bea&tiful religioos
pictnns. Koce his
time Qennanj baa
prodnced few note-
worthy painteTB. In
the 19th oentnry
Overbeckwaa remark-
able for an attempt
to revive the long
dead religious spirit f
in ^lainting, and he
attained much popn- I
laiity,which,however, |
has now almost wholly
died away.
3. Flemiii.
Hubert and Jan
van £;ck, who wereFlO. S7.— Fartnitat*oUiikiM>wnI'd7|bT
painting at the be- HolbalD. (The Higne OtllBij.)
ginning of the 1 6th century, were artijta of tbe very
highest rank; with
their unrivalled tech-
nical skill, th^ ex-
quisite ft"^"^^ and ihe
splendour of their
coloor, they produced
works which in some
respects even sur-
passed Uiose of any
of the Italian point-
ers. Probably
other artists
lavished tJme and
patient labour quite
to the same extent
to which Jan
Eyck did upon 1
of his works, such
as the Arndlfini and 10. 26^Fort«it. bj Ju na Bjck; J»M.
other portraits in the <"•»'»»' '^''^i
National Gallery (see fig. 28), and the Hadonna with the
ptistsd in Itmpar* m nnprimad Unen. (NUtoisl Qalltfj.)
portrait painters ; nothing I knediog Donoi in the Loavre, Tbia last is one gf tb
SCHOOLS OF PAINTING
439
kreliMt pirtniM in the world, both u • Ggnra iwioting
ftnd from ita exqoudte miniature landscape and town in
the distance, til glowing with the warm light of the setting
son. The ^er Van der Wefden was a most able pupil of
the Ttin Eycks ; be occosioiially practiced a vei7 diSerent
technical method from that usually employed in FLtndera,~-
that is to saj, he painted in pure tempera coloun on tm-
primed linen, the flesh tints especially being laid on ex-
tremely thin, BO that the texture of the linen remains
unhidden. Other coloon, inch as a smalto blue used (oc
drapeciea, are applied iu greater body, and the whole is
left nncovered by any Tarnish. A very perfect example
of this exisU in the National Gallery (see flg. 29). The
special method nsed
with such success by
the Van Ejcks and
their school was to
paint the whole pic-
ture carefully in tera-
pen and then to
parent oil colours ;
the me of oil ' as a
mediom was com-
mon in the 13th
century and eren
earlier (see Mubal
Dbcobition). To
the school of the
Van Eycks belong
a number of other
very talented paint- pui so,
ets, who inherited tin ymmga Vta der Wcj-dcu. (Kitloml
much of their mar- Otlltij.)
Tellous dclicncy of finish and richness of colour ; the chief
ot these were Meraling, Van der Ifeire, and the younger
Van der ^^eyden, to whom is attributed Ko. 654 in the
National Gallery (see fig. 30). The colour of tliis lovely
picture is mogniScent beyond all description. Quintia
tiatsys (Uassys) and
Gbeenirdt Darid also
produced works ot
great beauty and ex-
traordinary finished
At the beginning
of the 16th century
Flemish art began to
lose rapidly in vigour,
a weaker style being
subitituted under the
infinence of Italy. To
this period belong
Uabuse, Van Orley,
and Pstinir, who ap-
pear to have been
special admirers of
Raphael's lal«st man-
ner. In the latter half
of the century Antonij
Mot, usually known Fin. SI.— PortnLt by BnbeDi. known u tba
a» Antonio llorp, was "Ch.i«» J. PoU." [K«io«l Grikty-i
a portrait painter of the very highest rank. A por-
n by Ih. Gtrm-iu
•i»la Id tilt 12th
ibA cill.a Fliml'li p^nUn- ot
• of [uinlic^ •pp«n. to Laii
at worki. The weakgr FlcniMi
tnit of QoMn Mary of England at Madrid, and one of a
youth of the Fameoe family at Parma, are real masteqiiecea
of portraiture. He ti
■pent some time in
England. The Breu-
ghel family in the
16th and 17th cen-
turies produced feeble
works finished with
microaoopic detail.
Rubens and his pupil
Vandjck in the 17th
century were among
the greatest portrait
painters the world
has ever seen (see
Egs. 31 and 32), and
had many able fol-
lowers on the Con-
( and i
4- I>uUk.
This aehool was chiefly remarkable for it» p&inten of
gtnre snbjecta, often treated with a very ignoble realism,
especially by the various members of the Temera family.
Rembrandt, the greatest painter of the school, developed
a quite original style, remarkable for the force shown in
his effective treatment
of light and shade.
The vigorous life and
technical skill shown
in some of bis por-
traits have never been .
surpassed (see fig.
33), As a rule, how-
ever, he cared but
little for colour, and
used the etching
needle with special
enjoyment and dex-
terity. Terburg, Ger-
hard Don(Douw), and
Wouwerman had more
sense of beauty, and
worked with the most
miniature -like deli- Flo. S3.— Fortnit otu 0I<1 Womin, by
cacy. Another school B«nbr»ndL (K.tiooil C^trj.)
excelled in landsca|>e, especially Ruysdael and Hobbema
(tee figs. 34 and 35). Vandevelde was remarkable for
Flo. >1 Landui[M. bj Ilu)-«luL (Kitloul Gallery.)
his aea-piec^ and ftul Potter for quiet pastoral nccnen
with extjuisitely painted cattl«. Iliroughout tb« ITtb
SCHOOLS OF PAINTING
century the paintcn of tlie Dntcb ichool tu ontmmibeTed
thow of maj other, ftod mui; of them TMdwd ft Ter^ bir
«Teng« of akilL
The early Spuiull
p«iiit«ra of the ISth
knd 16th centoriea
were morel; feeble
imitaton of Italiui
Ki. MU17 of them,
each »a Juan de
Jnanei^ itndied in
Ital;. RiUltk ud
Znrbanu were per-
hapi the 8nt «ble
utiete who deve-
loped a natioiial
■tylo. The Utter a
reroarkftble for hi*
nuntinge of loaak*;
fig. 36 ahows one of
the best ezunplei.
Hit Urge altupiecM
TelMqae^onetrfthe _
neliteet niMten of ^"^ M.— FiuhIku Priw, bjr ZnAuu.
iilM oration Ih. (»«1«»1CM.,.1
world hu Been, w«a alike grMt in portraiture («ee fig. ST)
And in Urge figure
■objects. HIb eerly
religioiu paintings,
executed under Uie
inflDence of Bib>lt«,
Me tu inferior to
hu Uter works the
beat of which ue
BtUadrid. Hnrillo
U nnuUy ratbw hd-
dervdoed; be wu
reiy aneqaal in hw
work, and ia well
represented nowhere
exeept at Berille.
No words can de-
scribe the exquisite
religions be«utr and
l«tho« of his great
picture of Christ on"* "— ''"^^"^'^'"P 'V. •fSpiin, by
Sie- Cross bending "^^-^ (KUIobU OdJ«,.)
d9wn t9 embrace Qt Fruds. Oofa, who lived into tiie
ISA oentory, was ui artist of great power, hannted b;
a hideous imagination. Fortim;, a Tery cleretr jvaag
painter, who died in Rome in 1874, was remarkable for
hia daring nee of the most brilliant ootonr, with which hii
pictnrea are studded like a moaaic His snccee* has
cauaed him to have conntleas imitators, moat of whom
reprodnce the fanlts rather than the merits of hia work.
His inflnenoe on modem Continental art has b«en *erj
French ar^ like that of Spain, was almoet whollj under
Italian influence daring the IGth and 16th centuries.
Nicohf Pouscdn, in the 17th century, wae the fint to
deyelop a native a^le, though he was much ioflnenced by
Titian. Hu best wwks are bacchanalian aceotii, of whidi
one <rf the finest u in the Kational Oallery <see fig. 38).
TvL Sg.— B4MhuMllu 6«ii«, by Nlcolu Foiib[d. (Nttlooil Oallwj-)
When at bU beat hia fleah painting reaemblet that of
^tian, bat it is frequently marred by nnpleaaftnt hot
colooring. Claude Lorrain ia remarkable for hia bcAnti-
ful and tmaginative landscapea, — often wonting ia a real
Btndy of natnre (see fig. 39). HU finest works are in
no. SV.^iJcdflupe, by Claiida Lomio. (NatkiEul Qftllary-J
England (see p. 4(6). Tbroaghoat the 18th century the
French achool was very prolific, but shored the mediocrity
of the age, the conuption and artificiaUty of which im-
pressed themaelvee etron^y on the painting of the time
The moat popalor artiste of that century were Watteao,
Boacher, Oreuze, CUode Temet, Fragonard, and David,
the reviver of the peeudo-classic style. Id tBe firtt hsU
of the 19th century Prudnion, Ingres, Horace Vemet, and
DeUroche — artists of only moderate merit — were in great
repute, and mors deservedly the very brilliant landscape
Sinter Rouaseao. Millet, Uiough little valued daring his
etiBie, U now highly appreciated Begnault, a very tbie
ICHOOLS OF PAINTING
nri«iBl87I,bek)ai
Art. AtpraMiit(ia
portaot tchool of u
whoi* an mpiMU
skilL nntuvpilf I
tekamd by fmbe M
MpecUlly bjr groM I
is tawKhing irat inU
imprcwionut style,
aalie of cofow, ud tl
to what u ngly or
eome of the tedmica
and Italy, the inSne
ISuiaiaa inflaence d
des Beaoz-Arta ia
connkiea except Ota
The I
I Bri-
tiah* aehool begint
with tlie painters of
miniatun portnita
in the 16th and ITth
centuriea, among
whom the earliest
were Nicholas Hil-
liaid and Isaac Oli-
ver, artists of some
note in the reign of
Elinbeth. Hany
▼ery beaatifiil minia-
tores were produced
by them and by the
yoonger Peter Oli-
Ter, who rose inia
\ celebriQr nndei
the Commonwealth.
Othec able portnit
painters of the 17th
century wore the 3
WUlista Dobeon, a
pupil (rf Vandyck,*
and Samael Cooper ;
bnt the chief court
painten after the
Restoratioimer^ the
Flemish Bir Feter
Lely and Sir God-
frey Kneller, whose
infloence on art in
England was diaas-
trons. The 18th
century produced
many pain ten of the
highest merit, sa
Hogarth, who stands
unrivalled sa a cari-
caturist and moral-
iat, Beynolds and hia
rival Gainsborough,
notable among Uie
chief portrait point
' A law jun igo * (
of tUi gUh, — s twl Di
Job u u nuelitad d
in th* Fuii tKupltiib foi
* Ftr BdUanl [lalati
ITiL p. 4S.
* Todjsk Und and '
41), and Richard Wilson, the fonnder of the English school
of landscape, the chief artistic speciality of the country.
The three brothen Smith of Chicheeter, Oainsbotou^
and later in the
cenCnry John (Old)
Crome of Norwich
and Jamea Ward,
were all landscape
punters of gre&t
ability. England has
since the I8th cen-
tnty been specially _
famed for its school '
of water^oolonr paint- -
en, of which Paul
Sandby was one of
the fonnden; he was
followed by Wheat-
ley, Webbw, Qirtin, j
and Front. Sir Benry j
Baebnm was a Scot-
tish portrait painter
of the highest rank '^
(see fig. 42), butFicia.— PonnUoflt«T.Anh.AliMiii,l>yar
was far leas ad- H. Rubmn. (UttkiM) Portnit OdbrrO
mired in England than the Tscy feeble I^wrenee. little
can be said in favour of many of the most popular
Fui. 13. — nis Tonenin tcFWiid to ber lut Hoorliiai, b; Tlinur.
{Natkiul OtllsTj.)
painters of that time, aa Weet, Barr^ Foseli, North-
cot«s and Bhee, who practised what laa considered
the higheet r-
William Blah^
in apite of hia
wonderful poet-
ical and ima-
S' native power,
red and died
with very inade-
qoate reoogni-g^
tion. Tothefinti
half of the 19th I
centoiy belong B
Turner, the m
greatest of all R
landscape paint- ^
an (see fig. 43), I
uid hia very ^^^ M._pfflii»it, by Dut* OtMti Roswttl.
able Qontampo-
442
ICHOOLS OF PAINTING
field. Scotland produced two of the chief palntsn of
(his time— Sir Williajn Alku and Sir David WUkie.
MuIi«adT was a fine draughtsmoD, BkDful in composition,
bat weak in colour. Eit/d KboUstic drawing recalls the
merifi and faults of the Bulognese school, and he is
freqoeatlf very fine in colour. Eastlake was wealc in
drawing and feeble in composition. Sir Edwin Landseer
eicelled in animal pabting, eepecially in his rendering of
the teztnre of hair and fur, but wae frequentjf rather
harsh in colour* and commonplace in motive. David
Roberta is worth; of note for his very clever water-
coloois of aicMtectiual scenes, J. F. Lewis for bis ex-
quisitely finished Oriental subject^ and J. S. Baven fcv hi*
gnmd and imaginative landiicapes, which, however, an ver;
little known. Dante Qabriel Roasetti (see fig. 14), who
died in 1882, was one of the chief {>^nt«rs of the centnir,
both for the richness of his eobunng and for his strong
poetical ijcegiiiation ; he was one of the founders of the
Fie-Bapbaalito " brotherhood " f see Roessm), whoae lise,
development, and widespread mflvence on Dainting in
Britain have iMen the chief artistic events in tniis centaij,
and have produced a few paintera whose eametfbieiB of
purpose and origpnality of power give them a foi '
and abeolutelj unique position in modcni flmope.
List dp PmrrEBS,
He following lista give the chief painters clasdfied according to thttr schools in chranologic^ order.
1, IMioK at/ml*.*
bo pi^tliiiEi 1^ Iheu ue kDOWD to
Anbiwlo LarrnieULPistni'ilmacr,
lisSi; d.c.lMH
NimulodiBegTU, tlSU.
no dlKrtro (V
IvIhnI" U put befijn (hfl d«tc, wtiiolj
L>ulin<tnitr rmiii niitlnEilibd ptt
ariniinv paintcn' llv?» : hrnvnlnnisnr
ntfs tMyBTVofa [«lnriT'B Ijirth diul
Em^"*
sriin^lBTl vpt oi
; 1 iisrouKpIUI
Hlchulna [BKotlmU),
aior^o Vuul, Bt hMoTlu, IJ
1 AngillcD(a[Uda lU Vicchln),
mmuD dl k' OlDxiuil [HuscdD).
4ica BifluorclU (Da Curtnu
IKtaTila pf1iicip.ltropll »
M» NIlilDiDH 1443, ii. txft)
IBdro BoUkKllI, IMM619.
knnoilca Bisnnll (Ghirltudii
ter bla pnpil and bnliiu
<iniiii(idlCndi,lU»-l»T. T
Finn dl CoafmiL 14at1IiZI.
■asy
PoUgo cloak]' in
Jleiretlo Null, 11 13*«-Bt.
VDlik da Fkbriatw. ^ bQtvnn la
•iim"^ Ualo (l-fitnricclilo)
Pcni^aa'acliool onfy diuinfltli«
Gualdtv 8art(»lDiii«o lii TqnjnuuD^anil
ntta t«1ol«n who bdlopsed T~ '' '
"SSt
6, ai>f*n4tU)r a la1low«r
puplla mnhla ana Fninxw (b, c
Ufa, diad aflar ISIT). Carto (oaHad)
dot hanlajaa, plov. Pian. Ct
as xooiai^ t/Lun. i.wm.
> DDsa of HaaWaa md Otan. Dil-
loLlniBdad a a^ol at YIouk, te
■ad BtoKleXlIsiiUgDii, ttaa iattar
pdvOa nuaiah"! FeoBri and Siotato
fiosd *M iwa tf bat lUOa takot.
InlorKuiamslLltM-lT.
—II
eilaHL&AUOA
ni.
t^Ucffiaa dUlIi^ntelB. tHBB-Uff.
■DdraaF — '~~ -■■--^■*-
FUma (Vscxhin), IMe-l'i^
aL Uabila (Fudainu}. !»>-
DO Lociail <Dal PtoalBlh IK)-
• SUwaritDM, • TBT tiad lalnlw,
aiBch oinrpnlam] by Vtaaii W°^
nallrtiiKi tpafAtl iebool : ik ■««i
an Infarior to OMiteiapuf aiy nad Jaiu^
nalaltaumrchiBimiUHaikoill- n*
tlattoJTOan^ y ■m =■ "°»!^
■■Warfarie do £wo.- Saai^*
s c
tad t Tmnftan, who WH fulitlu
tnar UTIL^pntabtj i m of cma of
jBOoaa RDlnalirniitecA^ ItUM.
Bnudlio III tadmm, lM>-».
A>dn* SaUiTcim, lt»M.
Jbcoih PiliuTolaniwjL UM-lMt.
Mmmain Vinliiil(Mgiuli»), IMO-
Donnloe awiptwl (Un
Juopo LohU. 4^14ax
"-'-^■~ OMtUI, LllM
, mrlj iotli an
ilnlifbindaiMaB
S,k;v.
PnDHMS BOM^Ml, HK-KU
(L-Oito-
Una), «ul|r put of I
OUetaw Ou^ IMl-w.
(nDBofafiw.
Ootdn ^ BotopuL mn.
DlHBS, fl.llW-W.t '
VllsU i> Bllta^■^ LuaMO.
Uppo Dilnd,Alun W *(UrltUL
Biiiiau (allid) ilr OmttHt, 1.1*70.
0 IHOW iWl AtmbI, L Ma cut <
Mtli ■■tniT. *lK> alHBd >ll
Jaoopo dl flil'f fit IHh MBtDT.
PmHH^oblbgltal [aUed nuol
•Ak kl> HMttrt, >.1(U-U1I.
Lenug Oixta of Pbiuk. IIO^UM.
■. Kgnlli bM poiBlid nt,
■ pWan al (teBBtoatuuL tifur
Bolo^^MTt
HOOLS OF PAINTING
AtnlMB Tnln, UK-n.
1I.1ML1*!
luiot And FlUppo, «ulj lAh
?^U«r< (ODinBEhl), IlM-lWt,
■CO HunoU (Fmnnlgiuw),
4(L HU pnpU Olnlsiuo Ku-
1 danlf ImJ^Md hli mnka.
elo BcwKHna, II.lt««, d-UK.
K Papp^ ILIIH-M (IM ullO
lie iliL TnTigllD, 1. >na
inn, Audi" *■ fclHto (c liM ■-
■fUr UU), nod mon lUnotlT Ot
FtaDlM, uitnclo Piwto, OWLK
le. MI&lMn, Adm HaiaB, i
Wot. AbL fiSUnfto aMT-inQ.
_—- SKI „
UUK OTwhoU* InUlM p—MW.
lUnliakiinki la CunHsl& IBW^M*.
WnmimntLoaiiSilrttoXlUS.
« luri, ffM. V AMCiif, Bgka'a
HU OtacduD, ten-lTOL
t. Gtrmait ScMooL
rolHln c« Hiria or wmiK
NiMilw OrUBtw^ cl*» to uttlr
KHtor CktMaphocn, 1.110^10.
Huln oC tlia Pe^ at Oim Tlifia. a.
u !Balt«la tta <Uw, (.1M0-1MI,
Qi Fhh (Viu KDlntawU piip" of
nabt Alcdolv, b lHlf» UH-UH.
oh Aldanm, U
Jotesn PrtaL Oi^nk, tTSMtetk
jBtlaSobnarr, ITltlSri
Kill rilld. Lwll« MtMO.
a. nmiOtSAail
VricUM IbiwUidui, a.iM-e.llOa
HqbHt na ErA, b.A IBM, d.*ftw MM.
Ju nn Xm, ro«V <■«<' '
HulAt. (L aAbt IMO.
B nn dirlTor)
of (Bwnt, Llul-nL
MOneKlUt-l
IHt LOB^Hll 0
AMon Vudysk. im-lMl.
UrtuB iu DRooht, ItM-lua.
FUUppA da Cbo^ilmi 140^^
DtTk^Blon . .
ba yDOBMr* 1010'M-
ML^ICUtaiflBldH,
* 14C< lIM, U il DHldlr JDppOHd.
BobonjuMT !■ BtHlkiiad br 1. pttnr
■■ Ma* > r«a« iwBtlo* ta l«Tgi
• Tho IWikn, Ownib Horn'-' ■-
n FnHato Hniot, IM
■fFlHilibpalUn
Hi Bt Bnbui, Und
rt TU Onnttr, tarif put 0( IHk
[doiBiiirlaB^uiddfUt^uBtiiij.
Luh^hSh) m lardo, MM-IM.
Jin nn Sebomt, IMfrlMt
OonHlla no Builom (U«»'1«M Oic-
luUo nn Poglubmc OHKltm od
Ouud nn HanlboMOMi.riaan,
tbou^ Dutch b* bhth, «• iMUi
Imffitrrrt pf ItallMi mWiiflii
Ttuu H(1lUM.|«MI
□»mndoSarm, o.uM'ClMOi
^OtUl JUWB, (.UH-UN,
[u nn OtfHL lIM-igH.
AlbMCU]i,]M>-Bl.
Rutmadt Tu BUn or ^n, UOMt.
THntii d. iftcr 1S7C.
1 Tin OMhU, inMt.
Podliwid Ek^, 1«I141.
But. TH dB HtOM, Kit-n.
Oariiwd Don, UIU4S.
Aut TU d(rll«r, iLim* to iflB Un.
FhOip do KDBllKlh !«««.
FhUip Vanvwim, ItflMi.
Ju BiMWi Wiiib, Ittl^a
oobBoridHLldtMt.
ia(ft(on, ISts-IK
inl DiijHdln, uaO-TH.
>Mei il^ imu •n«ia«7.
■tolt Ihnkhiiiiia. IsSi-iTefc
Fnna tu NInti tlw oldw, 1«M«.
Hl> Hu Ju *Bd -VIUu *n b(4k
Jin BHtaHTL B.l«M-17si
Jm Tin dor Btrdon, lOT'lTl^
>Maditt Hsbbnu, lOB-in*.
DuM ttjtmm Oa Toufir, i.llH
JunBOil.lTtt-U(».
A Inio nnmlH of ntoMj Hdrd-nM
palBton Hdrtad In tho IM nd ITIh
Antonio dtl Blneini, IMS-lKn.
Jvn do Ju£^ (VlamU Jouw). UOt-
n. Hi! oilier pnj^naBsrm.
Lnkd«Manle(,it.ail>«.
FnndHo Iiiitann, UM.1««1
Uegi TdHMi ^BUn, 1M»-1M&
FnnetosoOoDMtu, ISM-UM
flbi—i Ana, im-dT-
Jm Oiinba do JHnndn, M*M.
ButstoBO KiMtu ■offio, lOMI.
444
iXSi',
bJlMUkO fcHH lWlMHI*Wll
JflBdtwtcitT(iiin,S.MW: Uarai
_ itaOiiiaWiIiMft
1 C H 0 O L S
7. BrUiABOinl
OP PAINTING
wwSSV... . ,—
Jaoqwa BhacWll.l.,. „
ChHiH A>Mm DBfnanr, ini-W.
Omn oSrt (alM FsikIb (fui
BBtmlw la Biw, 1«i»ja
k ttiiiirttuii uoiiwSDtH *«» the
BodllaivH ^lb> ud two BU),
B^nd, Htoolu Ca»2 Flen Mb-
Itm CkI IB Los, ^[ida Tnrt,
ilMU WltUMu UH-im.
Jam BaptMnMo; IMHTN.
PnuMti BooAtr, HM-n.
JiuBaptMa Onaai, ITKlMt.
Jiu Hamii* riHuri, ITM-lHg.
laeaiB iMili Dairtd, irU-ltM.
•HiM te Da tU-t pDlDt Uu d
paawlD^liaialg ^a kiaii«t»al
Butint Valkar, f -'
iBitT ttn^aU Itaa Uth aantDT.
Ftan Md1Wl^ll■, inMtM.
PnanitoibilH Omat, im-iMIt
>ia»iiJMm Iwaa, ITM-MT.
nZlsn SMatfl, ITn-IOL
Ii4ivoM Hot(rt|in4'UH.
ftal Patorp&a, ITW-MBI.
AtaambaaSaSd Daiuim. UtHO.
IModon Bauatas, Kulr.
JiU FlUfnh MlUat 1814-11.
Bod Bapwdt, iMl-Ti.
He f oUowin^ lut gire» tome indicatioii of the
in which tlie engtiiig piettiw of Tuiou Khools an distri-
bntad imoDg tin chief gklleriea of Enn^a
Tha NkUoiul Galln;, London, eootafni for ito ^n k toj luga
uambsT of U^iljr important idctoni at the ItiUu Khooli. nan;
of them ilgnBil ud dit«d ; in foct, a* a loprawntatiTe ooUectbm,
•mbndng ai It doai *»U-cbMm *iWMm>H of even achoal and
^Dding maiij painlingi of tujp laro nuatan, it i> nanllj i
I7 an; ^Qn; in tha world. Thoo^ wtak in palnUuga
•nd lua adiDol, it poanaan man; aari; Hianwi) pictani of gnat
intanrt and "wr"'— ' importaiMa (aaa flg. 1^ and a coUectiou
wulTaUodoat ^ltal;oftlu«oikioftIietMat rlonotine uiuUn
_. ..i_ -.1.1 .._. — ji ftolo UcoJla Idppa Lipid, PoIUiaolo,
' di Oadi, andc"^— — '- "■
IS^.
of tba IGth osnt
S^nanlll, Bottk .. . _
or th* wj few eiiffiiw laaal pktnni b; Unn
OaUarr contain* Mu (ingDad), St Owina and St Autbony. The
pOTtnit b; Andra d«l Sarto ia ona of Ua Ibiat irorkB,~^ridl ni life
and iinaiwirai and rich In ton*> In addition to a laj^ psintiiig
an oanna <rf the aehool of Hichalauals— Lada and the sWao '—-tha
Hatioaal Oanarr poaataMa two nnBiiiabad pjctuRa, a Uadonna and
Jjigali and an Kntombmoit of Chiid, both of «hieli,ili ipits of
man; advan* ctittdona, appau' to be gannina worka of Hicbel-
angdc^ tba foimar in hi* aa^;, the latni hi hi* later manner — a
Taqr ramartaJile poeMadcm tar ona ffdlan, aaelna that the odI;
other gannina eaagl r«i"*'"ff by him i* tM dtvUMi pand of the
UadamainthebibrnMortSaDlllriCFlonnce). He bar pietnret
cobU better lapieaent Baphiel'a U^tr ntlad mannen than the
Dduktme Kni^t^e Dnam, the AuUTtd lladmini, the St Catherine,
and the Oawitfi Kadonna, wMch in the data* of their meentjon
II Daari; the vboU of hie ihort woiUng life. In th* Venetlaii
.m^Mi the KatJonal Oellen ii almoat uiuiTalled : it nmtaiiu a
luge number at fine eiampjee of Crirelli (ace fig. 14), — Tenice not
po**eBBiu one ; two ma janaii b; Haidalt^ beui tigned and dated
(lEOO aid 1B07}; the fineet apecimoie of (Uavaniii Ballini (aee
fig. IB) and hie acliaol which eiiat eat of Tenice ; one of Tltias'a
nobleet wotk*,— the Ariadne and Bacchiu, finiihed hi IfiSt fat th*
dnks of Ferrare, together with two other flue [nctnrea of eaiUar
date ; and the mietcrpieea of Sabattiano del Piombo, hie Haiaing of
Idunu, pHTtly dedgned b; Uicheluigela The amiUec achooli cd
Fernn asd CrsDiona ui n-oll rcpteeeoCed bv eumplea of neiri;
dl their chief paintera. Of tha Umbrion school llie e*ller; poa-
iKsaea two or ntlier three important, thoQgh much injaied, paoali
b; ?ien> della Fnunaca {see lig. 10), a hue picture b; Ifloniuo di
Lorenzo, ea well m one of Psragino's beet woiics, the tript;cb bon
the CertoK near Peria (lee fir. 12), and other pelntinga bjbim.
Corregglo ia represented by Ibree fine plctune, ciaatical u>d re-
llgione, apocinien* of mnunal excellence (aee fig. SI). Of the
Boliwneaa acbool there Ire three vorke b; Fnncia, me lined
(aee fig. IS), end. apecimen* of Che peiutsie of the later echotM, —
Annihile Caracci, Guide (aee lig, 20), and othoia. Paul Veroneaa's
'Dream of St Helena and the groop oF portiail* of the Piaaai
famil;, arranged u the acene of the femil; of Derioi befon Alex-
ander, ere among hie fineet worke. The thiH pictorae b; Lotto
aie BiceUent eiamnlea ai bie enpreme talent* in portraiton ; end
le Breacii and Berpmo ia ao neb in the noble
--- pnjdl UomL Laonaidoda
^i^(
beentifiil picture ' i
a ereat meaten) ia repraaeat*d b; a Tar;
parti; a
tn^T^ata diUa mfunOi. l/aBd 1*71), v?tlK Wtka IN
«dii£i?»
ir'*Hll^},^ti^wtk.
aw la tka SkDidi at IL r>
SCHOOL!
OF PAINTING
• pn^ ; Tltli ib^t tltmUau it ii the am« In dtdgn u tb«
TMcn am Kadur* in tbg U/arn (w» fig. 23). Leourdo'i nw
at lUott moBOchnmilio colaohog difbn BtioiiKl; from ths atjlg
of hia papOi aod imiuton Loiai, Aodm da SoUrio (He Sg. 31).
and ButrafflO) all of irhom an npreaenlAd bj einllant and
dianctarlidi) czaiqpl<a. Of the sailur MilaucM Kshool (hs gal-
Ibj ■>""*■'"■ two muniOcant axamplv br Ambnigia Bonogiwae,
— tha lUntaga of 81 Catharine tapadall; balng • voik of (ha
bighiat bnixirtaiia and beaotj (aea fig. Si). Tba gaUajT P°*^<7***
mn BMmplaa of th* wtl; Gonnan maataia (tee flg. 2£, bj williaio
of CoIognaX tboogh It ia mak in tb« woika of the later Oermai^
aa Alb^ DUnr, who ia npnaaatad oolj bjr one portrait, irbich ia
dgned (••• Bg. SO), and Haoa Hc4bcdD the jmatpt, who la totally
abaant aicapt for tha noble portnit lant bj tha duke of HoifoUc*
Tha coUactioB ii, haverar, unaaullr rich in in* aianiplea tt aarlj
Flamiahart— aftbaTaiiE7ckaaadthalTacho<d(Baalic. sav Tha
Krtialt of Jaan Anolflni and hit arifa (dcDed and datM) ia one of
D Tan iTck'a nobleat wotka OD a ninn icak,— onl; anrpaaaed,
pcdiapi. It tha Ifadean* and Woiahlniar tn tha Loarr*. Ill* In-
tombmant of Chriat b; Van dor Vefdui tha aider (ee* % 29), tha
thna or mora examdea of Uemlin^ tha Exhomaljoii of 3t Hubert
b7 Dierick Boala, the Baadiiu Uagdalane b; Tan dat VoTdni tha
jtniupt (laa fie. 10), and the Sainta and Dodot bf Olteataidt David
ire all nniirallMl axamplea of tbaae gnat paiatara, Tha dalicata
littla nmal of the Uadonoa b; Uargant Tan Krek ia a *Dik of
mn^ inttnat Tha latar Flai^ah and Dalch achoola aro aqoallr
eapaciallT bj a nomber of nobU portiaita by Sam-
MJ, Bnb(- -' "--■->- —■ -' - -"
J, Babena, and Vandjck ; a portnit of
in da Poll," and the portrait of Van der Geeat
ODDff tha dneaC worki of thtw three
WonwaTman« and otheia of their achoot aifl Teir ricbiT repreaented
;aee flga. M and S5). Of Uia Spaniah ecboal the National Qalleir
wntaioa an aioallant portrait Wd of Fllilip IT. (»» flg. 87) ly
felaiqua^ ■ tiiU-laDgth of the game king, not wholly by hii hand,
uid alao tvo nctnraa of aacnd nibjscti and a carioos boar-hanting
■cene of maca intonat, bnt of inforior beauty. The ei:aiDplea <rf
Umillo, like moat ont of Seville, are bat third.nte itiecimena of
hia ponr. The Kneeling Friar a> an example of Zutbann'i work
la imriTalled either in Spain or oat ot it (see fig. 36). Among the
pictiirea of tha Frsnch tcbool anomberoffiiie luidacapea by CUuda
Lorrain and ^TSry maaterly Bacchanalian Scene by Nicolaa Panaain
ue tha moat noUble (lee i^ 38 and 39). The English aebool ia
haidly lepreaanlad in a manner worthy (H the chief national coUec-
Cion, bnt it ia anpplementad by a large nnmber of Bna painting! in
the South Ktnaiagton UoaeiinL Tlie chief treaaona in thia bnnch
poHimi by the Halional Gallery are Hogarth') aeriea of " Uarriage
a la Uode, aome noble portraita bj Beynolds aod Oaintboroium,
i . J^TI.J --l,„t^.« J -p- ■- L- -* -11 --J- ' — -
» ll» SI
timo^ called Oenrtii
of a jooth atttibnUd to KaphaeL The chisf . c-—
ie the grand aeriea of decorative jvintinga (nine in number] executed
in tempera on canTas bj Ajidrea Uaute^a in 11S5-92 for the dnke
of UantuB^ but much injured by repainting. Tbe Hjuallj celebrated
cartooua deaigned by Raphael for tapeatiy to deoorate the Siatlne
Chapel are now moved to the South Ecnnugton UuMum. The
^lery alao poaaeaiea eeveral fine eiainploa of Tiutoretto, many
food Flemiah and Dutch nicturei, tome email but fine examplei of
Holbein and hia achool, and a number of hiatorically intanatlsg
trorki bj Engliab painteia of the 17th centuiy. The portrait u
a Jodeh Babbi by Rembrandt is one of hia fineat works,— • parfeot
maiterpieca of portraiture.
The Dulirich gallery ia eapeciilly rich in vorka ot the Datch
Kbool, and oontaius some noble portrait! by Gainiborough and
Reynolda, as well as an intereating early work by Raphad, — the
predclla with aeren email subjects painted in IfiOl aa part of Che
lat^ altarpiece for the monaateiy of St Anthony in Fenwia ; ths
mam part of thia large retable, which ie the property of the heira
of the duke of Ripalda. baa bees for many yeara depoaited but not
iiliibited in the fiational Gallery. The fiatwnal Portrait OalleiT'
la Vinci.~>imilar in
Buhjecl to, but different in design from, an nnhniihed plctnr* by
him in the LouTre, and a cor>y of hia Cmaalo at Milan by Ua
pupil Uarco d'Oggiono, of prieelesa value now that (be anginal
■ an stter wtvck. In the eama room ia a Tcry beautifol but an-
te mtki of flelbfla,— eUiOr
Sniabed piece of acnlpton by Hlchelangelo, a drcnlar nUaf cf tba
i tha PaalandWynD KUia^etnraa baTs
wal Oallety, which haa abo aeqnlred
sale* of tha Eaatlake. Barkar, KoTar,
England ia eapedally rkh it
maatara. The cUet ate thoae i
Building at Otfbnl, and in the poeaeeaion of the Qwn and of Mr
Ualcolm of Pollallooh. Amou tha eaUectk» iq Windara Caatle
an eighty.aeTCTi poitmita in red chalk hj Hdbaia, all of woudeifnl
beauty. The ceJebiated " liber Yerita^" • eoUniUon of original
dtawinn by CUnde Lorrain, ia In tlM poMMaion of the di£i of
DeTonahire at Chatawortb. In Bnckinriiain Palace ia a Ine coUee-
tion of oaintingi of the Flemiah and Dutch aoboob. An alnoat
incradlbly large nnmbai of flna.piunlinga at all achoola an aeatterad
thronghoot the private galleriea of Britain ; an acooont of tba chief
0ttlMaeiaglTeBlAyI>rWaagen,lVaanini^.^rttaJriMfn, London,
""■ ° if tlM cMlectiona daacribeif ' " " ' ~
diapeiaed; the Peel andWi
been pntehasad by the Satioiial "-" "-^
important pictr — "-— " '-
HamUlon, and
which stlU axiit in England are thoat of the di
(OmaveBoc Hoaae), the duke of Sutherland (Btuiani nouHh uie
earl of Elleamen (BriJgewaler Honae), and uie mariinii of betar
(Bur^iley Honae). The pnblio ^ery at Liverpool containa aoma
Ten important Italian pietnna, aa doaa alao the gnming coUecUon
in Dnbltn. The Edinbor^ National Qallary poaaeaaea a lew ipaci-
mena of early mattara, amcog th«n part ot the gnat altai^aoa by
the unknown *' Uaater of liabom." a picture of St Hnborl by the
"Uaaler ot LyTenbng," aome Ine Dutch pictniaa, and Qalna-
borou^'s masteri^eoe, the portrait ot the Eon. Un Giaham, to>
getfaei with many examplea of the enallent portraita by. David
Allan and Sir HetiTT Raebnm. In the palace of Holyrood ia |if»-
served a very beantihil altaipiao^ with porttaita of Jamea IIL anil
hia queen and other flgnrae. It ia nppond to hare been painted
abontllSObyTandetGoaaofthaacboolafthaTaBXTcka Eng-
land i* wpeinaUy rich in the flnaat ntafitt of Kioolaa PoiiBa&
and Clande Lorrain i the painlingi by the laltar in Qnavenor Hovaat
tha National Gallery, and elaewben in the eonntoj an nnrivalled
by thcae ot any fotMgn gallary.
The Lonvn ii rich in worka of nearly all achoola, and lapedally
. ine uuer rwiogneae painwza. ita uuv
aome of the TOT ran irariti ofDa Tind,—
tba Tiroln and Bt Anna, and the wosdar.
a and Uballe FermmUce. ItiaaUidr
weak in examplea of tha earikr Tenetlan palntoa, not [ nuiwlng
a aingle genuine work by Giovanni BdUnL It containa soma T«nr
beantifnf ftcecoa by Botticelli and by LninI, and tba ftnaat week
of liurillo which eitsta oat of SeriUo,— the Tiigln in Oloiy. Tba
latef Hemlab and Dntcb acbotda an wall repnMntsd: tbe oaall
painting of tha Tii^ with a kneeling TtnUpp* bi Jan Tan
Eyck ia one of die loTtUset piotarea in Uie wwld ; hot Su Lonvn
is otbarwlea daSdart inpalntinea of bii school Tba portraits t^
Holbein, Knbani, and Tandyck an of great importancs. In the
French webatA the Louvre ia ot oourae nnrivalled : tbi pabtluga of
Nicolaa Pooaain and Claude Lorrain an the beat among them ; bnt
it la very low. The Lonvn also pcaseMta
lumber of Ter;r important Italian putorsa j among them is Big-
-lorelli'a finest ssmI pictnre (sea fig. t},— ■ elasocal aaane with Pan
and other node (Ignna [daylng on pipes, a maaterplece of powerftd
drawing. The ^Bery is more eapaeially ii<b In worka of the
German, Flemiah, and Dntch acboolsl including rix panels from the
laiwe altaipieae of the Adoration of the l^mb at Gbent by Habert
and Jan Tan Eyck. The Draaden gallery is mainly rich in paint-
m^ctoTsa. Baphael'aUadannadl San SiMo is the chief ^ory
II — ,1..- «"-^ther with many fine b"-""**'** ■** m™«~»-"
1, Panl Teroneaa, and O
lectira, together with many fine eiamplea at Giorgune,
Mhio, ntiu, Panl Teroneaa, and Corremc^ and a nomber
of works ot the Into Bologneaa achool. Tbe ^31ety ia specially
remaikable liir its genaina aamplea of that Tcry ran n
Oio^jiooe^ Tbe Knakothek at Mnnlch poasissw soma rood Italian
KctuTsa, among them four by Raphael aitd a number of fine ntians.
oont^na a lam collection of Oermau, Dntch, and Flemish palnt-
" " annmbaroffine pMtnital^ Albert DUnr ar"'— ^—*-
Itffi
ITindTCk.
eapedally rich in works of Lncaa Cnnach tbe eldei, ot Uen-
ling, of Bogsr van der Wt^den, of Voblgamntii, and of Bunbrandt.*
; Ccdeone oontalna • Sm
of early Getman arl
of the Tanetian achool, especiaUy of Palma Tacd^io, Titian, and
Panl Venmeaa. Holbein, Rubens, Tandvi^ and other maalan of
the Tlemiah and Dntch schocda an richly rapneanted. Tiannn
alao containa some large private galleriea, chleiiy rich in Flemiah
446
CHOOLS OF PAINTING
ricchio, th« rtinie bj E»ph.«l, and th« Siititw Ch«ll«l_by HkW-
.ngelo u» d«cribod in the lutiolw on the« printm. Tbo C^pWl
rit; th«eluBf»i»«T8rT beiiiti-
_>« UuHa in Hptnto nnel*, lire-
of Perngino, prohibly to Spagni
'•Bi Itetek plotnra^ ukd k mupiiflcnit coUeoHoa of dniriDga b;
•U mMtan. Ths Bwlancct R^«7 (Eut«huj collntion) conUiu
Uanr fiiu VmatiHi and aama nonntmr rnuCorea. with « larga
niunlMr of Flamiah and Untch woHd.
Tlia Oallerj of th« Hannitisa it St Patsnbnrg is one of tbe
largMt ind most important in EoTopo ; tliough weak in jnctunB of
the earlj Italian Kbeols, it oontains fins BUmples of Lnini, Raphael,
Titian, Paul Vgroarwa. and the BolosneH kBooI, and i* eilnordi-
luriJy rioh iu raintinge by Mnrillo. RBnibtaudt, Rnbena, Vajid jA,
and tbe later Flemisb anil Dutcli Khooln aenerLllj.
Ilia manj calleriee of DelplnDi and H^nJ i» mostly rich in
the works of local achooU. Anlireip poaieBMa tlw nuiMterpiooM of
Babens and many fine eiamnlei of hu pipll Vandyck. The church
of St BaTon at GHant contama tbe maaterpioce of the Van Eycka,
tho main part of d birgo altarplece in nmuy panek \vitfa tho Adora-
tion of the Lamb aa the contral mbject ; tliii ii ouIt rivalled in
point of size and beanty by the Foontain of Salvation nointed by
Ian TBD Enk'aboat 1432, and nov in tho luOJRam of the Santia-
■ima Trinidad at Uadrid. Among the many fine Flomiib and
Dutch picIorM in the mnaeum at The Hngua ie a half-length of
>o unknown laily by Holbein, slxlch ia one of tho most beaatiful
IBrtiaia in the woilJ (eor fig. 27).
The galleiy of Uadrid ii In soma reapecta oiiritalled both from
ita videly npicaontatito character — at least at reguda tha later
schools— 4nd from tho number of eiceptional maaterpieofla which
"i "I
art earlier than 1(00. In tha norlu of the later Italian Enaatere it
ie Tary rich, pnneaiing four important works by Raphael, — the
Uadonna called La FarU (onca at Hampton Court in the collection
of Charlea L), the Virgin of tho fUh, tho Virgin of tho Eom, and
Cliriit on Hli my to Cilvarr [£o 5;ariinD). Noothargallt
5 figura of Ariadne
ilicent Ariadne in
c beauty end por-
ta Facnndity, and consiela of a Urge group of node infanta iportinEr
oraloeping, a perfect miraeU lor its wealth of colourand onnvalled
flash painting. In addition to theae wonderful pictures there ue
some ipleadid portraita by Titian, and manyof hia later vorka,
iwing a Bid decadance in hia old age. Tbe gallery also contaim
Juteh racturoa,
Inding a number of noble portraita by Antonio Uoro, Rubsne,
I Vandyck, twotbar with aome of Qauda Lorrain'e beat iand-
~ B Spuiuh Khoolj tlia Uadrid gallorj ia unrivalled
■rs,.i
... _jd»TerT Bne col
inolu^g a number of noble portraita by
with Bome of Qau
h Khoolj tlia Hadri „
__ it poor bnt intarealiu; pain^gi by Joan ..v
Jnanat tha beat oollecUou of tha worka of BilMn (SMcnotetto), and
tlucUafnuuterpieoaiotTaUnnat. It ia in Uadrid tWa that the
greatDM of Va1aic|iiei cut b* Mlj latl^wl, jut ■* the marrelloua
tatonta of Uurillo are ipoitent onlr la SevUle. Among the maay
ivondarfnl paintings by Valaiqua* in this gallery the chief am the
Cracifiiion, the Tapeatty Woavera (£(U flifaiufcraj), tbe Surrender
of Broda (Lnt Laiaai), the Drinking Peaaaate (ioe fiwracAol], tha
pnrtrMt B™"? known as Lot Mcnitiat, and many magnificent por-
traita. Tho galley also contains a number of Zarbaran's worka,
and many by Mariflo, none of which are amonghia finest naintin'T.
Tha best picture hy MnriUo at Uadrid ii tha scene of St ElLaboth
of Hnngary tending the Lepera, prraerred iu the Academia de San
Fernando. Seville alone oontaina tha teal masterpiecea ot Uurillo,
a very unoqnal painter, who produced a Um number of third-iato
woiks. ench aa an to be seen in many of the eliiaf fBillerioa of Europe,
but who at hi< beat dewirras to rank with the greatest paintois of
Ihe world. It is impomible to describe the wonderful riih tons,
Ch« intsnae patboa, and the toacbing religion* feeling of such
iiictunw as tbe Omcifled Christ embradng 31 Francis, or flie annari-
lion of tho InJant Saviour to St Anthony of Padua, in the Sorille
jpUlerr, and the larger compodtion of the latter aeeno ia tho
cnthedral. Othervery noble works hy Uurillo exist in tho monastic
church of Ij Caridai The SoyiUa gallery also contains several of
7,iirharan;s chief pictures, and soma by other painters of the Spanijb
wbooL TheotherohiefmllaryofSpain, that at Valencia, contains
" """'"r of weak but historioHy intarcstinB pictures of 8,irly
«|«nish arttit»,-b.hle imiutiona of tha styb of Francia an.i oth<i
llnlian palntera It poaaanEs also many pictnres by Ribalta and
other later and unimportant masters of the Vglanciau schooL
Tlie Vatican Gallery, though not largo, contain, o very lanw pro-
[lorlioii of imiwrtant nietures, rach as a portrut group in fnnco
lij Mcloao da Forli, tlia nnfiuished monochromatic luinting of 8t
Jcromo by Da Vinci, the flnest of Raphael's early worits,~tho
Comniliou of the Virgin, &, Madonna Si Foliguo, and tha Trana-
ppimtion. pc Coronation of tha Vitmn by pSituricchio ia one of
Ui. beet jJaqDl i^iioturea, and a portrait of a Doge by Titian a master-
l««-e of iKJi-tiaitimi. The Last Commnuiou of Sf Jerome by Do-
me^huio IS his fiuart work. Tho chapal ot San Lorenso, painted
tijt ra Augalico ^«M FiBwii^ tlu AppartuwDti Sph^ by Hnto-
bntfe
ful aeries of frescos of Apollo sud th<
uie, by some painter of the echool of
thoT are remarkabb for grace of drawii .
Tha Kape of Eurof*, by Pan^Vi
dsliraey of
_. _„ _ _ fine niplica of
Tbe gallery also contalna aom*
that in the doge a palace at
ot the chief works of GueiBiL .
by Velazqnei. The Borghese Gallery is perhaps (ha moat iminrtaiit
:, — very highly finiahcd and mapiJfleeBt
f tha inflnence of Jan Tan "Rjek. ; it is
oce ot Pranna's earliest works, and is very far snpmcB' to doM el
his lator style. The great gloiy of tbe gallery ia tha (aa-cmlled)
Sacred and Profane Leva by Titian (s« Sg. \S), one «rf tbo m""
_^ ... ^L [J 'ixi& for design uid o '
beAOtifol picturea ii
portrait of th' sam
Uadrid and Londoi
finest portraits,
iIoDT, and a
..jdeiing of flesh ; it appnua to b* I
repeated twice,— nude and dnpni It
-lier period than the bacchanal trio ia
1 pUary contains also one of Tandyok'k
Ltherine da' Uedici, and othsr <gu»llant
^ if the Venetian school The Danae by Corremio i* an
interesting example, very weak in drawing but remarkatda for Ibe
finepearly tonesofthafloh. Tha Coiaini Gallery, now tbe IHVptTty
of lbs mnnicinilitT of Roma, contains soma good panels by Fn
Angclico, but la mainly strong only in tha later BologDMS pain tii|«.
It also poaseases a rich collection of early Italian engrarings. Tha
Doria Gsllcry is large, but contains only a small proportion of rain-
able pictnrea. Bome paintings by Niccolo Rondinalli are of much
interest ; they show him to hsTB been an able ^pil and close
imitator of Giovanni Bellini, to whom many peintinga in Tarions
galleries are attributed which are really the work of pnpOs. A
beautirul Madonna in tha Doria Palace by Rondinalli has ■ earUlline
inscribed with Bellini's name. The chief beamra of this collectian
are the portraita of two Venetians attributed to Bi^hael, and that
ot Pope Innocent X. by VeliMuoi,— the latter a marvel of daahing
and almost too skilful elocution. Tha™ ia tbo a fine portrait rf
Andrea Doria by Sebastiano del Piombo, wall modelled, but rather
wanting in colour. Tha Sciana-Colonna Palace contra ■ few good
^ctures, among them a very fine portrait of a violin -playBr by
Kaphaol, and a graceful painting of Modesty and Vanity by Loini,
attributed to Da Vinci, as is often the case with Lniai'a pietnrss.
The Colonna, Barberini, and other nrivato gallerias of Rom« contain
but little that b noteworthy. The church ot B. Maria sopra HiBcm
a Maria in Ara Cceli ; and themonaatsiy of S, 0 ^^
very lovely frssco of the Madonna and a kneeling DoDor, attributed
to Da Vinci,— probably s pupQ'a work.
The Florentine Accadenia delle BeUe Arti contains a mort vain*
able collection of early Florentine and other Ifith-centai^ pictnn^
including tho finest panel picture by Qontib da Fabnano,— -tha
Adoration of the Magi,— a tare example of Vcrrocchio, partly painted
by hb pupil Da Vinci, some magnlflcsnt eiamplca of BotliceOt
good BWcuncns of Fra Angolico, Ghirlandalo, Signorelli, Lippo
lippi, Yn Barlolomeo, and a group of saints by Andrea dol SartA
one ot hb best works. The magniBcent gallonea in the UEri and
Pitti Palaces contain an nnrivallpd collection of the great Florendns
Knters of all dates. Ia tbo Ulfiii are several fine Jointings by
phael,— the Umlonna del Cardeilino, a portrait ot Jliliua II., and
an ciquialoly finiahed head of an unknown lady. Among th»
many fine ciamples by Titian bbb portrait of a nude lady twfiaing
[Damio),-a most «ondertal work. In tha same room (La Tribunal
jxular panel of the Madonna and St Joeeph, a
f Michelangelo, shosing tho influenca of 8iy
—■-'■■'- ' — '■- — '- ''■■s gallery, i
, Many rf
„ J, -nd th' t'fflii al»>
lied collection of drawings by Italian
painters of ill dates. Tho Pitti Palace contains some of tha clirf
works of Raphael,- the early Madonna del Gran Duea, and por-
traits of Angcio Doni and hia wife, the portraits ot Cardinal Bibiew
and Loo X. (ia hia later manner), tho Madonna della Seggiols, anJ
the minbtare Viaion of Eiekiel. The portiait of a nim, attributed
to Da Vinci, but probably the work of a pupil, b a work of oitia-
ordinary fiubh and refinement. Tho ijagdalen and the ladjj
portrait (U Bclk) by Titian are among hia best worka Both
these collectiona contain some good Flemish and Dutch pictona.
In the church of Santa Crocs are tha chief worka of Giotto, in o.
Maria Norolla the beat pictures of Orcama and Ghirlandaio, fW
■ ■' .nastery of 8. Uir« "-- -^-'-^ *- "'- ' — '"*
^ .. .... tha principal frescoa of Fra Angslicft
Some oftbecfaisf tKacosofSpinalfo Aretino, much t«paiDted,eiin
in the sacristy of S. Ulniato, and the most import^t froKOa «
Androa del Sm*j an in tha chnieh of S. A-"""— *-
tluir coUssliau o( tan IR
iOHOOLS OF PAINTING
■nuH colbetimi it PIm i1k> ponowi ■oma eorioiu eul^r puuli b?
loal pdoten ; in tlia ehnicE oF 3. Cuteciu ia > nugiiiKHnt ilUr-
« by ftM, TiminL Orotgiu'a chief papiL At Pnto ae Iha
' <■ of Lippo tlj^ ThagaOlarjaCBologBiiuiiitiuQuoma
'( cluef mirka, tba Si C«ilu of Biphtel, uid a uunibci
of eiunplai of tha Cincci ud othera of Iliij Utar BolauacHi achooL
■pmiwA ia .peciaUy rich in tba worku of Comggio uid ParmiKiKio ;
nuhupiU tha gnat t™™» by the former ia tho cathednl haia
Klnnt whotlj poriahed. Tha mudl collsction at Fertan pnaiiaill
inUrwIiDg axunplea o! paintinga of the ]<Ktl achooL Brucii uid
Beiguia an ver; rich in fine workl of Uontto sad UoconL and
■iM powai ■ Dumber of Gne Vanedan paintingi of Tarioua datea.
Padum h«a but a anuiU and onimportant gallery, but tho town la
rich in freacoa by Giotto, Altichiero, and Jacopo Arami, and m«t
QoUa ftwroa by Andrea Uantegoa. Mantua also ronlaina — "■-
gnud frtac« fay Uantesna in the Caatollo di Cord, an<
qoaotity ot ahovy and claveily «i»cut«d wall and csiltng
' -■ ■" > Bomtno in tho Palaiio del T*. ■" "
la few good eiamplea of the local
HBBOa a Tnarnlfi^mt altarpiece by Mantegnn ; and iu
» tho wreck of a fine freaco of St Gearga and the
Dtuoh by Kaanelto. The Tioenia collection coulaini little of
T*l^ cxoqit aome good exwnplaa of Bart Montagna. Tho Tunc
— " — H a Tew good picturea, ea^ially aome fi-" — -'■ >"
. The large ga1
Soaotinot
jQni&oK
ling painting*
A gaflery con-
w good pictnrca, aa
id portmita by Van ,
■t in the nrfoui palacaa of G<
tha Mtly FlomiBli aiihoal vhich haTS been in Napli
IGthooitnn. Tbaonly paindneofmnchimportsneom the
at hlenDouaTairbeantifal tnptvchof tbaacboolof Vui
Touoa ia aibwiriinaril/ rich in tha work* of ita own achoo
oftbonot CrivaUi. who i* complataly absent
as ^ tha Bellini bmil^, of Caipaccio and otl
an unoDK tba cbiaf gloriea of the world. The Orimani
in tlw don'* library, oonlalna a very beautiful aariaa ot i
rfctarairf tba achool ot Memling.
^riw Bian Oallary at Milan contauia a large number of maater-
iHCea, atpecially of tba Lombard and Teuetian achools, among
^em'tha chief work of Gentila BelTal, St Mark at Alexandria,
^ome onriTalled pwtnita bj Lorenzo Lotto, and Teiy important
fTairr'" at Horatto'a tdigioua paiutiD^ One of iu greateat
tmmnni ii tba altarpi«e painted for the duke of Uontefeltro by
Kaio della rranoaacai, and wronaly attribnlod to hi* pupil Fra
C^msnla. The celebrated Sposalirio ia the moat important
of Raphael, eiaented wholly under the inflnence of Feriigino.
nlleiT ia (medally rich in work* ot the paiiils and iniitatora ot
iBonardoandotberMilaneaepaintorB. The Bibliote» Ambroriina
cont«ina aome pricelcsB drawing* by 1>onatdo da Vinci and s largo
nomber of hi* autognph UBS., aalectiona from which hays been
publiahedbyDrRioliter, London, IB88. Another important Ua
of Da Vinci bom tbt aame libran, the Codia AOantwa, a now
(1S86) In a
HiaTafTB
P?™1
ibran, the C
(rf publicatiot ,
ity aketch of tha contend of the chief ^enea of
a aome notion ot the placea when the ' - -'
can beat be -'-'--' '
the chief -
. when thi
idied. In
^M9iM bot Uttle dkoica : the graatneaa of Oiotlo can only be fii
mliied in Florence and Pidua, of Caipaccio and Tintoretto
Venio^ of BignMBlU at Orrieto and Monta OliTato. of Fra Angelico
in Florence, ot Corroggio in Parma, ot Velaz-iuea in Madrid, and
of Uuiillo in SaTille. ._ _ „
IM ot W«*i M iimiMi.'-^unai oaniaiitT^Ajriaeoort flu
ilS^ir^Uil^ka, fliKBsIit if AiliriUt. tUl ad., LeialOB. 1S71; Outllnn,
oSmm *r iSt*, Lall-la, WW: Havard, i(i«ol« djla ^'f'Th P^
1, KiiMit ia Bma-Jrlm'Fi
d< III nii>Un, IWk, IHl ; BUlHiaL HIAiIr. di la P.l^«. Pula, IBM - "—
K. TlioiBpa™, ItaiiSbHt to PUnn iHilUr^ of Bur™, Jd jd LondOL
aail *«», DIt N&lnaa Jt dfljrufciml AritlHilitr KunJi^Unl, »'""',
2S2?d-'ftlllliS[ BarilB. 1T«»; BoMie*, Fiat- '
nia : Urna, Dlilloaarii Af PainUn, Idadmi,
r-Mm, hito, lau; Bartaah, PtMrt rnnm
ikr dtrlMlictn Volml, Berltn, IU3; Wiani
Isadiie. ISM^ ; Balm CoufffnAiiMi da V4
" "Tlkrtj, JW-"— '- =
_». u^» ..». ... ^Mrlrn, MIUl. ISM. pUtlUdttd iD -u.
ifUuo ; Btimt, in a* On. da B.-Ara tet inr, ^lea
ia GfTHiH OoUfrifi. tna*.. Leailon. US9, ar ' "-' — ^~-
tlieBorgMiaOaltan'taLluaow'aZiluc«r<*,
•go^ii^naw netia (( (fttlcbm, tiaaad
Id nblelitadi Mbtar oeated dtlaU*, ancli •
(aeceidlnfi to Bmm>a laCar inlde tbu tL. ^
tha whole aflbet er aurit of a pietnie, and [ena
rbrnud rrom tacbljaal ptCBllaiiEla : On Camm.
ledcQ or the docmiiantarir lUatoTT 01 art, "---"—
lli<Sr right aatUr ■— ■— '
PinoH KrrHoL Terona, 17
la Vind il Bslnb, FarU, :
BodonL PUHtn Panwi ' '
17M ; iMAl, PillliTt dl
KM, 1774 ; OUHllf. Biaa- ><•''
j»b; MomvalaLLaPiHuraiitPaJina^ Padua, 1^90 ;
Parma, laW; OKI, Vila iM rarmifiaitivi. Puma.
•tggio, ModfiDa. letl : PuagUeoiil, iltmori* jlorUA'
; tUlTB>li,FiMiafUr{s, Bo1iic°a,I<l7a; BaiotU.
>iiiTan,irroi I.ad<nlil.Ia/V(ani/iimnif,FanwB,UM;
Farli. 1B7B ; UeUa Vallr^ IjUm Sam^ ^"^"u C*^ ' ^'alalo, PUUn . . .
t^S^>UI^P»rt>,lS70; W.Rbcotl,PI<BiTii»!rrniMS^lii«ui,Lc=doii;
fm'lSnghl, ("itocfri^^nM-lKiiMduiI. ABtae,17Mi aWoUL J(iini»-|j(ii <W'
Jrfc, VaBlee,ie«a; V<mlJ'iu»rt,*L,iBAMiii'»VeDJo«.l—' ~- '
Pioort, tt., ihraiiMKK, BciEauD. 17(3 ; Chluola, Point .
MM: (UrI, VM M jU»:!arBol<igBai 1811, and KUa
lOueralDO). leoa: BatCI,' Pilliira, iCc, In OnUM, Oenoa, 1:iiui
!l<l PlUorC ite., /Viulnl. BuUM, 17n; Hartolll, lilUm Pilbrl
Pwuel., 17B8 ; WoiiUo, a«*. ilff ifalml (« T"«m. Bwlte, IBi
rUWri Dnaniant, Plomnxi, IMS : Bieol. W4". Ji IMooij da>ori
tiu'^iluor* Wi^ilBanl, Haplaa, IMO-M,— not tnatwortlij la tti account id
■uupoBed «rly HcapoUtan Mnlan: Crewe and GataJcaieLle, LlfiofTUia^
IxSicinn, l«t andlSitflf jfiSirf. IMOJSl VlBiar, l.Stt»™HI.«ldI. IMl
Rftuiaancc, Ldpale, wa. aiuui^ PuKUK^im Durca Sciiaiiu.-BodiL
»iiuH>^uni(«tMSiJlali, I.eiI<ilc.l>7I,IHa'}iBi<ltr(mflaar[tB.iaT1;uJ
Farli laW; Burnet, Jh^ranJl and Ml lfi3i,LQnilon,HW;Ba>all«na,anii-
traiuJ, Jt.d««rt»», Jt, AmaUrfaia^lMSi FalAoH, ItflUI, *t, tf «• Bait*
SBTanl, X-.in SanntdaU, Pailo, IS70, and U Main £ I
Full, im : KnmM, LiTrnl n iWfltm «ir HaUaMtinit
dun, lur-M; Baltarabtr, Jimoba Ar ulejfrlai
m; Benonvltr. Iu rilalra dfJ'lK^mu Salt
fiSiS
DaUk sad f ImUtSdiaB'L Loi
7J««iA, awl DxIA, Londn. ] — _
1974:CrewiaodCav*lcu>11e,Ea?I)inHMl
Couiuaijf " "— —
l;WaHamflhdHl
. , _aal*n AaAaatV
udCavalniille, Sffy/ti^Pr- —
nclnila JMnna, SfniOMlieBtli
lit Ikr, CraiiKltt bbt* and iTr
nuu M ifiurbui. Haaiien, lai« ; Wollm
mm. Hfc of Holbr'.!, London, isea : Ti
■'f Vf^ Leipalc, 1831 ; [linbtadLanpDanUflaiui
41 ; Wiale, AWo mr /«■ fen Kl
London, 1S7> ; J
Inters London,
"a
Calling lA'^
Fmn^u^. Fiankfoct 1882 i
Oologno. 18S0 : fii
L- Art An
448 S C U-
l: WiMbob, aiSk *r Jlobnt <» Miirif, Lalpil% UTS:
ruiT^: Una, All aodint AmL BtAia, l»ai
r mat. rnn, LilHle, UH. Bruna Bcwui — Hud.
■ad. Am^ I«M« UMj Wn^uA, I>ll Auui^&An Vain', Btnttelt,
icn. BuT^ Basioi.~dnni. Dktiamin oj Brttlii. irViu fnm ml to
koAia, IHlTWadi
-8 C H
iii4 DIcMiwn 4r<lr<M nodlM im: W.B.
nifiiWn, LoBdM, wrtj dhSSSTMM '
Crnuud Ml rsrta, X«2, UUj Oha
1««!; OvtoB, AflU mHto JMUt^ IdBAo^ UM
Loiuioii. :-"■- ••^' — ' — ' — ^ — »*--»_ -» H — —J
CBilu CtDBiid. niuMoMk iwnn, aui., tofrtkB wttk sthB- aolj dos-
LonuD OUtntL ooaUaliia ■ ibott tiMsiTOcngniillHKCIiaa tag p«)>-
llahtd (la FrM^to~^Sa^ OUbMt iT m Jtot, >mH in«i nuM^
•dttadWAMH^SSIWt DaTM^ ^SSs'^iBaMnin, BslacH, 17*4
ind i<M«iMifa»£rtr*iia «rtB|^a IMB. (tHnu, tdltad br Btditir,
Limlea. IMj T rwii. IVMfcto ^ Bww, Mln: UM: Vuul, nk M
Jtitoft >at aowjliti ilMfca. Wmi. iiw, tm «ilmii hy mm^ fine-
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VIMMIiif, LoBdi^ 1MB! Tn Uhiiwi, Jf< tfJWuWufc taaas., Laide^
i>»8;W,J)ii«0im^itTl»f»«Ww,Hiti,lTW. Fa a* HbUiievliT
_. __._„._ ... — _._.t;:.^_.,^ Lelpdd, iftt Hid bUovtnc ywi; ut
XMurt puM. fm OmuAi m£^ Brib ^r«.
■ktUx; HTw^nuTaHk
dooOImiiIi Mli^niUki I
SCEOFENHAUER, Aatsob (1788-1860), was born
in Dantdc (117 Heiiigen-GeUt St»*aa) on 22d Febnury
1788. Doom«dforthefint thirty years of hi* caraei to find
lii* works ignored with galling silence, he came, from the
year 1816 onwards, to be lo^ed Qp to bj a scanty but
devoted following aa, what he himself claimed to ba, the
tonnder of the first true philosophy. Historical criticism
has dona much to dispel his pretensions to originality, and
logical exaniination has demonstrated the incoDgraitiea
lurking in lila system. But the fact of his dominant infin-
enee on contemporary thought remains undimimshed after
erery aoch dispanging analysis. He consoled himself for
the neglect of his own generation by the assurance that
bis would be the philosophy of the future. Hia ideas,
recommended by the mastery of langaage and brilliance of
illttstration which entitle him to a first daaa in literatore,
hftTO becoina the burden of much of ow current specnlation,
and hare leavened to an nnuinal extent th« view of life
and of the nnivene which animates the kverage edncftted
world and finds expression in literary art.
His hther, Heiarieh Floria Bchopeohaner, the yonngest
of a family to which the mother had brought ue germs
of mental malady, was a man of strong will and origi^ility,
Tehemeut and reaolnte in the extreme, and so proud of
the independence of his native town tliat when Dautde
in 1793 surrendered to the Prussians he and his whole
establishment withdrew to Hamburg. The mother of the
futnre philosopher was Johanna Heuriette Trosienei.
Both parents belong.^ to the mercantile aristocracy, the
bankers and traders, of Dantzic Johanna, who at the
age of twenty accepted a husband of forty, was as yet
undeveloped in character; and perhaps he hoped that her
want of love, which she did not conceal, might be com-
pensated by Uie commonity of tastee and interests which,
under his guidance^ would grow up between them. Bat
the radical rift in the wedded heart could not be stopped
up by ft merely intellectual cement. The two children of
the marriage, Arthur bom in 1788 and Adele in 1796,
bore (acceding to 'the theory of the former') the penalty
of their parents' incompatibilities. Wliile they inherited
from their mother a high degree of intelligence and literary
style, they were burdened by an al>normat urgency of
desire and capacity for lufleriog, which no doubt took
different phases in the man and the woman, but linked
them together in a common susceptibility to ideal pain.
In the sunmer of 1787, a year after the marriage, the
> Di^ irdf alt intb, IL c M.
elder Schopenhauer, whom commercial ttqwrieucM bad
made a couuopolitan in heai^ took his yoiing wife on %
tonr to western Europe. It had been hu plim that the
expected child should see the light in Enf^and, bnt the
intention was frustrated by the state of his wife's health,
and they had to beat a hasty retreat homewarda in early
winter. The name of Arthur, given to the child in ^
ICaiy's at Dantxic, was chosen because it remains the aame
in TJingliaTi, Frendi, and German. The first five yeon of
his life Arthur spent tmder the care of his mother, chidly
in their countiy house at Oliva, about 4 miles weot tA
Dantzic There, at the foot of Uie prettily wooded sand-
hills which look oat uE>on the dim Baltic, the yonng
mother enjoyed a life of leisure, dlssipatiDg the long Mlitatj
hours witji her horses, the gondola on the pond, the foim-
taini, and the Umbs, or with the French novels her hasband
put amply at her disposal It was only on Satordsy and
Bnnday that he would qnit his office in town and eoma
down, generally in company with a friend or two^ to get
a glimpse of his wife and son. The latter was often taken
on a lUt for weeks to the manor-house, between Dontae
and iJie seo^oast, where his maternal grandpaienta lived.
After 1793 the father never set foot in his oM home; bat
Johanna was allowed every toor yean to rerimt the laenes
of her ^onth.
Donng the twelve years they had their hwne at Ham-
bar^ (1793-I60S) the Schopenhauers made frequent ex-
cursions. The year after his sister's birth Artlinr mi
token by his father to France, and left for two years
(1797-99) Bfl a boarder with M. Qregoire, a merchant of
Havre, and friend of the Hambu^ honse. The boy
formed a fast friendship with his bosfs son, Anthime,
and grew so familiar with French that by the end of hi*
sojourn he had almoet forgotten his mother-tongoe. The
youthfid friends lost sight of each other for long years;
and when the Frenchman sooght to renew their corre-
spondence in the evening of life they found that they had
drifted far asunder ; and unworthy suspicions led Schopen-
hauer to dismiss hie old comrade in abrupt silence. Arthur
returned alone by sea to Hamburg, and for the next four
years had but indifferent training. When he reached the
age of fifteen the scholarly and literary instincts began to
awaken, and he became anxious to be initiated into the
fratemi^ of the liberal arts and sciences. Bat his father,
steeped in that old pride of caate which looks down upon
the artist and the writer of books as mere means or inrtn-
ments to decorate and diversify the life of banne«, «**
nu willing k son of bii ihonld wcntiip knowlcdgs ud mA.
iCHOPENHAUER
449
M wOa in thmaMJTea. Aceoidingl; he offered bin
choice batwaen tlie cUoaical Bchool and an excni „
BnglanJ. A boj of fifteen could scarcely heiitate. In
1803 the Schopsoliauots and their non set out on a
leni^thened tour, of wlilrh Johanna has given an account,
to Holland, England, France, and AuBtria. Six months
were fpent in England, and Arthur, while his parents
]>roceeded u far a^ Scotland, n-oii left for a few weeka as
v\ boarder with a lUv. llr Lancaster at Wimbledon. He
found £ng!iiili ways dull and precise and the religious
(■bservanced exacting ; and hi< motlicr had — not for the
fast tiino — to talk neriounlj with him on his unsocial and
wilful character. Perbape the [lart of the tour which gave
him moHt ploijure was the last, — a solitary pedestrian
btroU along Uie ridge of the Riesengebirge, just before be
joined bh mother at Dautzic, September 1601, where he
"fW conliTnied.
' At Hamburg in the beginning of lUOS he was placed
in the office of a marchant called Jenisch. He had only
been there for three months when his father, who had shown
ajtuptoma of mental alienation, fell or threw himself from
an elevated opening of his warehouse into the canal. After
hid death the young widow (still under fort;) got aSkire
wound up, and, leaving Arthur at Hamburg, proceedod
with her daughter Adete in the middle of 1 806 to Weimar,
where she arrived only a fortnight before the tribulation
which followed the victory of Najioleon at Jena. At
Weimar her talents, hitherto held tn check, found an atmo-
Ephere to stimulate and foster them ; her lesthetic and
literary tastes formed themselves under the influence of
Goethe and hid circle, and her little salon gained a certain
celebrity. Arthur, meanwhile, was left at his desk in
Hamburg, cursing his prosaic lot, and smuggling literature
nuder the ledger ; the hot blood of youth was turning his
thonghCii to morbid cynicism, and hia easy-minded mother,
alarmed at his discontent, adopted the advice of her friend
Femow, and offered him a release from the loathed task-
work. He hastened to make up lost ground, and at the
age of nineteeu began to decline mtnia with Doering at
Gotha. But the wantonness and restiveness which be
had grown familiar with in the lax schooling of the world
wonld not let him alone : he allowed his satirical pen to
play on one of the teachers of the grammar-school, and pro-
fessional etiquette required Doering to dismiss his pupil.
After a plain but gentle rebuke for his folly, his mother
Uttled him at Weimar — not in her own house, for, as she
told him, she was content to know that he was well and
could diajiense with his cocapany— but with the Greek
scholar Passow, who superintended his classical studies.
Tbil time he made so much progress that in the course of
two years he became a tolerable scholar, and read Qreek
aud lAtin with fluency and interest.
In 1809 bis mother handed over to him (aged twenty-
one) the third port of the patomat estate, a sum of 19,000
thalers, which, being invented in good securities, yielded
him from the first a yearly income of more than 1000
thaiers — £150. PosBosxed of this fair \:atrimoDy, Schopen-
hauer in October 1809 entered theutiiverailyof GIbttingen,
with a clear plan of acquiring all that machinery of know-
ledge which schools can give. The direction of his philo-
sophical reading was fixed by the advice of Professor O.
£. Schulie to Htudy, es{>ecially, Plato and Kant. For the
former he soon found himself full of reverence, and from
the latter be acquired tbe standpoint of modern philo-
sophy. The names of " Ploto the divine and the marvel-
lous Kant " ue conjunctly invoked at the beginning of his
earliest work. But neither the formal exerciser of the
clasn-room nor the social and hygienic recreations which
he did not foil to combine with thcra filled hia houra to
tho eiclu:iiou of the idcoa which b«^ to fnrmulute tbcm-
selvea in him. Contempt for the niperfiaiaUty of hmoan
life settled itself more, and more deeply in his heart, with
the sense of a bitterness tainting the very source of being;
and the perception that the egoism of individual!' oeeks
for nothing bntter than to push on the load of misery
from one -to another, instead of making an effort to re-
duce the tnrden. These peasimidtic reflexion* (which his
mother found eminently unsocial) were naturally concomi-
tant with groundless nervoua terrora; sudden panics would
dash over bis mind, and even in those days he had begun
to keep loaded weapons alvrays ready at his bedoide. As
a philosopher has said, "the sort of philosophy we choose
depends on the sort of people we are ; for a philosophical
system is not a dead bit of furniture : it draws its life
from the soul of the man who has it." He was a man of
few acquaintaocei; amongst the few being Bunsen, the
subsequent scholar-diplomatist, and Bunsen's pupil, W. C.
Astor, the son of Washington Irving'a millionaire hero.
Evan then he found hia trustiest mate in a poodle, jind its
bearskin was an institution in his lodging. Yet, precisely
because he met the world so seldom in easy dialogue, ho
was unnecessarily dogmatic in controversy ; and many a
bottls of wine went to pay for lost wagers. But he had
made up his mind to be not an actor but an onlooker and
Clitic in the battle of life; and, when WieUnd, whom he
met on one of hia excursions, suggested doubts as to the
wisdom of hia choice, Schopenhauer replied, " Life id a
ticklish business j I have resolved to spend it in reflecting
upon it."
After two years at Qottingen, he took two yean at
Berlin, where the tmiversity had been founded only font
years before. Here klso he ^pped into divers stores of
learning, notably classics under Wolf. In philosophy he
heaid Fichte and Schleiermachar. Between 1811 and
1813 the lectures of Fichte (subsequently published from
his notes in his JfacligtiamrTu Werkt) dealt with what he
called the "facts of consciousness" and the "theory of
science," and struggled to present his final conception of
philosophy. These' lectures Schopenhauer attended,— at
first, it is allowed, with interest, but afterwards with a spirit
of opposition which is said to have degenerated into con-
tempt, and which in after years never permitted him to re-
fer to Fichte without contumely. Yet the words Schopen-
hauer then listened to, often with baffled curiosityH^ertamly
helped to give direction to the corrent of hia speculation.
Schopeidiauer did not find the city of intellect at all to
his mind, and was lonely and unhappy. One ol his inter-
ests was to visit the hospital La Charitd and study the
evidence it afforded of the interdependence of the moral
and the physical in man. In the early days of 1813 sym-
pathy with the national enthusiasm against the French
carried him so far as to buy a set of arms ; but he stopped
short of volnntecring for active service, reflecting that
Najioleon gave after all only concentrated and untram-
melled utterance to that self-assertion and Inst for more
life which weaker mortals feel but must perforce disguise.
Leaving the nation and its statesmen to fight out their
freedom, he hurried away to Weimar, and thence to the
quiet Thuringian town of Budolstadt, where in the inn
JSum Sitlrr, out of sight of soldier and sonnd of drum, he
wrote, helped by books from the Weimar library, his essay
for the degree of doctor in philosophy. On the 2d of
October 1813 he received his diploma from Jena; and in
the same year from the press at Rndolstadt there was
published — without winning no^ce or reader) — his first
book, under the title Udier dU mtrfaeha Wurul d,i Haiitt
vom mrcichendm Grumlr, in 148 pages Sto.
Scbopenhsu'-r's monoiirspb On lii Fouifold Jtool cf fht Priit-
ri/'li of Siificimt Btntaa nraml tlut, in diaruinng th« priniiplB of
' LuliiloMihenhadlsiliiil to<listiueiiislilnlvt«a
450
SCHOPENHAUER
tima, whin
nHMiMp«BndortMlitf 4[i<lMU0tiu cinHofi tiet ThepHn-
dpla giTM tipnmoa to tha bv thit uotlilng liiigDlar mi nacoa-
naotsd oui ^ IB olJ«t tor xa but onl; ■■ ronuing part in a ijitciu.
Thii Uw hu foni muu iwts, iccordins to the four cIuhi ol o^octa,
in ■ah of which i. mciil form of conneiion previili These
oIifMti ua— <1) ml o^ijectt of perception, vhera the nlatlou of
cuua uid eflbct nxjaire* each atsta to be >lei<endfnt an its Bote-
eodgnt ; (2) propoaitiom, irbich »i-e tied togclUor oi yreniiMa and
. — .- r«\ .1,, fornul QonditioiH of [wrcajilion, lit, "Mai »nd
t ia intoitLTfllf aeen to bo lli rec iprocaldapend'
. . (4)*olnnUrTagfn[»,who™ tliBlait ofmoliTa.
tioo pnaeribM tha dependence of action upon tlia idea of in object
prtaantad to the ehanotar of tha agent" llodlfpng tho Kanlian
thoOf;, that thinga ara meutfd projectioni. ha emphaaizee tbo Intel-
iMtuJopentton whieb elentia sensation to porcapCiou. The feeHiig
of altMation in in otgaD i< taken by the inlalloct, whose one
at^ory is caumlitj, to refer to ■ real, i,«., m«teri»l object trluch
gsnentea the change in oar body. But the reference is an intuitive
intarpretitioa of * felt modification in the organiani. Hence the
imjHJiUnt place aaaisned to the hnman body : it ia tlia lirtt of
-™— . — * oy«f
oljaeli OHM vithin conaciouanen.
cxttrnal pawaptiona, '■■- '— '~ '— "•
Kpanting pbabtaam '
by which all
_ . perpadial correlat
_„, .. [fact TodelectandscajBswiyhalli
.._ hsn only to nalizB the preacuce of oar bodiea. In d(
with motivM Schopenhaaer tonches npon the relr"— ■--'
nlition and cognition. The bro — nhicli is the aubji
— ii a mere correlatiTa to the knmrn object ! object ^
mtijecl pBrc«iTing iie not tivo thinga, bnt one, perpetnally diTiding
itself into two potea ; and vhat are called the several facultieg of
the ^0 are on^ an inference or a reflex from the seraral cliaaea
of mental object. Tlie "1" In "I know" iaalmdv the implication
oud rirtul preaence of knonlodge. Bnt tha "I will" la a new
' ■ - '-'--'■---■'-- -ipectofthe world, the fint&ct
na perception there is giren na
- - ' ■ Id tbia
le minda par txe^Unet (dot Wuvitr isr'
of inner and le
unity of thi
Dtity of tho
Schopenhansr'i trotda
li'X^, I *»)■
In Novamber 1813 Sdiopenhaner ratnined to Weim&r,
and far a feir montlu boarded with hk mother. But tbe
stnin of daily assoctation wu too much for their anUgoa-
iatic natures. The mother felt henelf ginU ia the pre-
■GDce of a disputatious and gloomy son ; she missed the
ease of her emancipated life ; and her friends found their
moTementa watched by a suspicioos eye, which ntia ready
to sarmiie evil iu the open and light-hearted style of
housekeeping. In short, his splenetic temper and bar
volatility culminated in an open rupture in May 1814,
From that time till her death in 1838 Schopenhauer never
saiT his mother again. It was daring these few months at
Weimar, however, that he made some acquaintances de-
stined to influence the subsequent course of his thought.
Conversations with the Orientalist F. tfayer directed bis
Btndiu to the pbiloeopbical speculations of ancient India.
In 1808 Friedrich Schlegel had in his Lanquagt and WU-
rfoM of At Old Haidm brought Brahmanical philosophy
within the range of European literature. Still more in-
■tnutive for Sdit^nhauer was the imperfect and obscure
Latin translation of the UpaitUhadt which in 1801-2
Anqnetil Duperron had published from a Persian version
of the Sansbit original. Another friendship of the same
period had more palpable immediate effect but not so per-
manent. This was irith Qoethe, who oicceeded in securing
his interest for those investigations on colours on which he
WW himself engaged. SchopenliaDer took up the subject
io earnest, and the remit of his reflezions (and a few ele-
mentary obeervations) soon after appeared (Easter 1816)
oa a monograph, Uibtr dot Sthen vnd die Farbtn. The
essay, which must be treated as an episode or digression
from the direct path (if Schopenhauer's development, due
to the potent deflecting force of Ooetbe, was written at
Dresden, to which be had transferred bis abode after the
' TUa cluKlfictitlon SchopaBliinemib-«qn*Btlymodiasd, — enbstitnt-
Inj tor the Int and (amth a gradaatsd scale rljiing rron caise proper
(>■ uonTaaK natnra) to rtlnnlai <la Tegetatire life) and motin (in
the animal woiid), tba last again bring either IntultlTS motlTa, sa in
t)i4 lower animals, or rational inotlTa. a> in man.
ruptore with bis mother. It had been sent in US. to
Qoethe in tha autumn of 181 S, who, finding in it a tiaos.
formation rather than an expansion of hie own idea^ in.
cllned to regard the author as an opponent rather than an
adherent.
, tt hegiiu by te4tating with n
017 Out iwrrcption of au objective
causal poalulatiou, wliic'
orld n
._ _..., .._ leoi^ still
ronirtina to haunt as liiiitead of being, like errors of reason, ojxg
to cKtirpolion by OTidouce), and proceeds to deal with phjsiologiad
colour, i.c., with roloiirs aa felt (itot ]>erceiTed] modifioationa of Uie
action of the nstius. Funl or all, tha distinction of white and
black, with their mean point iu grey, ie referred to tlie activity
or iuactivity of tlic total retina in the gradniteil presence or
absence of full UghL Fnrthcr, t)ie eye is cudoirod with pDlBiity,
b^ nbicb itt activity is divided into two parts qnalitatlTelj' dis-
of colour. All coloura are compleiueuterf, or go iu pairs ; each
pair niakei np the whole activity of the retuta, and so is eoiuvalent
the first ia ciihausted the other spontaneoualy anccoedsL Such jviia
of colour may bo regarded as infiniU in nnnibcr ; but then are
three pairs which atanJ out proininontly, and admit of aaay up™,
eion for the rutio ia which each contributes to the lotal action.
These are red and green [each = i), orange and blue fa : I), aud
yellow and liolct (3 : 1],' This theory of complementary raloort
— •■■ - •- •■■- polarity in the qnalitativf — '■ ' '' '■— ■-
followed by ac
itempt U
•a the
and the seven colouis, fcy
iplain some facts noted by Goethe, snd by some
ixtomal stimuli which cause colour.
The grand interest of his life at Dresden was the com-
position of a work which should give expression in all lU
aspects to the idea of man's nature and destiny vrtiich had
been gradually forming within him. Withoot cutting
himself altogether either from social pleasures or from art,
he read and took notes with regularity. More and more
be learned from Cabanis and Helvetins to ses in the wiU
and the passions the determinants of intellectual life, and
in the character and the temper tha source of theories and
beliefs. The conviction was borne in upon him that acien-
tific explanation could never do more than systematiu and
classify the mass of appearances which to our habit-blinded
eyes seem to be the reality. To get at this reality and thus
to reach a standpoint higher than that of letiology was the
problem of his as of all philosophy. It is only by such a
tower of speculation that an escape ia poedble from the
spectre of materialism, theoretical and practical; and si^
says Schopenhauer, " the just and good most all have tlus
creed ; I believe in a mataphysic." The mere reasoning)
of theoretical science leave no room for art, and practical
prudence usurps the place of morality. Tha higher life of
esthetic and ethical activity — the beautiful and the good
— can only be based upon an intuition which penetrates
the heart of reality. Towards the spring of 1818 the weak
was nearing its end, and Brockhaus of Leipeic had agreed
to publish it and pay the author one ducat for every sheet
of printed matter. But, as the press loitered, Schopen-
hauer, suspecting treacbety, wrote so rudely and haughtily
to the publisher that the latter broke off correspondence
with his client. In the end of 1818, however, the book
appeared (with the dale 1819), in 725 pages 8vo, with the
title Dit Will alt WilU und VorHtllimg, in four botJo.
with an appendix containing a criticism of the Eantiu
philosophy.
The firat book of TTia ITm-JdoJ fFiJi nwi 7im re .
mcnt of the etrlier work, that all objacta are constituted bj
lectual relstioni, describable aa forma of" ' '
«o apprehending a world of objects, n
tolligsnce {yeraland), the perception of inuivianai aequencB »""
coeiutencos. It is a facidty he shares with the animala, and by iU
meatil the world presents itself as an endless nnnlier of objects In
apace and tinH bound together by necMaary laws of canaality. But
man has also the power ofrtann ( fenmn/V). by which hegeMrahna,
the vehicle of tuis generalization being ]inguBg«. By mam "
■ la this doctrine, so Ur aa the facta h^ Soliopatdianer Is hi^lited
to a paper by R. Waring Darwin in voL Ixxvt of tha fVaiiicMii'si V
lit Pkamgaiiaii SocMt.
itituted by inte^
tl princ^a A>
d to posBcae in-
SCHOPENHAUER
4S1
,_„ .. g 1m rlMi out of the iniout immenioa ia tho
tat ind ii kble to uitidiiats the fatiin. H« farmi genenl
(deaa ud thu am pnaerrs ud ansmniiicitc aUtni:t kaowledgn.
Bat nuon, thangh il
... ji^ __ ._
kw* or tht
mdBDt Tslns either m theontlcul M u
gives Hh to suicDtiGc kiiowlodgs
— tlu knowladgs oT beta uid iiequ(i
rencn but M iutaiicaa of & gsmnil Uv. Dy nmiis gf the pner
truths thai ■nind it wo cu deduce or jron. Bat ■ proof u, aft
nil, oal]r > meuu of ihowiiig tba diapatatioot tbateoatethingwbii..
thej denj I* inaepuablf bound up with KmetbinE the; admit.
a, thcRfora to nibetitoto for the
lethiuff thej
iculir deniouil
of whick gaometr; ia auiceplibla a •^rllog
compel aaasDt but ouinat inepin uuiEl
Iters which Bipport the II ^ ._ ^ , — ..
iBnaoaing caonot claim to be more than a n-«muigement of pro^
ilucta Emm other Beldi.
Reftaon i« aqnallj importaiit and equal!; limited aa a factor in
Mmitnct. It enable* oa, aa it wars, to tend a KCOud life, guided
by genenl ptiDciplea and not b; ain^e anpetitiana. Soch a life ii
wliat i* callad a lifii aeowding to raaBOD, tjiafied in the ideal of the
Stoic sagv. The wise man eartiea oat the (temt of ooudoct aeeerd-
iag to a ganetal plan and ii nperior to the irapulaa of the moment.
But here too tbe peneral reMa npoD the partieular ; a ayatenutle
hapmoev takea the place of single and conflicting pleaaurea, but
■tiffean only justify ilaelf bj procuring pleaaure. Thua, unliss
then be a new psreeption of llfe'i meaning, reaaoning cannot
make a nan Tirtuoua, it can onlj make him pmdent ; it tell> him
how to redon with lua natural character, but it cannot iliow !iim
bow to amend it.
Bodt IL >■ an attempt lo name that reaidual reality vhich ia nre-
aappoaed bat not aiplaliied in ererj icientifie eiplauation, whether
Ktialocieal or morpbologica]. The kev ia found in the
nam M tmraalfea aa exerting will. What to the inner
len la Tolition ii to the outi
LaA ai neb act of Tolitiou is p
ja s whtdaia by m percetredaa body.
hodr ia my idU obieetifiedr~4ny will tranalated into te
Idflc ■piinlianidon--ii tba "phili
senenlizinK thia tmth, we com. __..,_. _._ ...^
u thsT^wlitr of OUT mode of will, aa evcTythinK ia aome graili
fai the ot^tifieaUoa of the will. While the ethology of icience
aceoonta for tbe IkmlllaT complex by a dmplcr and mora abstract
phaae, philoai^y mgt tba olearsr and more conipicnoui tniUncs
to e^ain tbe more rodlmmtaiy. The law of motiratiou ia taken
aa aiaj to open the incomprehendbility of mem causation, and in
the atone we preauoM a Aatde analogue of what uk know as will.
The will a* ancb, apart fhim ita objectification in aoinula, kaowi
nothing of motiTea, wUch, tbon^ they explain the ipecial circum-
Btaneta, pnanmoaa the underlyiug and originative for«e. Ho doubt
a bUa idea of dmplld^ baa often led theorists loredi
:t to appUed mathematics, in
"* 'iroe waa eliminated and ^
SI lefL But, though it is
beyond tbe nnga
, ■ - 1 1 lional cause," and but
■tatea the temporal conditioni of operation of tho eternal energy.
While eaoh savenl act has an aim, the ooltectiTe will has none.
The Dunurkal difl^neea of object! do not touch the underlying
actiTity. It is felt in one oak as mnch ss in a million, for time
Biul niaca an only aembUnce for (animal) intdligenee. And there.
>.__ S — L_i .» j_, — jj fiig nnifonnity pervading the '-
<rf wondering at
Maaees of any ol^actiilCBtion ot will, we should
will-falte operating in all is the
is the commcM law. For the i
It tho
er identity
the adaptation
IB throo^uint a life are only the utterances of one original
^jgtf and BO intrinsically interdependent, so the gradoe of
oMsctiflcatioQ In nature are ue expression of one identical will,
wMch forma tbeeonditionaofBiiatencaaa well aa the living creatures
accominodaUiig themaelrea to them. Will, which appears in its
lowHt gmilB a otyeotlAoatlon aa the physical forc«i of inornnio
n^me, ibea ia tfis TegstatiTa world to a peculiar sympathetic
reapoDM to the stimulation by eitenial circumstancea, and In the
animal world prodOM* for itself a sDecial organ, tbe btsin, which
p WIS the power of pnamtlng under the ^rma of senss and in-
tellect that o^iaotiTa manUMatiim of will which wa call the woiid
el cur e^srianca. Tith the axisteoce of tin animal brain, the
wdild amogsd into thae and spaoa. It was a step neoeaiitated by
the srowing complexity of ^pe in the wiU-pfodnet^ which could
Doithar edn nor umauiiii thdr kind without this new instrument
wliieh subatitiilad conacioaB adaptatioa for tmeooacioM teleology.
In this stiUge mythology by whioh Sohopenhaner reiriaceB the
Ion we see the maj^ world of wiH, wearl
lUces to form a material organ which shows the
world as the objcctificaUou of the will In this one material
-*-- will has coue to ace ilavlf expanded Into s complicated
„ jme and idace. But at fint the brain and ita function,
knowledge, are solely employed in tbe aervife of the wilL
R.»V III .)...m y,n~, >).., 1..I..IT.U
oraanl
instead of
Book uL ahons hon the iuti;IIect is rmanci[)ated from thia bond-
age to the will When we coiileinpUte an object limply for its own
sLk^ fonettiog erorythiiig and ounelves even iu tbe vision, then
what we nare before ub ia uo longer one thing among manv but a
tfpe, not one of a class but an ultimate iudividiiality, n
ticulai but an adequate ouboUiiueiit of tlie univcraaL I
tlie Kcoeral concent or claat-iiotion ire have the Pletouio " lum —
one image into which all tlio csseiiliul Ufe of tbe object haa been
concentrated. To realize thia iudividu[Ll which haa not entered
into the bouda of Indiviiluatien, tliis UMivetial nbich is not a
genus but the I
between thinga-
aeeming to liavoa touch of uiailuoM— iuste-id of seekiug to ctassiiy
a thing or Hnd out nhat it is Tor, looks at it for its onu take and
sees tho one type or ideal nhicli is seeking for cipreasion iu its
' '■ ■■■ Such geuiUB bcgeta ai'
til of the individual, la the province of
I, neffleeling the search for lelationships
Yet s<
■ here the artist leads
loffienii
1 all nici;
it they
u follow
thus CI
jtiat leads and see throu^i Lit eyes. Eictything ai
iplatfd diBiutere>tnlly for its own soke anil iu ita pe^
the past and distant purer from si
Dion beautiful
nore than others fsdli-
0 ua their permanent
te. The sense
It than the presenL
of the object on tho will, then llie object, where the pereopti<
gsnius still sees the jieifccl tyi-e In tho sitigle fonn, iacdled sublime
The several arts fill naturally into an ociler which rises from Lhi
paadve enjoyment iu the coutoniplation of inorganic forces to the
active perception of will in ita most coniplei types. Arcliitecturc
seeks in works dedicated to human use to give expression to the
fundamental features of physical force, e.g., cohesion, weight Ac,
and to that end it intensities tho appcarancs of strain by renudng
the forcea au easy and immoiliata lapse into their natural tendency.
In short, it seeks to show resiatanco viiiblc. Sculpture presents
tbe beauty and grace of the human form, i./., the " idea of that
,. i„gi. ,
avcmeuta. Here tbe "idea"
., ._ _.._ . _.. ing manifeitatioiL anticipate by
ideal tbe meaning of the in]i>errcct phases and lay down an
u yrittri canon of beauty. While sculpture mvcs expression to the
more generic type in flgiire slid motion, painting aims at repte-
sonting action. But even libtorical pictures seek iu a given scene
*^ 1. __. XL- ^'--ort^ iniportauce of the I ~" — ^-'- -*
' ■ '^ es au arrong _ j.
iMs reality out of abatraction-.
id abiding truth nhich history nsually dis-
sipates in s host of particiilara and relations. In lyric poetry the
individual subject of will pres:^uts biiiisetf as the subject of aiiistic
perception i his oivn exJ^clioIlco is db()laycd as typical and universal.
In trasedy the trath shown is the inner conflict at the very root of
the will. The hero la exhibited as brought to seo the aimlcssnera
of all will \ and by sulfrring ho Icarna resignation. Uusic, unlike
the other arts, is an image of tba movement of will not yst ob-
jectiHed ; and in its clcmnita and harmonies we havo a parallel to
the stages and comiileilLiea of the actual world. Hence the ex-
planation of music ^'Duld be a pliilosopliy of the world.
But lit, tliough it afroi-da an interval of rest freni the dradgety
of will-service, cannot claim to be more than a transient con«)la-
tion. Book it. indicates a surer way of release- It reiniuds us
that onr life is the phenomenon ol the will,— s phsuomenon which
bcgine at birth and end? it death, and of ubich every instant is a
puilial birth and s psitiil dotth. But the ccesaliou of the indi-
vidual life ia not an annihilation of the wilt ; eur essential being is
indatmclible. The inaiiifeBlatiaii of tlie will Id human liM in
spread out and disposed In an enilloss multitude of actloni. Ex-
perience sums up these in a siiiKle fonnula,— tlie inaxim of onr
empirical diameter ; and that result ilsolf is tbe type or idea which
revcala the one nnaltcnble utterance of will, trlilch is the intel-
ligible character.' It is (liia immemorial act which fixes our
empirical chamcler, which gives the consistency and regularly
of our acta. V€l!i iton diidtur. Character is fivou (by an ante-
phenomenal act) ; it ia not acr|nireiL If in one sense we can speak
of an "acquired character," we mean thereby that we now uiuler-
atand what manner of men we are, that we have learned the best
and wont of onneh es. But, though the character Ik given ouca
■ Ilisttnassn liemwol traai XsnL
4S2
SCHOPENHAUER
for rII In tlu begmniD^ knowUd^ U not nnlMi. ITe tstn loun
to ulopt unr meaiu tbouah the eud oS will remnin* multeml.
n thi* luw knoirlalgB trtiich csuk* npentano*, when wb »
ra mdopMd niidiis mschode to Bttun oar ■im. Th« rarre; of tha
, — „-- -. - . • relirf &01L ptin, tluit Ufa li ■tragedy.
Bat tha natonl mui, immaned in tha MiiaB of hSc, pliyt the egoist
H if ha mn th* o«ntie ot axiatanoa and tba will to life spoke
In Um akaa. Id loch > nirit he not iMnl; acta u U Rfflrming
hia own wfl] to lifo, but m i( be dwiad tbit of othen. He cam
nlta inJtMtlM. Ths mua of witnug-ddo^ he miy TmI, is the wit
nMi of MHUokKUoaa to the idantitj batwaan himself and othen
It k tb< •MMannaa of sunl Uw and giraa rise to tbat sense o
Tisht whloh la die baglnning <^ ethieM. But for tha most nrt
imotliial ndexioiii Dote only tha arili cuuad by egoitm, and iuduoa
thaaiiAnntofonnaLMrtapndacebYrapnadon the lama reaolti
■J mnaUty atttloa by stimnutlon. Ana penal luw, as oppmed to
moral bw, alma only at checking iotrinioDB upon tha rights of
otiMM, and the whole pdlitkal organintlan a only in inBtnunent
fbr choiring Cffoiam by t^ism, for making each leek the welfare
irfall because itinclDil«hii own. Its jostice is Mmporal | it adds
an addiCioDsl pain by legidatiTe niachinery, with sriew to I'
Wal&re of the greater number.
Bat tlien is another and an eternal jnitice. Hera there is
MparatioD of time an<l place betwBan the wrongdoer and 1
■uflerer. This eternal justice rsToals itself to him who, hsiiog
aeen through ' ' the vsH of Hhyb, " has found that in tha woild of
tiBtb the Jivisions between individuals fall away, and that he who
does wrong to another has done the wrong Eo his own self. Ths
parsuBsion of this doctrine of eternal justice is aa ingrained in
hanui natore that we welcome the punishment that orertahes the
Tktocioas arildoer. Similar lessons are hidden in the mytbi of
transmignlicin of aonls. The secret lenee that the pains of othen
an In nalitr not alien constitntes the tormenti of remorse which
Tisit tha wiolced. ~ ■ ...
The good man, c
7^'/
T the bliod lust of lift
fsHsrli AuinnML
Snoh benerolence only alleviatca the misery of ethers. It cnlmj.
natal in aelf-sacrific^ which is carried out l^ Toluntair and com.
Co ehartity, by nttsr poverty, by mcrtifloation, bj ftating, and
of ail by death. Such a courae of life, howover, is seldom
taught by instructiDa alone, and the broken will geaer^y comes
only, whna a midi^ shock of grief reveals the Inevitable ptin ot
eiiatanca and bnnn a quietivo to the Inst of life. Tot the victory
OT«r the will to lln ia not attaineil onco for all ; the snptemacy
muatUratainedbyacareerofaKoticism. Such aacetica, in whom
tha will to life waa deadened and the body remained as a mere
•inptr aembLme^ were the aaiuls and mystical derctees of all ages.
Thay had enudSed tlia fleidi with its aflisstioni and liieta. ^eir
will had baan amanoipated mm the bondan Is which in life it wsa
■ottisot, had bean nlnssd from the otttactiHcation in eorpat«ity and
nskmd to fta original infinity. In aocb saints alone has llu assen-
tiol tnedom of the will appeared on the CempcisI scene, but appeared
only to destroy the old Adam and bring in the new birtli. By tho
lively knowledge of the truth of thinga the will has denied itself,
has passed into a itui where the objective world is as if it were
not, — the stage which rnu when will sa yet hod not gone forth to
olyectifjr Itself in a woi'id and when knowledge had not yet mirrored
the reality in an idea, whim, in abort, nothing was.
Long before tha work had come to tha hand* of the
public, Schopenhauer had mshed off to Italy and ex-
changed the labour* ot giving the gospel of renonciatton
a metaphjaical basis for the gaiety o( eouthem life and
the inducDoea of elude art. At Venice, where he first
lingered for a while, he foond himself a fellow. denizen
with Lord Byron ; but, oicept for a solitary chance when
his jealoDsy was stirred by tha outspoken admiration of
his (air Venetian companion for tha handaome Briton who
rode post them on the Lido, the two inuurgent apostles of
tha WeiUeAmtn never came across each other's path. At
Ilome, where he passed tho depth of winter, he saw the
first oopiea ot Us book. It tomid him in asaiduotis attend-
anoe on the art gaUeriea, the qiera, and theatre, —turning
from tha noooogenial companionship of hia romantic coun-
trymen and gladly seizing every chance of conversing in
Enffliah with En^iabmen. In Uarch 1819 he bad gone
•a far as Naplas and Pnstum. On hia way homewards
he waa startled by receiving at Milan a letter from hu
sister announcing that in conaequem-e of the failure oi the
Dantzic honae a large part of hia own and hif mother'i
and neaily the whole ot lus sister's fOTtone were endangerad.
This change of drcumstancas was a heivy blow to the
ladie^ and he himaelf was almost induced bj the miiicltance
to qualify himself to teach in the university at Heidelberg
in July 1819. Bat he sternly lafused the compromiw of
seventy per cent, offered by tho insolvent firm, and was aa
angrily suspicious with bis sister who accepted it that he
ceased to correspond with her for about fourteen yean.
Fortimately his determined and akilful aaertion of hii
rights was crowned, after a long dispute, with sncceBi.
He recovered the whole debt, recdving in principai and
interest the nun of 9iOO thalets.
After some stay at Dresden, hesitating between finsg
himself as nniveniCy teacher at Gfittingen, Heiddbei^
or Berlin, he finally choee the last-mentitmed. In hid ex-
amination before the faculty (dupultilio pro «cmm leyroJi^
he enjoyed what ha reckoned the satiiifaGtioa ot catchiiig
up Hegel {who had just been appointed profeescM') in a la)
use of a technical term ("animal" for "organic" fnnetionii).
And in hie first and only course ot leetnres he had tbe
further satisfoction ot selecting as his hours the same times
(12 to 1 on Monday, Wednesday, and Friday) aa Hegsi
had taken tor hia principal clasii. Thiu ooume on tfip fint
principlea of philosophy or knowledge in geoeml, given b
tbe summer ot 1620, waa not a suoceea, — indeed did not
reach its natural end, and, though the notice of lectnre waa
repeated during his stay in Berlin np to 1631, the Uctore.
room knew him no more. Brilliant aa he was in [lOweia of
luminous illustration and characteristic as ia his style, be
waa wanting in the patient exposition of a snlgect for its
own sake and not as the field for exemplifying a favourite
theeiB. The result of bin experiences in 1820-21, which
he attributed to Hegelian intrigues, was to intensify his
suspicions of his colleagues, one of whom, F. E. B^eko
(another alleged victim to Hegel'ii jealonaies), he accQi<ed of
garbled quotations in hia review of The WoHd lu Wi/I -nd
Idea. Except for some attention to physiology, tbr firat
two years at Berlin were wasted. In Uay 1833 be tat
out by way of Switzerland for Italy. After spending tbe
winter at Florence and Romc^ he left in tbe spring of 1823
for Munich, where he stayed for nearly a year, the prey
of illness and isolation. When at the end of this wretched
time he left for Oastein, in Hay 1824, he had aimost en.
tirely lost the hearing ot his right ear. Dreaden, which he
reached in Angnst, no longer presented the Hme luw)atabb
aspect as of old, and he was reluctantly drawn onwudt to
Berlin in May I62n.
The place had unpleasuit associations of many kimlis
but one disagreeablB incident of his former eta; now re-
turned to him in a jndidal award ot pains and penaltie*.
One day, about a year after his first settlement m Beriin,
on ISth Angnst 1621, on returning to his lodging he toaaA
three women standing in the passage in front d hia laoo
door. The event had annoyed him before, and hi/> land-
lady had promised it shonld not occur again. On thk<
occasion accordingly Schopenhauer ordered them oat of
what he held to be his own "stair-hMd," walked intolw
room, and emerged in a few minutct" with hat and utiek «■
he had entered. One of the women wax still on the •V*'
—ft semptieaa, forty-eaven years old, a friend of tb^ l»i>*
lady, and occupant of a small chamber adjauent to that it
Schopenhauer. This penon he ejected ; and when J»
returned to pick up a piece ot doth (there xtood a chttd ot
drawers belonging to her in the paosage) he put her (orciUj
out again, niion which she fell wiUi a shriek that alanMd
tha hoDM. Kelt day she lodged an action agaisid hia
for peraonal iqjnriea ;' and, after a nrie^ of opffm^ ^
SCHOPENHAUER
453
rion^ tlw flnkl tania mil in ISStf to award the complaiiuuit
eompMiNtioa (with five-aixtlu of cout^ and a miaU inm for
madlcal ezpenwa) to ths amonnt of a qoarUrlj iJiment
of fiftMU uudan, which nun ihe received till hw dMth,
fiftem jaan afterwords.
The dx y«an (1835-31) at Bralin w«t« a dianud poiod
in the life of Schopenhaaer, In Tain did be watch for U17
■ign of rs«^[nition of hi* philoaophic genin*. Hc^iBlianiiin
reigned in (he •ehooU and in litcratare and boaked in the
nmsbine of anOiority. It wai a bad time for an indo-
pendent thinker who ignored the state and the jmriong
aUianee between philow^; and thaol<^. Thn« driven
btek upon himself, Bchopeidiaaer fell iato morbid medita-
tions, and the world which he saw, if it was stripped naked
of its dii^iM^ kat its proportions in the distorting light.
The Mzud paaaion had a strong attractioD for him at all
times, and, aooording to his biogtaphera, the notes be set
down in T'l-glifh, when he was timed thirtj, on mania^
and kindred to^os are unfit for pablkatioD. He had m
(HMmi^ manhood been lo faadnated \y a Weimar aetrets
that he deehu«d he wonld take her to his borne tbcng^ he
found her breaking stones on the roadside^ lAtw yean
had nipped the fredineea of his eDthnaiaam, and oaaoal
exparieoces geneiated an ovoweening misogynj, which,
while allowing mmait her place in the natond econmn;,
regarded the latfy la the invention of A false dviHsdioa.
Tet in the lonelineae of life at Beriin the ide* of a wife as
the mnfoTt of gathering age eometimei roae before hie
nund,—^; to be diiven away by eantioni heaitatione as
to tin eapad^ of his means, and bj the shrinkiDg from
tbe loM of faiw'l'"' libertiei. He contiaaed his bMhelor-
dom, and found consolation in leas onerous aaaociationa.
At hiHne he tuaed his fiute ; he dined, and it might be
convened, with his fellow-gneats at the Hotel de Rosaie ;
he read iot honn at the royal library, and gave his even-
ings to the tiieatrea. But he wrote nothing materiaL In
1628 he made mquirise about a chair at Heidelberg ; and
in 1830 he got a diortened lAtin vendcm of his plmdo-
logical theory of eolonra inserted In the third volume of the
Ser^itora OpIMalmotogiti JTmotm (edited by Badius).
Another pathway to r^ntation was suggested by some
remarks he saw in the seventh uomber of the Fortig*
Rmat, in an article on Damiion's FrenA Philotopky in
ike J9th Ctnfarjf. With reference to some statements In
tbe article on the importanoe of Kant, he sent in very
fair English a letter to the writer, ofbring to translate
Kant'f princiiial work* into English. He named his
wages and eocloeed a speoiiiMn ff hie work. His oorre-
apondent, Franeia Hjmrood, made a counter propoeal
which so diagosted Surapenhaoer that be addressed his
next letter to the pnbliaben of the review. When they
again lefwred him to Haywood, he appUed to Thomas
Campbell, then chairmao ot a oompany formed for buy-
ing up the copyright of meritoriona but rtgectad wmI^
Nothing cams of this ^>pUeation.* Atranslation of eeleo-
tioiis from the WMfa of RnlthaMr Uracian, which was
puliliohed by Frauenstiidt in 1862, seema to have been
made abont this time.'
In the summer of 1831 ehtdna nged at Berlin, and
Mehoiienhaner fled to Frankf<Ht. About a year later he
adjonmed to M^nnhnim, But after eleven DKnaths* ei-
iierienee of the latter he decided, from a carefully weighed
list of comparative advantagee, in fsvoor of Frankfort.
And there, accordingly, for the rest of his life he remained.
He resumed correspondence with his sister, who was liv-
ing with her mother in straitened drctimstaneea at Bonn.
It WH Dot tm lUl tlut > tnuulitlon of Kut'i Krilitia bgllih
"nini-
prcJMtsd a (nulstiaii ct Bvme'i Am|« and w
At firat tbe good people of Frankfort knew him, not as
the celebrated philosopher, but as the son of tiie tamoud
Johanna Bchopenhaoer,' and as the companion of a familiar
poodle. The da; had not yet risen when, as ho had fro-
pheeied to his mother (who joked at his book on " fonr-
fold root" aa amelling of the apothecary), his works wonld
be read of all, and hen only be oaed by the grocer to
wrap bis goods in. The sense of unappreciated wm^
aggravated by ill health and by pecuniary worry about
hu Pantzic property, sank deep into a heart that was yearn-
ing for outward recognition. He seemed to see around
him none but enemiee, a world mainly filled with knave*
and fool^ where a true man was rarer than an honest
woman, and where the very touch of society was so perilous
that irony and reserve were imposed on every one who re-
tained his self-reepect. In eoUtnde he devoured his own
BOuL At the hotel table a stranger might oceaeionally be
drawn into listening to hiu vigorous monologue ; but it
was seldom ha was Ihos enconrt^ged to discouria. Grooad-
lees fears of hidden dangen toade him see himsetf and
every other independent geniDS tbe aim of a oonapirai^ of
Tul^ chadatans. He would never antooat his neck to
the barber'a hand; and he aneeeeded in aecreting hie
vahiableB so thoroughly that some ot them were after his
death recovered only after much eaarch.
Ever aince the publication of I^ World at WiU mid
Idea he had ailently waited for some response to hi^
message. He had uttered the word he felt himself
charged to utter. Aa the yean pessed he noted down
eveiy confirmation he found of his own opinions in the
writingi of others, and every instance in which his views
appeared to be illustrated by new reeearchea. Full <d the
conviction of his idea, he saw everything in the li^t of
it, and gave each aperoL a place in his alphabetically
arranged note-Jx>ok. Everydiing he published in later
life may be called a commentary, an excnrsus, or a
scholium to his main book ; and many of them an
decidedly of the nature of oomnraiplace hooka or ctdlee-
tanea of notee. But along with Hie aceomnlation of hia
illnstrative and corroborative materiala grew the bitter-
ness of heart which found its ntteraneee negleoted and
other name* the oracles of the reading world. He
gathered fll-humour of many yeat^ aggravated by the
confideat aasorance of the HegeUane, found vent at length
in the introdnctitm to his next book, where Bc^** work*
ore deecribed as three-quarten utter absurdity and one-
quarter mere paradox, — a specimen of the language in
which during hia eubaeqnent career he used to advert to
hia three predeceaeore Fichte, Bchelling, but above all
HegeL Thia work, with its wild outcry against the philo-
sophy of tbe pmfeeeoriate, was entitled U^tr dm WiUen i»
der Jfaiw, and wa« published in 1836.
Tlu eieht cmya whicb go nodsr tl» (itlf at Tki WOl in Katm*
■eek to thaw that hia tlieorj hss the nniqu* distiiielian of findbig
in phyaical MicDce testimon; to iti mel&uhyiieal doctriiu* that
will it th« primuy bang of all nitnre end mtsllaet 1 dnivatiTe
phenomenon. Oftaa a trivial similaiitjofphnsMSurestoMtabliili
in bii judgmtnt an a^trecineDtof ndicelvMir. In thaiecond enay
he arjniea for the origin of animal ornoinHon fcam will, pdntiug
out bav in grawiug creatana thi tsndancy to me an organ ippaen
befon the organ itself is formed, and mslntaiiiing tbs^ inetaed of
■eeking the protoplum of tbe animal kisBdon in a nar* lamp of
TJtalimd mitt«i, lo ba moulded by aKtemal couditkiiia, wa ahoolil
> JotmuiM Schoiwoliaiier (176a-183Sl wan in her da; an witboaMi
of ioma nputation. Bnidaa editing the menioiiv of Fernow, jiLe
pnbltibed Salam TVonii in BtgUoui, Seotlanii, amd Saylitni Fnaue
(1813-17); Joliimnvit<iSy^Bvil>ita-atannOSli); three RnuauceH,
Oabrillt (1816-20], /)u TanU (1823), and 3ido%ia (1838^ beiidai
•oma ihoTtar ta]«. Tfaeee nonli teicli the moral of reaniioimou
(XnitB0av). Ba dangliter Allele (17M.184S) Menu to hire bail «
braTe. tender, and nutatiaAed lieart, and lavinKM on her brother an
■iTection he aorely tried. She also waa an aathoreaa, puliLbhluf &r
1814 a •olnme of ffni'i-, IPoU-, ond Fiid-UMrtliai. fall of qnalst
poatical ooueiA^ and 1b ia,4G .dMH^ a novel, Istgp vola
0"~
454
SCHOPENHAUER
iui which «ii hehol'l ths if
■hom IbKlf
to eonnsct ■
with lh« d«
, iiul Duulii vii'tarimu in tlig
'irortion between
<. Wtiem thorn
effoct rrom inon^nic to orffinic
B the Dihpi- remarked. __ ,
■gnetlsm (nic^TnoK^m, hy[>notiriii>] aiul magic
it iu eacli a! w tlie sliota nmlmdcd vilL id-
In 1837 SchopeoliBusr seat to the eommittee entrosted
with tb« eiecntioD of the prO]>OBed monument to Goethe
at Fnukfort a long and deliberate eKpretuion of his Tiews,
in genenJ and particular, on the best mode of canying
out the deaign. Bat bis fellow -citizena passed b; th9
remarka of t£e mere nriter of books. More weight Mnu
natnrall/ attached to the opinion he had advocated in
his early criticisnl of Kant aa to the importance, if not
tlie mperiority, of the first edition of the Krilii: ; in the col-
lected iuue of Kaot's works by Hosenkranz and Schubert
in 1838 that edition was put as the substantive text, with
Eupplementary. exhibition of the diETcrences of the second.
In 1841 he pabliahad under the title DU beidm Giiind-
probleiM der Ethii two ossayB which he bad aeot in
1838-39 in competition for prizes offered. The firet was
in anawer to the question " Whether man's free will con
be proved from ■elf-consciouanesa," proposed by the Nor-
wegiaa Academy of Sciences at Drontheim. His essay
was awarded the prize, and the author elected a member
of the society. But proportionate to hia emltation in
this first recognition of hia merit waa the depth of his
mortification and the beigbt of Ilia indignation at the
result of the second competition. He bad sent to the
Daniah Academy at Copenhagen in 1839 an essay "On
the Foundations of Morality " in answer to a Tagaely
worded subject of discussion to which they had invited
candidates. His essay, though it was the only one in
competition, was refused the prize on the grounds that he
had failed to examine the chief problem {i.t., whether the
basLa of morality waa to be sought in an intuitive idea of
right), that tu9 explanation was inadequate, and that he
hul been wanting in due respect to the noatai phUot/^i
of the age that waa just passing. This last r««aon, while
probably moat effcctire with the judges, only stirred up
more furiously the fuiy in Schopeijiauer's breast, and his
prefoce is one long fulrainatiou agabst the ineptitudes
and the charlatanry of his Mie noire, HegeL
that U
:,J^?'".
Srti }
ir-eo
lo ibMucB of phyiical rB«tr«int,
"Tha Btatemcnt of ielf-con«ciooiniim conconn the iriU merely a
(< poll, the nncation of fnedam, oa the contrary, a partt anlt.'
.... n thron no light on the reUlion of volition to iti
iniMwaenu. ii^ on the other hsnd, we tarn to tha objects of tha
ontcr Hneeii, we Snd that it is part and parcel of their very ustnn
tn b« not ftee but necessitated, govcrne<l, in short, by thu principlo
of caosation. Bnt in the asceiidiii;; aeale of causation causa and
effect becoma more and more bcterogeiiooua, their i-onnoxion mora
aniNtelligible. This is seen in motivation, etpccialty where the
motives are not iramedista pcrcptions but general abstract idais.
It i-iu the potsiljility of a conflict of motives thnt inau'a freedom
n! choice consisti. But, because ve can by a feat of abatraction
keep an image of ono course of action belore ui and neglect tha
o'.her concrete coiiditioni of behaviour, there growi lui an illiulon
that tha more initial aolieitatiou or velleity might, if we pteued,
becoma aeiual will. Hence the delurion Chat we an fraa to vill
and not to will. Still tbe neceasilating cduse or motive ia only
the rale tinder rbich the rcai force or radical will oparatea. In
thia mdical will tm\MU our beinj, and on it action la conaeqnent:
OMnn Mrgiulfir csk. B) our ongiiud character acting in certain
circnniatancu of motivo our actiona are inevitably detannined.
Bat ths BomofrMpraMt^ty bs oui OMtdnctianoI (ItogstlMiT a
It ia nally a rniitauiilillity fa oi
H yn«l
lliu
for Jistlnguiihing Iba profound from the superficial I
•olvsil by the Kautinn distinction o.' empinral and tr»i
»*orli!. In the woi Js of Malcbmncha, ■■ La liberti eat iin my-tin."
The eaaay on the foonJation of morality ia an attempt lo pteaect
tba fuuJsuientnl fact of Clio moral comciouiiiod and to abov its
motaphyoical bearinga. It includes a lengtliy criliui^n of h'ut'i
system of ellijca aa only the old tbapWcal morality nnd« i
(Lisguide of Io;^cal formulae. Eint, according to hia i^iitii:, thong)]
be atrnclc a seven blow at ead«moniam, mado the nuHUke of
Fonnding ethici on ideas of obli^tian and respect, which an
metuiinglen apart fmm a poative sanction. Hia crBtecortcal im-
perative is attributed to najon, — a po»or which we ooTy know u
human, bat which Kant regards aa man than hnmaii and botron
fnim the "rational psychology," which itaelf had rwcsived it fnm
theology. The moral apring ahould be a reality and a [act of
nature, nheresa Kant seeks it in tha anbtiltioa of general Mlta^
forgetting that raaaoning ia one thing and virtue another. Ami,
nhen Kant hae to illastrate tha application of his nile (or diacorer-
ifself-intereit
?f.S
After this examination, S^openhauet prelndas hia ttxposition by
the Bcepttcal nuroy of >o-calloJ virtuous actions as duo In the rad
m^oritJi of inatajioes to other than moral motiTea, and by a di.-
intagration of tha average conscianCa into equal I^rta of fear 4^
man, lupentitiDii, prejntuca, vanity, sad cuatain. Tha mainapiisf;
of human action (aa of animal) is egoism, Bupplemaated by Ibc
hatred or the malice which arisae through egoistic conHicta. Bat,
though these are the predominant springs of conduct, there art
eases of unselfish kindueaa. It is in ayiDpatliy. or in our as it wen
aabatituting onrsalvea for another who is in pata, that wa find the
impolse which gives an. action a truly moial lalae. Tfaa influena
of sympathy has two degrees ; either it keeps me back fram Joins
(whareas civil jnslace prevents ffom suffering wrong) ; or aympsthy
may carry tna on to positive kindness, to philanthivpy or lore of
the human kind. It is on sympathy— the feeling of one ideutial
ustura nndar all the appearance of multiplicity — that the two or-
dinal virtnaa of justice and benevolenca are baaed. Scbopeuliswi
notas aapocially that hia principle eitands to the relation betwra
man and animal^ and that a mistaken conception of huoian dignili
baa bean allowad to hide tha fondamantaT commimlt j at aaimsl
In 1641 appeared the second edition of Tkt IFoHdat
Will and Ida^ in two volumes. The first wolnme wsi
a slightly altered reprint of the earlier issue ; the second
consisted of a series of chapters forming a commentary
parallel to those into which the original work was now
first divided. The longest of these new chapters deal with
the primacy oS the wilt, with death, and with the meta-
physics of sexual love. But, though only a small edition
was struck off (600 copies of vol. i. and TfiO of vol. ii.),
the report of sales which Brockhaos rendered in liMB
was unfavourable, and the price had afterwards to he
reduced. Yet th^ were faint indications of coming
fame, and the eagemeBs with which each new tribal^
from critic and admirer was welcomed is both toachii^
and amusing. From 1643 onwards a jurist named F.
Dorguth had trumpeted abroad Schopenhauer's name.
In 1844 a letter from a Darmstadt lawyer, Joh. Angi^'
Becker, asking for explanation of some difi^culties, begso
an intimate correspondence which went on for some tima
(and which was published by Becker's son in 1883). Bui
the chief evangelist (so Schopenhauer styled his liteitTT
followers as distinct from the apostles who published not)
was FranenatSdt, who made his personal acqaaintancs la
1846. It waa Frauenatiidt who succeeded in findiag'
publisher for the Pareri/a ttad ParaUpomena, ™™
appeared at Berlin in I85I (3 vols., pp. 46S, 631). >»
for this bulky collection of essays, philaaophical and
others Schopenhauer received as honorariom only ten ff
copies of the work. Boon afterwards, Dr E. 0. li^wj
assistant editor of the Voaitcht Zeitung, began a Mriw*^
Schopenluaerite Articka. AmcmgBttlwaini^btiacbiw
SCHOPENHAUER.
4S5
■ tnauUtion hj Hn Undner of an article hy John Oxen-
ford which ftopeared in the WatmiiuUr Sevita for April
18S3, entitled " Iconoclasm in Oerman Fhiloaophy," being
•Ji oatline of Siihopenhauer's ijstem. In I6fii Frauen-
Btidf 8 Ltttgn tm the ,ScAopaiiauerta» Fhilotopkif ahoired
that the nev doctrinet were become a aubject of disciu-
mon, — a state of things made Btill more obvioiu bj the
nnivenitjr of LeijKie offering a prize for the beet exposi-
tion and examination of the principles of Scbopenhaucr's
Beeidea Utia, the response faia ideas gaxe to
eorreq>ondenta who aotij^t his advice in tlieir difficnltiea.
And for the nme reason new edicioos of hia work* were
called for, — a second edition of his decree dimertation in
1847, of hia Ettay on Coloun and of The WiU in ytaun
in 1SS4, a Uuid edition of The World ai WiU and Idea in
1869, and in 1660 a second edition <A The MainPrMeau
of Elhiet.
In theae later years Scbopcnhaner had at length Tealized
that peace which can ba given in the wotM; he had
become comparatively master of himself. His passions
iiad slackened their attain, and he waa no longer the
victim of unavailing regreta. As a youth he had known
none of those tiea which give the individoal an uprit de
eorpe, a senae of community which he never qnite loses.
Wandering aboat from place to place throoghont Europe,
with no permanent home sweetened by the different
phases of family affection, with no reminiaeencea of com-
radeship in schoolboy days, with no sentiment of the
dnes of nationality, Bchopenhaoer is the fitter interpreter
of that modem coamt^mlitanimn which disdaina the more
xpecial ties of common life and mutual obligation ai being
obetaclea to free development. In exaggerated self-con-
adcmantim, he looka down upon the conunoo herd who
live the Ufa of convention and oompromiae, and puts the
anpreme value on that higher intellectiial life which leisnre
and means permit bim to ei^oy. A subtler egoism, which
omandpates itself from the lasts and the duties of the
world, takes the place of the vulgar self-eeeking of the
■nultitnde and of the self-devotion of the patriot or
philanthropist. To such a mind the friction of professional
duties aeema irksome ; the bonds of matrimony and the
dntiea inciunt>ent on social memberHhip are so many
checki on freedom of thought and reeolution. The indi-
vidoaliat recognizes none of those minor moiala and
parochial or provincial duties which appropriate three-
foortha of onr conduct. In the wide universe he sees
bimaelf and others, none more akin to him than another,
bcanga not tntind by external ties, and nnited onlyin the
fundamental MuneoeM of their inner nature. To ordinary
■Bortals, absorbed in " the trivial round, the common task,"
dm links that bind indiridoala are forged by the petty
ordinanceB and obeervancee of socie<7. But to those
whom temper and circumstances have denied local and
partial anociationship, the craving for totality is ao keen
that it makes them seek their higher country in that far-
<M worid (strangdy called " intelligible ") where their per-
aonalit? disappears m the one being of the univerBe.
^na wide is the antagonism between the eudsmouism
of eiviliMtion, with aspirations towards perfecting our
homes and bodies, so that in all things comfort may be
dance of tiioee things which wa eat and drink and where-
with we are elotbed bnt in a deadening of passion, a
n^ation of the wouM-Uve-and-enjoy, and an existence in
a calm ecstasy of beatific vision, of knowledge not abstract
bat lively iatnition. It is this protest of Schopenhauev
against the vani^ of the aims prescribed by conventional
TTTiliiatifn And enlif^tcomeDt which haa gained b™ some
of those ardent followers who And In his dootrine that
religion of which thn stand in need.
It is a religion which owua no connexion with theism
or pantheism. Unlike Spinoza and Hegel and the other
leaders of modem R)eeulation, Schopenhaner disdains the.
shelter of the old theology. His religion is cosmic and
secular ; it finds its saints in Buddhist and Cliristian
monasticism, in I::dian devoteea and IStii-eentury "beau-
tiful sools," and holds the one to be no nearer tx more
impressive as an example than the other. Of Judaism
be has no good to say ; its influence on Christianity has
been pemicions. The new faith is a ministry of art and
of high thinking, which may be rendered by all those who
by plain living a>d unselfish abaorpticm in Uie great mean-
ing and typal forms oi the world have slain the root of
bitterness that conattiitly seeks to apring np within them.
It isfar from being a won&ip of the blind force which lie*
at the back <rf phenomena : it la a " re-implication " of Uie
individual into the absolute from which life haa separated
him. Each aeder after thia reunion is himself (idien be
haa leant wisdom by experience and aelf-restraint) the very
being who haa become aU things ; and it the " coamic will "
may be termed Qod (an impossible identification V then he
knows Ood more intinutely than he knows anything else.
And here if anywhere it may be smd, " He serveth beet
who loveth best all things both great and smalL" Tet
love in thia creed is secMtd to knowledge ; the odt j>ro-
faMan vtilffui of the misanthrope is heard from the soli-
tary's shrine, and instead of the service of humanity we
have the contemplation of the eternal forma, and the ele-
vation to that world where self ceases to be separated from
other selves, aitd where, in the ultimate ecstasy of know-
ledge, all things povtive and definite disappear and there
is a being which the sensuous aoul of man fails to dia-
tinguish from ncm-being.
It is often said that a philosophic aystem cannot be
rightly understood without reference to the character and
circumstances of the philoeopher. The remark finds ample
application in the case of Schopenhaner. The conditions
of his training, which brou^t him in contact with the
realities of life before be learned the phrases of scholastic
language, give to his words the stamp of self-seen truth
and the clearness oi original conviction. They explain at
the same time the naivete which set a high price on the
products his own energies had turned out, and oonid not
see tiiat what was so original to himself might seem less
nniqns to other Judges. Pre-occupied with his own ideas,
he cWed nnder the indifference of thinkers who had grown
UaiS in speculation and fancied himself peieecuted by a
conspiracy of professors of philosophy. It is not so ea^
to demonstrste the connexion between a man's life and
doctrine. But it is at least plain that in the eaae of any
philosopher, what makes bin such is the faculty he has^
more tban other men, to get a clear idea of what he bimasW
is and does. More than others he leads a second life bt
the spirit or -intellect alongside of his life in the fleeh, —
the life of knowledge beside the life of wilL It ia inest
table that be should be especially struck by the pcinla in
which the sensible and temporal ufe comes in eonffiet with
the intellectual and etemaL ItwaediQstiMtScht^viJiHMr
by his own experitooa saw in the primacgr td the will th«
fnndamcntal nwt of his philoeopliy, and found in be an-
grossing interests ct tlw sdadi ^mh tlu ptnimiBl Un-
drancea of the hi^^ life. For hia absohite mdividnalinn,
which recognizes in the state, the dinrt^ the famib iwly
so many aiqierfieial and incidental inonaiou of hnman
craft, the means of relief 1H4 abaorptum in the inlelleetDBl
and purely ideal uma vhidt prepare the w^ for the csMk-
tiim of ttn^oral individuality aHogethsr. fint fliecty ia
one thing and ptaetiMaootiHr; udhawUl^Aoolijnmt
456
SCHOPENHAUER
mrtm on the tkaoty who U nMwt sowekms o( defects in
the practice. It need not therefore nirpriae oa thai the
man who fonnnkted the ram at virtue in justice and bene-
•mimeB wu imaUe to be jut to hia own kiiufolk and
Teeerred his eommwioo Urgeir for the bralas, and that
the delineator iA tettiaaa wai more than moderatetj
•Kwibk of the eomftnts and aqjoynienta of life.
Having renoonoed what he would call the mpentitioiu
tt duty to toantcj, to kindnd, and to aaodateB, except
in M far aa thtaa dotiea wen founded on ooDtract (and
that, aooocding to him, all dvtiea imply), it was natntal
fliat he ihould lake etMia to Hin'mir» tlut friction whicli
he w eaiitj exdtad, and which had iodnced hia Tolontary
exile fran the arena, Hii ragnlar habits of life and care-
M ngtrd to hii own health nmiod na of the eondoct of
the bachelor Kant. He would rise between aaTai and eight
both aainmer and winter, spcn^ hinu^, batiiing his eyes
carefnily, nt down to coflee pnpaied t^ his own hands,
and aoon get to work. He was a sbw Radet, ^le claasice
wen old frierad^ alwayi revisited with pleaain. He only
read original works — the claaucs of pnra literaton—aToid-
ing all books alxnit books, and e^Mculheadiewed the m<M«
modem [Moaopben. HameinEngli^andHelrMiasand
Chamfort in Fnnch he foond to his mind in tbur aoeptical
estimates of ordinary virtae. Uyitical and asoetie writ-
ing &«n Buddhism and the UpamUkadt to Sckhort and
the DtultAt litoUgit, commended tbentaelves by theii in-
nttenee on the reality of the highct life. Their example
of wiU-foroe dnw his faTonnble notice to the phenomena
^ meamerism, jnat aa his sympathy with t^ lower bnthien
of man made him an intoestod obserrer of a yoong oiang^'
oatangsbownatFranlcfbrtinlSSl. He was familiar wiUi
eevenu literatarai^ English certaioly not the least The
names ct Shakeipear^ Scott, Byron, C&lderon, Petrarch,
Dantt^ an frequent in his pages. What he read he tried
to road in the original, — or anywhere but is a Oemutn trans-
lation. Even l£e Old Testament he fonnd more impress-
ive in the Septnagint vsrsioo than in Lntbei's rendering.
The hodi of noon brooght cessation from his contempla-
tioaa, and for half an hoor he solaced himself on the flute.
At one o'clock he tat down to dinner in his inn, and after
dinn«r came home for an hour's sieeta. After some li^t
reading he went out for a stroll, alcme, if poeaible country-
warden with cane in hand, dgar lit, and poodle following.
Occavonally he would stop abmptly, torn round or \oA
back, mutter something to himself, so as to leave on the
passer-by the impreeeion that he was either crack-brained
or angry, tike Eant, he kept his Um closed on principle.
His walk over, he retired to the reading-room and studied
the Tiana, — tor he had been always somewhat of an Anglo-
maniac^ and had learnt this habit of T'^cii'*' life from his
father. In winter he would sometimes attend the open.
Between ei^t and nine he took supper, with a half-bottle
<^ light wine (he avoided his countiye beer), at a table by
With bis low estimate of the average hnman being, his
- He left the bulk of his
fortnne to an institution at Beiiin for the benefit of thoee
wlio had suffered on the side of order during the revolu-
tionary straggles of 184849. Bst in eo doing it was not
his sympathy with kings bat hia recognition of the merits
of public seenri^ whidi gave the motive to his actions.
yfm all hia eulogy of votuitary poverty, he did not agree
to being deprived of hia property by the malice or cupidity
of othen, and fcare of the toss of his means haunted
him not less keenly than other imaginaty terrors, — the
fancied evils distractang him no leee periu^ than would
have done those domestv: and dvil obligaticRis from which
he endeavoured to hold himself free. The Nemeais of his
■odal AkM fall upon him; and, like all aoUtaries, he
gave an exaggerated importanee to trifles, wiieh the nntp
of business Euid cnatomoiy duty dear away from the
oidinary maa's memory.
It was not till he was fifty yean of age that he set up
rooms and furniture oi his own. These abodes he changed
at Frankfort about four times, hving latterly on the
street which tvnt along the Main. On the mat in hi*
chamber lay his poodle, — latterly a brown dog, which had
succeeded the original white one, named. Atma (the World-
Soul), of which he had been especially fond. These dogi
bad mcie than onoe brought him into trouble with his
landlord. In a comer of the room was placed a gilt
statuette of Buddha, and on a table not far off In
Duperron's Latin tnutslation of the l/paiiMttd*, whi^
served as the prayer-book from which Sehopenhanei lead
his devotions. On the desk stood a bust of Kant, and a
few portraits hung on the walls. The philosopher's peiMn
was under middle sixe, strongly built and broad.<JMBte<^
with small hands. Eis voice was loud and clear; hit
eyes blue and somewhat wide s{>art ; the moutk full and
sensaona, latterly bectamng broad as his teeth g^n way.
The high brow and heavy nnder-jaw were the evidence of
his contrasted nature of ample intellect and vigorooa im-
pulses. In youth he bad light early hair, whereas his
beard in maidiood was of a slightiy reddish tint. He
always dressed carefully as a gentleman, in black dreN-
coat and white necktie, and wore shoes. In his iMer yean
his portrut was taken moco than aaOa, and hf aevenl
artist^ and his bust was modelled someirfiat to his owa
mind in 1809. Beprodnctiona of these likeneasea bave
made familiar his diaiaoteriatie but unaoiable fefttores.
In 1854 mchard Wagner sent him a copy of the £hv
<^ tit Jf^ulvKg, with some vrada of thai^ for n tbwiy
of music which had fallen in with hia own eoncepticaui
Three yean later he received a visit from his old college
friend Bunsen, who woe then staying in Heidelbevg. On
his seventieth birthday congratulations flowed in from
many quarters. In April 1860 he began to be affected
by occasional diffindty in breathing and by palpitatica
of the heart. Another attack came on in autumn (9th
September), and again a week later. On the evening of
the 18th his friend and Enbeequent bi<^rapber, Pr
Gwinner, sat with him and convened. On the morning
of the 3lBt September he rose and sat down alone to
breakfast ; shortly afterwards hie doctor colled and found
him dead in his choir. By his will, made in 1852, with a
oodicil dated Febmory 1859, his property, with the ex-
ception of some small bequests, was devised to the above-
mentioned institution at Berlin. Owinner was named
executor, and Frauenstadt was entrusted with the care of
his manuscripts and other literary remains.
The philonph)' of Schopmbsocr, IDu slmoat iivny lyibBm rf it*
IBth oentury, can hanll; be naderatood aithoDt uftrutce to tks
idd ot Kant, Anlarior to Ksnt tie ,gtadii»l «d«noB of id«la»
had been the meet cxnu^ngncnu f«itun in philaaotihio ipeciilitiiB-
Tbst the dimt ol^ecti of knavledge, Iho nalitiea of «i]ierieBm
wan tner til only our idsM or porceptknu ms the 1— an of «t(tT
thinker from DaNaita to Horns. And this dactruMwugSDmUr
nndentood to man that hnmin thouibt, lucitsd ■« it ma lij A
own wollntM and amoired habits, coali hsrdly hope to cope iW
ceerfoU; witb tbenroblem of appcebnullng tbs nsl thiu^ The
idealist positiaa iUnt eeoned at first lif^t to ntun with sa em
atronnr force than ever. Bat it in darkeat joit befor* the da«ni
sod Kaut, the Cofonieni of philceophy, ted really altered tM
sspscti of tbedoobine of Ideas. It waa hli nupoaetoshovtbat
the rorma of tbot^ht (vUeb be amAt to bolata fToM the petDli-
•ritist inddeot to tho cigHiia body) war* not merely caatinuiT
DMana Ibr tiding into oonvsnlent ihap* Um dst* of Mtotptiiia, sot
nitsnd aa DDd^jlsg elementa Into tbs eoDstitatiin cf «IV*^
makiiisoxpaiieaos possblaaDddslanniBingtlish * '
tore of nstoift In otbv imrda, tl" ~ * "~
niaia factor in maHng dQSCta L^
an generaUy treated psycholoDically ss I
Oe^StiM of a mind. B^iiud t>inMng then Is As tUnfc« Sri
1 1 II mil nil II I iifc Mill iiMiSMWiiai w^
da, ttaefonsa of kao^risda wn tfc*
ta By Kant, ho»m^%sa tim
sitally ss Cbs action of tb* srr«I
SCHOPENHA0EE
451
li»MiiieeiMBi%froinWAl»teH<ji«l,thto«ilaa<rfth«plilnBm
is Mt muIb m antiquataiL Thoiuat or coDcaption witboat a tab-
ject-agsmt tppaan u th< pilDciple, — thon^t or thlaktsg in Iti
muTUMlitr witluHit an; indiTiJiuu nbitnla in wUch it ia wd-
bodiedt TilwirorrAffitiitolwinUtitatodforrtet. Tbitbtlw
•tap of adniioa which U njatml ililu b; Ficbta whan ha aaka hk
r«i^ai to rita fiom tUo siii]jiitu*l ego to tba wo whuli i* antjact*
olyact (Ca, ncithar aud boui]. anil bj Usgel vbam hs triia to lub-
stitata th* Bigrif or noUon for ths KonciilMji a )ricti>rkl oouap-
tion. Am ipiiitimn aika oa to accept aach aonaDatoB of ocdiaarr
maehaiiia u ^armita haman bodlaa to float tbroo^ Uw aii alM
nrt without lujorj to thoii mamban, ao tha now philaaof hjr o{
Kanta lounodiatc luiiccdoni m^uina from the poatniant for uutia-
tion viUiupmai to nrano hli coatoiuar; baliab in iioaai-mataiial
mbjaota of thoq^t
But, laaiJai nmoiiog tha pajchological ilag which clung to
Kant'a ideaa Enm their matrix sad pra-Mnlioe maon u tlia actiia
prindnla in tbi famution of a nDirema. hii auciMion carried oat
with lar man datail, and far mora euthiudadn ami hiitorical acopa,
Ilia ^ndjila that in raauu la; the apriari or tha afltlcipaCioa of
tlia world, moiai and ph^aL Not oontant with tb< bairau aaaar-
tloQ tliat tha onderatandine makaa nature, and that wa can conitmct
•cienoa onlj on tha hjpotlieiia that there ii reuon in th* world,
thej pncsMad to ihow how the thing waa ictuallf doiu. Bnt
to do io thajr liad flrat to bnuh away a atone of itQinbling which
Kant had 1^ in thi> way. Tbia waa the thing u it ia bjt itwlf
mni apart &oai our knowladge of it, — tUa aonicthlDg vmch w*
know, when and u wg know it not Thia aomevhat la what Kant
■all) a Umit-eoncapt It marka only that tea foal onr kuowleilge to
be taadaqoata, and for thereaaau that thar* may be another t>e<'iM
of aanaation than oon, that Dthac beinga may not be tied by the
■peeial lawi of oar coutitutbD, and may animhend, i* Plato aaya,
by the aonl itaelf apart from tha aanKS. Wit this limitation, aay
inadaiiiiacy b only a condition of growing knowledge in a being
aat^oct to the lawa of apace and tline; and tha very leallng ia a
pniol at ita implidt remonL Look it isaaon not In iCa aingle
tempont manifaatationa bat in fta atatnal operation, and then thia
niilTenal thonght, which may ba catlad God, aa the aeuia-cooJi-
tioned nuon ia called man, 1>eoom« tha Teiy breath end ilrictara
efths world. Ilina in the true idea of thiugi there is uo irredne-
ibla reajdnnm of matter : mind b tha Alpha and Omaga, at once
tha initial p<Mtnlat« and the &naL truth of reality.
In Tartasa wayt a raactiou uoae a^uit thu abiorption of aver]-
thinx in raanon. In Fichte himielt the eourceof being b primeval
■Bti'ri^, tlia groondltaa and incomprehenaible dead-action (Thal-
fimiinuf) of tba abaolats ago. Tha innarmoat character cJ that
^o ia an infinitada in act and aflbrt "Tha will b tha Unng
PTinapla ct reaaan," ha aaya again. "In the laat teaort," aaya
Si!b^miia{lSW),iak\Mlniui.-iuinloaiiJfaliirttjfBvina!iFretd<nii,
"thua u no other being but wilL ffol/fii ill Uneln (will b
primal being] ; and to thb alone apply tha pradicatei fathomlaia,
vtarnal, inJapandant of time, aalf-afflriuing." It ia ounecaaury
Xe mnltlply uutancaa to proTa that idaaliam vaa narar without a
protoat ttiat there b a heart of niitanca, life, will, action, which
iM prenppoaed by all knowledge and ia not itself amenable to ex-
planation. Va may, if va like, call thia element, which b aaenmad
■a th* b*^ of all adantiflc method, irratlDUal,— wHl inat«*d of
iiaiiiii. fteling nthar than knowledge.
It 1* nndar th* bannar of thb proteat aninit ntionaliiing
Idaaliam that Schopanhaner advancaa. But i^at uarka out hia
sntiainant la ita pranonnced realiim. He fighta with the weaponi
of phyiical doctnna and on the baeia of the material earth. He
know* no reaaon but the hunmn, no iuteltigaaca lara what ia ei-
liiUtad by tha aniuala. He knowi that both animab and men
hara coma ia» exiatence within astigoabla limita of time, and that
IJiaio WM an antarior age when no eye or ear cathered the life of
rrefwa, with it
itenoe of cartal
and ita function i
the nnlTam into perception*. Euawle<<
vehiola, tha intalle^ b dependent npou
iicrra-Dtgaoa located in an animal nritcm;
originally only to preaetit an image of the inl
mauiteatatiana eitamal to tha ludlridnal organiam, and ao to gira
to tha indlTidnal in a partial and rallacted farm that Wing with
other thinp^ or innate avmnathy, whioh it loaa* ■■ orsanuatiiHi
bocomea mora eonplei and chancteriatic. Knowledge or intallaot,
therefor^ b onlr the mrrogita of that mora intimate nnlh rf
feeling or will which ia the oiulerlySng TaalitT-~tha principle of bU
aiiclanca, the eHebr* u( all manifaatationa, inorganic and mvanic
And the (leTfeclion of roaaon ia attained whtn man haa tniueanded
thoH limilJi of IndiTi-luatlon in which hb knowledge at flrrt pra-
wmta htm to hinwell; when by art ha haa riaao from dngia ottjecti
to ulvnial typoi, and by anlTering and laarUca haa panatratad
to that innenuoat aaoctnaiy where ua antbanaaia of roudoBanea*
ia ratcbed,— the blM**dneaB of atanul npoae.
Bobatantiala tha tbaoty of Schopenhauer may ba compared
)«ie atatemant of Mr Herbert Spar -'--^ ' '
npn proaic atatemant ol
AllfqnUoalatataam
pancar (moderuiiing
a Mm, b* traatad aa
tha a*mn««d*BM tw
In thb aJjnatBUBt th
inatinc^ whei* th* i
Tironmant In 1 _ ^ ^ .
aotion and inatinc^ iium th* ehaug* of th* organi b portly
antomatio. Aa the *ilani*I cMnplaii^ Inrrmm. thl* aalomatu
r«nlaritybllt; thar* i* only an (ndfi*nt nuitatim of tb> Mm*^
TEia lubl* aoho of tha ftiU reaponaa to atlmnln* ia an idM, which
b tboa ODl; another word for impcrftot orpmlntlon or tiUnataant
Bat gndully thb Imperfect emeapuulanca ii lmuniT*4 Mid the
idtn ptaaa* oTat agaiD into the atata ot anooDaemu or k
'PR"
automatic feeling doea not aiiat It b when the ucitatimi la
partial only, when it doei not beTitably and immedutely appa
aa action, that wt hare the appearance of intellect in the ga
cUet and fnudamantal diOerencc between Schotieuhauer
SpeDCcr lieain tha reTuial of the latter to gire thb "adjnatment"
or "automatic action "the name of will Will according to Hr
Spencer i> only anotber Hpect of what ia reaaon. memory, or teat
ing,— the diffotence Ijing iu the Ikct that aa will the naacent ei-
citation (idral motion) ii tonoeived aa jiaaaing into complete or tnll
motion. But he af^reea with Schopenhauer in baaing conadou^
ueaa, iu all Ita form* of reaaon, faelijig, or will, D|ion "antomatio
UDvemen^ — ^clilcal change," from which couaoiouanea cmarge*
aud in which it diiappeart,
What Schopenhaoer profoaed, therefor^ it to hare diaptlltd
the claimi of roajon to priority and to dcmonatrata the lelatlTlty
and limitation of acienc« Science, ha rtminde ua, li bttad on fluu
[plicabilicia* ; end ita attempt* by theoria* of «>olation^&id
in hbtorical
niaooneeptiot ^
ilataa there can nowhere be
ikan, aa of all elae, !• to be
ind Whirh b aver mvacntT
if knowledge
ary n
materiU
1 abM>Inte fint The true origin o(
[ht in an action which b evarlaating
< nuMnwit cdm. There b a aonrce
by which wa know, and more intimatelT
anything aitimal, that wa will and feet
That b the Brrt and the bigbeat knowledge, tha only knowledgt
that can atrictly ba called ininediata ; and to ouraeirea ire aa the
autgact of will ore truly the "immediate object" It u in thia
■anae ot will — of will without metiveii but not without coniciooa-
neat of loma iort— that reality ia rsTcaled. Analogy end eiperj
ence make n> aaiuma it to be omniprenent It is a miatake to say
wilt mean* for Schopenhauer only fotca. It meana a great deai
monj anditbhu contention that what the acieDtiat call* foret
b really nilL In ao doing he u only following the line mtdictad
by Kint' and anticipated by Ldbniti. If wa wiah, laid Kant, to
give a teal aiiatenca to the thing in itaelfor the noumenon wa tu
only do ao by inretting It witli tha attnbutea fonrid in our own
intarual *eiua, tIx., wito thinking or •omethlDg tnalcgona thanto.
It li thns that feehnai in hit "oVr-Tiew" ofthingt tetain planti
and planet* the tame fundamental " aonl " aa in ua — that ia, " ona
simple being which appears to Hunt bnt itaelf, in ua aa elaewhere
wheitTer it occur* ■elf-luniinona, dark for every other eye, at th*
iiaat connsctini sanBtiont in itaelf, npon which, aa the grade of
oul mounta higher and higher, there b conatnicted the conadsna-
jeaa.of bighu arid ittll higher relationa."' It ia thut thst Lotie
declarea' that "behind tha tranquil surface of matter, .behind it*
rigid and recnlar habit* of behavioni, we are forced to teek the
g£w of a hidden apiritual actinty. " So Schopenhaner, but in a
way all hb own, flnda the truth of thing* in ■ will which ia indeed
unaffected by oonedou* motirea and yet cannot be tepaiatad from
in-intallecl
Bchonenhaner haa influenced tha
rorld.
ehown with unntnal lucidity of axpreatjon how btblt b the tpou-
tannty of that iotallact which b ao highly landed, and how orer-
powerug tha sway (S original will in dl onr action. Ha thna r>-
utertad taalism, whoa* goapel raad^ "In tha beginning waa appetite,
panon, wiH," and haa ^iacredited the doctrinaire belief that
ideaa have original fom of their own. This crtad of naturaliam
b dangeion*, aud it may be true that the peiaimiam it impllea
often degeneratoB into f^iiiciam and a cold-blooded denial that
there b ai^ Tirtue and any truth. But in the crath of aetabliahed
oraeda and the tprtad of politicBl IndiSertntian and tocial disin.
te((rttian it 1* probaUy wim, if not alwiya anMnhle, ta lay bare
tha wonnda nndar whtnh hnmaniVr •ufl'an, uion^ nida would
prompt th^ oonotalnunt. Bnt Schop*ohaa*r'* thaoiy lua another
lidt. If it it daringly rtaliatic, it ia no leaa andadoui in It* ideal-
iam. Tha •econd aapect of hit inflntnot ia tha doctrine of redemp-
tion of tht aonl from Ita aananal band% Bnt by tba medium of art
and aeoand by th* path at ranondatiDn and aicatiD life. It may
b* dlfflcnlt in *teh cttt to ilnw the li>a bttwean aoctal dnty aud
indlTidnal parfaetion. Bnt BdnnnbaMr remind* n* that tha
welfare of *oei*tj it a temponl and mbordlnata aim. nerar to ba
tUewMl la dwarf tha ftall realiBtion of onr ideal helng. Uan'a
ia nndoubtadly to Join in tha o "
ing.
«l.TfH
XXL — jS
4ff8
S C H — S C H
briM* 1 tet Ui iMl gMl i* to tlM ibon tM toUt ukd tomibrtKrf
Uia nuk «w«lui» fatto tin nit boMm oT * peueflil ITirrBUB.
krJ.rnaSMII>«nliiBS<Ulpriii,in(V B«ite Mm. amal p*B«
brUMMMfdllsr. llHbMtbkicnphratBehiipuiliuiBliihilbTawliuivi
HDlatBMkMlBi«A«UtlonU>Ura. Hsaal»Pniwii&UH«LtadiHr,
» Ili^HiiflMini k ■!•«■ t9 Bdu, Sdbiiintawr-UtMnr (Utey 8a iln
BCHHOTER, JoBuni HnsoimnTs (1745-1816),
Huttonr utronomer, principally known by his phjneal
olMerrationi of the moon vid pUneta (ae« Obhibtatoet,
nn^er LHUnliial).
8CHUB6BT, FX4KZ Prrra (1797-1628), composer of
Tocal ftnd iiutrumental muaic, wm bora at Ttenmi 31at
jMinaiy 179T. For the foundation of his general edaca-
tion he wm indebted to his f&thar, a pchgolmaater in tha
liSopoIdetAdt ; bat the bwnty of hii Toice Rttmcted k
mncli attention that in 1803 he wtta received into the
dkoir of the imperial chapel, and daring the five years
which followwi he was taught to sing and to play the
violin in the choriaten' school called the "Convict,''
No attempt ■eems to have been made to teach him com-
poaibion, but, thnnigh the kind intervention of an older
chorister, he was supplied with music-paper, and tbence-
forwaid he wrote incessantly, as his. fancy dictated, with-
out any help whatever, always earefolly signing and dating
Ilia HBS., which extend back as far as 1810. VHien his
voice broke in 1813 Schubert left the 'Convict,'' and,
to avoid the conscription, tanght for three yean in his
father'! school This, however, in nowise damped his nal
for compoeitioa. Even at this early period his invention
was inexhanstibte and tlie rapidity <A his pen almost in-
vedible. In 181S he composed 2 symphonies, 6 operas,
and no less than 137 songs (67 of which have been pub-
lished), besides a multitude o/ other important pieces.
Yet so little was his genius appreciated that when in 1816
be applied for an appointment at a Oovemment mosic
school, with a e&lary eqaol to about twenty goineas a year,
he was reacted as "imperfectly qualified."
Is 1 81 8 Count Johann Eiiterhazy secured the services
of Schubert as jesident teacher of music to his daughters,
for one of whom the yoang composer has been snppoeed
— on *ery insufflcient authority— to have entertained a
romantic, and d oourae utterly hopeless, affection. The
apptnntment was of great importance to him, for he was
poor, almost to starvation ; yet it led to no permanent
improvement in his proepeeti : in fact his life was one
IcHig bitter distppointment from beginning to end. He
wrote on, year after year, producing music of indescribable
beauty in ' auch enormous quantities that but for the
dated USS. we ahould refuse to believe the accounts
toansmitted to as 1^ his biographers. He wrote becanee,
when his smiua iojqnred him with an idea, he could not
refrain. Yet he scarcely ever looked at his compositions
after tbey wero finished, and vety nirely heard any of them
performed. Very little of his dramatic muaic was given
to the woiid. Two little operettas — DU ZwUlin^ArOdar
9Sii DU Ztvbtfh'irfa — barely escaped failure in 1820; and
the beautiful incidental ipuaic to Madame von Chezy's
AMOjniutJf survived but two representations in 1823. Of
his greater operas not ooe was placed upon the stage dnr-
bg his lifetime. With his soogs be was more fortunate.
Many of them were pnblL^ed, and their fresh bright melo-
dies were irreaistible. They were produced by hundreds,
and with a rapidity bordering upon the miraculous.
Among the IfSS. seven or eight may be found dated on
the same day ; yet even in these he never repeated him-
aelf : every one waa the result of a new inspiration, com-
mitted to paper at the moment of conception, laid aside
Immediately afterwards, and so complete^ forgotten that
he has been known to aak who was the waopoMr of OH ol
his own Lieder not very long after he had composed it
And this wonderful bdlity of production led to no un-
worthy form of treatment. He original US. ot Earl,
Bark, Ae Lark was written at a "beer -garden," on the
back of a bill of fare, the moment after the compoaer had
read the words for the first time; and there are strong
reoaoM for believiog that Flo ii Sytnat—OM of the
most perfectly finished songs on record— and Cttme, lAoa
JfofMircA of li« Tine, were produced on the satud occasioiL
But the sueceas of the songs did not make Schubert a
proaperona man. All hie life long he stifTsred from grind-
ing poverty. Hough he received an actual commiaaiim
to write lus greatest dramatic work, Fitrabrai, iat the
court theatre at Tienna, it was rejected in 18S4 for the
weakness of its Ubtvllo. Onee^ and once only, a chance
nemed open to him. He woe accepted in 1836 as a candi-
date for tiie vacant poet of conductor to the cbnrt theati^
and requested to cpmpose some music as & teat of hii
powers. At the rdieusal the part he had deiaigned iat
the prima donna was found too trying for her voice, and
he was requested to alter it. " I will alter nothing," said
Schubert ; and his refusal to liaten to reason coet him the
Of Bchnbert's ten symphonies not one made its mark
during his lifetime ; yet the stamp erf genius is upon these
as plainly as upon his songs. It is true that in works of
large dimenrions genios loeea half ita power if unsupported
by learning ; and Schubert was not learned enon^ to tura
his inspirations to the best account. EL< ideAa came so
qoickly that the knowledge he possessed was not sufiicieat
to enable hJTn to arrange them in tJiat perfect order which
forms the chief charm of the symphonies of Moaut and
Beethoven. And the same element of weakness is dis-
cernible in his sonatas and other bog pieces of chamber
music But these txb all true works of genius, preciom
and imperishable.
It was not to be wondered at that under hi^ heavy
trials Schubert's health failed rapidly. After recovering
from more than one serious attack of illness, he was seited
with a sudden access of delirium while at enpper on 1 3th
October 1828; and on 19th November he disd, leering
behind him a few clothee and other poeaessiona, which were
officially valued at sixty-three Vienna florins ( — £3, IDs-).
His grave at the Ortafriedbof, bought by the scanty savings
of his brother Ferdinand,' lies within a few feet of that of
Beethoven..
Bobiibsrt'rYerks, now (16M) in oonna Ot rsbliation in ■ oM-
Sata aeriH bf Hmti BnldHi)J ft HlkHel a? Lslpue, iiuludP IS
■nutlo pieces, 8 luirad coinp«iUona, 10 irmphonies, M pKBo-
forte Kinstu, a vset collection ot songe, of vbicli 4fi7 an alnadf
pnUiihed, sod a mnltitnila of other mrki Tltich in too nnmenxu
to mentioa.
SCHULTEN8. Thres Dutch Orientolisto of this name
have an'honoumble place among the scholars of the ISlli
century. The first and meet important, Albkxt Sghultbh
(1686-1760), was bom at Groningea in 1686.. He studied
for the church at Oroningen and Leyden, applying him-
self specially to Helvew and the cognate tonguee. Hii
disaertetion on Th Ute of Arabic m (i« Interprrtalii)* t^
founder, and which differeotiatca bis aims frou) those of
Rnssx (?.».). After a visit to Betand in Utrecht, lie
returned to Oroningen (1708); then, having token hi>
degree in theology (1709), he again went to Leyden, ami
devoted himself to. the study of the MS. collections there
till in 1711 he hecanie pastw at WaMenaer. Faiochisl
work was little to his taste, and in 1713 he took tliB
Hebrew chair at Franeker, which he held till 1739, 'ben
he waa transferred to Leyden as ceotOT ni tha tUltgi**
S C H— SCB
.. . J for poor •todeuta. Frcm 1733
tai his death ^at Leydsn od 26th Jannaiy 17E0) h« mt
pMfeaot of OnentiJ languages al Lejden. Schulteiu was
the chief Arabic teacher of hia time, and in aome aenae a
iwliaer of Arabic atndiea, bat he differed from Raieke and
De Su^ in mainly regarding Arabic aa a tianHmMJii to
Hebrew. Hia chief work waa to Tindicate the *alaa of
«(»nparatiTe stndj of the Semitic tonguea against thoae
who, like Qouaae^ regarded Hebrew aa a aacred loDgae
with which compaiatiTe philology haa nothing to do. Schnl-
teni, on the other hand, certainly went mach too far in hia
appMla to Arabic for the interpretation of the Old Teeta-
meut ; the laws of com^aiative Semitic philology were Dot
jet known, ao that the compariaon of roota ww ofteo gnesa-
work, and the vahie of the eiegetical ttadition in Hebrew
waa not aecnrately determined. Hence he did not leave so
much of permanent value for Hebrew grammar and laxico-
gn4)hj as might have been expected from hia learning ; but
the ^ttrautic illnatration of phrases and modes of thonght
from Anbie literature, e.y., in his LAtr Jabi, has a higher
valuer which has been too much overlooked in the reaction
against the eitravagancea of the achool he founded.'
Albert's eon, Josk Jakxb ScHin.TDn (1716-1778),
became professor at Eerbom in 17-13, and afterwarda inc-
ceeded to his father's chair. He was in tun succeeded by
bis son, HsnT Albebt ScBCLnNs (1719-1793), a man
of great parts, who^ however, left ^mparatively little
behind hiiu, having succumbed to excessive work while
preparing an edition of Ueidani, of which onlj a part
appeared posthumous] j {179S).
SCHITLTZE, Max Jobamt SiBCimn) (1825.1874),
German mieroecopic anatomist, was bom at Freibnig in
Breisgan (Baden) on 2Sth March 1835. He studied at
Oreibwald and Berlin, and waa appointed extraordinary
profesKr at Halle in 1854 and five years later ordinary
professor of anatomy and histology at Bonn, He
di«d at Bonn 16th January 1874. Hia contributiona to
bial<^ were nuraerons and varied. Ha founded and
edited the important AnMv fiir vntrotiopittJit Anatomit,
to which he contributed many papers, and advanced tlie
subject generally, by refining on its technical methoda.
He also contributed to the knowledge of the Protoioa (see
FoKUUHIR&A, Fxotozoa). He will be longest remem-
bered, however, by his reform of the cell theory. Uniting
Dqjaidin'a conception of animal aarcode with Ton Hohl's
of vegetable protoplasma, he pointed out clearly their
identity, and incladed them under the common nune of
protoplasm. He thus reorganized the theory as established
by Schwann, diminished the importaoce of the cell-voU
and nndeos, and laid down the modem definitiou of the
cell as "a nndeated mass of protoplasm with or without a
cell-wall ' (see Pbotoplaak and SchwjUit). An obitoary
notice of Bdiiiltze is given in Arck. nib*. A%at., 1875.
SCHUMACHER, HmraioH CaRraniM (1780-1850).
aetmnomer, bom at Bramatedt in Holstein, 3d September
1780^ waa director of the Mannheim observatory from
1813 to 1815, and then became profesaor of astronomy
in Copenhagen. From 1S17 he directed the triangolation
of Ht^atdn, to which a few years later was added a com-
plete geodetic survey of Denmark ; the latter was left in-
complete \yj Schumacher, but was finished after his death.
For the sake of llie survey an observatory was establii^ed
at Ahona (see Oesibvatoby) and Schumacher resided
there permanently, chiefly occupied with the publication
> A. e<^nltu'('dii^«orkB on OriBiva fl*r»^ toI*, 1 72*. 1 7S8),
M ti, 17B1, wilh the D« difslOmt lingim HOrmm (Irt ei, 17S1) ;
CM>.MJ<i.l7tT; am.'ml'T<mrit,'i^U■, H.bnw gnnmit (/■*-
fitfuuiX ITST ! Vttut tt ngia <u Hiiraimiiuli. 17SS ; ilma
wlwMign Ar^/an (1740— titncU fnm Nowiiri. Uu'diU, b.
.of Btlii-«|.iUB'i Li/i ^SaiadU; hii OpBV ilmmi (1769)
■ (■ (177a, 1776) ippmdporthnisOMlj.
d JlpitmtncU* (II part^ 182^3) and erf the jonraal
Attrommiieht IfadiridUai, of which he lived to edit thirty-
osa Totomea, and which still oontinuea to be the principal
astnHMMnical jonmal, Schumacher lEed at Altona on S8tb
Deoembsr 1850.
SCHUMANN, BoBKiT (1810-18S6), mnaical critic and
composer, was bom at Zwickau, Saxony, on 8th June
1810. In deference to hia mother's wish, he made a pre-
tence of studying for the law, until he had completed his
twentieth year ; but in reality he took so litUe pains to
acquaint himself with the mjateries of jnriaprudence and
so much to master the technical difflcnlties of the piano-
forte that when the day of examination drew near it was
evident that he could not hope to pass with credit. His
molier therefore wisely gave up her cherished project,
and in the summer of 1830 permitted him to settle for a
time in Leipsic that he might receive regular 'instruction
from Friedrich Wieck, the meet accomplished and success,
fal teacher of the pianoforte then living in North Germany.
Under Wieck's superintendence Schumann would doubt-
lessly have become a pianist of the bigheet order had he
not endeavonred to strengthen the lliird finger of his right
band by some mechanical oontrivance the secret of which
he never clearly explained. But the process failed most
signally, and the hand became so hopelcasly crippled that
the young artist waa compelled to give up all thought of
success as a performer a>d to devote himself thenceforward
to the study of composition, which he cultivated diligently
under the guidance of Heinrich Dora.
This change of purpose led him to direct hia attention
to subjects connected with the higher branches of art
which he had previonaly very much neglected. Moreover,
it gave him time and opportunity for the development of
a peculiar talent which be soon succeeded in turning to
excellent account, — the talent for musical criticism. Hid
first essays in this direction appeared in the form of con-
tributions to the AUffetneifu mMtiialucAt Zeiiwig ; but in
1834 he started a journal of his own, entitled Dit Nene
Zeiudvnft fSr Unmk, and to this from time to time he
contributed eritiqnea of the moat profound character, aome-
oetensibly emanating fWim an imaginary brotherhood called
the AtnifiiwMi^ the members of which were living men
and women, Schnmann's most intimate friends, though the
sodety itself existed only in liis own fertile imagination.
Hjs time was now fully occupied. He composed with in-
exhaustible ardour, and by the exercise of his extraordi-
nary critical faculty struck out for himself new palhsfwhich
he fearlessly trod without a thought of the reception his
works were likdy to meet with from the public. The habit
of passing a just judgment upon the works of others led
him to judge bis own productions with relentless severity;
and it may be safely said that he was harder upon himself
tluu upon any candidate for public farour whose attempts
he was called upon to criticize.
Bchumann'a first great orchestral work waa his Symphony
tx A, produced in 1841, — the year after his marriage with
Clara Wieck, now so well known to the world as Madame
Clara Ekhnmann, the accomplished pianiste, to whose fault-
Iws interpretation of her husband's works wo are indebted
for our fullest appreciation of their inhervut beauty.
Another symphony, in D minor, and an orchestral over-
ture, scherao, and finale, speared in the same year; and
from this time forward works on an equally grand acale
appeared in rapid snecssaion, culminating widi hia first
and only opera, Gmovna, whidi, though completed in 1 848,
was not produced until 1850. In 1843 Bchunumn wsa
appointed [Hofeasor of eompoaition in Mendelssohn's newly
founded conssrvatory of muse at LMpsie. Two years aftw
. HendelMohn's death he endMTonred to obtain the apptnnt-
S 0 H — S C H
ment of Sneiot tt Um (hmaShaaB concert^ but wu
rajectad in fftTow of J. BieU. In 1660 he wm invited to
DiloBBldorf M musical director — k p<»t in which Hendeb-
■ohn had greatly diatingniahed himself man; j«m pre-
Tioosly. Schumann retained this until 1853, when hia
mental powers began to decline rapidtj through a disMW
of the brain from which he had long suffu^ and of
which he died at Endenieh, near Bonn, 39th July 1856.
SehioDuui'a positiaD in the hiatoTf of 0«tman mnaic it van
importuit and mark* tha laM itsga Imt uw of tta mprm towarli
its pnnat moditian. Hia atyl* wu Ter; advaiuad ud tttikiBfAj
orlgiiwL His pnblislMd mrb incloda una open, fbur ^mphow^
fivB onrtorM, a sniti «f Mcaui from linul, and otlur shonl and
oiduetnl wcnka written on a tw; axtsnelTa Kiala^ and a large
qnsntitTofsaBg^ iplanofiirtB plMi^ and other noaller works of the
aigfaert ezotUeooe and bean^.
SCHWAB^ SuiUKL HnNBiOH (1769-187G), Oarman
unatcnr aatfcmomer, waa bcffn on 35th October IT89 at
DesBao, where he died on 11th April 1875 ; he obaerred
the snn-apotB regnlarlj from 1826 and pointed out (at
18<3) the periodicity in the number of those objscta,
SCHWALBAfM, or LuiaxiiaoKWAiaA.CB, a favoniite
Qerman health resort, in the Prnasian piorince of Hease-
Naaaao, ia pleasantly dtoatod in the deep Tslley of the
MOnsenbach near ita junction with the Aar, 1 3 miles north-
west from Wiesbaden, willi which it has regolar commnni-
Gsition bj diligenca. BaaidaB « larga Irc^aaal, the town
haa four chon^e^ a aynagogne, k red aehool, and a higher
sdiool for girls, ^le tluee principal spring which are
largely impregnated in Tsrying prworttona with iron and
carbonic acid (compare HmKAi, WatbbbV an connected
by promenades. The permanent pqralatioii of the town
was 2811 in 1680, and the nunber erf naiton reaches
about eOOO annually.
About 4^ milcfl to the south of Schwolbach is Sohlakoir-
BAS (360 mhabitftnta), the thermal springs of which are
efficacious in nervous complaints and attract about SOOO
fiutoTB (chiefly ladies) every year The water is used
externally only.
SCHWANN, TnosoB (1810^168SX anthor of the odl
theory in phyaiology, waa bom at Neuaa in Rhenish Fmssia
on Tth December 1810. His father was a man of great
mechanial talents; at first a goldsmith, be afterwards
founded an important printing establishment. Schwann
inherited his father's mechanical tostea, and the iNsnre
of hia boyhood was largely spent in constructing little
machines of all kinds. He stodied at the Jesuits' college
in Cologne and afterwards at Bonn, where he met Johannee
Hmier, in whose pbyuol<^ical azperimenta he soon came
to assist. He next went to W9nbnig to oontinne his
medical studies, and tltence to Berlbi to graduate in 1834.
Here be agun met MOller, who had been meanwhile trans-
lated to Berlin, and who finally persuaded him to antei
on a ecientifio career and appointed liini assistant at the.
anatomical mnsenm. Schwann in 1836 was called to the
chair of anatomy at the Roman Catholic university of
liOaTain, where he remained nine years. He then went
OB professor to liige, where, in spite of brilliant oSen
from many German universitiM, he led a very quiet nn-
erentfnl life, broken only by the international commem<Ha-
tioa of the fortieth anniversary both of his ptofeasoriate
and tlie publication of hia vaffMtm oput, till his death on
11th January 1883. He was of a pecnliorty gentle and
amiable character and remained a devoat Catholic through-
ont his life.
It na dnriuE tlie fear yesia spent imdB the infliunn of UUtlu
at Berlin that all Sobwann'a nallj Talosbl* wn-k waa dmia. Hollar
w»a at thia tima ppaparing hia great l)ook on phjaloiogr. «id
Schvanu aviated htm in the ezMimautal noA reqnlnX Eia
stiantian baiug thoa diiaotad to Uit narrou md imaealsi tiaae^
'XBdea maUnir anoh biatologiaal diioon^ ss that of Iha anralope
it lb* nam-Gbna which now Imsts Us nsin^ be ialtUsl thoea
out by Da Bola Beymend sod odma. Re «•• Am tts tot al
HUUar'a popOa who broke with tha traditisasl vltaUem and voiid
tow«da«pbfiic(>«haniicalBidBnati«i<ifUllt. UBller aleo diradad
(M dlgeitioi^
hie attanoon to tfaa pnicaaa (M dlgeatton, «
te dapand easentlsllr on the praemce of •
pepaiii, thai not oiu;
wUdi Sobwaiin ahond
not olu; prartioallj Mnging tiia
mt pnpsriug tor tha safasaaOBBi ■
le by Sobatta Schwann alee em
spootsiiaaaa nnantksif wlilch ha aUad gnatly to diaprora, and
the eoDiaa u his expeiineDta djacovered tba aiganie nabnt
of yaast Hie thaerj of ftrmantatiOD waa bitterly attacked aad
rtdbmlad t^ UbU& hat hsa bean, attar the lapaa of a qnarlcT ft i
eeatmy, tnamphaatly conflnned. In bet the-wbola seim thenj
of Piatanr, as wall as the aoUaeptte application of UAer, ii thni
tnceatde to Bit iiiflQance of BcbwamL Once when dining with
Scblslden, in ISIT, the convecestlen tnnied on Hit nvoM in Teg*>
table oalla. Bebwsnn nmambwed bsving awn similar alwictiina
in the ealls of tha notoelMnl (aa bad bean dunrn by Hollar) ted
instantly eeised the impntonea of connecting the two pheBomeu.
The reeemblanoe wu conflimed wltluxit dabr by both obaamn^
and the nanlta aoon sppaered in Uie &mo«s menieopie /na<va-
ttnu OB Ou AmrioMt fa tta StrmHa^ aad AmKk ^I1a»it aai
AnimaU (Berlin, 188t ; tians. Sydenhsm Bodety, 1U7X ud tin
eell tbsoiy (sea HoorBOLoar) na flms definitdy constitiited. In
ttia eoDiae of bis veriflosttms M the call theory, in which lie tnntaid
the wbole Held of hlstolaay, be proved tha cellnlsr uigin sad d*-
valepmsDt of tiie most hfpily dflferentiatad tinoea, naib, bathan,
ansntel^ Mc ^ttMOf^ mistakiai in hia view ^the origin et nn
ceH^ hlsganersllsstlaa st once became the liiDiidalitm of sU modarn
bistology, and in the hands of Tirchow (whoee ceQnlsr patholc^
ia an inevitable dedoetlOD titm Sohmnn) haa afforded tha meani
of plaoinc modem pathology on a tmly edantifio bads.
AcoArt etcowA K Bdiniui'a Ufe aod nrt b thet I9 Uoa MdWn
ASTHALER, Luswia Uioeaxl <1803-1S4S),
German sculptor, was bcra in Munich on 26lli Angnst
1803. His family had been known in llyrol by its Bcnlptws
tot three contDnea; yonng Lndwig received his earliest
lessons from Iiia father, and the father hod been instructed
by the grandfather, l^e lost to bear the name was Zaver,
who worked in bis cousin Ludwig's studio and survived
till 18G4. For successive generations the hunily lived b;
the carving of busts and lepulchiol monuments, and froni
the condition of mechanics rose to that of artists.
From the Munich gymnasium Scbwanthaler passed u
a stndent to the Munich academy; at first he purposed
to be a painter, but afterwards rev^ted to the plastic srtj
of bis aactatora. His talents received Idmaly anconrage-
ment by a commission for an elabcvate silver service for
the king's table. Cornelius also befriended him; the
great punter waa occupied on deaigns for Iba decoiatiMi
in fresco of the newly erected Qtjptothek, and at bii
suggestion SchwonthaJer was employed on the scnlptun
within the halls. Thus aroae between pointing, sculpture,
and architecture that union and mutnal support which
ehoraeterized tha revival of the arte in Bavaria. Schvsn-
thaler in 1826 want to Italy as a pensioner of Eisg LooiSi
and ou R second visit in 1832 Thorwoldsen cave him
kindly help. His skill was so developed that on his retoni
he was able to meet the extraordinary demand for scnlp-
tnre consequent on King Louis's passion for bojldisg
new palaces, chnrche^ ^Jleries, and moaenms, aud bo
became the fellow-worka of the architects Elenze, Oartaer,
and OhlmfUler, and of the painters Cornelius, SchDan*,
and Heas. Owing to the magnitude and multitude d the
plastic products they turned onl^ over-preesurs and boats
in design and workmanship brought down the qoali^ of
the art The works of Bchwanthaler in Munich are n
many and miscellaneous that they can only be Ixieflyindi-
cated. The new palace is peopled with bis statues: the
throne-room has twelve imposing gilt bromce figures 10 fed
bi^h ; the same palace is also enriched with a frien an^
with snndry other decorations modellod and painted bm
his drawings. The sculptor, like his eontempoiaiypaiDtcn
ittcaivsd help from ttained pupils. Tie same pr^ific i^
also furnished tiie old Finokotfaek with twenty-five msrita
wauDonontive of m Euay gra^paiirtMi 1 .l^**^ ^
S OH — S 0 H
461
nqipHad * Mmpoiitioii for tlie padimnt of tb« adflatioii
bnildiiig fwiiig the Qlyptotbek, and sncoted •audi;
fignrsB for the {lublie lihrai; uid the k»II of tha ■""-^^'T
Sacred art lay ontiiide hia ordinary routine, yet in the
cbnidiea of St Lndwig and St Hanahilf he gave ptoot of
the wideat renatUiCj. The Rnhmeihalle afforded farther
^Bge of unexampled power of production ; fan* alone ii
work which, if adequately atodied, might hare ooca[ued a
[ifetime; ninety-two metopea, and, cooipicaonaly, the giant
figoie of Bavaria, 60 feet high, lank among tha bddeit
feata of phyucal force. A short life of forty-aix yean
did not permit aeriooa undertakings beyond the Bavarian
c^>ital, yet time was f oimd tor the gronpa within the north
pediment of the Walhalla, Ratisbon, and aim for numenmi
portiait atatueii, including thoae of Uoiart, Jean Panl
Richter, Qoethe, and Shak<apeare. Sehwanthaler died at
Honich in 1846, and left by will to tha Munich academy
all bis models and atudiee, which now fonn the Bchmn-
thaler Moseum. The aculptor'a style may be dceignated
and of realiam.
6CHWARZ, or BtmwAKTx, Chuvtus Fbuducb
(1736-1798), Protestant miaaioiMuy to India, waa bom on
Sih October 1726 at Sonnenbu^ m the electorate of
Brandenburg, I^uasia. After attending the grammar
■chool at hia native town and an academy at KSatrin, he
in 1746 entered the nniversity of Halle. Having learned
Tamil to aiuit in a banslation of the Bible into that lan-
gnage, he waa led to form Uie intention of becoming a
mianonaiy to India. He reoeived ordination at Copen-
hagen on the 8th August 1749, and, after ipendinR aome
tkoe in England to acquire the Englidi language, embarked
eaiiy in 1 760 for India, and arrived at Trichinopoly on
the SOtb July. Tranquebar waa for aome time hu bead-
quartera, buthe paid frequent viaits to Tanjore and Tri<
diinopoly, and in 1766 removed to the latter pUce. Here
he acted aa chaplain to the garrison, who erected a church
for hia general nae. In 1769 he aecuied the friendship
of the nyah of Taiyore, who, although be never embraced
Chriatianitj, afforded him every couDtenonce in his mia-
nonary labours. Shortly before hia death ha committed
to Schwan the education of his adopted eon and lucceasor.
In 1779 Bchwan undertook, at the request of tha Madras
Oovemment, a prirata embassy to Hyder Ali, the chief of
Mysore. When Hjrier invaded the Camatic, Schwan
was allowed to pass through the enemy's encampment
without molestation. After twelve years in Trichinopoly
he removed to Taigore^ where be spent the remainder of
hia life. Ha died on 13th February 1798. Schwarz's
direct auecesa in making converta exceeded that of any
other Protestant misuonary in India, in addition to whi(^
be succeeded in winning the esteem of Hohanunedana and
Hindus. The nyah of Tai^ore erected a monument, exe-
cuted by Flaxmao, in the miiaion church, in which he is
represented as grasping the hand of the dying missionary
dod receiving his benediction. A splendid monument to
Schwan by Bacon was placed by the East India Company
in at Mary's chnrch at Mjidraa.
8« Emaixi of Srhnn, with a ikttch of hli life, 18H:
Mffmeit ^ Li/e anil Omapoiidimet, by H. K. FarKm, 18U, td
•d. lasg i Li/c, by H. N. PHnos, ISSG.
SCHWARZBUEO-RUDOISTADT, a small Thurinpan
principality and an independent member of the Qoman
empire, shares with Schwanburg-Sondenhausen the ponea-
aiona of the old honse of Bchwanbnrg, consisting of the
upper barony {Oberhemehaft) in Thnringia, on ^e Oera,
Ilm, and Seiale, and the lower barony (TJnterhemchaft),
an isnlati^ district on the Wipper and Helbe, about 2S
milea to the north, snirounded tiy the Prussian province
of Saxony. See plat* T. As the dignity of prinee is
held in Tirtna of the Oberherrschaft alone, a ahare of both
baronies was given to each sub-line of the main house. The
total area of Schwanburg-Budolatadt is 363 square miles,
[rf which 383 are in the upper and 80 in the lower barony ;
the chief towns in the former district are Rndolatodt (87i7
inhabitants), the capital, and Blankenburg (1889), and in
the latter Frankenhausen (49Sa). Both boioniea are hilly,
but no great height ia anywhere attained. The «»nery of
the HiuriDgian portion of Schwanbui^-Bodol^tadt attracts
many viaitora annually, the most beautiful spots being the
gorge of the Echworca and the lovely circular valley in
which the village of tichwanburg neetles at the foot of a
curiously isc^ted hill, crowned by the ancient castle of the
princely line. Cattle-rearing and fruit-growing flourii>h in
the lower barony, while the upper barony is Gnely wooded.
Of the whole country 44 per cent is under forest (mainly
coniferous treea), and 41 per cent is devoted to agricul-
ture. The chief grain crops are rye, oats, and barley, but
in 1683 thrice as much ground was- occupied by potatoes
aa by all theae three together. The hve-stock returns in
1883 showed 19,831 cattle, 39,024 sheep, 19,541 pigs,
14,430 goats, and S813 horses. Agriculture and forestry
support about 39 per cent of the population, and mining
and cognate industries about 10 per cent. Trade and
manufactnrea are insignificant ; iron, lignit^ cobalt, alum,
and vitriol are among the mineral productions. In 1860
the population waa 80,296 (an increase of 1 779 since 1675),
or about 231 to the square mile. Of these 79,833 were
Protestanta.
Scbwuibnrg-Kadolstailt is i Uniitsd linvditarv lovtnlrnly, JM
conititDtJon rnting on Uws oriB&4 and ISTO, tbongb a ditt hai
met Bt iitarrmli non 1811 Tbs pnant dUt nuuti of siitMS
membgn eltctid f« dz -jtm, four caoecn by th« bigbait taipayan,
tha otben by gipcnl elsction. The dlat mnit be mmmoncd svtiy
tbng yein. Tbe budgat for ]8St.87 eitinutMl revenne and ax-
psndilon tub St £101,110 ; £S7,<70 wa* th* MtuDated ineoma
rram tha pablk Und* and fonsta The pabllc debt was SXtn,Wi.
Ths troofB tS Setiinnbarg-BndeUtadt bav* bam incorpiintH] vitb
tbs Fnuaiui anay aioca the ocHiTanticni of 1887. Tha priscipaliqr
hu OM Tota in tha Baicbatig ud ona in tha fedanl coUDciL
Bcbwmiibai|[-Riidalitadt ii tha eadat bnnch of th< fimily. In
1710 th* Mnnt wumadt a prince, In spit* of th» mnooatraneaa of
th* slfctoi of Baxoey, ■Ithough ba «m pmantad from taking bii
•Ht in tha irnpari*! college until 176i. The priacipalitj entared
the Conredentian of tha Rliina in 1807 ud tha Qamua L«b|[Uo ia
18ie. In 1310 it redtamed the PRudaa <Uims of rapirionty by
aumadering porttoui of Iti tamtoty.
BCHWAEZBUHG-S0NDERSHAU8EN, a small Thur-
ingian principality and an independent member of the
German empire, aharte the old Schwariburg lands with
Schwanbnrg-Rudolstodt, as explained in the preceding
article. Its total area is 333 square miles, of which 133
are in the upper and 200 in the lower barony. The chief
towna are Amstadt (10,G16 inhabitants), which at one
time gave name to a line of counts, in the latter district,
and BondeishauMn (6110), the capital, in the former, The
general description of the nature and reaourees of Schwari-
burg-Rudotstadt applied aim to thid principality, except
that B8 per cent, of the whole is devoted to agncultnre
and 30 per cent, to forests, only about two-fifths of which
ore coniferous trees. The chief crops are oats, barley,
wheat, and rye ; but here also by far the most laud is planted
with poUtoea. In 1883 the principality contained 21,205
cattle, 64,276 sheep, 23,884 pigs, 11,373 goats, and 4283
hoiaes. About 39 per cent, of the population are sup-
ported by agriculture and forestry, and about S per cent,
byminiag. In 1880 the population was 71,107 (an increase
of 3627 sinoe 1876), or about 313 to the square mile. Of
theae 70,460 were Proteatanti.
SchvBRburg-SoDdenhinaan is ■ limited bendltaiy Mvareifnty,
fta coiutitutian leatiuB en a law of 1817. The diet eoniista of Bva
npnaoDtatlTM elected by tba higbaet lunarais, Sva by gananl
alaetioi], sad net xaan than tve nimunatad for lih by tha prloes.
4SS
S C H — S C H
Tba flnt taa lumban an ilMttMl tm fuoi Tatr*, whicb i* tbo tht
flMiiiM«l pariod. Timn im ■ minutiT irith Bve daputmant* — Iw
tha HiBoa'i hooiehald. domaaUo tflui^ fiuaoa, diarcha uid
■chooU and JnatiaL Tlw buJgst for euh jeir in ths period
1884-87 aaUoMtad tha Inooma at £llt.t7t and tha aipeuditun at
£1000 Um. Tha public ilabt id IK8« vaa £199,S% Th< troon
1^ Schwanbiiq(-S«Ddaraluiiiaa luva been incorpontail vith tAs
Friuaiaii anojr bj coDTaDtion liaca 18(17. The principalit; bu
ana rots In tba Balchitas and ana in the ' ' ' "
Tba bona* of Bchmrabor^ ia one of t
IT ; an>l tradition tracaa iti d«
/ the Franks Ita biatorieai ai
la for tba maniben of thin hooKi (correipondlng
to Uainricb in ths Beuaa rami];], ths Tariooa Oiinthan baiog at
Hnt diitinsuiibad bj numban and aftannrda b; ^inliicd namea.
Variooa aubdiviaiona and eoUaCanl Unea van ronsed, but b; 1699
alt wan aitiiict bat ths praaant two. Count miother XL., who
died in 1562, was tha laat common Lucaotor of both Unas, flchiran-
barg-Sondanhaaaan ii tha asnior line, although Ita poaaaaaioua an
the smallar. In 1SB7 tha count iraa laiaed to the disaitj of
imperial priuca bj the emparoi Leopold L The prince had to pay
7OO0 thalaR to the elector of Sszonjr and SEOO to the duks of
Saia-Weimar, and nnmeroui diapatea stdm in couneiion with the
■npsriaritiea thna indicated. In 1B07 SchiraiTburg.8andenhaaiaB
entered tha Confsderation of tha Ehina and became a aoTsrei^
state. !u ISIS it joined tha German League, and redeemed with
portioni of ita lorriloir all righli of inperiorit; claimed by Pmsaia.
Ita domeatio government haa graduiillj, thongh not very qaickljr,
imptjTed (inca that time, — the oppreanre game-Uwe in particnUT
having been aboliibed. A treaCf of mutiuJ lucceadon wai mad*
between the two familia in 17IS.
SCHWARZENBERO, Kakl Pbilifp, Pbimcb op (IT71-
1820), Austrian field-manhol, was boni on IGth Apnil 1771
at Vienna. He fought in 1789 under lacj witJi diitinc-
tion agaiiut the Torki and became m^or in 1792. In
the French campaign of 1793 he held command of a por-
tion of the advanced guard oiider ths duka of Coborg,
and in 1794 his impetnoiu charge at tbe head of a eaval^
ngiment greatly contributed to the tictorj of Catean-
Cunbriiii. After the battle of WUnborg in September
1796 he waa niaed to the rank of m^or-genetal, and in
1799 to that of field-marahal in command of & diviiion.
At tiie defeat of Hohenlinden in 1800 hia promptitude and
courage WTed those under hia command from being anr-
tounded and taken priaonert. In the war of 180S he
held command of a diviuon under Oeneral Hack, and
when Ulm capitulated to Napoleon in October he cut his
waj through the hostile linea with some cavalrj regimen tt.
At the special request of the emperor Alexander he under-
took an embaaaj to Bt Petersburg in 1808, but two day*
before the battle of Wagram be arriTed in the camp and
assumed command as general of the cavalry. After the
peace of 7ienna be was sent to Paris to negotiate a marriage
between Napoleon and the duchess Maria Louisa. From
this time he secored Napoleon's special confidence and
esteem, and at his request took command of the Austrian
auxiliary corps in tha Bussion campaign. In August he
recsived the command of the seventh or Saxon army corps;
after gaining some slight advantages over the RuasJans,
. he was compelled to retreat before superior forces to the
duchy of Warsaw, where, according to instructions from
N^iolaon, he remained for some months inactive at Pultnsk.
In 1813 be was appointed commander-in-chief of the allied
forces, and, after defeating Napoleon at Leipoic iu October,
carried the campaign to a successful issue by entering Paha
in March 1814. On the condtision of the war he became
president of the Aulic Coni^il. He died from paralysis
at Leipeic on ISth October 1820.
Bea Fiokaach-OataD, DnubwOnjjgAtileii aiM irni lAtn da Fild-
ittanAairi Fanlm Sdimmaitrj, Vtsnna, 181S ; Bs^pr, Dot
FVnlmlviiit SdHearurtttrg, Vianna, IBSfl.
ECHWEQLER, Auux (;i819-18fi7), historical, philo-
sophical, and theological writer, one of t^e first and moat
distingnished of the pupils of P. C. Baur and of tiie dti
minora of the Tubingen school He was boni at Uichol-
bach in Warteniberg on 10th Felruary 1S19, the son ef
a country clergyman, and entered the university of Tnbbi-
gen in 1836 as a student of theology, though with a pn-
dominant liking for classical philology. Under Banr'i
influence he devoted himself to the study of eodesiaBtkal
history, and his first work was Der JfouUt»itmit m. dk
cAruUicAt Kirdw da Sun JaArhuiiderIt (1841), in whiiA
he was the firat to point out that Montanisin was mndl
more than an isolated outbreak of eccentric fanaticunn is
the early church, though he introduced fresh misconcq*.
tions by connecting it with Ebionitism as he conceived
the latter. This work, with other essays, brought Schwegler
into conflict with the authorities of the church, in conse-
quence of which he gave up theology aa hid profescional
study and choee that of philosophy. In 1813 he com-
menced in the Tiibingen university the career of a teacher
(privat-dotenl) of phSosopby and clasaical i>hilology, and
in 1648 was made extraordinary profesiior of the lalta
subject and soon after ordinary profesaor of '\ai\arj. His
death took place on Gth January 18S7.
His principal theological work wu Dai nathiipBtlBlitA» Ztil-dlrr
(a ToU, ISli). It was this book which first pnt befon the worlJ,
with Schwegler'a ehanctorialio boldneia and cleanes, the resnlu
of the critical kboure of tha earlier Tiibineen scliool in rolitioL to
the Grit development of Christianity. Cilt\ Schwan nji of i^
"This work— full though It waa of jouthfnl exaggctationB and pm-
vocarioni, pariiaan aa it naa )n iU line of ii^men
abatract a> its contiaat of Pauliniun and Petrinisni i
trarj aa w»« ita nee of thoea party names — produced
" maBteTiy litanry form [which Temiuds ' "'~
if SOaoaal, and brio
ortant data, a power.
of detail it ii out ol
eaay handlmg and pnaentatlon of all tha important
ful impreMion, and^ although in many points of dati. .
date. It may still be ngarded sa me of the 'atandard works 'of the
achooL" 8cbw«^ published also an edition of the ClttMaUia
Eomaiit (1B47), and of Ensebiaa'i Relaiatliad SiHorv (13K).
In ths dajpattinanl of phQoeophy we bare an edition of the Jf<«a
pifftia orAriitotle, with a tranalatioa and eorameatary (4 vols.,
1817-48), the weU-known aketih of tha Sidory of PkOim^t
(1848), and a poetbnmons OtteJiiehU der Oriah. PhilimAii (lSS>j
In history he commencsd a SDmitclu QaAichtt (vols. L-iiL, 1BS3-
B8, !d ed., ises), which ha brought donn only to the lias gl
BCHWEIDNTTZ, a manufacturing and trading town
of Lower Silesia in Pmssia, is picturesquely situated on
the left bank of the Weistribt, 28 miles south-west of
Brealan. Well built^ with wide streets, the town contain)
several old churches (ooe of which has a tower 338 fnt
high) and an ancient town-honse wtth a tower 130 feet
high, ^e surrounding country is fertile and highly
cultivated, and the large quantities of flax and hemp then
raised encourage an active weaving industry in the to>nk.
Beetroot for sugar, grain, and fruit are aUo grown. Tin
manafactare of furniture, leather gloves, machinery ami
tools, carriages, nuta and screws, needles, and other hard-
ware goods is carried on. The beer of Schweidniti ba>
long been famous undet the name of " Schwaira Schops,
and in the 16th century it was exported as far as Italy.
Sckweidoitc is the chief grain market of the district. Tha
population in 1886 was 23,775 (an increase of 6 per cent.
nee 1880) j in 1816 it vras 10,046.
Schwaidnit^ dating from about the 11th ceDtuy, received ton
rtffhti In 1!S0. About 1278 it became the capital of a priiici|ialitr.
-ftv u area of B8S squan miles, which belonged la Bohenua Atw
Ull 1711, when it passed into the posseoian of Prsna. n*
"PiilsreiofSi!hweidniti"ii the name rnven to the liotou"™'
of the town, in 1820-22, against a rayal edict deiiriring it sftM
tight of coining ita own money. The town was four tinisa '■'■■'I't
and taken in the Seven Tears' War ; and in 1807 it was captain .
by ths French, who demolished the fortificationa. In 181< H*
works were lajwd, hnt in 1804 they wen convartad into a fiia^
park.
SCHWETNTURT, a raannfacturing town of I/"^
Franconia in Bavaria, is situated on the right hank of tn*
Mun, 32 miles north-east of WOnburg. The ReuaiaWKS
town-house io the ^locioos market-place dates £itn> 1''^''*
S 0 H — S C H
it eoatain* « Blmrjr aad k eoUxtioa ol aatiqidtiai. St
John's cbdidi b a Qodik wliflee idtb k Mtj tower; B(
S»lntor'B wM built about 1730. Bdnreinlnrt ia weU
fnnuahed witii bviandent and adoeatioaal InalitntioiM,
indddiiv a gvnuatlam fonndad bj OiutaTiw Adolphiu.
The Hun Whwe ^Mwed b7 two bru^ca. Tba cbief
nwnnlMitiin k ptun t ( " Scbwunfnrt green " ia a «flU4iiowii
brand in Oennaaj), introduced in 1809 ; bntbecr, mgar,
nHKbintrr, aoapand other di7B*ltaiea,ateaw-paper,fi«^,
Ac, are aleo produced. Cotton-epiiiiiiiigandliell-foQiidiiig
are oanied on ; and tlie Main tapptim watei^Mnrer for
mnncHHU mw, flonr, and other milla. Sdiweinrart earrie*
on an active trade in the grain, fruit, and wina ptodneed
in Ha neig^bonrliood, and it k the aeat of an important
abeep and cattle maiiet, lUhiert the poet (d. 1666) waa
bora bwe in 1788. The jpopolation in 1880 waa 13,601,
erf whom ona-fonrth were TLemaa Catholica.
BalnniiiAirt it mariloiud In 7W, and in tlw lOdt Mntnir «m
flu tat o( ■ nugnTs. It Ml lata to tb« eoonti of HraiNbnc ;
bat, nodriag town li^ti In tb* ISth CMtmr, it ndntdiMd fti
indnwDdsDoa H a ft» ismial dtr with far btoiqitiaBa uutQ
180S, vhsn it puMd to Kimia. Amimi to tb* nind-daks oT
VUnbon in ISIO, h vu iMbmd to Btmia In Wi. Id th*
Thirw Ymt^ Vu it m occnpltd t^ Qoitt!na Adctphu, who
MMtwI IMUUalioa^ iMMiM at vUah in itm ettuit
SCHW£LU, a town of Westphalia in Pnuna, !■ dtoated
on tbe river (rf the Mme uams, 33 milee eaat of Diineldoif
and 97 nortb-eart of Ook^ne. Lyiiig cloae to the Harkort
iron and anlpbi
auncnl diatnct
fbnnding, wiie-dni
of Tariona kindi, beucb an actire trade in iron, tteel, and
biaaa gooda: Bcarcdf kai important are its manufactnrea
' of ribbona, Hmum*, cord, and paper. In the neighbour-
hood ace chalybeate epringi, reeorted to br invalidB. The
population in IdSO waa 13,137, one-fonrth of whom were
Bwnan Catboliea. Schwelm ia md to have esiited ai
eariy aa 1080, though it did not receive town-rigliti until
1890;
■ BOHWKNKKKLD, Cufak <1 490-1661^ of Oning aa
he called binuelt from hia pr(^»ett]r at thu place in the
principality of liegnitz in ^eeia, one of the fint and
nobleat TepreaaDlativei of Aoteetantmystieiamin thel6th
century, was bom in 1490. He waa of noble deacent, and
Acquired at Cologne and other nnivenitiea an education
grwtly anperior to that poeaeoaed l^moat noblMuen of faia
time. After leaving the univnai^ he earved in varioue
mines' courln of Bileaia, finally ent^ing the eerrice of the
duke of liegnit^ over whom bis ic^oence waa great.
Though he was edacat«d aa a strict Catholic, the wntinga
of Tanler and Luther produced aprofoimd impression upon
Mm, BO that in 1G23he visited Wittenbei^, wnere he made
tiie acquaintance of Carlatadt and Thomas HQuzer, spirit*
destined to be more congenial to him ilian Lulher himself.
On bis return to Liegniti he joined in an active propaga-
tion of the principles of the Beformation in the principality
and in Sileaia. But very early Bchwenkfeld uttered warn-
ings againet the abase <^ the doctrine of jusfciflcatKni I^
faith. Ti» Proteetant cMtraveisy as to the Eocbarist
(1634) revealed his diaagremnent with Luther on that
critical pdnt He son^t to establish a ma ntedia between
the doetrinea td Luther and Zvringli, and vainly hoped to
obtain for it Luther's acceptance. He as vautlj aon^t
to secure lAther's adoption of a atrict rule of chnrdi diacip-
Hne, after the manner of the Hccavian Brethren, llean-
whik the Anabaptists obtained a footing in Sileaia, and
suq>iaiona of Behwenkfeld^ tjm^Qa with them weie
aronaed. Lettera and writings of bis own (1627-38)
proved him to hold strongly anti-Lutheran hercsiea, and
both Cattudics and Lutheiana urged the duke of Li^niti
to dimiaa UaL He voluntatily left Liegnitz in 1G39, and
took up his abode at Btraaborg for five years m
numerous Eefonned clergy there. Inl533,inanimpOTtant
synod, he defended against Bucer the principles (rf lelifpooa
freedom aa well aa his own doctiine and Ufa. But the
heads of the church carried the day, and, ii
of the more stringent meaaurea adopted against
Scbwenkfeld left Btiaeburg for a time. While i
various citiea of south Germany be kept np a wide oCFrra-
spondence with tiie nobility particnlaily, and in WOrtenv-.
berg propagated his views peiaonally at thrir eooita. In
1S35 a sort of compromise waa brou{^ about between
peace of the cbnrch and they not t.
turber. Theoompronuaevasof onlydiortdaratimt. HIa
theology took a mote distinctly heterodcs fom, and th»
publioatian (1539) of a book in proof of hia mtet diaiM-
teriatic doctrme — the deification of the humanity of OulBt
— led to the active persecution of him by the LntfuiranH awl
hia azpulaicm from tfae dly of Dim. The neit year (1040)
be published a refutation of the attacks upon hia dootrine
with B more elaborate expoaitioo of il^ under tha-tiU»
Giv*M Can/mioK. His book waa veiy ineonveniant to the
Froteetanta, as it served to emphann the diSbnooca be-
tween the Lvtherans and Zwingliana aa regarded flia Bnclia*
rist at a moment when efibrta were being made to ceecncila
them. An anathema was aooordingly issued from Schmal-
kahi against Bchwenkf eld (together irith Sebastian Fnnck);
his books were placed on the Protestant " index"; and n*
hims^ was made a religioas outlaw. Froia that time hs
was hunted from place to places iltongh hia wide eomezioas
with the nobility and the eeteem in vdiieh he wu held by
numerous folbwen and friends provided tor him aecan
hiding-places and lea his booka a hrgs circulation. An
attempt in 1043 to ^)proach Luther only increaaed the
Reformer's hoetility and rendered Bchwenkfeld'a aitnation
still more precarious. He and hia followers withdraw
from the Lutheran CSiurch, declined its eacramenb^ aitd
formed small iocietiea of kindred views. Ha and' they
were frequently ctmdemned by Froteetant ecclesiastical
and political authorities, especially by the QoremmeDt of
Wttrtemberg, His persowu sate^ was therein moitt and
more imperilled, and he waa unaUe to stay in any plaoe
for more than a short time. At last, in hia seventy^eocmd
year, he died at nim, on 10th December 1G61, snnonnded
by attecbed friends and declaring undiminished faith in his
SchmnkfiM left bdhind bim s tset (who wars csHtd eabMqiwntly
by othsn Scbwenkreldiu^ but vbo called thimiBlne "Confaaurs
of &•> aiory of Cbiiit ") and nnmaront writing! to powtiutB his
Idsu. Hit writing! wen putullj coUectsd In four tbUo volmuM,
of wbich was petillihed In the
Silaiu tb»y Ibrmed * diatinct sfct, w „-. — _
times. In the 17th csntnty they wan tsaodated with tbt foUowaca
</ Juob Bahme, sod wan nndlatnrbed imtQ 1708t when aa tnqnby
ws* teada as to theii doetrinsi. In IfSO a cominlarfan at JeraitB
WM daapitobed to ^ilula to ccovart tbam bv htna. Uoat of than
flod tram fiUeu into Saxony, and thanoa to BoDaud, En^uid, and
North America. Fr«larluk the Oreat «f Pnmi^ whan ha ad»d
ffllads, astendad hia protvctioa to thoaa who lamainad in Oat
prorlnaa Thoaa vbo bad fled to PhUsdalphis fai FeaMylTsnla
fbroMd a small Momaaitr ladar the name tt Behwtnkfddlsaa i
and Zimandott and Spsnganban. wbxa thay vidlad the United
Stataa, endeaTDared, Wit with Itttla anccasa, to convert thtni to
their viawa Tbia oomnmni^ atlll BXiMa In Fannaylvula, and
scoordinff to Inbnnatiaii cbtUMd tram thair mlnistars by Kabert
BhcUv tsay eoDsiatad in 187B of two ooognptioiu of WO mambo^
with tlitaa maating-baaaet and nx minfitaiB. Thdr vlaws appear
to baaubatantiaUytbasao^Iha Eodiah Sodetyof rrienda. Saa
Bobart BansUj'a Inmr Lffi^Ot SMgiimt BedtUm ^ Of Ost-
mmiwUt, London, 1S7S, pp. 12(1-317.
Sohwtnkfeld'i mjatJciini waa tha eansa of hit divenaDoa Ami
Froteatint cnhodozy and tha root of his pecoUar niigioaa ud
484
S 0 H — S 0 H
tb* nl« «f tlw oohnM niMM otgnm, moh m th* mlntotij of
tbt vard, bqitini, th* Endurkb H* ngudtd m MMntUl ■ dlnst
aad *—--"■" p«tiiiip«tlioa to th* gnu* of tb* aatOtd Obittt,
and knktd <a u obMrrtDO* «f th* MenB>nt* aDd talisioai ordi-
jUMom M immatttUL Ba diittugtiiiliad batwaan an antward word
cfOolandulDnrd. Uw fannor batog tlw Scriptuna and parUh-
■bIa,tbabttatbatiTiiMipliltiDdat»maL In bia Cbriitokgr ba
dnaiitad from tba Lathana and Zirindlan dooMna of tba two
MtDiaabTiniMlnsoawbatbaaaUidtba Firtottiag di FUiK*m
Cknti, tta diiAcaSoo or Oa ^atUaation gl tba flsb at Chriit.
Tb* daatrioe wai Ua pcotiat agdnat > aapantioa <rf tba boioan
and tba diTis* in Chria^ and waa InUmatdr oonnactad witb hia
nntloal ritw <( tba work of Chriat Ha bail tbat, tboo^ Chrlit
waa God and nan fr«B Hia Uttb from th* VlrglD. H« only attained
Uia BomplsU diifloaHon and ^oriOotion by Ul* aaiienilaa, and
tbat it 1* la tba aatat* of HI* alaatial FtTfcliMitg or ^orillcalion
tba Ha ii tba dinaiaar of HI* dlrlBO Ut* to tboaa wis bjr ftltli
baoon* CO* witb BiiB. TUa lallowiUp wltb tba ^orUad Cbilat
ntbar tban a )*■ aplritnal trnrt in Hi* dwtb and ■toanMnt la witb
bin tba taaaatlal tbias. Hi* paonllar Cbriatalogr waa baaad npon
jnTonnd tlimlagioal ^d antbnpolo^od td*a*, wblob oontain Iba
goiaa of •ana laoait tboi^agk*! andCbriatokgleal i^acnlationa.
■■ AnoM^ n»t»- aa^r^K^aWiriiCFnaUiA •«. mm ; KUft AUirli
aaViSau^f nrtl 4*at*l Hum, an* Bmttt XMBtUOurm Qiiit).
SCEWERDf, the mpilal and one of the moat ktti«etiTe
citiea of the grttnd-diichj of UecUenborg-SchweriD, u
prettily aittwted %,t the aonttweat comer of the Lake of
Behwaiin (14 miles long and 3^ milaa broad), 110 mile*
Dorth-weat of Berlin. 'The town ia doaely atUTOunded tnd
hemmed in by ft number of Ukelela, with high utd in
some cue* well-wooded hftnks; and the hill; environa
nre occupied by meadowi, wooda, &nd piettj villfta. The
old uid new towna of Bchirsrin were oolj united u ooe
dtj in 1832 ; and ciiice that date the aubnrb of Bt Paul
and another outer aubtirb, known aa the Toretadt, baTe
grown np. Thoogh Schwerin i* the oldest town in
MeeUenbuT^ ita aspect is compftratively modem, — a fact
dns to dastructiTe fires, which have swept away moat of
the ancient houws. The most conspicnooB of the many
flue bnildinga is the dnoU palace, a huge irregularly penta-
gonal atractnn with munerons towers (the higbeet 236
feet), built in 1614-G7 in the French Benaiasauca atyle.
It stand* on a amall ronnd ialand between Castle Lake
and the Lake of Schwerin, formerly the site of a Weudish
fortieM and of a later mediasTal castle, portions of which
ItavB been skilfully incorporated with the preaeut building.
The older and much simpler palace; tiie open-house,
lebmlt after a Are in 1882; the OoTcmment buildings
erected in 1825-34 and reatored in 1865 after a fire; and
the mnsenm, in the Oreek atyle, fluiJied iu ISS3, all stand
in the "old garden," an open space at the end of the
bridge leading to the new palace. Among the otbei
■ecukr buildings are the palace of the heii-appatent (btiilt
in 1779 and restored in 1878), the large arseuU, the ducal
stable^ the gymnsajnm, the town-hous^ the artillery-
banacks, the military hoBpita), ix. The cathedral was
originally consecrated in 1248, though the preseat building
— « brick atructure iu the Baltic Gothic etyls, with an
nnfini^ed tower — datedafor the most part from the ISth
century. Rince 1837 Schwerin has been once mors the
reatdenee of the graud-duke, and the seat of goTemmsnt
and of Tsrlous high tribunals, — a facf which has had oon-
ridatable influence on the character of the town and the
tone of its BOciety, Neither the manufacturing industry
iior the Imde of Schwerin is important In 1885 the popiv
lation waj 32,031 — includincc about 700 Roman Catholics
and 400 Jewa — an increase of 64 per cent, nnce 1860.
Brbverin la nenMentd la ■ '^''-adbA atran^hold la laiS, ita
i*aMt{7vtnD or Bwaria) balnea Slavonic word aqnlTaltnt to 'gam*-
lnnirTc ' Tbr Obotrila priuc* Xklot, wboM natua b plaoad iboTa
*h> portal of tb« palaot aa tba anoaator of tb* prawnt nltnlng
faiafly, liad hia iwidenoa ban. Tba town, foaudad in 1181 bj
H<urT tba Uoo la cppoiltloB to thia ;*gan fortraia, racalTad f —
■Sit waa alao tb* oapltad of tba dnchy^ Scbwarin, wbkh £ma
taut o( tna gnnd-ddchy of HacUanbtus-Bcbwarii.
Sraa, th* hardaUjia of tbo Tbirtr TaanT -ffar, and tbi
a Lodwlplnat in ITM avioaalT oanant
rariTsl and many of ita eliiaf t— 'Ml-f ts
tamoral of tba eanrt tc „
tha town. It owai Ita nrinl *l ,
tha graod-dobi Paul Fradaiiek (1U7-4S), to whom s I
waa araolod in ISSB.
SCHWIKD, Hours voir <1804-1871), * p^ntu of tha
romantic school, waa bom in Vienna in 1804. He received
rudimentary training and led a joyous canlees life in
that gay capital ; among his companions was the muudan
the painter Sdmorr and the guidance (tf Comelins, than
directd of the academy. Li 1834 he received the com-
mission to decorate King Lotus's new palaoa with nail
paintingi illnstrative of the poet TiecL He also found in
the same palace congenial sport for his fancy in a "Kinder-
fries'; his ready huid was likewise busy on almanaoi, iiL,
and 1:7 Iti" UlnstrajionB to Qoethe and other writera he
gained applanse an<f much employment In the rerivai of
art in Qermany Schwind held aa hia own the sphere ot
poetic fancy. To him waa entrusted in 1839, in tha new
Oarlarohe academy, the embodiment in fresco of ideal
thrown ont by Qoethe ; he decorated a villa at IiUpue
with the itory of Cupid and Fayche^ and further jnstified
bis title of poet-painter by deaigns from the NUbdiagm-
lUd and Tasso's OenaalemiM for the walla of the castle of
Hohenscbwangau in Bavarian Tyrol From the year 1844
dates his residence in Frankfort ; to thia period belong
some of his best easel pictnies, pre-eminently the Bingei^
Contest in the Wartbui^ (1846), al«o designs for tht
Ooethe celebration, likewise nomerons book illostiationa.
The conceptions for the moat part are better thikn the'
eiecutbn. Li 1847 Bchwind retnraed to Munich on being
appointed professor in the academy, ^i^t yean latw
hu fame waa at its height on the completion in the castle
of the Wartbnrg of watlpictures illnstrative of the Singei^
Contest and of the Eiilory of Elinbeth of Hnngary. The
oompoeitions received nnlTeraal praise, and at a grand
musical festival to their honour Bchwind himself played
among the violins. Li 1867 appeared his*ezceptionat]y
mature "cycloa" of the Beven Bavena from Oiinm'a
fairy atoriea. In the same year he visited England to
report officially to King Lonit on the Manchester art
treasurea. And ao divetsiSed were hia gifts that he ttimed
his hand to church windows and joined his old friend
Schnorr in designs for the painted (^aaa in OUagow cathe-
dral. Towards the dose of his career, with broken hwllh
and powers on the wane, he revisited Yieuna. To thia
time belong the "cydus" from the legend of Udnsineaad
the designs commemorative of chief masidans which de-
corate the foyer of the new operft-hoose. Cornelias wriU^
" Tou have here translated the joyooaneaa of mnsic into
factorial art" Bchwind'a genius waa lyrical; he dre*
inspiration from chivalry, folk-lore, and the songs of the
people ; hia art waa decorative, but lacked scholastic tnin-
ing and technical skill. Schwind died at Munich in 1671,
and his body Ilea in ths dd Priediiof of the same town.
BCHWYZ, ooe of the forest cantons of Bwitierland,
ranking fifth iu the confederation. It extends from tb*
upper end of the Lake of Zurich on the uotth to the middle
reach of tha I«ke of Lucerne on the south : on the weit it
toQchss at EUsanacht the northern atm of the Utter lakm
and at Arth the I^e of Zug, while on the east it atrstchea
to the ridgea at the head of the Maottathal, which divide
it from Qlarua. Its total area is 360-7 sqnara milea, of
which 254-9 are clauad as "productive land" {193-3 <i
this being pasture or arable laud) and 9S'8 as "unpiO'
dnctive land* (glaciers and lakea occupying 21 aqaal*
S C I — S C I
465
mSm) Tlia Isightat point is tha GnMalMock or Fanlan
(9S00 feat) ; tlia Eonuiut of the Bigi (Bigi Kolin) U «Uo
within itt Ihuiti. In 1660 tha ptqinUtion (neuly aqnallj
divided b«tir«eD the twq aezee) vu SI, 335, ftn incrase
of 3530 dnoa 1670. The onlj towni of mj um kre
Eiouedeln (population, 840n uid the capital, Scli«7i
(6S43). O^nun i« the mother-tongue of 40,631 of the
inhabitant^ and there ii an Italian eolonjt of 13T7. The
Roman Catholica number 00,266, the Frotestanti but
954. 'nil 1814 the canton fonned part of the diocae of
Constance ; lince that tims it i« practically (though not
fonnnll;) included in tliat of Chur. Be«ides a monailerj
of Capucbio friara and four nonnartet, the canton boaiti
of the great Benedictine abbey of Einsiedeln, wUcb grew
vp Tonnd the cell of the hermit St Meiniad (d. 863) ; it
received its Ent charter in 946 ft«m Otho L, ajid contain*
a black atatua of (be Tb^in, which attracts about 150,000
pilgrinu uinnally. In Schiryi primary education ia free
and Mtnpalaoiy, the ttate also giving grania in aid of
eeoondarj iuitroetion. The population are mainly engaged
in pailoral occnpation*, the cluef article of export (largely
to north Italy) being a special breed of cattle, which eiyoy*
a very high reputation io the coufedetatuMi. The only
raihrayi in the canton are tha portion of the St Qotthard
line between KHeanacht, Inunenaee, and SisikoD, and the
line from Arth to tlie •ununit of the Rigi.
Tha villty of Scbwji flnt appMn in iMorj In 070^ lAtR ■
imnmmttv of tnt ntn !■ band uttled at th« loot of tha Hrtlmi,
HI kod* *ad iDtjwt only to tha aonnt of the Zurich
and becuna put of the IM* oonuBunltj <k Bohwn.
fo.i. sooiWi miiily of atiug^ with U
righls of pannn. In lUO the inhaUtaati
laiicklLtha -- "
kMnyofBehwTiv
oUaaiwd trom Pradanck II. tha " BaichiMhait," i«, dinot di^od-
•■ea on Ihaempgror, beiiiglliiu Emd from tlw Hapabors aonnM
o(Um Zarioh Jan. In 1178 tha yann|^ branch oTthohouaa ol
H^p(biiiK*old>llil>prapertyuidrighti in tha valley to the elder
tnaeh, wUeh a hw nontlu hter gbtainad (ha ampire, and in A.pril
ISl boDgfat tha ri^ta of the AnaUin abbn gf Morbaoh ovn
Lacana Sahwyi took tha laad in makiag the bmoai laacne of
lat Adgnat 13»1 with the Baighbonringdiitrkta at ITriaBdOnla-
mldn^ te vhkh in pddtion uid the &aa i|riiit oTila inhaUtanta
apaoially Attad it An attack by Schwyi on Bnaedaln vaa the
eieoaa far tin Aaatrian lavuton which jin IBth Kovambar ISlt waa
fin (Schwaii) wia applied by Ibr^giHii from the Itth eanlary
oawBida to tha iaat^aiawhobtUuiighitfemadnutotittl'ormal
atyb only from 1801. Soon after tha victory of Bempach (1*88)
IIm nan dT Schwyi baon to aitand thair bordan. In ISM tliay
■eqaind the town of Einiiadaln (becoming in ISBT, and flnaOy In
im,tha "protacton'ortha gnat ibbayTand In 1403 KIlMiaBht,
while in 1113.g7 Chay won the •• Uanh," and in 1440 WoUena and
PniBkaa,-dI oa <» near the Uka of Zoilch. AU tham dkaicli
wan governed by Bohvyi aa aabjecta, not aa eiiuala or alliia, npnma
povBT natlng with tha ''LeDdaRamnnda''(oraiBembl70fal]cltiieaa
of foil agg} of Schwji, which u Brat mantianad in ISBl. Schwyi
joined the othat foreat aaUtaa in oppoaing the Refonnatlan, and
took partinthebaCtla ofCappel (ISil), in which ZwingUrdL In
1586 It bamme a mamtnr of tha Golden or BcrromeaD Le^tua, formed
la aontinae the work of iJtitrlaa Bommoo in curying oat the
eluding OemnTfraa iinee
Talliaoak'
Helvetlo
Ii oau " or " WpubHoDa
ID by the Freiich, which a week later gave way to tha
bllo," thODgh the free ma" " ' - '■ -■ —-'-■-
Abyi Badlng. In 17W it r.:
fanm Altdorf to Qlania nude
imabll
Abyil
of the dinationa ratnat
Kinrij^ulm and Pragel
fac* o( tha Fitaata anny.
Schwyi atablilj nnitad all pronmL' k
bitaial coDititution of lalE, joined the lai
■■d, whan raligiona dlapntaa had fnrthn n
''Boaderbiiiid"(181I and ISIG), which waa o'oly put down by (ha
wB tt Horaiobar lSi7. The aonatltntian iJ 1818 wee rerlaed in
1>U,18TC (whan naubatahlpitfoaa of tha twenty .sine 'Gemainde'
«r commnaea bacaoH tha political qnaliflcatlan), and 1881.
8CIACCA, a town of Italy, in the province of Oirsenti,
SeUy, 28 miles oonth-aaat of Caitetvetrano (Solinoi) and
37 ncrtb-weet of Oirgenti, liea oo tltf MQth oOMt on a iteap
rodcy decliDe, and with ila walls and cwUea hu tnxn ■
distance an impoMng appearanoe. The caUiedral waa
fotUKled b 1090 by Julia da Haataville, daughter of Boger
X, who bad preaeited hec with the lordship of Sdacca on
her marriage with Peroib; and two other chnrchea, 8.
Salvadore and 8. Maria delle Oltunmare, date from the
aame period. In the diSa are excavated granaries in which
imder the Bpaniah vioen^ the grain used to ba stored
nndet Government ooutroL To the east of the town, at
the foot of Monte B. Calogero, are the hot wells (sulphur
ooa and saline) of Sciacca ; atkd the steam that Intake
forth fiom the top of the hill seems to have been luad (as
it atiU is) for vapour baths from a remote (poeaibly
Fhcenidan) period. The popnlathm was 31,4SI (33,195
including Marina) in 1681.
Sciacca waa tha bEitbplaca of Tonunsao Fiiallo (IJM-lsrO), the
hlitorlan of Sicily. In the ISth orntniy It waa the aeana of a (er-
hbia faod between tha Parolloa (hud* of Sdaoaa) and the connta
SCIATICA. Sea KitruLcu, vol xviL p. 364.
SCILLT ISLES, a group of ialand^ about taitf in
Dtunber, in tlie county of Oomwall (see voL vi plate IX.),
England, are situated aboDt 35 mtlea west by south of
Land'* End and 40 west from Liatrd Point, in 60' N. lat.
and 6" W. long. They are oompoaed wholly of granite, —
ontliera of the granite highlands of ComwalL There are
eome metalliferoDs veins or lodea, bvt none tliat conid ever
have yielded much iron. On account ot the mild climate
the vegetation b remarkably luxoriaat. ^Hie mean average
temperature in winter is abont 45* and in summer about
56°. Fuchaiaa, geraninma, and myrtlea attain an inunansa
die, and aloea, cactus, and the prickly pear grow in the
open air. The inhabitant* devote their attention principally
to the cultivation of early potatoes iot tha London market.
Aaparagna and other early vegetable*), ad well as flowen,
are also largely cultivated. Lobsters are caught and eent
to London, but the fishing industiy is of compantivaly
minor importance^
Tha total ana of the LOanda fa >SeO acraa, with a inpolation li
1871 of SOW, and la 1881 o( 3SS0, Inclu^ 378 paraona on boaid
vtaaala Tha inliabtted iaianda era St Huy'g (ana about 1000
tent), TVaaco (700], Bt Uartla'a (GM), Bt Agnaa (RM), and Biyhar
(SOOl The principal town, Hngk Town In St Man'a, oeoapna s
■ndy penlnnla crowned I? tha height oalled the OarriaoD, with
Star Caitla, erected in tha time of BUvbath. It poaBemea a harbooi
and piar withAToadatasd aflbrding anchonge ferlarge laaanla Tha
CDaat-lina ia wUd and pIctnreaqDe, with pncipitona headlandi and
many aitana?e Gavea. On Tnaco than an temaina of an abbay i
tndSt AgnaahaaallfihtboaMri tett in bright On the leland/
there an Dnmarona nula pilUn and cirtlaa of atouee, eimilai to tfacaa
inCorawalL
Traeoc^ but on the
andowment of the abbay of Tiviatock tba graatar portion of them
oftbaOi
OSS by J
■-' ^ent of the abbav ol
iludsd amongat fta poBamiona la the rdgn of EUn
they wan divided tmongat aavarsl propriatora. Kiring tha t^ril
Var Hugh Town held oat for tba kin^ and in 1011 afforded abalter
for > tima to Princa Chariaa util h* aaoapad to Jaraay. Ia IMK
thavweretakanpniaEMioBof by Sir John Qienville, a&iTaliat^ who
made use of them ass eonvanient ahalter, whanea ha iMoad toawaep
tha nei^booring aca^ nutil in ISSl he waa forced toanrTeodar to a
float oMar Blaka and Sir John Ayaoua. In ancient tlmaa a tlvqoent
hannt of piiata^ tha iaianda wan aftarwarda notoriooa for amnggUng.
On Um anppraaciDD of cmaggling Ur Angnatua ]. Smith didmncli
to introduce otdar and euconnga habU* of induatry amongat tha
inhaUtanta.
6CINCK See Sad.
BCIO, the Italian name of an island en the wert coast
of Aaia Minor, called by the Oreeks Cbiod (i} XCas, 't ti)
Xla) and by the Turks Saki Adauj (he soft proaonciation
of X ^>afore t in Modem Greek, approximating to lA, caused
Xlo to be Italianiied as Scio. Bci<^ which is about 30
milea long £rom north to sonth, and varies in breadth
from 8 to 15 milea, ia divided into K larger nortliBm part
and a n>aller eoutbem part, called reapectively aptatonurvt
S£t — 59
486
S C I — S 0 I
Tht iaUnd U taggti tM wall deMrvM
Uia epithet " craggy ° (nuraAiJnnra) appliad to iC in the
EoDMrio hjmn. The eoiitliBm part is len tccky than
the northeni. and the wealth of Uie Uland it concentrated
thers. The figs of Chioa were noted
wine and guni nuutic have always bean ita moat important
products. The climate is almost perfect, the atmoaphere
deli^tful and healthy j oianf^ea, ollTes, and even palms
l^row freely. The finest wine wa» grown on the north-
western coart, in the district called by Strabo Ariana, and
was known in Italy as vimm Arvintim. .The populatl
of Chioa had always heea far greater than its reeonn
ODold feed ; the people have therefore been forced to import
the neceeaaries of life in exchange for their wine and mastic
and fniit, and alike in ancient and modem times they have
bean known as merchants and traders. Pottery of Chios
and Thasoi wan exported to Illyria (Strab., p. 317) and
donbtless elsewhere ; it formad or contained the cargo of
outward-boond trading ships. Thasian ware is ffcwili.i- in
mnseimus where the stamped handles of Thaaian amphorm
have been collected in thonsanda ; bat no pottery has yet
been identified as of Chion mannfactaie. Aa incidental
proof of the importance of Ohian handicrafts lies in the
faet that early in the Tth century b.c. Qlanras of Chios
discoTered the process of soldering iron, and the iron stand
of a large crater whose partd were all connected by this
process was constmctad by Kimj and preserved as one of the
moat intereitting relics of antiquity at Delphi The long
line of Chjan sculptors in marble, Bnpalns and Athenis, sons
uf Archermus, son of Micciadea, son of Melas, bears witness
to the fame of Chian art in the period 660 to fiiO B.C.
The Winged Victory of Micciades and Archennns, which
was dedicated at C>elos, is atill prerarred, — the most im-
portant attested work extant of archaic Qreek art Harble
(jnarries also were worked in the island. In literature
Uie diief glory of Chios was the school of epic poets
called Homecidn, who earned on and gave an Ionic tone
io the traditional art of the older JSoUa bards. (Mniethus
is said to haTe written the Homerio Ht/Bui to Apollo of
Dtht, and is believed by some modem critics to have exer-
cised gr«at inSnence on the text of the Hiud and Odytey.
llie Chian recension of these poems (Xi'a 'Ekjoo-k) was in
later times one of the standard teiti<. Ion the tragic poet,
Theopompns the historian, and other writerd maintained the
]io>iition of Chioa in literatore daring the claiuical period.
Tb< chief cit; of Cblos bu iIhsti borne the huu nuns 4* the
fslsnd. It ii ntustsd nesr Ch< middle o( th« eutetn oout, sud at
the pnanit iaj contaiui iboDt 17,000 iuhabitinta. A thestra uad
s tnuple of Atbsui Polluihiu existed In the uicient cEtj. About
■ niila north of the cilj thore la s curious monnmant of antJiinil j,
Gommonlf called "the icliool of Homer"; it ia a veTj anciBnt
nuctuarr of Cjlxle, vitb an altar uid a Sgure of the goddess with
hsr two liooa. cut out of tha Dative rock on the aunuait of a bill
On the west coast thoro ia a monasterr of great wealth with a
cbnich founded by Conitajidne IX. (1042-54]. Starting From tbo
montoi7 Poddium ; Cape Plumes, the soutbera extraniit]' at Chin's
with a hatbonr and a temple of Apollo ; Notiuni, pmbably tbo
sontb-weatoni point of tbo Uland ; ijui, oppoaita the city of Chin,
wben the island is narrowest ; tbo town Bolissue (now Yolieno),
tbs bonis of the Homerid poets ; Mehena, tbo narth-wesleni point ;
ths wine-growing district Ariuaia ; Cardamylo (now Cardhamjli) ;
the north-eastern pnmonloij was prabal^lf named Fhlium, and
the monntnina that crosB ths northcTU part of the ialand Pelinvns
Dt PsIIbobub. The sitnstioa of the small towns Leaeoniuui,
IMphiniom, Cancaaa, Ccela, and Polictine u uncertain ; proljably
inost of Uiem nen in the sootheni part Tbo island is eabject to
earthquakes ; a Ter^ daatruc^ve (hock occoired In Umh 1881.
The history of Chios le Tory obscnn. According to Pherecydes,
the origiDil inbabitanta were Letegw, while according to other
aoconnts Tbeasalian Pela^ msMand the islsnd befon it bacania
an Ionian state. The nam* Athalia, mmmoD to Chioa and Lemnos
in very at^ time, sngnats the oririnsl existence of a hemogenc'
popnl^tioa in theas and other nd^banriiig islsads. (Enopimi
»|Um1 been, sa> of Dtaayaaa or of '"—'^— "**—-. wea an m
united the island to the Ionian eonfsd'niir (Taasaa., rtl. <), tbouh
Strabo (p. BS;i> imi>]iea an ai.'tmJ couiiHsst by Ionian settlols. Tfca
namp Hector and the tuunuui Helens (jirobahlT at tus modan
Tbelena in the uortnj luignt be expactrd iu ttui island of tlw
Homerids. The regal government sa> dt a later time «uLsiiged
for an olisarrhy or a 'lemocraoy, rut notuiu^ is kiiown as In hm
manner and data of tno cnsnn. A^ in nuvt otner staiai of Onaee,
tyranta aometimes nuea in Chios : tnr nanus of Amuliinlus slid
Folytecnns ars mentionwL The ear.y relation* oT Chioa with othei
utatsa are very olacun^ but it iwinis to have Nwu an ally of Miletus
and to have been at enmity with the Phoro.'o-bamian ■"'—". to
which ths neiichbonrinir Erythm belonged. Tli,. f<ams tbrm of the
Ionian dialeoC was spoken in Chios auu iu Erytbrc-
When the Peniana arpoared ou toe Ionian coast Chioa willingly
■ubmittad. refused to their old enouiiei the Fhacoians, who «otr
fleeing from the PoTuoa yoke, a refaps on tLoir isUndj (Eniuic,
and sven mrrsnderod tlie Lydian fugitivo Paetyaa in deBano of
all religloQB KrOpies- Strattiii. tyrant of Chios, foUowud Uarins
in bis Bcythiaa ex|ieditian. Ths Cliians joined in the loniaa
rebellion againit tbo Poniatu (600-405] and nipplied IDO sbiijs.
After the Persian victory at Lade the Island was moot severely
treated, die lawns and templea horned, and many of the paoub
enslaved. At Silajnie (480) the China nhips, ltd b* tho tyrant
Stnttis, served in the Pereiui fleet After the bstUe of Mveaie
(479) the iaUad became tree and a democratic govommeut no f&ubt
took the place of the tyranny. Chioa waa ths moat powerful alatp
altei Athene in the Dulian confederacy, and it was an aU; on equal
terms of the Athenian empire, paying no trilute, but inrBiiduog
ehipa in case of wai- It lemained a faithfiil ally of tbo AUianisas
till the year 413, when, euconragcd by tho w—^tum <*«iund fu
fleet then consisted of fifty jhipn.
iu three battles, at Boliseita, Phonte,
reconqoer the island. Finding tin Spartan beMuany nore Op-
presaiTe than tho Athenian, Chiod retumad to tho Athantsu dod-
neiiou in 381, but eoou atterwardii deserted and jojoed the Tbstana.
In the wars of Alaiander the Great, Uemnon, (nppoHed by tho
oligarcliica] party, held tho island for the Persians. It wu
aitarwanLi involved in the ppid vicbHitndes of loniui hiitoiy,
blllng under the power of various dyuostiM smong the diabidii.
In the Uithtsdatic warv it favoured tl» Boman tlfisncek and Uu
king's general Zeno1>iiis fined the island SOOD talents aiij osnied
off a great number of tlic popnUtioa into alavery in Poatna. It
had many centoriea oC peaceful pro,<u:rity uuJei Bomsn ud
liyuntine rule. Tho GenooM hebfitfrom the Ktb oantniy tUl
in IGSS the Turk<i (.oni^uered it and the third great Chiaa 4iastec
■nd moBacTo occurred. Eicent for a brief Venetian oocnpalion in
1494, Chios haj remained In TnrkL'h hands till the ^Msht day.
A filurtb ma.Hacro afllicted the inland in IS22, wbm tho Torti
nprosBsd with 'fin end enotd the attomptod Greek InsamCtioL
Till this terrible event the isUnd n, ruled vary leniently \n 6a
Turks; the iutoniDl BCrommcnt uoa Jed In ths bands of Bve
archona, three Greek and two Catholic, «hile two residant Tnrkiib
officials represented tho dulUu and received througb tbo archoBS
the stipnUted tribute. (W. 11. BA.)
SCIPIO. The ticipioH,' a uieiiiorable name in Roman
history, were a branch of the ancieut and noble family of
the Coroelii. It waa in Itome'd wars with Carthage that
they made tbemdelves npecially famous.
1, PirButrr< CottNsijtJn Siiipio, the father of tie Elder
African ns, wod the fin<t Itoman general to enconntw
Hannibal in battle. He was consul in 918 B.C., the first
year of the becond Punic War, and, having S|>ain for his
province, he went with an ancy to Mll««il^^^ (Umseillei)
with the view of arresting the Cavtha^uian's adrance <s>
Italy- Failing, however, to meet his enemy, ha hastened
back by f>ca to Cisalpine (JIaal, leaving his army under the
command of his brother Cneius Scipio, who was to haiaai
the Carthaginians in Hpain and hiuiler thtm from support'
ing Hannibal. In a Kharp cavalry engagement in tlis
upper valley of the Po, on th^ Hciuua, he waa defeated
and tseverely wounded, end it is said Le owed his life to
the bravery of his eon, then a mere etripling. A^un,,ifi
the December of tbo some year, he witnended the complete
defeat of the Roman army on the Trebia, his coUeagn*
Sempronins having insisted-on fighting conti&iT fo liis
advice. Bnt he still retained the confidence of the Soman
peopl^ since his term of command waa extended, and «o
find him with his brother iu Spain in the following ysir.
S C I P I o
467
wiDBing Tietoriw orer the Otrthaginiiai uid atmigtlieii-
ing Rome'B bold on tlut ooantiy, till 313 or 311. The
dstsili of thew cai^paigna mra not accurately known to ni,
bat it would »em ttiat the ultimate defMt and dsath of
tbe ScipioB were dne to the de«ertion of the Celtib«ri,
bribed by Haadrulial, Hanoibal's brother.
3. Pusuaa CoRHBum Scmo ArRicurus raa EiLd^ —
After having been preseot at the diBastrona battlea of the
liciDQB, the IVebia, and CannsB, and haTuig after that but
cnuhing defeat had the ^irit to remonatrote with Mvenl
Boman noLIaa who adrocated giriag np the ttniggle and
qnitting Italy in deipair, Bcipio, at the age of twenty-fonr,
offered to take the command of the Roman armj in Spain
the jcai after hia father'a death. The pac^le alreadj had
an intense belief in him, and he waa nnanimonaly elected.
All Spain weat of the Ebro wm in the year of Us arriTal
(210) under Carthaginian control, bat fortonatelj for him
the three Carthaginian generals, Haadmhal (Hunibal'a
brother), Eoadrufaal the aon of Qiago, and Hago (alao
Pumiboi'A brother), wera not diapoaed to act in concert.
Scipio wai thuA enabled to snrpiiH and capture New
Carthage, the headquorten of the Carthaginian power in
iJpoiD, from nfaich be obtained a rich bootj of war atorea
and EUpplios, with a particularly good harbonr. The native
Spanish triben now bocame friendly, and 8ci[no found uie-
fal alliea among them. In the following year he tonght
Haadrubal somewhere in the upper valley of the Goodal-
qaivir, but the action could hardly have been a deciiive one,
as Boon afterwords the Carthaginian croaaed the Pyreneea
at the head of a considerable a^j on hia way to Italy.
Next year another battle was fought in the same neigh-
bourhood, and Scipio'a guccesa appears to have been ta£-
ciently decided to compel the Carthaginian commanden
to fall bock on Gadcs, in the aouth-westem comer of Spain.
The country waa now for the moat part under Roman influ-
ence, a result due eren more to the statesmanlike tact of
Soipio than to bis military ability. With the idea of
■triking a blow at Carthage in Africa, the Roman general
paid a short viiut to the Nnmidian princes, Syphu and
Masinissa, but at the court of Syphai he was foiled by the
presence of Haedrubal, the eon of Oisgo, whose daughter
Sopboni«ba was married to the Nnnudiaji chief. On hia
return to Spain Scipio had to quell a mutiny which hod
broken out among his troops. Hannibal's brother Mago
had meanwhila sailed for Italy, and Scipio himself in 206,
after having established the Bomaa ascendency in Spain,
ffin np bis command and returned to Rome to atond for
the consulship, to which he waa unanimously elected the
following year, the province of Sicily being assigned to
him. By this time Hasdrubal with hia army had perished
on the Ustauru% and Hannibal's movementa wera restricted
to the south-western extremity of Italy. For Home the
worst part of the struggle was over. The war was now
to be transferred by Scipio from Italy to Africa. He was
himself eagerly intent on this, and his great name drew to
him a number of valunteera from all parts of Italy. There
waa but one obstacle : the old-faahioned aristociocy of
Rome did not like him, as his taste for splendid living
and Qreek enltore was particularly offensive to thsm.
A parly in the senate would have recalled him, but the
pt^nlar enthusiasm waa too strong for them. A commis-
sion of inquiry was sent over to Sicily, and it found that
he was at the head of a well-equipped Beet and army. At
the eommisaioners' bidding ])b sailed in SOI from Lilybnum
(Marsala) and landed on the coast of Africa near Utica.
Carthage meanwhile had secured the friendahip of the
powerful Nnmidian chief Syphaz, whoae advance oom-
pelled Seipio to raise the siege of Utica and to entrench
himself on the diora between that place and Carthage.
Next jeot he mrprioed tad ntterly defektect Sy^utx wd
drove tie Qwthaginian amy out of the fleU. There was
an attempt at negotiation, but the war party prevailed
and Bonmbol waa recalled from Italy. The deciuve
battle was fooght near the Nnmidian town of Zama in 303
and ended in Hannibal's complete defeat. Peace waa ood-
eluded with the Carthaginians in the foUowing year on
terms which strictly con&ned their dominion to a compara-
tively small territory in Africa, almot annihilated their
flee^ and exacted a heavy war contribution. In fact, the
independence of Carthage was destroyed, and it became
simply a rich commercial city. The old-fashioned and
narrow-minded aristocrats who wera in sympathy with tiie
" delenda est Carthago " policy subeequently annonnoed by
Cato thought these terms too lenient ; but Scipio was too
great and too generous a man to lend himself to the bote
work of utterly extinguishing an ancient and noble oentre
of dviliation. Rome was now perfectly safe from attack.
It was a great Uediternnean power : Spain and Sicily
vera Roman provinces, and the north of Africa was under
a Roman protectorate. Such waa the end, after aaventeen
yeara, of the Second Funic War. Scipio was weloomed
bock to Rome with the surname of Africanna, and he had
the modsntion and good sense to ref nse the many hononra
which the people would have thrust upon him. For some
years he lived quietly and took no part in politica. In 190
hia brother Lucius Scipio was consul and, on the andar-
Btanding that he should have the benefit of the military
skill and experience of Africonns, he was entruated wi^
the war in Asia against Antiochua. The two brothera
brought the war to a-conclusion by a decisive victory at
Hagneeia in the same year. Meanwhile Scipio'a political
enemies bad gained ground, and on their return to Borne
a prosecution was started against Lucius on the ground of
misappropriation of moneys received from Antiochns. As
Lucius was in the act of producing his accoontbooks his
brother wrMted them from his hands, tore them in pieces,
and flung them on the floor of the senate-house. He was
then himself accused of having been bribed by Antiochn^
but he reminded his accusers that the day was ill chosen, la
it happened to be the anniversary of his gnat victory over
Hannibal at Zama. There was an outburst of enthnsiaam,
and Scipio waa once again the hero and the darling of the
Roman people^- who, it is said, crowded round him and
followed him to the CapitoL After all, however, he ended
hii days, as a voluntary exile in all probability, at Literanm
on the coast of Campania, dying, it would seem, in 183,
the year of Hannibal's death, when a little above fifty
years of age. Bcipio's wife was £milia, daughter of the
jGmilius Paullus who fell at Cannn and who was the father
of the conqueror of Uacedonia. By her he hod a daughter,
Cwnelia, who became the mother of the two famous
Bpain, Korthem AMes, the KMallad ptonnn of Asls, wu* sddwl
to Boms'i daminian during his lilt. Scipio Itiad to ma Roma
develop from a mnslv Itslisn power to b« in ttct the mistrea of
the vorld, and he bimielf gnstly contribnted to this imilt.
gnat genuals we iniut nnk him sft« CMsr. He
iprign sswillM how to Bghti battle, and
AmsnsE
kniwEow
S!C„"
b<
ibiulaflrn. ITa nflVBT had to make ! „-
„ A bi> n
tbey wan, mut ba diitiDcll; nuked benaslh (be n
aaaet of HsODibsl. Still lh« Itorj wu told that. In
between the two gaoenJj at tba oouit ot Antiocbiu, Hauubal, who
millUrj eoratnandarsi coDfe««l that hid he heatea Sci^o he ibould
bavB pot bitnsair before either of them. It wama ta be at U17 rats
oeitaia that the two grtet man raspected and admired auih other,
and it ia mnoh to Sdpio'i cndit that he wlthabwd tht mean pane-
eotian with which the Eoman eanate followed np the CarthaginisB.
It may be that ha had latbei too mnch sristocraHo houtnir br ■
etateeman {n time of pau^ bnt againet thb we must sat the plesalnR
fact that be **■■ mas of gnat iatellMituI caltai* and cMdd spaaft
tad Wilts Orask Jost as w«U •* bis nsllvp UtUk Ha nete hia
S C I — S 0 o
tElttrm BOOliK UM WMMf HK UKB nH ■ muw HlBh HD wwm m wymtma
bTOViltovtWnaudlMldaotiul oommimiMtioa with tb« soda.
It ta mrfb p««lbl* too tbt* h» Umnlf boDMtlj ihuBl tUi bdiaf :
•ikd n It *M t^tt to Ui poHttol appontati ht ocold be biiA <aa
■iTMnt ud lowud* otbsn iingolirij ffadona'and (japatlutia.
roi ■ tims b* aojoT*^ ■ poptibri^ ^ Bmim wUek na ona but
iVht 't — "~' — •*
3. PuBLiin CoBimjira Bctno Anaoixm thx
TouKOD. — TUb Bcipics kbo oae of Kome'a greatest
aentnia, wm tha founger ton of JEnmdiu ^aUna, and
M loflght when a ^otitli of «event«eii b; hia father'! dde
•t ^M, 108,— tha battle irhich decided the iaia Of
Ukcedonia and made northetn Qieece tnbject to Borne.
He WM adopted hj the elde*t «on of Eldpio Africanu the
Elder, And from him took the name Scipb with the surname
AfriciuiiiB. In ISl, a tine of defeat and diatatet tor the
Bcnnua in Spain, which aa jei had been but very imper-
fectly antgngated, he eerrad with credit in that country and
obtuiied an influence dtbt the natire tribee eimilar to that
wluoh tbe elder Scipio^ hia grandfather by adoption, had
' acquind nevly lizty yean before him. In the next year an
ajpeal waa inade to him by the Carthaginians to act as
arratw between them and the Koinidian prince UaoinieBa,
who^ baelwd Dp by a party at Rome, waa ineeaaantly
WMTOching on Oarthaginian teiritoij. Bome's policy in
Africa was to hold the balance between Masiniwa and
Oarthage, and, when it waa seen tbat Carthage^ as the reanlt
of teTeral years of peace^ was again beoomine a pronrarons
and powerful d^, there grew 1^ a feeling at Rcnne that the
NoDudian king must be ai^iwted and their oU iItbI
thoroughly bnmiliated. Ifarooa Cato and hia party would
hear of no compronuae ; Carthage^ they said, mnat be de-
■troyed if Ihnne waa to be safe. It waa easy to find a
giniana felt it to be a life-aod-death struggle : every
•nd oTtry woman laboured to the uttermost fcr the defence
of the ct^ with a furiona enthumaam. The Soman army,
in which Scipio at fint serred in a anbordioate capaci^,
WM Dtterly baffled. In the following year he waa elected
oonanl, while yet under the legal age^ for the express
pnrpaee of giving him the mpreme command. After two
years of deeparate fluting and splendid heroiam on the
Cot the defendeiB, the {amiahed garrison could no
r hold the walls: Carthage was captured, and the
niina of di« eUj wve bnrning for seTenteen days ; Bome
decreed that the place ahoold be for ever deeolale. On
his retnm to Bome Bci^no became the sulject of -riolent
political attacks, agunst which ha snccesafully defended
himself in speeches (no longer extant) that ranked
brilliant specimens of oratcHy. In 134 he was a^
oonsol, wiUi the province of Bpoin, where a demoralised
Boman army was wuly attempting the conquest of
Kumontia on the Doujo. Scfpio, after devoting aeveral
months to the discipline ot bis troops, reduced the city
by blockade. The fall of NomantiB, which was utterly
destroyed in 1S3, established tht Boman dominion in the
province of Hltha or Nearer ftiain, the eaatein portion of
that comity. Boms meanwhile waa shaken hj the great
pditical agitation of the Gracchi, whose sister Sanpionia
was Sei^'a wif& Scijoo hinself, thon(^ not in ^mpothy
with tte eztoaoM meo ot the old conservative pwty, was
decidedly opposed to the schemes of the QracchL " Jnitly
aluD * Qnre OMnm) is said to have been hia answer to the
tribune Carboy irtia asked him before the people what he
thonght of the death at nberina Oraochns. This gave dire
oAnee to the popular party, which was now led by his
bitterest fook Boon afterwaids, in 139, he was fonnd
dead in bed on the morning of a day on which he had
toided to moka a apeaoli ou a point eonne?t«d witk the
proposals of ilie Graodii,— "a victim of political
. . ti<Hi" Hommsen confidently pronouncea him. nie
mystery was never cleared up, and there were political
ts tot letting the matter drop.
Tosngn' Sdpja, gnst gauusl sod B>*st msn u hs wm, k
r imcUted viti a hidioiH work ot ^tneOm. at Cuthig^
which wi IMI hs might bsre don* mote lo sml Ytt be •■■ ■
m'af eoltoie and teHnwnent; ha gsthand roqnd him indi ma
tbtOnakhiitniut Polybiu, tht philowidui Puuctiai, sad Ih*
Kits Locillna and Toenca And at ths lune tiiii^ accardlng to
Ijrbisj lud Ocero, ha had all tha gaoj atsitin^ Tirtue* cl m tU-
' ~ d ileadilj aat hi* fiios lAmal Aa iucmaioii
* aoldicr. Ha apoke nmaiUUi
a
fba^wSk citta rf aidJj tb» w
id tham. Ha did not arail himaalf of the many o^ilrortuoitiia
luat bava had ot amasiing a fortnoa. Though |iolitiaIlj
» hive bean a fila to tin
tavonr of condllatlon, and ha
' >oUti(al advhMr, wl "
IB felt b; til
■alB polltt*^ adviiar, whUa, aa ofUa htppttu la (ueb e
could not balp oBteidlng both partica.
4. Scipios are oontinually appearing ii
Boman history
it podtiouB down to the time of the
amfure. One o) them, Scipio Kasica (Nofica denoting sn
aquiline nose), contempoiury of the Younger Africonna, in-
stigatod the murder of Tiberius Gracchus, whom thejpeopis
were bent on re-electieg (133) to the tribuneship. Though
he woB pontiCez niaiimuB at the time, the senate, to save
him^ had to get t"""! away* from Bome, and he left never to
return, dying eoon afterwards in *"« .(w. j. b.)
SCIBE FACIAS, in English law, iii a judicial writ
founded npon some record directing the sheriff to make it
known (Ktr* facia*} to the party against whom it ia
bronght, and requiring the latter to ^ow cause why the
party bringing the writ should not have the advantage of
such record, (a why (in the ease of letters patent end
giants) the record ehould not be annuUed and vocateiL
Proceedings in leirt faeiiu are regarded as au action, and
the defendant may plead his defence aa in an action. The
writ is now of litUe practical importance ; it« principel
usee are to compel the appearance of corporations aggregate
in revenue suits, and to enforce judgments aguiut shore'
boldeiB in such companies as ore regulated by the Coni-
pcuiies Claosea Act, 184S, or similar private Acts, and
against garnishees in proceedings in foreign attachment
in the lord mayor's oouri Proceedings by trtrr fnciiii ia
repeal letters patent for inventions were abolished by the
Patents, Designs, and Trademarks Act, 1 883, and a petition
to the court substituted.
BCOPAB. See AsonxoLoitT, vol. ii. p. 360.
SCORESBY, IViLLiAM (1769-1857). Engliah srctie
explorer and physicist, na^ bom near Whitby, Yorkshin
on Sth October 1789. His father, also named WiUism,
who achieved distinction as an arctic whaler, waa tha bod
of a farmer near Crompton, I^ncoKhLre, where he was bom
on 3d Hay 1760. He nent to sea when he was twenty
years ot ag^ and became ona of the most, prominoit and
successful, as vrell as daring, of arctic whale- fiiihers. Is
1823 he retired with an ample competency, and died in
1839. Toung Bcorenby made his first voyage with hi*
father to Greenland in 1800, when he was only eleven
yean of age. On his retnrn, up to 1803, be diUgently
pursued hu education, acquiring a very fair knowledge rf
mathematics and navigation From 1803 he was hit
father's constant coupaiJon to the whale-fishery. On
25th Hay 1S06, as chief ofllcer of the " Besolntion," hi
snoceeded in reaching 81* 30" N. in 1 9* E. long., the farthest
point nor^ attained by any navigator up to that date. On
his return, during the fallowing winter, Scoreeby attended
the natoral philosophy and chemistry olasses in Edinboi^
8 c o — s c o
luivmi^, •• ba did agmin in 1809, when headdoJ aoTanl
otliw Bnttject*. In bii voyage of 1807 ha cosuuenoed, as
in kU iiibMqueitt Towage* be eontiniMd, tin ttody of the
meteorolcg; and natiual hUtory of the polar regions;
WDOOg the earlier reaolta are hia original obaerrationa oa
•now eryatali. In 1809 FrofeasiH' Jameaon of Edinburgh
broo^t Bcoraabfla arctic papers befora the Wemerian
Socie^ of that city, of which he ma at onoe elected a
membar. Soon after attaining bis m^ority, in IBIl,
Bconabf iraa promoted to the command of the " Beaolu-
tioD," ud in the Mune year married the daughter of a
■hipbroker. In 1813 he changed the "Beaolation" for
the " Eak,' in both veeaeli bri^ng home large and pro-
fitabia eaptorea. la hia K^age of 1813 Ekor«ib; aacer
tained that the tcmpenton <d the polar ocean is wanner
at oonndarable depth* than it ia on the auriace. Each
Bubeeqanit aptvag found Sooreabj in seArch of whales, and
no leas eageri; of fieah additions to adBntifie knowlsdga.
Hi* letteta of thia period to Sir Joeeph Banks no doabt
gare the firat impube to the modem aeordi tor the north-
west paatage. In 1619 he was elected a fellow of the
Boyal SocMtj of Edinburgh and among other papers of
the Tear was one communicated to the BotsI Society of
Lcmoim throng Sir Joseph Banks, "On the Anomaly in
the Variation of the Magnetic Keedle," touching npcm a
■abject of the first scientific importance. In 1830
wpaared Beoreebj'i Hvtory a»d Dacnptio* of the Aretie
utgiiin, in which he gathers up the results of hi* own
obaarration, as well as th^ee of prerioo* narigatorij and
whi^ still remains a standard anthority. In his voyage of
1832 to Oreenlond, among other scientific work, Scoresby
onrreyed 400 miles of the east coast, between 69' 30'
and 73' 30' K,, with to mnch accuracy that the Ooreru-
ment expeditions of the next year were nnabte to moke
any sabatantial oMrection, although they attempted to
ignore his work. This was the last of Scoresby'* arctic
Toysgeo. On bis return he found hid wife dead, and this
eren^ acting up^n his naturaUy piooa spirit along with
other inllaeneeB, decided him to enter the chotch. After
two jeais of reddeoce in Cambridge, he in 1836 was
ofdoined and on ITth July was appointed cunte of ^a«s-
ingby. Meantime had appeared at Edinburgh, in 1833,
hi* Joianal of a Yo^g* to (A* ITortAerm WkUfFithtrf,
iMdaJimff Seminhti aiid DitcotKriei m Vk EatUnt Coatt
of GnaUand. The faithful and inccessf ul discharge of hia
clerical daties at Bassingby, in the nuuinets' chapel at
Liverpool, at Exeter, and at Bradford did not prevent
Bconeby from taking as much interest in science as be did
dnring his whaling Toyagea. In 1834 the Boyal Society
elected him a fellow, and the Pari* Academy of Sciences an
honoiBiy eotiesponding member. From Uie first he was
an active member sad official of the Britioh Asaoeiation, to
whidi he mode several important contributions, one being
" An Eqioution of some of the Laws and Phenomena of
Magnetic Induction." To the progress of terrestrial mag-
netitm especially Scoresby is recognized at having largely
eontriboted. Of the sixty papers which follow his name
in the Boyal Society list many are more or less connected
with this deportment of resMrch. But his observationa
extended into many other departmenta, including certain
braDcbea of optica. In order to obtain additional data
for his theories on magnetism he made a voyage to Aoa-
tmlia in 18S6, the results of which were published in a
pasthnmons work, — Journal of a Vojnjf* *" Auitrotia /or
Mofntiieai StieanA, edited by Archibald Smith (1859).
He made two risila to America, in 1M4 and 1848 ; oa Ms
retora home from the latter visit he mode acMne vohnble
obaerrationa oa the hoight of Atlantic waves, the rwulta
of which were given to the &ilish Association. Scoresby
interested himMlf mnch in social qnistioM, eapedolly the ' '
improvement of the conditioa of factory operatiie>>. He
also published numerous works and papers of a religious
character, a list of which, as well aa of his many scientific
papers, is appended to the Life of WUtiitia Hxiv'/'f by hia
nephew, Dr K. E. Scoreaby-Jackson (1861). In ie.-» he
published a work on the Franklin eiiwditioD, urging tlie
proaecution of the search for the miMing shiiM, and giving
the voluatJe results of hid own experience in arctic naviga-
tion. Scoresby was twice married after the death of bis
first wife,— to UiM Elizabeth Fitzgerald in 1838, and in
1649 to Miss Qeorgioa Kerr. After hid third marriage
Scoreaby built a villa afi Torquay, where be spent the
remainder of his life, and where he died, 2Iit Uanh 1697.
He waa a man of simple but deep piety, amiable, cheerful
and guilelasa.
8CX)RF10N. See Axachnida, voL IL p. 381 tg.
SCOT, UicEiEL, whoee fame as a magician haa (sur-
rounded his history with legend, ia wmetiiuea claimed by
the Itoliona as a native of Salerno and by the Sj^ianiards
aa a native of Toledo ; but there ia no reoiion to doubt the
Scottish origin to which his name testifieo. Scottish tradi-
tion ia nnanimou* in identifying him with Sir Michael
Scot of Balweorie in Fifsahins but the ascertainable date*
place aome difiknlties in the way of this. The traditional
date of Scot's tnrth ia 1190, but this does not harmonize
well with the embaaay to Nonraj attributed to Sir Michael
Scot in 1390. Borne accordingly have fixed the date of
his birth appnndmatelj as 1214, but apparently witbont
any further reason than is afforded by the supposed dale of
hia death in 1291. But Joordain* refen to certain manu-
script tiuulations of Scot's which are expreoly dated
"1217 at Toledo." This would aocord fairly well with
the date 1190, the tionslations being executed by Scot
soon after the conclusion of his student period. Scot is
said to have studied at Oxford, whsnee he proceeded, oa
woB usual, to Pari*, than the centre of medioival learning,
devoting hlmaelf especially to philoeophy and mathematics.
Du Boulay, the historian of the university of Paris, adds
that ha received the degree of doctor of theol^y and ao-
quired a brilliant reputation in that faculty. !^ere is no
evidence of this, however, in his writings. At Toledo,
where he also studied, Scot acquired a knowledge of
Arabic It ia not liksly that hi* knowledge extended to
Oreek and the other Eastern tongues mentioned by the
earlier bibliogiapherii. His knowledge of Arabic wak
sufficient to open up to him the Arabic versions of Aris-
totle and the multitudinous commentaries of the Arabians
upon them, with which Western Chridtendom had only
lately become acquainted in latin translations (nee ScHO-
LiBncmi). It also brought him into cmtoct with the
original works uf Avicenna and Averroee. Hia own . first
work waa done ad a translator. He vras one of the i«vautii
whom Frederick XL attracted to hid brilliant court, and at
the instigation of the emperor he superintended (along
with Eermannus AJemonnna) a fresh tranalatioD of Aris-
totle and the Arabian commentariea from Arabic into
Latin. There exiat tnuuilation* by Scot himself of the
Mi^oria AttimaliMin, the De Anima, and Di Colo, along
with the commentariea of Averroee upon them. Huh
connexion with Frederick and Averroea — both of evil
reputation in the Middle Age* — doubtless contributed tu
the fumation of the legend which soon enveloped Michael
Scot's name. Hia oim books, however, dealing a* they
do almoet exclusively with astrology, alchemy, and the
occult sciences generally, are mainly responsible for hia
popular reputation. The chief of these according to the
mote critical viswa of recent investigators ore Svper Jue-
totWM SpHtrm, printed at Bologna ia 1496 and at Tenica
' I 1631 ; Dt SoU tt Imho, printed at Straaburg, 1622,
XtettrdUtiurlmai
470
1 0 O — S C O
ID the ThaOnm CMmteum, tad contunug mora ftlchemj
tlkftn utrooomy, the nin and moon being taken ka the
imtgu of gold iiiid silver ; I)t CAiromantia, an opoaenle
often pnbliihad in the 16th eentory; ud, perhaps beet
known of all, J>« Pkytiognomia et de Bominit Proanatione,
whicii MV no fewer than eighteen edttione betwesQ 147T
and 1660. Thie treatiM is divided into three books, of
which the first deals with generation according to the
doctrine of Aristotle and Oalni, the eecond with, the signs
by which the character and facnlties of individnals may
be detenniaed from obeerration' of different parta of the
bod/. The Phytioffttomia (which al«o exists in an Italian
translation) and the Sup«r Auetorem Spherm expresdy bear
that they were nndertaken at the request of Uie empetar
Frederick. To the above list shotild be added certain
treatises in manuscript, — J}« SifftitM Plaaetanm; Contra
Atirrkoeiit in Meteora ; tfotitia CantrinctivM* Mmdi Tar-
mtri* mm Cal^itit et tU J>t/!nituMe WruujiM Mundi; Dt
Priaagiit Sleiiarum tt Elemtntariina. Michael is said to
have foretold (after the double -tongaed manner of the
ancient oracles) the place of Frederick's death, which took
place in 1250. The Italian tradition makee Scot die in
Sicily not long afterward^ stating that ho foretold the
manner of his own death. Jonrdain is inclined to agree
with this approximate date, observing that Scot is epoken
of by Albert'the Great as if be were already dead,' and
that Vincent of Beanvais (d. c. 1368) quotes him wiUi the
epithet ."vetns." Bnt the generally received tradition
makea him return by way of England (where he was re-
eeired with much hononr by Edward I.) to his native
oonntry. The ordmary account gives 1391 as the date of
Soot's dcAth. According to one tradition he was boried
at Holme Cnltnun in CumberloDd ; according to another,
which Sir Walter Scott has followed in the Lay of tht
LaH Jfuutrtl, in Melrose Abbey. In the notes to that
poem, of which thtf opening of the wimrd's tomb forms
the most striking episode, Scott giv«a an interesting ac-
count of the vanoua exploits attributed by popular belief
to the great magician. "In the south of Scotland any
woric of great labour and antiquity is ascribed either to
the agency of Anld Michael, of Sir William Wallace, or
the deTiL" He used to feast his friends with dishes
brought by spirits from the royal kitchens of Prance and
Spain and other lands. His embassy to France alone on
the back of a coal-blatik demon steed is also celebrated, in
which he brought the fVeneh monarch to his feet by the
effects which followed the repeated stamping of his horae'a
hoof. Other powers and exploits are narrated in Folengo's
Macaronic poem of Merlin Coccaiut (IS95). Bnt Michael'^
reputation as a magician was already fixed in the age im-
mediately following bis own. He appears in the Jn/trno
of Daute (canto zz. 116-117) among the magicians and
" Quell' litre, cba ns' fiuchi i dam pooo,
Mielitli ScDtto fh ; chs Tinmsnti
Delia mi|[ich* frodi wpp* II glnoai.''
He u represented in the same character by
ia severely arraigned by John Pico de Uiiandota in his
work against astrology, while Nandi finds it necessary to
defend his good name in his Apoltyit pour It* ffrantU per-
mnnaga ^vttement aanuit de nutgie.
SCOT, KBaniAiJ>(c. 1638.1fi99), was theion of Richard,
third son of Sir John Scot of Scotshall, Smeeth rSent),
studied at Hart Hall in Oxford, and afterwards Lved in
■tndions retirement at Smeeth, dying in 1699. He was
the author of a very remarkable book. The IHieoverit of
Witchcn^ the object of which was to pnt an end to the
eraet persecution of witches, by showing that "there will
be found among onr Witches only tteo torli ; the oiu tort
being each by impntation, as so thought of 1:^ others (and
these are abused and not abnaers), the titier hyaee^ioitt.
as being teiiling so to i>e aceomted, and theae he uw |
Cotnert," This thesis is worked out in sixteen haiki, I
with great learning and acoteness, in a spirit of righteou
indignation against the witchmongere. Scot was fat in
advance of his time, and his book, of which the fini
edition appeared in 1584, was burned by order of King
James L The book is still interesting, not only as having i
anticipated Bekker by a century, bat for the great niui |
of carious details as to every branch of so-called witchoafl
which it contains. It also takes up natural magic sod
eoqjnring at coniideiable length (bk. xiii.), and contain
an argument against " alchymistry " (bk. xir.).
Seot il» pnbliihsd in 1S7t A pirJIU FlaifanM ^ > Enfft
Amlm (Sd sd. 157B), ichlch ti DoUirtnthj M hsTuix arigiMlM
the cnltiratjon of th« bop in Englatul. A Kcond edition or tba
Diiamrii tf^mxtA in lASl and ■ tbiid Id IMG; the Utta oin-
tsinod nin* now chiptm, profiled by va inoDymani hud to Ul
XV. of the Jiiaetitrrit, and tbe addition of i accood book to tLi
"DiicoOTM coneoniitig ADgBlg ind Sniriti."
Bh B. yieboiapn'i Snf « iXunrry q^ iTu^Wo/l, Lendon, issa
SCOTER, a word of doubtful origin, perhaps a variant
of " Scont," one of the many local names shared in eom-
mim by the Qifillziiot (voL xi. p. 263) and the RazokbuJi
!*oL XX. p. 302), or perhaps primarily connected with Coot
vol. vi p. 341),' the English name of the A%ca nigra ol
Liuuens, which with some allied specien has been jnsUfiablj
placed in a distinct genua, (Edemia (often misspelt Oidemia)
— a name coined in reference to the swollen appearance of
the base of the biU. The Scoter ia also rery genardi;
known around the British coasts as the "Black Duck'
from the male being; with the exception of a stripe of
orange that runs down the ridge of the bill, wholly of that
colour. In the representative American form, (S. amen-
etna, the protuberance at the base of the bill, black in tho
European bird, is orange as well. Of all Dncks the Scoter
has the most marine habits, keeping the sea in ail weatben,
and rarely resorting to land except for the purpose of breed-
ing. Even in summer small flocks of Scoters may generallj
be seen in the tideway at the mouth of any of the Urger
British rivers or in mid-channel, while in antumn anil
winter these flocks are so increased as to nipuber thonssndi
of individuals, and tbe water often looks black with then.
A second species, tbe TelvetDuck, (E. fatca, of much larger
size, distinguished by a white spot under 'each eye and a
white bar on each wing, is far less abundant than the for-
mer, but examples of it are occasionally to be seen in com-
pany with the commoner one, and it too has its American
counterpart, (E. vrlvriina ; while a third, only known u i
straggler to Europe, tho Snrf-Duch, (E. peripinUata, witb
a white patch on the crown and another on the nape, and a.
curiously particoloured bill, is a not nncommon bird in
North-American waters. All the species of (Edemia, lit^
most other Sea-Dncks, have their true home in arctic or
subarctic countries, but the Scoter itoelf is said to bi«d
occasionally in Scotland (Eoolo^it, as. p. 186T). The
females display little of the deep sable hue that charac-
terises their' partners, but are attired in soot-colour, varied,
especially beneath, with brownish white. The fleah ol >^^
these birds has an exceedingly strong taste, and, after
mnch controversy, was allowed by the authorities to ™'|'',
as fish in the ecclesiastical dietaiy (cf. Oraindorge, Trail'
de Foriffine dti Ifacreutet Caen, 1680; and Corrttpa*'^-
mce of John Say, Ray Soc ed., p. U8). _ __
1 Ib Uw foRnar eua tbi darlvitton •Mnu to b* tmtt Ika 0. fr.
Envuu, ind tbat from tba Utis auniUm (oomp. Bteat, Bl^'
Dietinvoy, p. G8S), hat in tha Utter from tba Datch XmL *><i<'> *'
Bid ts ba ot Ctltio utnctioD— cHi«- (»»>. til., p. 131).' Thi Fnub
Marmut. pOKiblr from tbe Latin Mur, in/liutinir a blid th>t suT
baeataala Lutor an tha tut daya otthe Raniui Cliaitli,i>ef doaui
ilmlBoatimi, neuii« in tba aoatb of Fiance ■ Coot and in Uu >»^
471
SCOTLAND
PAHT L— HISTORY.
I. Bomm ArioA— Tho fint evtain Iidh of the hiitocj
uf ScoUmuI wen writUo hj tlte BoniBiu. Their acooant
of its partial oonqtint ud oocapatioa for mom than
thrae hoiidrad yean gives tke aarlieat &ete to which
fixed dates can be aaaigned. The inTamon eonUDenoed
b; Jvilm Ckaar leachad in Agricola's laat campugn
limita nerer aftarwardi exceeded. It was in the hwt J«at
of Te«p»siaii'a life that Joliui AgiieoU, the ablertjpoend
bred in hia caniE^ cacne to ctmunaDd the armj in BritaiiL
i^nHing in midanDimer 78, he at once ooinmeiiced a cam-
paign againat Walee. In hia aecMid campaign he paved
the Solwaj and, defeating the ttibee of Qallow^,intndiieed
' mdimenta of Bomao driluation in tlie diitrict whet* Nlnian
tanght the mdiments of Cliriitianitj three wmfnw— later.
This ma the fiiat eraiqaeet within modem Seotlaud. Two
mftin nad^ of whiwt tncee can etill be aean, mark
hia advance : the weatem, from Catliale through Domfriea
and Lanark, extendi acroaa the Cl^e to Camelon on the
Oanon ; and the eaatern, from Bremeninm (High Bis-
chests) in NorthnmberUnd, paaaea through Roxboigh
and Lothian to the Forth at (Lomond 4f ext year Ar-
eola aabdued aakoowii tribes, readied the estnarj of the
Tay, and occupied campa at voriona points of central
Scotland, in the fatnre ahirea of Stirling and Forth.
Timixa of them are still viable at Bochostle near Colloader,
Dalginroes near Comrie, Fendoch on the Almond, Invei-
almond at the junction of the Almond with the Tay near
Perth, Ardorgie on the north of the Ochila, and the great
camp at Aidoiib south of CrieC The fourth year of his
command was devoted to the ooostructioit of a line uf forte
botween the Forth and the Clyde. This barrier, atrength-
ened lij a wall in the reign of AntoninoB Kna, guarded
tbe conqoeata already made againat the Caledoma^a — the
general lAtin name of the northern tribes of the forests
and mountains, the HigUaudera of later times — and, in
connexion with camps already occupied in the lowlands of
Perthshire, foimed the base for further operations.
the fifth year Agricola crossed the Clyde, and, without
ipaHng imy permanent conquest on the weatem wnLJnUml^
viewed from Contyre the coast of Ireland. Statements
by one of its chiefs as to the character and factions of that
conntry, wlose ports were already known to Boman mer-
chanta, led to the opinion communicated to l^tua by
Agricolo, that with a tingle legion and a few auziliariea
be could reduoe it to subjection. The number of legions
- in the Koman army of Britain was fixed at five^ besides
auziliariw and cavalry, — a total of perhaps 60,000 man.
The resistance of norOiem Britain explaina why the easier
conqtiest was not undertaken. A year waa required to
uxploie the estuaries of the Forth oud the Tay with the
fleet Hie absence of camps indicates that no attempt
waa made to conquer the peninsula of Fifc^ perhaps a
o^arate kingdom ; and AgricoJa prepared to advance
of^inst the Caledoniana. Two year*' figjiting; although
'^ftcitos ehronicles only an assault on the advanced camp of
the IXth legion (at Lintroee (t) near Conpar Angus), passed
before the final engagement known in history as the battle
of the Oiampiana (B4). It wo* probably fought in the hilly
Gomitiy of the St«nmont near Blairgowrie^ the Celts descend-
ing frcan stron^olda in the lowert qitin of the Champiana
and attacking the Romans, whose camp lay near Ae jmio.
tion of the Lda and the Tay. It decided that the Roman
conqoeat was to stop at the Tay. Oalgacos, the Caledonian
leader, was, aeoording to the Bomon historian, defeated ;
hut in the foUowing winter Agricola re(raat«d to tbe
compa between th* Forth and &e Cljda, whSa ^ lest
was sent roand Britain. Starting probably from the
Forth and rounding the northern eape^ it retnrned after
eotabliahing the fad^ already suspected, and of so much
conseqiience in future history, that Britain waa an island, —
planting during its progress the Roman standard on the
OAneys, which had for aeveial centnriea been known by
report, ud sighting Shetland, the Thule of earlier navi-
gators. Agticola, with one legion — probably the IXth,
which had aofCered moet — was now recalled by Domitian.
The absence of any notice of Britain for twenty yeara
implies the cessation of farther odvanoes, — a eh^ge of
pohcy due to the rererses in the Daeiaa War and the
finondal condition of the empire.
The indefatigable H«Hri^n came to Britain (>S0) with
the TIth le^on, named Tictrix, which replaced the IXth.
He began, and his favourite general Aulus Plantorius
Nepot completed, between the month of the l^e near
Newcastle and the Solwaj near Carlisle, the great wall
of stone (see Hasklak, Wall or), about 80 miles in
length, 16 feet high, and S feet thick, protected on
the north by a trooch S4 feet wide and 9 deep, with
two parallel earthen ramparts and a trench on the south, —
proving the line required defence on both sides. Uossive
fragments of the wall, its stations, castles, and protecting
campa, with the foundation of a bridge over the ITorth
Tyn^ may be stiil seen. It waa garrisoned by the Vlth
legion, and by the Xlth and XXthj which remaned
throughout the whole Roman occupation. The conquesta
of Agricola in what is modem Scotland were for a timi
abandoned. Hadrian's wall was the symbol of the strength
of Rome, and also of the valour of the northern Britons.
There must have been a atubbom resistance to induce the
conquerors of the world to set a limit to their prorincc^
though the roods throogh the wall showed they did not
intend this limit to be permanent. The first step had
been token. The country between the Tyne and Solway
and the Forth and Clyde, including the southern Lowlands
of Scotland, was now within the scope of Bonmn hiiitoiy, if
not yet of Roman civilization. The country north oE the last
two rivers remained barbarous end unknown under its Celtic
chiefs. Hadrian bad thus resumed the task of Agricola,
in one cj the rapid campaigns by which he consolidated
the empire through visits to its most dL^tant porta ; but it
is doubtful whether he passed beyond the wall, whidi
continued to separate the Romans from the borborians.
In the reign of his encceeeor, Antoninus Rus, LolUna
Urbicns recovered the country from the wall of Hadrian
to the forts of Agricola, and built an earthen rampart
about half the length of the southern wall, 30 feet high
and 24 thick, protected on the north by a trench 10 feet
wide and 20 deep. It was known later oa Qrim or
Oroham's dyk& Remains may yet be seen between
Cbrriden near Borrowstounneis on the Forth ond West
Eilpatrick on the Clyde^ with forts either then or sub-
sequently erected at intermediate stations, coimected by a
military rgad on the south of the wall.
Aboat thii period Ptolemy oompond Hia flnt geegrapby of the
wmliL illDitntad bf maps— pmtiablv oonAnetMl iomavliat later
—of inimi ud Briti^ still callad AlbknL* Qonth of modan
Sootlind tb* plan amd imcxiatiim of tb» distances an ganenlly
accmta, but north of tbe Solwsv (Itmua JBftnarium) (nd tlw
Vttz (I Vtdia) the iolsnd la fgani ■* Ifjng west and east in>t«ad
1 HU infbinaUan mut hne odom tram Bomia aUeaa, who, v*
know, Mtndlfld this Inuioh ol the mUJtarj vt, as mips hare bsM
tonnd gaMed m Ux fMoM of thslr tUIu.
473
SCOTLAND
[hi
Ix this emr ud, bj
upliM tb* nunM of Ptolsm; to pUoM on the map of madam
Bonthnil. Bnt tha etrttia points u« almM coniiiud to ths ClrdB
(Olotta Ataninni), tha TorthtBodcn Aturinm), tha T» (tiiva
jBrtnttfmn), u^Mtluu tlia Vtn (Vadn) bihI the Nith (Kdtjiu),
tha CUadonlui Wood (Caledonia Silra), and tha Orfcnaja {OrcadM).
Evan If tha other ideatificatiou mn dear, it would not add much
IT knowledge atandent Scotland. Tha ni
Ba of Ptolamjr ai
Tar), DO ialaud (auept tha Orkneys), waa, n far aa we luiow,
oallad betbra or iUce by the namea which there appeal. No in-
aoription or coin confirms them. TI'o monntalna m thla land ol
moontaina are to bo found on the plan of tha geognpher, £tynu>-
looleal oanjestnn, after allowanoe for miBpronnndatiim and eiroia
oftianaeriMn, liUla to noondle the Damei of Ptolanij with the
oldeat namea of Celtio oiigiQ ittll ntained b; the liren and bUle.
Yet the attampt r^ieaanti the highest kDowladga anbodied in
wtitiiw to wMcb tfaa Komans attained of tUa distant and disputed
aartof the empln, Ibrthe Itineraiies, except tha fnged — '**-'
bated to Sicurd of Cirencester, stop at Hadrian's w
d until the nrival of learning the only
p at Hadrian's wall. His
mlstafcea. It eonvavad in rou^ ontline the figure _, „
the wast of the Eoiapean continent, to the north of the Koman
norlnoe of Bttbun, to the east of Inland, anrroDnded bj the
Dannao Ocean, tha tTortham Oc«n, and the Irish Channel, with
b(dd pitnnoDtoiies and many riren (lemral tidal}, peopled by
Twiooa tribes, its towns chiefly on the riveis or the coast, and in
its canlia tha vast fonat to which the Caledoniiuu gave or fiom
which tbej receired their name, itself ths nortliem part of tha
largest Bntisb island, with groups of amallar tales lying «ff its
nortbern and weatem ahoces. Thu region waa unknown to CmsbT
and Imperftatly known to Tscitoa, — the only writer of the first
centnty to whom wb can i«ort Tot the dascripUni of "
Britons by tha nsatat historical ganins of Borne, bMsd on
aocoont M mi* n its grastsst senenls, atlaintits ■ dlaoriminstian
between the Cetlio tnbea £m and tlioae anarwsrds oonqnersd,
whioh mar perhaps bo applied to ths inbatdtanti at the north aa
oontnsted with thoae i^the sonth of Britain.
"Vliether tha Inhabitajita of Britain wers tnd
feteiSDU^ bstnc bsibarian, thejr did not take tha
Inqniiigk The £Aient character of their bodily appeaianee in
di&rant part* of tlw Uand gave rise to aignmenta. The red hair
ud Ing Imbs <tf the natina ^ Caledonia point to • Oetman origin.
The etdouied Dues of the Silnie^ thalr hair generally rlailad, and
n like tham, whether on
it of the endnting force
iperstittDns. There is nol much
daring in demand-
„ — „... ,„8 Brftona exhibit
r flocensM, ai a long peace baa not yet Boflened them. For
WW, uaTa heaid that tlw Quls also were diitiDgoiahed in war, until
sloA oanM with ease and Talonr was lost with freadora. Thia
too has been the aaae with the Britons formerly conqnersd. The
rest remain what tha Qanls were. Their Btrength is in their foot ;
(ome tribes, hgworer, Bght also tma chsriots. The nobie drives ■
U) fcdloweis an in front. Formerly they obeyed kings. Now
Oman distracted bypartiee and factiona anion^ thSr chiei^
mm™ want of common oonnsol is moat asefal to na. An sgree-
ir three states to reeifit a common danger is
defeated."
r, - - — — i-.™.«an Monnt and tha
d> oCOalgacnstbara la little that la local pTlndiridoaL What
.,. ™''='™"ssid in an nnknown trauma (mnacareely have been
literally Inle^led to the Bomans. iThe historian trained in
«tory eabodies in I«tln eloquence the oniTerssI sentimenta of
medoDL It ma^ be ttionght, bowerer, that the soil and air of
Scotland bronr indapendenca of action and thondit, aad that the
wori^ whether of Tadtns or of Qdgacna, ewitaman nnooDBoioQS
Fophecy of paatagos In It* ftaton annals and tnits In the char-
s^ of Its Mpk not yet obUteratal In the fint ceotmr of the
i^hrlstian era Sootland was the scene of sTents which Muut to
Wtmml hiatonf. *
il histoix
Ths neceuify of the walk of Hadrian uid Antonine to
notect the Btnoaa jirovmce Boon appeared. It is doabt-
rnl how long or doimg what intervala the cotmtry between
them remained mbject. Few ooina of emperora later than
Atuonino havo bean found to the north <A Hadriut's wall
In tte reign of Aorelins, the philosophic emperor, w»r was
not encouraged ; bnt Calphnmius Areola had to be sent
(161) aa legate and propnetor to Britain to prerent ineni.
sions of the northern tribes. In that of Commodiu a
more formidable invaaioa passed the wall, bnt Ulpins
MarcoUua drove back the Britons and repaired it, fining
for Commodus the title of Britannicns. While Beptimini
BeveruB waa removing rivals from hb path, hie iegaU,
Viriu* Lnpns, purchased peace (201) from th« Ueat^ a
tribe of central Scotland now Brst named, who along with
the CUedonii supersede the older designationa of Tacito)
and Ptolemy for the population in the vicinity and to the
noxib of AntoDine's wall, until in the latter half of the 4th
centur; the Piets and Scsota appear. Seven yean later
(208) Sereras, with his sons Caracalla and Geta, cune,
like Edward L in his last campaign, worn ont in bod;
bnt not in spirit, to Britain.* After repairing Uw
breaches in Hadrian's wall be not only rcoonqnered tin
country between it and the wall of Antoainei, which bt
restored, but, passing beyond the steps of Agricol^
carried the Rraoan ea^es to the inost northern poinli
they reached. The traces of Koman roads from Falkiik
to Stirling, throngh Stratheam to Perth, thence thnnigh
Forfar, Meama, and Aberdeen to the Moray Firth, and
of Boman camps at Wardykes (Keithock), Raedykes
(Stonehaven), Itbrman Dykes (on the Dee), and Baedykei
on the Tthan belong to this period and represent an
attempt to subdoe or overawe the whole island, tha
historian Dion does not conceal the failure of the ente^
prise, which he ascribes to the illness Uiat terminated in
the death of Sovems at York (211), Ha adds a liHle to
our knowledge of the Caledonians by describing tha
painting of their bodies with forms of animals, their scanty
clothing and iron ornaments, their arms — a sword, small
shield, and spear, without helmets or breastplates — their
ohanots, and their mode of wartare by rapid attack and ts
rapid retreat to the forest and the marsh. Being vritbout
towns, they lived on tiie produce of herds and the chase^
not on Sdi, thon^ they bad plenty. Their mode rf
govemmant he calls democratic, doubtless from the absence
of any conspicuous king rather thwi of chiefsi
From the death of Severus to the accessian of Conslaa-
tiua Chloros, a period of nearly a century, the histoiy of
nprthem BHt^ is nnknown. In the first (305) of tbs
two years of his reign Consfantins , defeated the tribes
between the walls called by Eumemus the Panegyrist
"the Caledonians and other Picta," — a name now £ist
heard, and by this association identified with tha Caledo-
nians. Next year Oonstantius died at York; and for
more than fifty years a veil is again dnwn over Dorthem
Britwn. It was dming this period that Constantine was
converted to Chrisdanity, which his father Conatantiiu
had favoured daring the persecutions of Diocletian. So
rapid was ths progress of the church in the British
province that only ten years after the mar^rdom of St
Alban Celtic bishops of York, London, and Caorleon—
probably the place of that name on the Usk — were present
at the council of Aries. In 360 the Scots are for tho
first time named, by Ammianns Marcellinui^ who records
their descent al<mg with the Ficts upon the Boman pro-
vince in terms which imply that they had before passed
.the southern wall. Four years later the Picts, Saxony
Scots, and Attacotia are said by the same writer to haia
cansed the Britons perpetual anxiety; but IleodOBiaiv
faUur of th« empoor td the sane name, repulsed tlicm
■ ^ifadan, ths great ._
WbatluT the Boman law so
problem not
dtstved ebiady Dtnn the e
then sdmlnialered Jastics st Tot.
Intredaoad BBrrired in any part of moihm
- ■ eolved ; It ovtainlj did sot bejOTd «*•
n of Boottlsh law was of later wigta
lawtf ths Antcb,
KASLT onxKi miOD.]
SCOTLAND
«3
hnd noomed tbe Montir batwsen tlie inll% wUob
beoMue (368) » fifth prorinM of Britain, mlbd in honoiir
(rf thB raigning emmn^ Tftltnti^ It ramiined ntoi »
•nrj brief ipace: uie revolt of Huinm (391), whidi
nixuxd the Bonuui troops to two legima, bd to f rath nids
of the Fiets and Scotn A lenon tent hf Stiliaho diore
them back to the nortbeni v»U. Bat It vu eoon leodled,
aad the gaqiaoiia were pemuuwntlr Temorad prior to 409.
Tw Bann •mtiii* In Britain kit widalf dUMit nmn In thi
Mothtrn md im tfi* ni>th«a pottiiiM J th* Uukd. n* bnur
' 1, tad is UM snttw of aopoktfM • dvUiied
in MobiBgg Ibr 8kiilr ; irtiil*
hu BOlUnir la tdl <rf it not^
M dinctioD of which
onltintMl, Bmun Uw tdniintalond, uid (A(Whn%
TIh bttari with tlu jMittal osaptton of Um HmOm
AntoBisa'i wall, nnuiud in Ih* pciiiwiin of UrtuMM bMth«n
noi, triULt atuhMM had altnad littla rinoo Boaun wriHn
dMoribed tiiam M rimHw to, though ndar thu, dKM of tba Cdb
in <}nl adan U> ooaqiMit. Tho condition of tbi popolitl^ *^-
twsan Om willi wupratiablj' lotnMidiU* between that of '
(onthon porinoial BHtMia and that et th* noitbcni wtmo of
tha ama orig^ CtlUo itook, man amdj Niaiubl^ Iha latta^
paAap not unlike tha eondilini of tlie peopk of WiIm,
{be iEomani in like manner onnUL bnt omM not boM
Aftthanirtin u oompand with BriliA India. Ho Soman
•xwed, and coif one or two Tillae baTa baas (bond ntrth of
YaA, and quite Mar to that plaet. Um amp, the altar, tha
eepolclical monnmabt, pooiiU; a rin^ temple (the mTiter! —
Arthor'a Oren or JnUn/a Hof on tlie Ctma, now daatnncd,
deactlbed tf Boeco and Bocbanaa and flgnied Ij GamdenX
•tatlon ikins tba wall, tha toaib with UMfr milaatraoa, a snmbar
of ooiiH (chi^j nior to the Sd eeatmjX and a Ctw tracea of hatha
are the ndj na6» of Boman oconpatiim in Ible pert of Britain.
So oompletelT had Britdn paeeed benmd the aariooa attention of
tha amparor of tba Eaat Oat in tha lM)tinniM if tha eth eentmi
Bellmriui^ JnaUMian'a pnaial, aawaatieallr oAtad It to tba Ootbi
!____ ^_ =,_.,_ _in. f„f^^ a>e Bmar"- ■
pt thjawaDWHb
rhlch be mpoaee ta .
north to aoatb, aapanting tba ftnitftd and pomiloBa eaat from the
baneo nrpent-hannted weetern diattli:^ and tha etnn« hhla that
Um natiraa ware aaciiacd from tribale to the kinn of tna Fluike In
tetnm for tha aerria of fanrlng the aooli cf uie dead fiom the
S. £>rjy Cdtie Piriad to Umon ^ JPicU mdSeoU hg
KauttA M<ualp{)u.—Ii in o the Oelts, the flrat known
inbabitanta of Britain, that onr inquiry next turn^ nds
pec^le were not indigenona, but came bj tea to Britein.
k. cocgeotorc^ not yet proved, identifie* a* inhabitants of
Britun before the Oelt* a tnuidi of the race now repr«-
tented in Europe only l^ the Baaques. AmongEt many
Domee of Britian tribea m I^tin writers three oocnr, two
with incieadng frequency, at the empiiB drew near its
doH — BritoM, Ficla^' uid Scota — denoting diatinct
hianebca of the Celte. Britain was the Latin name for
the larger iilaad and Britona for it* inhabitanti ; AUuon,
a more anoient titte, baa left titwea in EngjiA poetry,
and in the old name Alba or Albany fot northon Scot-
land. The Britons in Boman times occnpod, if not the
wlu^ island, st least as far north as the Forth tmd Clydek
Thair Isngnage, British, colled later pymrie, anrriTea in
modem Welsh and the Braton of Brittiu^. C<ni^ih,
which became extinct in the 17th eentnir, waa a dialect
of the aame speech. Its extent nOTthwaroi ia maAed by
tha Cmnbraes — the Islands of Cynuy in the Clyde — and
Cumberland, a district originally itretching from the Clyde
to the Hersqr. •
The Hcta, a Latin name for the ntothem bibee who
preaerved longeet the eaatom of jpaintiiig their bodies,
called themeelTet Cmithne. Their original aettlementa
^fiear to have been in the Orkneys, the north of Scot-
land, and the notlMast ot Ireland — the modern coontiea
of Antrim and Down. Hey spread in Scothuid, befme or
ehortty after the Bomana left, as far sonth as the Pentland
Eille, whii^ like the Peotiand Krth, are thought to pi«-
aerre thw nam^ oeo^iiad Fif^ and periu^ left a de-
t in Oallowajr. Oftai enmiiift pni1)tUy>Mnw-
times tisinft dw diMrted wA of Hadrian, tliey emed it
to adqnire their name,— a name at awe to the n
Britons and their En^ish conqneron. Their h
thoQC^ Celtic, is still a pnhlero difScnlt to aolya, as eo few
woida hare been preserred. Ita afanoat complete afaoorp-
tion in that of tim Gaels tx Scots soggeata that it did not
difier widely fran thnrs, and with this ^nes the fact
tiiat Cohunba and lua followere had little difBcnlty.in
preaching to them, thon^ they sometimes required an
intefprrter. Some jMologista beliaTe it to haye been
mon allied to Cymric, and even to theComiah Tariety;
bnt the proof ia ineonchisiT&
The Bcota eun6 originally to Ifrehuid, one oCvhooe
nann from the 6th to the 13th centoiy was Sootia;
Scotia Mmjot it wm called after part of nc«them Bribun
in die 11th eentory had acquired the tame name. Irish
tradittooa rqweaent the Scots as Wii».i»n. from Spain.
Their Oellao name Qaidhil, Goidel, or Qael appears more
akin to that of the natins of OanL They hod joined the
I^ets in Ihur attack on the Boman provinc* in the 4th
eentnry, and perhwe bad alrea^ settlemetitB in tlw wwt
of Sootiand ; bnt uie tmnsfer of tha name was dne to the
rin and pragnta of the tribe called Dalrttd, which migrated
frooi Duriada in the north of Antrim to ArgjU and the
Uei in the beginning of the 6th eentnry. Their langnaga,
Ooidbdkv was the ancient form d the Irish of Irdand
and the Oeelio of tbe Soottiih Hi^jdonder*. Ko clear
conchunon has bean reached ts to tlie meaning U Briton,
CmiUuM^ Scot, andOael
The order ot tha arriToI of the three diTisions ut the
Celtio race and the extent ot the islands they occn[^ are
nnoertain. Bede in the beginning of the 8th century givei
the most probable aoconnt.
■ Thia liJud at the pceaeut tfana oMitalm Ire natinii, the A^is,
Britooi, Seoti^ Picte, and Latin% each in ita own diakot eoltfrat-
Ing one and tha MtM •ablime stodj of dlrine trath. . , . The
Ladn tonne by the ttody of the Scriptnrea haa become common to
all the net At Btat tbla laland had no other inhabllanti bnt the
Briton^ fnm whom It declnd lla nanu^ and who, nrrled onr Into
Britain, w it Ttfvrltd, from Aimoiia^ pnmmii thenaehaa af lb*
BODtham parta Then thajr had mada thamwhae maaten of tha
paataat part ot tha iiland, bMinnl^ at the aonth, tbe Picb from
Si^thi^ at it T^artid, pDtt^ to an in a fkw Img ihlm nan
driTaa by the winda bmnd the ehnes of BritaiB, and aiHTrd eo
tha nartlin ooaat af Inland, when, finding^ uUen of Uka Beot*^
they htcged ta be lUoaed to aatUa amonj them, bat coold not
anoeead In obtaining their nqneat The Saots annmad that the
iiland conld not omtaln Oum both, bnt 'we can gin yon Mod
advloa whet to do i we know then la anotbar {aland not br nam
onre, to the eeat,'«Ueb we cftan iao at a diituice, when tlM diye
an dear. If yon go thither yon will oHaln a lallleinaDt ; or, if inj
ehonld oppoaa, yon ahall hira onr aid.' ^e Flct* aocoidiiij^T,
aailins orer into Britain, began to InhtUt the oorthem part <a)ba
lalinil. In nncan of time Britain, aftw the Briton* and FIcIl
raoaived a thitd natioo, the Scot^ whc^ migtttliig from Ireland
nndar their leader Bende, aitber by idr moui* ot ftrne eeenrad
thoee aattlemente amo^rt tha Fti^ wbkh thay aUU poaieea"
"Thenl%" heiaji In anothar paaaage, 'aTenlaraeestaanp of the
les whkh Acmerir dlirided the nation of the Pfeta fiom tba Britou,
wbloh golf mna from tha weat far Into tbe land, whan to tbli day
rtande the atroog d^ of tba Britona called Alcl^th. The Scota
arriviiu on the north ride of the eetniry ettUed themaalraa then
m In £dr own omDti^."
This statement m its main points (apart httm the
conntiy from which tbe Ficts ore said to have oome) is
confirmed by lAtia anthor^ in whose meagre notices the
Ficts appear before the Scots are mentioned, and both
occur later than the Britons ; by tbe legends of the three
Gemc races ; by the narratiTcs of Qildos and Nenniua, the
only British Celtic historians, the Irish AuroU, and the
Piciisb Chratiiit. It is in harmony with the facts con-
tained in the Lift oj Calnmha, written in the 7th eentnry,
bnt baaed on an earlier lAfr, by one of his suiicenora,
Ciuninc^ abbot of lona, who may have seen Coinmba, and
moat hare known person* who had. The northeni Britain
Imn^t before ns in connexion with Columba in the faMar
XXL — 60 ^
474
SCOTLAND
iaU of the 6th enitiii7 i* psoided by Croithne or Kctt b
tha ninth aod eentnl Hi^ilaiidB, baring their chiefroTB]
fort mi tha Nen, and liy Scots in Argyll and the Iileo, ai
faf north aa looa end on the mainlBnd Dnunalban, the
mcmntain lidga vhieh teponteM Argyll from Ptrth and
InvnneB* ; thare i« a BritUh king raling .the «onth-weat
fram the rock on the Clyde then knoirn aa Alclyth or
Alelydot noir Ehunhuton ; and Sazooy, ondar Nortfanm-
brian kings, is the nune given to the diitriot lonth of
the Forth, inclnding the esHtern Lowlands, whare by thit
time Angles had lettled. The scarcity of Celtio hiatwy '
belonging to Scotland indicates that its tribes mn leas
cinliied than their Irish and Welsh kin.
It is in the tecmds oi the Christian church that m first
touch historic ground after the Romans left. Althongb
the legends of Christian superstition are almost as fabn-
lons as those of heathen ignorance, we can follow with
reasonable oeriaintj the oonTersion of the BeottiBh Celts.
Three Celtic saints Tenerated thronghont Boottish history
— Ninian, Kentigem, Colombo — Patrick, the patron saint
of Ireland, David, the patron saint of WtJes, and Cuthbert,
the apoetle of Lothian and patron saint of Dnrham, be-
longing to the Celtio Church, though probably not a Cett,
mark the comnon adi«nce of the Celtio races fratn
heathenism to Christianity between the end of the 4th
and the end of &e 6th century. The conversion at Scot-
land in the time of'Fope Victor I. in the 3d cuitory is
onhiitorio, and the leg^d of St Rule (Begolus) having
broof^t Uke relics of St Andrew in the reign of OoDstan-
tius from Aeluea to St Andrews, where a I^ctish king
boih a ehnrch and endowed lands in his honooi, is, if
historical at all, antedated by some centtuies. "Gieca is
no proof that amongst the pUoes which the Romans had
not reached, but which had accepted Christianity when
Tertnllian wrot«s there wm any part of modem 8(»tlaiid ;
but, M Christian biuhops from Britain without fixed local-
ity begin to appear in the 4th century, possibly the first
conTerts in Scotland had been nuule b^ore its close.
Hliru>I (o.B.), the Km of s Britiih chief in OaltonT alnadj
Chriatlu, sitae connrting or refarDiioR bis coaatrymsD — on* of
Ml CDonrti being Tndnlk, king of Alcljde <t Tothul, Isthir of
' Of til* thne tniishM of tb* Celti which qipeu h the Int ksom
bduUtiiiti o( Beotiead the utl?i Teoardi m nntj otd g( lit* dat«L
~ ~ >• anapt tbaffMeryorOUdH
he «h aeDtnry, of wUah Tery
, WBH of ABanrln aad Trtlwels,
eommmilr ailed Wtbh lard*, bat periispa nitlne of Etnthelyde |
the llvaa of eslnte ; and a" frigioeDt of orlmliul Uw, ooniEDDn to ihaa
and the BoeU, prtHrrad at tba tloie of lU lapprwicia br Edmrd L
Dtallnc with the Ptsta there 1> ■ LatlD OinmicU of the lOth oan-
tary ud addltWu of Utar date, contiliiiDE a nluhle Uit at Ungi
is thalr own languga, and the eatrlet Id Ihe Book qf Dmr of the glfta
to that moDBitarT by tha Plctlih ntonaun (afalab) of Bnehu ; bat
tha earllett of the« li 1b (a old Ibnn of aaeUc
Ihe Ssote $iK noUced m the ZtA ^ Canaiti, tha Dmn AOanaA
at tha 11th eantnry, a Latin Oinmicii of tha 12th oactnrr, a taw
poeme tnetlns (^ their origin and migration, later Latin Xnnkm d>-
aerlbinc their eettlameot lo Sootland, and the Urot of islDt), not
written Is Ibalr aiMiiia torn OS the ISth oantBrr- Bnt a eoiiatder-
■bl* aoumat of legendary matarlal, cbioBy coaelaUng of addltic
Baotland hee nothing to oompai*
Triadt, whoaa ftilnaM of detail
pntlou nlag tniiildau » '
Ubaani "
•Mb tba IiUi AmwU Mid tt
md fabnloai antlqully In i:
later which are perhmpa nod
mall la told,
■- Welih
the oollecUiHi of lawi
__. It Kaiu Pttrtek of Inland and the Dlmetlan and Veoadotlas
aodaa of Wilai, whata, In the midit of > cnwd a[ mianls coetonu
itBgij\og a Ipng lettlement In waatem landa, then an traoee of othara
that aeem to bare conM with tiia Cdti ttoa their fIr-oS Baateni bbtb-
plsoa. From Iheae eonma — eepeeially fioa Iba Iiiab Jimal^ and In
fsitloalar tbs .tuslt of ngBiHh, wbo died In loss, tha 4riwikr«ii<i<iH
otriasn HalnMnaob, wbodlad b> 106S, tba .4 awili o( LmlaUleB,
eompUed is lllS, and of Dktcr, oompOad In UM, bnt from oldv
■otborltlea — the dearth of pnpw Soottlah material haa beea anppla-
mented ; but thb enana of lolonutlaB baa to be uad with entkb
Tba whole materlala are oolleeted ts Iba CStmtote ^ Uu Pica md
SkU. edited by Kr Bkaoa In Ihe hwd cleA legtiter gf BooUsBd.
[asmiT.
Rjddeildc Hsal)— and orpmUag s
to the •«tb«B Ptot^ *1^ Bvef .Bi_^ „ .„. „ _™„™
n«tto(tb«IP^ and Clyde In tba sMden coaatiea tf 8tlil!»,
^"^h "A 'S^- ^^ *™ «"' ■*'!' the chnicb. ind .. £
north « flhaUurf, ss far sooth a. Wanmmluid and Morthmnbs.
land, chnietui were dedlestad In Ua uma. Bb woBder-wocfclsi
plfc, iB the dkdaa of Candida Csa (at Wbithoma la OaUonT)
bocune an ol^art of pOnlinaeB for n>oc than a tkooNd yeait
Tht»a othor mMdonaneslMlang to the pniod b«twa«i Ktolan and
konti^ni, hia aoocaaaor amoDgat the Britons ot the vat j PallaJloi
eent to tha CbilMiiBa in Inland by Pop Olwtina, Ulod at Fonioas
In Uesnu labooring amoa^ tin Plata, and hii dlsclnla Serf and
Tarnan oonnHed teaisollTaly the PicU of llfo and thoee of thj
lowlsoda of Absrde«a. KaKTioun (f.B.)or Strathclvde sunu.
ported by Bydderiok or Bodariok, called HselC the LibenI'^r»D
Lie boonty to tha ebnrck Cohimbi vtiitad KentlKcn at tbo
camatary of Hlnlsa, on tba If olsndlnar Bum, wbate coortain ntti
intHvhuged between tbaea leeteeentaliTaa of the two hrucLc; nl
the ColtJa Gbnich fat westam ilcatiaad, dtertly before the Britbh
Uah^ JaotlDad at the moating at 8t AngnstiBa'B oak to xabm^t la
tha Bomaa miaaionsnr *bo iSl oosTarted the aaxona of sgiitbi^n
En^anL Joeaha al fimtm atatea that EentlgBm was at Rem;
unti Umea ind obtainad the prlTUage at betug the pope's vicj
free bom aobjaetlaa to any matrapoIHan. The iirim-e of Coabiii
la man aid to have soknowladnd hia precedency. Thtm ue
invMitiamot sister age; but the larga pnemelone. eatenJuiE em
tha wb^ waetera klnqdoB, oon&imi by Bydderick, and alt» i
loDR lane ot time fmid by ths inqnaat ot David L when ptiace
of Cnmbtis to have balound to tha aee, nay be hiatoricsL He
died aboDt tha baginming <a ths 7th ccotnry, and a long period ol
dsrbneM hides the Br^eh kingdom and ohnreh of Stratbclyilt.
Bt Patrick ((.*.), ancoeedlng wEera Palladlu tailed. CliriitlaniBd
Inland In Oa middla of the Sth centniy. A pa^ga in bii C^m-
/•fn«,if allof it appliea to BDOtlaod, aeama to prove tbo eiistaic*
of the ehnrch fai SooUtod toi two oaoatatiDua ithn Patrick'i biitb,
and the sllowanoa during these eTnaniage to the clergy.
Scotland Bva Patrick to Inland, and Ireland retnmS the gift in
Colnmba. A rsieaoadtetuahaaueeervedtD Adamnaa'a £i/([Ii<
tradition of tha acts et tha nestoat Celtio saint at ScotlanJ, ud t
picture of the moaasliB Caltu Chan-b in the ttk and 7th seDluris,
— aa shnoat aoHtary frsraMnt ot Uatory between the last of Ibo
Bomaa and tiie BraC ot me Anglo-Saxon biitorUna. Bom In 511
at Qartan In Dona^ Coloubi (f.c.) apent hia boybood at Doin
Eithna near Qirtsn, hia voatb at Uoville on SlnngTord Loujli
nnder Abbot Tlnias, callad thefoatcr-laLbeiortfae IrisG eelnts Imn
the number of bis dladuleo, Ben he was ordiinad deacoo, and,
alto oomplsting hia adncstian nnder Oemmjan, a Cbrlitian bairl,
at tb* nonsstaiy of Cloaard, he rn^'red priut'a ordora. In Ml bo
took part in tba battle ot Cnldr^ •j (in Connanght), wh<n the
ehlsb of tha BU mill (Dalrild ycote), hia Iciaind, deTeated
IHsniid (Disnnalt), a king ot eaatam Inland. Eiconuaiuiiuied
by tba synod ot Taltavn in Uastb, the counby of Diarmid, for hia
■bars in the battle— according to one sccontit longht at bia Initaace
—and moTcd bymialDnary last, h* eroaaed two yesiu sflarwanli
LiTow aea which aenarata Antrim from Amll with twain
nlona end (banded the monastery et lona (Hy), aa tha litcb
to the weat ot Uoll, glnn him by hia kinanan ConalL Tha
Dalrlad Scots, who had aetlled Id the »r ■-'--•- -* o^u J
aad In Lorn «ady in the 8tb at '
Columba aoon after vialtKl tl
Uailochra, st Cialg Fhadricb, t ™. ™. ,
whom he Bonrwtad, and Item whom ha rerdvad s oonliruistliiii ni
ConsU's ptnL Colnmbe, on tba death of Conall, gave tba aanctHM
ot rallgiaa to the aacceaelon ot hia coaain Aldan, and at the onuiell
of Drumceat in Derty obtained the (lemption of the Dsliltda id
ImiB fmm tribut^ though they were atlU boaud to dra iiililoT
aervioeto^lilshkln^theheadDrtheHilimia Halk«i|n«f7
nvUted Ireland and took part In its war* ; the militant nirit ■
atron^y nitikod In his charactar ; but meat of hi* time was davoM
<Dtan, (ran alnady ChrlatisDa ; bat
[be notiah H"g wnde, the aoi of
b, the laolatad&U (brt on the Vat,
.. of bia monastery of Iodi, and to the ^ti«
ot other ehoralM* sad tellgioiuhoims in the iieighboariMU«'>{
malnlaad, mi Ua death la BS7. Bone rf the t — •-- <
bundatiooa of tha ehnrch** efBI^ and Tiroaweni an wur>, —
extending froa Bote and Csntyre— on Islav, Oioniay, Colaml.
lIoU, Eigft, Lewia, Hsn^ Benbacals, and even the dUtut St
Eilda— toLodi Aikaig <m tba northern Bialnlsud of SaKtw
Dilriads sn to be swalbed to Um <^ bia Immediate IcdlowenK
mcoM^Brs hi tha Bbban, ss well aa tbcss in tb* country af >»
t>icts,ft<»ilheOifcneyitoDB«laBnchaD. The chnrcbiawl**
■teoelved hi* name brtbar aeath wan later foandsdona in bii himcv.
Th« moat calehsted of his diachilae wen Baithena, hia *aeB>°' "
abbot ; Uachar, to whom tbo ehnrch of Aberdeen trsoa its «<£<■■ '
> lost — sad the leRen Bi
■ ■tOM-IS^X'
USLY OILTia Fniop.]
SCOTLAND
47S
chonh, Bot dlafWiB
ot fhiSeattitk motmMterj of D»r.
Ths ehuwtar o( tk* Ctltie Church of Colnmbft wu, tfks in
mothn chonh in Inknd, modilail bj nujjimtiai to t coantry onlj
in nnill pui CbrtoUu. It ^^ •■ — ■- — -"
bat monutic, with bb abbe
rorlbhwd, thoagh the offlo* of blibop btr , _....
bisbon wen, is InUnd at iMit, mora mmwrooi thui In th« htar
chnnui. It ipnud, not bj tha •rwHon gf ptriihea and Iha can
of parochial clsrgT, but bj th< lapcodnotliHi of daOti monaftaiio^
tlie homia of thoaa who adDpUd a nligbia Uh, tfa* oolj aaboob
in an age of war. It pnlgmd ialandc tot ita Donaatariea for
■afet]r, aud, in tba can of Nina of ita nambai^ «ho Kmuht, in
tlia lanrBnga of thoaa timi^ "adant in lbeo>«ili,'aibamiil^ca
vbora Ibaj might Utb anil dlo apart from tba woild. Bnt tbaae
wera aicaptlana. Tha idga of tba Csltio monaitaiT waa that of >
Chiiitian coUbato aoolDtf. Itc inmata resided tbomMlraa A
being, and ofton nn, mambon of a fhmilT or elan, pnaarrtng tlio
cnatODH of thoir no* to Ihr ia oouiMant with oaljbaof and nU^ooa
diad^ina. Ot alaran aoDccHOi* oT CdUBba la abbot niso van of
hia Bn. Tha rnlo, tboogh Ita conlkidon ia primitira, adaptad to
an infant and iaoUUd chanb planted in a baatban w<Mid, did not
differ pmtij baa that ot Utar ordara. Inpltcit obadianoa to tho
anpotioT, p^ortr, ohaati^, hooiltali^, mn tba chief pnoepta,
Tbo obaarTtnoa of EaaMr acoodug to tht andant ejdo, ua nna ot
tb« (emtdroalar Inataad at tha oonmal tooaonb and a pa^diar litul
for miB and boption weia itt chief dariatiuiB bma tha piaotica ot
tho catboUo church aa liad ^ tha coonctl of Klca, to vbich it
pelded Jn tho b^[inning of tha Bth eentnir ; ftequant pnyar, tba
aincInE of ptalma and bnuu tba nading a liciiptun^ tba coining
and aTniniiiatiDg ot USS., the teaching ot chUdnn and nonce*,
and the labour to proiide and fnpan the nacMMiy food (tha Mr-
vice ot mnnaD betog racloded) vera tba occnpatiDiiB of the monki.
i iliiiaar conTentDa) aptam ef which St Bridge^ abbesa of Eildart,
vat biuulratt enllttad tha (prroor of h«r tax, and had toUovan in
Dailiudach, abbeta of Klldon, who fonndad AbemathT, in £bbt
at CoIdingUam, and in Hilda at Llndblarno. It waa ■ form of
Chriatianitj fitted to aicito the wonder and gain the affection of
the heathen amonnt whom the monks camt, prartiaina aa veU ai
wenching the tcir-SnijlQg doctrLno of thccroaa. Tha religion oftha
l>lta la a ahadowj oottino on tha page of hiatorj, Koticca ot idola
on ran. Tbe^ had not the art ncceaaarf lor an Ideal nprMcntt'
tioD of tho hnman tonn, though thej taamt to docorate tha rnde
atone monnmante of an aaiiisr age with elaborate tracery. Ther
bod no ttiopla*. Tba mjatarlont dtclot of matidra ttonai, with
no oonriog bnt the heaTena, ma; haTo aarrad tor placaa ot wonhip,
ai wtU aa mrmoriali of tha mot* Ulutttioai dead. The namet ot
ftwta are BHuplcnoualj abaant, thoagh tntiqaarl<a trace the wonhip
of tht Ban hi tht BtltanoAna and other ittea: bnt In tha aoconnt
of their odraiwriet vt read of danoni whom thaj inrokad.
DiriBBtiaa br toda or twlffh incantationa oT IFall^ atnugt ritaa
rvnntotod with tba elsmenit ot water and of iin, "chotoo of mathar,
InckT tlnn, tht watching of tha Tolca of binU," kn menUonad
u aoKiD^ the pnetloea oT the Drnld% a prieatlj caata nrered
for anpenor laanilncuMl, If wa maf ' aoctpt Oieiar ti an authority,
highly edncated. Thia, nther than fatiah or animal wnahip,
sppnan to han been their cult It waa, ao far aa acanty tndi-
cationa allow a seQertiliialion, by an etnpiriol knowledge of the
minor and lecDudBiy lathor than the greator phenomena of natnre
that tha Dmida A Britain and Intand exenaaed inBoence, —
tho tempeat and ite eiementa — -wind aod rain and anew, thnndcr
and ll^tnlng — nther than the eon, moon, and atut. Whatanr
ita pncbt fom. thla religion made a EMbU ndatanoa to the Cbria-
tian, tan^t by the monka, with hamlne dnwn from Bcriptnn
uul mna anqiwlntanco with I<tin at well aa Chriatian litarattira,
inJcnCxoadlnrtheaiam^aafapiinlUtand thehope of ahtore
rorld. ne dumnt of motio aul poetry, In which the Celt da-
iMI la Cbrtit tbe 8oD oT Ood,
eoi (« XtiT, the Oim Mat,
Ihv, tht Boo, iBiltke BetTUMt.-
uattf tht DmidB. But anpentidon ia not nnaaiihod
tloB. CelibacT wai a uottat agaimt tha pronutcnant
lor wbieh Chnattan fatW* condemn the Celta. Faata
Wliea«« ptttocinl hiatorj onr knowledgs » raatrictcd
to B lilt of DBinaa uid bftttlaa j bnt the Ubonn of receot
•cholBTB Allow A brief aoconnt of the Celtie races from tho
end of the 6th to their union in the middle of the 9th
oentmy, in pert hTpothetical, yet a great adTBtice on the
nbaoluts bknk which made hutorioiis of the 16th century
decline the task in deap«ir.
The Britont, whoee chief king had ruled at Alclyde^
were aepaiated from their fellow-conntiTmen, the Qymry in
Wolei, ihortly atttt Oolamba'e desth by the rapid adTanee
of tlie Anglian kingdom of NorthimibGrland, founded in the
middle of the 6th century hy Ida ot Banborough. One of
hi* KtccwBora, Ethelfred, atruck the blow, completed by the
wan of the next king, Edwin, which eevered inodern Wales
from BiitJah Cumbria and Btrathclyde. Even Hon*, the
holy isle of ooth heathen and Chnetian Britona, became
Angles^, the ialaud of the Angles. A later incnrsion
towaidi the end of the century reached Carlisle and sep*-
nted the kingdom of Alclyde^ which had for its botmduj
Um Catnul or PictB* trwch between Feel Fell and Gala-
ahid^ from E"gl'»h ComlHia (Cumberland K>nth of the
Solmy), and reduced t<x a abort time Strathclyde to a
aulgect pioTiuce. Wlien Bcde wrote in TSl an Anglian
biaboprio had been established at Whithorn, which coo-
tinued till 803. The decline of tha Northambrian king-
dom in the 8th century enabled the kinos of Strathclyde to
reassert their indepeodence and maintain their rule within
a ratricted district more nearly answering to the valley
of the Clyde, and in Qalloway, in which there are some
Mnt indications of a Pictish poiiulation, till it wM nnitod
to the kingdom of Scone by the election of Donald, brother
of Conatantine IL, king of the Scots, to its Ihroue.
Of the Scots of Dalrinda somewhat more is known.
Their histiKy is interwoTen witb that of the Picts and
meets at many points that of the Anglea of Northnmber-
laod, who during the Tth and the beginning of the 8th
century, when their kings were the greatoat in Britain,
endeaToured to push their bonndorioa beymid the Forth
and the Qyde. Tha history of this kingdom' — see IToktb-
Tnrmnii,mr> (KwoDoif or) — forms part of that of Scot-
land during uiese centuriea. It planted in Lothuh {;.«.)
the seed from whicL Jie dvilisation ot Bcothuid grew.
To an early period of the content between the Angles and
the Britons, and to the country between the Forth and the
Tweed and Solway, perhaps belong the battles magnified by
inoceasive poets who celebrated the hero of British medi-
KTal romance. Whether these battles were really fou^t
in southern Scotland and on the bordem, and Arthur's Seat
was one of his strongholdH, still " unknown ia the grave
of Arthur." Before Edwin's death (633) his klogdom
extended to the Forth, and the futote capital of tjcotland
teceived the name of Edwinnburgh from liini in place of
the Hjnyd Agned aud Dunediu of the BritUh and Qaelic
CelU During the reign of Oswald (635-642) the North-
nmbriana vera reconverted by Aidon, a monk whom
Oswald Bnmmoned from lona, and who became monastio
bishop of Ijndisfame — a lontbem lono — fi>im which the
Celtic form of the Christian church spread amongst the
Angles of the north and east of England, until the council
of Whitby and the election of Wilfrid to the see of York
restored the Roman ritual and dioceaan epiacopacy, when
Oilman, their Celtic biahop at Lindisforue, retired with
his monks to lona. Oswald'a brother Oxwy extended tho
dominion of Northumberland over a portion ot the country
of the norllieni Picts beyond the Forth. In his leign lived
CvnaxKT i'j.rX the apostle of Lothian, where the munas-
tery of 8t £btn at Coldiiigham, the church ou the Baas,
the three chnrches of St Baldred at AulUham, Tynning-
hame, and Proalon, and the *anctuary of Wwlale (Stow)
kept alive tbo memory of the Celtic C3iur«b. Hit utBS
SCOTLAND
t"
» prwicwa in 8t Oathlwrt^ AiaA *t Edinbnrgh uid in
Ktnceodtmf^ To tlw Mine period belong two interip-
tuns, Urn eMli«it feconib of An^ion epeech, one on the
otCM of BewcMtle in Cnmberiand, eommemoraluig Alfred,
K Km of Onry, the other, taken peilwpa from a poem of
Oedmon,etBntliweUinDan]friea. Neither the Tveed nor
the Solvaj ma at this period e line td diriuon. Oswy
mw eooeeeded bj hie son Egfrid (680), againrt iritom the
Kote flnceeeafnlljr rebdlad; aiid the Scots and a eonnderaUe
part cf the Britou aleo recoTered their freedom. Angm^
Uibope, howerer, contunied to hold the eee of Whiuorn
dnriog the utiole of the 8th oenttuy. The Northnmbrinn
MngB, more nicoeetfnl in die weat dm in the eut,
giadnnlly ndnuwed from Oarliele along the coast c4 Ajt,
wad mva took Alcljde. In what is now England their
power declined from the middle at tbe 8th eentnrj before
ib» rise of Menda. Ktortljr before the commencement of
the 9th eenturj the deeeents of the Danes began, which
led to the confiict for England between them and the
Siooiis of Weesez. The mcoees of the latter under Alfred
and hia deeceudants transferred the nipremae; to the
princes of the sonthem kingdom, who, gtadaallj advanc-
ing northwaide, before the dose of that ceotnrf nnited
all England onder their iceptre.
Before Its fall Northmnbertand prodoced time great
men, the fonnders of P.T'gli«li literatnie and learning,
though two of them wrote diiefly in Latin, — Cndmon, the
monk of Whitby, the first English poet ; Bede, the monk
of Jarrow, tlie first English hietonan; and Alcnin, the
monk of York, whose school might have become the first
T'^gli'*' nniTerstty, had he not Ercd in the decline of
Ncrthnmbrian greatnoas and been attracted to the conrt
of CSiarlemagne. It is to this early dawn of talent among
the Angles of Northnmberlaod that England owes its
name of the land of the Anglw and ita laognage that of
English. Tbe northern dialect spoken by the Angles was
the speech of Lothian, niHiti as well aa south (in North-
nmberland) of the Tweed, and was preeerred in the
broad Scotch of the Lowlands, while modem ^^gl'*'' was
formed from the southern dinlect of AHied, Chwcer, and
Wycliffe. This early Teutonic dviliation of the lowhmd
district of Scotland, in spite of the Danish wais^ the
Oeltio conqneet, and border fend^ never died out^ and
it became at & later time tbe centre from which the
Ando-Sazon character permeated the whole of Scotland,
witbont snppreesing, as in Tr.ngTanHj the Celtic Their
niiifni, more or lees complete in different districts, i^ after
the diflereuce in the extent of the Roman conqneet, the
second main fact of Scottish history, distdngnishing it
from that of England. Both, to a great d^ree, were
the reenlt of phjsicBl geography. The monntaini and
arms of the sea repelled invaders and preeerred longer
the ancient nee and its customs.
It is necessary, before tracing the causes which led to
the union of racea In Scotisnd, to form some notion of
northern Scotland during the century preceding Kenneth
Hacalpine, during which — the light of Adamnan and Bede
being withdrawn — we are left to the guidance of the
Pictish Chroiuclt and the Irish ArMoU. The Hcts whmn
Colnmba converted appear to have been consolidated under
a mngle monarch. Bmd^ the bod of Mailochon, ruled
from Inverness to lonaontiis west andon the north to the
Orkneys. A sub-king or chief from these islands appears
at his court. The absence of any other Kctish king, the
noeption of Hie Colombita mission in BocJian nnder
Droslai^ a disciple of Columba, and perht^ Oolnmba
himsBll, tiie foundatitm of the i^urch of Uortlach near
Aberdeen by Machar, another of his disciples, favour the
concksion that the dtuninion of Bmde included Aberdeen as
wdl as Uoray and BoM. Its southern limits ve unknown.
Tba Fiota^'of Stirling Perth, and Forbr, eorteipoodtiig
to Stratheatn and Hentaith, — ^AUtole and Gowiie, Angoi
and Heanis, fa«d been already oonvert«d by Koian in the
5th oenlury< — WM^ have already come under a Miy^a Ung
ruling perhqw at Abernetl^, with moimaen nndac him.
It seems certain that Aboiiethy waa earlier than Dun-
keld a centre of the Oeltio Chanh distinct from lon^ and
the aeat at the fliat three l»ahops <rf Sootland. Its touad
tower cannot be safely ascribed to ab earlier date than
the 9th oeotniT, bat may have been preceded by a church
dedicated to St Bridget either in the 6th by Nechtaa
Horbai, or in tbe Sth cealaty I7 Oamard, son of Dosald,
a later Pictish king. Atthon^ there ezista a complete
list of the Fiotish IcLDgs from Bradc^ aim <d Maikxsan,
to Bmde, eon of Fent, conquered by Kennetii Haedpins,
and of Uie Soota of Dalriada from Aidan (converted bj
Colnmha) to Kenneth Hacalpine^ with their KgotX ytai),
it is only here and there that a figure eme^;es lufO-
cieotty distinct to enter history. Farts of these lists are
fictitious and others doubtful, nor do we know over ^ist
extent of oounbr the Tsiions monarehs ruled. Of tiie
fignrea more or leas prominent amongst the Fictish kiogi
aie Brode, the son of Derili, the eontempoiary d Adsni-
nan, 1A0 wM present at the sydod of Tua when the law
called Eain Adamnan, freeing women from militsiy
Borrice, was adopted, and who died in 706,' being tbea
staled king of Fortren. Nechtan, another son of Dcril^
was the oontemporaiy of Bede, who gives (710) tbe letter of
Ceolfrid, abbot of WearmouUi, to him whep be adwtod the
Boman Easter aod the tonsure. Six yean later Neehtsn
erpelled the Ctdnmbite monks from his dominions. II9
retired to Dalriada, as their brethren in ITcrthuDbcrluid
liftil done when a wimtti^r change was made by Os*7«
Nechtan also asked for masons to build a church in the
Roman style, to be dedicated to St Peter, and te^
churchee in honour (€ that Mioetle were founded within
ids territoiy. Shortly after, Egbert, an *"c''»'' moot,
persuaded the commnnity of Hy (lona) itself to confonn,
but too late to lead to the nnion of tbe chnjches of the
Scots and tlie Ficts, which irere sc^niated also by political
Fifteen yean later the greatest Hetiah monarch, Angcs
HacFergns, after a contest with more than one rival,
gained tbe supremacy, which be bald for thirty yeais
(731-761). In revenge for the capture of his eon Brade
by Dungal, son of Selvach, king of tbe Dalriad ScoU^ he
attacked Argyll, and laid waste the whole country, deetnj-
ing Donnad (t on Loch Crinan), then the c^utal, bont
C^ch (in Mull), and put in chains Dungal and Feiadach,
the sons of Selvach. He next conquered (739), and it u
sud drowned, Talorgan, son of Drostan, king of ^^^^
one erf his rivals, and, resuming the Dalriad war, redDied
the whole of the irestem H^hlands. The BritoM "l
Strsthclyde irere assailed by a brother of Angni, '^
' Bol tber* bud bMm a Um* nhm not oeo bnt avena Plctitli iW
ruled Qm DorttMni uul cmtnl dlstiliili of Bntlud, ud U uiin
ban pertiapg a tno* in the PlctUh legend accariiiig >» *°^
CmlthM, the apuonoiu rf the laoe, had asmi etna.— ***,"
Cliic nts PMad, Fotla, FlMno. Ooajeetor* ideattOw An •'^
aames vtth diMrids knnn la latar Ualatr,— CaU wHh OoOi^
CUcvrta Haaiu (Hish OfaesB, the plab e( CUe), lb '^ *?
FaUavUh A&al* (Athfiitb), >Wna wtth BOBtbara IWbain,(e°
iMCtbig It with a dtridm of the juie emiDty In a tiaot <« tte^
MDtmr. (Oomp. Plata TL) atorflhedlTtdnM-^jpaa","^
Atbole and Oowile, a '" "" '" '■<-*-***■
KAXLT CSUIO iPCUOD.]
SCOTLAND
477
fell in battle at Mngdoch 'in Stuling; and Aagw, with
luB ally Ecbert, king of Northmnbecbuid, rataluted by
burning Alclyda (756). About thia time (752) Omlin
Droighleacb (the Bridgemoker), abbot of lona, nmoT«d
most of the relica of hie abbej to Ireland, and thi* it the
most probable date of the legend of the relica of St An-
drew being bronght from Patrae to St Andrewi, wheiB
the sons of a Fictiah king, Hongna (Angna MacFergne),
vba wa* abeent in Argjll, or, acoording to another tst-
■ion, HongnB hinuetf, dedicated Eilrighmont (St Andrem)
and the district called the Boar's Chaae to Bt Andrew.
The ascription of the foundation to on earlier Mug of the
sanie name in the 4th century was doe to the wish to ^ve
the chief biaboprio of Scotland an antiquity greater tban
lona and Olasgow, greater even than Canterbury and York.
After the death of Angus HacFergua no king is connected
with any event of importance except Conatantina, son of
Fergus (died 820), who is said to hare founded thefhnroh
of Dnnkeld, — 336 years after Qamard, son of Donald,
founded Aberaethj. This (act, though the earlier date
is not certain, points to the PErthshire lowlands as haTJng
been for a long time the centre of the chief Fictish mon-
archy. Probably Scone was .during this period, as it cer-
tainly became afterwarda, the political capital; and the
kings latterly are aometimes called kings of Fortran. If
BO, the chief monarchy under the pressure of the None
attacks bad pused south from Invemeas, haring occ^ied
perhaps at varioos times, Dunottar, Brediin, Forfar, Fort-
•▼iot, and Abemetby as strongholda ; but It is not poaaible
to say wbetbec there may not have continned to ie inde-
pendent Pictiah tulaiB in the north.
The annals of Dalriada are eren more perplenng than
those of the Hcto after the middle (d the 6th century.
There is the usual list of kings, but they are too numer-
ous, and their reigns are calculated oa an artiflcial system.
The forty kings from Fergus HacEarc to Fergus MacFwch-
aid, who wonld carry the date of the Seottiah settlement
htck to three centuries at least before the birth of Christ,
have been driven tiwa the pale of history by modem cri-
ticiam. The date of the true settlement was that of the
hUar Fergus, the sod of Earc, in 603. From that date
down to Selvach, the king who was conquered by Angus
UacFergus about 730, the names of the kinn can be
given with reasonable certainty from Adamnan, Bede, and
the Irish AiuiaU. But the subsequent names in the Scot-
tish chronidea are untrustworthy, and it is an ingenious
conjecture that some may have been inserted to cover the
century following 730, during which Dalriada is supposed
to have continuiid under fietish rule. ^Hus view is not
free from its own difflcnltiea. It' is hard to explain how
Kenneth Macalpine, called by all Scottish rectods a Boot,
tbougli in Irish Amudt styled (as are several <^ his succes-
sors^ king of the Ficta, succeeded in revening the conquest
of Angus MacFergns and establishing a ScoWsh lins on
the throne of Bcon«^ in the middle of the 9th century.
This difficulty is supposed to be solved by the hypotheaia
that Kenneth waa Uie son of a Pictish hther, Alpine, but
of a Scottish mother, and was entitled to the crown by a
peculiarity of Kctish taw, which recognised descent by
the mother as the teet of Ic^timacy. The records which
speak of the deetmetion <rf the Picts are treated as later
inveatious, and it is even doubted whether the conneziou
between Alpine and Eennetb and the older race of Dalriad
kinga is not fictitious.'
'> T^ iboniUtammTii ■ briat oetifai* of th« namitengtloD at tUi
period ot BcotUih hUtori do* to two KlioUn i ~
thu ur otiiat* Co alnddata It, FkllMr Ins« *i
iMKMlt* crltlcUiii, *bleh dMtnjt lb* bMa n*nd br a i
bincruiM tram Forinn or Ui uotmiutor Bowioikir to ]
■ isHtalr work, Dot likaljr to U npvudtd. Wbtther tin to
tin tart win ftand li not Mitilii, but It u[dilni muy of tli* Ik
Whatever may be the solution ultimately reached as to
Kenneth Uacatpiue's antecedenbs his accession represents
a revolution wluch led by dearees to a complete union of
the Kcta and Scots and the establishment of one kingdom
— at first called Albania and afterwards Scotia — which
included all Scotland nrath of the Forth and Clyde^
except Caithness, Sutherland. Orkney and Shetland (the
northern isles or Nordreyar), the Hebrides (the eonthsm
isles or Sudreyar), and Man ; these fell for a time into
the hands of the Norsemen. Thia revolution had two
eansee or concomitants, one religions and the other poli-
ticaL Kenneth Macalpine in the seventh yeer of his reign
(8G1) bronght the relics of St Columba from lona to a
church he built at Dnnkeld, and on his death he was
buried at lona. A little earlier the Iriah Culdees, then in
their first vigour, received their earlieet grant io Scotland
at Loch Leveu from Brude, one of the last kings of the
Picts, and soon found their way into all the principal
Columbite monasteries, of which they represent a reform.
The Irish monastic ayatem did not yet give place to the
Roman form of dioceaan episcopacy. The abbot of Dnn-
keld succeeded to the position of the abbot of lona and
held it until the beginning of the 10th century, giving
ecclesiastical sanction to the sovereign at Scone, as
Columba bad done in the case of Aidan. As early as the
beginning of the 8th century, however, a Pictish Inshop of
Scotland appean at a council of Home, and he had at
least two Eucceeson as sole bishops or primates of the
Celtic Cbuich before dioceses were formed. Scotland
north of the firths thus remained at a lower stage of
churoh organisation than England, where a complete system
of dioceses had been established in great part answering
to the original AngloSazon kingdoms or their divisions,
with Canterbury and York at their head as rivals for the
primacy. But the Celtic clergy who now conformed to
the Bi^oan ritual preserved some knowledge of the Latin
language, and a connexion with Home as the. centre of
Latin Christianity, which was certain to result in the
adoption of the form of church government now almost
nnivenaL The other ciroumstance which had a powerful
inflnence on the foundation of the monarchy of Scone and
the consolidation of the Celtic tribe* was the descent on
all the coasts of Britain and Ireland of the Norse and
Danish vikings. The Duies chiefly attacked England from
Northumberland and along the whole east and part of the
southern seaboard; the Norsemen attacked Scotland,
especially the islands and the north and west coaatl^ going
aa far sonth as the Isle of Man and the east and south of
Ireland. It had now become essential to the existence
of a Scottish Celtic kingdom that its centre should be
removed farther inland. Argyll and the Isle^ including
lona, were in the path of danger. No monk would have
now chosen island homes for safety. In 787 the first
arrival of the viking ships is noticed in Uie Attglo-Saxon
Chnmidt. Some years later the Iriah Atmixlt mention that
all " the islands of Britain were wasted and much hanused
l::^ the Danes." Amongst these were Liudisfome, Bathliu
off Antrim, lona (794), and Patrick's island near Dublin
(798). lona waa thrice plundered between 802 and 836,
when Blathmac, an abbot, was killed. A poem composed
not long after the event states that the shrine of Columba
was one of the objects in search of which the Norsemen
came, and that it was concealed by the monks. It was to
preserve the relics from this fate that some of tbera were
transferred by Droightcach, the last abbot, to Ireland and
othere by Kenneth to Dunkeld, For half a century the
vikings were content with plonder, but in the middle of
the 9tli they began to form aettleutents. In 649 Olaf the
Wbite established himself at Dublin as king of Hdi Ivar ;
in 667 a Danish kingdom was set np in Northumberland ;
478
SCOTLAND
t»
■nd HkToM the Fftirtuurei), «Iki in 673 hecAme i>olo king
uf Norway, Houn after led ui expedition MittiiuiF tbo TikingH,
who lud alrendj' neixed Orkney and tUieUand, and edtab-
lished «n earldom under Koguwald, earl of Mcui, whoee
'•on Urolf the Clanger conqnerad Normandy in the begin-
ning of the iiezt century. The ponitiou of Scotland,
therefore, irhen Kenneth nnited the Fictfl and Scotn was
thia: Mntrel Kcotland from ma to Ma — A.rgylt and the
laleB, Perthsliire, Angan and Meani'S and Fife-^waH under
the dominion of tlie king nho had Hcona for hia capital ;
tho BOUth-weHt diotrict— the Taliey of the Clyde, Ayr,
(hinifries, Biid Galloway — was under a Bridiih king at
Dumbarton ; tlia aonth-eont dJHtrict or Lothian waa part
of "SoxoD or Ka^senach I^tid," — the gGneral Celtic name
for the country of the Anglo-Saiconn, but now owing to
the divided rtate of NorthumherUnd held by different
lords ; the north of Rcotland wa« nnder independent Celtic
chiefi), an Moray and Mar, or alreadj' occupied by Norso-
roen, as CaithneMH, Orkney and Shetland, and the Hebridsa.
The whole Celtiu gNipoUtion was Christian • but the Nome
invaders were "till heathen. Their religion was similar
to that of tbuir Anglo-Saxon kin, of a type higher than
the pogauiiim of the Celts. It renemblad the Celtic indeed
in the alisence or infretjuency of idols, but a complex
(tiythology jitiopltid heaven with godn— Woden and llior,
■■^ya and Bolder, and others of inferior rank — devised
legendH of tlie origin of earth aod man, Valludla the
hero'H iia»di«e, and a shadowy hell for all who were not
heroex. Home of itH legeiidH are coloured from Christian
itrmrcsfi, and underneath the mythology may be detected
a ruder and mire ancient sopemtitious belief in omens and
divination, — a nBtuny-wondiip more like that of the Celts.
But it in the later form which repranents the Nortie character
Bii it wan irhen it came into contact with the nations of
Bribuu, — ibt daring de&ance of man and the gods, itM
struggl? vntii, yet in the end its calm acceptance of, the
decreex »f fate. The Noniemen both at home and in their
colooieK in Scotland embraced Christianity under Olaf
Tryggranon in the eud of the lOtli century ; but along
ndth (litiiitiaDity they retained the old heathen tenti-
BienlH and cuntonw, which, like their longnage, mingled
with and modified ibe Celtic character on the wentem but
far more on the northern coasts and ixlandM, where the
population wan largely Koroe. A strain neither Celtic nor
Teutonic uor Noniiau oecadonalty meeh us in Scottinh
history : it is derived from the blood or memory of the
Konie vikiiigH.
8. Latrr C- IHr Ptri.i^: Grnrth of the Elngd^m nf Si-one
/tom Ktvurth ifarttfpiHe to ifaleolm Cnnmnrr. — During
this period, tliounh the Celtic annals are xtiil ohticnre, we
can trace ths united Celtic kingdom growing on all side^
under Keaiii>th'H surcentorH, — southward by the conqnedt
nf Lothian ou the east and by the union of the Strath-
rtyde kingdom' on the weg^ and for a time by holding
Hnglinh Cumlirin under the F.nslkdi kingn, and northward
hj the gcadtial iiiror[<nration of AngUH, MeamH, Moray,
and iKwiibly the M>utheni district of Aberdeen. EenneUi
Macalpine'H reign of >iiit«eD yearH (814-ri60) wait a time of
incessant war. He invaded Saxony (Lothian) nix timei^
burnt Uniibar. and seized llelroM (already a rich abbey,
though on a ditfeieat site from the Cintercian foundation of
David L), while the Britonn (of Stiathclyde) burnt Tlan-
I'lane and the ])aneH wasted the Und ot the Pirts on far as
Cluny and Dujikeld. After they left Kenneth rebuilt the
church of l>unkeld and reiilacsd iu it Columba'n relicx. He
died at Fortevtot and was buried at loua.
Be Wb< HDCCeeded by hix brother Donald 1, (861-86^),
who^ with hix peojde the Gaels, establi/ihed the lawit of Aed.
■on of Eachdach, at Fotteviot. Aed woh a Dolriad king of
the Ktli century: but the contents of bis laws are unknown.
Perhaps ta&isby, by which the soocowor to the king m
elected during his life from the eldest and vrorUiiat at
his kin, usoaliy a eoUotetal in preference to a descendint,
wad one feature, for it certainly prevailed amougit the
Irish and Scottish Gaels. The next king, who succecdeil
in BCOordaQce with that custom, was Constantine L (SC3-
877), son of Kenneth. His. rei^ was occupied iritii
conflicts with the NtHiemsn. Olaf the White, the Nocm
king of Dublin, laid waste the condtiy of the Ficts and
Britons year after yaor, and in 870 rednced Akljdt,
the British capital ; but, as he dimppeots from history, he
probably fell in a subsequent mid. He is said to W
married a daughter of Kenneth, and some claim in het
right may account for hb Scottish wars. In the south thr
Danish leader Halfdan devastated Northumberland lod
Qalloway; while in the north Thorsten the Bed — a eon of
Olaf by Andur, the wealthy daughter of Ketil FUtnose
(called Finn, " the Fair," by the Celts), a Norse viking o(
the Hebrides, who afterwaids went to loelood and figoiss
in the sagas — conquered the coast of Caithness and Suthef-
Uud as for as EkkioU Bakki (the Oikel). But he wu
killed in the following year. Constantine met with the
same fate at a baUte at Inverdovat in Fife in 877, at tht
hands of another band of northern marauders. Hit death
led to ■ disputed succeesion. His heir, according to tbt
custom of tanistry, was his brother Aodh, who was killed
by his own people after a year. Eoeha, the eon of Bus.
a king of the Britons, claiined in right of his motha, t
daughter of Kenneth, according to the Pictish law, and
governed at first along with Ciric or Qrig, his tutor; tbee
Orig ruled alone, until they were both expelled from the
kingdom and Donald II., son of Constantine, came to thp
throne (889). The Pictish ChrmicU reports that dnrinj.'
the government ot Grig the Scottish Church was fr««d
from subjection to the lawsot iJie I^ts (meaning probably
from liability to secular service). Grig is also sud tn
have subdued all Bemicia and "ahnoHt Anglia," a state-
ment which if confined to the north ot the Northumhriui
kingdom is not improbable, for it had then fallen into
anarchy thrQugh the attacks of the Danes. The chur^
of Ecclesgreig neof Uontroae possibly commemorates Ong
and indicates the northward extension of the monarchy of
Scone. In the reign of Donald H. (889-900), son ot
Constantine I., Scotland was again attacked by ^
Norsemen. Sigurd, the Noras earl of Orkney, seiied
Caithness, Sutherland, Robs, and part of Mony, <riiere
he built the fort of Bnrghead, between the Findhom sad
the Bpey. Farther south the Danes took Dunottar, when'
Donald was slain. After his time the name of the kiogdcDi
of flcone ma no longer Picta-rio, but Albania or A^'*'J
more ancient title of northern Scotland, perhaps reswned
to mark the growth of the Scottish-Pictish monarchy ui
the central and eastern Highlands.
Donald 11. was followed by Constantino IE. (90&-9WJ,
HOu of Aodh and grandson of Kenneth, and his long teigv '^
a proof of hiic power. He was the greatest Scottish kii:^'
as Angus UacFergna had been the greatext of the px^
Pictish race. In the first part of it hia kingdom was aW
beset by the Norsemen. In his third year they sw'™
Dunkeld and all Alha. Next year they were repnW.""
Stiatheam. In his 8th year Rognwald, the Danish ^'
of Dublin, with earls Ottir and Oswle Crakaban, rava^
I>unblBne. Six yearn later the same leaden tare de-
feated on the Tyne (t in East Lothian) by Constantine.
Who had been summoned to assist Eldrad, lord of Bsi^
borough. Ottir was slain, but Bognwald escaped ^
reappears some jeara Utar as king of Northumberbiw.
This is a battle whose site and incidenta> are told in a KO'
Sicting manner by different chronicles; but it ''^^'^
certain that ODnstantine saved his dominions from^""*'^
LAXIB CBLTIO PBIOD.]
SCOTLAND
man feimidabfe to», — Um
dsMtt^aoti ot Alfred, wen rtWiHily nwring nbrthwwdi.
In qdto of liu wan, Oonrtlntiwn toaad time in the earij
part of hit nkn for two fanportant refom^ — ooe
naitieal, tbe oOw tiriL In hii eixth j«ar (S06) Iw^
wiA Odkch, biiliop of 8t Andrawi — tbe fint of twolTe
Geltie Uahopa of Seotlud— nran on the Hill <rf Faith
at8aoiie(M6}that''diekwaaiiddira{ilfaiea(tka(aith,aixt
Ae ri^ti of the dmidw and the ^f^ dNald be pie-
MomdoBaiiMRialfootiivwith theScoti.' TUeobwore
notke of the netiah CknmicU inilirttw the MtaUkhnwnt
oc rettoiatun of the Beottieh Clmrdi, wUeh the Fktuh
Ungt kid o^MMe^ to an aqnali^ vhh that of the Rotith.
A« a aigii of the imiaa Oe cnMroC St OdIvbIm, called
Cathbvadth ("■nOtxj in battle "^ *•■ bone before Oon-
■tantine'a atnam. Two jaaia later, on tba death of
DouOil, Uag of dte BritcRM of BUtibdjdt, Ooortantine
piocnred the election of hie own btotbei Dcatald to that
Vingiinm, Iboa^ he thna itMOgthoMd ehneh and atate^
Alfreds mctomon were toopowirfnl for Um. The Aa^o-
SoMn ChtmieU raonda of Kdwanl the EJder, that in 934,
having boilt a fort at Bakewell, m the Ftak of DarbTehiie,
"the king and nation of the Soota, Bognwkld Uie Noith-
nmbiian and othen, and alM the king ot the Sttatb-
dyde WeUi and hii people, duwe him for hther and
kcA" SaKnAtbelataniai^btedbytLatainatathorityto
hare mlgngated all tlie kingi in the island, amonpt iriiom
aia mentioned bj name Howell king of the WMt Welih,
Coostantine king of tbe Scgti^ Owen king ot Owant, and
Eldted of BamboroQgh, who "made pewe with oatha at
Emmet and renounced ereij kind <rf ididatry." These
BDtHw are not beyond luipicion. llie hak waa a diatant
point for the Soottiah king. Bognwald, Oie Morthombrian,
died b 920, according to the Iriab AnmaU. Howell and
OooBtantine were alrwdj Chriatiana and eonld not hare
thoa renounced iddatij. If there ia any truth tn the aub-
miadcm of the Scota to Edward tbe Elder it did not laai^
for acnne years later the ChronieU itatea that Athelatan
went into Scotland with a land and aea foroe and mvaged
agreat part of it A league ot the northom kinga againrt
Athelatan waa diapened (937) by hia great Tiototj at
Brananbar^ (IWendon, between Aldbonmgh and Enaiae-
borongb, acconiing to Bkensl The foraaa allied iMinet
him were thoae of Coaataatme^ his aonjn-law OlaS, aon
ot Sitric (called alao the Bed^ and aaotliar Ohf, aon of
Godfrey, from Ireland, beakUa the Strathdjde and north
Welsh Idngs. For Athdstan there toa^t, in addition to
hia own West Bazon^ the Herciana and some msteenariss
from Norway, amon^pst them ^il, sen of f*°'*g*'"'. the
h«o of a famotu Icelandic saga. Nognaterilaa^twhad
been known nnee the Asglofiaxon^ "prond waMmitha,'
as tbair poet calls them, ovename the Welsh and gained
England. A son of Constaoline waa alain, four kings,
and seven eariq. Constantine himself eacaped to Scot-
land, where in old age be reaignad the crown for the
tonsQre end tMcame abbot ot Ae Cnldeea of St Andrews.
Athektaa died two years after Bronanborg^ but before
hia death gtaated NortLnmberland to Erik Bloody-Axe,
aon of Hvold Haarfagr, who was almoat immediately
expelled by the Irish Danes. Athelatan, even attar so
great a victory, conld not annex KorthDmberiand, mnch
W8
Oonatantine'a ancceasor, Ualmdm L (9t3-961X m> ot
Donald XL, began hia reign by invading Moray and UUug
Cdlacb, ita duaf king. UeantinM the Danuh kingscS
Dublin had been endeavouring to maintafn tbcdr hold on
Kotthnmb^riand with the ud ot the Comfarian^ whoae
aoimtry thm had already settled, and in thia attempt the
two Olafs had a tempcffary success i but T^XiMtiiitm^. the
KteeeHor ot Athebtati, expelled (Mat, tou of Bitria, from
Narthttmbeilaiid, and in the following year, to prevent the
Qunbriana from again aiding the Danes, he "harried
Cumbcrlaad and gave it all np to Malcolm, king of Scots,
on o(»dition that ha dtonld Iw his fellow-worker both mi
sea and laud." This waa the same policy which led his
father to call In the aid of Erik Bloody-Axe. The kinp
of WeaMZ wisely granted what they could not hold to the
beat northern wanior, Celt or Scandinavian, under coo-
ditions iriiieh aeknoiriedged mue or kas stiictl; their
nimaiaciy. The Cambria so gimnted wan the country
south of the SolAjr to the Dee, but it may aiao have
iaefaided Strathdyde, for at this period Btrathclyda Weelsa
and Cnmlmans are frequently used ai equivalent names.
Hakolm knt no aid to Erik Bloody-Aze, when in thu
leign of Eadied be tried (S49) to recover Northmnberiand,
but be joined his brother-in-law Olaf, Sitric's eon, in aii
expedition wil& the same object, when they laid wastu
the oonntry •■ br south Sd the Teea. Three years later
bik a^in ntnined, and finally drove Olaf back to Ire-
hmd, irtioe he (bunded the kingdom of Dablln, whioli
lasted liU the battle of Clontarf. Malcohu died fif^ting
either ininet the men of Heanu or of Moray. Threu
itim fidlowed (964-971), — Indulf, son of ConaOEntine,
Doj^ sou of Halcobn,. Colin, son d Indolf ; in the reigii
(rf Indiilf the Northumbrians evacuated Edinbnr^ whicli
theooeforward waa Scottish ground. A gazon bnr^ a
fort, perhaps a town, was now for the fint time within
theOeltio kingdom.
Kenneth IL (971-996), wn of Malcolm, soon after his
oesHOffl made a raid on Northumberland aa far south as
Cleveland. The statement of two "Pngliali cbroniclers
(John of Wallingford and Henry ot Huntangdon)^ that
Lothian was ceded to him by Eadgar on condition <^
bomi^at and that the people ahould stilt use the language
of the An^e^ is not mentiooed in the Angb-BaiMi or
any Soottiah duonicie. Nor is it easy to believe the
Aa^o-Samt CAromek as amplified by Florence of Worae-
ster, that Kenneth waa one of the kings who rowed
Eadgar oa tiu Dee in sign of homage. At thi« time, in
the north and weat, the Orkney eerls were all-powerful,
and Kenneth was occnpied with contests nearer hia own
territory, — especially with the niormaer of Angos, whoee
gtandson, through iiia daughter Fenella, he slew at Dud-
dnane, and in revenge for which be waa himself traacher-
oualy killed at Fettercaim in Meams by Fenella, wboae
name is atill preserved in the traditioaii of that district
The fonndation of the ohur^ at Brechin ia attributed to
this king,
Kenneth waa followed, as he had been preceded, by
iosigniflcant kings, — Constantino, iion of Colin, and Ken-
neth, son of DnfT. His son, Malcolm U. (1 OOS-34), gained
the tiirone by the slaughter of his predecessor Duff at
Mooiievaird, and at once turned bLi amis southwards; but
his first attempt to conquer northern Northumberland was
repelled by Ethelred, aon of Waltheof, ita earl, who de-
feated him at Durham. About the name time Bigurd,
earl of Orkney, having defceted Finlay, monnaer of Moray,
became ruler, according to the Nome saga, of "Bom and
Moray, Sutherland and tbe dales " of CaithncA He bad
ooiiflictii with other Soottiah chiefa, but appean to have
mode terma with the kings of both Nonray and Scotland,
— with Olaf Tryggvaaon by becoming Christian and with
Malcolm by manying his daughter. He fell at Clontarf
1),0m memwabu battle near Dublin, by which Brian
ukd his son Muroodh defeated the Danish kings in
Ireland and leetoied a Celtic dynasty. Malcolm conferreil
the earldom of Caithneee on hit giandMn Tborfinn, the
infant sm of EUgnrd ; and Sigurd's OAney earldom fell to
hi* aon^ Somarled, Briia, and Knar ; while Moray again
480
MBW into tiw poMnrion of a Celtio monnner, Finlaj, vho
ii cttUed k^ rf Alb* by one of the IrUh chroniclea, and
tho HeteidM probablr into tbct of a Notw wrl, Oilli,
jtom iriiom tk^ w«a ■fterwards reooTered by Thorfinn.
tniito tho Celts of Inknd mrs thiu ezpelling the Duuh
innwl<n and in Sootiand there mu divided pouemion, the
nmlt of oompromin and of intermarriage, England fell
nilder Uw i<«irn'ninn of the Daniah kings Swejn and
Cannte. Canute oommitted Korthmnberland to Erik, a
Dane, aa earl; bnt Eadnlf Cadet, a weak brother of the
biaTB Oawnlf and son of Waltheof, the Anglian earl, atill
retained the nivthem diatrict as loiA of Bamborongh.
I^!>ofiting by the distracted atate of northern England,
Haloolm again inraded Nfffthumberland with Owen of
Cambria, ealled the Bald, and by the victory of Carham
(1016) near Coldatream Ton Lothian, which remained
hata that time an integral part of Bootland. Cannte,
on hii retnm from a pilgriniage to Rome, ia Mid by
the Anglo'Saxon Ckr<m»d« to haro gone to Scotland,
where Malcolm and two other kings, Maelbeth and Jeh-
maio, anbmitted to him, but he held Scotland for only a
Uttle whiloL Maelbeth ia anppoaed to be Macbeth, then
monmei of Moray, afterwards king, and Jahmarc, a Celtic
or Soudinavian chief b AigyiL The hold which Canute,
who was trying to grasp Norway and Denmark as well as
En^and, hiad npon northern Britain must have been
alender as well as short; but the acknowledgment of the
BQpremacy of so gnat a king was natnraL At hi* death
his overgrown empire fell to pieces, and Scotland was
left to itself. Two yean befcve Malcolm II. died. His
conqoeat of Lothian perhaps led to the new name of
Bootia (now generally appbed to bis kingdom), which
was to become iti pennanent name. The Scotland he
gcreined still had its centre at Scone^ bnt isdnded beaidee
Qie original Fictiah diatrict of. Perthshire, Angus' and
Heama, Fife, the aonthem district of Aberdeen, and
Lothian, his own conquest, while Moray and western
Boss, and perh^M Argyll and the Isle^ owned his snze-
lain^. Bnt the None earl, Thorfinn, at this time held
the Orkneys, Outhnees, Sutherland, and the Hebrides.
Whether a Cumbrian king still rnled Btrathclyde and
Oalloway is doubtful. After Owan the Bald, who fought
at Oariiam, the next king mentioned is Duncan, son of the
Cdson and the snoemsor of Malcolm. Malcolm II. was
■1 to the church, as we know from his gifts to the
church of Doer ; but the fonndation of Mortlach (Banff-
shire), the future see of Aberdeen, belongs to the reign of
Malcolm Canmore. 'Hie laws attributed to him ore
spurions, introducing into the Celtic kingdom a fnlly deve-
loped feudalism, which was not known in England, still
leas in Scotland, till after the Conquest. As he left no
male heir, Malcolm's death led to a doubtfnl
SCOTLAND
["
and a perplexed period of Scottish history.
The Scottish historians and the Norse sagas can with
difficulty be reconciled. Little light can be got from
either the Atiglo-Saxrm Chronidi or the Irish Annatt.
Shakeipeare seized the weird story of Macbeth, ae told
by Boece and translated in Holinshed, and history can
hardly displace the tragedy, so true to the dark side of
human nature; I^ the meagre ontline at its command.
nii^ outline is supportbd by authentic evidence, and agrees
with the ntnation which existed between the death of Mal-
colm n. and the accession of Malcolm Canmore.
Malcolm IL was succeeded by his grandson Duncan
(1034-40), son of his daughter BaChoc and Crinan, a lay
or secular abbot of Dui^keld ; bnt his right was probabJy
from the first contested by lliorfinn, who had become the
most powerful of the Noise carls. If the Orkn^ saga
ooold be relied apon, he had as many aa eleven earia or
subject to him, and a modem bnt imaafe in-
tBiin«tation of one paiaaga txtenda hi* dotninioa ss te
aa Oalloway. Ihwean, after an nnsacaeuful atteippt ta
Dnrham, turned hi* arma to the north to cheek the hAa
advance erf his kinsman, bnt was defeated on the Psnthiid
Fa&. boddaa, whom he had tried to set np aa earl ot
CaithneM, was burnt in his own house, and Dancan him-
adf was killed at Bothgownan near Elgin by Macbeth, hu
own general Macbeth was son of Finlay, mramaer d
Moray, and his wife Qruoch was daughter of Boete^ aon at
Kenneth IL ; thns he had a possible pretenaitm to tks
crown if it could descend by females. But his r«al po«s-
tion ^ipean to have been that at b eucceesfnl geuenl
aaserting the independence of the northern Celt* agaiuit
Duncan, who by his marriage with the dauj^ter of Eatt
Siward, the Ntnlhmnbrian earl, had shown the tendency
to nnite Saxon with Celtio blood which was ft^owtd
by hia aon Maloolm (IIL^ Canmore. Macbeth reigned
seventeen yean (1040-t>7). He waa, aa far as recoida
state, an able mcnarch, who succeeded in repelling the
attads of Siward on behalf of his grandaoD, who shoired
liberality to the church, as the foundation of himself
and his wife at Loch Leven testify, sent money for the
poor to Bomi^ and poasibly went with it on a pilgrim-
age; bnt he fell at last in the battle of Lumphanan in
Mar, where the young Malcolm was aided by Ibadj^ son
of Qodwine, the great West Saxon earl who had beMms
earl of Northumberland. A few montha later, Lnkeh,
the son of Gillecomhain, a former mormaer of Moray, wlw
had continued the war, and is nominally counted a king,
thoogh called fatuous, was slain at Essie in Stnthbogia
(N.W. Aberdeen), and Malcolm Oumore became king.
With his reign a new and clearer era of the history of
msut His nnitsd moiurcbT of Scons 1
■pit* of Ita powerful nsigbbanrs, bet it wis dmnduil slnorf
cDtlnly on the attscIuiiBnt of the duu to their ebfaft sod of tba
nhol< nee to the hereditijy king. It na tnditional, not cttaM-
tutloiuil, with some tccepted cnitomL otherirlsa it conM net hsvt
held together, but with little settied Uw sod DO '
It nated the elementi of dvil Ilh, ftr it hid li<
Uudtjlu . , _. ,.^ ... ..
monartsiits were Mntm of li|^t within llmil«l drclw "■
Caltio cheractor, lUen te set end quick fbrme of buiines^ *■*
■live to the plsMates of the imsgiDstioii, ontory, tsd song. It*
cudinal defeot wu e light re^id for troth. Iti chirf virtse •■■
derotiim to > leader, wbsther prised chia( or king. The CbiWlM
Acdo-Ssxoni of ti» Lothiuu, the NanemsD, only noenHy m
half oanverted, in the iikndi of the north sad wn^brongfatqiiilitlN
and cDitama into the common atook of the tnton ScattiiB f^
which were wanting te the Celts. The Aa^o-8sz<m in hii niglBel
home, aa in Biit>& the inhabitant of the nlaiB^"dw (n^iB|
Saxon," ss he waa called by an biah baid-Jsveli^ in the biM
and the town a better ngolited fteedon.— the doasestie tMi ci™
vtrtuea His imaginatiao, even hie poetry, bad a tooch rfpns^
bnt be poaaeeaed the proaalc auilitus of plain speech, conaiM
eans^ aad truth,— the tsiuioe of tntit The oontaot-fbtitvMS
contact, not a ccmqaest— with thie taee «ea of the hlriw* vw
to the Scottieh nation at the fntoie. The KormsBe lntr<id««
new element^ the ipirit of ctuTaliy and the too rigid hMldiBi**
feudal la*. The chuigea doe to that new etemanls bepa >>
ScotUnd In the reign of Halcolm Ceamore, aad were eomplew m
thoee of hli deecmdanta The Soottiah Celtie kingdom hecaM
gtulaillv dvilind Doder Saxon nd NoTman inflnoiei^ vf^
retaining iU native vlgDur. The nanlt me the eatablitiimeBt ■
the indapendance of Scotland within ila pmnt bonnda dsrisg iDt
prDaperoaa reign* of the Alaianden[1107-]1SI).
4. JVfl«mtio«/m» a Crfte to aa JByto-JwawB r«*"
MoraTthy: MaJrolm Cammort and Au Dactnda'f-^
Malcolm Canmore (1058-88) spent his btgdiood in Ouoj
bria, his youth at the court of Edward the Oonfe«« «
" ■ ■ He was by race only half a Celt, for h«
on An^DBn^ atstar of Eari Siward. ^
helped to form hia chacactoi was already *»■>-
CDwoni to AUoum>zB 111.7
Scotland
481
■act to Honnao infinence. The Coateaor, like Canmore,
nAd been edcicated in exile, at the Norman court, and
fatoared (he Nonnana. Thongh the couiae of evsntii led
Malcolm to ally hiniiself with the Anglo-Saion rojral hoiua,
the Anglo-Saxon and Anglo-Nonnaa perioda of Bcottigh
btdtory were not, as in Engkod, aepaiated by wveral
centime^ but were nearlj contemporaneanH. If Malcolm,
Edgar, and the first Alexander may be regarded ea Scoto-
Saxon, Uarid L and hia Eucceiuars were truly Scoto-Nor-
man feudal monarchs. Apart from the customs and
language of Lothian, which descended from Anglian North-
umberland, Scotland received icarcely any pure Saxon
institutions. Thow it did receive have a mixed Saxon
and Nonoan imprint. There were no tithings, wapen-
takes, or hundrnU, no trial by compurgation, no frank-
pledge. No witeoagemot or folkmotes preceded the great
council which became parliament. In short, the system
of government we call the Anglo-Saxon constitution never
Gxiiited in Scotland, although the court of the four southern
biirghs and the customd of the towns of Lothian copied
from those of Newcastle, and a similar association of
bof^tis, the Hanse of Aberdeen, of which there are faint
traces in the north, had a Teutonic origin. And some
traces of Anglo-Saxon criminal law are to be found in the
early Scottish charters.
Caoraore ascended the throne (1058) not long before
England was sabjugated by William the Conqueror.
The only recorded event of his reign prior to the Conquedt
was his quarrel with Tostig, his " sworn" brother, when
be made a raid south of the Tweed and violated the peace
of St Cuthbert by ravaging Lindisfarne. The early yeara
at his reign were devoted to establlBbing his rule in the
northern districts, where hi^ marriage to Ingebiorg, widow
of Earl Tborfinn, related by the Norse but not the Scottish
writers, may have aided him. Ingebiorg, already old, can-
not have long survived the union, nor is the fact of the
marriage certain. The victory of Hastings brought to
the Soottiah court as refugeea Edgar Atheling, grandson
of Edmund Ironude, and hia thi'ee sisters. Their father,
Edward, had found shelter in Hungary in the reign of
Canute and married an Hungarian princess. The eldest
daughter of the marriage, Margaret, became the wife
(106S) of Malcolm Canmore. Her virtues more than his
wars make hia reign an epoch of Scottish history. This
alliance and the advance ot the Conqueror on Noctb-
Dmberlond in the third year ot his reign rendered a
collision inevitable. Malcolm twice harried Northumber-
land d^ng the reigu of the Conqueror with the view of
restoring the Atheling. In the interval between these
expeditions William retaliated by invading Scotland as far
as Abernethy, where he farced Malcrim to do homage.
After the second he sent his son Robert, who reached
Falkirk; but he returned without having accomplished
anything, except that ho built Newcastle as a frontier
fortress. In this reign Northumberland itself was never
really subdued, and William laid waste the district between
the Hu[iiber and the Tees aa a barrier against the northern
Anglca and Danes. After the Conqueror's death Malcolm
jircpared for war, but peace was made before he had left
Lothian, and he again took an oath of homage. Next year
William Itufus succeeded in reducing Cumbria sooth of the
tiolway, then held by Dolphin, lord of Carlisle, a vassal
of Malcolm, rebuilt the ca»lla of Carlisle, and made the
adjoining country tor tlie first time English. He then
summoned Malcolm to Olouceeter ; but the meeting ended,
like others when a sammons to do homage at a distance
from the border was sent to the kings of Scotland, in
settling both in a mors hostile attitude. Malcolm on his
return raised his whole forces for the last expedition of
his life, in which he was slain (1093) in an ambutcade
near Alnwick by Morel ot Camborongh. He left to his
successor a kingdom bonnded on the south by the Tweed,
the Cheviota, and the Solway, though there was much
debatable land along the border^ and the English ving
claimed Lothian as successor of the Northumbrian Anglea,
while the Scotch clainied English Cumberland aa a de-
pendency dating from the grant of Eodgar. Malcolm's
defeat of the mother of Maelsuechtan, son of Lulach and
mormaer of Moray, is the only event recorded to indicate
that his relations with the Celtic population wore not
peaceful, but the materiabi ore too scanty to moke it clear
Uow far the northern chiefs assarted their independence.
The foundation of Mortlach by Malcolm is proof that the
Aberdeen lowlands at least were within his dominion.
The brightest ude of MtUcolm's reign was the reform
duo to Margaret. Her life by Theodoric, a monk of
Durham, or her confessor, Turgol, though coloured by par-
tiality for a good woman, the patroa ot the church, bean
the marks of a true porbait. The miraculous element in
the lives of the Celtic alatii, diminished but still present
in Bede, disappears. The chief changes in the Celtic
Church effected by Margaret with the aid of monks sent
by Lanf ranc from Canterbury were the observance of Lent,
the reception of the Eucharist at Easter, which had fallen
into ne^ect, the ujie of the proper ritual in the niasa, the
prohibition of labour on the Lord's day, and of marriage
between persons rekted by affinity. She restored lon^
long desecrated, founded the church of Dunfermline in
commemoration of her maniage, and protected the hermit^
still common in the Scottish Church. Her severe tasU and
hf r Lberality to the sick and aged are especially noted.
She washed the feet of the poor and fed children with
food she had prepared, procured freedom for captives, and
on either side of the Terry called Queeusferry after her
she erected hostelries for pilgrims. Nor did her piety
lead her to neglect domeatio dutiai. Th^ rude tnanneis
of the Celtic court were refined by her example. The
education of her children, her chief core in hjer hnsband't
frequent absence, was rewarded by the noble chaiacter of
the saintly David and the good Queen Maude. She did
not long survive her husb^d : hearing of his death ahe
thanked the Almighty for enabling her to bear aoch sorrow,
to cleanse her from sin, and after receiving the sacrament
died praying. The chapel on the castle rock at Edinburgh,
erected in her memory, is the oldest building now existing
in Scotland, with the exception of the meagre ruins of the
Celtic Church in the western Highlands.
After Malcolm's death there was a fierce contest for the
crown (1093-97), which showed that the union of Celtic
and Saxon blood was not yet complete in the royal hooae^
much less in the nation. Before the coipse of Momret
could be removed to Dunfermline for bnnal, Donald Bain,
brother of Malcohn Canmoret besieged the castle, and
its removal was only accomplished tmder cover of mist.
Donald, who had the support of the Celts and the tmstom
of tonistry in favour of his cUim, was king nominally at
least six months, when he was expelled by Duncan, ion of
Malcolm and Ingebiorg, assisted by an English foroe, in
which there were Normans as well as Saxons; but hii
tenure was equally short, and Donald, aided by Edmund,
the only degenerate son of Malcolm and Margaret, who
slew his half-brother Dnncon, again reigned three years.
This was the last attempt of the Celts— though partial
riaings continued frequent — to maintain a king of their
race and a kingdom governed aeoording to their customs.
Edgar Atheling, who had become recont^ed to the Norman
king, led an army Into Scotland and by a hard-fooght
battle dispoeaeesed Donald and restored hu eldest nefAew,
Edgar, to his father's throne.
The reign of Ed^r (1097-1107) was nnimportant Its
X3tl, — «i_
48£
SCOTLAND
[H.
chief STwt ma the ceanon of tlie Stidreyir or ialands on
the irat ooAijt to the Norsa king Magaua Barefoot, who
also oonqoered Han ftnd Angleeea. The terina of the treatj
vhich, ftfter two ezpeditiooB, he extorted from Edgar vera
that every iaUnd waa to be his between which and the
mainland a helm-bearing ship conJd paaa, and b; canning
one across the mainland he included (^tjre. Magniu was
killed in Ulster; but the Hebrides remained in the hands of
the Norae kings or lords, and acknowledged their swaj till
the battle of I^r^i f 1363). Their ceasiou was thenecesaai^
price for the consolidation of the Scottish monarcbj in the
south of the kingdom. Edinboi^ was the capital of Edgar,
a dienmstance which marked the removal of the centre
of the kingdom to its southern and Sazon district. His
standard had been blessed at Durham when he Tecarered
the erown, and it was to Durham or Dnnfermline^ where
be waa buried, that bis beaefactions woe mada. lona had
passed into the hands of Uagniu, bnt he, bung a Chiiatian,
raspected its sanctity. Scone waa heuoefOTth only the ecene
of the coronation ceremony.
Edgar, dying chUdless, waa sucoeeded by his brother
Alexander 1 (1107-S4J. Edoeated by his mother, and
after her death in England, Alexander, like his brotlian^
brooght to the govenunent of Scotland Baxon combined
with Norman culture. The singular will by which Edgar
left Cumtxia to his younger brother David was not to
Alezander's taste; but Hie support which the Saxon popu-
lation md the Norman barons, now beginning to hold
land in that diatrict^ gave to David forced his brother to
acquiesce in tie division of the kingdom. It was now
restricted to Lothian, Uerse, and &» tcnntr; bevond
the firths, as for as liar and Bnohan. Hia hold of Uoray
and Boas, Sutherland and Oaithneaa, most have been rather
asBuceroin than as eovereign; Ae mainland of Argyll was
now or aoon after in the posaeaaion of Bomeried, ancestor
of the lords of the lalea; the nortliem isles (Nordreyar) as
well as the Sndrayar remuned Norse. The chief towns of
Alexander were Edinburdi, Staling, InTerkeithing; Perth,
and Aberdeen. At Scone he foondedamonaatecy for canons
of St Augustine; bat BtAndrewawaaatiU thewleBoDttnh
bish^tric. Alexandn married Sil^Ua, a natoial daa^tter
of B!enry L of England, and leeund peaca Witb that
country. Hia only recorded war was with the men of
Means and Moray, who inrpriied him at Invtrgowria
He pursued them to the Moray £^rth, where a signal
victory (111!) gained for him the epithet of " 'Hie Fierce."
liie ehuge fnmi the Celtic to the Boman form of church
government commenced by bis mother and his brother
Edgar was continued. Anselm congratulated him on
his accenion, and asked protection tor monks sent to
Scotland at Edgar's request. On the death of Fothad,
tha last Celtic bishop of Bt Andrews, Alexandw procured
Iha election of Turgot, his mother's confessor and prior
(rf Durham. His eonsecration was delayed through a
diapute between Canterbury and York, and, having failed
to eSbct the anticipated reforms, he went back to Dur-
ham. On his death Eadmer, a monk of Canterbury and
chronicler of note, was aelected for the ofBce by Ralph,
archbishop of Canterbury. The choice was confirmed by
the clergy and people ; but a quarrel with Alexander as to
his breetiture led to his return to Canterbury. Bobert,
prior of Boone, became bishop in the year of Alexander's
death, bat his consecration also had to be put off. Theee
disputes as fo the consecration and investiture of the
bisoop ot St AndrewB tuned on the rival claims of
Canterbury and Tork to be the metropolitan of Sc«tland,
and the refnsol of Alexander to cede the independence of
the Scottish Church, though anxious tor an Wngli«l< monk
to organise the dioceee. National feeling was already
Strong in Scotland, even in a king with Engliih ^mpathiaa.
^nthout the ud of Turgot or Eadmer, Alexander himMlf
laid the foundation of diocesan episcopacy. The fint
bishops of Dunkeld and Moray date frmn hia reign, and
the first parish on record, Ednom in Roxbur^uiiire. At
Incbcolm, as well as Scone, be introduced the canon*
regnlor of Augustine, and on an island cf Lodi l^y a
cell from Scone was built in memory of his wife ffibyOa
He restored the "Boar's Chase" to Bt Andrews and
increased the endowments of Dunfermline. The offices
of diancellor, constable, and sheriff also now appear ; and
the mormaers <rf the Celtic districts are de«gned sa eaite
(comita) in one of his charters. The transition from the
Celtic to the feudal monarchy had begun. Alexander waa
a learned monarch, like Ms fother-in-Iaw Henry Beondeik,
pious and friendly to the ehorcb, bnt severe to hia
aul^eets.
David I (1194-63), the youngest son of Malcolm end
Margaret, became king at the ripe age of forty-four. He
had been trained at the court of Henry I. and his aist«r
Matilda, ao that "his manners were poinded from the rust
of Beottisb barbarity." After Edgar's death he served an
apprentiocBbip for the royal ofBce as earl w prince tt
CMmbri<^ where Ids power was little short of r^aL He
married a Saxon, the daughter of Waltfaeo^ earl d
Northnmberiand, widow of Bimon do St T.itj Norman
eari of Northampton, and his friends and followen were
chiefly Norman. Hu marriage brought >i'in the earldtn
of Hnntingdon, and he was guardian of the earldom of
Northampton during his stepson's minority, ao that he
entered into feudal relations with the Norman king of
l-lngland. In the govenmient of his principality lie sn^
oeeded in reducing a wild part of Scotland into order,
using for this purpose the agency of the ehnrch.
The history of the church in Stratbclyde since Eentigem^
death is obscure. The records of Tork claim tlie' consecn-
tion of a bishop of Glasgow in the middle of the 1 1 th and
another at the commencement of the 13th century; but
thCT are unknown in the records ot Glasgow, and were
?irhaps invented to support the metropolitan claim of
ork over that sea. Glasgow certainly waa restored afw
some considerable lapse in the person of John, the tutor of
David, who at his request was consecrated by Poto Paachal
EL This waa a parollal step to the summons of Turgot and
Eadmet to St Andrews, but David, like Alexander, main-
toioed the independence of his own bishopric, and, tbon^
pope after pope sent letters and testes exhorting obedienco
to Tork, neither John nor his successors yielded it. A new
see erected at Carlisle by Henry L and the rtetoratioa of
Whithorn by Henry n., both subject to Tork, were counter
meoBoree on the part of the English sovereisns. '0»
independence of the Scottish from the Englian Cbuidi
(with the exoeption of Galloway and some places df Lothiu
still -mder Durham) thus asserted by the mlera of Scotbnd
waa of great moment in its subsequent history, and wi*
promoted by the liberality of David and Ms brouwra. ^
inqueat by David's order by which the land d! the iW>'
Glasgow was made maj refer to ancient possession, bflt it
had tiie effect ot a new grant Its extent — ooverino lands in
the dales ot the Clyde, Tweed, Teviot, Annan, NiUi, and in
Ayrshir»— corresponds to the district of Cambria under
David and, with sli^t deviations, to the future diocese cJ
Qisagow. While David's province did not include all of
ancient Cumbri^ it did include some parts of indent
Lothian, the future shires of Berwick, Boxbnrgl^ m^
Belkirk. The Cumbrian nobles were a mixed cli4 —
some Baxou and otlLers Norman, ^itta were fsw of pm
Celtic blood.
Three yean after his accessitm David was preasnt at tb*
oouncU of London, wbere^ along with the EngUsh<baroas hs
awgn to accept bis niece lutilda as tha ■iiimwi' <■
oauxoxx to ujxajsdkb ul]
SCOTLAND
483
Henij li, who liod lost Lie otilj son by the shipirTeck of
the "White Bhip.° Sooa after a rising of Scottish Celta
under K natnnl aon of Alez&uder and Angiu, a grandson of
the momuer of Horaj, waa defeated at StrBCBthro (Forfar)
hy David's troops in his aheence in England, and fonr years
later another nnder Wimond, who pretended to be Malcolm
MacEeth, a chief in Boss, aided by Someriad of Argirll,
who had acquired some of the a^acent isles, was put
down l^^nmond's capture. The death of Henry L and
the claun of Stephen to the English throne led to the
inTasion of England by David, in support of Uatilda,
with an army drawn from all parts of his kingdom,
— the men <rf Galloway, Combna, Teviotdale, Lothian,
Lennox, the Tales, Scotia (the country south of the Forth
or Scots Water), and Moray. Their defeat at the battle
of the Standard at Cuton Moor (1 138) near Northallerton
by the barons of northern England was dna to the want of
discipline of the men of Oallowaj, and, though signal, was
not decisiTe. At Carlisle peace was made on condition that
David's son Henry should hold Northnmberland as an
earldom nnder Stephen, with the exception of the castles of
Bamboron^ and Newcastle. David gave hostages, but
retained CarUsle and Cumberland without any condition of
homage. Two years later, when Matilda seized London,
David joined her ; but she was unable to maintain her
advantage. David waa forced to return to Scotland, and
did not again engage in active hostilities against Stephen.
His death was pr«:eded by that of his only son ; but
his power waa so firm that he procured the acknowledg-
ment of his grandson Malcolm, a boy of twelve, as successor
to the Scottisli crown, while WiUiam, his younger grandson,
BiQCceeded to Northnvberland and the English fiefs his
father had held.
The comparative peace of his last twelve years gave
David opportunity for the eccleaiastical and civU organixa-
tion of the kingdom. He found three and left nine
bishoprics, adding to St Andrews, Moray, and Dnnkeld
the new aees of Glasgow, Brechin, Dunblane, Aberdeen
(transferred from MorUach), Boas, and Caithness. Closely
connected with their establishment was the suppression of
the Celtio Cnldees at Dunkeld^ St Andrews, and Loch
Leven, and perhaps also at Dunolane and Dornoch, where
canons regular of St Augustine became the chapters of the
bishop, 'Bie abbeys, chiefiy Cistercian, which he founded
were Holyrood, Newbattles Melrose, Jedburgh, Kelso,
Cambuiikenneth, Urquhart, and Kialoss. He added to the
endowments of his father and mother at Dunfermline, and
so lessened the crown lands that James L called him
" a sore saint for the crown." ^le division into dioceses
stimulated the formation of parishes endowed by the
bishops or by the lords of the manor ; but the first steps
of the parochial diviuon of Scotland are obscure. The
diocesan episcopate now included the whole of Scotland
except what was held by the Norsemen, who had bishops
of their own for the Orkneys and the western isles,
Rubject to the metropolitan of Drontheim. It preceded
the civil division into sheriffdoms, which also began in
thiit reign, but took a longer period to complete. The
Celtic chiefs in the north and in Galloway were as yet too
jjoweifnl to allow royal officers to hold courts within their
territory, and regalities with the full rights of the crown
in mattere of justice were more lavishly granted in Scotland
than in En^and, where they ware oonfined to the few
palatine ear£ or bishops on the border. The feudal system
in Scotland, erroneou^y antedated to the reign of Malcolm
n. or Malcolm Canmore, really took root in that of David.
Hie king admini/itered justice in person. Tba great judicial
officer of states thejusticiar, who 'iioL.t>?v'«B>ta in the king's.
name, appears either in this or the preceding reign ; so
also do the Mneschal or stewani gt the tojti honsehold
and the chamberlain who collected the royal revenues.
The tenure of laud by charter, of which there are a few
examples by Edgar in favour of Durham and by Alexander
L in favour of Scone, now became common. The charters
of David to the abbey of Holyrood, to Kobert Bruce of
Annandale, and others are in the regular style of the
Notman chancery. There are also instances of 'jubordinato
grants by subjects, which the king coufinns. Thongh no
charter to a burgh is extant, David refers to Edinburgh,
Perth, and Stirling as his burghs. The inquest in favour of
the see of Olaagotv is, by the verdict of those best acquainted
with the facts, similar to the Norman inquest. 'The laws
of the four burghs of Lothian — Berwick, Boxbnr^,
Edinburgh, and Stirling — are records of customs existing
in this reign, while a variety of other laws called assizes,
chiefly relating to tolls and matters of criminal jurispru-
dence^ wore the legislative acts of the king, assisted by the
counts! of his great nobles. The beginning of the feudal
system in Scotland was invigoretod by the personal character
of David. The absence of any large body of settled Celtic
or Saxon customs gave full play to its assimilative influence.
In the reigns which followed Scotland became a purer
example of a feudal state than England, where a targe
number of Teutonic customs contributed to form ttie
common law. A few of these found their way into Scotland,
chiefly through the burgJiB or the medium of Norman
charters, in which they had been incoipoiated. But tho
Scottish common law waa in the main derived from the
Roman code through thf> canon law, and not from Anglo-
Saxon customs. Thongh never canonized b^ the church,
this great monarch, for his faithful administration of
justice and the purity of his domestio life^ waa deemed a
saint by the people.
David's grandson and sncceasor Malcolm IV. (1151-65),
called " The Maiden," died too young to leave a permanent
impression. A rising by Somerled, lord of the Isles, and
the eons of Malcolm MacUeth, mormaer of Moray, was
suppressed in the eorly years of his reign, and peace waa
mode with Somerled in 11S8. A treaty by which Malcolm
surrendered Northumberland and Cumberland to Henry 11.,
and his following that king (who knighted him at Tours)
in an expedition to Toolouse, led to the revolt of the
earl of Stiatheam with five other chiefs. This brought
him suddenly home. An attempt to take him by Bui|iriM
at Perth failed, and next year he succeeded in reducing
Moray and Oolloway, whose earl, Fergus, had also taken
advantage of his alieoce. Moray was occupied by foreign
settlers (1160), amongst whom, besideii Nonnan batons,
were Flemings, — a race fitted to civilize a new country by
Uieir industry. It is to this settlement that the permanent
suljjection of Moray to the Scottish kings, and perhaps the
peculiar dialect and character of the inhabitants of that
part of Scotland, were due. Four years later Somerled
again attacked the west coast, but was defeated and slain
at Renfrew, when the isles south of Ardnamurchan, which
he had won from Oodred the Black, Kon of Olaf, king of
Man, were divided amongst his sons Dugall, Beginold, and
Angus. Next year (1165) the young king himself died at
Jedburgh. WMle he waa reproached for yielding too much
to the powerful English monarch, his service abroad enabled
him to obtain the necessary experience to contend with the
Celtic chiefs. The reduction of Galloway and Moray mora
than compensated for the loss of the earldoms in nortliera
England, the poesession of which by the Scottish king
must have been precarionsi Before his death Bute had
been taken by the steward of Scotland, — the first footing
the Scotch got on the larger isles, but it was afterwards
recovered ier the Norwefrian king Haco and rettored to
Buari, a descehdant of Reginaiu. ' . ■ -2^ U"
Malcolm, dying ctiildleds^thougb hejiad '$n jtWnyinntA
484
SCOTLAND
t"
S-1911). His reign, the longest of
4Uy Scotlub monarch, thou^ not ao nniformly Buccesafnl
M that of hii grandfather, vu on important era in Scottish
histoTy. It ia divided into nearly equal portions bj tha
•roeeadon of Bichard Ccbut da Lion. Tha &nt consists of
the w with Henry IL, in which William was captured
(1175)^ and this made him the subject of the English king
for fourteen yeaie. In the second he r'-covered his in-
dependsnoe, and, reaaming the task of his predecessor,
consolidated the Scottish kingdom in the norUi and west^
William commenced his reign by taking part in the ■wia
with France as Tassal of Heory IL for the fief of Hontijig-
don ; but, being disappointed of t^e promised teetoration
of the northern earldoms, he entered into negotiations with
Loni* VIL of France. This memorable event it the first
aalheotic connexion between Scotland and France, and was
afterwards antedated by a fiction to the tinie of Charle-
magne. Dictated by the situation of the two conntriea,
eqiudly ezpoaed lo duiger from tha power of England nnder
the Angevin or Flontogenet kings, the alliance between
France and Scotland continned with few breaks ontil the
cloee of the 16th centnry, and even in the ITth and 18th
waa relied apon by the Uat of the Stoarts. Fnnce proved a
broken reed to the Scottish kin^ ; but the intereonrBe
between the two conntriee brought the Scottish peopK
when war with England after the close of the 14th century
shut them ORt from the advancing eivilimtion of that
country, into contact with the chivalrous manners of the
court and the learning of the schools of France during the
beat period of French histocy. Nothing came of the allunce
at this time, and two years later Wiliiam and his brother
David, in whose favour he resigned the earldom of Hunting-
don, attended the coronation (during his father's life) of the
younger Henry at Windsor. That ill-judged step and the
morder of Becket led to a domestic revolution, and William,
tempted by the promise of the earldom of Nortliumberland,
joined tha young king against his father (1173). He foiled
in the sieges of Wark and Carlisle, and next year was taken
^isoner at Alnwick by Rannlph de Olanville and sent by
Heory'B order to Falaise in Normandy. To procure bu
release ba made a treaty with Henry l^ which be became
his vassal for Scotland and all his other territories. The
Scottish Church then for the first and kst time owned
EUl^ection to that of England. This taea^ settles the
disputed qumtion of the Scottish homage. It was only by
conquest and the captivi^ of its king tliat snch terms
conld be obtained. To secue the obeervance of :the treaty
the tour burghs of Scotland were to be placed in Henry's
hands and hostages given till their delivery. The ambignons
terms of tha clause as to the church enabled the Scottish
bishops lA refuse obedience to the see of York, and,
Canterbury having advanced a rival claim, Henry, not
dinpleased to aee ecclesiastics quarrel, allowed the Scottish
bishops to leave the council of Norhom without acknowledg-
ing iL The foundatioD of the abbey of Arbroath in memory
ot Beeke^ whom he had known at Henry's court, was almost
the. only endowment of William. At home he put down
KToltB m Oolloway, Boss, and Cutliness. A long dispute
with BUCcessiTe popes as to the see of St Andrews afforded
a ngoal example of the perseverance of William. He also
pro^ired a distinct acknowledgment of the independence of
tha Scottish Chnrch and its immediate snbjection to Borne
alon^ which Henry IL, now approaching tha caUmitous
end hi his reign, could not prevent; nor was he able bi
enforce payment of the Saladio toi frgm the Scottish
bishopa. Immediately after Henry's death Bichard Cienr
de lion, moved by the necessity of money for the crusades,
ooDsented t<x a payment of 10,000 marks to ths abrogation
of the treaty of Falaise fll89) as having been extorted
from William when & capdv^ and restond Sootiand^
ancient marches.
The second port of William's reign waa occupied with
internal affairs. Richard's abaence and John's disputes
with the pope and his own barons gave k relief ttoat
Euglish war. The raising of the ransom tried the tb-
Bourcee of Scotland, and was met by an aid frcnn tha
clergy and barons. Risiags by Harold, earl of CaithneM,
and his sou Torphin (119T), and another by Outhrad
(I3U), a descendant of the mormaer ot Boss, were
quelled. Tla birth of a son strengthened William's throne.
He at one time contemplated an invasion of England, tor
which John's weakness afforded a good opportunity, but
desisted, it is said, in consequence ot a vision, perha]*
remembering his own age and that of hia heir. The
proposed erection by John of a castie at Tweedmouth to
overawe Berwick led to a rupture ; but, after protracted
negotiations and threats, a treaty was made (1 209) by which
William agreed to pay 15,000 marks. John was to procure
suitable matches for his two danghters, and Tweedmouth
was not to be rebuilt The barons promised at a council in
the fdliowing year to raise 10,000 and the bnr^ 6O00
marks. This is tiie first mention of a eontributkMi try the
burghs to a feudal aid. William was their great benebctor,
as Henry the Fowler in Germany and Bichard in En^and :
many cj their charters date from his rdgo. ZjegialatiiM
continued in the form of assizes, which required the sonetuD
of agreat connciL As in England, the necessi^ <rf ratni^
money first gave rite to monicipal rights and to factlittet for
some discussion of public affiurs in what afterwards grew
to be the parliament This ateembly was still the etuia
regit al tiie vassals ot tha king, and the Scottish ^lia-
mant never lost marks d its ori^n. William died at
Stirling in 1314 in the aerenty- second year Ol his ogSL
The Uon rampant, which he took for his seal, became Bis
epithet, and t^reaente his chivalrous and determined
character. He set tlie example, which his son and grand'
son followed, ot cultivating friendly relationa with the
English sovereign, and his efforta to T"»ii'l»tii» the inde-
pendence ot Scotland were nworded by internal peace. It
was only in the onlJying districts that rising hod now to
be feared. The number of ahirea whoe the king's ^eri%
frequentiy (by a policy wise at the time, but afterwoids
dangerous) the chi«f baron of the district, administered
justice at the head towns incieaaes, and tliis, as well **
the growth of trade, brought into prominence the bur^i^
each with a royal castle where the king in his trequtnt
progrtEBOi held his oonrt, and if needful summoned the
great council of his realm. He chief borgha wboee
charters date from this reign are Perth, Aberdeen, Invn-
nesB, Dmnfriee, I^uark, Irvine, Ayr, Forfar, Dnndtcv
Arbroath, Hontiose, Inverurie, Eintore, Banfi^ Cnllen, and
Nairn. Their number and sites, spread ow the whole
country, mark a eettied policy and tha progress cl the
kingdom in the arts of peace. A new dioMse — Ajgyll
— was founded by separation from Dnnkeld, to which
John the Scot, then bishop, sent his chaplain as knowine
Gaelic ; and, thou^ the Hebrides were still Norse, thi*
was a step towards ths complete organisation of the
church and to tha extension oif the kwgdom which fol-
lowed iu the next two reigns, when the Isles also wen
added (1366) to Scotland.
Alexander IL (1214-49), son of William, was crowned
at Scone in his seveuteenth year, in time to take part in
the great struggle in England for Uagna Charta, whii^
bad reached its crisis. Ea sided with the English bvcn^
who made an agreement by whitji Carlisle and the county
of Northumberland were to be given to Alexander, b
fulfilment of his pari hs besieged Korham, while the
barons insertod in Magna Charia a clause by which J(^
"■1
SCOTLAND
485
1 to render to Alezander what ma bis right witli
Tttmaea to the marriage of hu sisters and his kingdom,
-nakm the darten of his father T^Hliam aathorized others
^rm, and this was to be decided b; the judgraent of his
peen ia the evria regit. The position of the Scottish
bng aa one <£ the English barons in whose favour Magna
Chuta wu grantad ia pr^nant evidence of the fact that
he was no^ hke John, Hem7 ILL, and Edward L, a
monarch with imperial tendanciea, the adversary of the
li^ts o( the barons and the people. The Scottish kings
in this centmy and Bmee in the next were popular
acmreigns, and their taemoiy supported the crown when
it was worn by less worthy snccesson. Next year John
broke the charter, rednced by Hie aid of mercenaries the
northern connties of England, and, advancing into Scot-
land, stormed Berwick and burnt Boiburgh, Haddington,
(md Donbar. On his return he pillaged Cbldingham and
set fire to Berwick. Alexander retaliated by wasting
Eo^Aod ai far as Carlisle, which town, bnt not the catitle,
lie took in die aatumn ; tiien, marching to Dover, he did
homage to Loni^ the son of Philip Augustus, whom the
'Rnglish barons had choeen as king. Next year (1217) he
again invaded England, but made peace with Henry III.,
whichwaa confirmed three years later at York. Aleifuider
agreed to restore Garlisle, do homage for his EnglUh fiefs,
and obtain release from the eicommnnicalion which the
pope had deolared against the barons and their allies.
Henry pramised to give AJenmder one of hiii ustcrs in
marriage and to procure suitable husbands for the Scottixh
prineeases. Accordingly, Alexander married Joan, the
elder daughter of John, while Margaret, his sinter, be-
came the wife of Hubert de Burgh, earl of Kent, and
Isabella of Boger Bigod, eari of Korfolk, both nobles who
took a prominent part in the Barons War. These alliances
rendered the peace with England more secure, and allowed
Alexander to devote himself to the reduction of the
periodical iosurrectiona of the Celtic and Norse chiefs on
his northern and western borders. Be redaced ArgjU
(1222), which he created a sheriffdom, and forced John,
earl of Catthnaas, to surrender put of his lands and pay
compensation for his share in the burning of Adam, its
bishop. The wisdomof hiasetUement of Argyll wasproved
Irj the inhaUtante repelliitg an attack by Hoco, the Noise
ksng. He was equally successful in quelling the risings of
two chiefs of the same name, Gillescop, one in the west,
the other in Moray. Five years later (1230) a disputed
Buccesaion in Qalloway gave him the opportunity of cbas-
liung that turbulent province and dividing it among three
co-hairesses. The fall of Hubert ds Burgh and the suc-
ceasitKi of Peter dea Boches to the chief place in the
cotmeil of Henry HL changed the attitude of that king
towards Scotland, but Oth'>, the papal l^ate, preserved
peace by a compromise of the rival claims. A little more
than a year after the death of his wife Joan without issue,
Alexander married Mary de Coudl, daughter of a French
noUa house, which ooonted itself the equal oi king^ and
Alaxandei IIX, the child of the marriage, was betrothed
when an infant of a year old to Marj^iret, daughter of
Henry HL Two years later (1244) a serious rupture,
fomented by Walter Biaset, a Scottii^ exile, and caused
by ft projected alliance of Alexander with France and
the erection of castles on the border, was averted bv the
treaty of Newcastle, by v^ch the kings of En^and and
Scotland bound themselves not to make alliances vith the
enemies erf each other. The last year of his life was
oecupied in putting down a second rising in Qalloway,
and in preparing for an expedition against Eoco, with
the view of »nnjiring the Hebrides ; but he died of fever
at E^eirera. in the Bay of Ohan, iriule mustering his fleet,
Hhw expeditions, aU snccenful, ore picof of the active
character of the kins *^ i"^ l"*^ ^>^^ called " Peae»-
ful " because he prtserred peace with England, for he was
in fact a warlike monarch, enforcing the feudal levy, which,
according to Matthew Pons, amounted in hia time to 10,000
hotse and 100,000 foot, and extending the feudal civil
government. Like his pradecesBors, he was a benefactor
of the church, especially of the new mendicant orders,
whose monasteries were founded in all the prbcipal toiraa.
The most important of his statutes were the aubstitution
of trial by jury for the ordeals of fire and water, and the
regulation of trial by battle, with provision for the case
of women and the cl^gy. He was deemed, like David, a
protector of the poor.
Alexander IIL (1249-86) was only eight yeara old when
his father died. A succession of contests for the regency
between a party of nobles who favoured English influence
and a national party was the consequence. "Sib former
tried to delay uie coronation on the pretence that the
young prince was not a knight; but Comyn, earl of
Menteitb, baffled them by the proposal that tho bishop
of Bt Andrews should perform both ceremonies. Tho
rehearsal of his descent from the Celtic line of kings was
made, according to a custom becoming old-fashioned, for
the lost time by a Highland sennachy, to please the
Gaelic subject^ while the translation of the coi^ise of St
Margaret into a precious shrine at Dui^femiline was col-
ctdated to have a dmilar effect in tho Lowlands. Henry
ni. hod asked the pope to declare the coronation illegal
without his consent, but the pope refused. Foiled in this,
Heaiy celebrated at York the nuptialu of hia daughter and
the young king whom he asked to render homage for lus
kin^om. The reply that he hod not coma to suswcr such
a question and must advise with his counsellors impLed
that he had DounselloTB little likely to grant it. About
this time Dnrward the justiciar and Robert the chan-
cellor were dismissed, and the earl of Menteith held the
chief power for five yean. A secret mission of Simon de
Montfort led to the eorl of March, Dnrward, and other
nobles seizing the young king and qneen, and at a meeting
With Henry at Kelao the Comyns and their supporters were
removed from office (1259) and other regents appointed.
Two years later the bishop of St Andrews got the pope to
exconunnnicate Durward and the English regents. Next
year a compromise was effected and a joint regency
appointed, oonsisting of the queen dowager and her
husband, the earl of Menteith and Durvurd, and the
supporters of both parties. When Alexander was nearly
of age the earl of Menteith died, whereupon the king took
the government into his own bonds (1261). Henry,
engaged in the dispute with his barons, could not interfere.
Alexander at once resumed his father's project tw the
reduction of the Hebrides ; but Boco, the Norwegian king,
forestalled him by invading Scotland, when a storm, which
dispersed his fleet, and the loss of the battle of largB (1263)
foiced tiim to retire to the Orkneys, where he died- Magnus
Olofson, king of Man, the chief Noi«e feudatory, a
descendant of Qodred the Black, submitted to Alexander,
and although some of the islands held out they were reduced
by the earls of Bnchan and Mar and AUn Durward. At
lost Magnus, the son of Haco, concluded a treaty at Perth
(1366), by which he surrendered Han and the Sudreyar
for a payment of 4000 marks and an annual rent of 100 ;
the rights of the bishop of Drontheim were reserved. From
this time the westam isles were snligect to Scotland. At
the parliament of 1284, which settled the crown on the
Maid of Norw^, their great nobles, descendants of
Someried, attended aa vasssds, and the subsequent revolta
(of which there were many) were instigated by the English
inng, who found uaefnl allies in the chiefs of the Isles.
In the Baiona War Alexander aided his father-in-law, m
SCOTLAND
[n
lAoM aida three Scotdah bftion^ John ComTn, Bobert
Bme^ utd John BalicJ, fought &t LewM, wliere uiB first two
^ Ilia fcingrimw AloZftlldeT
and would not allow Hem; hinMelf or the legato Ottobon
to aoDeot witbin it a tithe for the cnuade which the pope
had guaranteed to the Engliah king. On the aecesaion of
Edward L (1272) Alexander attended bis coronation, but
neither then lux sx years later, when speciaUr eiunmoned
to Weatminiter, woiUd be do hranage for Scotland. The
cluaing yeut (^ Alexander were nddened hj domeatic
loaBss. His wife died in 1273, his yoonger son David in
1281. 'Sab only danghter, Ma^aret, married two ;eara
befcm to Erik of Norway, and his elder son, Alexander,
both died in 1283. The following year the estates at
Scone recognized the sncceMion of Mtutgarel, the Maid of
Norway ; bat Alexander, in hope of a male heir, married
Jolet^ danghter of Count de Dreruc At the feativitiea in
Jedbn^i in hooonr of the marriage a ghostly Sgnre in Uie
maaqne was deemed an omen of the king's death, which
followed from a fall near Eiughom (1265). The prosperity
of Scotland in hia reign was oelebrated in one of the earliest
vertes {veaerved in the Scottish dialect —
Away WM aaai oT ila and brade^
of vjneud wu, of rai
Oora gold Wis chaugad Int
vjne and wax, of 010711 and gle,
_ - gold waa chaugad Into Lada.
Crjn, born into rirginit^
<i._.i — I jjjj iBmedB
That tted in Lis perplexille.''
Under the wise mle cd iiuta kings, extending over
mora than a century — a drcnmstanee rare in that age —
Scotland attained a degree of wellbeing before unknown,
which did not rstom till die ISth century. The extent of
the revenue ia attested by the retnms of the sheriffi to the
<Jiamberlain and by the accounts of the tax which Boiamund
deTioci, the pope's representative, levied from the clergy for
the crusade. Berwick, the chief Bcottiah port, waa likened
to Alexandiio, and attained an importance it never recovered
after its Tinion with England. Its cnstoma were reckoned
as eqnal to a third of tiioee of all England, — a statement
hardly credible till we remember that the trade of Britain
was diiefly witli Fradce and Flanders, and that a harboor
for small enft waa sofiicienL The personal chaiactar and
bravely of these kings subdued Uie turbulence of the
catling districts and kept in check the ambition of the
nobles. The bounds of the kingdom were almost as they
now are, and the name of Scotland permanently passed to
itt6 whole oonntry aonth as well aa north of the Forth.
Li ^ite <d differences of race, the onity of the nation had
bosn aecored, U>d its independence was acknowledged by
the p<n>e and other sovereigns ; the English alone kept np
a nominal claim to rights which had for short periods been
held by Canute and the Conqueror, and for longer by the
second Henry, until they were abandoned by the treaty
of Canterbury. But now all was to be changed. Three
ceuturiee of war, though diminishing in intensity as time
went on, display heroic character, but imply an amonnt of
suffering to the people which cannot be told. Perhaps a
contest between the two proud nations which shared Britain
was inevitable, yet the reigns of the Alexanders suggest a
different possibility. That the contest came when it did
waa dne to the disputed succession on the death of War-
(stre^ the Mtud of Norway. This gave to the ambition of
Edward L an opportunity to reduce the whole island to
his sway, which hs waa quick to seise. *
8, Waro/Independtnce./rtmDtatAo/AUxanderlll.
to Aaeettio» of ffoiiM 0/ Stuart — The Uaid of Norway,
iriioee right was at once acknowledged (for Scotland, like
England, knew no Seiic law), waa not to wear the crown.
A ngency administered the kingdom for five years aflsr
Alexander's death. A conference at Salisba^ between
commiBBLOnera of Erik of Norway, £dward L, three of the
regenta, and Bruce, lord of AnimnHala, agreed that Harpret
ahould be sent home unbetrothed. Bar marriage to Ed-
ward's son, for which a dispensation had been got boa
Borne, was aanctioned by an assembly at Bri^uun near
Boxbnrgh (16th Jnly 1290), inatreaty which madeaaxioiia
provision for the indqtend^ice of SootUnd. This country
was to remain free, and, saving the right of the king d
England in tfie marches or elsewhere, separata from Eng-
land by its lawful bounds. No pailiaiuent waa to ut, and
no Scottish suit to be tried, out of Scotland. Edward con-
firmed this treaty by oath ; but the death of Margaret in
tlie Orkney rendered it abortive. To prevent wi aimed
contest for the crown. Eraser, bishop of 6t Andrew^ invited
Edward to intervene, and certain Scottish nobles made a
umilar request. He accordingly summoned the Scottish
estates to meet him cm 10th May, and thp Ea^ish parlia-
ment on 3d Jane 1291, at Norbam near Berwick. Whea
the Scots cune Edward refused to judge the canm of the
Scottish anccession unless tus title as auperior of Scotland
waa admitted. After some delay tha barons and clergy
gave the admission, aa also did the claimants — no fewer
than tliirteen — but the representatives of the ocanmons
withheld any auch acknowledgment. The court for the
decision of the cause was then appointed. Forty ntanhns
were named by Baliol and as many by Bruce, betwera whem
the competition reoUy lay, while Edward chose tweoty-fonr.
On the folloimig day the competittH? agreed that Basina of
the kingdom shoold be given to Edward ; a week later
the re^nt surrendered the kingdom of Scotland and the
keepers the chief castles into his hands ss lord paiamonnl.
He restored possession after adding several Englishmen
to the regency. After another a^oumment the cMn-
petitors put in their claims. Three descendants of David,
earl of Huntingdon, brother of William the Lion — all
gngliati barons, though on^ Bmce^ had large estates is
Scotland — vrere alone seriooa JcJm Baliol claimed as
gnndaon of David's eldest daughter Margaret wife of
Alan, lord of Qolloway ; Robert Bruce as son of David's
second daughter, wife of the lord of Annandale ; while
David de Hastings, grandson of the tliird daughter Ada,
contended that £e kingdom was partible. This last qoei-
tibn waa postponed untU the claims of Baliol and Brace had
been considered. After two long a4JDUmmenta it was at
last decided (Uth October 1292) that the case was to be
ruled by tha law of the kingdom applicable to titles of
earldoms, baronies, and other indivisible inheritance^ and
" that by thia law in every heritable succeswoa tie mow
remote by one degree descended from the eldest sister
waa preferable to the nearer in degree from the second.
Edward accordingly decided (17th November 1292) in
fealty to Edward at Norbam; ten days after hs was
crowned at Scone ; within a month he did homage to Ed-
ward at Newcastle.
The judgment was Just, according to the prinriplis of
feudal law afterwards fixed, though then unperf ectly estab-
lished, in favour of primogeniture ; the acknowledgment
of the suzerainty of Edward was a different matter. I"
the course of the proceedings Edward obtained tiooi the
cathedrals and reltgious houses of England returns of
homage by Scottish kings. No such returns were a^^
from Scotland, Those from England recited the well-
known eases of iaolated conauest followed by homage to
Saxon, Danish, and Norman kings, Edward the Elder lO^
Atheletan, Canute and the two Williams, and the tnaly
of Falaise by which Vniliam this lion snirendcred tbt
"WAB OF uuimmnK]
SCOTLAND
487
iitdqModflnca d Bootlud. Tlu; Ignored tha ta«>^ of
CantcrbuiT by «hkli It wH iMtond, tits cImm of lugu
Chvto nutlng to Scotknd and tfas rights of it* kuig,
tha rafiml of tba lut two Alexanden to nodar hmutge
for their kingdoin, aad tlie tiektj of Bri^iun by vhiui
Edmid had acknowledged the independenoe (tf Scotland.
One nanlt of Uie aubmiaaon to tlw En^iah king ov«r-
looked I>7 the eager competiton, but not ^ the lawTen
who adTued Edward, inunediatelj emerged. An ai^teal
ITU BOOH taken from tha court of B&liol to the court of hia
Bupeiior at WeetminAter. Baliol referred in Tain to tiie
eipreaa ckoae in the treatv of Brigh&m that no Scottish
■uitwas to be tried bajrond Scotland; Edward replied thia
vas an appeal from hii own officers dnring the in tenegnam,
bat aaNirted hia ri^t to hear appeala in all caae& Other
appeala followed, and Bali<d weakly anriaadered hia clum
to independent jariadietimL Sh<^t^ afterwarda (October
1293)liewaBhiiiuelf aommoned to Weetminater aa defend-
ant in a suit by Mn^Jiff, aon of the eail of Fife. Dedin-
ing to appear, he vaa condemned for oontonpti and three
of hia principal cwtlw were wdered to be aeiaed. He again
yielded and promiaed to attend next parliament, "niere
conid be no longer doabt what had bem the effect of sub-
mitting the diapnte aa to the crown to Edward. Inatancei
of homage had not been difficolt to find ; but the records
might be ransacked in Tain for an example of what would
now become frequent, — the adjndication by the conrt of
the "IT"g'"*' king on the righte of Scotsmen. The exe-
cntion of this decision by force in Scotland carried with
it at no distant date the anbjection of the kingdom.
Baliol quitted Westminster suddenly in 1294 to escape
■errice in the Gascony war. By yielding in the question
of appeal he had lost tha confidence of the Scottish barons.
In the parliament of Scone a council was appointed to con-
trol him, and all fiefs held by EngUshmsn vers forfeited.
In the following year he formed an alliance against Eng-
land with the French king, and his sou waa promised
the dan^tec of that king's nephew, tlte count of Ai^oo,
in marriage. The Soottidi army headed by aix earls Uien
inraded Endand, but was repulsed at Carlisle (28th March
1396), and Edinrd, leaving his French campaign, at once
marched northwards. Before the end of Ibrch 1296 he
stormed Berwick. Wlule there, the abbot of Arbroath
bronght him a renunciatiop of Baliol'a homage. Dnnbar
was taken soon afterwarda by the earl of Bnrrey ; Bos-
burgh, Jedburgh, and Edinburgh fell before the end of
June J Btirling, Perth, and Scone surrendered without a
blow. At this time no Scottish town was walled and no
resistance could be made against the English feudal lev;
led by Buch a general as Edward. In the chorchyard of
Stracathio in Forfar Baliol renonnced his alliance wiith
France, and a few days afterwarda (IDth July) BuireDdn^
Scotland to Anthony Beck, bishop of Durham. Edward
marched as far as Elgin, but it was a conquest of Baliol,
not of Scotland. This impotent monaidi was carried
captive with his son to London and vanishes from Scottish
history. He died at one of his French fiefs twenty years
afterwards, never having attempted to regain the kingdom.
On his homeward march Edward took and recorded in the
Ttngman Rolls tha homage of the Scottish nobility, and
carried to Westminster the sacred stone of Scone, on which
the Celtic monarchs had been crowned, and the black rood
of Hargaret, the hallowed relic of the Saxon line. Surrey
was appointed guardian, Sir Hugh Cressingham treaaurer,
and William Ormsby justiciar of Scotland; the nobles
were treated with lenity and the bishops bribed by the
privilege of bequeathing their movablea like their T^ngliah
brethreo. The moat important resnlt of the campaign
wa4 the capture and fortification of Berwick. That city,
the key to the Lothiana, waa tha commercial cajiitd;
aad Seotlaad ma left without one Tmtil the rise, after the
naion, of Glaagow and the mercantile centres of the Clyde,
When Uie fortunea of Scotland were at the lowest, when
the comitry was deeerted by the king, and its noblee and
clergy were making terms with the conqueror, Wallace,
the man of the peopl^ appeared. The second eon of Sir
Malcolm Wallace of Elderslie near Paisley, his name in-
dicatea a remote Celtic origin from a Welsh or Cambrian
stock. In the spring of 1297, in revenge for the murder
of his wife, Wallace slew Hazelrig, sheriff of Ayr, and
burned Lanark. Collecting a band of followers animated
with like patriotiani, and aided by a single noble, Sit
William Douglas, he aurprised and drove Ormsby, the
justiciar, from Scone and Beck, the bishop of Durham,
from Qlasgow. Borne of the banms, headed by James ^
Steward, joined him, and Wallace and Douglas coined
evetything before them in Lennox and Galloway, — dia-
tricta more faToniable to the national cause than Lothian.
Hia nobks fall away from Wallace almost as soon aa Percy
appotni at tha heftd of an En^ish force, and Dougla^ the
Steward, Brace the future king, and othera capitulatad at
Irvine (9lh July 1297). Wallace, while eng^ed in the
siege of the castle of Dundee, heard that Surrey and Cress-
ingham were advancing on Stirling, and he marched to ita
relief. There at the bridge over tJie Forth near Cambua-
kenneth he won his moet&mons victory (llth September),
The TJSigliali were totally routed and Cressingham waa
killed. The disparity of numbers was great, for the
English bad 50,000 foot and 1000 horse, against at moat
40,000 foot and only 180 horse. Tha geneialship of
Wallace, who tempted hia adversary to cross the bridge in
his face and held his troops in hand until the moment of
the charge, won the day, the first in which a feudal army
was beaten by light-armed peasants. Wallace attempted
to organize the kingdom he had won. He assumed the
title ol guardian of tha realm in name of the Lord John
(Baliol), and associated with himself Sir Andrew Moray of
BoUiw^ son of the only boron who stood by him and
who fell in the battla He held the nobles in awe, while
he rewarded hia adherents. The grant (fortunately pre-
served) of the office of constable of Dundee to Alexander
Scrymieour can acarcely have been a solitary one. He
introduced better discipline in the army, and tried also
to revive trade.* Shortly after the battle of Stirling
Wallace carried the war aa f ar as Hexham, whose monks
he protected. That he penetrated farther sonth and won
the favour of Eleanor, Edward's wife, is one of the romantic
additions to hia scanty history in the poem of Blind Harry.
Edward recognized Uie crisis and, leaving Flanders, sent
a force before liim under Pembroke, following in person
at the head of 80,000 foot and 10,000 horse. For a brief
space soccess attended Wallace, who defeated the Fnglith
in Fife and Ayr ; bnt the bishop of Durham retook the
castle of Dirleton, and Edward himself, by the victory of
Falkirk (22d July 1298), in which the noblea again proved
false to the popular cause, reversed that of Stirling.
Wallace took refuge in Fiance, and, although the French
king at Amiens offered to surrender him, be was soon re-
leased and provided with a safe conduct to the pope.
Papers found on him when captured show that he received
similar letters from Haco of Norway and BalioL Whether
he went to Rome is not certain, but he may have been
one of the Scots who at this time induced Boniface THL
to claim the superiority of Scotland. The claim was in-
dignantly repelled by the Kngli"!' barons at the parliament
of Lincoln ; Edward, however, thought it prudent to lay
before the pope a statement in which he advanced not only
SCOTLAND
[BSKttT.
tlM instoncea of homage collected for use ti Norhain
but. the foble of Bmte the Trojan, from whoM eldest sou
Looiniw he cbuined descant, and therefore Hnperiority
orer the Scottish kings Bpning from Albcuiactus the tecond
■a well M these of Wales dev ended from Camber the third.
Baldred de Bissat, the Scottish- commiasioner at Rome,
in his answer admitted the pope's right, bat' replied to
Sdwaid'a fiction b; another as bold, — the descent of the
Scots from Seot^ Uie daughter of Pharaoh. A more solid
ugnmsnt was fonnded on the b^atj of Brighom. The
pMie dek^ed jndgmant, and in tlSOS eoddenlj changed
rides «id ezhcvted the Scots, b; seveial boUa, to sabmit
Edward had not waited for this sanction ; the period be-
tween tlie baUle of Falkirk and the taking of Stirling was
ft continQonB and bloodj atrog^e. In person he laid waste
Oallowv and took CaerlaTerock (13D0) ; in 1302, his
geDHal Sir John Segmve, having fonght a battle of doabt-
hl iaane with OmnTn and Fraaai at Roslin, Edward re-
turned (1303X maidied aa far a* Caithness, dnd reduced
the whole east of Scotluid bj the captnre uf Stirling (24th
Jannarj 1304). Scotland waa iabdned, yet Wallace Uyed,
and we catch gtimpsea of him, in the woods (rf Dnnferm-
line, in the fewest of Ettrid^ in the neighboorhood of
taaak. A price was aet on his head, uid at last he
was betnTed by a servant of Sir John de Uenteith near
Glasgow and ti^en to London, whert^ after a mock trial
in Westminstei Hall, ha fecdved the tcaltor'a doom (23d
Angost 130S), thott{^ he denied with truth that be bad
taken any oath to Edward.
Thia time Edward, in order to make the conqneet of
Scotland permanent, ^oceeded to incorporate it in the
empire of T!ngl*i"<, With apparent faimees an assembly
was summoned to Perth to elect ten representatiTee to
kftend a parliament at Westminster to trc*t of the afRurs
of Scotland. Nine commissioners came to London, wher«
th^ were associated with twenty EnglisfatseiL The reenlt
was the "Ordinacio facta per dominnm r^em pro stabili-
tate teme Scotia" (1306J Though never fnlly carried
ont, this docnment, on the model of sin)ilar oidinanoes for
Wtjea and Ireland, discloeea Edward's designs. English
Dobtee weto appointed to administer the government of
the conntry, and dght jnsticea to administer the law. The
law and nsagoa of Scotland (except those of the Brets and
Scots, which were abrogated) were to be observed in the
meantime; bnt the lieutenant (John of Brittany, the king^
nephew) and oouncil were to amend what was contrary to
God and rsasanjOr in case of difficulty refer to Edward at
Wesbninster. The w^ole country was divided into sherifT-
doms, the sherib being removable at the discretion of the
Eentensnt. The office of coroner, more important then
than now, was also regolated ; certain pereons were nomi-
nated constables of the chief castles; and many nobles
were fined and others banished. Bruce (the competitor's
gnuidson) was ordered to put Eildrammy Castle (Aberdeen)
ta chuge of an officer for whom ha shoold be responsible.
Uie ordinance was snitable to its object, — moderate, even
hnmana. Hie banishment of the n<^es was liinited as to
time. Belief waa given in the payment of fines. Many
old officeiB were contmned. Edward's aim at this time
was to pacify the conntry he had conquered, to put down
resistance, bat to encooiage snbmismon. It is as wrong
to call him a tyrant aa Wallace a rebel : the one was a
statesman king with imperialist alms, the other a patriot
leader with keen popular sympathies. The king triumphed;
hot before his death his well-laid plans were shattered :
Scotland again rose in arms, and this time the nobles jcnned
tnsted wiUi that of Wslhw& Instead of being a cadet of
the ordinaij famcted getttj, Brnoe rupreseuted a family in
which for more than two centtmea the poreet Nonnan
blood had flowed. The English branch of Skeltmi m
Cleveland and the Scottish branch of Aniundale divided
their large poasesuons ; bnt those of the l&tter snffioed to
make its head one of the mist powerful nobles in Scotland,
who still retained, as so many did, English fiefs. More
than one of his ancestors had intermarried with the royal
house of Scotland (see Robebt tkb Bnucs, vol. zx. p. 692).
On his father's death Brace sncceeded to Aanajidale. Be
held besides several manors in Etigland. During the early
part of the War of Independence, like many barons with
conflicting interest^ he bad wavered, sometimea sapportiog
Wallace, mora frequently the Englirfi king. In 1303-4 he
asBiated Edward in the preparation for the siege of Stirling.
He bad been consnlted with regard to the ordinaiiCe of
1305. But there were already signa of mutoal distrust
The provision in the ordinance as to Eildnuniny shows
that Edward was aWre special precautions had to be
taken to secnre the loyalty of Bnic«^ and on Ilth June
1304 Brace seeretiy met near CambaskennBth Lambertoc^
bishop of St Andrews, and entered into a bond referring
to fntnre dangers from Edward. Of all the Scottish clergy
lAmberton had been iQOSt friendly to Wallace, and this
bond was a link between the two periods of the War of
Independemx and their leaders. Brace bad attended at
Westminster when the ordinance waa aetUed, bat left sud-
deoly, arriving at Dnmfries on the seventh day, TheM
he met in the church of the Friars Minor John (the Tied)
Comyn of Badenoch, Baliol's nephew, and slew him before
the-hi^ altar (10th February 1306). The die was cas^
abd indecision vanished from the character of Brace.
Collecting his adherents at Lochmaben and Glasgow, he
passed to Scone, where he was crowned by the bishop of
St Andrews. It at fint seemed likely that' a saying of
his wife would prove true^ — that he was a aommer bnt
would not be a winter king. His defeat at Uethven (19th
June 1306) was followed I^ another at Strathfillan (11th
August), and Brace took refuge in the island of Bathlin
(ofiT Antrim, Ireland). The tales of his hairbreadth escapes,
his eoorage and endurance in all cbailgea of forune, wei*
gathered by Barbour fvom the months of the people, who
followed the life of their champion with the keenest in-
terest Meanwhile Edward came north and gave a fore-
toate of hia vengeance. Bnt his aeveri^ strengthened the
party of Brace, which grew daily. All classes now made,
with few exceptions, common canse jgainst the enemy of
alL Edward's death at Bnrgh-on-&nds (7th Jnne 1307} at
once changed the whole aspect of the invasion. Edward H.
wasted in the ceremony ci a fnnerdl and the divwaioas of
a ^thful oonrt the critinl moment of the ww. Brace
aeixed hia c^portimity, and by the cloee of 1313 Berwick
and Stilling alone remained English. The iodqiendence
of Scotland was finally determined by the ever-memoiahle
victory of Bannockbom (24th Jnne 1314).
Brace reigned fifteen years after Bannockburn and ^
the Irish expedition of lus brother Edward be left ont of
account) with almost nninterrupted snccess. On hia return
from Ireland he reduced Berwick (March 1316) and cea-
verted it from an English to a Scottish frontier town. Bis
recognition by the pope was followed by the acknow-
ledgment of Flanders and France; and the long tiuca
which Edward II. had been forced to agree to before bia
death became in the new reign a formal treaty known aa
that of Northampton (April 1328). By its leading article
" Scotland according to its ancient bounds in the days of
Alexander IIL shall remain to Bobert, king of Scola, and
his heirs, free and divided from England, without any asb-
jection, aervitode, claim, or demand whatsoever." In pu^
snance of another article Johanna, Edword'a dster, waa
married to David, tiia infant ton ct Brace, at Berwick on
VAK or DIDBnVDKKCK.]
SCOTLAND
I3th J11I7. As ui adnunutretor uid legiaUtor he aboired
an ability not inferior to that which in his earlier jean
he had manifested as a warrior and a general He obtained
from the estates a Mttlement of the sucorasioD, reformed
aboMi in the fendal law, regulated the courts, providing
equal jnstice for poor arid rich, and framed strict Acts
against aaditioo. He also encooiBged trade, cspeciallv
Upbuilding, foreteetng its future importance to Scotland.
Never off his goard, amongst his most anxious legislative
provisions are those relating to the defence of tho kingdom,
— arming all able-bodied men, prohibiting exports of arms,
fortifjing the towns and castles on the borders, arranging
lignals to give notice of invasion. Thongh attacked bj
leprosy contracted in his campaigns, he remained active to
the iMt, — a monarch such as occnn only once in man;
centtuies, brave, liberal, wise, and pions, like the English
Alfred, the darling of the nation he had delivered. (For
fuller details, tee Robbbt TH> Bbuci, vol ix. p. S94 tq.)
The wise prorusion that Bruce nutde for the t^geocy
aecnred the peaceful Bucceesion of his son David IL (I339~
TO), who was the fint Scottish king asoiated at his coro-
nation,— a privilege oonceded to Bruce in a bull which
reached Scotland iJter bis death. According to the ideas
of the age this placed the Scottish king on an equality
with the sovereigns of Europe. The War of Independence
rkened the seotiment oE Scottish nationality, and left
eonntry poorer in wealth but richer in spirit. The
memoriea of Wallace and of Bruce educated the people and
duced in the next generation their earliest literatare.
_ and, nnconscions of the beneSt, gained by ita own de-
feat. But for the reustance of the Scots it might have be-
come earlier than France a centralized feudal monarchy.
Hie distinct character of the Scots^-a blend of the Celt,
Saxon, Noreeman, and Norman — strengthened by variety
the collective force of Britain. The loss which must be
balanced against the gain was the bitter hatred between
two races of kindred origin within one narrow isle, which
for centuries retarded the progresa of both, especially of the
amallei kingdom.
The almost contemporaneons reigna of David IL and
Edward IIL reversed the position of the two cottntriee :
Scotland had now one of its feeblest and England one of
its most powerful kings. Had not the love of liberty
become the life-blood of both nobles and commons in Scot-
land it most have snccnrabed in the desperate struggle.
After the death of Bobeit, Bandolph, earl of Moray,
governed with ¥risdom and vigour for three years. On his
death theestates chose Donald, earl of Mar, another nephew
of Bruce, whom he had passed over, foreseeing hts inca-
pacity. Encouraged by the divisions ot the nobles, Edward,
con of John Baliol, with the barons who had lost their land
by espousing the English side, suddenly landed at Kinghom.
Nine days after his election, Har was met and vrorsted by
Baliol 00 Dupplin Huir (1 1th August 1 332), where Mar him-
nlf and many nobles were slain. Baliol vras crowned at
Scone; bnt Perth was immediately retaken, and Baliol, hav-
ing been defeated at Annan by the young earl of Moray, left
Scotland Next year Edward came with a large army to
his support and defeated at HaLdon Hilt (20tb July 1333),
chiefly throngh the skill of the archers, the Scots led by
Archibald Douglas, lord of Galloway, who was now regent.
Berwick capitulated and Baliol enrreodcred it to England,
pledging in addition the castles of the Lothians, including
Edinborghond Linlithgow, in security for an annual tribute
of .£2000. Like his grandfather, Edward IIL mode a new
cndinooce for the government of Scotland, but his officers
never obtained poeseoion of their posts. Meantime David
and his queen fled to France, where they remuned seven
jeara. Fortunately tor Bcotland a new race of patriotic
iMdm appeand : llMar td BothweU handed down the
traditions of Walhtce and Bruee, while Sobert the Steward,
Douglas the knight of Liddesdals, and Sir Alexander
Itamsay of Dalhousie sustained the fame of Bruce, Ban-
dolph, and Douglas. The attraction of a French campaign
with the crown of France as priia prevented Edward from
ever using his whole force againiit Scotland, and a French
fleet made a diversion by attacking the Channel Islands
and threatening tho lale of Wight Edward retaliated by
assuming the title of king of France^ and after two years'
preparation invaded that country from Flanders. The
armies met at Vifontosae (26th September 1339), where
David ot Bcotland was present. Never was tho pomp of
chivalry seen in greater aplendoor, but the first act of the
Hundred Years' War, which seemed destined to make
French and English eternal enemies and French and
Scots perpetual allies, passed without a blow.
Two years later the recovery of the Scottish castles and
the repnlse of Salisbury's attempt on Dunbar mode it safe
for David to return to Scotland, which Baliol had aban-
doned. Though scarcely eighteen, he assumed the govern-
ment (30th March 1342). Before his arrival Edinburgh
had fallen, and next year Roxburgh was taken by Sir
Alexander Ramsay, whom David unfortunately rewarded
by the sheriffdom ot Tevtotdole, which the knight of
Ijddesdale claimed, and Ramsay, seiied by treachery, was
starved to death at the Hermitage by the knight of
Uddesdole, who entered into correspondence with the
English king, and diahonoured bis name ot the " Flower of
Chivalry." Bullock, an ecclesiastic who had risen to the
office ot cbamberlaLi under Baliol and transterred his
services to David, met the same fate at the hands of the
king on a suspicion of treason. Other signs of weak
government were not wanting. On the conclusion ot a
brief truce, David, tempted by Edward's absence, invaded
England in spite of the defection ot some of his chief
nobles, and was defeated at Neville's Cross (ITth October
1346) near Durham by the archbishop of York and t}ie
northern barons, the king and several of his nobles being
taken priaonera. The rigour of David's captivity (which
lasted eleven years) was relaxed so far as to allow him to
return frequently to Scotland and try to persuade the
people to raise his ransom, which the English king urgently
required. Though Baliol was still acknowledged as nominiid
king by Edward, he resided in Galloway, while Robert tho
Steward, elected regent in the name ot David, really
governed. At length by the treaty of Newcastle (13di
July 1354) David's ransom was agr^ en, sofficient
hostages being taken for its payment. Next year the
Frendi king resumed the Scottish war by sending Engine
de Garancifere with men, money, and arms. Several border
engagements followed, but Edward, advancing to tho
frontier, took Berwick, and obtained from bis puppet
Baliol an absolute surrender of the Scottish kingdom for
an annuity. He ravaged the Lothians in the raid called
the Burnt Candlemas, but failed really to reduce the,
country. Edward's vict<»7 over the French at Poiiicrs,
in which many Scots were slain, forced the Scottish parlia-
ment to grant tke terms dictated by the English king.
Peace was finally concluded bj the treaty of Berwick (3d
October 1357), and confirmed at Scone, — the ransom being
raised and the condition as to hostages mode more severe.
David at once returned to Scotland. But his sympathies
had become English ; he revisited that country almost
every year, and it required all the strength of the Scottish
estates to prevent the son of Bruce from making a surrender
of his kingdom more ignominious than Bailars. The
enormous ransom pressed hard on so poor a country. An
attempt to induce France to resume the war failed, and
Davi^ like a debtor dealing with a money-lender, had to
ranew his biila aC vmtj. Negotiations for this purpoeo
490
SCOTLAND
t«
wtat on till 1366, wben a trnce for foni: yeexa wu agreed
Uh Edward ftnd David latterly dsTiBed BcLemGe for paj-
meat hj Buother piocees, — tlie tranifer of the crown at
DftTid's death to an Engluh priuce. At the parliament
at Scona David proposed that Lionel, duke of Clarence,
aboold be recogmxed u bis heir ; but the eatatee replied
with one voice that no Engtiahnuui shonld role Bootland,
and reneired the settlement of the mcceaaioQ by Bruce on
Bobert the Steward. Hatred of foreign aggreasioa and
the weaknen of the king enabled the Scottish barons to
play a part similar to that taken by the nobles of England
in die reigns of John and Henry III., and obbun guarantees
{ot the constitntion by limiting the monarchy. Such was
probably the origin ci the committees of parliament (at a
later date- tnmed to an apposite use) for legislation and
for judicial business which first appear in 13G7, — the
■tatntes for the more regular adinuiistTation of justice,
})urity of the coinage, and the revocation of the giants of
royal revenoea and estates. It was eipressly declared
that no attention vaa to be paid to the royt^ mandate
when contrary to law. About this period David entered
into a sacret agreement with Edward, promising in return
for a lemission of the ransom to settle the crown on him
failing burs of bis own body, but the public negotiations
for ttE payment went on. In the same yeoi his marriage
with luB second wife, Margaret Logie, a daughter of
Dmmmond, a lesser baron, led to a tevolt. He quelled it
and threw the steward and at least one of bis sons into
prison, making lavish grants to Margaret and her relatives.
Her influence did not last long as she was supplanted in
the king's favour by Agnes of Dunbar. Margaret was
divorced by the Scottish bishop^ for what cause is not
known, and, though her appeal to the pope succeeded,
David did not sorvive the decision. He died on 2lBt
Febnury 1370, childless, and the snccession opened to
Robert, son of luce's daughter Marjory, the Bret of the
Stuarts who were to govern Bcotland foe the next two
6. ffoiue of Stttartfrom Bt^erl 11. to Jamet 17. — llie
descent of the house of Stuart is traced from Walter Fitc-
Alan, a Norman, steward of David L His estates Were in
Renfrew, to which Alesander, the fourth steward, added
Bute by marriage. Walter, the sixth steward, was scarcely
one of the chief nobles ; but his prowess in the War of In-
dependence g^ed him the hand of the daughter of Bmcc
Robert II. was their only eon. Such was the prosperous
record of the family before it ascended the throne. Its
subsequent history presents a series of tragedies of which
that of Mary Stuart & only one, though the most famous.
While the fate of kings excites the imagination, history
must trace the growth of the nation and tiie slow changes
which transformed the bulk-ofthe Scottish people from
loyal euly'ects to bitter enemies of their native kings and
its kings from patriots to tyrants.
Bobert H (1370-90), already Bfty-four, continued rather
than commenced his government on the death of David IL,
tor he had been twice regent during David's exile and cap-
tivity. Ho did not ascend the throne without opposition,
but the memory of Bruce was too fresh to admitTjf his
settlement being put aside. The earl of Douglas, whose
great estates on the border made h™ more formidable as
a competitor than his claim by descent from a dau^ter of
David, earl of Huntingdon, was conciliated by the nmr-
riago of the king's daughter IsabeUa to his son and by his
own appointment as justiciar south of the Forth and warden
of the eastern marches. This impediment removed, the
coronation proceeded, and it was followed by a public de-
claration of Uie settlement of the crown on Robert's son
John, earl of Carrick, at his father's death. A still more
•xplicit settiement was made two years afterwards on the i
king's sons by his first nurriagB -vith Eliabetli Hon^—
John earl of Carrick, Robert earl of fife, and Alexander
lord of Badenoch ; and failing them on those of his teecnd
with Euphemia Boss, — David eorl of Stratheam and
Walter lus brother. A question as to the Intimacy cf
the children by Elizabeth More rendered this declantiai
necessary. The first fourteen years of Roberfa tvj^
passed with scarcely anything worthy of record. The ki^
whose portrait is drawn by Froiasart as a man "not valiant,
with red bleared eyes, who would rather lie still than ride,"
left the oares of government to his sons, especially the
second. England, after the death of Edward IIL <1377),
was occupied with the necessary arrangements for a new
leign and witli the rising of Wat Tyler (1381). The
absence of any movement in Scotland similar to this or
die French Jacquerie perhaps indicates a better relation
between the peasantry and the upper classes ; but a third
estate of the commons was as yet unknown in Scotland.
John of Qaunt, who had invaded Scotland the year before,
now took refuge there and was hospitably received in
Edinburgh till the young Richard H., by putting down
the lising, made it safe for him to return. This vivt led
to the first entrance into the northern kingdom of the
principles of Wlcklifle and the Lollards, whom Oaunt
favoured. The French, still anxious to incite the Scots
to attack England, sent a small party of free lances, who
landed at Montrose and were allowed to make a rdd on
their own account. Wiey were foUotred by John da Tienne
with 1000 men-at-arms and many folfowera.^ He licence
of the French km'ghts did not promote good feeling ; but
the interest of the two countries prevented a rupture.
After the French left the Scots maide another raid into
'Northnmberland, in retaliation for an expedition in which
Richard IL wasted the Lothians. Three years later, under
the earl of Douglas, they attacked Newcastle, but were
repulsed by Henry Percy, who, true to his name of Hotspur,
in order to recover his pennon, pursued them to near Redes-
dale, about SO miles from thmr own border, and fou^t
the battle of Ott«rburn (1388). Douglas himself fell, but
the victory went to the dead man, for young Percy and
his brother were taken captive^ and tlie bishop of Durhain
would not veutore to intercept the retreat of the Soits.
In 1388, Robert's inactivity increasing and his son the earl
of Carrick being disabled by a kick from a horse, the earl
of Fife was chosen regent by the estates under condition
of annually accounting to them for bis administration.
In April 1390 his father died. His prosperous reign rather
than any personal quality except en easy disposition gained
Robert the praise of Wyntoun, wbo^ writing under bia
son, prays Qi>d to give him grace
To gDven ud uphold tb« land
Inn
itltb.
For iinhsn hi* bAjr ndyt wu
Of SootUnd wasna put of land
Out of Scottyi menu;* band,
Oatwlth Berwick, Boibtugh, and Jedbor^"
This prayer was only partially fulfilled. The Eng^ did
not acquire more of Scotland, but the border war nas not
so Bucceraful, and the royal house was the scene of tragic
events which threatened to change the order of snaecGsion.
Robert m. (139O-1406)— for under that name the earl
of Carrick was crowned to avoid the hated name <i John
■ Fmluart gina a itvld aoeoniit of tlia ponrtj of tlia oouitrr uid
tlie mdaDHa ot Its peophb "Tin p«apl« aM IlCtla upon Uw dhfiBt-
Uon rf tbair beaaaa and aald dkortlr how with ttma or fim poka fm.
would maks Otm again. Ediabsri^, tbonSh the kli« ktpt lk«a ^'t
DhM naldgiut and It la Arli in Scotland, ia sot Uks Tamtj la Tit
eoolaiiua, tor In all tha town than are not 4000 iNONa." Tba <■<■
Viouu bnnglit wHh bim had to ba lodgBd In DniftrmlbM, KdB, Dal-
kaitli, Dunbar. On bia retDm ha wu aikad W tba Tonng kfac (%«<"
VL how IM ttnd ; h< •aid bs Ud ratbn ba count oF aavoT V UV*
than king of BootUBd.
■ IT.]
SCOTLAND
— WM eren lets aetiTe tban bia fatber. He ii briefly but
trnly deaoribed bj an hiitorian as a goad man bnt not a
good king. He Bcajcdy reigned, for the T^ency of his
brother continiied after his aoceeeiou till it was racceeded
for a few j'eara bj that of Robert's bod, oh nhoee death
the earl of Fife again became regent. There was a tmee
with gngUncl for nine years, during which the irreprw-
sible love of fighting had to aatisf; itself witliin Scotland.
Ths king's younger brother, Aleiander, called the Wad of
Bodenoch, who had been created earl of Bochan, qnairelled
with the bishop of Elgin and burnt bia cathedral The
WolEand his sonswsre constantlj engaged in private wars.
The earl died in 139i, but his son Alexander oontiiiQed
to def; the law, which the Qorernment was too weak to
enfonx in tlie northern Si^ilsnds. Policy was nsad to
aapprees tiie violence of the clans. Such seems the ex-
planation of the combat between thirty of the Clan Kay
and as many of the Clan Chattan before tSe king on the
North Inch of I^ith, which ended in the elan^toi of
nearly all the combatants on both sides. In the conncil
or parliament of 1398 a change was made in the Qovsm-
inent due to the general distmst of Fife and the rising
spirit of the earl of Carricfc, the king's eldest son. The
form of it was a compromise. The yonng prince wm
made lieatenant for three years, bat with the advice of a
council, of whom his uncle Fife was one ; they were created
dukes of Rothssay and Albany respectivelj', the first of
that title in Scotland. Other acts of this conncil were
deseed to lestr^ the monarchy by constitutional laws.
I^lisment was to meet annually. Hie king, if accused
'of misgovenmient Or breach of law, might, "to excuse bis
'defaults," arraign his officers before the cotmciL No one
was to ride through the country with more followers than
be could pay for. The Krant of £11,000 for the common
weal and profit of the kingdom by the three estates —
barons, clergy, and bnrgbs — was made under protest that
it was not to be a precedent, and the burghs stipulated
that in future they were not to pay more than under
Robert II. In the following year the revolution took
place in England which led to the deposition and death
of Richard II. and the accession of Henry IV. An im-
liostor who had assumed the name of Richard took refuge
in the Hebridee and was received at the Scottish court
The expedition of Heni^ to Scotland (1400), partly due
to tliis, was also prompted by the deaire to diitin^niish a
new reign and by the invitation of the earl of March,
indignant at the preference given to the daughter of
Douglas over his own as wife for Rothesay. Reviving the
old claim of feudal superiority, which was now supported
by the foiled charters of Eardyng as well as the fictions
of Geoffrey of Monmouth, Henry cited Robert to do homage
at Newcastle, and, on bia failing to appear, marched to
Edinburgh. Rothesay saccessfully defended ths capital,
n^nd Henry was suddenly recalled by the rising of Oiven
aiendower and the Perciee. Next year (UOl) occurred
ihe deatli of Rothesay by starvation at Falkland, where
Ih had been committed by his father at Albany's instance
un account of his bad government and dissolute conduct.
TIte declaratioaDf the council at Edinburgh, which acquitted
Albany of all concern in the death, was enough for the
moment, but in after times, like Bothwell's acquittal, a
corroboration of guilL The last years of Robert were
clouded by private and public misfortune. His queen,
. Annabelia Drummond, his son-in-law, the earl of Douglas,
and Tr^ bishop of St Andrew^ one of the wisest of his
conncil, died within a short interval. The son of Douglas,
though brave, was unequal to the task of holding the
border aguoat the Fercica and the earl of Iilorch, and so
constancy lost battles that be was called Archibald Tyne-
man. The Scots were signally defeated at Nisbet Muir
491
(Tlth September 1402) in Merse and at Bomildon Bill
near Wooler by Percy, where the slain and prisoneia equalled
the number at Otterbum. Nor conld order be maintained
witbio Scotland itaeif, of which the forcible marriage of
the oountees of Mar iy Alexander, a bastard of the Wolf
of Badenocb, was an example. Afraid of Albany, and
warned by the fate of Rothesay, Robert sent his remaining
•on James to France (1409) ; but the ship in which be
sailed was taken by an Engliui cruiser, and the fniure king
was a prisoner in England for nineteen yean. This last
blow broke the weak heart of Robert, who died at Dun-
donald and was buried at Rtisley. Though his rdgn was
ingloriouB, the tradition of the War of Independence still
warmed the heart of the nation and produced tbe earliest
writera in Scottish literature, — Barbour, Fordnn, and Wyn-
toun. The Bruet of Barbour became the national epic
The year after Robert's death the first martyr in Scot-
land, Jamee Resby, an T-^"gl'°>i priest, was burnt at Perth
by Albany, who is described by Wyntonn as "a constant
Catholic." Resby was condemned at the instance of Laur-
ence of Lindores, called the Inquisitor of Scotland, for forty
theses from the books of Widdiffe. The Lollard doctrines
continued to be secretly held by a small sect, chiefly in the
weat. Knox traces ths descent .of the first Scottish Re-
former— the Lollards of Kyle — from Wicklilfe and Bus.
This religious movement was destined to exercise a pro-
found influence on the histoiy of Scotland, The twio
when the church was a civilizing and purifying poirer wilj
paaaing away. Its enormons wealth, a contrast to its early
poverty, its developed so different from its primitive doc-
trine, celibacy, and the confeadonai in a lax society, that
was no longer moved by the fervour of a new faiUi, pro-
duced a corruption which forced itself on minds of a
reforming tendency. Catholicism allowed no place for
individual reformers, and their protests, often carried to
extreme^ were deemed attacks npon the church itself,
which became (unwillingly on the part of its best frienda)
the defender of its worst abuseiL From first to last in
Scotland the movement was popular, though not at fint
democratic. It did not at all or only to a slight extent
change through political causes as in England.
Though he was a captive, the right of James I. (1406-37)
on his father's death was at once acknowledged by a general
council held at Perth ; but the appointment of Albany as
governor boded ill for his return. He held the office
thirteen years, administering it till his death so as to coa-
ciiiate all classes and pavo the ivey to his own accession
to the throne, which would have been hia by right had
the young king died. The recovery of Jedburgh (1408),
long in the bands of the English, gave the regent an css}-
opiwrtunily of ixipnlarity. It v,-b* decided by a general
council that its walls should be razed and the expense
defrayed by a poll tax, but Albany refused to burden the
people and paid it out of the royal customs. Next year
Albany and DousIm (now released from captivity in Eng.
land) entered into a liond of alliance. With the earls nf
March and Mar and others similar engagemen
conld not be so easily gained, and Donald, lord of th>.>
Isles, disappointed in a claim to the earldom of Ross, in-
vaded Alwrdeauahire with a great host, whose defeat by
the earl of Mar at Harlaw (Utb May 1412)— the Ottor-
bum of northern ballads — was folloired by the capture of
Dingwall, his chief castie on the mainland, and his final
defeat at Lochgilphead.
The first Scottish nniversity — Bt Andrews— was fannded
by bulls gianted a year later at the uutance of James and
492
SCOTLAND
[nilfTUKV.
Binhop Wardlaw, who had been bU tutor. Tha higher
edncation had already been to aome extant supplied b;
cathedral and manaatie achooli ; bat Scota who tonght a
complete cmriculuia had to reaort to Oiford or Faria.
One of their nnmber. Major, eipreasea his wonder that
the Bcottiah prelates had not earlier thought qI a national
noivenity. That now founded waa destined to play an
important part in protaotioj; the Reformation and eiong
with the later nniversities in civilizing Scotland.
Little of note occnrred during the remaining yean of
Albany's regency. His futile siege of Roxburgh (U15),
soon abandoned, got the name of the Fool's Raid. Greater
credit attended the Scottish arms in Fiance, where the
earli of Dooglas, Bncban, and Wigtown won battles for
the French king, and lands and honour for themselves ; but
the defeats of Crevant and Vemeuil effaced the honours of
Beaugd (in Anjon), and, thoogh the remnant of the Scots
renuiined as the king's bodyguard, no eoosidenible num-
ber of troops from Scotland afterwards went to Fiance.
Albany died at Stirling ia his eightieth year (3d September
1419). His son Unrdoch assumed the regency as if heredi-
tary; but, himself indolent and with lawless sons, he did
not retain the influence of his father. Iq1423 ambassadors
sent by the Scottish parliament to £n(^and at last arranged
terms for the return of James from his long exile (12th
May U23).
Exile biid its uses, and, except at the be^uing and
agaio after the accesuon of Henry V., his captivity had
not been rigorous. Sir John Pelham was his governor,
and he was instmcted in Latio grammar, oratory, and
poetry, as well as in bodily exeacises, — wrestling and the
use of the tpeu. Though diitingaisbed for physical
strengtJi, his bent was to tiie Muses, and he became pro-
ficient in dancing, music, and poetry. Buchanan blames
tjhis taste as carried beyond what became a king, but no-
thing in his after life showed he was ever led by amuse-
ments to neglect graver studies. When thirty he was
taken by Henry Y. to France with the view of detaching
the Bcottiah allies of the dauphin, but refused to'be made
a tool of, saying he had as yet no kingdom and they owed
him no allegiance. He proved bis soldiership by the capture
of Drauz. On bis retora to England he married (11th
February H23) Johanna Beaufort, daughter of the earl of
Bomerset and grand-daughter of John of Gaunt. In the
Kingit QtAair he describes his love at first sight in the
language of his master Chaucer, but with original genius.
The marriage facilitated hie release, which was negotiated
for a sum of 60,000 marks. He confirmed the treaty at
Melrose and was crowned with his bride at Scone (21st
May 1423} by Wardlaw,— Albany, as earl of Fife, placing
him on the throne.
He lost no time in addressing himself to the task of
restoring the royal authority and the obedience to the law
which the long regency had weakened. From this time
dates the conflict between the king and the nobles, — the
latter not maintaining, as in England, constitutional rights,
but contending for exorbitant privileges. The experiment
of government without a king had been tried too long not
to make those vriio had exercised unrestrained power desire
its continuance. The nature of the conntry-— divided by
rivers, monntaina, and arms of the sea^die absence of
great cities and the number of strong castles, the close con-
nexion of the principal nobles by marriage and bonds of
alliance, the large jurisdiction within their territories, the
clanship not only in the Highlands and on the borders
but in some measure thronghont the whole country, which
made fidelity to the chief a natural duty, strengthened the
aristocracy and weakened the crown. Ilie sovereign had to
rely on tiie people and the clergy, on foreign alliances, on tbe
influence due, partly to the virtues of his predecessors, partly
to the magic which in that age eodrded the iiame of king.
The first parliament of James at Perth posHsd quietly,
but with indications of a policy long meditated and
now to be put into operation. One Act forbade private
war ; another imposed the penalty of forfeiture of life and
goods for rebellion ; and a third dir9cte4 an inquest by
the sheriff what lands "pertain to the king or has per-
tained " in the time of the last three kings and in whoee
hands they now are. The choice of the privy council was
eigmflcant. It was headed by Lauder, bishop of Glasgow,
who had negotiated the king's release, but none of the
greater nobles were included. In their stead appear an
unusual number of minor gentry, some holding liigh offices.
The parliament held at Perth in the following year was
the scene of a erxtp dkat (IStb Hanib). Albany, his
younger son Alexander, Alan of Otterbum his aecretaiy,
and Sir Johif Montgomery were idzed on one day, and
immediately after IwibeUa, Albany's wife, whose father,
the earl of Lennox, bad already been arrested. The only
one of Albany's kin still at large, his youngest son Jamea,
made a short resistance, burnt Dumbarton, and alew the
Red Stuart of Dondonald, the king's uncle, bat, being
hotly pursued, fled to Ireland. Farliament, at an B4i*>nmea
sitting at Stirling, proceeded to the trial of Albany and
his adherents, which was held with feudal solemnity before
an aasise. Albany, his two sons, and Lennox were con-
demned and executed on the Heading HilL Clemency
was shown to those who had not been his intimate sup-
portera. Historians are divided as to the policy or uecea-
aity for such severity. But it secured its immediate object;
it was felt that Scotland had again a king to defend bis
rights. James for twelve yean carried out, not urithout
murmurs, but without succesatnl opposition, hia projects
of reform.
Foreign states recognited hii power. At the request
of the Flemish estates Middelbnrg was restored aa the
market for Scottish trade; in retnm the privileges of
the Scots were guaranteed and Flemish merchant* unde^
took to raise part of James's ransom. Flemish artisans
and manufacturers settled in Scotland. More than one
embassy passed to and from Rome with regard to the
affairs of the Scottish Church, which James, while strictly
repressing heresy (a Bohemian doctor, Crawar, being
burnt as a disciple of Hub), showed his intention of
reforming. The new pope Martin V. had put an end to
the schism. The bitter enemy of the Eng|iah king on
account of the regulations which culminated in the Statute
of Prsmnnire, he welcomed James's advances. James,
while showing his attachment to the church by fonndins
a Carthusian monastery at Perth and a Franciscan in
Edinbnigh, asserted hia right to remedy abuses of tbe
ecclesiastical courts, and addressed a letter to the Bene-
dictine and Augostinian monks reproaching them for laxity.
To Erik of Korway he sent an embassy and obtabed a
commutation of the arrears due for the Hebrides under
the treaty of lArgs. A marriage between the dauphin
and Margaret, his infant daughter, previously ananged,
was celebrated shortly before his death. He thus estab-
lished friendly relations with the Continent, and, tbongb
his positiou as regards England could not be the some,
the truce was only twice broken towards the end of
his reign — by a raid of the English, who were defeat^
at Feferden (U2S) by the earl of Angus, uid his o«P
attempt to recover Roxburgh. During the fonrteeu years
of his actual reign James held thirteen parliaments, pray-
ing his desire to obtain the support of the nation in lii>
reforms. In 1426 he introduced the session, a roysi court
for civil causes sitting in the principal towns, to proriiio
the Justice too ofton denied in the baronial courts. Ne^'
year be duramoned a parliament to Inverness — an nnuusi
HIT.]
I CO T L A N D
493
pkoB of meetiiig-^or tlia pQipoae of netoring the peace
of the ffigiii^wiii^ Its neoria are lost; bat the chief
event wu the eunire of Aleander, earl of Rota, lord of
<tlie Jllm, and hii tnother, along with bb mauj m for^
bkiefa. Two were beheaded and a third hanged, but moet
of them, iucloding the lord of the Isles, after a ihort im-
priBODment, were released. Boss at once raised the staa-
dard of rebellion and burnt InTemesi, bnt was defeated hj
James at Loduiber, where the daus Chattan and OameioD
deserted to the royal ude. On the Simdaj foUowing the
framer killed in a church the whola <^ the latter dan iriio
were presenL Another btemecine coaflict took place in
Caitlmeas eeTen years afterwanta. Soeh piiTate fends,
tmditional amongst the Cells, were ooe eanae gt the SQCcesB
of James and o( the ultimate 'snbjngKtion o(tte.Hi^ilaD&
So completely was die power of the l«d <^ ue Iska
broken that he came as a snppliant and placed his mrord
in the king's hands at HolTrood. His life was spared, but
he was cosfned to Tantallon castle. In a parliament held
later in the ssme year at Perth an Act was pasaed for the re-
presentation of the shires and the election of a speaker ; bnt
this imitation of the RnglU^ House of Oonunons wu ifot
acted on. The Scottish puliament cantUned to nt in one
chamber of lords, clergy, and commons, and it was caily in
the reign of Jamee V. that repreeentatdon of the shires was
admitted. The following pariiament (1438) prorided that
an oath of fealty should be taken to the queen hj all
persons cncceeding to lands or dignities, which shows that
James knew the danger of his policy. Li 14S9 an Act was
pIMed tor the protection of the tillers of the ground, who
wore not to be received for a yew, and provision was made
for anning aU lando«aera tuid burgesses. The birth of
twins — Akiauder, who died young, and James, afterwards
Idng — strengthened the king's position by interposing two
lives beoidea his own against any attempt at revolution.
Two years later Donald Balloch, a fcinanmn o! tiie lord of
the ule% renetred the rebellion ; bnt, though he defeated
Har and Caithness, on the approEwh of Jamea himself he
Bed to Ireland.
In ll34 the king applied the statnta of his first |^I>a-
ment as to the nsamptlon of lands to which no sufficient
title could be shown. The estates of the earl of lihroh
were forfeited on the gronnd that Albany lutd exceeded
Ilia power in restoring them. He was creetad earl c^
Buchan with the intention no doabt of removing him from
the border and oonciliating him for his loea. The deaUi
in IlSd of Alexander Stuart, earl of Har, led to the lapse
(tf that earldom to the crown on account of bis bastardy,
and the following year the earldom of Stratheam was re-
sumed on the ground that it was a male fee and did not
pass to the wife of I^trick Graham, the beir-femaia. It
was bestowed in life-rent on the king's uncle, the earl of
Athole, and Maliaa, the eon of Patrick Graham, was made
earl of Henteith. This assertion of right on the part of the
king to deal with the estates of the nobles though fortified
by legal docnments and recognized posaoBsion was certain
to make enemies. It is more Bnrpnsing that James so
long succeeded in TnnintaJTilTig big authority than that he
at last perished for doing so ; but he had the people on bis
side. In the anmmer of 1436 he was obliged to relinquish
the siege of Boxburgh owing to the barons' refusal of
support In October when ihe forfeiture.*^ Stratheara
was made in a parliament at Edinburgh, Sir Robert
Graham, imcle and tutor of the joung heir Malisa, de-
nounced the king in the botdeet terms and urged the
barons to seize bu person ; but, fiuling, he was biknished
from the conrt As in other cases, this leniency «as not
requited. In his Highland retreat Graham formed a con-
spincj with Athole, the king's uncle, who aimed at the
crowD, and Sir Robert Stnart, ^thole's -grendaon. James
was to spend Cbristmu at Perth. Before he eromed the
Forth he was warned by an old fii^iland wtxoan that if
he paaaed he would never rettm. She tried unsucMaafuUy
to get access to him again at the Dominican mraastery at
Perth, where he k>dged. At midnight, when he was half
nndieesed, Oiaham with 300 men sorrounded the monas-
tery. TiuM a^tproach was heard ; bnt it was found thoC
the bolta had fiee* removed by treachery. James W(u>
hastily oonMaled in a vaolt underneath Ae rooni. Before
the eOBspirBtors entered a brave attempt was matte by
Catherine Voofgam, one cf the qtMon'a maids, to bar th»
dow with her am, bvt the bagile obstacle hu^ and
Graham btnt fn. The fall of another of tte maids bto
the vnnlt disocmrad the king, vho foo^t fleiMlj lor hia
life; The queen was vonnded in trying to save him, ful'
filling an nneonscioos propheej of the KiitffU Quiair. At
last, after killing two of bis aatailanta, he fell, overcmw by
numbers (Febmaiy 1437). Tengeanoe q»eedilj ovcrtoMt
the murderers, who had nude no proviiioD to follow np their
deed. Within a month they were all exeented in a maaner
aTMKiding even the barbarous nsegee of the time. Jamea
was buried in the Oacthnsian monastery, triiere his doub-
let was l<mg kept as a relic and seen N the pec^ with
Such was the sad fate of the besttrf the Stuits
— akinginadvaioeofhiBageandlooiamdinhisii
James n. (1437-60), an infant of ax, ealled "Ffary-fbee"
from a red stain on (me cheel; waa oowned at Hofyiood
five weeks after hia father's death, and there cMnmoiml
one of the long minoriliae iriuoh the early deatha ol the
Stnart khigs iiwde oowimoit, and dniing iriueh history is
chiefly oocopied with the contest fOT the psraoo of the
king, lliess have been tmly refveaented as weakening
thgroyaLantharitf, The poaeeanoD of power rendered the
nobles impatient irf restraint and accustomed to licenea ;
but they hod also a reveiae effect When the monarch
succeeded he was received with favour by the people aa
a deliverer from the t^pressiou (rf the barons, too often
pet^tTianta. A rule of law allowing him to revoke panti
m hia minori^ was often used with great effects Ott tba
whole, monarchy, in spite of the weaimesa and vkea of tba
kings, was popular In SeoUand until the Beformation and
the fatal chain of events in which Mary was involved in-
tioduoed a democratic tendemiy, which grew tmder the bad
government of her successors, lite nobles, though their
word was law with their kinsmen and retainers, were seldom
favourites of the people. Archibald, fourth earl of Douglas,
the greatest of the Scottish nobility and duke of Tonraine
in France, was lieutenant-general of the kingdom from
James's accession till his own death the year after ; bnt Sir
illiam Crichton, master of the household of Jamas L,
who was keeper of the castle of Edinbnrgh, where the
young king was detained, appears to have exercised the
chief power. Shortly after iba death of Douglas James's
mother earned off her son, on the pretext of a pilgrimage
to Stirling, of which Sir Alexander Livingstone <k Callander
was governor. Livingstone laid si^e to £dinbnr|^ but
made terms with Cridton, who became chancellor. The
alternate struggles and reconciliations of these rivals con-
tinued till JamoB was fourteen, when he favoured Doo^aa
(the eighth earl) in order to free himself from their oontn^
This was a time of civil or tether of private wats. The
only contemporary chronicle marks almost every year with
the seizure of a castle or a party fight Douglas brought
the earl of Crawford and his retainars from the Highlands,
who ravaged the estates cf the bishop of St Andrew^ and
himself besieged Edinburgh castle. The castle surrentUred ;
bnt Crichton, one of the adroit stateemen who rise after
every fall, continued chancellor, and soon after, by negotiat-
ing the marriage of James vrith Mary of Gnelders (1146]t
ens9ie4 )m favour with the court. Bhortly after the ael»
494
SCOTLAND
[bistobt.
batioii of this marriage Livingrtone, now cHataberlain,
with muiy of hii kindTed and friendi, was snddeolj arreeted
and tried before a parliament at Edinbnigb ; two ware exe-
cntad, and the others, inclnding the chamberlain, attuated
and plaoed in strict ward in Dumbarton. Donglaa and
CrichtoD received part of the forfeited estates. James was
diieflj advieed at this period by Bishop Eenitedj, whoee
oounsal was the old one of " divide et impera." He now
determined to do to the more powerful Douglas aa he had
done to the Livingstones. The earl had shown no modera-
ti<Hi in i«oeperit;. His revenue and retainers equalled
those of tbs king : lOOO horsemen were hia ordinary train,
and he attended the king's marriage with five times that
number. His conrta on the borders were almost parlia-
meata. In the year of jnbilee (1160) he went to Rome
with a large mite. On his return he visited the new
king of England, Edward 17. At the parliament of
Edinburgh (1461) he snbnutt«d to the king's merer,
and at the request of the queen and estates received
a reliant of his lands and honours. He was already
inupected of treason, and had in fact renewed a secret
bond with the earla of Crawford and Ross, the most
powerful noblea in the .north, which threatened the
royal authority. James felt a crisis had come and sum-
moned Douglas to Stirling at Shrovetido. There the young
king in vioution of hoapitality and a safe condnct which
ho bad given the earl, when Douglas refused to break the
bond with the other earls, struck him with his knife and
killed him (2lEt February 1452).' An appeal to arms neces-
sarily followed. Douglas's brother James, the ninth earl,
came to Stirling and burnt great part of the town. But
tho clergy and commons and other noble^ some even of
Douglas's own kin, not sorry at the foil of one who over-
topped tiiem, stood by the king. Parliament sanctioned
James's act and declared Douglaa had deserved death. At
length, after repeated struggles, Crawford was defeated at
the Knir of Brechin and Douglas fled to En^nd. His
eetataa were of course forfeited. The lordship of Douglas
was granted to Angus. Ettriek Forest and Qalloway were
annexed to the crown: Some years Uter Douglas made
another deapeiata effort agtunst Jamee, but after wasting
Merse was totally defeated I7 Angus (1458).' Theensrgy
cf Jamas in visiting all parta of his kingdom was con-
spicnons during the last period of his reign. The good
relations with the French and other Continental courts con-
tinued. With England — one brief interruption excepted —
peace hod been preserved during the reign of Henry VI.
Hanry even agreed to restore Roxbnr^ and Berwick to
Scotland in return for assistance against the duke of Tork.
When Henry was taken prisoner at Northampton, his qneen
and her young son fled to Scotland, and James was called
<m to fulfil his engagementa. He laid siege to Bozburgh,
which for more than a centory bad defied his predeceeeors,
.and after a stout resistance it was taken ; but James did
not hva to enjoy the triumph. When inspecting the dis-
charge of a new gun it borat, and he was killed (3d August
1460). He had not reached his thirtieth year.
His reign had bean angularly fortunate^ for he succeeded
(where his father failed) in reotoring the royal authority and
reducing the power of the noblea. This may have been
' Tha D[]g[n of two grmX &miUH date* frvm tkt f«U of I>aiiglu.
B[r Jam« Huniltou of CtSaw dMniad bli Uninun for ths king and
reoelwd lusB gnnta of liLiid asd tb« king"! denghlsr u wifa. Sir
WaltR Bontt of Kb^nrd ud Biuclracli, ■ Inrder chief, wu BtinLUrl7
mnrdtd. Ttwa mn th« inoBton ol tlie dikea ol HimiltoD tnd
Bncclencli.
■ Id tbs uait n[gD iloeg with U» king') taolibed bnlhsr, A11«Dr<
be Hilda a daring nld on Locbnuben, but being tiWen prisocer bs
toaai Ui daT* " « monk at LIndoni. A aijing attributed to Jilm,
•■ U a Bugi cannot brtta ba, k< maj tx a monk," wa a ttga at the
chan«a at ttmn alnn Qsltia Unfi wan rnoA to uaiuia tho covL
partly duo to the counsels of Kennedy, bishop of St
Andnws, and Crichton; but James showed skill in govero-
ment and vigour in war, though the murder of Doo^as baa
left a stain on bis character. The crown wae richer «t hia
death than it hod been since the time of Alexander
m., by many forfeitures secured from alienation by
the Act of Annexation (1456, c 41). The roTsl pre-
rogative was strengthened by the first atatate defining
treason (1449, c 25). Provision was made for the execu'
tton of criminal justice by the king, his justiciftr, and
sherifTs, and ot civil justice by the session. Stringent rules
were laid doim against violent spoliation of lands and
goods (1449, c. 30). The coinage was r^nlated, an
attempt made to preserve ita standard, and to praliibit
export of gold and silver (14S1, c. 23). Towards the end
of the reign, when war with England was impending,
statutes were passed for the defence of the border*, giving
tha king mors direct control, and declaring that the office
of warden shonld net be hereditary. The progress of agri-
culture was fnrthered by the famous Act for the enconrage-
ment of feu farm, an existing form of tenure beooming
more common, and another giving fixity of tenure to leases
until the ezpiiy of their terms notwithstanding alienation
of the lands. There were also many minor lavrs vrliich
bad for their ol^ect the welfare of the people, lliongti
the legislation of James 11. was not so large, it was
perhaps as important aa that of James I.
On the Sunday after his father's death James HL
(1460-88) was crowned at Kelso. Art^ncywos formed
consisting of tho queen, Kennedy, and others.' A parlia-
ment followed at Edinburgh, which was blamed by the
nobles for leaving so much power in the hands of a woman ;
but there was a full appointment to the offices of atate,
and, though Mary of Ouelders aimed at more than the
guardian^p of her son, it does not appear that she leally
exercised royal authority. After the defeat of Towton
(29th March U61),'Hem'y TI and his queen took refuge
in Scotland. . In return for their reception and in hope of
further aid, Henry surrendered Berwick (23d April) to ths
Scottish king, in whose hands it remained till ita final
annexation to England at the elose of the reign. Edward
rV. retaliated by a treaty (I3th February 14BS) with the
banished earl of Douglas, the earl of Kosa, lord of tho
Isles, and Donald EoUoch, by which Dougka waa to be
reebsed to his estates, and the whole country north of the
Forth divided between-the two Highland chiefs. Oeorge,
earl of Angus, who had risen on the ruins of the house of
DouglaA, made a counter-league with Henry YL, by which
he was promised bt> English dukedom and valuable lands
betvreen Trent and Humber, but was to preserve his alle-
giance to the Scottish king. These vrere paper promisea,
and all that came of them were an ineffectual rising in the
north and the relief of Alnwick, which had been beaieged
by tha Yorkists. Next year the Lancastrian cause having
received a fatal blow by the defeat of Hexham, a singular
offer by Edward IV. to marry the queen dowager of Scot-
land— one of the many schemes of the king-maker, earl of
Warwick — waa frustrated by her death or perhaps by the
discovery of an intrigue with Adam Hepbnm of Hales,
whose wife waa alivBL Kennedy, who had the chief control
of Scottish affairs, negotiated the release of Alexander, tho
king's brother, who had been taken by an EngUsh craiser.
and secured a truce between England and Scotland for
fifteen years. He understood the nature of his countrymen
better than any man, and was always ready to (^ve eonnssl
in parliament, while his learning especially in the civ3
law, made him reepecled by foreign powers. When bs
died the country wept for him as for a parent.
Before his death a plot hod been formed which threw
the young king into different hand& Amongst the baron*
btd;akx> tq jJLjm it.]
SCOTLAND
495
-who leoBived cdSce at ths oaomiencemait of th« niga
one ot tlie forBmost wm Bobert Bojd of Silmamock, Uie
justiciu. Boyd determined to plaj ttte p»rt of LiTingBtone
in tlie loat reign, and nsnrp tlie mpieme power by seiziiig
tha person of the king. Bonds with thii object were
eotered into between him, Fleming of Ounberaftuld, Lord
Kennedy, a brothBr of the biahop, and othen. While
holding u. court at Linlithgow Jamee was carried off to
Edinburgh by Boyd. Kennedy made a feint to saTe him
hy seizing hia bridle, bat was overpowered ; perhaps tha
attemiA was real, for Kennedy afterwards wpaiated from
the Boyd^ In parliament Boyd went throQgh the form of
asking pardon of the yonng kmg in preaecce of the efitat«B,
and was immediately entrusted with the custody of the
royal person (October 1466) and that of his brother* Albany
and Mar, as well as the fortresses of the kingdom. Next
year he was n-ade chamberkia, which gave hun control of
the revenoe. The marriage of his icn Thomas, created earl
of Arran, with ths king's slater Mary, markoi the height
of his ambition. The fall of Boyd, as sudden as his
ris^ whom with his brother Alexander James at first
favonred, was due to the same cause as that of LiHugstone,
— the king's marriage and his desire when mi^or to assert
hia independence. Negotiations for an English match
having fallen throngh, an alliance with a Norwegian prin-
cess was determined on, and an embassy sent to Norway
by parliament Chriatiau of Denmark and Norway readily
assented. He promised bis daughter a dowry of 60,000
florins, besides a enrrender of the claim of arrears of the
unoal payment for the Hebrides. But, as it was incon-
renieut to pay the dowry, both the Orkneys and the
Shetlauds were mort^ged to Scotland, and have remained
crer snce nnder the Scottish crown. Two years later
(Joly 1169) the princeas Margaret arrived in ScotUud,
when the marriage took place. Arran on his arrival at
Leith with the king'd bride received a message from his
wife warning him that James had conceived a great hatred
against him ; accordingly ho fled to Denmark. In the
parliament his father and his nncle, Bir Alexander Boyd,
were attainted. The chamberlain saved himself by flight ;
Sir Alexander was executed. The specific charge made
vras the seizure of the king's person ; but a general clause
had reference to the immense estates they had annexed.
Tha king's sister, divorced from Arran, was married to
Lord Hamilton, who thus laid the foundation of a family
whose head more than once aspired to the crown.
The refusal of parliament in 1473 to sanction the pro-
posed passage of James to France, to aid Louis XI. against
Charles the Bold, on the score of the expense and ris!^ was
the first indication of the diflereace between the king and
the nobility which led to the disasters of the close of his
rmgn. The parliament of 1476 took a bolder step. At
its a^jonnuaeat it committed its whole powers to certain
members, of whom the duke of Albany and the earl of
Mar, the king's brothers, were the principal, — a measora
which indicated a want of confidence in the king. He
had shown himself, like Louis XL, disposed to govern by
new men who owed their elevation to himself, — a policy
which alienated the aristocracy. Of these favourites the
chief were Bobert Cochrane, originally, it was said, a
mason, who proved himself a skilful ardiitect; Roger, an
Eogli^ musician ; and Andrews, a physician, who dealt
in astrology, — alt able to gratify tastes of James. There
were besides a few young men of birth who gained favour
by flattery or other arts. Cochrane became all powerful
and disgusted the nobles by sumptuousnesa and arrogance,
and the people by debasing the coin. He succeeded, it
was reported, by relating a prophecy that a lion should be
deronred by ittf whelpa, in producing in the lung's mind
Aa arecBion to hia brothers, whose duuHcters and knightly
oocomplishments mada them pt^nlar. James auied Mar
and sent him to Craigmillar castle. He aoou after died
(1479) in Edinburgh nnder circumstances which gave rise
to Rupicion of foul phiy. The gift to Cochrane of the
vacant earldom or it* revenues stTengthened the anspicion
of bis complicity. Albany, committed to Edinburgh castle
(1480), escaped to Dunbar and thence to France. He
there married Anne de la Tour d'Auvergne, whoae son was
the regent Albany in the reign of Janes V. Failing to
indnce Louis to do more than urge his restotatiiMi, two
years afterwards he quitted France and at Fotheringay
entered into a treaty (llSli) with Edward IV.^ by which,
in return for the empty title of Alexander IT., he owned
the subjection of the country to England and made other
humiliating promiseu. Supported by the earl of QIonceet«r
and the exiled earl of Douglas, Albany laid siege to Ber-
wick, while James collected his forces on the Boroughmuir
of Edinburgh and advanced to Lauder. There the chief
nobles, indignant at the favour shown to Cochrane,
mutinied, and, led by Angus, who then acquired his name
of "Bell the Cat," seized Cochrane and some of the other
favooiites of James and hanged them before his ejea.
Berwick fell and was never afterwards recovered by the
Scots. The nobles, distrusting Angus, who had made
aaciet terms with Albany and the English king, were
induced by Schivas, the archbishop of St Andrews, to
effect a reconciliation between the king and his brother,
who received the vacant caridom of Mar and for a little
became chief minister. A parliament in December ap-
pointed Albany lieutenaQt-genenil, but his continued in-
trigues with tiie English king being discovered he was
attainted for treason aod fled to &iglaud (1483), and
thence to France. Jaun had now a brief period of peac«^
dnring which the revolutions in England freed him from
the danger of war in that quarter. New matrimonial
projects were tried. It wat pro^xised that the prince of
Scotland should marry a niece of Bichsrd III., Anne de la
Pole, daughter of the duke of Suffolk, and after Richard's
deposition a marriage with Elizabeth, daughter of Edward
rV., was suggested. On the death of Queen Margaret
Jamas himself nuide an offer for the band of the widow of
Edward IV. Such projiosals, though abortive were signa
of a better understanding between the two countries, or
at least between their sovereigns. When the rebetlion
broke out in tha following year the nobles and Jamei
accused each other of treasonable corresixindeoce witli
England, but no assistauca was got by either, for England
was still scarcely relear^ed from its own civil war. In 1487
the greater part of the Scottish barons rose in arms.
James had abandoned himself to anotlier favourite. Sir
John fiamsay, whose hfe had been spared at Lauder. The
chiefs of the parly were the earls of Angus and Argyll,
Blackadder, birJiop of Gla-igow, sud the Homes and Hep-
burn:^ powerful barons on the border. Having seized
the person of the young prince, whom they already desig-
nated king, they pretended to act in his name. James
retreated to Aberdeenshire, for the northern barons still
adhered to him. Fatfa<:r and son, at the bead of their
respective forces, first uiet nt Blackness (May 1-188) on the
Forth, whero a iiacificatiou vraa agreed to on terms which
showed the king's party was the weaker. In the foUawiog
month the rebellion was renewed and the king was slain
at Sanchie (Uth June), within flight of Eannockburn.
He was buried at Cam'iuakenneth, being only thir^-five
years of age. He did not fall, tike bis father, through
the strengtii of the nobles, for they were much divided,
and he commenced hia inde^ienJent reign master of tho
situation. The Wars of tiia Rosea gave him an oppor-
tunity, which he missed, of strengthening hia kingdom in
relation to England, whose monarchs adopted a new attitude
496
towuds Scotland from tbat of tbe Plaotogenete, — eeeking
allionca rather thaa war. Hia own weokneBs, his Iot« of
faTomites and of money, hia pasaion for music and art —
perhaps inherited from his grandfather, bnt carried to ex-
cess and not counterbalanced by the qualities of a Btates-
man and general — proved bis ruin. The rebellions, first
that of his brother, then that in the name of hia son, were
fatal precedents in tha reign of Mary Stuart.
James IT. (1488-1513) was already sixteen when crowned
at Scone. Eia reign is an interlude in the record of almost
OODStajit batttea, murders, and executions vrith which Scot-
tish history abounds. Iliere were not wanting causes of
offence between England and Scotland, but the politic
Heoij TIL avoided war and effected what previons kinp
hod failed in the marriage between the royal houses. James,
ft popular monarch, succeeded better timn any of his pre-
deoeoton and successors in keeping on good terms with
all rlnnrnm His court was one of splendour for a small
oonntry ; indeed Scotland, almost for the first time, poe-
soMed a court which set the fashion of ciTilization and
cnitnra. The death of James IIL, instead of exciting the
horror awakened by the death of James L, -was treated
with indifference, almost as a relief. The chief offices of
StAt« were distributed amongst the supporters of the yonng
king. The first business of the parlitunent, which met in
Edinburgh, was the treason trials. The persons put on
their trial were not those who fought against bnt those
who supported the late king. Several were condemned,
but prudently treated with great leniency. All were
diarged with correspondence with Engluid as well as
with their preeence at the field of Stirling (Sauchie). There
ftdlowed a onriona transaction called in tha records " the
debate and causa of the field of Stirling,"— the first debate
ia • Scottish parliament of which we have any accomit.
tba twnlt was a unanimous reeolation " that the slaughter
ommitted in the field of Stirling, when our sovereign
loid'a father happened to be slun, was due entirely to the
faolt ni him and his privy council divers times before the
ndd field." There was not a single execution. Heritable
officata who bad fought against the prince were only sus-
pended, not deposed, and the heirs of those slain were by
qMU^ grace admitted to their estates. The only person
who felt oompunctiou vos the young king. His frequent
pilgrimages and an iron belt he wore were due to his re-
mona for his father's deatK' The leniency of James was
rawarded by the byalty of the nobility, except a few
northern bwons headed by Lennox uid Huntly, and theses
after being defeated by James in the following year, were
also treatad with clemency. The ouly trace of rebellion
dming his reign was a secret intrigue between Henry TIL
and Angno, who succeeded to the traditionary policy of
du Douglases.
A determined effort was made by parliament to pat
down robbery and theft by special commiseions to certain
kvds who ware to be responsible for different districts. It
waa provided that the king in person ahonld attend the
jnstica air (eyie), — a provision which James acted upon. A
new master of uie mint was appointed to restore the purity
of the ooinage. The penalty of treason was t4> be imposed
on those who purchased beneficee from Borne. An active
qiirit of reform, a desire to remedy the evils of the late
reign, was displayed by both the king and his advisers.
T}ie penunal character of James showed itself in a liberal-
i^ contrasting with his father's avarice, and in a love of
chivalrous display encouraging tournaments and- martial
axercises) as well as in the care of the navy.
From the time of Bruce we hear of ships and shipbuild'
ing^ natural in a country with so large a seaboard; Scottish
merchantmen now began to make distant voyagea, and
tbw itufa, half ^vateen, half tntdects were craunaoded
SCOTLAND
ined by sailors who
[hibtoxt.
match for dioee of B17
itry. The most famous commander. Wood of lfg\
with the " Flower " and the " Yellow Carvei,'' cleared the
Forth of "Rn^lish pintes. Stephen Bull, an Engliah
captain, promised to take Wood dead or alive, bnt wm
ct^tured himself; James sent him back to Henry VliL
with a chivalrous message that the Scots could now fight
by sea as well as land Wood was made one of the king's
council By his advice Jamea built the "Qreat St Hicliael'
for a crew of 300 and 1000 men-at-arma! It exhAUSted
oil the woods in Fife except Falkland, and cost X30,000.
The king's policy was not confined to bmlding ahipa of
war : every town was to have vessels of at least 20 tooa.
The navy was for the protection of trade, to which the
national instinct pointed as a source of wealth.
The marria^ of James early attracted th« attentioa of
parliament, and, embassies were sent to foreign courts to
seek a suitable spouse ; but James hid formed a connexioa
with Lady Margaret Drununond, and cotild not be per-
suaded to a political alliance. He chief erenta of his
reign prior to his marriage to Margaret Tudor vrera his ex-
peditions to the north-east and the western TTijjlilnTn<« He
adopted with the chiefs a similar policy to thAt wiiich had
succeeded with the barona, attaching them to his peraOD
by gifb^ offices, and favours, and eommittiiig to them tha
suppresaion of crime. In 149G the impcator Fedan War-
beck came to Scotland and was recognised by Jamea, ^Ao
gave him his kinswoman, Catherine Gordon, daughter of
the ewl of Hnntly, called for her beanty the White Boae,
in marriage. Baids were twice made acrosa the border on
his behalf, but there was only one engagement of any con-
sequence, at Danse (1497), and an nnsncceaafnl si^a of
Melroee. Henry TIL, whose talent lay in diplomsoy, ap-
proached the Scottish king with the tempting offer of tte
hand of his daughter Margaret CommisaionBn met to
consider this at Jedburgh, and, though Jamea refnaed to
give up Perkin Warbeck, a truce was ananged, and FeiUn
left Scotland. The marriage of Jamee and Margaret was
soon afterwards agreed to and a peace conclnded. Hie
papal dispensation was procured in 1600, bat the final
trwtr was not ratified till two years later (8th August
1503). Soma of Henry's counsellors sought to dissuade
him from the marriage, for if bis sou Henry died Jamas
would be next in succession to the English throDe ; but be
replied that if so Scotland would be an accession to Eng-
Und and not the reverse, recalling the example of Nor-
mandy and England. Margaret a girl in her fourteenth
year, made a triumphal progress to Scotland, where she
was received with pomp ; but the marriage was one of
policy, aod the young wife was discontented with her new
country and her husband. Their court as it is painted
in the poems of Dunbar was merry, but not DiotbL "Bm
licence which prevailed and was tolerated by the dmrch wia
shown by the elevation of one of the kio^s basfaidi I9
Jane Kennedy to the archbishopric of St Andrews whsn
a youth of eighteen. Others received rich beneficei^ *ud
Jane Kennedy herself married the earl of Angus. Scottiih
history during the six years after tha king's maniap *■*
uneventful.
Henry TH 'a death (1609) changed tha rcUtions bstwwa
Scotland and England. Henry TIIL had not liked bit
sister's marriage, and his refusal to deliver to her a Itgai?
of jewels left by his father ted to a coolness. The mntiM
attacks of English and Scottish privateers and border ^V*
increased the bad feeling. Andrew Barton's ihip the
"Lion," after an obstinate conflict, in which Bartou ww
killed, vraa sdzed (IG12) in the Dovms by the scoa e'
Howard, the English high admiral, and James's rsqiu^
for redriess was met with the contemptuous a.asw<c thd
iingt ahookl not dispute as to the fate of pir4tM. But it
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497
fgnrin^ bin to i
^•M Hanj** Oaatinenttl policy iriiieh in the end prov<^ed
Iha.war. The Itniggle in Itaij between Lcniia XIL and
I^maJiilitialLgKTGluiiiuiopportnnitj, uid he allied him-
•^ -witli A* latter bnd Invaded France. He attempted
tMfon iMTing W"fll»"^ to aecuTs peace irith Scotland by
pKHmBOg to ndran ita grievances. Bat James bad le-
nawed tlia old alliance with Fnnce, and the only answer
given to the fiiit embaaay in 1613 was ftn offer to mediate
between Fmtee and England. In 1513 the measBge waa,
that if Heniy rananrl to France war would not be declared
withont a hataJd being aent ^e French qoeen (Aone of
Sritttay) had ffno Jamei a ring with a mihatantial mb-
aidy, and he bad already made np hia mind for war. Like
Henry, he longed to win hi* mm, Benij went to Fiance
in Jane, and KXHi after hi* unval at the camp at Tdronaime,
the SecMiih lioti Lyon bron^t the thrcAtenid declaration
(rf war (11th Angort IClsi The groonda stated were the
aeixore d Sootamen on the bordani the reftual of Margaret's
legacy, and the death oC Barton. No time waa lc«t by
Jamei in canying the declaration into effect ; but the war
was dialiked by the natd<». He earl of Arnn, sent with
the fleet to aid the French, Miled inataad, in de6ance of
ordot, to ChiridieigaB. James himadf called out the
whole land force ocmtary to the advice of his oonncil,
mnstering at the fiotoaj^nir lOO^OOO men according to
Engliab aieeo«mla ' pwbaM j oaggmted, bat doubtleee as
large aa army aa bad becm teen ka Seotland. Croanng
the bonier, he took Koriiam, WtA, ud Ford. Ax the
last ti thve cyatlea tbe wife of BtKOtt, (h» prcmrietor,
- ~ 'lBnd,begidledJameabjherb«wity,
I ■eveid d^B and betiMing loa
my. In Um oondnct of tlie battle
(9th September IMS) lAidi f<dlowed ha committed almost
ev«c7 nratt it geiural eonld commit, — na^eoling to engage
when the enengr were croadng the Till, allowing himaeliE to
be ontflonked by Bonty, who got between bm and the
Bcottiah buder, abandoning hia strong podtioo on the bill
of Flodden, end finally enonng bia own peteon on foot in
the centra of tlie G^t. Borne Scottish writers claim that
the battle was a divided soocen and that the total namber
ef BnglishkillBd wasgrwter; bat Hall, an exact dmrnider,
Mye 12,000 Soots fell and only ISOO EngUifa, as appeared
from the book of wages when the soldiBiB were pfud.
What made Floddsa so great a disaster wa; the quality
d the ScotUah tort. The king himself, his son, the arch-
bishop of 8t Andrews, two biahops, two abbote^ twelve
Mrl^ and fourteen lords, bendes niany kni^ta and gentle-
men, were left on the field. There waa scaioely a noble
fam% which did not mourn some of ita memben.
Bnrrey did not foUow np hia victory by invading Scot-
land, since hia oljeet waa gMnadi the diversion by t^Soota
in favour of EWtoe waa at an end. Scotland waa again
left with an iofut kin^ aoaroefy mon than a year old.
Hie chataoter vt James 17. waa on tfie lorfaoe. An
eroellcatt obeervar, the Spanish amboMador Ayala, ootM
his good looks and agneaUe mannerii his knowledge of
languages and hist<wy, bis respect for the service of the
chnrch and its priests, his liberality and coorag*^ " even
mon than a king sfaonld have, not taking Uie least care of
hinuel^" hia bad generalship, " beginning to fi^t before he
had given his orders, " and hia wise statennaiuhip, deciding
nothing withoDt coonsel, bnt acting according to bis own
judgment, which was genenllj right.
The reign of James fell within the en of tbe rerival
of Isarniug, and Scotland, thon^ lat^ came within Uie
circle of the intellectnal which preceded the religions refor-
mation. It was common for Seottish scholars to complete
their edncatioc and sometimea to rranain teaching in the
nnivenitiee of France. One of these, Elphinstone, bishop
<rf Aberdeen, ytba founded ita nniveisity, broo^anothw,
Hector Boece, the historian, to be first prindpal of Ein^a
College, Aberdeen, James himself en^ged Erasmna as
tutor to his son, the fatnre archbishop. Two other Scotsmen
passed to Paris in the beginning at the next reitfn, John
M^or and his papil Buchanan, who bronght bad( leas of
the critical bat mora of the fieforming spirit These and
other learned men neglected a reform as eesential as any, —
the ase of the mother-tongue in their writing and the
neglect has lessened their fame ; but it had ita exponents
in JDnnber, HeniTSOn, Sir David Lyndsay, and Gavin
Donglas. The printing press also fonnd its way to Edin-
bnr^ and Chwman and Myllar published their flrat broad-
sheets with works of Dnnbw, Donglas, and the ramiUns ci
the older poetry (see p. S40 tq. bdow).
7. Tie Bt/orviatvm, it* Anttttdmt* tmd Comtmuiuti.—
JameeV. (1013-42), scarcely ei^teenmonOiB old whni be
succeeded, was at once crowned at Scone, when a per-
liamept met, chiefly attended by the clergy. The qneen
dowager was uipointed regent, — a secret iiiiihiiimii, however,
being sent to John, doke of Albany, to come bam f^nmoa
and esBome the rageni^. The son of the aziled Wother of
Jamee HL, Albany had by bis marriage to his onuia, the
heiress of De la Tonr d'Aowgne^ beonne agnat noble in
France, when he held the ofilee of hidi admiral, and neither
he nw the French king, Lonis XIL, waa willing that be
shonld quit France. The fiienr de la Bastie came as hk
repreaantatiTe. Hie prad[atate marriage of tbe qneen,
four months after the tnrth of a poatlmmoiia child, to the ,
yoong earl of Angos, and a dilute aa to the see of &t
Andrews, to wbi^ Margaret ^niointed Gavin Doo^aa the
poet, her hoabond'a kinwnan, aJthongh Hepbnm the prior
bad been ehoaen bj ths chapter, led Uie Scottish estates to
renew tlieir raqnest that Alnny sbonld onne to Scotland.
He arrived at Dnmbarton on 18th May 161S and wm at
(mee appointed legoA The queen refosed to give np he^
son, bnt Alboi^ bcdeged Stirling and forced ber to snr-
render. Her new hosbond fled to I^aact^ and Ibrgaret
first to Dacre, warden of the marcies, and then to W
brother's conrt, where she waa joined bj Angus. At
Harbottle in Nortfaomberhrd, on her joamej aonth, dte
bon a daughter, Ma^aret Dongla^ aftarwaids lo^
Lennoj^Damley's mother. Henry TIH. asked the SeottU
parHament to remove Albany from the ngea^, but waa
met with a decided refnaal ; for, thovgh a Poi^ of doUc^
especially the Ixnder barona Lord Hume^tne utambariain,
and his brother, were tqipoaed to him, he waa siqtpwted
by the nation, "fhe young duke of Bom, Uugaret'a
younger son, having died suddenly, Albany procwed a
dechuradon from parliament that Boss's elder lulf-brother
was illegitimate and himself next heir to the crown.
Home and hia Ivother were suied and ezecated at
Edinbor^ (36th October 1616). Thcee events aroused
saqHdan that Albany aimed at the crown; bnttheinspicion
a{^>ean to have been nnfonnded. His tostee were French ;
hence be quickly tired of trying to govern Scotland, and
in autumn obtained wiHt difflcol^ leave of absence for four
months. Before kaving he put Dnmbarton, Dnobar, and
Inchgarvie (in tbe ForUi) in oborgs of EWcb ganisaas
nndsr De la Bosdes who held the poet of warden ti the
marches; but an interim regeoqr^aa ^panted. Maqaiet
now returned to Scotland ; but she Wis not p«mitt«l to
take part in the government. Bbortiy after his arrival In
France Albany negotiated the treat; <tf Bonen (SOth
August) liy ^lich an alliance between France and SeoUand
was agreed on against England, and a prraiise ^v« that
tlie Scottish king shoold many a dan^ter of Franoa L,
or if that failed another Freni^ princess, ia SMtembv
De la Baatie waa murdered near Dunbar t^ naiM of
Wedderbum with the connivance of D»tn. ^le Wipe'
tmton wen forfeited, bat new bron^ttojnttioe) amon^
498
SCOTLAND
[»
AniiO, ■who fncoesded to &a office of miden, was wnt for
th&t pmpoML Hie tbavK» of ft snpreme ftothoii^ g&ve
frae Mope to Uie Ucmim ot the noblee.
A Mnons ridng m the wigiiinnH» to mpport the claim
of Ibedonald (rf Lodmlah to th* lordship of the liles lasted
foe MTetal jean, till the desth of the claimant luid the
Tigonr of thfl earl of Ai^ll, the head crC a house now rising
into pre-eminence, led to its snppraeeion. The chief dis-
tnrbancea arose from the ambition of Angus : Archibald,
his nnde, was chosen provost of Edinbnr^ ; his brother
Wilham seiied the ptiorj of Coldingbam ; his nncle Qarin,
though he failed to secure the primacj, retained t^e see of
Donkeld. Angus was snpported bj the earls of Crawford,
EiToIl, and Oltuuis, by Forman, archbishop of St Andrews,
and most of the other bishops, except James Beaton, arch-
bishop ot Glasgow and chancellor. The English warden,
Dacre, was also on his side and tried by intrigue and
bribery to foment diaseodon-and prevent Albany's retoro.
The opposite faction was headed by Arran, Lennox, Eglin-
ton, Cassilis, Semple, the bishop of Galloway, and the
eh^ioellor. Scotland was tiius divided between an English
party, strongest in the east, and a French party, chiefly in
the west. Thur disputee reached a aMa in a street £gbt in
Bdinbnr^ which got the name of "Cleanse the Causeway^
(SOtliApnl 1S20}, in which Angos drove Arran out of the
town and seized the caatle. Sir Patrick Hamilton, a brother
of Ainu, was slain by Angus, — an ii^ury never forgiven,
Ueautime Uargaret quarrelled with her husband, and,
. tiiongh there was a temporary reconciliation, mnfhal
Mcnsations of infidelity were too well gronnded to permit
ot its bdng permanent.
Next year Albany retomed and the queen, who hod been
'n secret coneeponde
« with him, entrusted him with the
costody of the young king. Henry Vlli, again requested
the Scottish parliament to expel AJbany ; but they again
nfnsedj and Angus made terms with AJbany on condition
that lie shotild himself withdraw to France. War was
now declared between England and Scotland (1632) ; but,
although Albany advanced with a large army as tar as
Carlisle^ be was persuaded by Dacre to a month's truce and
soon after w^it hack to France^ leaving the king in charge
of a regency of which Beaton, Arran, Huntly, and Argyll
were the leaders. Albany returned in the folbwing year
and again with a large force invaded England, but failed to
take Wai4^ while Sorrey, the English commander, ravaged
the border, ^lis failure lost AJbeny his credit with the
Scota In 1524 he went to France on condition that if
be did not oome back before 31st Aognst his regency
■hoold and. He never retomed, and during his absence
Margaret carried off her son from Stirling to Edinbnjgh;
whens althoogb only a boy of twelve, he was decl^ifid
king. Angus made an agreement with Wolsey to support
the En^ish interest ; and at a parliament in Edinburgh
Albany's regency vrsa declared at an end (12th February
1 B30), and Angus and Beaton obtained possession of the
king's person and governed in his name. The queen, who
had now openly tmiken with her brother, in vain appealed
to France and Albany. The French were occnpied with the
war against the emperor ; bat she obtained from James
Beaton, now archbishop of St Andrews, a divorce from
Angos and married Henry Stnait, sou of Lord Avondale,
creating him Lord Hethveo.
For three years Angns retained the supreme power and
filled all otBoes with lus adherents. B^ton, with whom he
qnanelled, was raqnind to resign that of chanceUor, and
Angm nominatad himself aa his successor. The indignant
noUes made tunnocewfnl attempts to swze the person ot
the king, who at last, on 33d May 1S28, effected his ucape
from Falkland, riding at ni^t to Stirling, where he was
welcomed by the governor. Before parliament met a pro-
clamation forbade any Dooglaa to remain in tbs caintaL
A new ministry was appointed with Gavin DnobMr, now
archbishop of Glasgow, who hod been the king's tntor, as
(^lancellor ; Cameron, atibot of Holyrood, as treaoarer; and
the bishop of Dnnkeld as privy seal. 1^ Douglases wme
attainted tad their estates divided amongst the nobles of
the opposite faction. A tmce was mode with £iigland for
five years. Daring the minority and dnr^ of James the
Scottish nobility became accnstoioed to bribes either from
England or France. I^e French, to which the higher dergy
belonged, were in tJia ascendant at the court ot the young
king, who natorally felt iil-will towards the DonglaMS and
leant on Albany, and after a time on Oerdinal David Beatmi,
bishop of Mirepoix in France and nephew of the archbishop
of Bt Andrews, whom he afterwards sacceeded, Beaton
was the Wolsey of Scotland ; but James T. was not Heniy
VnL, and the ambition ot the great prelate was baffled,
not by the king, but by the nation. Three months befMe
the king's escape Patrick Huhltoh (q.v.), abbot of Feme,
was burnt for heresy at St Andrews.
James, only seventeen when he guned his independence
(1628), showed, like other Stoarts, activity in government,
and the fourteen jears of his actoal rule, while not mailed
by outstanding eventa, were a period of renewed ordxr and
prosperity. He -first turned to the borders, where constant
wars with England had bred a race of lawless freebooteta.
By the severity of hia measurea he socceoded in dcnng what
Angus and his predecessors had in vain tried to dot. The
borders continued till the union to trouble the c
the law ; but the clans who lived by plunder and bl
were first really broken by the expedition of Jamea T.
But it was not only borderers who reqnired to be tan^t
that a king was again on the throne; Argyll, who had
sought to make himself independent^ was deprived of his
lieutenancy and imprisoned ; Bothwell, the &ther of
Mary's husband, was beheaded for the favour he showed
the borderers ; and the eelatea of the earl of Crawford were
forfeited. Jamea made a progreea through the Hightanda
and vras sumptnously entertained by the earl of Atholei
While criminal justice was strictly Worced, a step was at
last taken to organise a central dnl court (16th May 1B33),
which had been a settled plan of the kings since James I.
The College of Justice or Court of Session was founded in
Edioborgb by the inflnence of Albany with the pope, —
funds being got &om the bishope' revenues for the payment
of the judges. Of the fifteen judges eight, including the
president, were to be clergy, and the barons were contnllated
by the anomoloas oflSce of extraordinary lords,'
The relatione between James and Henry VUL contbned
hostile and there were mutual raids till peace was concluded
in 163i. Henry was then at the critical point of hia
divorce from Catherine of Aragon and anxious to secure
an ally. France and Spain were also competing for th<
favour of the Scottish monarch, and Charles Y. proposed a
marriage with Mary of FortugoL But he had alreadj.
indicated a preference for a French alliance^ selectdng Usry.
daughter of the duo de YendOme, The pope addreEscd
James as defender of the faith, a tiUe Henry TUX hsc'
forfeited. The clergy by Beaton's advice granted him ft
large allowance out of their revenues. These inducements
and the inflnence of Beaton and Dunbar, the two arch
bishops, kept James firm in his attachment to the old
church, in spite of the temptation which Henry held out
in it endowments and of tiie satires in which Sir David
' Hum *in ilnady ilgiu of ths nzuiU Inginohig of tlie pnfiBloS
ol 1*7 Iswjm wliD mn to pUy u fmportuit pot In Bcottiih ifili*
Is tlia 17lli ud ISUi aeataila. Tb« utabUibmsnt of a Httled irKUO
of JottlM, Indspsndeiit illka oI tha btnUtl ud awlMlutlal oDOt^
wu ■ much iiHdBd nfiam i but tha IsttR ttiU ntdsad tUr ow^
Unliljuitdletlon.
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SCOTLAND
499
Xjndnj, liis old tator, and Boelianaa, tlia tator of one of
his bartuda, ezpowd iti abiuas. In 1537 1ib treat to
Fnnca to see hu bride, bat, falling in lore with HadeUine,
dao^ter of Francis I., obtained her lund inst««d. After
an abaenoe of nine month* he ntarned ; bat the joang
qoeendkd within a few weeks after landing. The following
year be married Harj, dowager dncbeas of LongnevillB,
daughter of Claude of Lorraine, doke of Qniw. 14ezt jeu
(IB^) Henry made another attempt to gain Jamea throngh
hit euToy Sir Ralph Badkr, bn^ though the suecectioii to
' the Englith crom in the e*ent ot PriJaoe Edward's death
was held ontaa a bait, Jamea remained nnmoTed. IJilfilO
the king made a voya^ round Scotland, — the first circnin-
iiavigatioD of bia donunioDS by a Scottish aoreraign. The
Iriih are aaid to have offered him their crown, and the
barona of the north of England, wboae aympathisa were
Catholii^ wars inclined to faTonr him. The poaition waa
perilona for Henry, many of whose mbJBcIs itil] remuned
Cbtholica at heart. He made a laat attempt to induce
James to meet him at York, but the Scottish king would
not go ao far acroaa the border. Henry now ordered the
mardiei to be pat in a itata of war, and Sir Jamea Bowee,
accompanied bj Angna aad Sir George Donglaa, croMed
tlie border, bnt waa defeated in Teriotdale by.Hnntlj and
HomsL The duke of Norfolk advanced with a large force,
and, efforts to avert war having failed, Jamea aasemUed
the whole Scottish army and marched to Fala on the
lAmmermuirs, where he was relnctantly obliged to disband
his force throngh the refusal of the nobles to go farther;
they even thought of repeating the tragedy of Lander, but
ooold oot agree as to the victims. James caised a smaller
force and gave the comaiacd of it to Oliver Sinclair, irtiose
promoUon was ill Veceived by the barona. Their discord
allowed an easy victory to Dacrt^ who routed them as thej
were passing over Solway Moss (2Sth November 1542),
taking Sinckii and several of the leadeiB priaoneis. The
new^ thought to James at Caerlaverock, together with
the disaffection of the nobles, broke his heart. A few
weeks later at Falkland he heard of the birth of Hary
Stuart, but the news brought him no comfoA Eia sayinj^
"ThecrowQ came with a lass and will go with a lass," has
passed lolo history, although the prophecy was not fuLGlIed.
Outwardly his reign bad been, with the exception of the
dosing scene, succeasfuL He had reatored order along the
bordei^ and put down all attempts of the nobles against
his person. He had maintained uie chnrch, supporting the
biBhopB by severe laws against hareay. He bad secured by
bis marriage the alliance of France and was on good terms
witli other Continental stateo. His powerful neighbour had
not succeeded in wresting any land m>m Scotland. He was,
like his father, a popular king, mingling with the people in
their sports, and respected because of his strict adaunistra-
Uon of justice. Bat his foreboding was not withont. cause.
The power of the nobles had only been restrained, not da.
strojwL The aristocracy had too maay heads to be cnt off
by one or several blows. The principles of the Reformation
were gradually spreading in spite of the attempts to stide
them, and the infant ti) whom he left the crown had to
encounter rebellion at home and the hostility of England,
not the lass dangerous that she was heir to the English
crown and its rulers veiled their hatred of her by professions
of friendship. Enox describee James as " a blinded and
moet vicious king." Bochauan, who knew him better, is
man fair, ascribing his faolta to his time and bad education
and doing justice to the qoalitiea which made him loved by
the people.
Hary Btoart was deemed queen erf Scotland from 14th
December IGiS till S9th July 1567, when her son James
TL was crowned in her stead. This period of a quarter of
ft Mntniy is more crowded with events than any other part
of the Scottish annal^ oeept tba War ef IndKxndeace.
It was the epoch of the Reformation, and it oecame a
question of European as well as national impco^ance which
side Scotland would take. Closely connected with the
religions qnaation waa the political, affectiag the union of
Scotland and England. Ilie life of Hary, who onited the
personal charm of her race and its evil fortune, adds tragic
mterest to the national history. It falls into three parts, —
from her birth to her return from France as the young
widow of Francis IL in 1 56 1 ; from her arrival in Scothind
till her flight in 1568; and from her arrival in England
till her execution in 1587; bnt only the second of these
enters into the direct current of Scottish history. During
the Srst Scotland was nnder the regency, first of Arran, then
of Hary of Quise. It was nimonred that Cardinal Beaton
forced James V. on his deathbed to sign a will naming bim
regent, ot had forged soch a docoment ; bnt the prindpal
nobles proclaimed the earl of Anan beir-presnmptive to
the crown, governor of the realm, and tutor to the qneen,
and this was confirmed by parliament in the following
spring. Beaton waa thrown into prison, but soon released.
The death of James zuggested to Henry a new scheme for
the aimeiation of Scotland t^ the marriage of the infant
heiress to his son Edward, and be released the nobles taken
at Solway Uosa on easy terms under an assnranes that they
would aid him. Angus and his brother Qeorge Donglaa
also returned to Scotland from their long exile on the same
promise. Sir Ralph Sadler, one of the ablest English reai-
dants at the Scottish court— half envoys, half spies — was
sent to conduct the negotiations. Arnm waa tempted to
favour the marriage by the offer of the princess Elliabeth
for hia son and the government north of the Forth. Bat
the queen dowager, though she pretended not to be averse
to it, and Beaton did all they could to counteract Henry's
project. One part of il^ the immediate delivery of Hary
and the principal castlee to the'English king, was specially
iljected to. A mutual alliance between the two kingdoms
raa agreed to on 1st July 1543, and Hary was to be sent
to England when ten years old. Soon after a party of the
nobles opposed to the match got possession of the young
queen and removed her to Stirling. The English treaty
was ratified by parliament ; but Beaton and his partisans
did not attend, and a few days later the regent, as Sadler
'ezpreases it, revolted to the cardinal It waa evident tiiat
the assured lord^ though in Engliah pay, were not to be
relied on, and Henry resolved on war. His first act —
the seizure of Scottish merchantmen in English ports —
roused the patriotic feeling of Scotland. Before the close
of the year the Scottish estates declared the treaty with
England null and renewed the old league with France.
Lord Lisle was sent with a fleet to the Firth of Forth,
along with Hertford (afterwards the protector Somerset)
as commander of the army, and Leith was sacked and
Edinburgh burnt, though the castle held out. Lisle on
his voyage home ravaged the ports of the Forth, while
Hertford destroyed the towiu and villages of the Lothians,
aided by the English wardens, who made a raid across the
border. Hertfind returned the following year and de. «
stroyed the abbeys of Eelso, Jedburgh, Helrose, Dryborgh,
Boibnrgh, and CoLdiugbam, besides many castles, market-
towns, and villages. Such barbarous warfare renewed the
memory of the War of Independence and the intense hatred
of England, which had greatly abated. Lennox and Olen-
caim alone of the nobles aided with the English, and the
Reformers saw with r^ret the nation driven to a French
alliance as at least preferable to English conqneat.
Beaton at this time really governed, imposing his will
on the vacillating regent and sternly repressmg heresy.
Oeorge Wisbart, the chief preadier of the Reformers, waa
seized, found gnil^ ot eighte«i articles ot bartay, mostly
soo
GOTLAND
I"
Uken from ColTin, tmd Tmmt at St Aodrews. The ^m
of religioD, now openly declared, cenld not be c&mad on
without bloodahed on both sidea. Beaton woa aaBsoainBted
lees than three months after WiehuVB death in hu own
caatle hj Norman Leslie and other y onng men, some with
prirate giieTancet, all desiring to avenge Wiabart The
efiect ma advene to the Beformers. L^lie and bis asso-
ciatet^ joined by a few others, of whom Knox was one,
being diat in the castle, held it for a short time against
the regent, bnt were forced to sutrendei to Stroid, the
French admiral
The death of Eeniy TIIL (ISIT) did not put a stop to
the war with Ti'ng1j.ni<, The protector Someiaet proved to
be an implacable enemy, and, partly to Btrengthen his
position aa regent, determined to etrike a more signal
blow. InTsding Srotland aintnltaneoQaly with a taxge fleet
and ann7,'hB defeated the Scottish regent at Finkie (18th
September 1647), took Edinburgh, and placed garrisons in
■ereral castlea. ScotUnd hod suffered no soch reverse
■tnce Flodden. The progress of the capital was thrown
back at least a century ; scarcely a building remains
piiov to the data of his savage ruds. Somerset was not
in a position to follow np his advantage, for he had to
TetDm home to counteract intrigues. The yonng queen
was seat from Dumbarton in the following summer
(AugUBt 1648^ to the court of France, where she was
brought up Willi the children of Henry XL by Catlierine
do' Medici. Before she weot a French force bad been sent
to Bcotland, and in the camp at Haddington the estates
had, by a majority led by the regent and queen dowager,
agreed to Mary's betrothal to the dauphin. The regent
was promised the dukedom of Chastelherault in return
for bis part in the treaty. For two years a fierce inter-
mittent war continued between England and ScotUnd;
but the former country was too much engaged in home
affairs and the French war to sand a large force, and the
Scots recovered the places they had lost except Lander.
The issue of tbe French war was also adverse to the
English, who were forced to agree to the treaty of Bou-
logne (24th March IGGO), in which Scotland was included.
In September the queen dowager went to France and ob-
toined the transfer of the regency from Arran to herself.
On her return, Arran not being prepared to relinquish his
office, she proved herself a skilful diplomaUst, gaining over
the nobles by promisee and the people by ahetaining from
persecation of the Reformers. A single execution — that
of Adam Wallace, "a simple but very zealous man for the
new doctrines" — took place in ISSQ under the sanction of
Archbishop Hamilton, natural brother of Arran, wjio had
■ucceaded Beaton ; but that prelate, whose natural dis-
pMition was towards compromise, authorized a CatoAUm
in 1552 which minimized the distinctions in doctrine be-
tween the church and the Reformers, aad was conspicuous
for omitting all reference to the supremacy of the pope.
At this time a Urge section of the clergy and people were
still wavering, and the necessity of retaining tiiem by
moderation and reform waa evident. The death of Edward
TL and the accesdon of Mary in 1553 bad on important
influence on the progrcas of the Scottish Reformation. Tba
Scottish Reformers who had token refuge in England had
to escape persecution by returning home or going abroad,
and the powerful preaching of Harlaw, Willock, aod Enox,
who came to Scotland towards the end of ISSS, promoted
Ota new doctrines.
In t^e spring of I5S1 tiie queen dowager at last
ceeded in obtaining from the reluctant Amn a surrender
of the r^eney. Ihry had now attained her twelfth year
and a nomination by her of her mother as tutor gave the
form of law to what was really the act of the queen dowager,
the French king, and the nobility. The people acquiesced,
for all clanea were tired of a governor whosa chief object
was money. His actual investitnre in the French dnkedoB
removed any scruples ui relinquishing s dajigerona dignity.
For the next six years the queen dowager waa regent and
conducted the government with such prudence that her
real urns were only seen throngli by the moet penetrating.
Enox has been accused of a harsh opinion of her; but
the upshot of her policy if Buccessfol would have been to
subject Scotland to France and to that party in France so
eoon to be the relentless persecntors of the Beformera.
She knew well how to bide her time, to yield when re- '
uetance'was impolitic, to hide her real object, but this
she pursued wiUi great tenacity of porpooe. A variety
of drcnmstanoee favoured her,— the condition of England
under Mary Tudor, the ill-will Arran had incurred, the
absence of any leading noble who oonld attempt to seiis
the supreme power, the safety at tlie French court of her
daughter, in whose name she governed, and the knowledge
of her adopted country aoqnired by long retddenee. Tel
her first step was a mistake m serious as to havs well-
nigh provoked revolution. In appointments to offices
she showed such preference for her own countrymen as
created intense jealousy on the part of the Scottish nobib'ty,
and would probably have led to open action but for the
fact that many Scotsmen got offices and pensions from the
French king. The new regent applied herself at once to
the perennial work of every SccJCish Government the re-
pression of disorder in the Highlanda, and Srst Huntly,
afterwards Argyll and Athole, were sent to Argyll and the
Ues ; but the presence of royalty waa, aa had before been
found, the beat remedy, and ahe made next year a circuit
in person with more auccess than any of her lieutenants.
Under the advice of her French counsellors she now garri-
soned Dunbar with French soldiers and built a fort at
Eyemouth (1 656). She even ventured to propose to levy
a tax for the maintenance of a standing army; but the
remonstrance of 300 barona, headed by Sir John Ssndi-
lands, forced her to abandon a pttject so fatal in thst age
to liberty. Next year, at the instigation of the French
king, she endeavoured to force the country into an English
war. No time could have been worse chosen, for con-
misaioners from England and Scotland had actually met
at Carlisle to ai^just differences between the two countrim.
The Scottish barons refused to fight, and from that dst^
Bishop Lesley notea, the queen regent co'ilJ never tgree
with the nobility, and aundry of them sought by all oeani
to raise sedition against her and the FiendL
In the parliament at the close of the year conini*-
sioners wera appointed to go to Franca for the msrrsge
between Maiy and the dauphin. Their inatructiona weifl
to obtain a promise from both to observe the liberties slid
privileges of Scotland end ita laws, and a ratification of the
Act parsed in 1648, when it was first propoaed to send the
young queen to Francs. The contract of morrisge p™-
vided that their eldest son was to be king of France and
Scotland and the eldest daughter (should there be no s^)
queen of Scotland, to be given in marriage t^ the jout
consent of the king of Fiance and the Scottish aststsa
In the event of her hoaband's death Mary was to be free
to stay in Franco or return to Scotland. The """"^
was solemnized at Notre Dame on 24th July 1668. ^
prior to the public contract a secret arrangement bsd 1»»
made, by which Mary, in three several deeds, mada o™
the kingdom of Scotland to the king of France and M
heirs if she died childless, assigned to him poaseMWnw
the kingdom until be was reimbursed in a """'''" Pjf?
of gold for her entertainment in France, and declared tW
whatever documents she mi^t afterwards sign by o«^
of parliament, this amngement eipreased her S*"""!*^
tention. After the return rf the « ' — "-"■°"
UHaianox.]'
SCOTLAND
fiOl
BOfttabionul, with the title of kinft WM gnated hj puli*-
ment to tiie danphin.
While stateKaen vers oocnpied with the qneen'i mu-
rioge the Befonntftion had been eteadil; advancing. Knox
Ubovred inrewmntly, prMching in Edinburgh ten daji in
•Dcceaiion and making lapid Tints to the central and west-
ern ahirea. He attracted to lu« tide repreeentatiTea of the
nobility and gentry, and had much sapport in the tomu.
Tba earl of Olencaim, Lord Lome, Lord Junee Stmirt,
the fatura regen^ and the laird oC Dun, John Erakine,
in AogaB were amongat hi* earlieet followers, as well aa
many of the tradeemen and artiaana. Knox now openly
denounced attendance at man aa idolaliaos and be^n to
fHminijtM- the Iiord's Suppor after the manner of the Bwiu
neformera. He wia sommoned to Edinburgh on a charge
of here^ ; bnt^ thon^ lie kept the day, the proceedingi
were ditftped. Shortly after he was again wunmoned, Irat
ineanwhils had accepted a call from Qeneva. In his abaukce
be was condemned for heresy and bnmed in effigy at die
market cross of Edinburgh. Though aliaen^ he continued
the master-spirit of the Refomutiou in Scotland, and as
the levnlt of his eKhtntaticms Argyll, Qleucum, Morton,
Lord Lorae^ and Ebskine of Don drew up a bond (3d
D«cemtMC 1557) to "defend the whole congregation of
Oirist and eTery member thereof . . . against Satan and
all wicked power," themseWei forsaking and renouncing
"the congregation of Satan with all the superstition,
abomination, and idolatry thereof." This was the first
of many bonds or covenants in which, borrowing the old
fwm of league amonpt the Scottish nobility, the Lords of
Congrc^tion applied it to the purposes of the Befonno-
tion. They afterwards passed reeolutions that prayers
shonid be read weekly in all parishes bj the curates
pnUicly, with lessons from the Old and New Testaments,
and that doctrine and the inteq>retation of the Scriptures
shouhl be used privately in q<uet houses until Qod shonid
move the prince to giant public preaching by faithful
miniiiteis. Ai^ll at onca acted upon the resolutions and
protected John Douglas, formerly a Dominican, his chap-
tain, who preached at Castle Campbell in spite nf the
remonstrance of Archbisliop Hamilton. That prelate next
took a fatal step. Walter Myln, parish priest of Lunan
near Uontroae, an old man of eigkty-two^ was burnt for
heresy at St Andrews (Sth April 1558). He was the
last Frotaitant mar^ in Scotland. 7^ total number
«f deaths was unall, it is believed twenty in all ; bat many
people were baniihed or forced to leave the country and
many fined, while none were allowed freedom of worship.
Immediately after the death of Myln there began, nya
Knc^ "a new fervencie amongst the whole people."
QaUkering coorage from Uie popular feeling, the Lords of
OoDgiegation preaanted petitions in rapid succession to the
legent. The Bist laid before her prayed " that it might be
lawful to meet in public or in private for common prayer
in the vulgar tongue, to interpret at such meetings bard
places in Scripture, and to nse that tongue in administer-
ing baptism and the Lord's Supper "j in reply pennisuou
WIS granted to preach in private and to adounister the
sacraments in the vulgar tongue. The second presented
Bl the meeting of parliament prayed for a suspension of
all Acta against heretics ontil a general council, that copies
ol the occosation and depositions shonid be given to all
persons accused of heresy, that the accused should be
alloirad themselves to ioterpret any words charged sa
heretical, and should not be condemned unless found
guilty of tuarhing contrary to Scripture. "The r^ent,"
Knox remark^ " wared not amiable looks and good
wocd%" but aufferad the parliament to be dissolved (2d
March IAS?) without any answer. In the uiring a synod
BMt in Edinnrgli ud a tlkiid petition wu laid before it,
praying that the canons sbonld be enforced against dergy
who led scandalous lives, that there should be preach-
ing on every Lord's day and on holidays, that no priests
should be oidainad unless able to nad the 'Catechism
distinctly, that prayer should be in the vtdgar tongue,
that the mortnary dues and Easter oCTerings should be
optional, and that the connstorial process should be re-
formed. Another point was included according to Ijcoley,
— that bishops should be elected with the consent of the
laity of the diocese and priests with that of their poiish-
ioners. The synod replied that they could not dispense
with Latin in public prayer as appointed by the church,
and that the canon law must be observed as to elections
of bishops and priests. On other matters they were pre-
pared to make ooncessionB, and passed thirty-fonr canons
in the spirit of the councU of Trent directed to the due
investigation and ponishment of immorality of the eleisy
and the inspection of monasteriee, better provision m
preachiug by bishops and priests, the remission of mortuaiy
dues to Uie very poor, and the recognition of the sacrament
of baptism as administered by the Keformers. A shwt
expoeition of the mass was to be published. Ilese con-
cessions proved the oseeasity for reform ; but^ as they were
silent on the principal points of doctrine, as well as on the
more radical reforms in church government, they could not
be accepted. The time of compromise, if compromise had
ever been practicable between Home and Oeneva, to which
the Scottian Reformers adhered, was fiow past. iSvo events
bad occurred before the synod separated which hastened
the crisis. On ITth November ICCS the death of Haiy
Tudor once more placed on the *'gW«i' throne a sovereign
inclined to favour the Befonnatton. In May, during the
sittings of the synod, Knox returned to Scotland and the
Scottish Beformers once more hod a determined leader.
The regent issued about Easter (1669) a proclamation
forbidding any one to preach or administer the sacramenta
without authority of the bishops. Willock and other lead-
fog preachers having disregarded it were summoned to
Stirling on 10th May. Their adherents assembled in great
qtimbeis, but moetly nnarmed, at Ferth, a town aealons
for the Reformed opinions. Erskine of Dun went from
there as a mediator to the regent at Stirling; she pro-
middil, but in vagne terms, that she would take aoma
better ormr witB the ministen if their supporterB did not
advance. Notwithstanding they were outlawed for not
appettri::^ on the day of trial. Next day, when the news
reached Perth, Knox preached his first pnblic sermon
(11th May) eince his return, inveighing against "idolatry."
Hardly had he ended when a prieat began mass and c^ned*
the tabernacle on the high altar. A young man oiled
out, " This is intolerable that, when (kid by His Word hath
plainly damned idolatry, we shall atand and see it used."
The priest struck the youth, who retaliated by throwing a
stone, which broke on image. From this spark the ii«
kindled. The people destroyed the imagn iu the church
and then proceeded to sock the monasteries. The example
of Ferth was followed at many other places. The regent
could not remain passive when the Congre^tion waa
sanctioning such actioiL But her position was one of
grave difficulty. Her main support was from France, and,
though she had adherents amongst the Scottish nobility,
Argyll and Lord James, who were still with her at Stirlin|b
were really committed to the Congregation. What oonne
the new queen of England would take was still uncertain.
On 11th May the regent advanced towards Perth, hut the
arrival of Olencaim with 2500 men from the weat to aid
the Congregation led to a compromise, of which the terms
were these: both parties were to disband their troops;
Perth was to be left open to the regent, bnt no Frendi
troops were to come wiuiiu 3 mtlee; the inhatotaata wan
S02
GOTLAND
[hisi«ht.
not fa> be eallad upon to mami for thur recent oondact ;
■od all oontioveraies were to be reeerred for porluunent.
Tba Congregatioii, however, lemained dutnutful; Euox
rlf preaiSied tliat the ti«atj noold only be kept till
regent and her Frenchman became the atronger, and
before leAving Perth the Lords of CongregatioQ entered
into « new bond for mutual defence. The regent entered
Perth the day thej left (29th Haj), accompanied by the
duke of Chaetelheraolt and a bodjgoard of French aa well
aa Scottiah troopa paid by French money. The depoaition
ot the pioToet in favonr of a Papist and the occupation of
the town bj theae troops were deemed breaches of the
agreement, and Argyll and Lord Jamee now joined the
BeformerB and took the lead in their proceedings, ^eir
tmmberH increaBLOg, the r^ent felt onable to retain Perth^
and quitting it marched south, followed bj the army of
the Congregation, to which ahe abandoned Stirling, Lin-
lithgow, and Edinburgh, taking refuge at Dunbar. Hie
only conflict was at the Hair of Cupar, vrheie a small force
Mnt to save St Andrews ma qiucklf dispersed by the
mperioT nombeis of its opponents. It was made a condi-
tion of a trnce that no Frenchman should be left in Fife.
The Befonners occupied Edinburgh for a few weeks, but
were obliged to abtuidon it upon new terms of trace in-
tended to preserve the itatiit qvo. Both parties were
engaged in negotiations for active assistance, the one from
■ Fiance and the other from England. The n^ent had
been daily expecting reinforcements, and a considerable
number of troops about this time laiided at Leith, which
they began to fortify.
In the end of Jun!B Eirkaldy of Orange began a cone-
q>ondeoce, afterwards continued by Enoi, with Ceol, Percy,
and Bir Herbert Croft. Their scheme was far-reaching,
de young earl of Arran, thou(^ brought up in Fiance^ had
beoome Protestant, and if he, the heir-pieaumptive to the
Scottish crown, vere married to Elizabeth the union of the
two countries would be secured along with the Reforma-
tion. This would be ■ counter-atroke to the union of
France and Scotland under a Catholic, which almost at
tiie moment became for a brief time an accomplished fact,
by the dauphin succeeding as Francis II. to the French
crown on tiie death of lus father. The policy of the
Quiaee, who continued to control the Oovernment under
the new king, almost forced Elizabeth in this direetion.
Harj quartered the arms of England with those of Scot-
land, Implying denial of EUcabeth's right both as illegiti-'
mate and as a heretic. But Elizabeth knew the value
both <A her hand and of the state,- which, thanks to the
* ability of her ministfiia, was daily becoming more loyaL
She had special cause for hesitating to ally herself with
the Lords of Congregation. Knox had offended her by his
vehement BlatU agaimt- tin RegimaU of Womai, which,
tbou^ primarily aimed against the CalJiolio queens, ad-
mitted no exception in favour of a Protestant. Nor could
Enos even when supplicating aid adopt the courtier's
language to which Elizabeth was accustomed. She vras
really afraid of the revolutionat; principles of some of the
Befonners, which seemed to threaten the throne as well as
the altar. Moreover, Arran, who came secretly to the
English court, did not please her, and there was on end of
the matrimonial part of the scheme. The rest of it would
probably also have miscarried but for the consummate
stateemanship of Cecil, who saw where the interest of
England lay. In August 1 559 Sadler was sent with £3000
to the assistance of the Scottiah Protwtants. Ajiotiier
■npply followed, but was intercepted, and in January 1660
R treaty was agreed t^i-at Berwick between Elizabeth and
the Lords of Congregation, to whom the duke of Chastel-
herault had now gone over. The Soots engaged not to
cater into an oUiaDce witlt Fnnc*^ and to defend the
country against- French aggressioD. Elisabeth was tc
support Scotland by an army, but no place of strength
was to be left in English hands. If any were taken from
the French they were to be razed or retained fay.the Scots.
The Scots were to assist England if attacked by France,
and to give hostages for fulfilment of the treaty. Next
spring an English army under Lord Grey crossed the Tweed
fpsth Uarch 1G60), met the forces of the ConsregatioQ st
Frcetonpans, and invested Leith, in which the nsnch were
also blockaded by sea. The regent had taken refuge b
Edinburgh castle, and here on 1 Otb June fehe died of dropsy.
She had beeu deaerted gradually by almost all her Scottish
adherents. The last to go was Moitland of Lethington,
the most talented but also the most cuuiing of the Scottish
statesmen. His desertion was the sign of a lost cause.
Even some of the higher clergy now conformed. Lord
Ersldne almost alone remained faithfuL The regent's
own courage never foiled, and, though she received a visit
from the leaders ot the Congregation and consented to kc
Willock, she died a firm Catholic Her misfortunes and
her coDciUatory policy during her long atmgglea to main-
tain the Fiendi oonnezion with Scotland have gained her
a lenient judgment even from Protestants, all save Ejioi,
whose personal animoaity is palpable, though his view d
her policy is correct.
Her death removed the chief obstacle U) peace, whid
the English and the French courts had for some time de-
sired, and the treaty of Edinburgh was concluded on 8th
July 1060 upon terms ftivourable to Scotland. , The mili-
tary forces of both Fiance and England were to emulate
Scotland, except a certain number of French, who were to
remain in Inchkeith and I>unbar. Leith and Eyemouth
were to be dismantled ; Mary and Francis were to abdain
from using the arms of Singland. By sepuote articks
certain concessions were granted to the nobility and peopb
of Scotland showing the length to frhich the limitatioli of
the monarchy was carried. No French or other sddien
were to be brought into the reaUm unless in the event of
an invasion and only with the oonsent of the ertateL
Neither peace nor war was to be.madi without their con-
sent A council of twelve (seven chosen by the king and
qneen and five by the estates out of twenty-fou^ selected
by the estates) were to govern the kingdom daring the
abeence of Maty and Franda. The chief officers of the
crown were to be natives. An Act of oblivion was to be
passed for all Acts since fith March 1558. Neither the
nobles nor any other persona were to assemble in arms ex-
cept in cases provided by the law. The duke of Chssw-
herault and his eon, Airan, and all other Scots were to be
restored to their French estates. With matters of religion
the deputies refused to deal ; but envoys ware to be ae^
to the king and qneen to lay before them the state ot
affiurs, particularly those lost mentioned.
Before parliament met an important step towards a nev
organiattion ot the church was token. Superintendent^
some lay, others clerical, were appointed for Lothian, GIi|s-
gow, Fife, Angus, Meams, Argyll, and the Isles. InB
principal ministers of the Congregation were planted in the
chief towns, — Knox receiving Edinburgh as hia ^"^t^
The convention parliament which assembled on 10th July
and began its business on 1st August 1660 was the Brfonw
tion parliament ot BcoOand. Like Henry VUL^ »IM«
parliament, its work was thoroogL It not merely refomta
abuses but changed the national creed aod oooomph^
more in one than the English parliament did in »||*
seesiona. The parliament was the moat numsnni T^^°^
in Scotland, being attended not cmly by nwtr *" '*"
nobility but by some bishopa and an nnuMially laiSf ""^
bar of lesBW b«roDS OT landed genby, rfmrsientatiw*^
the boighe. Iti ■tatoM Mvet wnTad »• wf*l M^*^
sxKsmnoir.]
SCOTLAND
bnt were confinued hj the first parliament after Hut's
dopocition. On 19^ August the Conivaoa of Futh
reMiTod the Huictton of ths eBt&tea. On tbe 24th an Act
-was paned decUrlog that the bishop of Borne had no juris-
diction or aathoritf within the redlm. Another rescinded
all Acta passed since Jamas L controrj to Qod's word ;
and a third prohibited the mass or baptism according to
the Boman rite, and ord^ned stnct inqniaition agtunst all
pwsons contraTeoing the statate. The form of church
government was not explicitlj altered, ^e archbishop
ot St Andrews, and Dunkeld and Dunblane alone of the
bishops, are said to have voted against the Gonf eesion, and
Athole, SomervilU^ Caithness, and Bothwell alone of (he
noUes. The whole power of the state was at this time
in the hands of t^ party of the Beformatian and resist-
ance was useless. The Confession of Faith, the comer-
atone of the new policy both in charcb and state, was drawn
up hj Enox and five other ministers, but revised bj the
mora moderate Reformers Lethington and Winram. He
power ol the civil magistrate was declared fh terms which
indicat« the revision of Lethington rather than the original
draft of Knox. lit language is certainly such as monarchs
had been little accustomed to, thongh the expression ia
not BO blunt as Knox used in preaching and converaation.
King^ princes, and magistrates in free cities are declared
to M those to whom the reformation of religion " chiefly
and most principally appertains." They are themselves to
be judged by Ood, being appointed for the maintenance of
the tme religion and sopprcssiou of idolatry. Resistance
to them, but only when vigiliuit in the execution of their
ofBcs, is dechured sinfoL
The same persons who had prepared the Confession
were entmatod with the composition of a code of ecdeai-
Mtical poli^, and a draft, after being first laid before the
convandon of lfi60, was submitted aa revised to that of
the following year. This Firtt Boot of DiKiplint was not
oniversally approved ; several of its provisions, especially
thoaa rtlating to church estates and their application to
the snpport of the ministry, the relief of the poor, and
(Jib fnAhennce of education, were little to the taste of the
nobility, and it was never sanctioned by the estates or fully
acted on. Other parts of it were, however, embodied in
the SeoMd Book of Dudplin^ wtuch became the law of
the Beformed Chnrch. It renuina a memorial of the tat-
sighted views of Enox, its author; and the verdict of
posterity has been in his favonr and against the nobles who
prevented its being carried out. See PjaaBYTOiAXttot,
ToL xix. p. 679 tq.
The death of Francis H (6th December ICSO) materially
altered the political sitnation. The much feared subordi-
nation of Scotland to Fiance was at last averted. Maiy
Btuart, only nineteen, was young enough to be influenced
by a new husband and new responsibilities. Her character
was not yet known, bnt her relations with Catherine de*
Medici were not friendly, and there was little doubt that
ahe would take advantage of the provision in her marriage
articles and retom to Scotland. Sir John Sandilands's
misdon to Fiance to procure the royal sanction to the treaty
of Sdinbnrgh and the Acta of the Reformation parliament
must have been unpalatable, and he waa not favooiably re-
ceived. Before ahe left Franca Mary was visited by envoys
of the opposite parties into which Scotland was divided.
Lesl^, official of Aberdeen, afterwards bishop of Boes,
•ad her valiant defender, was sent by the GaUiolic lords
and bishops with a special message from Huntly, urging
Im to come to Aberdeen, where aa army of 20,000 men
would be at her disposaL But Hnntly had not proved
truat worthy during the regency and Mary rejected an offer
which would have phinged the kingdom in war from the
t she laadeiL Sia very day after ahe had
Lesley her brother Lord Jaatm, lAo had been sent 1^
the Lords of Congregatioii, met her at St Dirier. She
received him favoniably, but declined to ratify the treaty
till she consulted her counciL An attempt was made to
capture Mary on her way to Scotland ; bu^ sailing from
Calais on 14th August, she landed at Leith on the 19lh.
She waa accompanied by three unclea and a couaideiable
suite, mcluding Caatelnau the historian, BrantSme the
memoir writer, and the poet Chastelaid.'
On her return to Scotland Mary showed heraelf dispoaed
to conciliate the Beformen provided ahe was allowed the
exercise of her own faith. This bad been guaiunteed her
by Lord James. His near kinship to the queen at a time
when the stain of bastardy was less regarded, and his close
relation with the Reformers, made him necessary to both
and gave him an inSaence which his eminent prudence
used for the good of the nation, but with an eye to his
own, advantage. Without thrusting himself too promi-
nently forward, he led the privy council (ably supported by
Lethington}, and, without the name, was in fact prime
minister. Thn title of Hor, and, when that was reclaimed
by the heir of the Erskines, of Moray or HcK&AT ({.«.), with
its large territories, gave him the designation by which be
is best known, as well as great wealth, which he dispersed
by means not well explained. Bnt the leaven of another
influence than that of the stateaman waa now at work in
Scottish politics. This waa embodied in John Enox, the
most representative Scotsman unce WsJlaoe. The first
Sunday after Mary's arrival the mob tried to intermpt
mass at Holyrood, and Moiay had himself to keep the
chapel door to prevent its being broken. "His beat ex-
cuse was," says Enox, " that he wald stgp all Scotchmen
to enter into the mass." Next Sunday Enox preached in
Edinburgh against idolatry. " One mass was more (earful
to him," he said, "than 20,000 armed enemies." little
likely as .such sentiments were to please the young queen,
a meeting between her and the preacher waa arnmged by
Moray, £e only third party present. On the matter of
religion he waa unbending, yet not more so than Mary.
His judgment of the queen's character was, " If there be
not in her a proud mind, a crafty spirit, and an indurate
heart against God and His truth my judgment faileth me."
Li 1563 Huntly, the chief Bomonist in the north, who
offered to have the moss said in three counties, rebelled,
being indignant at the giant to Moray of on earldom whose
estates he theq held. Mary, accompanied by her brother,
made a progreaa in the north, where Hnntly was defeated
and slain at Corrichie, his elder son being imprisoned, his
second beheaded, and the lands ol Huntly, of his kinsmjui
the earl of Suthiirland, and other barons of the house of
Huntly forfeited. On her return to Edinburgh Mary agai^i
met Enox at Holyrood. He rebuked her for dancing and
other frivolities, advised her to attend the public sermons,
and told her that it waa not hia duty to leave his BtndiLJ
in order to wut at her chamber door. There were other
interviews, in one of which (April 1C63) only Mary aeemed
t<) yield a little. She was anxious to use lus influence to
quiet a threatened rising in the west, and to heal a quarrel
between her half sister the countess of Argyll and her
hnsband. Enox promised his <ud, bat required in return
that the penal laws should be enforced agamst the Ihpisla.
This Mary agreed to, and her promise was also apparently
kept Hamilton, archbishop of St Andrews, and forty-
seven other persona were prosecuted for hearing confewuon
ippTDulia Tij n{ild itapi Ha
■ lUXT, «J. IT. p. 691 f. \
. „_ _ la ■ ■niima' dUbnot from
Oit hinortu,— IntRpnttng nutini sod ilnwiDB wnclukms wUeli
hintarj, vlioM vlgw b Umltid bj arldaBH, euuiot nub. Hon coly
.. . ....._ ^.._ ^ ,. , rtorj«B b( Miled m In si tbsy
504
sad celebrating tho innat. Yet Knox's
HiOors is, "Tiia coaforenca we hftve inserted to let llie
voild tee bow Moris qoeen of Bcotluid can disaemble, and
how that ahe conld Cdose mea to thiok that she bore no
mdigoation for «aj controvenjr in religion, while that yet
in ber heart was nothing but venom uid destraction,
short after that did appew." She was in fact coi__
sponding with her uncle the cardinal of Lorraine, with the
pope, with J%ilip H., testi^ing her steadfast attachmant
to Fapacj and her desire to restore the Catholic faith. At
a Isat conference Knox remonatiated against her marriage,
then tliDiight imminent, with a Papist, claiming the right
of a subject "to speak ont on this topic which so nearly
ooneemed the commonwealth," remaining nnmoved bj the
last argument of a woman, which he savagely describes as
" tiowling and tears in greater abundance titan the matter
nquired." Nothing bat perusal of the conversations can
brmg before ns this pregnant passage of history— the abase-
meut of the Scottish monarchy before the religious de-
mocncy — of the woman forced to dissemble and weep be-
fore the stem man believing he delivered a message from
Ood to the head of a corrupt court. Somethuig was
allowed to Knox's sincere outspokenness. He moved
meu and women alike by words which, like Luther's, go
struct to the realities of life. He is the typical Scottish
divine framed oa the model of the Hebrew prophets, and
often reproduced in vrcaker oopies. The Beformation in
BcotUnd, in both its strength and its weakness,. was his
work more than tliat of any other man. The Presbyterian
form of government, of which his friend Calvin was the
author, was intcodaced \fj Knox from Qenava and con-
tinued for long to eoforca discipline^ first by censure and
then, if need be,'by excommunication and temporal punish-
ment, entirely in his spirit.
Not only to Knox and the Reformers but to all classes
the question of the day was the queen's marriage. Apart
from her beauty, her political position rendered her hand
of importance to tbe balance of power. It held not only
the dowry of France and the possession of Scotland but a
claim, which might. be at any moment asserted, to the
fhiglidh crown. She avowed her inclination to marry,
and indeed she required a man to put her in possession of
her kingdom. Don Carlos, the archduke of Austria, son
of Philip of Sp^u, Charles IX. of France, the kings of
Denmark and of Sweden, the archduke CHiarles, second
■OD of the emperor, were all passed in review but rejected.
Elizabeth pressed tiie claim at her favourite Leicester, — a
project supported by Cecil and Moray. In the end the
loir face and fine figure of her young cousin Henry Btnart,
Lord Daruley, carried the day. A party of the Scottish
noble»^— Athole, himself a Stuart, Morton, Crawford, Eglin-
ton, and Casuiiiii — favoured the alliance. David Bizzio,
the queen's foreign secretary, who already had great in-
fluence with her, promoted it. But it was her own act,
the moat dangerous of many false steps in her life. Shortly
before the marriage (29th July 156S) Moray attempted
to seise Damley and the queen as they rode from Perth
to Callendar near Falkirk. When it was accomplished he
rose in arms vrith the duke of Chastelherault, the head of
the Hamiltoos, Aigyll, and Bothes ; bat Mary with a large
force pursued tlum from place to place in the Roundabout
B(ud, from the neighbourhood of Edinburgh through Fife,
where aha levied fines, and finally to Dumfries, from which
Moray fled to England. Ha hod been secretly but not
vigoronsly supported by Elizabeth, who, when she heard
of his flight, recalled her orders to Bedford, then on the
marches, to place troops at the disposal of the insurgents.
Mary still retained soma of the popularity of a young queen,
and fostered it by an apparent deaiTe to humour the Re-
formers. For the first time she attended a Protestant
SCOTLANB
[butoit
sermon. But the consequences of a, union lietween a bi^
spirited woman, active in mind and body beyond her lei
and years, with a vain and dissolute yontib were soon aeen.
His alienation from the queen, the murder of Bizzio, Kitk
the intrigues that preceded and followed it, the tsiiid
growth of Bothweil's influence, the pitiable vaiallationi of
Doroley, and his murder at Kirk of Field (10th Felsnsry
1567) have been sketched in the article Mabt (voL it.
p. G96 aj.). The authors of the last crime were Bothwel],
who devised it, and his servants, who executed it. Heir
confessions leave no doubt of their own guilt. Who were
their accomplices has from that day to this been debated
without concluaiva answer. The great oontroveny i>
whether the nobles with Moray at their head had boond
themselves to support Bothwell, as he and Hary sfteN
wards declared, or whether Mary, possessed with passion
for Bothwell and hate of Damley, herself instigated her
husband's murder. Some have thought both the qoeen
and the nobles were implicated. The casket letters, alleged
to have been found in a coffer that was given to Morton
by Dolgleish when intrusted with it by Sir Jomei Balfoni
for its delivery to Bothwell, must be left out in any fsir
examination of this question. The mode of their recovery
and their production, first partdally and secretly before
EUzabeth's commissioners at York, tlien vrith apparent bnt
not real publicity at Westminster (for Mary's couuiellon
were not allowed to see them), their oontents, so difierent
from ber known writings, and the disappearance of the
originals render their evidence inadmissible. What weigbe
most against Mary is ber subsequent conduct, explicable
only in favour of innocence if she was absolutely in Bath-
well's power from the time of the murder to the defeat of
Carberry, — an hypothesiB not borne ont by facts. Thooch
Lennox and his wife urged that the mnrderors be broognl
to justice, there was delay till 13th April, when Bothwell
was at last brought before an assize. The trial was a
sham, and his acqnittal on the pretence that Uiere was no
accuser conld deceive no one.
The straoge wooing which commenced when Damiey wsi
just buried, if not before, was continued by the seizure of
Mary by Bothwell near Cramond and her captiri^ in her
own castle of Dunbar — a pretence according to her ad_Te^
saries, an opportunity for an outrage from which marriage
was the only escape according to her defenders — at IsJt
culminated in the marriage at six in the morning, at Holj-
rcKKJ, on the 15th of May 1567. It vras the month when
wicked women marry, said the people^ writing Ovid'e lis*
on the Tolbooth walls. Before it took place she crested
Bothwell duke of Oi^m^, and pardoned him for ssy
violence. She also wrote in palliation of his conduct lo
the French king. His divorce from Lady Jane Qordoa
had been hurried through both the bishops' court and tist
of the Protestant commissaries,— in the former on tho Iai;»
pretence that there had been no papal dispensation for irj
marriage to one of near kin, and in the latter on the groand
of adultery, Mary had been more than once "w?^^
the consequences of such a marriage by Lord Hemes, IT
the faithful Melville, and by Craig, tha minister who, *i»
the utmost reluctances proclaimed the banns. It w«^ s"
act which required no warning. She had no alternative,
urge her vindicators, to save her honour, and her '^ *
themomingof marriage are proof that she was forced;
the more scrupulous admit she should have preferred (teaw
to union with a man she must at least have known w»
not clear of Damley's murder. Her enemies said then, om
historians who take their side repeat, that it was the niw
nesB of a passion she could not resist The tww "J^
consistent with the facts seems to be that she ''^^
not without fits of remorse, the sarvioe of the strwig^
sword at her disposal on Uie orij tenu
n whiohtiM
■1
cxMiU obtaun it Bitt, if UuT
the degna of ooatpliaij implied in Mtnrtiiig
qneacw of tlw murder, rnsnj of tlie ItMing noUM i^n
uiTolTad in aqn*! guilt. On 19tli April n hxA MWitiiig
fiothwell'i innoocoM and nigiiig Haiy to many Iiim had
bean ngned at Ainalie'* Ureni, not onlj hj BotlmU'a
faw frimdi, bat hy "» gnat part of t£e lordi." Host td
titoK wbo signed nad in the poiiiament jnit ooncluded re-
ceived granla d land i» iemi«ioii of forfeitora, and it is
urged )^ Uaiy's defondera that Uiey were bribed to acqni-
eaca in Bothwell'a daaigna. When the bond waa after-
waidi pot in arideooa againat them their plea waa that
thaj had been forced to sign it hf BothweU. It ia con-
tended on Uary'a behalf that with eo mtnj of the noblea
ocanisitted to approral at the marriage she had no one on
-whom to reir. Iliece ia something in this argnment; bat
it doea not meet the point — Whj did aha ral^ on BothweilT
That a aahMM waa arranged before Dander's mordw to
eotr^ her into Una marriage. In oidw lo pave the wa;
for her d^Msition, and that the eaaket lettera were fabri-
catod to dmdi her gnilt, haa been anggeated; but the
facta mciMMHj to prove ao deep a train of conspiracy
are wanting. Hw two Sootanun who almoat alone mun-
tainad the character ot hmeat man, Eirkaldy of Orange
and Sir Jaraea Helrill^ who were to &r from being nn-
f riondly to Wmtj that the; nltimatelf eiponsod h«r canset
behoved tiiat she ins a willing rietim ajid threw herself
into Bodiwell's armd The narratiTe in her own despatch
to the tnahop of BnnMano does not allege that she was
forced, hot only that "he partlie extorted' and partlie
obtidned oar pcmniae to take himas oar hasband."
"The leading nobles were not dispOBed to accept a new-
master in Botnwell, whose vices, nnUke those of Damley,
wwe ooopled wiUk a ationg inatead of a wsak daractar.
~" • ■■■ - -....1. jrince, placed
a master waa
•, secretly collected
their fofces to act ag^nat inatead of for the queen uid
her hosbond. Withui a month id her marriage ahe was
met at Carbeny Hill, near HasBelbiirgh{lGt)i Jane 1667),
S7 a force of the oonfedeiate lords, headed by Morton and
lencaim, Bathven and Lindsay. Mary, after a froitlees
attempt at mediation ty Da Croc, the iVench ambassador,
and an offer eqnally vain by BothweU to decide the
iasoe by aingle com^t^ sarreodered to Kirkaldy. Both-
well rode OB to DtmbM with a few followets, and Mary
was condoctod to Horton'a camp. Once in Uieir hands,
the lorda treated her aa a prisoner, and confined hn at
Lochlsven Castle, where she was forced to abdicat^ sur-
rendering the crown in ftronr of her son and committing
the legeney dnring the mintvity to Moray. The yonng
king waa crowned at BtirUng on 29th July. The prudent
Moray, who had k^t oat of the way in Fnuee while these
events were tnmaaotad in BooUand, now returned and waa
installed as n^ent (SI3d Angoat). . Maty remmned prisoner
in Loch Levoi for nearly a yew. After her escape on 3d
May 1568 the dnke of Ghaatelheraalt and otiieT Catholic
noUes calGed round her standard ; bat on ISth M^ Moray
and the Koteatant lords met her forcea at Langside
near Qlaigow, and the iasne of that battlo forced her
to fly to 'Btt^ani, where she placed heneU ll9\h May) in
the hands of Lord Lowther, governor of Carl
Eliabeth's promises of protection. Mary, however, found
that she was really a prisoner. Like Baliol, she disappears
personally from tlta field of Scottish history; but her Ufa
in azile, mdiks his, was apent in bnay plcFts to reoovei
her lost thronft It became clea? as time went on that
she plMMd her whole reliance on the Cathotio miiiority and
forngn aid ; even \a prison she was a menace to Elizabeth
and ready to {to agunst hat as an enemy, ^nie Pro-
'LAND
They k^ Jealoos possesuon of the yonng prince, p
in the eaatodr of Mar in Stirling : and, when a mnste
called to enforoe order on the border, secretly coll
806
pat^ inereaaad in Seethad mitil it baeama a
m^ority abooat reptBaontative of the iritole naliiui ; sren
her own aon when lie came to bold the aeqtb^ littia in-
clined as be was to aeoept Presbyterian prindplei^ regarded
her aa a revolntionaiy element fottonatdy removed. Her
knowledM of Babington's plot for the firnwion of EaglaiKl
is proved, thonuh her assent to the death of Bifldieth
is still an open qnestioa By her will, confirmed by
her last letters, she bequeathed the crown of Scotland and
her claim to that erf En^and to Philip H The letters
contain this modification only, that her aon waa to have
an opportonity of embracing Uie Catholic faith nndec the
guaidjanship of Ilulip to save hia own throne. There waa
DO Boch reaervation aa r^arda that of England, ^e
Armada, from whoee overthrow date the fail ot Spain and .
the riae of Britain aa the chief European power, waa doe
to the direct instigation of Mary BtnarL
Meantime in Scotland, font teoenciee rapidly succeeded
each other daring the minority c4 Jamea. The deatha by
violence of two r^ent^ Moray and Lennox, the suspicion
the death of the thiid. Mar, and the end
acaroelyless riolent because preceded by a trial of the
Mtk a revotalionaiT period and the Im-
ittempted aolntioa by placing the goram-
!a of the moat powNfnl noUa. Eeredi-
fourth, Morton, maA a
poaaibili^ of the attempted ac
ment in the bands of the inc__ .
taiy royalty, not the role of uie aristotaacy, waa a
dominant in Scottish politics and a r^ncy waa an
experiment already di^iaraged in the preceding reigna.
Moray, said Sir J. Melville^ "was and ia called the good
regent," mingling with this pndse only the sli^t qulifi-
cation that m his later years he was apt to be led by
flatt^era, but teetifying to his willingness to listen to
Melrille's own counsels. Ibis epithet bestowed by the
Froteatant^ whaae chamfnon he was, still adheres to him ;
bat only partiaans can justify its nse. He displayed great
promptness in baffling the schemes of Mary and her party,
Buppnosed with vigour the border thierea, and mled with
a finn hand, r«eisting the teqiptation to place the crowfi
on hia own head. Hia Bame is absent from man^ plots
of tlie time. He obeerved the forma of personal piety, —
poBsibly abated the leal of the Reformers, while he moda^
ated tbeit bigotry. Bat the reverse side of his chatacter
ia prtfed by his conduct. He reaped the froita of the
conspiracies -vriiich led to Rizzio'a and Damley'a nmrdeta.
He amassed too great a fortune from the estates of the
church to be deemed a pore reformer of its aboaee. He
pnmaed hia aister with a calculated .animosity which would
not have spared her life had this been neceasaiy to his end
or been favoured by Elizabeth. The mode of prodnctioa
of the caiket letters and Uie false chaigea added bj
Bodianan, "the pen" of Moray, deprive Moray of any
reasonable claim lo have been an honeat accoaer, sealoua
only to detect goilt and to benefit hia country, ^le
rdnctance to charge Mary with complicity in the murder
of Damley waa feigned, and hia object was gained when
he was allowed to table the accusation withont being forced
to prove it. Mary remained a captive under snapicion of
the gravest guilt, white Moray returned to Scotland to rule
inheratcad, supported by nobles who had taken part in the
atepa which ended in Botbvell's deed. Moray 1^ Ijondon
on 12th January 156d. Dnring the yE«r between hia
return and his death aeveral evuita occnrred fm which be
haa been censored, but which weie necessary for hia aecot-
i^,— Uie betrayal of the duke' of Norfolk and of the secret
ploC for the libeiation <tt Hary to Elisabetk, tlw imprison-
ment in Loch Leven of tha eari of NOTUinmbarland, -mbo
after the failure of hia rising in Qia noiUi of
taken refoge in Scotland, Had the diarga bf _
MaiUand m Lethington irf omi^lici^ in Danley'i
LtHaaglbm wm committed to '~ *~* —
S06
SCOTLAND
t"
Eiifcdilir ^ AangB, wbo held the oaatle of EdJiibiiigl>>
and whila tbere " die duuneleon," as BnoluuiAii ouMd
IfaltUJnd in hi* bunons iiiTectiva, eentniy to tihs natoie
of Uut uumal, (^ined oret Uioaa in the cutl^ infilnding
Kiikald}'. Hony ma afraid to prooeed irith Ilia oha^e
en the iity ot tnal, and Eiikaldj and Maitland became
partiBBiia of the qneen. The caaUe ma Hie itaraghtdd
of the qneea'a partj, — bemg iaoloted from the town and
able to bold oat againat the regent who goremed in the
name of her eon. Tba defection was monined over b;
Ute Befwmeau Eito^ with the eelf- confidence which
maikad bia chataoter, eent from his deathbed to Eirk&ldy
ft meHBga of warning tliat " neither the craggy rock in
nUA bo emfided, nor His oaniat winlom of the man
[Uaidand] whom he eoteemed a dami-god, nor the umstr
aoee of etnngen, abonld praaerre him from bung disgraoe-
foUj dmsged to ignominioiia pmuBhmenb" It has been
■D^ectedtbat Maitland and Kirkaldy were oogninnt of
fliadedgn <rfHaKailt(Hi of BothwaJlhangh tomnider Horaj,
Idr he had been witii them in the cattle. Thia haa been
aioribed to private vengeance for tbe ill-treatmant of hia
wifo ; but the fend of the Hamilton! with the recent is
the moat reaaonable explanation. Ai he rode through
IJjnlithgow Horav waa shot (33d Jauoaiy 1670) from a
window b^ Hamilton, who had made carafnl preparation
iat the murder aod hia own eaorae. Horn; was bnried in
the nath aUe irf Bt Qilaa Oatiui£al, Bdinbnrj^ amid gen-
Mai moanlDit Knox preadhed the Mimoa aiid Buchanan
fnniMiffnl the e^tu^ both murtdntad panegyrica. Hia
rnal duuracter hi m diffienlt to peoetiate a* that of Mary.
It b eaqr for the hittorian to oondemn the one and pntiae
the &iha aeeordfaig to hia own religiooa or politioal eraed.
It k OBuet troth to raeogniie m bodi the grMaa aad
tale&ta of the Stnaii laoe, which won devoted foUowen,
bnt to acknowledge that timee in which CSiriatian divines
Wprared of the mnrder of thdr enemiei were not
lualy to produce a ctainlen hnvine or Eanltleaa hero,
indeed neoeHttated a partidpation in deeds which
wonld be otimes tinleea tW can be palliated u actk of
dvfl war. Let as aboolve, U ire can, Moi^ and Vaij ot
Danlefa blood. It remaina indispntahle-that Haij ^■
proved of Moray's awaaninatiim and that Mot^ wonld have
ianctioaed Maiy^ detih.
Uorar was aiicoeeded in the regency h; Lenot^ Daiukj^i
father, ue male neaieat of kin to the fatnre aovcnagn, *
really the nmninee of Elitabeth. His brief team ^
was marbd by the raoewal of the fiigliah wainnder Snaaea
and other general^ which made the oneea'B eanse wg^it the
more pt^ntlar. Lennox another victim of violenoe^ waa
slain »d Sqitember 1971) in a haa^ attack by me of the
^miltons on Stiriinft fnmi ^ueh Morton, the real head
of the Protestant party, vriio at first had been taken and
threatened with the same hte, barely escaped. Mar, who
had aU along held the cnatody of the yoong king waa D0w
chosen regent and heM &» poeA tor a year, when he died
(38th O^ber 1S73^ Dnnog his regency the civil war
between the qnoMia aod the king's party continued.
An Englith hitrigne was carried on with great tnjBtary,
and never Inoaght to a pcnnt, by Bandolph and Killigrew
to deilnr Maty t* the regent that she might be tried
irithin her own dMninions. On the death of Mar, Morton,
vAo had been the most powerfol noble dnring the last
re^eooy, at length reached the object of hia ambition bj
bemg elected regent. On the day of Morton's election
Knox died. He was "ones" "aid Morton, "who never
feared the face of man."' If we condemn his violent
langnage and iritter nirit, it is jort to remember that he
lived doling the red heat of the Btromle between Borne
and ite Befi»mation, and died before^e triomph of the
lttt«t in Sootlard waa seonre. He had felt the thcngs (^
stake. Ths maaaacn
otautenuOioa thnvghont Pio-
teetant Eort^ jnat ~befan his last illnw—, Mary and
Hkilip of Bpam were still pkttting for tha deatractiwi of
all he held vitaL Ss adume for the rafonaatian of the
chmch and ^t^^catioo of ita leveanea was ia advanee nc*
of his own time only. He oantemplatod &•« adnealioD
for diildren ct the poor iriio real^ Teqnirad aneb aid, —
a gradoated natem of pariah adioola, lniT|^ adio^ and
oniveisiliGfl, which wonld have ftaestalled &e moat rooBnt
edooational Afoim. While ha introduced Fnsbytnan
government by kirk-seasion^ [veabyteriea^ ayuoda^ snd
general aaaemUyand cpposed even a modified B^KOpaej,
he saw the advantage M the enperintendence of dirtricte
by the more learned and able clergy. Wliile be inmsted
on the preaching of the Word and the administratioa of
the sacraments in the volgw tongoei his litorgj shows hii
favonr for forms ot pnblio pi^er. Knox's first wife was
F.ngliah, and two of hia sons took ordem in the Oinrdi ot
England. ScottidL Freabyteiianiam had not yet been
hardened \^ persecntion into a hatred of prelaw as bittv
as that of Popery. It meant separation htm Room, but
inclined to nnion with En^and, and the qneation of ttw
form of church government waa still open.
Morton, like hia predecessor, favoured the Episcopal
order, and, acting npon a oompromiae agreed to at Leith,
a modified Episoopaoy was restwed. ^ntebidtopa^ipointed
were declared Bnl>ie(it to the king in temponu and to the
chnrch and gOLeial assembly in spiritaal matters, and were
tahavethesunejaiisdictiwaBdieBiipeiintendenta. Tba
aesemUy id P«A protested against the tue of oKtoin
eodeaiaatkal titlM, Mt paaaed ovw that of lushqh Mcit
of the clergy aanotiMied, thon^ with relnetanec^ the ap-
pmntanent of biaht^ in the h<^ <A retaining their re-
vennea. The people called them "tatehan" Uah(^ from
the Btiaw ooimteneit osed to rob the calf of its motbar^
milk Afanpst the idtole ebaiet property remained in the
hands of the landed proprietors, Moray in the fint instance
and afterwards Morton receiving a lion's share. Avarice
was Mwton'B beeetting ain. Li other respeots he was an
energelio and c^jable mler. Ha effected at Pertly with
the aid of Elimbeth's envoy, a padScation with Hnaay,
ChastelberaaJt^ aod (ha OaMiouo nobles who sopporttd
Maiy. Only the castle of Edinbo^ held ontj and tU^
^ided by Ei^Jidi artilleiy, he soocMded in tttkuig aftws
brave resistance by Kidoddj and LetltingtW). Kiikslijr
and his brother vrera execnted at the erosa ot Edinbmrik
Lethington eacaped their fate in what Melville ealb "m
Roman manner," — ai hia oim hand^ perhaps I7 pciaoa
Tb» death trf the bravest and the ablest Scotsman of ttat
age pat an end te the hut chance of Hary^ reabnwM
ty native snpporL Morten, now widioot a rival, restcwd
order in the borden, and whm an encounter ocenfred
between the Engfish and Soottidi borderers called the Rb»
of the Bedswyre hia prodmoe prevented it becoming •
naticmal conflict. Ha ami^M a commisnoa for tM
reform of the law, — a &r-sia^t«d ediemek """LfSl
tempted bnt always Btop[^ short of snccees, to cod^
the law, which several Clontineptal states uotaUyD«o>»*J^
about this period oigaged m. TUm time waa aot iV*^
a change which, now that it la, remains n]iaccaoipliH|M^
Bnt, while aU seemed to favour Morton, thtfo ^^.^T^
cmrenta which combined to proeiue his fall TbePRsbr-
terian clergy were aUenated oy his leaning to X^pisMl>*^
and all parties in the divided church t? hia ssloM «
its estates. Andrew Melvilfe, lAo bad ■no^'^J:
the leadership ot Knox, waa more decided than &»«
agamat any departure from the PnsMerian xmm un
refoeed to be won by a place in his howehold. o»
e^enaive bnildingi at Dalkei^ whidi got Ae BU» <*
ASrOKlUTTOS.]
SCOTLAND
607
th« lionV Den, nmsed Um jealoiur of ihe noblw. The
MTOganoB of hi» fKTouritea exmeded hii own. The com-
nKHU mn di^tut«d by k de^«eu^OD of ths cx>iiug&
The powerful eail of A>g7U, inceoeed by tiie recorery
from hiE wife, Uie widow of Moray, of tome of the crown
jeweb. Mid Athole, e Sturt knd Bomao Catholic, united
with Alexander Eratiae, gOTemor of Stirling who now
had tlie ciutody of the young kin|^ in a league which
receiTed so much support that Morton bent before the
storm and offered to resign. The king, whose edacation
bad been forced by Bachanim, now barely twelve yean of
i the gOTerament, but " ' '
Morton mrrendered tfae cutle of Edinbm^h, the palace
of Holyrood, and the royal tteasnree, letiriiig to Loch
Leren, where he bosied hinuelt in laying out gardens.
Bat his ambition coold not deny itself another stooke for
power. Aided by the young earl of Mar, he got possession
of Stirlii^ castle and the person of the king. Cinl war
was avoided only by the inflnenoe of Bowe^ the Engli^
ambassador. A nominal reconciliation was effected, and
a parliament at Stirling introduced a new government.
Morton, who secured ao indemnity, was president of the
council, but Athole remained a privy cooncillor in an en-
larged council with represenlativM of both patties. Shortly
afterwards Athole died, of poison it was said, and suspicion
pointed to Morton. His return to power was bri^, and
the only important eTent was the prcaecnidon of the two
EamiltMu, the abbots of Arbroath and Paisl^, who still
supported Mary and saved their lives by flight to England.
The straggle with the Presbyterian clergy continued. The
SeOmd Book of Diidpling had been presented to the king
before be assumed office, and, although the general assembly
in 1580 condemned Episcopacy absolutely, parliament did
not eanction the condemnation. The final fall of Morton
came from an opposite quarter. In September 1579 Esmd
Stuart, Lord D'Anbigny, the king's cousin, came to Scot-
land ^m France, gained the favour of James by his
courily manners, and received the lands and earldom of
Lennox, the custody of Dumbarton castles end the office
of chamberlain. One of his dependants. Captain James
Stuart, son of Lord Ochiltree and brother-in-law of Knox,
had the daring to accuse Morton at a meeting of the conncij
in Holyrood of complicity in the murder of Damley, and
he was at once committed to custody. Some months later
Morton was condemned by an assize for having taken part
in tiiat crime, and the verdict was justified by his con-
fession that Botbwell had revealed to him the design,
although he denied participation in its execution. He
was executed by the Maiden — a guillotine he had himself
brought from England— on 2d June 16S1.
From December 1580 to August 1682 Uie goremment
was in the bands of Lennox and Stuart, now captain of
the guard, — a small force which the estates had reluctantly
allowed the king tp. protect his person. Their jealousy
threatened but never reached an open rupture. Stuart was
rewarded by the gift first of the tutory, then of the earldom
of Arran in April 1581. Lennox was created duke, a title
seldom granted in Scotland. Thdr aim, carefuUyconcealed
by nominal adherence to the Protestant faith, appears to
have been the association of Mary with her son in the
government, a breach with England, the renewal of the
league with France, and the restoration of the Roman
Church. The nobles, bribed by office or the spoils of the
church, were men of too feeble character to resist, but
the n4sbyterian ministers were made of stronger metal
Dl^al banishment of the eontnmacions clergy and arbitrary
cudna of eomicil were followed by a rising against Epis-
copacy.- 1^ ptoehmation of an extraordinary chamberlain
ail— «D itinvint court of justice — to be htid 1^ Lennox
at Edinbni^h on 37 th Angost piteipitated the coi^ <tetat of
the Baid of Buthven, wh^ took the usual form of Scottish
revolntiooa, — the seiinrB of the king and the transfer of
power to his captfirs. When on a visit (22d August 1582)
to the earl of Oowrits son of his mother's foe Lord Ruthven,
at his castle of Hunting Tower near Perth, the earl his host,
Mar, the master of Qlamii^ and others, taking advantage
of the absence ot Lennox uid Arran, surrounded the castlo
with armed men and made James a prisoner, though still
ofltenaibly treating him as king. Arran, returning to Perth
with only two followers, was seized and put in prison.
Lennox, after taking refuge in the castle of Dumbarton,
fled to Frances where he died in di^rraoe with the Catholics,
because he had conformed to the Protestant doctrine.
The government was for ten months in the hands of a
new ooiuicil, of which Qowrie as beasurer was the head.
There was no parliament, but a convention at Holyrood
ratified the consequences of the Raid of Ruthven. A
declaration was extorted from the king condoning his
capture; but James, no longer a boy, diafad under the
tutelage of the Protestant nobles and the admonitions of
the I^testant ministers^ In June of the following year
be escaped from Falkland to St Andrews, which was held
by Colonel Stewart Arran was recalled, the Raid of
Ruthven declared treason, Qowrie executed, and the chief
Protestant lords banished. Melville and other ministers
found it necessary to fly to England. A parliament con-
firmed the supremacy of Arran, who was created chan-
cellor, and the forfeiture of the chief persons implicated
in the Buthven Raid. The king's power was dedand to
extend over all estates and subjects within the realm ; all
jurisdictions not approved by parliament and all aasembUe*
and conventions widiout the king's licence were discharged.
A commission was granted to Patrick Adamson, archbi^iop
of Bt Andrews, and other bishops for trying ecclesiastinl
causes, and a form of jndgment was established for depriv-
ing ministers of their benefices for worthy causes. A
declaration was required to be snbscribed by all beneficed
men — ministers, readers, masters of colleges and schools —
acknowledging their submission to the king and obedience
to their ordinary bishop or superintendent appointed by
him, under pain of forfeiture. A tew snbscribed uncondi-
tionally, others with the qualification, "according to the
Wordof CkKl"; but a large number declined, -and suffered
the penalty. £^ly in 1586 Adamson issued a paper de-
claring the king's supremacy in matters ecclesiastical,
defending the.restiMation of bishop^ and announcing the
king's intention that the bishops should hold synods twice
a year, that general assemblies should be allowed provided
they had his sanction, but that no jurisdiction was to be
exercised by presbyteries. This document, which cut at
the root of tiie msbyteriao system and ivas a formal
decUration in favcnr of the royal supremacy and Episco-
pacy, was met with vehement protests by Melville and the
exiled ministers.
Meantime a series of intrigues went on between the
English and Scottish oonrts. Eliubeth, while osten-
sibly favouring the exiles, disliked their political principles.
James and Arran, instead of leaning on the papacy as
Mary did, had shown signs of accepting a solution of the
problem of church government more hke that of England
than of Geneva. There was here ground for a compromise
of the religious controversy which political reasons made
so desirable. Accordingly Lord Hnnsdon, a favourito
conrtier ot Elizabeth, met Arran near Bewick in the
antumn, when it was ananged that the master of Gray,
then a follower of Arran and person^ favourite of James,
should go to London in October. At his instance Elisabetli
removed the banished Scottish lords and ministers from
Newcastle to Loodon, Boi Gn^ waa^pliyiiig ]ui_oinL
SOS
GOTLAND
[hi
gvne, and his BiiAgeBtioiia tliat ihese lorda niight retnm
to Scotluid, Bod ^t the alli&nM irith England should be
carried out by their Aid and hta own influence iodepend-
mHj of AiTOn, vere taken ap hj the queen, who had no
penoDal liking for Armii, and oltimatelj effected. Eli^
Mth.sent Wotton to ScoUand, who won the coaftdence of
James, to whom he promised tt pension of XSOOO a year,
and i^iile openly negotiating with Amn secretlj plotted
witli QiBj for lua downfalL A mntnal teagne between
Enf^and and Scotland against the Catholics, called "the
Bond anent the Tme B«lijgion," was agreed to by a con-
vention <f eataiei in July 1085.
Hiis was a toming-pomt in the life of James and in the
history of Scotland. The choice was made between Fiance
and ^igland, Bomanisn and I^otestantiim. It was not
likely to be rerereed when with EUmbeth's declining years
the crown of England was thrown into the balance. The
day before the conclosion of the treaty Amu was at the
request of Elizabeth's envoy put in strict ward, nnder the
pretext that he had been privy to the death of Lord
Bnssell, eon of the earl of Bedford^ in a border fiay, and
he only escaped at the price of his estates and bononn.
In November the banished lords — Angn^ Uar, the master
of Okmis — returned, and along with diem the two Hamil-
tons ; and, aided by Qray, th^ seized the person of the
king, the castle of Stirling, and assumed the goremment.
The alliance with En^and was finally ratified at Berwick
by Bandolph. Jame^ at the instigation of On^, wrote a
harsh letter to hfb mother; and at the instance of Elia-
beth he allowed Oeotge Dtmtfiu, who had been ooncemed in
Damley's mnrder, to rettun to Scotlaud. The exiled Pro-
testant minislMS were restored to theii liTinos ; bnt Jama
was resolute In maintaining Episcopal and enforcing the
laws against all who denied tbe royal sapremacy. Adam-
son was indeed forced bf a genenl assembly to disclaim
any authority as archlnalu^ not allowed by God's Word,
and an Act was passed aj;aia dividing Scotland into pnaby-
teries, bat the king R^tued to nl^ect tbe Ushops to &ai
1'urisdiction. Maiy, deserted hj her ion, now allowed
lenelf thronj^ her immediate confidants, especially her
Beei«tariee Nan and Curi^ to take an actiTs thon^ secret
part in tbe Jesuit plots irtiiah embraced both Scotland
and Bftgi^Twi in tbeir ramifications. That which had for
its aim the assasnnation of EILiabetlk was diaoovered by
i^ ^nes, and, thott^ forgery was resorted to,
It to doubt that Uary was cogniunt of the
design. Hw trial at Fothuingay ooold have but one lenlt
onder a statnte according to mtich any attempt against
the qoean's life was treason in the peieon for whom h was
made as wdl as in the actoal perpetrators. The ezeco-
tiiw (8dt February 1587) of Huy natmally tonsed the
anger tt tbe OatMio powvs and some indignation in
Scotland, lAlch James professed to shore; yet be did
nothing but enmstulate. In truth his own crown was
threatened by Uie same enemiea. Maiy had diainbcrited
him in {avont of Philip <rf Spain, nuless he adopted the
Catholic faith. The defeat of the Spanish Axmoda by the
soreragu and people of both conutriee was felt to be a
proridectial deliveranca Nothing cotdd have served better
to efEue tbe memory of Maiy and eztingaish pity for her
fate. Tbe Ul of Chay, who was tried and condemned for
treachery dning his En^ish vabumj and for cwreepond-
Kun with Oatholio princet, left James, now of full age,
witlkODt what WM tumost a neoessi^ to his weak naturt^
— afavoorht^ tbon^ Sir Jtdm Maif^nd, ayotmger brother
of Lethington, was secretary and exemsed the chief inflo-
eoce in tte government Advantage was taken of the
royal m^ority to pass an Act aonexii^ to die crown
all 4^nrch lands nnder oertoin limited reservations. But,
as all priw gtasla to lay impn^riators were saved, and .
the king was still allowed to gtant fens of cbnrch tauda,
the nobles and landed gentry really profited most by tbU
measDre, which gave a pailiamentarr title to their eitatu
derived from the chnrcb and the hope of fatore ipoib.
Tha Act was accompanied by a general revocation ot all
gifts made dniing tiie king's minority or by Hary after
his accession. Another statute of constitutional import-
ance renewed, and for tbe first time carried into effect,
tbe law of James L by which the leaaer borons in ths
connties were excused from personal attendance and allowed
.to send repreeentatives to parliament This waa a checi
on the noblee who bad hitherto almost exclusively attended
and ruled parliament. It waa the fiiet and only largs
deviation of tbe Scottish parliament fn»ii the feudal model
of thecKria rtyit.
Projects for the king's mairiage had been on foot at an
earlier period ; bat at last the choice fell upon Anne o(
Denmark. Elizabeth opposed the match ; bat James, per-
haps tempted by tbe offer to TOrrender the Danish claim tci
Orkney end Shetland, pabaps also not unwillirg to elio"
he could choose for himself, was married to Anne by prorj.
Anne set soil iot Scotland, but was driven back by a stone.
Aectndingly James himself went to claim his bride, when
the actual marriage was at once celebrated at CopenbagtD,
where he spent thr winter. Jt waa a political advantage
both to tbe king and Scotland to fcmn a connexion with
a kingdom whi<^ though small, stood ecmparatively bi^
at that time in Enrope, and was oxnpletdy independent
both of England and of France. After the king's letnni
the Presbyterian party waa in tbe ascendant. It has been
doubted whether tbe favour shown to it by James at tliii
time was gentiine, bat withcmt reason. He had beoi
married, and tbe gneen was crowned, by Robert Brew,
a leading minister, for whom he had a personal liking-
Shortly before going to Daimark Jamee had published i
ttact interpreting the Apocafypae in tha wdl-known Protest
ant sense. Notwithstanding tbe More id the Armul^
the air was still full of Jesuit intiignee and Spanish plots.
At no moment of his life was James lees indlnEd towaidi
the RnglirJi foim of the Befonnation, which he described
in a celebrated speech as retaining tbe snperstition of tbe
mass "without tbe liftings." A severe blow wss giwn
to Episcopacy in Scotland by Archbishm) Adams(«i ikort^
Wore hu death retracting in a piblidted cMLftssiui hi>
writings against Fresbytenanian. Ja 1092 parliomrat, kd
acctuduig to James Helville byUaJtIaod,iH>wLardTludS'
stane and chancellor, re-established Preebyteriaa chnret
government. Oeneral assemblies were to meet mm t
year, and provincial aasembliea or ^nods, presbyttfUB,
and sessions were confirmed. The Act of 1584 confeiriog
Jorisdictton on bishops was rescinded, but there w*s >x>
formal abrc^tion of the office. IV aasonUy had t^
for the repeal of tbe Act of Annexation of 1687, but thi>
was not conceded. Tbe landed interests were too powwW
to allow of the Befonned Cbnich receiving the patrinwfJ
of its predecessor. Stortly after the terminstiOD of IW
parliament the discovery of the plot <rf "the S|«iBn
blanks " showed that the danger of a CalhoUo rising a^
fordgn invasion was real, "fiie COTspiroc? proved m«'
tivo, and two of its chief promoters (Huntly sod ErwUJ
left Scotland ; on their retnm three years kter f>9F^
renounced Catholicism and conformed to the notetttsi
faith. ^...
f>om die king's migority to bis accession to the Enff*
throne, his relations to the nobles on the one band soow
tiie Presl^larian party led hj tbe mmiaters <« *• "J^T
reqoire to be kept in view as giving the key to a Mgw^
eonfnsed and changing course of events. Aft« tbe desB
of Tbirlestane in 1695, the king bad to rely on hi* ««
counsel, of the value of which be had an orervMB"*.
»1
SCOTLAND
509
Opinion. Ha Lad rtudied tlie theory of kingcraft nod wrote
tho Matiluroa Doroa ci[Kniuding it. He fancied that he
really eovemcd, wbilo bo was in fact drawn thia way or
that by tho coQtcnding forces which emerged in tliia revolu-
tionary epoch. In sjiilo o( occasional displays of resolution,
his character was at bottom weak. It was tho destiny
vt'hich conducted lum to the English throne that saved him
from the dangers of his situation in Scotland. A noble-
man, who, althoogh only connected by his mother with
Mary's fiothwell, wcined to inherit tho reckless doriog of
bLi iircIcc'iTor in tho title, thrico attempted Ltnd once for
a nhort time snccoeiled in seizing tho royal person ond
o-^iuming tho reins of government. But James, who was
not without o/Iroitncss in iMffling plotters by arts similar
to their own, escaped froiu his custody. Towards tho
t'atholic lords his [lolicy was not to [irocced to extremities,
but to keep them in band as a counterpoiae to the eiticme
Protestant party. He prudently allowed the finances to
be managed after Tliirloutanc's death by a committee, called
tiom its number the Octavians, on which both Catholics
and Protestants acted, — Seton, afterwards Lord Dunferm-
line, the president of tbo session, and Lindsay of BaJcarros
being the Icsdiog members. With their advice James set
himself against any measures which tho Protestant tninis-
ters proposed for the restoration or increase of the revEnuea
of the church. It was this criticid point of money, the
assertion of the royal aapreinacy in spiritual matters, and
the faToui the king showed to the Catholics which ted to
the qnarrel between him and the ministers. At a convon-
lion of the estates at Falkland and then more, strongly
as one of a deputation sent by the ministers from Cupai,
Andrew Melville, in the spirit and manner of Knox, made
his well-known speech to " God's silly vassal " on the two
kingdoms and the two kings. Although James, frightened
by this vehement language, made promises that he would
do nothing for the Catholic lords till they had made terms
with tho church, it was impossible that a (|uarTel, whose
roots were so deep, as to the limits of the royal authority
and jurisdiction in matters ecclesiastical could be appeased.
Neither jiorty to it could see how far each overstepped the
bounds of reason. The king was blind to tho right of
freedom of conscience which Protestantism hod established
as one of its first principles. Melville and the ministers
were equally blind to the impossibility of any. form, of
monarchy yielding to the claim that the members of an
ecclesiastiikl assembly should use the name of ChrLjt and
the theory of His headship over the church to give them-
selves ab^lute power to define its relations to the stale.
Other occasions quickly arose for renewing the controversy.
A violent sermon by Black at St Andrews gave a favour-
able opportunity to James of invoking the jurisdiction of
the privy council, and the preacher was banished north of
the Tay. Soon afterwards a demand made on the king
in conseqnence of a sermon of another minister, BaJcan-
quhal, and a speech of Bru<e, the king's former favourite,
that he should dismiss the Octavians, led to a tumult in
Edinburgh, which gave James a pretext for leaving tho
town and removing the coiuti of justice to Liohthgow.
Supported by the nobles, ho returned on New-Year's Day
1597, received the submisaion of tbe town, levying a severe
fine before he would restore its privileges as a corporation
and withholding from it the right of electing its own magis-
trates or ministers without the royal coaseot Emboldened
by thia success, James now addressed himself to tbo diifi-
cult problem of church and state. He did not yet feet
strong enough to restore Episco]>acy, perhaps had not quite
determined on that course. Tho ingenious scheme due to
Lindsay of Bolcarres was fallen on of introducing repre-
sentatives of the church into parliament without naming
them bishops. This would have the twofold eOcct of
diminishing the anthMity of tbe general assemblies and
of conferring on parliament a competency to deal with
matters eccleuasticaL Parliament in 1597 passed an Act
that all ministers promoted to prelacies (i.e., bishoprics or
abbacies) sholdd have seats in parliament, and remitted to
the king with tho general assembly to determiiit! as to the
office of BQch persona in the spiritual policy and govern-
ment of the kirk. Accordingly James summoned succee-
eIvo assemblies at Perth and Dundee, where there were two
sessions in 1597, and finally at Montrose in 1600, selecting
those towns in order to procure a good attendance from
the north, always mote favourable to royalty and Episco-
pacy and less under the influence of the Edinburgh clergy.
by this and other manieuvres he obtained soma concessions,
but not all that he desired (see Pbbsbvtekianism, vol lii.
pp. 6S1-G92). It was the Oowrie conspiracy (5th Aogost
IGOO) whose failure gavp him the courage and the ground
for finally abandoning tho Presbyterians and casting in his
lot with tbe bishops. Bepeated investigations at the time
and since cannot be said to have completely cleared up the
mystery of this outrage. The most probable solution was
aflbrdcilby the discovery several years of terwards of a corre-
spondence between Oowrie and Logan of Restalrig which
pointed to tho scizuro of the person mtbcr than the murder
of James as thoiobject of the plot. More important than
this object, which failed, was the sequel. The Ruthvens,
who wore chiefly implicated, were amongst the most promt-
nent of the Protestant nobility, ^nd the Presbyterian minis-
ten -n-ith few exceptions refused to accept James's own
account of what had happened, confirmed though it was
by depositions of various noblemen who were with the
king at tho time. They even insinuated that the plot had
not been by but against Gowrio at the king's instance;
Although James by arguments and threats at last extorted
an acknowledgment of the truth of his account from all the
ministers excejit Bruce, who was deprived of his benefice
and banished for his contumacy, the iusult and the iqjnri-
ous suspicions were never forgiven.
In October, with tho consent of the convention of estates,
he apjHiinted three bishops to vacant sees, and thoy sat
in pafUament, though as yet without any place in the
government of the chnrch, which was still Presbyterian,
and with no sanction of course from the assembly or tbe
ministers. James bad to assome the English crown before
Episcopacy conid really be restored. This crisis of bis .
career was not long delayed. Already Elizabeth's death
was being calculated on, and her courtiers from Cecil
downwards were contending for the favour of her heir.
She died on 21th March IG03 and James was at once pro-
claimed her successor in accordance with her own declara-
tion that no minor person should ascend her throne but
her cousin the king of Scots. Leaving Edinburgh on 6th
April, James reached London on 6tb Hay, being every-
where received with acclamation by the people. Thus
peacefully at a memorable epoch in the history of Europe
was accomplished tho union of South and North Britain.
Often attempted in vain hy conquest, it was now attained
in a man.neT soothing the pride of the smaller country,
without at first exciting the jealousy of the larger, whose
interest was, as Henry Vn. prophesied, sure to predominate.
To James it was a welcome change from nobles who had
threatened his liberty and life, and from ministers who
withstood his will and showed Little respect for his person
or olGce, to the courtier statesmen of England trained by
tho Tudors to reverence the monarch as all bat absolute,
and a clergy bound to recogniee him as their head. To
Scotland, a poor country, and its inhabitants, poor also
but enterprising and eager for now careers, it opened pro-
spects of national prosperity which, though not at once,
were ultimately rctdized. It was an immediate gain that
510
SCOTLAND
[histobt.
border wmb and EugliBh tad French intngnes wen at an
end. This more than countetbaUnced the loss of the court,
a loss which probably faTonred the independent devalop-
ment of the cation. For the present do change was made
in its conBtitation, its church, c« its laws, lie Bafocma-
tion bad continued the work of the War of Independence.
Scotland no longer coOBisted only of the prelates, the
uohle^ and the landed gentry. The eommona, imperfectly
repreaented in parliament by the borgha, not yet wealthy
enoogh to be powerful, had toaitd a voice in the anemblicB
of the chorch and leaden in its rainiaters and elders.
Superstition did not fall with the fall of the church of
Rome Dor licence with the decline of the nobility. Rather,
both took new forma of extreme Tiralence and thnAtenad
to impede the national progress ; but both were exposed
to the light of public discussion and the growth of public
opinion. The contact with the more coltnred south was
of immense value. Scotland, now beginning to ose in the
servicee of the church, in the proceedings of the courts,
and in prmted books the toI^ tongue, which differed
only as a dialect from that of England, was admitted
to the freedom of the noblest language and Uteratuie in
Earope, then in its prime. The arts which increase the
conTenieace and- pleasure of daily life spread northward
with the increase of wealth. Science, starting on a new
method taught by the great English pbiJoeopher, was intro-
duced and after a time eagerly prosecuted. Commerce,
for which the Scots had a natural aptneae, found new
fields. And all these beneftta were procured without any
sacrifice of the independent spirit which had been dsTired
from their forefathera. Even the separate intercourse
with the Continent — with France, Qprmany, Holland, and
Scandinavia — from which Scotland had already received
so mnch advantage, though not quite so intimate with
France as before, continued. But before the blessings of
the onion could be fully realbed a century was to inter-
vene, which at timee seamed to bide if not to bury them,
— a century of civil war and religious controversy. At
the moment when James ascended the throne and pro-
claimed the virtues of peace it required no far-sighted
observer to discern elements of discord which might at
any moment burst in storm. To hold Papal Ireland,
Episcopal England, and Presbyterian Scotland united under
one sceptre was a task of infinite difficulty, not leasenad
■ because in each there was a minority who dissented strongly
from the prevailing opinion as to church government and
doctrine. The sudden separation from Rome gave birth
to every variety of religious opinion, and ScotlsAd became
even more than England a land of sects. The constitution
of the civil government was a problem not yet solved. In
England the Tudor sovereigns had sapped the principles of
the parliamentary constitution established in the timee of
the Plantageneta, and fortunately recorded in writings which
could not be forgotten. In Scotland snch principles had
never yet been practically adopted. Ireland was ruled as
a dependency on the principle of subjection.
At this "point in the treatment of some hiatorlana the
history of Scotland ends. Jnster views now prevail
Neither the union- of crowns nor of parliaments really
cloees the separata record of a nation which retained sepa-
rate laws, a separate church, a separate system of education,
and a well-marked diversity of character. But a great
part of the subeaquent history of Scotland is necessarily
included in that of Great Britain, and has been treated
under ENOLAJfD (j.*.). Oonsiderationa of space and pro-
portion moke it neceseaiy that what remains should be
told even more rapidly than the narrative of what preceded
the accession of James to the English throna James
during the first half of hia reign as sovereign of Great
Britain allowed himself to be maiulj guided bf Robert
Cecil, Lord Salisbury, the son of Buighley, an bcreditary
statesman of great ability as an administrator. But on
two sutgects closely connected with Scotland the king had
decided opinions of his own. He desired to see Scotland
bound to England, not merely by the union of th« crowui,
but by a union of the parliaments and laws, and if not an
immediate an ultimata union of the churches. He was
equally determined that the church in both coustriee ahoold
combine a moderate Protestant doctrine — a via media be-
tween Borne and Geneva — with Episcopal government
Both desires were founded on prudent policy and might
possibly have been accomplished by a stronger and wiser
monarch. But the former was opposed by the jealousy of
England and the pride of Scotland. The latter could not
be accomplished in Scotland without forces so deep were
the roots which Preabyterianism had struck. James at-
tonpttd to carry both measores in a manner calculated
to raise rather than to overcome opposition. The anion
scheme was brought before his first English parliament,
and commiasioneia were appointed to treat with Uie Scottish
commisaionera nominated somewhat reluctantly by the par-
liament of Perth. The commissioners met, but differences
at once emerged on the topics of freedom of trade between
(he two countries, to which the English were averse, and
the acceptance of the laws of England, which the Scots
ol^ected to. Two important points were carried by a
declaration of the law rather than agreement of the c<»d-
missioners, — that subjects bom in either country after the
accession (pott tialif should have the full privileges of sub-
jects and not be deemed aliens, and that ^ose born before
should be capable of denization and so of inheriting or
acquiring land in England, though not of political rights or
offices. The English parliament of 1 607, however, refused
to sustain the decision of the Exchequer Chamber in favour
of the pod itad, although it consented to abolish the laws
which treated Scotland as an enemy's country and made
arrangements for the extradition of criminals. The reli-
gious or ecclesiastical question was first brought to a point
in England at the Hampton Court conference which met
on 14th January 1604, in which trifling cOnceseiona were
made to the Puritans, chiefly as to the observance of Sunday
and the removal of the Apocrypha from the Anthoriied
Tereion. In Scotland Episcopacy waa restored by a series
of steps which were gradual only for the purpose of over-
coming opposition, not because James hesitated as to the
end in view. At length the parliament of 1613 repeated
the Act of 1693, so Uiat Episcopacy was now once mois
eatablished in Bcotland by law, but contrary to the wish
of the m^ority of the nation and under drcumatances
which made it the symbol of absolute government. While
thus resolute in favour of Episcopacy, James showed so
sign of leaning to the Roman Church, although efforts to
convert him had been made at an earlier period in Scot-
land. The Armada, now followed by the Qunpovder
Plot, convinced him that he had nothing to hope for from
the Papiata but open war or secret conspiracy.
After the death of Cecil James gave way to that inflnsnH
of favourites to which he had shown himself prone in bii
younger yean ; but in the affairs of Scotland, which pto-
duced much trouble and little profit, Somerset and Buck-
ingham took no interest and James was his own mast«r.
After on absence of fourteen years he visited his native
country. He had promised to return every three ycai^
but the bnsinesa and pleasures of the English court detuned
him. His main object was to carry out still fnrthec tlia
uniformity of the church, in which the bishops had not
succeeded in establishing the same service as in England.
This olgect was apparently attained in 1618 by the adop-
tion of the Five Articles of Perth (see vol. xix. p. 662^
bntat the coetcrf sowing the seed (unligioQs war. Fnoi
0"~
LATBB STDIBIS.]
SCOTLAND
611
thia time to James'ii <lMth littls oeenmi worthy of note
in UiB hintorj of Scotlsnil. A parliAmeiit in 1631, Iield
under the iLarqnui of Hamilton u commiarioner, conflnned
tha Five Articl«a, though by m nm'ority that is narrow
when the power of the king in a Scottiiih parliament is kept
in view, and only an an asdurance from the commissioner
that no fnrther eccleuiaatical innorations wonld be propoeed.
It alao introdnced a new mode of electing the Lords of the
Articlao, which piACtically fjare the whole iaflaenca to the
bishops, the nominees of the crown. As this body prep«red
tiie entire bnunesii of a [lorliament in which there was no
power of bringiiig iu Biltd by private members, this was a
long step in the direction of absolute gorenmient. James,
in fact, declared iu one of his speeches to the English poili^
ment that, aocordiug to the Scottish coqstitution, he was
manter of its whole i>roceediogs, with the absolute power
of initiative as well %* of veto. His declaration was an ex-
aggeration, for there were well-known precedents of the
cHtates passing laws withont the royal assent ; bnt the
Scottish constitntion was in a flnid state without the
guarantee of written charters or clearly defined rules as to
the refusal of anpiilies, and abore all withont an independ-
ent Hoiue of CommouB to represent the wishes of the
people and demand redrew for their grievances. The only
part of the policy of James on which it is possible to look
back with aatisfactiou wait that which concerned coloniza-
tion, then called "^tautation." This gave an outlet to the
iucteasing population, while' it advanced the civiliAtion
of the countriea to which the settlers went. The forliest
of theee schemes, the '* pUntation " of the Hebrides by a
number of gentlemen of Fife called "undertakers," had
comparatively little effect, but, apart from it, some progress
was made iu introducing order and law in the Highlands
and islaadN, where the i>eople were still in a semi-borbaroua
condition, Moi« important was the plantation of Ulster,
chiefly by Scottish farmers, whiMe descendants still retain
a Scottiidi dialect and a Presbyterian church. But as an
augniT of the future the colonization of Nova Scotia,
though attempted in an arbitrary manner, waa of the
greatest consequence. It was a commencement of the
great migration to the New World across the Atlantic and
to the other colonial iiOBHe»aion<i of Great Britain, in which,
eqnally to their own profit and that of the empire, the
Bcottish nation in the two folloiving centuries was to play
so great a i>art. On 22d llarch 1625 James died, leaving
to hi^ Kon Cb&ric* a biunlen of government heavier than
when he had himself undertaken it. His ap]iarent success
In oarrying to a further point the absolute and arbitrary
jirincipled of the Tudor soiereigus scarcely concealed the
real failure. Ireland, uilh difficulty kept down, was not
really subdued. Tha jiarliament of England had ;dven
sninirttakable signs that it wan only waiting an opportunity
to restore the constitution on the old basis. The reli.inoa<i
ftnd poUtical instincts of th» Scottish nation, supjireased
by force, were gathering strenfcth to reassert themselves
if necessary by revolutionary metliods. An exhausted ex-
chequer, which James hod attemjjted to fill by monopolies,
ftiid by the sale of ^offices and liononrs and so<alled beno-
Tolences, added to the other difficulties of carrying on the
(Dvemment, but was fortunately, as in the time of the
llanUgeuets, to afford the occosiou for laaintaining the
constitutional strufrgle.
S. Period of Cinl Wart, Charirt S. lo BevolvHoii.—
Eight years after his accecaion Charles T. revisited Scotland
(1633). J>aring these he hod pursuad his lather's policy.
Ko Scottish parliament sat. though . a nominal one was
a4J<">>^ed annually between 16:J8 and 1633. No jreneral
aaaembly met, but the restoration of E|>iscopacy and the
nqiformity of the churches were steadily prosecuted by
loyol influence and the ezvcise of the royal prei^atiTe,
In spite of the oppwitioii of a convention of the cetatea,
whidi nearly ended in bloodshed, the king carried out the
reeumption of tithes for the benefit of the clergy from their
lay impropriators. Tiie revocation in 1£25 of all grants in
prejudice of the crown, whether before or after the Act of
Annexation of 1587, was superseded by a new measure,
ratified by parliament in 1633, declaring the terms on
which the tithes might still be acquired and valued by tha
heritors. Few measures have been of greater importance
in their bearing on Bcottish history, llie revocation
ahanated the nobles and landed gentry, who dreaded that
when so much had been, still more might be, token from
their profits in the Beformation. The new valuation left
the parochial clergy in the position of a poor chiss, with
interests antagonistic to the gentry, whose income was
diminished whenever the ministers attempted to raise thdr
scanty stipends. The loyalty for which the Scots had
been distinguished had received a shock by the removal
of the court, and this was a second and mon seriooa
blow. Yet when Charles came to Edinburgh and received
the crown at Holyrood (18th June 1633) he was well re-
ceived. The diMfiection etill lay beneath tiie lurface.
Although the live Articles of Perth were not rigidly en-
forced, all the court conld do was done to introdoce the
most obnoxious, — the practice of kneeling at the oom-
munion, which Presbyterians deemed a relic of the moss.
The question of a liturgy was not allowed to rest. It
was brought before the Scottish bishope in 1629; their
draft was submitted to Laud, who, detecting in it Low
Church doctrine as to baptism and traces of Knox's Boot
of Common Order, refused his approval and advocated the
introduction of the English Prayer Book, by which uni-
formity would be secured. Though this was not yet at-
tempted, Charles took the same view as the cealous and
ambitior.! churchman who was dow hid guide in ecclesi-
astical matters. When he came to Scotland Laud waa in
his suite, and the coronation was conducted with a ritual
which " had great tear of inbringing of Poiwry." Edin-
burgh was created a bishopric. The parliament over which
Charles presided passed thirty-one Acts, "not three of
which," says a contemporary, but were most " hurtful to
the liberty of the subject." One in particular declared
in a large sense the royal prerogative, and by an ill-omened
conjunction gave the king power to regulate the apparel of
churchmen. It vraa disputed in parliament whether this
Act was carried, but the presence of tha kb& who took
notes of the votes, overawed opi>oeitian. About a year
after Charles left Scotland the tri^ of Lord Balmerino,
which grew out of the Acts of this parliament, gave tha
first imptdse to the Scottish revolution. That nobleman,
who had poBxessed a copy of a petition proteating against
the Acts then carried, was tried under the old Acts against
laasing-moking or sedition and condemned by a majority
of one upon a ungle charge. — that of not revealing the
petition and its author (Haroh 1635). Although Charles
respited the capital sentence, the condemnation deeply
stirred the people, who saw almost the only mode of con-
stitutional redress, that by petition, declared iUe^ and
an act caijable of innocent interpretation treated as a
heinous crime. Before the trial the appointment of Spot-
tiswoode OS chancellor, the fimt ecclesiasdc who held the
office since the Reformation, and the admission of nine
bishops to the privy council, increased the disaffection. In
1636'the Book of Canoiu. ratified by the king the year
before, was published at Aberdeen, containing the meet
distinct assertion of the royal supremacy and a complete
Episcopal organization.
At lost on Sunday, I!3d July 163T, the much-dreaded
liturgy, the use of which hod been enjoined by the Canois*
and announced on the preoeding Sunday, vras introdaced.
512
SCOTLAND
[Huron.
in tho MTviM of St Qilea Cbthednl, Edinburgh. For the
mOBt port a tnoMript of the £i^;luh Fmyer Book, it
denated alightiy in the direction of the Bomaa rittul
Its lue provoked an aprcv, of wliich the stool flung at the
dean bj a woman, Jeiioy Geddea or Anne Meiu, was the
^mbd, and brought the servioe ba a dose, — Lindsay, the
luaht^ being irith difficultj eav«d from the violence of the
mob. A simikr riot took plooa in Greyfriara chtmb, -where
the bishop of Argyll attempted to om the book. There
had been do racb tumult dnce the Befonnation. The
priiy ooondl arreated a few lioten, bnt ratpeoded the uae
(rf the MTvioe book until the king's pleasure waa known,
and when I^nd at the king's leqnest wrota that its use
dKnldbaoontinnedDOonedaredtoreBdit in Edinburgh or
thnughovt Scotland except in a few cathedrals. Meantime
BUtMrotn mpplteationa against it and the CaiuMt, Joined
with accontions against Sie lushops, were sent to Charles.
EIb oijj answer was the lemoral of ths courts and privy
conodl to Liolitbgow and an order to all ministeia who
signed the supplicaUous to leave EcUnburgh. There fol-
lowed fresh supplications and protests, in which some of
the nobility, especially Rothea, Balmerino, Loudon, Mon-
trose^ and a prominent lawyer, Johnston of Warriston,
jiHsed with the ministers. Hope, the king's advocate,
secretly favoured them. Traquair, a leading member of
the pnvy council, went to London to press on Charles and
Land the gravity of the situation ; but, though sjnbiguous
concesaiona were made, the king and his advisers were
determined to insist on the service book. Li a proclama-
tion issued at Stirling (30th February 1638) the Uog aa-
nuned the responsibm^ of its Introduction ; but the op-
poiitioD was too powerful to be put down by words. Its
liigHiiiiiliiiii. begun by commissioDers headed by Bolhea,
Mntinued in oommitteee of the noble& lesser barona,
ministas, and bnrgbs, was now caLed " the Tables " from
thoae in tbe Farliunent House, where they sat sometimes
sepaiatoly, aometimes coUectirelyj and formed a standing
assemUr which defied the king's connciL The Covenant,
pnpand by Alexander Henderson, leader of the minister,
and Johnston of Waniston, was revised Ire Rothea, Loudon,
and Bahoenno, and acctqited by upwards of two hnndred
nunistenidio had ^thered in Edinhnrgh. It was signed
at Qi^riars cha' Ji on 1st March 1638, first by many
of the nobles and gentry, titen by three hundred ministers
and a neat multitude of the people. Copies were at once
da^tched throughout the country, and with few ezcep-
tioni^ chiefly in St Andrews and Aberdeen, it was accepted
by all ranks and daases. Its form was soggeeted by the
bonds for material aid of wbich Mary's lewi had given
N many examples, but the new name pointed to a Biblical
origin, and the parties were not the nobles and their
retunan bnt God and Bis people. While nominally
profaning reroect for tbe npi oCBoe, it ^roa entered into,
M it annoQ^ reiterated, for "tha defence of the true
reUgion (as reformed from Popery) and the liberties and
laws of ULB kingdom." The spirit in which it was ^gn^
was that of a retigioua revivaL Many aubecribed with
tears oo their cheeks, and it was commonly reported that
some signed with their blood. Charles conld not relish
a movement which opptised his deepest convictions as to
dmrch government and under the form of respect repudi-
ated his supremacy ; but, destitute of power to coerce the
Covenanter*, he was compelled to temporize. Hamilton
as bis commissioner offered to withdraw the service book
and Booi ttf Cononj, to give up the Court of High Com-
mission, and to allow the Articlea of Perth to remain in
abeyance. A new oonfasdon called the " negative," framed
on that of 1C80, and a new covenant called t^e " king's," on
tba modsl of one drawn in 1S90; which bound the signers
OO^ to stand by the king in nnyprmfrinfl Papists and
prontoting the true religion, w«ae devised, iHit bulsd to
satisfy even the least tealoos Covenanters,
An assembly at htst met in Glasgow, over wMclt Hamiltaa
presided, with faint hope that matters might atill be accom-
modated. Hamilton had ordera to dissolve it if it proved
to be intractable. The members had been cbonen by the
influence of the Tables, according to a mode inveoted is
1597. Three miniaters represented each preabytery and
an elder the laity of the district. The borgha aJso sent re-
presentatives. The Covenantera had. declared their intcn
tion of prosecuting the bishops, and a libel laid before the
presbytery of Edinburgh was read in the churches. Charles
on his side announced that he challenged the mode of
election and would not allow the prosecutiaua. He wss
already preparing for war. At the first aittiiig Alexander
Hendeiaon was choaen moderator, and Jotmston of Warri'
ston clerk. In spite of the commissioner's atteinpt to raiae
the question of the validity of elections, the assembly de-
clared itself duly constituted. A letter from the bi^ops
was read declining its jurisdicticm, and the commissioner,
while offering redress of grievances and that bishops ahould
be responsible to future aasemblies of clergy, declfced that
the precent assembly was illegal in respect of die admiseion
of lay representatives. Discussion was useless between a
commissioner and an assembly whoee power to act he
.denied. Ha accordingly dissolved it in the name of the
king and left Glasgow ; but this only stimulated its mem-
bers. It annulled the pretended assemblies betweep 1 G06
and 1628, condemned ths service book, Boot of Ctrnoat,
Booi of Ordinancet, and the High Commission Court, de-
posed the bishops on separate libeU which set forth various
acts of immorality or crime, many of which -wete false,
declared Episcopacy to have been abjured in \ 580, and con-
demned the Five Articlea of Perth. It concluded its month's
labours by restoring Presbyterian church government.
The distance from such an assembly to the field of arau
was short, and oo 7th June 1639 the army of the Cove-
nanters uuder Alexander Leslie, a general trained in the
service of Gustavus Adolphus, met the royal troops led by
the king at Dunse I^w. Charles, though slightly superior
in numbers, had an undisciplined army and no money to
maintain it, while Leslie had trained offlcera and troops
animated by religious zeal. Their colours were stamped
with the royal arms, and the motto "For Christ's Oown
and Covenant " in golden letters. - Councils of war as well
as religious meetings were held daily, and the militant
, fervour of the Covenanting troops steadily rose. Charles
declined to eogsge such an army and general, and by the
Pacification of Berwick (ISth June) both parties agreed to
disband, and Charles to issue a declaration that all ecclesi-
astical matters should be regulated by assembliee, and all
civil by parliament and other legal courts. On lat August
a free general assembly was to be held at Edinburgh, and
on the 20th a free parliament in which an Act of Oblivion
was to be passed. The assembly met as appointed and,
without explicitly conforming, re-enacted the principal re-
solutions of that of Glasgow, and declared that the Covenant
should be subscribed by every one in office and authority.
Before it separated it condemned the Larye Dtdarattoit,
a pamphlet by Baleanquhal, dean of Durham, published la
tho king's name, which gave an adverse narrative of recent
events in Scotland. The parliament effected little \effi-
latton, but showed its disposition by abolishing Episcopacy
and reformiog the election of the Lords of the Article^
of whom eight were henceforth to be chosen by the noUe^
lesser barons, and burghs respectively. The predomissace
<A the king and the church was thus removed from the body
which initiated all legislation. Charles bad beforebsad
determined not to sanction the abolition of EpiscMMcy,
and the parliament was prematurely ai^oumed (Mt^
SCOTLAND
Norembar) witbont tW royal uwnt to tts Acta. It wu
•ndent that the •trnggle betwuu the king and the Scots
wonld bp renewed, ud both paitiM teluclaiiUjr had
«oone to alliea whcM ehoico BbowedtiteiT tense of the cri^.
Cbariea cammoned an 'Bi^lUh parliament i bat the three
weeka' ■ onion d the Short Farliomeiit iraa speat in anun
Attempt to obtain redrew for ita own grieraocvB.
B^Mtiated without granting (applies, and the king had
depend on pnrate loans. The Scots negotiated with the
^enchking; bntRichelien prevented the onnatatalaUiance
of the Catholic kug and the Coreoanters. The Soota took
thefintatepinthewnr. The aimj under Lealiecroaed the
Tweed and, forang tbepaasage oS the Tfoe at Newborn,
oocapied Newcairtle. C^Iea, who had his headqaarten at
TiMk, panlyied bj the want of joodbj and new demands
to amnion an Ei^iah parliament, waa driven to accept a
trooe at Biptm (3d Stptnmber 1640), under which the
BcotUih armjr wu to tecore & aubaidy to reliere the
northern oonutiee from eontributioDB. Rwliament was
mmmooed to Weatnunstm for 3d Norember; bnt its fint
act was the impeachmait of Strafford. Until a pledge
WW giren by hia death that Ghartes wonld recognin uie
limits of monarchy, the BtriiaiDentaiy leaders tliouf^t it
Mfer that the Soota ahonld hold the north of Engkmd.
Peace wm ctmchided by the Act immediately following
that of Btiaffoid's attainder, b7 which £300,000 waa
Drdered to be raised aa "friendly aaaiatanca and relief
promiaed to our brethren in Scotland."
The king now made up his mind to rerisit Scotland,
hoping thm to find a way ont of bis English troubles.
He had received a letter fnxn Momsosa (;.».), urging him
to come and gun the Scota by a moderate policy. He
same to ijdinbargh early in Angnat 1641 and a parliament
net under hie preeideiicy, when he not only ratified the
Acts aubelituting a Presbyterian for the Episcopal form
of church government bnt sanctioned important reforms.
The Lords of the Aiticlee were in fatnre to be elected by
each lA the three estates aeporalolj, the barghs takiiig the
place of the bishops ; the Court of High Conmusuon was
abolished ; arbitrary proclamations were prohibited ; the
officers of state and the jodgee were to be cboaen with the
ulvioe ot parliament ; and, following an Sn^iah Bill, parlia-
ment was to meet every third year. Daring his stay in
Scotland occnired "the Inctdent," — still spoken of aa
mysterious by historians, some of .whom liken it to the
Engliah incident of the arrest of the five membeia. Aj^H
and Hamilton had ted the party which carried all the
measoree of this parliament. HontiOBe had been oom-
toitted to the caaUe by the este'^s before the arrival of
Charles <hi a chaige ot plotting against Argyll by falae
accusations to the king. Fran his prisoa ha renewed hia
charges against both A^ll and Hamilton, whom he aeenaed
of treason. Charles about this time nnwiaely attended
parliameut with an unusual gatad of 600 men, which gave
Hamilton and Argyll a pretext for asserting that their lives
were in danger and to qnit Edinbnrgh. Iliey soon re-
tamed and a favaniable committee of investigation let the
matter drop. Argyll was now more powerful than ever.
In November the king returned to London, which beeante
daring the next yew the oentre of the events which led to
the CSril War.
Tile pnigreaa of the CSvil War bebmga to English hiatory.
Hoe only the part taken by the Scota can be stated. They
were now oonrted fay Idi^ and Parliament alike. The
campaign of 1642-13 nnder Essex proved indectuve^ and
the Parliament sent commiasionere headed by Sir Henry
Taoe to Edinbn^ in the autamn of 1613, who agreed
to the "Scdemn Laagne and Covenant," already accepted
hj the Seottidi aaaemb^ and parliament, and now ratified
If the fej^iiTh pariiauMit and the aaaemb^ ot divioaa
£13
This memorable document, whoee name .
showed its descent from the National Covenant, bound the
parties to it "to preserve the Reformed Church in Bcot-
iand and effect the reformation of that in England and
Ireland in doctrine, worship, discipline, and govermnant
according to the Word of Ood and the example of the best
Heformed Churches." But the alliance with the Scottish
Oovenantera did not prodace the advantage expected from
it. Hie victory of Uargton Moor was dne to Cromwalt and
his Lonsidee, who were PnritanB and Independents. Hie
Soots, who formed the centre of the Parliamentary army,
were repnised. In the autumn, although the Scots took
Newcastle, the king gained ground in the west, where
Essex, the general who represented the Presbyterians,
narrowly escaped capture. Next year Uontroee, in the
brilliuit campaign on which his military fame rests, made
a formidable diversion in the TTighlflnriti With dftrrliTig
n^udity, at first aunported only ^a handful of follower^
bnt gathering numbera with aucceaa, he erected the royu
atandard in Dumfries; dien, pasaing to the Highlands, after
the victory of Tippennuir he took Perth, and defeated
Lord Lewis Gordon Jtt the Bridge of Bee. Next, after
ravaging the county of Argyll, he marched to Inverness
bnt istumed to defeat Argyll at Inverlochy, won further
victoriee at Aalde&m near Nairn and Alford on the Don,
and by that of Kilsyth appeared to have recovered Scot,
land for Charles. Hie fmit of all these victories was lost
by bis defeat at Philiphangh (13th September 1614) by
Lealie. Meantime Charles bad lost the battle of Naseby,
and next year was forced to take refuge at Newark wiUi
Leelie, whom he had created earl of Leven. Aa the result
of bis Burrender he ordered Montrose, wbo vas again raising
the Royalists in the Highland^ to lay down hia arms ; ana
the Scottiah army in England, no longer on good terms
with the Parliament, returned to Newcastle, that, being
home, it might dictate the terms of its servicea.
Here it remained eight months, during which a strenooas
attempt was made to force Charles to accept the Covenant
AlexMider Henderson argued the matter with him in a
singalariy temperate correspondence. Bnt the king was
bouid to Ejnscopacy bj hereditary sentiment and personal
conviction. Another negotiation vbx going on at the same
time between the Scot^ army and the English Parlia-
ment for arrears of pay. On 30th Janoaiy 1646 they
surrendered the king to the English commissioners, the
qneetion of pay having been settled by the receipt of
£300,000 a few days before and a like sum a few days
after that date. There was no express condition which
bound the two circumstances together, but their concnr-
DCe cannot have been accidental
In his captivity Charlu renewed his negotiations with
the Scotti h estates, over which Hamilton had now ao-
qnired influence, and a compromise was at tost agreed to
at Newport in the Isle ot Wight by which he promised to
confirm the League and Covenant by Act of Parliament
to establish Presbyterianism and the Weetminster Confes-
sion, which as weU as the Directory bad been adopted by
tlm Scottiah parliament for three years. After that period
it was to be fixed by the long and parliameut what fonn
of chureh government was most a^eeable to the Word of
Qod, and tbia after eonsnltatioD wiA the aaaembly >i<aa to
be established. The Sct^ consented that in the meantime
the Covenant should not be enforced on those who had
oonscientioas acrnplea, and that the king might continne
to use the Engliah service. The Covenanters who accepted
these terms, and who formed the moel moderate. section,
receiTed the name ol Engagers. Relying on the promiaed
support from Scotland, Charles rqected the proposals of
the English Parliament That body had now broken with
the anny, in which the Independents and Ocomwell were
XXL — 64, -
£14
SCOTLAND
fast acquiring mtpremaey, 1!hoir diriuon affixded kn
opportouitjt for reaewiug the wbi,- and Hamilton iavaded
England in the foUoving fear, but mt ranted at Preston
(17th Amgnst 1648) by CromwelL A part; led by Argyll
had opposed tlie compromise with Qiarles effected b;
Hamilton. They were cfiieSjr etroBg in the Hontb-weet,
UDd in the autumn of this year a band of them nused by
Lord Egliutou marched to Edicbni^h and were met by
Argyll, who pat himself at their head. Their nnmbers
bad lisen to 6000, a sufficient force to give them snpreme
influenoe over the Government It was from this — the
"Whiggamora" raid — that the name of Whigs took ita
rise. The meeting of estatea now resolved to renew the
Solemn League uA Covenant, and by an Act called the
Act of Classes removed from the courts and all places of
public trnat those who had accepted the "late unlawful
engagement.'' ' The English Parliament at this point took
an exactly opposite course and showed signs of conciliation
with the king ; but the frustration of its action by the
energetic policy of Cromwell woa quickly fallowed l^ the
trial and execution of the king. Hamilton, who had been
taken after Preston, soon after shared the same fate.
The death of Charles altered in a moment the relations
between Bogland and Scotland. In the former Cromwell
became all powerful, while in the latter the moderate
Presbyterians attached to the principle of monarchy and
the hereditary line at once procUimod Charlea EL Charlea
II. had been brought up with different views of royalty
from those of the Covonanteis, and Scotland waa not pro-
pared to accept a king except on its own tenns. A com-
mission from the estates and from the assembly was at once
sent (March 1649) to The Hague, where tha young king
was. Charles promised to maintain the government of
Scotland in church and state as settled by law, and particu-
larly the Covenant, Confession of Faith, and Presbyterian
system, hut declared that he could not impose the Solemn
League and Covenaut on England and Ireland without the
consent of their parliaments. The commissioners returned
dissatisSed with this answer and with the presence at court
of MoQtrose, by whom it had probably been framed. But
in October Oiruonde'a Irish expedition failed, and Crom-
well, already master of England, had reduced Ireland by
force of arms; both parties felt inclined to renew the
treaty. At length it was agreed that Chailea should be
accepted as king on condition of his subscribing the
Covenant, establLsbing Presbyterian church government
aid worship, sanctioning the Acta of Parliament passed ill
his absence, and putting in force, the law against Catholicx.
In return he stipulated for the free exercise of his royal
authority, the security of his person, and the aid of a
Scottish army. The treaty was dosed in these terms on
9th Alay 1650, and eoily in June Charles set sail for
Scotland. On the voyage he was forced to consent to
further conditiooa which the Scottish parliament ordered
the commissioners to impose, in particular to exclude from
his court all persona within the first and second classes of
the Acts of 1646 and 1649, and to keep the duke of
Hamilton, brother of the late duke, and certain otjier
persons out of Scotland. On Sunday, 23d June, at the
mouth of the Spey he subscribed the Covenant and landed.
Whilst Charles was negotiatipg with tha commissioners,
the expedition of Montrose, which he bad encouraged but
afterwards disowned, had come to an end by the capture
of its gallant leader in Caithness. He was execnted tn
Edinburgh a month before Charles reached Scotland.
Alarmed at the prospect of another Scottish invasion,
Cromwell with wonderful rapidity transferred bis forces
from Ireland, and within a month after Charles landed
crossed the Tweed and advanced to Edinburgh. Baffled
in all attempts ogainat the town by the tactics of David
Leslie, the nephew of Levm, he was forced from trant c4
supplies to retire. Bis retreat waa nearly cut o^ bat be
gained an unexpected victory at Dnnbar (3d September
16IK)) over that able general, who had been induced by
the over-confidence of the ministers in his camp to deacend
from the Doon Hill and attack the English on Jevd ground.
So complete was the defeat that the south of Scotland fell
into Cromwell's hands. Meantime Charles had attempted
to escape from the restrMuta of the Presbyterian camp by
" the Start," as it was called, from Perth to Clova^ where
he hoped to ruse the loyal Highlanders ; but, not getting
the support expected, he returned. In the beginning of
next year, aftor renewing his subscription to the Coveiuuit
and submitting to the impoeition of a day of fasting and
hnmiliation on account of the sins of hiii family, he was
crowned at Scona on 1st Jonuaiy 1661. Argyll, still the
leader of the Covenanters, placed the crown on hia head,
a circumstajice which he recalled when he lost his onu.
The invasion of England was now determined on,* and,
Cromwell having been unable to intercept the royal army,
it advanced as f ar aa Worcester. Here, after effecting a
junction with Fleetwood, Cromwell with a much smaller
force routed the king's army on the anniversaiy of Dan-
bar. Charles had a hairbreadth escape from capture, and
after many adventures crossed fKim Brighton to Fiance.
The Ust great battle of the Civil War pUced England in
tlie hands of the army and its general
Scotland offered more resistance; but Uonk, whom
Cromwell had left in command, stormed Dundee and terri-
fied the other towns into submission. Although a nominal
union was proclaimed and Scotland was allowed members
in the English parliament, it was really governed as a
conquered country. In 16S3 the general assembly was
Hummarily dissolved by Colonel CottereL Next year
Monk was sent by the Protector to quell a Royalist ri^ng,
which, first under the earl of Gleucaim and afterwards
under Middleton, a soldier of fortune, began to show head
in the Highlands. Monk, as usual, carried out effectually
the work he was sent for and, partly by aa indemnity which
many leading Royalists accepted and .partly by the defeat
of Middleton at Lochgorry (36th July 1654), reduced
the Highlands. He also dispeised the general assembly,
which made another attempt to sit Strong forte were
built at Leitb, Ayr, Inverness, and Qlasgow, and Ucxk
with an army of 10,000 men garrisoned the country. A
council of state, containing only two Scottish memben, wm
appointed, but matters of importance were referred to
Cromwell and his English counciL The administraUon ot
justice was committed to four English and three Bcottiah
judges in pUce of the Court of Session, with the view ti
introducing English law. The use of Latin in legal wril«
was abolished. A sequestration court to deal wiA the
forfeited estates sat at Leith. A separate commission
waa issued for the administration of criminal justice, snd
theft and highway robbery were stringently mquired into
' With the view of proonrfng tortm tor tli» oipedition, ■ i«!tiiieilii-
tloD wu eSscted betwMn Ihs RoTnUsti ud the more modenl* Cotf-
Duten bj 1 rHolitioQ to iht effect SM ill perwDi not ticommniiJiaMd
ehottld bo nUoired to lerre in the -rmy, Thii nmr [arty, no» alM
" EMolnllonen," «u pmrtictllr the urns h th»t fonnerlr tawwB b
the « EngagarL" A miooiit]'. on Ui« other biud, bscuns iuowi u tbt
"Proterton" or " Hemonilnntj " (compura vol. ill. p. MS). H*
dirUon ot tha CoreiumlCTi into t modeMlo •nd ao citroino Mttios
oonllnoed throughont the whole ot the 17tb donliirr. Tha Eng^n
ud Besolatlonora wen the uceston of tha Bitibllehed PnebTtenu
Chorelii the Protaston or Remonelniiti tf the Bnsdere or Dtwntuie
thnrchu, each of which nuistalned with oiubateil oanfidancie, heveis
■mill it! namben, that it wu tha true chorch ot ScaCkad, the oolT
cliiiRh nuUy tdthful to the CoreneBt mi Chriu u the heed itf da
Dhnrch. Both pirOa for long rsgirded BplacopalijLiu eed Bonuniltl
milks u "mBll^Denta," (tuding without the fwls cf thsfihBnli,rtfc
nhaa no BOmptooiiM wnild be made.
X^IB nTTAKTS.]
SCOTLAND
SIS
and pmiubed. In the ehnreh tlie PmbyteriAn form of
Beniee and the i7*t«m of pntbjteriM and ifnodB were
allowed to continue, bat the atipenda of Tniiiistera depandeil
on their being approved by a oonunission appoint«d b;
OouiwelL Jmticea of the peace wen introduced for local
bnnnea. Fne tnde aod »/x improved poatal lystem be-
tween the two coimtriea wne establuhed. The oniTetHtiea
-wore Tuited. Xn all departments ot goremment there wm
wigonr and the apirit of reform, so that it was admitted
eren t^ opponents that the eight years of Cromwell's
nsorpation were a period of peace and prosperity. ' There
ms nndonbtedly one exception. The taxation was severe.
A hnd-lu of £10,000 a month, afterwards redscod to
dE6000, and levied upon the valued rent undw a valuation
of Charles, far exceedeJ taj snbsidj b^ore granted to the
crown. Customs and also excise dutiei^ recentlv intro-
duced from En^and, were diligently levied; so also were
the rents of the crown and bishops' lands: Altogether it
was estimated that a rsvenne of jG143,000 was collected in
Scotland. But this bad to be supplemented bj an eqnal
Bum from En^and to meet an eipenditare ot jC366,000.
As nearly the wiuAo wtts qtent in Scotland and the burden
of taxation fell on the uppw classes, the nation genetallr
did not feel it so much as might have been expected. It
was a maxim of Cromwell's policy to improve the condition
of 4ie commonSi and in one of hu last Bpeechee he claimed
In memorable words to have effected this in Scotland. In
this ren»ect the Commonwealth and protectorate continned
the pohtieal effect of the Beforroation. The commonalty
foe Uie first time since the War of Independence acquired
ft conscionsnen of its exislence and hope for the ftitnre.
Cromwell, like former powerful mlBrs, umed at uniting
Sootlaod wlUi England, but his proposals iit this direction
were premature. To Barebones's Farliament (1 653), which
met after the dissolution of the Long Parliament, five
Scottish m«nbers were sommoned, there being 134 from
England, Wales, and Ireland. By the Instnunent of
CktvemmsDt and ^ ordinance following on it, Scotland
was granted 30, while Tingla-Twl had 400 members; but
oafy 30 Scottish attended the parliament of 1654, and
care was taken Iqr U(mk that they should be men attached
to Qomwell's mterest When in hie second parliament
in 1666 he triad the experiment of a House of Lwds,
three Scotsmen were xonunoned, the quota of membera to
B remaining as before. Cromwell's idea of
a parliament was an assembly to ratify, not to discnssj his
measures, and this, like his odier parliaments, was ^eedily
dissolved^ Had it continued the Scottish representatives
would have had little weight Scotland continued to be
governed by the council of state. On the death of the
notector his son Biohard was proclaimed his snccessor
in Scotland as well as in England, and 30 membera vrete
again retomed to the new parliament, which, however,
was almost immediately afterwaids dissolved. The Be-
storation soon followed, though b Scotland there was no
need of it, for Oiarles IL was already king. However
beneficial the rule of Cromwell may be deemed, it bad a
ffttat defect in the eyes of a people proud ot their freedom.
It was imposed and maintained by force. His d«Ath and
the restoration of the ancient line of kinp were looked on
as a deliverauce from oppression.
The hopes of the Scots from Charles IL were doomed to
rly djsappointnient. So far frtmi being grateful tor
■npport they had given him in adversity, he looked
bock with disgust, as his grandfother had done, on the
time when he was under the yoke of the Kesbyterian
ministera. Cromwell had shown the possibility of govern-
ing Scotland by military forco and of raising a consider-
able revenue from it, and Charles took advantage of both
tasms. From this date rather than from the earlier or
later union Scottish history aunmes a provincial chancter.
Scotland vras governed withont regaid to its interest or
wishes according to the royal pleasure or the advice of the
nobles v^o for Oie time had the ear of the king. The power
of the clergy had been broken by Cromwell's policy and
their own divisions. The party of the Besolutioners or
moderate Presbyterians, some of whom now leant to Episco-
pacy, and the party of the Bemonsttants were still irrecon-
cilable^ and IJieir mutnal hatred rendered the task of
government easier. The burghs were not yet sufficiently
organised to be a power in the state, and the nobles
again resumed their old poeition as leaders with no rivals^
for the bishops were shorn of their revenues and dependent
on royal favour. Fm the first two years after the B estora-
tion the government ot Scotland was in the hands of
Ifiddleton, who had been created an farL The measures
of retaliation were few but ugnal. Argyll wss tried and
beheaded on a charge of treason, which conld not have
been established but for the treachery of Monk, who gave
up private letters written to ti'Tn when they both were sup-
porting the Commonwealth. Quthrie, a leading minltler
pf the Remonstrants^ was hanged. Johnston of Worriston,
two years later, was twought back tiom Frauce and exe-
cuted. No hesitation was shown as to the mode ot
governing Scotland. Parliament, under the presidency of
Uiddleton, passed the Rescissory Act, annulling the Acts
of all parliaments since 1640, declaring the Covenant no
longer binding, and impooin^ an Oath on all persons in
office, not only ot all^iance but of acknowledgment of
the royal pterogative restored in all its fulness over all
persons and in all caoses. In August Lauderdols^ who
acted as secretary for Scotland in London, wrote to the
privy council arinonncing the royal intention to restore
Episcopacy, and, r«gardlees of his oath, Charles sauctioned
this bj the first Act ot the parliament of 1663. Jamea
Sharp, minister of Crail, who bad been sent on behalf of
the Besolutioners to Charles before his return," allowed
himself to be eaatly converted to Episcopacy and was ro-
warded b/his appointment as archbiahop of St Andrews;
his example was followed by other ministers of the sama
party. But the m^ority and all the Bemonstrants stood
firm ; 350 were deprived of their livings, each of which
became a centre of disaffection towards tiie Qovemment,
while their attachment to the Covenant was every day
strengthened by peraecntion. The Covenant and Solemn
League and Covenant were declared unlawful oaths, and
all persons speaking or writing against the royal supra;
macy in matters ecclesiastical were incapacitated from
office. Hiddleton had the immediate responsibility for
theae measures, and the condemnation and forfeiture of
the new earl of Argyll, whose estates he coveted, qpder
the old law against leasing-makicg increased the hatred
with which he. was regarded. His fall was due to on
attempt to supplant hu rival Lauderdale by the Act of
Billeting, under which the Scottish parliament named by
ballot twelve persons with LsudsTdsIe at their head as
incapable of holding public office. This and other Acts
were carried out without the previous consent of Charles ;
Lauderdale persuaded Charles that his personal authority
was in danger, and Middleton was called to court and ssnt
as governor to Tangier, where he soon after died. The
earl of Bothee was now appointed commissioner, but th«
chief influence wss in the hands of Landerdolf^ who con-
tinued to act as Scottish secretary in London.
The change in its rulers brought no relief to Scotland.
The declaration that the Covenants were iU^al Oftths was
re-enacted and imposed on all persons in office who had
not yet taken it. The old mode of electing th» Lords of
ibe Articles, which [Jaced the election in the hands of tba
bislx^ the nominees of the king waa^restored, ShuM
ei6
SCOTLAND
not waned bj tlie t&te of lAnd, procured tbe reatont-
tioD of the Conrt of High Comiaisdon to enforce the Uwa
egaisKt eocleBUistical oSeuden. Fines were imposed on
all who absented themselves from their parish chnrchea
or attended the eemioas of the dapoapd mimsterB. Sir
Jamei Tomar wu sent by the privy council to the westeru
■hires to prevent oonventiclfs end field preaching and to
enforce tbe Uw m to conf ormit; ; and hu ezactiona, with
the botden of maintaiiuDg his uldieni quartered apon ell
penotut anapected of favouring the ousted ministera, led
to riaings in Qallonay, Cljdeedale, and Ayr, With their
miniatera and a few of the gentry at their head the
Govonantera marched to Edinburgh, bat were defeated
at Sallion Qreen in the Pentlands by Dajziel, a Scottiah
officer whom Charles had recalled from the aervice of the
evr. The exeoutiooa which followed, and eapecially thct
of Hugh U'Cail, a yotuig and entbnaiaatic preacher, aank
deeply into the spirit of the people. He was the firat
martyr of the Covenant aa Wiahart had been of the Re-
formation. The TIM of torture, Infoie thia rare, now be-
came frequent, and bonda of law-burrowa were wrested
from their original oae to compd the principal laudownere
to be ametiea for Uie peace of tike whole district. Large
fioea continued to be extorted from all peraons who re-
fnaed to conform to the eccleeiaatical laws. Next year
a change in the Scottish adminiatration, the canae of which
ia not well explained, bat which was probably dne to the
fall of Clarendon ^d the rise of the Cabal miniatry, led to
A milder bat undecided policy in Scotland, Laoderdale,
one of the Cabal, still directed Scottiah a&ira, but Botbee
and Sharp were treated aa reeponsible for the riaing in the
west and anapended. An indemnity was offered to all who
wonld appear before the council and aabdoribe bonds to
keep the peace. A tash attempt to aasasainate Sharp in
Edinburgh prevented thia policy from being adhered to in
1668 ; but it waa renewed in die following year. An in-
dulgence was granted which allowed the deposed ministers
who had lived peaceably to retum to their manses and
glebes, and to receive aoeh a atipend as the privy council
■night allow. The giaca of this concession was undone by
a severe Act agtunst conventicles. It favoured a con-
ciliatory policy, that schemee for onion were in the ur.
Leighton, the good bishop of Dunblane^ proposed a union
of ue clinrchee upon the baaiB that the bishops were no
longer to axecciN jarisdiotioii,bat to ei.-t only as perpetual
moderatocB of preabyteries, mbject to cenaoie !? the aynods,
and that miniatan should be ordai^e'l by the bishopa, but
with consent of the presbyters. IThere was a meeting at
Holyrood with some of Uie leading ministers, but they
would listen to no compromise. The name of biahop was
hateful whatever were hia functions. It may "be doubted
whether Charlea and his English advisers would Lave
•nbmitted to a curtailment of the bishop's office and
dignity. Iht aulgect of the union of the kingdoms was
again brought forward in the parliament of 1669, to which
Landerdale was sent as commissioner; and though it
was not well received eommissionerB were appoint«l iu
Ute following year, who went to London in autnmn to dis-
cus with English comniiasionera certain specified points
proposed by the king. After several meetings the con-
ference broke up- in consequence of a demand by the
Scottiah members that Scotland ahould have the same
number of members in the nnited as in its own parliament.
The arbitnuj govwnment favoured by the want of a settled
aonatitntion in Scotland was more to the taste of the king
and his advisers. Landerdale openly boasted, aa Jamea
TL had donc^ that nothing conld be proposed in the Scot-
tish MrliBmeot except wh^ the king through the Lords of
&» Articles approved. The "indnlgence" entirely-failed of
the dadrtd effect The ministers who took advantage of
it were dee^^aed by the people^ who eontiiiiied to attend
the coQventiclea. In 1672 an Act waa passed punishing
preachers at such conventicles with death and imposiDg
fines, imprisonment, and exile for having children boptiied
by deprived miniatera and for absence for three Sondays
from the pariah church. In 1675 letters of intercommnn-
ing were isaued against about a hundred of tboae who
attended tbe conventicleii, both ministeia ftad laymen, fix'-
bidding their frienda and relatione to have an; dealings
with them under the aame penaltioa aa if they had Uieni-
selves been present at the conventicles. In 1678 Mitchell,
a fanatical preacher, who had ten years before attempted
the life of Sharp and mortally wounded the bishop of
Orkney, waa tried and executed. The feeling of the times,
and the cruel manner in which a confession had been
wrung from him by torture, lad to his being regarded as
a martyr. Prior to this year 17,000 persons bad suffered
finea or imprisonment for attending conventiclea. A host
of 10,000 men, chiefly Highlanders, waa quartered in the
western shires in order to force the landowners vrho favoured
the Covenanters to enter into bonds of law-burrowB.
It appears to have been the design of landerdale,
who stiU governed Scotland absolutely throogh the privy
council (no parliament having been autninoned aince
1674), to farce the Scota to rebeL "When I was once
saying to him," relates Burnet, "'Was that a time to drive
them into a rebellion t " Yes,' said h.% 'would toQod they
would lebsl that he might bring over an arrny of Iriwi
Papists to cut their throats.' " One part of his wish was
speedily fnlfilled. In 1679 the rebellion so long smoulder-
ing broke out. The murder of Sharp {3d May) I^ Hack-
Bton of Bathillet and a small band of Covenanters was
followed by a still mrav stringent proclamation against
field conventicles, which were declared treasonably and the
possession of arms was prohibited. Thia severity provoked a
rising in the west A small party led by Hamilton, a youth
educated by Biahop Burnet at Glasgow, who bad joined
the Covenanter*, burnt at Rutherglen the statutes and
acta of privy council on the anniversary d the Bestoratioo,
and being allowed to gather numben defeated Qraham
of Claverhouse at London Hill (1st June). The dnko of
Monmouth, the favourite natural son of Charles, aent with
troops from England to suppress the rimng, gained an ea^
victory at Bothwell Bridge (22d June). Hia deaire was to
follow it up by a policy of element^, and a new indnlpnoe
was isaued, but ita effect was counteracted by landerdala
All officers, ministers, and landowners, ss well as thow wbo
bad taken part in the riaing and did not anrrender iritbin
a abort apace, were excepted from the indulgence. Several
preaohera were executed and many peraons sent to the
colonies, while finea and forfeitures multiplied. A new
and fiercer phase of the rebellion was originated by Cargill
and Cameron, two preacher* who escaped at Botbwell
Bridge and, assembling their followers at Sanquhar, pub-
lished a dedaration renouncing allegiance to diaries aa a
perjured king. They were soon aurprised and Cameroa^as
killed, but C^gill continued to animate his MIowei*, called
the " Society Men" or "Cameroniana," l^ hia preaching, and
at a conventicle at Torwood in Ayrshire eicommunitated
the king, the duke of York, Landerdale, and Rotbea.
The duke of York, who had become a Roman Calholio
during hia residence abroad, waa now sent to Scotland,
partly to avoid the diacnsaion raiaed by his convenion as
to his exclusion from the auccesaion. During a short stay
of three months he astonished the Soots by the mildne« of
hia administration, but on his retnm in the following yW
he revealed hia true character. The -pri^ council ranewaa
its proclamations against conventiclee and increased tb*
fines, which were levied by the aheriff or other magistrsta
under the pain of liability if they were remiss in theiE
SCOTLAND
517
Uilitarin
tberomoan
Loom ftod other
anpomcing tium to qurtw tbur bocM on recnaanto tind
■dminittet martkl tow. Torttmwunedjrrwortedto b;
tlie pmj aoancil and Um dake ImiHelf took pleasure in
witn—jng it, A perliftiueiit ■nmmoiMd id 1681, after
rtning a ganecal Act againet FOpnr to loll soBpicioii, ihx>-
oeeded to dsdan the sncoeorioa to be in the ordiiMrjr line
<rf Uood and nnaltet^tle on aoconnt of difference of religion
bj any fatm« law. tHie Test Act was then carried, not
without many attempta to modify it. Its ambigaouE and
contfadiotorT danaea make it an admirable Instminent of
tjmaif, a uielter for the loz and a terror to the nprigbt
conioiance. It was at oneo enforced, and Ai^^U, who de-
daied he took it oaly so far aa it was conuEtant with itaelf
and the Protestant religion, was tried and condemned to
death tot traason, bnt eecaped from prison to Holland.
Daliym^e, the president of the Court of Session, and many
Imuiing Pr— hyjarian ministers ond gentrj followed his ex-
ajuple, ukd fo«iid a hoqntable refuge in.Uie republic which
fliat acknowledged toleration in religion. The; thera met
k umilar band A F"E'i'*' ezilee. l^e next two yecra were
apeat in plota, of wiich the oentre was in Holland, wiUi
bnnclMa in Londiu and Edinburgh. The failure of the
B]re Eoaae Pk>t in 1683 led to the execution of Rdssell and
Bidn^ and the arreet of Spence, a retainer of Argyll,
Carvtarea^ Baillie (rf Jerriswood, and Campbell of Oees-
Dock. A^inst Campbell the proof of complicity failed, and
Spence and Gustaree, though cruelly tortured,' reTealad
uotlting of moment. Baillia, however, was oondamied and
ezecnted npon slender proof. The Cajneronians, who kept
alive in lemote districts the spirit of rebellion, were treated
with mthleee croel^. Althongh doubt baa been cast on
the death of Brown the carrier, shot down in cold blood by
CUverhoiiBe, and the Wigtown martyrs, two poor women
tied to a stake and drowned in the Bay of Lnce^ theaccount
of Wodrow has, after a keen discussion, been suatunad aa
accurate. The conduct of the Government in Scotland
gaiaed for thia period the name of the " Killing Times."
The short reign of James VLL ia the saddest period in the
histoty of Bcotland. He succeeded inthe brief space of
three yean in fanning the revobtioDary elements in both
Engtaiid and Scotland into a flame which he was powerless
to qoench. He declined to lake the Scottish coronation
favour of the
dve parliament held
Qneenaberry aa com-
ezpreesed its loyalty
absolute supremacy,
and the land-
oath, which contained a daclarati
church then estAblished. A eubc
(S8th April 168S) under the dnke
miasiouer not only overlooked this but
in terms acknowledging the kin; '
The excise was granted to the erov
tax to James for life. The law against conventicles was
even extended to those held in houses, if five persons be-
sides the family attended domestic worship ; while, if the
meeting was outside the lunue, at the door or windows, it
woB to be deemed a field conventicle, punishable by death.
Tbo class of penons subject to the test was eidarged.
Undeterred or provokediiy these terrors of the law, Argyll
made a descent npon the wsEtem Highlands and tried to
raise his clannneo, bnii being badly supported by the
offlcen nndsr him, his troops were dispersed and he
himself taken prisoner, when he was brought to Edinburgh,
GOodomned, and executed under his former sentence^ Next
year Perth the lord chancolior, Melfort his brother, and
the earl of Uoray became converts to the Popish faitL
The duke of Queens berry, who did not follow their example,
was enabled only by the most servile submisaion in ouier
points to the ro^ wishes to save himself and his party in
the privy council from dismissaL James sent a letter to
parGnment oflering free trade with Kngland and an indem-
ni^ for political^enoea, in retain for which it was required
that the CathUica shoold be inl«aaed fnxn Uu te«t md tba
penailaws. Bnt the estates rrfosed to be bribed. Even the
Lords of the Articles declined to propose a repeal of the
TestAct. The burghs almost for the first time in a Scotdsb
parliament showed their indcipendence. The refractory
parliament was at once acljonmed and soon after dissolveij^
and James had recourse in Scotland aa in England to
the dispensing power. Under a pretended prerogative he
inned a proclamation through the privy council, granting
a full indulgence to the Romanists, and by another deprived
the bnr^ of the rigbt of electing magistrates. A moio
timit^ toleration was granted to Quakers and Prcsby-
teriana, by which they were allewed to worship according to
their consciences in private houses. This waa followed
by a second and a third indulgence, which at last gave full
liberty of worship to the Presbyterians and waa accepted
by moat of iJieir ministers ; but the laws against field con-
venticles continned to be enforced. In February 1666
Renwick was executed under them at Edinburgh. A
band of his followers, including women and children, were
marched north and imprisoned with great cruelty in
Dnnnottar.
Ueantime llie rapid seriee of events which led to the
Revolution in England had reached its climax in the trial
and acquittal of the seven bishops.' William of Orange, who
had long watched" the progrem of hia father-in-law's tyranny,
saw that the moment had come jrhen aimoet all classes in
England as well as Scotland would welcome him aa a
deliverer. But the Revolution waa differently received
in each part of the United Kingdom. In "Pti[tUih1 there
waa practically no oppositian; in Oatholio Ir^and it was
established by force. Bcotland was divided. Hie Catholics,
chiefly in the Highlands, and the Episcopalians led by their
bishops adhered to James and formed the Jacobite party,
which kept up for half a century a atrnggle for the
principle of leptimacy. The Presbyterians — probably the
most numerous, certainly the most powerful party, especi-
ally in the Lowlands and burghs — supported the new setf*-
ment, which for the first time gave Scotland a constitu-
tional or limited monarchy. Sliortly before his flight
James had summoned his Scottdah troops to England ; but
Douglas, brother of the duke of Queensberry, their com.
mander-in-chie^ went over to William. Claverhouae, now
Viscount Dnnde^ the second in command, who had the
spirit of his kinsman Montroee^ after in vain urging James
to fight for his crown, returned to Sootland, followed hj
some thirty boreeman. In Edinburgh the duke of QOTdon
still held the castle for James, whil« the convention parlia-
ment, presided over by the duke of Hamilton, waa debating
on what terms the aawa. should be offered to William.
Dundee passed 'throngh Edinbnr^ unmolested, and en-
conraged Cordon to hold out, while he himself gathered
the Hijdilaud chiefs round his standard at Lochaber.
Mackay, a favourite general of William, sent to oppose
him, was defeated at Killiecrankie (SSth July 1680),
where the spirit«d leadership of Dundee and the dash of
the Highlanders' attack gained the day ; but succees was
turned into defeat by a bullet which killed Dundee almost
at the moment of victory. No soccessor appeared to take
his place and keep the chiafa of the clans together. !Fhe
Cameroniana, organized into a regiment under Cleland,
repulsed Cannon, the commander of the Ei(^dand army, at
Dunkeld, and the sucoess of Livingston, who defeated the
remnant under Cameron and Bni^aii at the Haogha id
Cnandale on the 6pey, en^ed the short and desultory war.
The castle of Edinbiugh had been sorrendered a month
before the battle of Killiecrankie. Three forts, at Fort
William, Fort Angnstna, and Inverness, sufficed to keifi the
TTighlmidri from nsiiig for the next two reigns.
Meantime the convention poxliament in EdinbuuEh had
518
I C O T L A N D
carried tlte oeceMarj msaraiM for the transfer of the
govennneiit of Scotland to William and Mary. It declared
in bolder terma than the English pariiamect that James
had forfeited the crowo and that the throne was vacant
Hie fifteen articles which contained the reasons for this
resolution were included in a Declaration and daim of
Bight, — a poralle! to the English DecUration and Bill of
Rights, Besides ihe declarations against the Papists with
which it commenced — that no Papist could be king or
queen, that proclamations allowing mass to be said, Jesuit
schooU and colleges to be erected, and Popish books to be
printed were contrary to law — it detailed each of the nn-
constitntional acta of James and pronounced it contrary
to law. This formidable Hat included imposing oaths
without the authority of parliament ; grants without the
consent of parliament ; employing officen of the army as
judges throughout the kingdom; imposing exorbitant fines;
imprisoning persons without expressing the reason, and
dehying tnals; forfeiture upon insufficient grounds, especi-
ally that of Argyll ; the nomination by the king of the
magistrates of burghs ; sending of royal letters to courts
of justice with reference to pending cases ; granting pro-
tections for debt ; forcing the lieges to depone agEunst
themselves in capital crimes ; the use of torture without
evidence in ordinary crimes ; quartering of an army in
time of peace upon any part of the kingdom ; the use of
law-burrows at the king's instance; putting garrisons in
private houses in time of peace without the consent of the
owners and of parliament ; and fining husbands for tbur
wives. It closed with asserting that Prelacy and the superi-
ority of any office in the church above presbyters were
insupportaUe griavances and ought to be abolished, and
that it was the right and privilege of subjects to proteet
to parliament for "remeid" of law and to petition the kiug^
and that for redress of grievances it was necessary parlia-
ment should frequently be called, with fresdom of speech
secured to members. As a conclusion from these premises
the estates resolved that William and Mary should be de-
clared king and queen of Scotland during their Utm, but
with the right of exercising regal power in William alone
as long as he lived. After their death the crown was to
pass to the heirs of the queen's body, and failing her to
Anne of Denmark and her heirs, failing whom to the heirs
of William. Commissioners were despatched to London
to present the declaration and statement of grievances and
take the royal oath to the acceptance of the crown on their
terms. This was done at Whit«hall in the following March
(1689); but William, before taking the oath, required an
assurance that persecution for religious opinion was not
intended and made a declaration in favour of toleration.
By desire Of William the convention was superseded by
a parliament which met in June ; but, with the exception
of an Act abolishing Prelacy, it transacted no business of
importance. The parliament of 1690 was mors fruitful.
It abolished the committee of the Articles, which had
become an abuse inconsistent with the freedom of parlia-
ment, and, while it retained a committee on motions and
overtures in its place, declared that the estates might deal
with any matter without referring it to this committee.
The Act of Supremacy was rescinded. The. Presbyterian
ministers deposed eince 1661 were restored and the West-
minster Confession approved, though not imposed as a test
except on professors. With mors difficulty a solution was
found for the question of church government. The Presby-
terian Church was re-established with the Confession as
its formula, and patronage was placed in the heritors and
elders with a small compensation to the patrons. Theae
prudent measures were due to the influence of Garstares,
the chief adviser of William in Scottish eocleeiastical
matters. Ha was not bo well advised in the oondnct of
the civil government by the masteT of Btur, trbo became
sole secretary for Scotland. The proclanuition for calling
out the militia may have been a necessary precaatton, but
it raised much opposition amongst the landed gBDtry, and
the militia was not then embodied. The massacre oiC the
Macdonaldi at Qlencoe by Campbell of Olenlyon ivas con-
trary to the spirit of the indemnity offered to the High-
landers. While the treachery with which it was executed
may be attributed to Qlenlyon, it was too plainly proved
before the committee of inquiry which the Scottiah parlia-
ment insisted on that it had been designed by Stair and
Breadalbane, and, now that the whole documents Iia-ve been
published, it is also proved that it had been sanctioned by
William. It was intended to strike terror; but its partial
success was'dearly bought^ for it kept olive the Jacobite
disaffection and gained for it much sympathy. The nnftur
treatment of the Scots in the matters of free tTsda and
navigation, in which the new Qovemment appeared to foUow
the policy of Charles rather than that of Cromwell, and
acted with an exclusive regard to the prejudicea and snj)-
poeed intereets of England, reached a climax in the abandon-
ment of the Scottish settlement at Darien when attacked
by the Spaniards. The over-sanguine hopee of X^teison
and the Scottish colonists and capitalists who snpported
his enterprise, so suddenly transformed into a financial
disaster overwhelming to a poor country, accompanied by
the loss of many lives, embittered the classes on whidi
the Revolution settlement mainly depended for ita support
It was the anxious wish of William to have efifected tha
legislative, union; but, although he twice attempted it,
the last time a month before his death, the temper of tlie
English parliament and of the Scottish people appeared to
give smcdl chance of its reoHxation.
9. The Uaion and ik Coiueqaenca. — The reign of Anne,
so far as it relates to ScotUnd, centred in the accomplish-
ment of the union. In spite of the disparity of aam-
bers, both nations now met to treat on equal terma. StiU
there were grave difSculties, and it required all the vriodom
of the ministers of the early years of Anne, aided by tho
glory of Marlborough's arms, to overcome national preju-
dices and secure an object plainly for the benefit of both.
The memories of Olencoe and Darien and the refn^ of
3ual rights of trade led the Scottish parliament, the year
ter Anne's accession, to pass an Act of Security, by which,
if the queen died without issue, the Scottish estates were
to name a successor from the Protestant descendants of
the royal line; but the succeesor to the English crown
was expressly excluded unless there were "such couditdona
of government settled and enacted as may secure the
-honour and sovereignty of the crown and kingdom, the
freedom, frequency, and power of parliament, the reli-
gious freedom and trade of the nation from Engliwh or any
foreign influence." Political economy had not yet taught
the reciprocal advantage of free trade, and the English
jealousy of Scottish traders was intense. An incident
about this time warned the English ministers that Scot-
land might easily revert to its old attitude of enmity. A
Scottish ship of the African or Darien Company Mving
been seized in the Thames at the suit of uie English East
India Company, the " WorcestO','' an English £^ India-
man, was taken in the Forth by way of retaliation, and
Qreen, its captain, with two other oflScers, was executed
at Leith on a charge of piracy insufficiently proved. An
attempt had been already made to complete Uie union by
a commission, which sat from lOth November 1T03 to 3d
February 170C; but this miscarried through the refnnl
to grant free trade between the kingdoms. But again in
ITOS the English parliament sanctioned the appointment
of other commiseioDerB, and new ofBcers of state were
nominated for Scotland with the express porpoee of piegt-
••]
SCOTLAND
619
ingdieidiaiiefonntdiiitlieScottiahpaTliuiieDt. Thongh
opposed oa oontnir gronndB by the Jacobitea and the
par^ (rf Fletcher of gBlton, tbe Scottish ministry of
Qoeensberrj iocoMded, bj the aid of a third party nick-
tumed the "Squadfone Volanto," io getting the consent
of porliunent to the appointment of commimioners hj the
crown. The Act expnasly excepted tbe chnrch from the
naUera with which the conmuaaion wu to deal The com-
misdoaara, thir^-one from each country, met at Whitehall
on 16tb April and concluded their sittings on 23d July.
Ibo nomination by the crown had secured persons anzioos
to accomplish the union; experience had discloeed the
cause of former failurei, and the commissioners were gaided
by the statesmanship of Somen. It had Ijeen recognized
from the £nt that Uie only settlement of the eccleaioatical
qoeetion poasit^ w&s to leave to each country its own
ehmth. It was wisely decided to tredt the Uw and the
courts in the same manner. These two subjects being re-
moved from the acope of the treaty narrowed the debites
to four main points, — the snccesaion, trade, taxation, and
the composition of the fntnre parliament. Hie Scottish
commiawouers yielded on- the firsl^ the English on the
McoDd, and the remaining two were acljusted by a akilful
compromise. The chief articles of the treafy wei« tbe
Battlement of both crowns according to the English Act of
Bncceeuon on Anne and her descendants, and failing them
OD the electress Sophia and the Hanoverian line; the
establishment of fiee trade between England and Scotland,
and the adndsaion of the Scots to equal privileges as regards
tiade with other countries ; the national debt and taxation
wore a^iusted by the imposition on Scotland of a modeiate
diare {£48,000) of the land-tax, of which England was
Btill to bear £200,000, and there was to be a uniform
rate of costom and excise, Scotland being compensated
by an equivalent of about ^£400,000 for becoming liable
to a proportion of the English national debt, which already
amounted to £16,000,000; forty-Qve representatives of
Scotland were to be admitted to the House of Commons
and sixteen elected peers to the House of Lords. Although
the terms were on the whole favourable to Scotland, their
aonooncement waa received with dissatisfaction, eepecially
io Edinbnigh. The loss was immediate^ from the aboli-
tion of an independent parliament, iiie reduction of tbe
capital to a provincial town, and the increase of taxation
to pay the growing national debt The gain was in the
future and in part doubtful No one contemplated the
rapid and enormona eztenaion of trade. A proud people
was unwilling to admit the advantage consequent upon
free intercourse with a country in which wealth and civiliza-
tion were more widespread. It had a natural attachment
to its own institutions, though these were leas popular
than the English. It feared that, notwithstanding the
most Boiemn guarantee, neither ita church nor its taws
could resiat tbe influence of.a country ao much larger and
more populous, in which henceFortb was to be the sole seat
of government, and that much of its wealth and talent
would be attracted to the south and become EnglLah. The
last parliament of Scotland was preceded by a stormy agita-
tion against the union, and began its aesaion with numer-
ous addresses praying timt the treaty should not be ratified,
while none were presented in ita favour. The popular
feeling was embodied in the speeches of Lord Belhaven
from a sentimental and patriotic point of view, and of
Fletcher of Salton, who represented the democratic or re-
publican element latent in a portion of the nation. But
common sense aided by ministerial influence prevailed.
Tbe vote on the first article was prudently token with a
proviao that it was to be dependent on the rest being
carried, but it really decided the fate of tbe measure. Tbe
Qovemment commanded a large m^ority of tlie peciBi
perbapa more amenable to inflneoce. Hey were aceosed
by the Jacobites of being bribed, but the auma received in
name of payment of arrears of pension and of debts were
too small to justify the charge. Tbe leaser barons or
county members and the representatiTes of the burghs
were nearly eqnally divided ; bnt there was a majority of
f oar of each of theee estates in favour of the article. The
whole estates voted together and the total nuyori^ waa
thirty-five. This was increased when tbe lost vote wai
taken to 41, the numbers being 110 for and 69 againati
and the Act of Batification to take effect from 1st Hay
170T waa carried. The Presbyterian Church received an
additional guarantee in an Act passed for "securing the
Protestant religion and the Piosbyterion Establishment."
In the English parliament there was lesa serious opposi-
tion, proceeding chiefly from the High Chnrch party, which
was conciliated by an Act for the security of the Church
of England. On ^th. March 1 707 tbe Scottish and English
Acts ratifying the union received the royal assent.
Two Acts of the Britieh parliament naturally followed
the Act of Union. The Scottish privy council was abol-
ished in 1708. A aecretory of state for Scotland continued
until 1746 to manage tbe Scottish department in London ;
bnt the lord advocate, the adviser of the crown on all
legal matters both in London and Edinburgh, gradually
acquired a large, and after the suppression of the office A
the Scottish secretary a paramoimt influence in purely
Scottish aflairs, though he was nominally a aubordinate
of the home secretary.' In 1703 the law of treason was
assimilated to that of England, being made more definite
and lees liable to extension by construction in the criminal
courts. In tbe later years of Anne, nhen after the foil of
Marlborough power passed from the Whig to the Tory
party, two statutes were passed of a different chamctv.
Patronage was restored in the Presbyterian Church not-
withstanding the protests of the assembly, and proved a
fertile aourco of discord. A limited toleration Act in favour
of the Episcopalians, permitting them to vrorship in private
chapels, was opposed by the I^byterians but carried.
With the onion of the parliaments Scotland lost its
legislative independence. Its representation in the British
porliameift for more than a centuiy, based on the freehold
franchise in the counties and in the burghs controlled by
town councils, which were clpse corporations, was a repru-
sentation of special classes and btereats rather than of the
nation. It almost appeared as if tbe prophecy of BeUmven
woold be accomplished and there would be an end of an
old song. But Scottish history waa not destined yet to
end. The character of the people, though their language
and monnera gradually became mote like those of Eng-
land, remained distinct. They retained a separate churdi
and clergy. Independent courts and a more cosmopolitan
system of law opened a liberal profession and afforded a
liberal education to youthful ambition, A national syslem
of parish schools, burgh schoola, and univetaities, thou^
inadequately endowed and tar from reaching the ideal of
Enox and Melville, gave opportunities to the lower-as well
as tbe higher cUasoa of receiving at a small cost an educa-
suited fur practical uses and the businees of everyday
The Scot had been from the earliest times more in-
cliaed to travel, to migrate, to colobiie than the English-
man, not that he hod a less fervent love of home, but a soil
comparatively poor made it necessary for many to seek
their fortune abroad. This tendency which bad led Scottish
monks, aoldiers, and pTDEessors to embrace foreign service,
now foond new openings in trade, commerce, colonial eoter-
prise in America, the East, and the West Indies, in the
southern hemisphere and the exploration of unknown parts
sppolokd wUli ■
520
SCOTLAND
[BmoiT,
of tie globe. Acciutomed to porert^, »»ttJHli enugrantH
Bcqnired Ixabita of frugality, iudustiy, and pBiBBTerancs,
and were rewarded by buccbsb id most of their undertaJc-
ingH. Nor, if war be regaidad aa necesKuy to tlie continued
existence of a nation, wad it altogether absent, bat the
cause wilk which the name of Scotland became identified
was the lodng one. The two rebellions proved the devoted
Lojalt; which utili attached many of the Highland clans,
the Cbtholicd, and some of the Etiiacopaliaus to the descend'
ants of the StuarU. But that in 1715, preceded by an
abortive attempt in 1706, was put dtvwn by a single battle;
BherLffmiur, if it could scarcely be claimed as a victory by
Argyll, led to the speedy dispenal of the clana which had
gathered round the staudard of Mar. Thirty years later
the romantic rising of the Highlanden under the Tonng
Pretender found the Go'emmont unprepared. Once more
for a brief space Holyrood woe a royal coart. The defeat
of Cope at Pretitoupans and the rapid march of the Scottish
army, slightly reinforced by Catholics from the northern
and midland shirea of England, to Derby, by which it cut
off the duke of Newcastle's forces from tlie capita], made
London tremble. Divided counsels, the absence of any able
leader, and the smailness of their number (not more than
6000) prevented the daring policy of attacking London,
which Charles himself favoured, and a retreat was deter-
mined on. It was skilfully effin^teJ, and on S6th December
the little army, which had left Edinburgh on Slat October
and reached Derby on 4th December, arrived in Qlasgow.
It was not favourably received, the south-west of Sco&nd
being the district least inclined to the Stuarts, and it
marched on Stirling to assUt Lord John Drummond and
Lord Bttathallan, who bad commenced its siege, which
General Hawley threatened to raise. His defeat at Fa]kirk
was the last success of the Jacobites. The doke of Cum<
berland was sent to command the royal forces, and Chsrles
Edward was farced by Lord Qeoige Hurray and the High-
land chiefs to abandon the siege of Stirling and retreat
to lavemeed. He was at once pursued by the duke, and
hid defeat at Culloden (16th April 1746) scattered his
foUowei's and compelled him to sa^ safety iq flight to the
Hebrides, from which, after five months' wanjerings, he
eica[iDd to France. The lost rebellion within Great Britain
was put down with ^verity. Uany soldiers token in arms
were shot and no consideration was shown to the wounded.
The chief officers and even some privates taken prisoners
were tried and executed at various places in the north of
England. The earls of Cromarty and Kilmarnock and Lord
BaloierLao were reserved for the judgment of their peers
in London, and having pleaded guilty were beheaded at
Toner Hill, The crafty Lovat, who had avoided spearing
in arms, but was really at the bottom of the rising, though
he pretended to serve both sides, was the last to suffer.
An Act of indenmity was passed a few weeks after his
execution. But effective measures were taken to prevent
any renewal of the rebellion. The estates aud titles of all
who bad been privy to it were forfeited. An Act was passed
prohibiting the use of arms and the Highland dress ; and
the abolition of the military tenure of ward-holding, nn-
fortunately preserved at the union, rooted out the remnants
of feudal and military power till then left in the hands of
the nobles and chiefs. These changes in the law hod the
willing consent of the Lowland and burghal population in
Scotland, to whom the lawless and freebootiug habits of
the Highlanders had been a caoss of frequent loss and
constant alarm. Somewhat later the masterly policy of
I^tt enlisted the Scottish Celts in the service of the crown
by forming the Highland regiments. The recollection of
Glencoe and Collodeu was forgotten after the common
victories of the British arms in India, the Peninsula, and
Waterloo. In one direction the Jacobite cause mrrived
its defeat Poetry seized on its ramanUo incidents, ideat-
fzed the young prince who at least tried to win his father's
crown, satirized the foreign and German, the Whig and
Covenanting, elemenbi opposed to the Stuart restoration,
and substituted loyalty for patriotism. Self-sacrifice and
devotion to a cause believed right, thongh deserted by
fortune (qualities rare amongst the mass of any nation),
dignified the Jacobites like the cavolien with eome of
the nobler traits of chivalry, and the Jacobite ballada
have their place in literature as one of the last expiring
notes of mediseval romance. Music and tradition fort4-
oately preserved their charm before the cold hand of history
traced the sad end of Charles Edward, the peoMoner ot
foreign conrts, wasting his declining years in ignoble plea-
sures. It might be hard to say whetiier the first Hanover'
iaos or the last Stuarts least deserved that men should fight
and die for them ; but the former represented order, pro-
gress, civil aud religious liberty; the latter were identified
with the decaying legend of the divine right of kings and
the ckim ot the Roman Church not merely to exclnava
orthodoxy but to temporal power and jurisdiction inconsist-
ent with the independence of nations and freedom of con-
science. Although a larger minority in Scotland than in
England clang to the traditions of the past, an overwhelm'
ing majority of the nation, including all its progressiVQ
elements, were in favour of the new' constitution and tha
change of dynasty.
During the remsinbiKbsIf of thalStli cantor; and the eommnm-
ment of the I8tli a period of proipority inu Bigoj-ed by Bcotlsnd,
and, thagDod efTecU ot tliB union, inteicepted Or ihe nbelljans,
bocame vieible. The Scotttsh nstioii, without lauag It* IndiTi-
dutlily, w»» (rtimaUted by conUiet ind friendly ririuiT with ila
£nglls!i nughboDT in ths srti ot poca, It sdvinced in intel-
Isctual u ivell u mstefiil leapocts more tX*a in any put of its
prSTiooa hiatory. It becsoie, throng conunarce, mtmaTictariM,
snd improved agriculture, a comparatively rich inatead of a poor
connlry. Bliilful engineeilog mBde the Clyde a Eucceaaful com-
petitor with the Thainia and the Ueney, and Glaigov become one
ot the moat populous citiet in Great Britain. The iDdnatrial arts
made rapid proeretK and the Sse arts be^a to flouriah. The art
ot aaving capital and aaiag it aa a aoorce of credit was rodoccd to a
SitoEu Banks, Hot unknonn in other coontriea and at an sarlisr
ts, are in their modem forn:i a Soottiali invention. Becidea thow
le nationsl banks ot Kngiand
Scotamen, A nfo syitem
their modem form
wbEch aprang up in Scotland itaoIT, t!
' " -ed their origin to two
life
ot the nation, Ada
honoui ot toonding political economy ai
natiooa Mental philosophy became a favourite atudv, and a dia-
tinctively Scottiah achool produced thiokere irho deeply ioflnenoed
the later ayatems ot the Continent The history not ot Scotland
only but ot England and aome porlioaa ot that ot Ennf* were
written by Bcotamau in voila equal to any existing before Gibbon.
The dawn of the scientific era of the 10th century iraa foreahado^red
■ ■ the founder* of modem fpoloCT.
'. and the piactice ot medicme. In
r Scottiali n
iology, and the practice ot
rat 3 the gnat line ot dn
SeotLend ins made the firat 3 the i
prsotiad application of Kianoa by the n«e of atcua aa a motiis.
power. The same period — ao varied vers its talenta — gave birth te
two Scottiab poeta, of worid-wide tuna. Buma eipreeaed the
leelingB and aapiratioae ot the people | Bcott deicribed both in
ilerial
proas ^air bietoi; and the pictnreaqne
it had bean tranaacted. During the laat half-ceuturv the malerisl
pn^eaa continued, but the intellectual nas too brilliant to laat.
The preponderating influence of England even threatened to sxtin-
gniah nativa Scottiah genius by centrelliing the political and social
Bfe ot the ialand in the English capital Only two changei of
importanca occurred. The pSitical iustitntiona of Scotland^ were
reformed by a aeriea ot Acta which placed the ftencliiae on a hnoJer
baais and made the repmeotaCion of the people reel The Eatab>
llahcd Cbnrch, already weakened by aeoeaaiona, ■bub farther divided
bj a diaraptioii largely due to the ignorance of political laadon as
to the dsep-aeated avstsion of the nadon to any interference with
the independeoea ot the church, sspeciaily in mottera ot patronage.
Educational reform baa alao in recent years raised tbe atandaid of
the nnivendtios and schools without injuring their popular eiaiaelar.
While it would be incorreot to saj that Scotland haa had do tadw
pendent history since the union, Uut biatoij nmat ba ohiefly nad m
the anoala of ila church, It> law, and Its UteratUM Its poUtitisl
•xistaaeshssbMoslaaibad is that of Oraat Britain. (Al^) .
),Google
J)
),Google
joogle
„Goo<^lc
SCOTLAND
or tbo BHtUh I>)ttid>, kr
i9im [Fundi mental, Lowi
raolj crJitJillins gnmitoid
™nio»tibiindanl,i-' -^-
LLingl«l
tn theutieltOBoUWTtTDL t) deKiiptliJiu wOt b« ftmnd of mott
of tbs gHilfsiul romutioni at ScotUnd. AU tint uud Ihonron
bs iBwrtod b»m u » juccinct mmmsTT of tli»* fommtioiK with
nroreocei to tbe pign of thit articln whtn fulloi deUil> in iHnm.
The oldiwt roeh of SrotUnd «-■■
M AnhBui, caoiift cLieflf of
Hobf idkn), which T«riei from ■ (
vitb btodt of bomblends-mck, boroblei
mick-acbiit, ■ericitg-achut, ind other
In 1 li|» pltcn liDusUne bu been abHrvod.
orguuim bu ever been detected iu any of tlicu
anaa, pBIticuUrly on the miinUnd, Iho bands oi gncisa mvo a
gflnem nortb-^reat trend and undulato in frequent pTicationa i^'itb
Tariabla mclLtiation to nortb-*»it and aouth-nnt. The largvst
tract of Arch«n rocli ia that which foraia (Inioil the irhola of the
Outer Hebrides from Bam Haad to Ihd Butt of LoTiis. Other areas
TDorflOTleaamJely sepqrateJ from each othor run Jovm tha wcatcm
putt of Sutberhind and Rwn, and are probably continuwl at lenut
aa bt ai ths lilaud of Rum. Hov tar Airhaan rocka nappeu to
the oaat of thia Teatem belt baa not jet been aanrlained.
AboTe tho^^hnon gneiaa Ilea a aerica of mi and chocolate^eolonrod
unditonn. eonslomerates, and brec<:Iaa (Cimbnas or Torndon
■andstcnfl). whi^h form a number of dcbwhed areu from Cape Wnl
doim the Maboud of Sutlinrland and ^.aa, acron "' ' '
«■ the libnd of Rvu (GaoLOOT, Tol. X. p. 330),
praoiiDeat pjmniilil DioUBWlna, whirh, aa the
nsnalij almoat horizontal, pment in their tfrraced sides a sin^ar
contraet to the noiglibourilig heiehta, compoiod of highly plicated
cryitAllino (chiita. In the Tomdon distnct thoHi KUiditonin can
be *en tovering bod abore bed to a height of alnut 4000 feet and
their thiciineaa ia (till ^roaler. They Halt not yet yielded iny
rocogniable fossil ; their gcologtcal a^ ia accordingly donbtfuf.
tUough from their relation to the oierWing roaEilirerous rocks and
from their own litliolopcsl charade™ they hare with ninch prob-
ability been ciaiaed silh the Cambnan avitem of Wales. They
are not met nith anywhere else in Scatlanil than in the north-iroat
^Bocka beloRginj; to the Silarian aysteni ORcnr in ttro dittinrt
I in lira Teijr atrongly oontraalcd conditiona. Thoy
nearly tha whole of tha aoutbi ' ' "
^:ci
. Bkve, and la f«
■rte; ri.0 inti
stituts nearly tha whole of tta aautheru uplands {Oi
I. pp. 313, 337). In that belt of country they "^ '
it isrt of greywacke, grit, ahalo, and other sedi
in tha ■outh-west of Ayrshire thiy include aoi
ir bands of limestone. They haTa been thrown ii
lenturyrock^
Itii
arlydiiK
■yplic
nplandi. Tha plicatioua of tha Eighla
tions of the country bi'S fallowed the i
md the
hief diilDi:a-
ftcncral dUection, and
. . ., nd of the main topo-
griphjcal Featunia. Abundant foaaila in certain parts of the °''^
rocke hare thown that repreBeutativea of both the Lower an
prescul By far the larger port of the uph
Tha Upper Silurian abalrs and aonJtt
'th-wnt Uighlanda
di»i»i
to thai
andUpi«:
n oneonformably by >i
nneUd tulM. folIo<ved by fovUife
' ;. p. 3J3). The a1
with I
(Okoi ,. _._,. __._
wore them to be of Lotier Sili
UuRhlion that, aa th»F Silurian ati
f arioua achiata which apnad eaitwarda into the- rest of the }?igb-
luuls, ther demoiulraM the crj italUno rocka of the Highlands .to
il huudred feat of white qnartzite
. llmeatontB and obalea
foBsila ia these itrata
agfl. It w'u believed by
bo of later than Bilnrian aga. Rtcently, hoi
SutherUnJ ha* been inreatigBled anew witi
result is to ahow tbmi the ■chiita belieTcd (
irmabl; bare been rwllj pnahed
PAKT n.— PHYSICAL PEATFREa
Scotland forma tha northern poniou of Great Britain and b
divided from England by th* rinra Sark, liddell, and Kanhope
(an afflaant of the Liddellx the Cheviot Hills, tha rirer Tweed, and
tba libartio* at Berwiok. The mainland Ilea between ES* 40* 30' (at
Dnnnet Haad, Caithness) and U' 33' S. Ut (Mull of Oallony) and
!■ )s' 30" [Peterhead) and fl" W W. long. (Arduamurehan Point,
Argylbihire). Includuig the Lilindii the extreme N. lat. la {HT
61' 30" (Outlook. ShatUad) and the eitremo W. long 8' 3S' 30"
[St Eilda). Ite Rttatcst length from north to aouth, from Dunigu
in Sutherland to Burrow Uwl Iu U'tt^aunahire, ii 27! niilei, and
tha grmtajt breadth from eaat to west, from Peterhead iu Abot-
ilaenshirr to Applorroas in Rosa-sliire, ia Hi, while the nanonei't
part, from C.rmueeniDUlh in Slirlingahire to Bowlinf- in Dumbirton-
■liin. ia ooly 30^ niilea wide. Tlis total aroa in 1331. eceanliliR to
the Ordnance Survey, waa 19,T;7,4M acres or 30,B(» aquire milei.
—the ana of forcahora being 310,413 arm ar 135 square milts,
of water 403,340 acrea or 331 s
JS,De3,2Sl acres or 28,733 snoai
the acmcB included ondei lake
in gut or the
themautborLo<:hGi
warJatothelaleofSk,..
eyatcuj of earth- move ma I
Cambrian, and Arckean
Ban really pni
■i^ ItVs „
I on the north coast of SutherUnd aaath-
of man than Ida milea, a giftantia
iken place, whereby the Slurian,
.ted, and hare putlicd over eu-h other, in aomT
lal dispUi-cmcnt of theie ihifted masses has bai
iiilos, So intend) hat been the abcaring of tha i
.ii,.l .t-i.,.<..« I... i.. —inj, plifpi bjfn (nti
<s that
iwfchi.t....^,
; of the Silurian rock
ipparent ei
parallel irith'Si"
linn of djstucbani
Silurian atrata u about 2M0 feet. Tlieiockd tlial o"t<
the east of tha line af di.turbnoce in Sutherland and
flagey echiita, quite iinhko any part of the AnJuein gui
alnngcly suggeative nf altcmT aandatoues. What u
ago and hiitory remoijid ttill to be determined. The
douht, howoier, that they hava acouired their preset
aince the Lower Silurian period, and hence that thi
tion at the metimorphic ttxke of the central Higl
go back toArchicMn tuna. That portion* of tlie _
may have been puahed np in iliTerent prti oF ths Highlanda is
quite coBceii-able. But tliat much af'tlie Jligbhindi contiata af
altered aedimentary rocka like thaw of the Silurian uplands admits
ichb,tesit»
eat condf-
1 being piwf cutfd by the Oc
il ia the typical Emopean Tcgi
IoGeoux
I Old Bed
(vol. I. pp. 313. 311). Theia twks
dUpr
both sF which
detached tracts along the
south aide of the nploudi
occnpiea a tnrt of Lonie
the Highlands underlica
tha Uany Firth, stretches
nhaleaf the Orkney Islau
Upper Old Bed Sondi
of the areai juit mei
flanka of the north-ei
luoiited in Lkn. Th<
> and tu/Ts, eiteudi cantmuaus
niargin of the midland valley,
'^~ louthrm Iwrder, id found aguu ou lua
in Bemirkibire and tlie Cheviot Hills,
ID In Argyllshire, and on tba north lade of
a moat of the low ground on both udea of
Lcs acroia Ciithnras and through nearly tha
uids, and i> pralongcd into Bhethind. Tba
ne coveia a more restricted apace in moat
oned, 11a chief development being en tfaf
ern part of tlie aouthem uplands, where It
imermuit Hille and the TtlJayi of Bervick-
■kirting tha southern uplands from the i
Geolouv (vol. I. pp. 343, 313. 31S). .
Bocks assignable to tho Permian ajalem occupy only a few small
ireaa in Scotland. Eitcndiog From Cumberland mider the Solwsy
Firth, thay fill np tba valley oF the Kith for a fsw milea uorth ol
Dunifriei, and. reappearing again ia the tame valley a littlf fartLei
north, mn op the natTow valley of tha Carton Water ta the Lonthei
Uillft Other detached tracts of nimilar rocks cover a considerabh
space in ^lonnndile, one af then ascending the deep defile
head of that valley. Anothcj isolated patch occurs i
Lead Hilla; and lastly, a considerable apace in Iha h>
Ayrshire coal-licid is occupied by Permisu rock^^ Tlroughont
ol. I. p. 351). Till
hesa piitchea oF rea rocKS ^le ainrsuT eiuLni in i cruiiuu Liiuu-
'hey seem then to have been occupied by imall lakea or inland,
at unlike fjorrfa Mumeroua amphibian tracks have been fonnd
a the rod sanditone of Ajinandala and also near Dumfries, but
0 othor trarea oF the life of the time. One of tha moat ioteisaling
- ■ ' of tha Permian lyaleni ia the
rere the iriilJtba'^ma'li'vo'lfaiMrt'iU remain
ipted lavas form high ground iu tba middle of
-- among the
Kl sana^on ,
a be no doubt that tha valleya iu wh
The Triai^ lysteni ippeart to be only fcably T*]iresenttil in
«tland. To thu division of the oeologiini record are assigned
■"■ ■ "^ • yiJdedremi- ' -
XXI. — (
SCOTLAND
[FMmcu.
from similnr nndBrljine sttaU w&ich contain Upper ■
SuidBtgne fiaLn. Tbore occDr il» balow tllD Lisa on soma pirta
rf tli8 west Pamt uuTosiiliroroiu ml BinJatonoi, conglomonilos, antl
Imcciu vliich msy pouiblT twlong to tha aaiag syiUm. Th«s
rocta Brtiin their greatcil tliiclnieM it Qrainani B«y on tha vest
cout or Roas, vhem tlicy rauit bo eareral bnudred feet thick. On
tbaeut lide of tbo country, vhcro u manifra^iientiiDf the Beoond-
■ry rock) occur u boulden in tba glaclil drpositi, s large msas of
xtnta irno fonnorly eipo«e<i at linksfidd nor Elgin containinff
foeail) wblcli oprwiip to flioir it to belong to tba Rbatic bedi '
tho top or tbe Triu. But it wu not iu i>1[ice, and wu aire
cntaiiilj a maaa (rau>port£<! liy ico. Rhietic atnta uo doubt ailat
Ht liU at no great disMnco niiJor tlia North Sea.
The Junuaic aystcm is well repreHutoJ on both (idea of the
Highlaadi^ Along the aaat coast of Sutherliod good aectiona arc
•Iposod allowing tho iOCCOMion of Blrala. Among these the Lowei
and JliddJo Lzaa can be idoutified by their fowila. Tba Lonti
Oolite IB diitjngnislied by llie occnrrcnca in it of some coal-seama,
onaofiThich, SJ feet in Ihickn™, hiia beta norl(«l at Brora, Th(
lliddio OoIit« conaiata moatly of anulatonei n-ith baada of ahale
•Dd limestonaa and include* [oagila vhich indicate the Enduh
Tioriiona from tlie Kellairayi Rock up to the Conl Rag. The
lower part of tho KiniuicridgoClay iajrobablj rerreaented by aand-
■ nee and conglomofatoi, forming the bipliest Wa of the aeriea
Sutherland. On the west side of tho Highlands Jnraesic rocks
f J ; .i.^.i,.j r.^^ tha Shiant lalaa to tha
if this regioa they owe their
— . msas of lavas ponred over
Ihem in Tertiary time. They hare been uncovered, indeed, only
St a comparatiTolT recent geological date. Tbov coinpriw s con-
sfcnliTe aeriea of dcposita fiom tha bottom of Uio Lias np to tha
Oxford Clay. Tha Lower Uiddle and Upper Liai conaiat chiefly of
the ahorea of Broadford Bay in Skye and in some of tha adjacent
islands. The Lower Oolitoa are made up of sandatones and aluics
with Bome limeetone*, and sra orarlaid by seTortl hundred feet of
an Ntnatine series of deposits consisting chiefly of thick white
sandstonaa, below snd abore which lie shales and (belly limestones.
Tbeae rooks form a prominent featnte underneath the Iwaalt tamcea
of tha east side of okye, Ksassy, and Eig^. They form tha highest
mamben of tha Jnnaalc seriea, npresenting probably soma part of
tha Oxford day. The next Secoadary rocks (Cntaoeoos) ■ucc««d
them uucDnfonaably.
Backs belonginf; U> the Cretaceons system nndonbtedly kt one
time coTered considerable sieas on both sides of tha Highlands, hut
they hare been entirely atrippod off tha eaatam lido, .while on the
weatem they hare beau rwluced to a few fragmentary patches,
which have no donbt aurrived bocansa of the oTarlying ahaats of
bsialt that havo protected tbem. Boma greenish sandstones con-
taining racDgnixabla and charactariatio fosails aro the equivalents
of the Upper OreanoaDd of tha south of Englaad. These roclca
ore fouDd on tha aonth and west coaeta of MuU and on the west
coast of Argyllshire, They are coref
theae by w^la chalk and mirly beds,
Chalk of England. Knonuoua num'
abuudant fra^nenla of chalk are found in glacial dapoait* border,
ing the Uony Firth. Those tnnaported relies show that tha
Chalk must ones have bsen in place at no great distanco, if indeed
it did not actually occupy pert of Aberdaeoshlie and the neigh-
Above tha highest Secondary rocka on the weat cdast coms
temoed plateaus of baaslt, which spread out over wide ueis in
Skye, Ha, Hull, and Uorran, and form moat of tho smaller islets
ortbachuDoT the Inner Hebrides (dEOLOai. vol. i. p. SB9). Tbes*
platains an composed of nearly horiionlal sheets of bsssIC — colom.
nar, ■morphoua, or amygdtla'Q*! — which in Unll sttiin a thick-
ness of mon than 3000 ktt They sra prolonged southwarJa into
Antrim (Ireland), where similar bualta orerlyinc' Secondary atrati
coTflT a large territory. Occaaiona] beds of^tuD are intercalated
aiDOig these lavae, sad likewise seams of fine clay or shale which
have preserred the remains of nnmorous land. plants. The proience
of these foasil) indies t«) that the eruptions were aubaerial, and a com-
parison of them with those eleewbare found among older Tertiary
atrats ahowa that they probably belong to what la now called the
Oligocens stsgs of the Tertiary series of formations, and therefore
ttiit the basalt eruptions took place in early Tertiary time. The
volcanifl episode to which those platsana owe their origin wu ana of
the moat Lmpottout in the gaolt^eal hiitar; of Oieat Britain. It
sppear« to bava reaombled in ita main leatares tboaa ramaAabla ont-
[MiuliiAi of basalt whicli have dalnnd ■» many thooMnd squars
miles ttftheweatarntarriloiiea of the DnitedStato. The eniptioDS
were connected with innnmenble fiouns up which the liaialt roaa
and from Domorons points on which it flowed ant at the sur&ce.
These fisanm with tbo basalt that solidified in them now form the
Tsat assemblige ofdykes which cross Scotland, the north ofEnglsnd,
■od the north of Irelud (QcoLOoT, toL x. f 812). Th*C Uu
ia is thoirn by Hia gnat denndi
eruptions took place. In the Is!
4 Blifguly been dsaply eroded by
' -f glaam^lava ' " '
gyllshire. They in coveted by wlilte asudstoi
'^- ' 'k and marly beds, which represent tho Upper
Knormoua numben of Suite and also leas
Tolcanio period wu s ]
of Eigg, for example, tl
rivcr.artion and into tho riyer-coutw a current of ghuw? lava (pitch",
itoae] flowed. Deoudation has continued actiTO ever ainca, and sow,
owing to greater banlnesa and consequent poBar of resiatanco, the
glasey lava elands Qp as tho prominent and pictuiwiuo ridge oT
tha Scuir, nhila tha baaalts wluch formerly rose high above it hnva
been worn down into terraced declivities that slope away from it
to tho sea. A remarkable feature in tho Toluanic phenomena was
the disruption or the basaltic plateaus by large bones of gibbro
talna ofKua
ind Uult I
Under the Ft
when Scothuid . .
attiated. and polishod tha harder rocks
ind kno
■u^ed licighls of ArUna^
n come iho lecorda of tha Ice Age,
sheets of ice which ground dowu.
-. glacial deposits. The nature of tho evidence and
ina deductions drawn from it have been already itated (Oeoloot,
vol X. pp. Mfi-geS), TheyoDiiEeat geological formations are tJi*
raised beaches, river-terraces, laka-depoaitiC peal-mosees, and other
accumulations, which are related to the present conEgnratioii of the
country and contain ramains of the plant* and sniiula still living
on its surface fGEOLOOT, ToL x. pp. 2S8, 2B0, 38B).
Pethical FEAmnta,
The phyucsl features of Scotland may behest naluad by repard-
differing from each other in t'
saq nently presenting striking ci
1. The Highland, for i "
the east coast at Stonehaven. Nearlv the whole of this
region is high ground, deoply trenched with valleys and penetrated
by long arms of the aoa. The only considerable area of lowlr-'
diagonally in a north-easterly dire
Clyde to the east coast at Stonel
' 'gh ground, deoply trenched with vaiieyi
OS of the aoa. The oulv considerabls
„ . eastern put ef
Aberdeenshire and the northern parts of Banff, Elgin, and Halm.
Along both aldea of tho Uony Firth a atrip of tower land intSTvenea
between the foot of the hills and the aaa, while forther north flis
county of Caithnass ia one wide plain, which ia prolonged into the
Orkney [elands. Seec inm beyond ita eouthem margin, the area
of the Highlands pitaents a well-deSned chain of hills, which tise
abruptly Trom the plains of the Lowlands. This is best observed
in6tnthtuore,butitis also conapicuoua intheeatoary of the Qyde,
where the low hills on the south contrast well with dia hrokeo line
of mgged monntains to the north. From any of the ialanda of the
bain of the Inner Hebrides the Highlands along their westeni aca-
ttat lise u a vast rampart, indented by many winding Goidi and
jingnp to a aingularly uniform general levid, which rhiks hen
nd there and allows glimpaet to be had of still higher summits in
g Buimnit in the interior the Highlands art
in their infcrior elevation, but aaeentiallj in their configuntion at.
Btmctnn. They an mode np of a ancceasion of mora or less nearly
parallel conBuent ridges, wMch hivei en the whole, * trend from
nort^-esst to sooth-west These rtdgs* are Bepantsd by lon^ptodinal
valleys, and each of them ia likewiee furrowed by transverse valleys,
""le portions of ridge thus isolated rise into whst are termed
oun^aiua. But all tho loftier eminences in the Highland! are
ily higher porto of ridges along which their geologial strnctun
ia prolonged. It ia ■'"fp''"- to otoerve how the general average of
'-vol of the anmmits of the ridgee is maintiinod. From some points
' view a mountain may appear to tower above all the sonounding
lontry, but, looked at nrom a suScient distance to take ia its
ivironmont, it may be found not to rise much above the general
lifonnity of elsvatioiL There are no gigantic dominant msBes
that must obviously be duo to some special terrestrial distnrhance^
A few appannt exceptions to this statement rise along the weatem
aaaboard of Sutherland, in Skye, and elaawhero, but an examination
of their strnctun at anco explains the reason of t)ieir prominence
and conHrms the mla
The genornl surbce of tlie Highlands is tugged. Ths rocks pro-
ject in uinDinerabla bosaea and crags, which roughen tha sides and
nests of the ridgea, Tha forms and colours of these ronohnessea
depend an the nature of the rock uademeath. When the latter
is liard and jwntsd, weathortng into large quadrangular blocks,
til* hull are more especially distinguished for ths gnarled bos>y
character of their dedivitiea, u may be acen in Ben Led! and the
chain of heights to tha north-cast of it formed of masdve griti and
mics'schlats. 'Wbere, on the other band, the rock decays into
naaller Wiria, the billa are apt to uaune nnootlur cgntdiin, u In
SCOTLAND
S23
na beta Iha Kfla of Bat* ta Loeh Lomqod.
■ tt Rwk oocan dUMof iiDoh from thoaa
■TOond It in Iti pawn of ndttiajr daeompoiiilloB It ifftoti. tha
■otoMT, ridi^ islo a ^unliuoM whtn It li dumbly at daldng
■nto lamr araond «h«n It i> not. TUa nbtioa twtwMO nlatin
dntnutililUtir uhI •xtorul conflgnntloD ii ttao«>bla in omr put
of Baotbnd, ond indaed sw; b* ngudad M th« law tbit hu muBlf
detsnniBMl tba ptaaant topograpbr et tlia oonuby.
Ttia HigManifi ara aapantnl Into tn amplotal;
and in toma raapaota oootraatad wioaa bf tha no
of tha Giwt Olan, vhidi nnu bom LiBh liuilM to la
tha northini porUon tEka liigbut groond rias* alon|[ tlu mat oout,
moanCiug ataaplj from the hk to an anran hai^t of perhapo
tstmon 3000 and 8000 bet Tha vilanhad aaiMUDtlT kaap*
ckiaa to tha Atlantic ■aahoari. indnd in aoma idaoaa u ti oot more
wUoh catch tha fint downpoor of tb* vntan nlna, tha ipvond
>c, to tha ^d^^^T^ MOTth Sea and Oa Uiw^^
Gnat QInl Tha biat oonoeption of tho dUEnnca In Um gaoanl
lard on tha two aidaa of tha watacahad m>7 ba obtaiMd bj obMct-
Ing tha ootttnat batwaan flu langtbi of thair abMnia. On tha
vaatata aids tha drainj^ la omiim into flia Atlintio Ooion aftai
Bowing only a few milaa, whila on tha aaattrn aida it haa to inn at
laaat » n 4a it tho head of Looh Koria tha wstan itnun la
oalf > mllaa kiw ; that which ainrta tnm tba aaatatn aida haa ■
cooraaof aoma IS to tha Onat Gin. Thno^iont tha northom la
Dorth-watam ragion n ganacal nnifannit; cf taaton ehaiaotaiitaa
tha aeaMTT, botnVenh^ sran at a dialnnco tha «Danl monoton*
JB tha atnictai* of tha nndariTina; aehiain, B^ flia aamanna a
idiarad along tha wcatacn eoart of Sothvland and Roaa bj ihii^Iai
groan of flOo«auidit>cha((ol)aafl<ni^nla tttarradto), aod&rthar
■mu bj tba tamoed platHna and ibrnpt oonioal hilla of Skja,
Bam, and UnlL Tbs valleja nu hi tha moat part in a north-wiot
and aonth-aaat dlnotlon, and thia la alao genarallf tnu of ths
"nia aonth uaalaiu ragion of tba ITtglil«in<^ balng nioie dlrani-
&ad in noksiEnl atncttin, ptaaanta graator oontnita of acenur.
In tba Srat plaoo, it* Tallna ehiafly ran In a aonth-waat and north.
eaat dlneliin and ao alio do moat of tha laka and ■•■ locha. Thia
taatu* ia abrikin^j axhibitad in tba waat«rn part oC Amllafaira.
Bnt than ua alio nnnMron* and inportant tnnnoiaa ralleyi, of
whidi that of tha Qtirj and Taj ia tha meat oonapisiuiu axample.
Again, tba wataiibad la thia ragion la amngad aooMWhat dlBsr-
ontlf. It liat atrihcB aaatwvd lonnd Um head of Loch I^eE^o
and than iwiaga aonthwari, psraaisg a rinnona eoana till It
omanea tram the nigMt"^- on tha aaat dda of Loch Lomond.
Bat Uw atnama Rowing weatwaid ar* atill ahort, vhlla tboo* that
nin noTth.anat and aaat hava long cograea and dnln wldt tnola of
hi^ gronnd. Tba T^ in paTti^lar ponn > larger bod; of watei
into tba Ban than auj other rinr in Oraat Britain. Honorar, tba
ocooiraaoa of man j boaaaa of granite and other ernptiTa roeka giTaa
riao to ntiaaa intemiption* in the monotonona aconary of tha
oralaltlaa achiala wbioh conatltnt* tba giaatar part of tba
Bntnnutkad ooutnat uajr bo biaed botweoD the oonBga
tba narHi.aaatain diatiiet and tha other pnrta of thia lef^oL In
that area the Onmplaoa liie into wide Sat-topped hri^ta oi
alaTalod moon often orar SOOO and aomatlnua azoteding 4000 feat
in hiigbt and bounded by jteop deollritie* or not infroqnentlr t?
pradiiMaa. Boan from an aminanca on their anrfaca, theae plataana
look lilce bagmmti of an original broad tablaUnd, which baa baea
Farther to the Bonth!-weat in PerthiMn,
In*anuaa-abin^ and ArgjUihire, the; give place to the ordlnar;
linmmockr cniled ridgee of Bighliind scenei;, aoma loniDtita on
which, howerar, Mtceed 4000 feet In olentiDn. ?of the pnbable
menning of thii traniitlon from broad Sat-toppad helghla to narrow
ciaata and iaolated ptaks, eee below (pp. E3S-S24).
Beeidea the principal CrwiCa of low groand in the Highlandi
already roftned to, there oocar nomorone long br" --.--
of flat land in tlie mc"" ' •--•-- n = ■-
ll nmallf pmrided v . _
twean the baaea oI the bounding htUa, haa begfi'laToUed into
meadow-land bj tha riiaii, and htniahea u a role the onlf arable
ground In aaeh district
2. The Boothsm '
tranarataa baits in Bcottiib
Fatrick'a Channel to Bt Abb'i HmJ^ t£^ eonatltato a wall-daOnad
bait d hlllr ground, bat prcnent a itrlkug oontnit to the aoener;
hour of KiDrian gnta, gre;
latlj plicated, the gtnenl
lat of Uie whole belt, or Si
jdaoda, thongh much len
giheit pohit 1* not more tbai. 27S4 feet abore
anri; laaa abrnptneiB iboTc the lower tiacta . .
hail Mith-waatain maipn for the moat put ipiinp boldly abora
ir from aontb-weat t
elevated than the Hi^ilanda (Chei
"-- Tea), riaowitl
tha flalda and moorlanda of &t midland fallay, and Ita boundary
tot Inig itletiwa oontiaaea ramai^abl; atrai^t Their aoutbam
and aonth -aaatara Units an la gaaaral laaa prominently defined,
except to tha weat oT tha Hith, where they plunge into the se.
Between the Solwiy Krth and tha Cheriot Hill) they pea under
a Una of hlgfa aod pictunaiaB eecarpmeuti vhicb mo* from
Blmnawarii & a north^aat dlncUon. lu Berwickahlre, howarer,
they again tower boldly aboTe the plain of the Uerae. Thata np-
land) at* dlatingulahed abore all by the imaathnoB oF their nr-
fue. Ther may be legaided ai a roUing tableland or moorland,
traToraed bj innumerable Talleya which with ggntle letdant
dediTitiee conduct the drainage to the aca. Thii character U
impraaiiTaly aeen from the helghM of Twsedamnir. Wide moaay
moon, lying !000 feet or mare aboTe the aen and eometimea levd
ai a nceoonrae. ipread out on ell lidta. Their continuity, how-
anr, ialntempted by uumerous interreDing ralleya which eeparate
them into detached &t-topp«l hills. Unlike the Hi^Unda, theas
aootbara belghta oompantiTety seldom preeent pndpicea of naked
nek. Thora tba rwk projecta It more uiually appean In low
d ksolI% from which long trail* of grey or -lutple dibria
tha alopaa till they era loat among the graia, Banco,
. . . being smooth, the nplanda are pre-eminently vaidanL
They Ibim indeed eioellent putnn-land, whila the allurial flats
in the Talleya ind eren some of the lower ilopea of the liilla ate
fltted fer com and groan cropa.
^lia uniformity of extsmal aipaet la doabtleaa trmcaaUa to the
pmralancs oftheaamo kind of roeka and the same geologteal itruc-
tni« Tba Sitnrian greywadcaa and ahalaa that andarlie almoat
the irtiole of thaoa nplands weather ge&atally Into small angolai
iibtiB, and at a tolerably Doifoim rata of diainlagration. But
slight diflsrencaa mn niiUj be detected eren where no feature
intarfaraa in a marhad way with the oanaral monotony. The bands
of naerin grit and Maise greywaok*. for example, break up Into
larger Uodu and fi«m their noatar baidnaaa an apt to project
abOTo the nnaral aorface of the other and softer rocU. Hence
Ou^ line of Innd, which Ilka that of all the other itrnU ia la a
north-eeateily direction, may be followed from hill to bill eren at
a dislanoa 1^ their mon ctaggy contonrs. Only In tha higher
tracta of these Uganda an any rugged i^wturea to be aeeu that
remind ous of the mon ssTBge ^laiactat of Eigfalend acanery. In
the heighta of Hertfell (Sflfil feet) and Whitecoomb (2906), whence
tho Clyde, Tweed, Annan, end Uoffat Water descend, the hlgfa
moorlands hare been soarped into gloomy cotriia, with craga end
talus-alopee, which form a series of landjcapea all tha more itriking
(mm tba abrupt and oueipeoted contraet they present toererything
around them. In Qalloway, alao, the highest portiona of Uie up-
lands hava acquired a raggsdnaa and wudneaa mora like thoae of
Mw Highlands than any other district in the aouth (tf Scotland,
for this, bowenr, then ia an obriona geological naaon. In that
n^fiHi Uu Silnrian roeka ban bean iBTaded by large boosea of
granite sad bar* nndaigane a rariahle amonut of matsmorphism
which haa in aoma plaoea altand tham into bard en'staUina achists.
These niious rookr mimee, prossnting great dlflerencea In their
powaia of laaieliag dacaj, hsra yielded uneqoally to dieintwation :
the hanler portions pnjeot in MCky knolls, crags, and cUffa, while
— - ~— jtitt hare been worn down into mon flowing oatlinaa.
-(g^ok [17(14 feet)
proiimity to tbo
It heigbta (all in
„ _ _. ... It), Ceimsmon of
Caraphaira (S41S), and Ckimamora of Fleet (2S31)--ara formed of
The waterthed of tha eonthem uplands b of much tnteroat in
relatlan to their geological hletoiy. It mni from the mouth of
Loch Ryan in a ainuoua north-eeaterty direction, keeping ueer tho
northern limit of the region till It leachee the besin ofthe Kith,
when It qaita the uplands altogether, deacends into the lowlands
orAyrahire, and, after cinling round the heedwelsn of the Kith,
atiikea south -aaat wards acroaa half tba breadth of the nplande,
then iweepe north and eaatwarda between the basinB of tho Clyde.
Tweed, and Annan, and thea through the moom that tnmund
the aouraee of the Ettrick, Teviot, aud Jed, Into the Cheviot Hills.
Hen again the longeat elope la on the eait side, where the Tweed
bean the whole druniga at that aide into the sea. Althouoh the
roeka throughout the Bouthem nplauda have a penisteut north -east
and aonth-waat strike, sod thoogb this trend ia ippanut in the
bands of mon mggod hills that mark the onterop of hard grits
and greywackee, nererthaleaa geological stractsre nas been much
leia effective in determining the Unaa of ridga and valley than in
theHighlanda On the aoauam aide of the watershed, in Dninfriea-
the valley) do not appear to hare any nlaUou
8. Between the two belt* of high ground
'' --itrsl^Scotlsnd, or the midland rallry.
I broad lowlanda
■Ida br tba range ot hoi^t* that axtai
(Toni th* mon^ of th^
SCOTLAND
ClfJ« ta atoneliifoa, on th* ■onth nla b; tlia uutonl niilani)*
tint alntch rrom Girrin to Diitilur. llm *uiip1nt roni^ntion of
th« geDanl upect itiiU stnicture of thii iiupartJilit lart or tJis kinff-
dom ii oblainoil b? roKtrJiug ft u ■ long trouftli of younger rooki
1«t l]D^^l by pinlLcl ilulocuCIonii batwcon tbc olilor muui or tho
high grounds to tbe puth mil ujrtb. Tbe lou oat of thou yoangec
nciu ue tliB Tuioui HilimanUrjr mil lolcanio ineiobi-n of^tbe Old
B«l BmiUtoiio, ThOK m consrcd by Ilia ancccsiiTo formstions of
tlu Curhantfcroni lyBtiiu. Tba totil tbickuou of boUi tb(M grouna
oTiDckcannot Inlcn tbanBO.OOOrMt, and, « moat of them bo«
cvldeuca of baving txeu dspuuCcd lu ibiillow n-ater. it ia maiiileit
UuE tbey could oulj luTo been accnniuU
pariodof .' - -- "- -
only tliD
of tbs miiiluid Tails; iUeJ.'or wbetliar
n.;piona lo tlie north and aoutlu Katcri
ibnnito ansMsr to tliis qaaation ; but an
fore un goca tboro u groond Si
of tho loHUndii, it
and Catbouifeioud
the infer-
, olouR the lino
HO mvoWed aonie portiuu 4t laaat of tha higb
la. Ia other KOrda, the Old Ead Suditona
:fci; tbong^ chiefly accuinnlattd in tba broail
'nijcvi i;iB['L alfu over aonia part at Icait of tbe billa on
0, wbcro a few outlier* are left to toll of tbeir fonnar ai-
Tbe Hiitnl Lnnhmde of Scotland are thua of gnat geo-
iliijuily. Diiriuji md ainco the dapoaitiou of tha rocks
uiML luiiiotlia tliam the tnct hu bsen the acrne of npesled tar-
teatrial diiliirbancea. Long dislocations, tunning like tho ridgca
ot the Higliliuda and tha aoulhetn uulinda from louth-aBBl to
DOTtb-eaiti have ahaqily defined ita nortbent and tonthcm mai^ina.
By other frmcturea and nnoqual Diovemeats of uphearil or deprea-
^i portianB of the older locka bare bean brought up within tha
boupda of tbe yonugor, and areu of the younger hnre Man aacloasd
by tbe older. On tbe nhola, thoaa tcmatrial duturbancaa have
fnlDwed the laino prevalent nortb-eutetly trend, and heaee a
aeaerkl teadeucy may be obaoired among tha main rldgaa and
Midlothian, may b
dataiminatian of tbe topwraphicil promiuencca and dapn
tha diatrict baa been tha ralatire harilneaaandaolVuoeaort
Almoit tha vhola ot the emiaenoaa in tha LoB-landa conaia
Of tha tbrae chiafnllayi In Uie oeatnil Lovlanda tvo,
tha T>; and tha Forth, ilaicand fnm tha Hi^tnds, and one, that
ot tba Clyde, from the Mmthern nplaada. Though on the nbole
tnMTaiM, thaaa deptealana fnrniah aaother notable example of that
idajnndeuoe of geou^icu atractara alnady mantionad.
Wa naw piooMd to coualdar the leading pbyncal featnin of the
-jnntry with eapacUl nfarauce to their diatiactive sapeota and their
napecUva modes of origin. Though in eminently billy country,
Scotland ia oot dominated by any loading mounlaLn chain Da
«hkh all the other topognpbical features era dependant. Ita
leading batons an not the monotonous ridges of the hi^ gronnds
bat the Tsllejps that have beon opeued through them. If tbeae
valleya were tilled op, the hish ground* woula once more become
what they iitobably nete at fijat, elevated plains or platasui, with
DO strongly marked feeturea. — no eminences liung much above nor
bolton sinkiug much below the geitend smfacs.
FaUeyi.— Even Bpsrt from any knowleii^ of their orifin, tho
valleye of the country are tbu* seen to be its fundamentnl topo-
graphical alamant, and to deserve tha £rat conaideration in any
altempt to deecribe and explain its phyncitl faaturex The lonci-
tadinil vallefg, which run hi the nms ganeral dimctlon aa the
liitges — thst is, north-east and ■outh-weit — have had tbeir trend
dafined by gaolfwical structure, soch ts a line of dislocation (the
Great Olan), or the plkationa ot the rocka (Locha Ericht, Tay, and
Awe, and moot of the tea h>cks of ArflyUahire). Tlia tranaverse
rallaya nu north.west oraonth-aut and ore tor the moiit part in-
dependent ot geological structure. The valley of tha QaiTj and
Toy oroaoss the etriko of oil tho Hifihland rocka, trnversos the great
fault on tho Highland border, and linslly breoka throusli the choin
of the Ochil Hills It Perth. Tho volley of tha Clyda crosies the
strike of tbe Silarisa pLications in tlio aonthem uplands, the
boaudaiY bolt, and tho ridges of tbe Old Bed Sandstone, snd
pannes its north-waaterly counie ainaBa tha abondaat and often
powartul dlslocattoDS ot the Carbonlhirous aystauL
That valleya si« aaeatially du* to arodou and not to dislocation
or Bubsidanee of tha earth's nirftcs is a fact which has now been
demonatrated by to orenrhelming a mass of evidaoce from all parts
of the Klobo tbat it may ba sccapted as one of the axioms ot geology.
Tha pScatioai of tbe earth'a cmat which folded tha rocka ot the
HtL'blanda and sonthera upFanda not improbably upraised abova the
■as a eerict of loogitsdlnsl lidgei having a general uorth-caiterlj'
off theni, flnt in traniveres watanounea down each i£art alope and
then in louf^tndinsl depraKiona wherever nich bad been formeU.
during tbe lerreatrial diaturbanca. Once chosen, the pathwayu uf
the strosms would be giiuluslly deepened and widened loto vallrya.
Hence the valleys are of higher antiquity than the monntaioa that
rise from them. Tha mounlains in fsct have emei;gHl oat ot tLo
original bulk of the land in proportion sa the valleys have hecn
oicsvitod. Tha denudation would continue ao loiig a* tha gtoond
stood above tha level of tba aea ; but there have bean pr^onged
Criods of depresdon, Hhen tbe ground, instead of beine eroded, lay
low tha aea-lovel and was buried aometinieB under thousands Ot
feet of accumubited sedimeat, which compIel«ly ailed up and
obliterated the previoua drainage.Unoe. When tbe land reappeared
a new and independent sariea 3 villeya would st once bena lo be
eroded ; and the subseqnent dcBradation ot these overlying sedi-
mouta Blight roveal portions of the older topography, ss tu the caso
of tbe (irost Glen, Uuuerdalc, and other ancient valleys. But tba
new dnJnoge-linea have mnail; little or no refertnce to the old
ones. Determiuod by tho inequalities of eurface of the overlying
mantle of sedimentary material, they would be wholly independent
of the geological structure of the rocks lying below that mintleb
Slowly linking deeper snd deeper into the land, they might event-
ually reach the older rocka, but they vould keep in these tha lines
of valley that tbey had followed Id the overlying deposits. Id
proceas ot time the whole of tbeae depoaita might ba denuded from
tho area. The valleys would then be aecn running in nttar dis-
regard of the geological atmcture of the rocka araond tliem, and
there might even remain no trace of the younger formitiona on
which they begun and which guided their eicavatiaD. Tbia ia
probably IJio explanation of tba striking independen
atmcture exhibited by the Tweed and llie Nitb.
Among tbe villeya of Scotland certain prevailing
have boon recogoized in the popular nemea besto\red upon tbam.
"Straths" are broad eipanaea of low ground between bonsdlDg
hills usually traversed 1^ one main stream and fta tributaiir% —
Strath Tay, Strath Spey, Strath Conon. Tbe name, hoirevar, has
"ivffieya,
ace portiaiu
either side;
of several valleys, butaro defined by lines of heights on either side
tho bost example ia affoided by Stratbmore— the " great strath "—
between the southern nkaniin of the Highlands and the line of the
Ochil and Sidlaw Hills. This long end wide depmsion, thcmgb it
t valley, strictly Epeaking. includes portions at
Tsy. Isia, North ^fc, and South Eak, all ot
" ' " >t]and sucli a w ide depns-
looks
tho volleys of tlia
which eroai it EL
sion ia known as s
re of Fife batwvon the
stoeper.eided vslley than a .... ._. „
always ban applied with diacrimiuatioa. Uost ot tht Midland
valleys are trae glena. The hills rise nptdlf on either siik, araDe-
times in graisy Blopes, sometimes Id roeky bosHS and uscij^tona
clifl^ whUe the bottom ia occupied by a flat pIstAnm m allavimD
through which a atrenm menuders. Fraqnentl* tha bottom of some
]iart of the volley ia ocini)aad by a lake. In Um aonth of Sootlaad
thekrger streams flow in wide open valleya called " dales," aa in
aydesdsle, Tueeddats, Teviotdale, lidiliedsla, lakdsle, Sithsdsk.
The strips of alluvial knd bordorjog a river st« knovD as *haii)^''
and where in ealuariea they expand into wide plains they an tmnsd
"caraaa." The corses of the Forth aitend ssawarda a* biaa Bor-
rovstounnets snd consist chiefly of raised bachca. Tbe Cusa ot
Oowria ia the etrip of low ground intarrening batweaB tha Ibth ot
'r— and the line ot bijis thst strelchea from Ferlh to DuDdea.
ivor-goigea are charactarinic features in many of the rallaya ot
Jond. In the Old Red Bandstoue they are particularly promi-
■* in lie pethnay of the streonr
^, In tha baiin ot the Uora
n on the Nairn and Findhon
Cromarty Firth aomaof the snail
eh grounds of tha east of Boss^hire
^Gles in tbe cong^merste, remarkable for tbeir depth
On the south side of the Hi^lands still mora
I of true "caSons" io tbe Old Bad Sendstnue sre
tbe Ericht, I.la. ond North Esk enter that forms,
iiou. ine weu-known gorge in wliieb the Ealla of Clyde an
Bituited ia tho best example in the midland valley.'
Ti/pf of Maunlain and S'iit— While the topograiiy of the
country ia essentially tbe result ot prolonged denudation, n may
ressonablyinfertbat the oldestaurlocea likely to be in any mason
lireserved or Indicated sre portions ot some of tha platfbrms at
erosion which have successively been produced by the*wearing away
of the land down lo the M«-levaL Key- -' " '-"-
to be rooj^niiablc both in the Higblonc
uplands. Alluaion hoe already'- ■■
topped moorlanda which
atniams descending fr
obeeeem
lUci of these pIslToni
ida and among the so
Jy been madis to the remarkable flat-
die eastant Grompions reach heights
w tlH pvlncJpal riven, tlia Tar. Bmv, Tor*b, CIvdp, sad rwsad, aiallH
ila artlelaa, ami Kir Ox Dei (Abaniwi, EtriuwIMcktX te, see srtkl*
I napecUva coaatiasr
SCOTLAND
of MM to 1000 feet Jbert tlie tei. Tliaif m«t funilUr axunpla
Mrb*ii* (• the top of LocliDmir, whtn whoa ttie leial of SEOO laat
hu been gained the trareUer fiodi himieir on & broad unduJating
moor, more Ihfiii a mile anil t half lonft aloplng nntl; uu thwaidi
towaidi Olen Uaick and tenuinatii]|i an the north at the adge of >
ninn of granits prBcipIco. Th« Up of Bea Hvidul itaDda npan
nnrij a aquan miJs of moor eiceedlns 1000 Sett in eleration.
Tbmi RiDnntaini lis within gnnil* uwe; bat Dot lea striking
uunplee maj he loaud amons the ichista. The monnlaini at the
head of Glon Eak and Glen Ida, tor Luetaoce, iweep upward Into a
broad moor aome 3000 fret aboTe the na, the mora promintnE parta
of which baTareoelied tpecialnamea, — Drieih. Majar, Tom Boidhe,
Toimonnt, Cairn na Oiuha. It vould hardly be ut exaggeration
to ia; that then !■ more leiel gronnd on the toia of theae moon-
taina than in areia of correapandlng eiie in ttie Talleji baloir.
That these high plateaoa aia planea of erosion is shown hj '*
i-j . .<■ _._i — :__i -J ..._ .._. J edges 0
r ibmi ofl ...
Its eiposKl sni
irigiua] tableland of eroaion
ey-sjit«ms of the Highlands have
them aplands (ncea of a omikr
IT places to ba dot«t«L Ths top
for eiarople, is a level moor com-
priaitie between SOO sud 100 acres shore the contour line of XSOO
fttt sod lying unm tlte upturned edge* of tbe gnstly deuadod
Bilnrian grita and ahalea An InatructlTe example of the ainul^
deatniction of a much younger platfona le to be found in the ter-
ncnl i-lateaus of Skye, EifB, Cuma, Hack, Hull and Uorren,
this plain haa been so deeply tiflnched by tiie forces of denadati<
that it has been rsdnced to men acattorvd fragments. Thoosatidi
of feel of boalt hare been worn away Irom many parta d( its wu-
Jace i deep and ride Talleys have been carred oat of it ; and so
enormonily bsi It been WBiAcd that it has been tlmott eatii«ly
stripped fmni wide tmrta which it formerly C0T»r*l and wliera only
xrattered oatiiers remain to prore that It once exiated.
It ia a cDrioDB bot. to which allueion haa alrsulybem made,
thit Ixaad flnt-toiiped monutaiai st« chiefly to be found in the
eastern partj of the coantiy. Traced wntwards thsse forms nada-
ally giro plsr* to narrow ridges and crests. Sa cootmt, tor in.
atanea, can lie sreater than thst between the wide elevatsd mooro
of the eastern Orampians, and the cmted ridgea of western Inter-
n«.-diin and Argyil'Mra-Loch Honm, OleD NcTts, Oleacoe—
m that between the broad npkn.li of Pe
y. 'Noaati.-
oiit of whiL'h th< ,
been ciTTcd. Among the aoi
tableland of erosion are in ma
of Bnwl Uw lu Peebleailiire,
IB heiRlits of OillowsT. No satiitictory reason for these con-
traat. can be foui.d in gtologlcgl stractnte alone^ Perhaps the key
to (hLU Id la be aoujAit malnlv in dilTerences of rainfall. Tho
wa>tem monulaius, eiposeil (0 the fierce dub of the Atlantic rtiat,
siutsin the linrint autl moat constant- precipitation. Their aides
an aeatii^ lith torrents which tear down the solid rock and sweep
" ■'--■— ~io the glen' and sea locha. The eutem heighta, ~
the other hand,
■ lea
Refpirding the existing flat-topped bsijhta among the eastern
■cter of the aorface out of whith tbe ptsseJt Highlands have heon
oldest ty]>ca of form lie oil tl
From the larger fmgnieti
nUins we nasa. as
ia oriKiu of HighJ
fliarp mgs"I creats. Tbo tiJcej, too, are more and m<
until they become pDups of Jotnohejl hills or moantaint. In the
progm of this ero>ion full scope has been aflbrded for the modifica-
tion of fbnn produced by Tsrlatloua in geological structure. Each
Init ita actual oatlines hare boon detrnnined by the natore of the
tocki anil tlie manner In whicji they have yielded to decay. Erery
distinct varinly of njck haa impi-eitsod it* own chanctora upon the
littdscipoa 111 Bliich it plays a part Hence, amid the monotODOOS
iiu^ceiaion of ridge bej-oud ridf^ and vsUey after Talley, consider-
able dimnity of detail has resulted from tbe rarj'ing composition
■ml grouping of (be rocfca
The prorvB by wliiih the tndoDt tabtelanda o( the eonntry haTe
boon trvnrbeJ into the preeeni aystfrn of Talleya and confluent
Tldns Ih uioat inrtmctively displayed among tbe higher mountains,
where ernHiou jvoceoda at an aeeeletatetl pace. Tlie long " screes **
or lalun-slnpei at the foot of erery crag and cli7bear wltneat to the
conthiual waala of the monntain sides. The headwaters of a riror
JHt into the slox«« of the pannt hilL Each Talley Is sonSKiuently
Whether
lengthened at ths eipsiue of the mmni^ from wbieh It draccnda.
Where a number of imall torrents coniergs in a stsep mouutaln
receii, they cut out a creacent-ahaped hollow oi hslf-cealdrou,
wliichin thsBcottiih High Undi ia known as a "oornr," '"i---'—
tha conTetgent action of the atrcame has been ths solo if
earned in the eronon of these striking concaritie^ at whe
and gladar-ioa may ban had a share m tbe talk, is a qa<
caonot at pnssnt bs satlihctorily solnd. Ko feature m
scenery ia more cbancterlitio than the ootriaB, and in uoi
Influence of geological atmcture be mare inttmctiToly seen. Uiu-
ally the upper part of a cotry b formed by a cresceat of naked rock,
from which long traila of dl)^. deaoend Co the bottom of the hollow.
Erery diatinet ririety of rock has its own type of corry, the peca-
liaritias hsmg marked both in the details oTtba npper clifb and
ctage and in tbe amount form, and colour of the scrsea The
Scottish conies baTs been occupied by f^cion. Hence their
bottoms an penerally well ice-worn or atrewn orer with moraine
atnSL Kot infivqueatly also a small tarn fills ny the bottom,
Cded bsck by a monlna. It ia in tbiBO localities that ne can
: obearr* the last nlics left by the retnet of the glaclen that
ouca OFsiapnad ths coiutry. Among these high grounda atao ths
gnduil Banewing of rtdgea into sharp, uarrow, knife-edged cmts
and tha lowaing of theaa Into cole or »>an can be admitaihly
studied. Than two ^db begin opposite to each other on tbe
aadw lUgt, tbeiT eorrlea an gr^tudly cuCback nntil only a nharp
««*t HpantM them. Thia enat, attacked on each front aud along
the sDBunll; 1* lowsnd with companttin rapidity, until in the end
menly a low ool or paa may separats the heads of the two glens.
Ths TsrloDs stagss in this kind of demolition are best Men where
the nndsrlylng reck ia of granite or some eimiiar matsrjal which
posaeassB considBrahle tougbnasa, wbUe at the same time it ie
apt to ba split and iplintsred l^ meana of it< numerous tnns-
Tsno joint*. The gnnita nonntalna of Amn fumiah txcellont
ilIustiation&
Vhan a tvck yieldi with eonridanble uniformity In all direction*
to ths attack* of the weather it la apt to asaume conical fbmii in
the progna of denudation. Soinetiioes thle anifonnity is attained
by a general didnt«iatlon of tbe rock into Bne debri*, which toll*
down ths slopes in long scroes. In other caaea it is sscored by ths
intsiaection of Joint*, wbenby a >i>ck, in itself hard and durable,
is divided into small angular blocka, wiiieh are aeparmted by the
action of tha elemental and slide down the declivities. In msny
inetancos tbe b«inDiug of the formation of ■ cone may b* detected
on ridgea which have been deeply trenched by valleys. The imaller
isolatA portions, attacked on all sides, hate broken up under the
laflueaoe of tho weather. Layer after layer ha* been itripped from
their aidsa, aud the flat or roundel toji haa been narrowed until it haa
now become the ipex of a cone. Tbe monntain Bchiehallien (9B47
feet) 1* a noble Instance of a cone not yet freed from ita parent ridga.
Occasionally a ridgs has been csnsd into a series of cones united at
their basea, as In the chain of the Pentland Hill*. A flirlber ilage
in denudation brings n* to iaolated groups of conea completely
sspanted from the rest of the rocke among trhich they once lay
buried. Such group* may be carved out u a conlinnou* band of
rock which eitanda into the regions beyond. The Papa of Jura,
for liutanco, rise out of > long Delt o
through the iilaud* of lata, Jur ,
however, the groups point to the eiieteore of some boss of rock of
greater dnrabuity thia those in the immediate neighbourhood, aa
r. .1., ^^v.!,: J H^ Hi]], of 5Hj, „j t),, jjiourof gniuilo
Ihorlsud. The moat imptMaivo form of soli-
...., .._. . " " iona thick overlying
formation has been reduced to a single ontlier. such la Uorven in
Caithness and the two Ben Griami hi Sntlierlend, aud atill mon-
alrikingly the pyramids of red saudatone on the wratem margiD of
guthsrUnd and Rosa-ahirs. Tbe horiiontal atratitlcation ol^ioms
of these maaaea gives them a cnrioualy arcbitsctntal aspect, which
i* fhnber increased by the effect of the unmeroui vertical Joints
by which the rock 1* cleft into buttreuea and remsses along the
trout* of the preciplcea and into pinnacles and linials along the
summits. Solitary or groapsd pyramids of red aandatone, risiug
to heights of between 8000 and 4000 feet above the sss, en mats
far snd wide over t
StratiHed rocka when they have not been much disturbed from
thsir original ajiproiimate horifontallty weather into what are
csllod " oscarpmanta, "— linoa of oliff or stsep bank marking the
edge or onCcrop of harder bands wbloh lie upon softer or mors
easily eroded layer*. Such clilla may run for many mitei across a
country, rlaing one above another into lofty terraced hllla. Jn
Scotland the rocks have for the moat part been so dialocated and
disturbed aa to prevent the formation of coniinuona escu-pmanta,
and this Interesting form of rock-acauory i* oonacqnontly almost
entirely absent, except locally aud for the most part ou a compara-
tively small scale. The meet axtonaiva ScoCtuh eocarpmanta an
foond among ths Icneous rocks. 'Where lava has been piled up in
MccanfT* nearly horinntal sltetti, with <>co»ioDal laytn of taX
t of quartnti
and Bcarba.
H of Beu Loyal, Suthorlsud. '
so 0 T L A N D
[pHTSia^£
or Dtliar •nftgr nek betveao tiam, it OStn condition! pecmliiiriT
bToonble for tlu farauUoD of narnineDti. In tho vids bsaalt
Dlituiu of ths lonar Hobrides tliw coniUtion* litTe bwn muii-
htUid on 1 KTHt mnie. The Carlwniffmni lavsa of tbo OimpKo
ud Fblrj fliltoiuid of the louth of Dmofriowliiis snd Boibnrah-
■hin likairiH rias in linai of bold pKarpmcnt
ZoiM— Thon ImporUnt foatu™ b tto landacipea of Scotiuid
pnwnt Um gBDOnd cshuuten of the nCar-b(u<in) » proTiualT
K>tlan>d onr th« noTthem parta of EuTopo ind Korlh Amarica.
Thaj mif bo olunfiod iu Ibnr groitpfi, oich of nbtcli hu it* own
peenliar •oenorr uid ■ dutinct mods of origiD— (1) glaa l>k«a, [a)
rook-tutu, (II iDDnine-tams, (4) Inks oF the pliiiu.
(1) Olen Uka *it thoae which occupy portion* of gleiu. Thej
an itcpmaiona in tbo rUlejii-iiat duo to mon local heapinsop of
daCritu, hnt bus lock-boiina, oFlaa of grott daplli. Uuch discna-
doD haa ariasD aa to thair moda of orlgia. They havo h.-nD rs-
garded aa canaed by qncial mtindgtice oftheir aniia, opon fiuam
of tho emnnd, gmaral depnaaiou of the cantnl part of each
mountaia diatiict from vluch they radiata, and by the emiTe
actioD of glacier Ice. Tliat they are not open Ainirea and rnnnot
be BIplained hy any general adbaidence of a nciglibouring ngion is
now genanlly admitted. That glacion baTB occupied the glana
vbare tbeae aVet eilit tod hare n-om down tlio rocka along the
ridea and bottom cannot be doiibted, but nhether the ico vDnld b«
capable of eroding faollotra to deep aa many of thoM lalma ia a
qucation vhich baa been ■usn'ored vith enoAl conBdence afBnna-
tively uid negatiTsly. Ou the other hand, to suppoaa tliaC each
of theea hoUowi hu been cmaetl b; a apecial local nubgidenca would
inTolre a coraplei seriea of SBbtemnean disturluncea, for which
sonig batter endence than the mere eiiBtence of tha baaina is n-
quired. Under any circumitancei it ia i^uita certain that the lakea
mnit be of recent geological data. Any aucli Uuine belon^g to
the time of the pUc^tion of tlio ciyHtalline schists would hare been
filled up and eDaced lotig ago. So rapid ia the infilling by tlie
torranta which ineep dowu dotiitua from tho mrronnding heiehtB
that tha preaent lakea arc being riiiibly diminiahed, and Uiay
oinaot, therotore, be of high geological antii[uity. It is worthy
of mturk that the alen lakes are almoBt.nliolly confined to the
western half of tha Highlands, when they Tonn tha laigaat theeti
of ^eeh water. Hardly any Ukeu are to be leea Mtt of i line
drawn from InvenuM to Perth. Weat of that line, hon-OTer, they
aboand in both the lengitudiual and the tmnsrcna valleys. The
most nmarkablo line of them i* that nliicb Gila up to much of the
Ureat Olea. Loch Som, tha largest, is upnsnis of 20 miles long,
about It uilea broad, and not IcM than 774 feet deep in tlie
deepest part. This great de|)rea9ion aicecds the general depth
reached by the floor oT the North Sea between Qnat Britain and
the oppoaita ahorea of the Continant Other important longitndinal
lakes are Locba Tay, Awe, ErichC, snd Shiel. Tho most pictur-
esque glan lakes, however, lie in tranerene Tulleys, which being
cnt acroas the etriko of tho rocks present greater Teriety, and
nsoally tlM> more sbrnptiiesa of ontline. Lochs Lomond, Latrine,
and Lobnalg in tha aontheru Highlands, and Lochs Uaiee and
Uon in the north, are com •icuoua oxanijilas.
{i) Bock-tame are small lakes lying in rock-bntini on the aidei
of monntaina or the anmuiits of ndges, and on rocky plateaus or
plains. Unlike tbo glen likes, they have no uecessaty dependence
npon lines of rilley. On tho oontraty, they are scattered ae it
bi the most abundant of all the lakes of the country. Dispenod
over all parti of the ireatem Higlilands, they an meat nnmeroos
in the north-west, eipecially in the Ontar Hebrides aui! in tha weat
of Roa-ihin and SntberUnd. Tlie surface of the Arebjran gneiss
is ■) thickly sprlnkleil with tliem that many traobi connst almost
** much of water aa of land. They slmoet invariably lie on atrongly
ioe-woraplatroTmsofreck. Their sidssand the rocky islebi which
diTaniry their lUiface hare been nowarfnlly glncuited. They cannot
ba dne (0 either trutnr* or snbsideaee,bnt an obrionaly hollows pro-
, dne«db*era«loii.-Tlwyh>reaocordinglywithniuch)iro1ubilitybncn
aadgned to the aouging action of the sheeta of land-ioo l>y vliieh
thegtDsral j;lMutlont?tbecotiDti7waBelfected. In tho aoutham
oplands, owing orobibly to the grenter softness and uniformity of
tnture among tha neks, rack-taiKB an com|>aratively infrnquent,
anxpt in Oalloway, wliere the protnuioD ofgrani ta and its a*»ciatcil
metamoridiism have giTsn itoetocoBdiUaaaorrock-stmcturi! mots
like those of tha H&hlanda. Over the rocky bill-ranges of tho
oemral Lovkuds rock-tarns ooosdonally make their apnemnoe. .
(1) Hot^e-tami — small sbset* of water ponded back by some
of too last morainaa shed by ^ retreating glaciora—an conflneil
IB the more mountainoos tnoti. Among the aantliom nplanda
many beaatihl anunples iw^ ba aaen, probably the bent kuowu
and oartaiuly <his of the m«t plotnnaqn* baing tlie wild lonely
Loch Skene lying in ■ lacesa of Whitaeoomb at the bead of tlie
Uoflat Water. Other* are iprinkled over the higher parbi of the
Tslleys in Gallowiy. None oocnr in the centrsi lowlands. Iu tho
Hl^iland* th^ may he counted by hnndredi, nestling iu the
botboM of thecotrict. In tbe north-western Mvntiea, wtion tbt
Bciers continued longest to desnnil to tha asa-laTel, lakes letuned
f moraine- barriers may be found very little shore the sea.
(1) The lakes of tho plains lis in bolloBs o[ tho glacial dotritna
which is strewn so thickly over the lower grounds. Aa these
I caniel by original irregular depositian rather than
-J , .hey hare no intimate n>lntiDn to tlie prUHUt drainsgo-
linea of tha conntiy. The lakes vary in hiw from men pools DP to
'iota of water Hveral sauate mllru in srra. As a rule Ibav
low in proportion to their eiteiit of enrface, Tliough still
ilficienlly nunioroua in the Lowlands, they were once greatly
lore so, for, partly from nstnral causes and lArtly by artificial
leana, they have been made to Jiiappcar. Tne largest sheets of
«sboardji of Scotland
singnlsr contrast The fonner is Indented by a
IS rf tha aes, bi "^ — ^ *— ■-
broarf arms r? the aes, but is otherwise tolombly unbroken. The
land slopes gently donn to tbe margin of tlio sea or to the edge of
clifb that have been cnt bw:k by the waves. Tlie shoret an for
tlie most port bw, with few islanJi in front of tlicm, and cultivatloil
. .. .1.,^;,. l:.. m . ;,. -r .1.. — ^jj^^ ^0
intersected with long nt;
a down rapidly into the sea an
if i^dands. This coutrsst has BO
Titrary, is from end to a
or Qords. The land she
d by chains end groups
been erroneonely nfened to grostei
estem than on the eastern coaaL Tbo true einUnation,
'er, must be sonj^t in the geological structure of^the land,
■est side of Scotland, aa we have seen, bas been more deeply
eroded than the eastern. The gleni m more iiumerDus than and
leeper and nsrrower. Hsny of them an prolonged
; in other words, the norrow deep fiords which wind
Isnd are seaward continuations of tbe glens which
emerge from tlicir nppar ends. The presencs of the sn in tbeae
Qords is an accident. If they oould be nised out of tbe sea they
would become gleuiL with lakes filling up tbeir deeiier portions.
That this has reallf been their history can handy adnut of
They are submerged Und-valleys, and as they mn down
western coast tliey ebow that side of Ihe country to have
anbnded to a considsiable depth beneath iln farmer level- Tha
Scottish sea lochs must be viewed in connexion with those of
rn Ireland and of Norway, The whole of this north-western
line of Europe bears witneei to recent lubmemencv. Tho bed
I North See, which at no distant date in geological histoiywas
d surface across which plants and animals migrated freely into
Oroat Britain, sank beneath the Bca-leve!, while the Atlantic ad-
vanced upon the westom margin of tlia continent and Glled the SCK-
wanl ends of what had previously Neen valleys open lo the sun. Hot
improbably the amount of subddencs was gnatei towards the west.
Kearly the whole coDst-llne of Scotland is Tocky. On the uut
side of &e country. Indeed, the shores of the estiuries are goDW'
ally low, but the land between the months of theaa inlets is more
or less precipitona On the west side the coast is for the most part
either a steeii rocky iloclivity or a sea-wnll, though strips of lower
ground are loimd la the b«ya. Tho Bea-clifl*t everywhere vary in
tbmr chamcten according lo the natun of tha rock out of wbidi
thov have been oarved. At Cape Wratb precipices nearly 300 iiMt
high hare been cut oat of the Archxan gneiss. The Tsrying tai-
turo of this rock, its imgular foliation and jointing, and its rami-
fying veins of iiegmatile conspire to give it very untqual powara of
reslstenco in dUTerent parts of its mass. Consequently il projects
in irreguhr bastions and bnttrcsses and retires into deep receasea
and tnnnebi, shoiting evctrwhere a mgEcdness of aspect which ia
euiiiiently characteristic. In striking contrast to these imcipicex
ore those of the Camhriin red sandstone a few miles to the cut.
Vast vertical wnlhi of rock shoot up from the waves to a height of
1)00 feet, cnt by their perpendicular jointe into qtiadrangnlar ploTM
and projections, aomo of which even stond out alone as catbodral-
like islelx in front of tbe main clilT. The souihn colouring i>
relieved by Uiioa of vegetation along the oilgea of the nearly flat
leds which project, like vast coniiceii and serve as neiting-piacn
for crowds of sea-fowl. On tlie west side of tbe country the most
uotahla clifls south from those of C^pe Wrath and the Cambrian
sindstones of Sntheiland are to be fonnd among tho basaltic islands,
jiarticnUrly In Stye, when a msgniBcent miRo of precipices rinng
to 1000 feet bounds the wosteni coast-lino. The liighast clifl's iu
the ronntiy an found among tbe Shetland and Orkney Islanda.
The ses-wall of Fonla, one of the ShetUnd group, and the weatam
front of Hot in Orkney riee like walls to heights of 1100 a ISDO
tectsboTs tho waves that tunnel their base. Oaithneas B one wide
moor, torminatiug almost ererywhars in a range of Ma-preciTiJCea
of Old Bod Sinditone. Along the eastern ooast-UiW most of the
clilb sn formed of rocks belonging to the tama Gimution. Ban-
ning at Stonelitven, an almost unbniken Una of pracipioe Tiiring
up to 20O feet in haight mns sonthwuds to t&a month of the
... . .L. i^._ ^^ sontham uplands plnnge abraptly into
iHead in a noble range of precipioes SOO to
an aide tha sault higfa gnianda
catnary of tbe Tay.
tho sea near 8t Abl
500 IMC in height, and <a
SCOTLAND
tcnninatp in > long hnkn Un* oT >»-mIl, nhich bsgiiu it th*
TDouth of Loch Ryan, iiteads to the MaU of GkUoiny, ind n-
mppnn inin in tho nooUiem heuIUDda of Wigtown und Kitkaad-
bn)cbL One of ths mint pictumqus futurea of tba Scottish Ka-
clifTii ii the nnmnroiiB "staiiu" ar columni of rock which dunncc
tbg demolition uul n>ccuioa of the prccipins haie b«n ieolitia
nort colooal nis in J height oa tho clini of Old Bed Sandetona.
Thu* th« Old llso of Hoy in Orkney ie e hnge ralmnn of yellow
■uditone bstwMD 100 uid 500 (net high, forming « cotupionoo*
Isndnurk in tlia north. The cout ol Caithnes ■boonde in oat-
■tuding pillnn and obeliAkfe of iUgetonfl.
Tha lav ehom on the met cout afs not in&wiaeDtly occnpied
I7 land-dantB. Bnch ucnmnUClon* friDge ths wart«m margin of
NoHb nT.d Sooth Ulet, and ue fonnd in nun; baya from Ulb north
of Sutharlan J to the totkt of A jnliir^ They are more abmdjuit
on the uat ooast, »p«ciall; on the ihorei of Alierdwneliin^ bttnHm
the mouths of the t*a Eski, on both aifa at the month of the
Firth of Tsy, uid at •irioui p[aa> in the Firth of Forth. Buaed
iq*-beash(a tikewiie plir a part in the coait icenery of the conubr.
Theae alluviiJ terracia form a atrip of low fertile Itmd beCreen the
edge of the lea and the riling gronnd of the interior, and among
the vrat«ra Ijorde aometiiiia iQpplr the only anbls aoil ta their
neigtihourhoodj their flat green iurtacea pmenting a atrong oon.
trait to tha brona and bunn moor* th>t riw from them. Uoat
of. the aeaport tovna of the eonntry atand apon platfomu of raiood
bauh. ConddBnbla da|>o>iti of mad, ailt, and aand are aanunn-
latiog in moat of the (Moaiiei. In the Tij, Forth, Knd Clyde,
■whare importnnt barboim am «ito»ted, considerable einenae ia In-
Tolred in dredging to remore the aediment continaally bronaht
down from tha land and carried bmkwanlt and forward by the tiiliia.
Wide lUnrial flat! are then eipoaed at low water.
Whil* no JaUoda •xeopt mare aolitu; rooks 'Skt Uaj Island,
tha BaH Book, aod ItKhktith divani^ the eastern seaboard, the
WMtam ndo of Beottand preMnta a rut nninbor, nrying iu ain
or akeirr. Looked at la the broadeat way, thesa aumeroni iiUnds
majbe regarded as belonging to two gronna or aeriea, — the Onter
and the Inaer Hebridel. The Outer Hetride*, extending fram
Barra Head to tha Butt of Lewis, consist of a coutinnous chain of
ialsnda oompoaed (with the exception of a emdl tract in the east
of Lewis) antinlj of Arcbaiin rocks. Host of the gronnd is low,
ncky, and plentlfnlly dotted orer with likea ; but it rise* into
momitaiaaai habihta in Harris, earns of the nunmits attaining
alentioDa of' MW bet The general trend of thia long belt of
island! la north-naTth.eut The Iimer Hebrides form a much leaa
dsGnito oronp. They may be narded. as beginning with the
Bhiant Idaa in tlw Hinch mA attMchine to the Muthem ]i«Kllinda
of Ua,a« maat inportant nwmhen heugjlkya, Utill, lak, Jnii,
Bam, Ha OoIL "ant, and Coionaay. The imgalarity ot this
frinM ofidBBds iuM no donbt been in chief measnre bronght about
by Tti nmiAabla diTstdty of geological atmetare. Archnn
gndaa^ OamKrian Knditone, Sflurian qoartrite, limestone, and
comMJtton of the iaJudi.
Within the limit! ot tUi article it ia only inanble to allnde to
some U the mon important inflnancea of the topography on tha
history of the inhaUtanta. How powstfally tha conflguratton of
tha aHtnt^ aflecli the dimata is shown in the remarkable diOerenco
between the rainlUI of the monntainoni west and of ths lowland
eaat This diSerenoe has necessarily aS^cted the chamder and
amploymsnti tt the people, leading to the derelopment of igricnl-
ton on the one side and therals^ig-otsheepaDd cattle on the other.
The fartils low gnnnd! on the eut hare afliired facilities for the
inTaaiona of Bomans, Horsemoi, and *^"el''''i while the moan-
tainoBS hstnseaes of the Interior and the wast hare eerred aa
BK:nn retreata for the older Caltio popolstjon. While, therefore,
Teutonic people hare apiead orar tho one area, the earlier race bu
to this day maintained ita ground in the other. Not only the
eitemsl ooafignration bat the iotemal geological stractore of the
conntryhai profoondly infinenced the progress of the inhabitants.
Is ths Highland! no mineral wealth haa been dieoorered to stimnUte
the iiidn£7 of the naKrea or to attract the laLenr and capital of
strusen. Thaaa traeta lematn itlll as tt M. sparsely inhibited
and^nn
as tt old sparsely inhil
to breeding of stook and tha nusmt of gi
1, on the other hand, ridi itorea of coat, in
drawn to them an aier-incraaiing ahsn ot the popohtion. Tillagas
ud towns hare thars sprnsg recently intoeiiatanea and have raplfij
liiiiiiisawl in ain. Uanufkotniss ba*s bean dereloped and oommeme
haa adTanosd with acoeleTated paoe. Other infloeooes hare of coarse
oantribated laisely to the daralopment of the eoantry, but among
them lU the chw place mnat andoabtedly be assigned to that fortu-
nate gaologicilitmetnre which, imid the reTalaUoni of the past, haa
preaerred In the oantra of Scotland thoee fields of coal and ironatone
which an ths ftmndatjon! of the national indnstrjr. U- QB-)
•1 of the ireit and eosi
toristia of elimita and
Thoa, while the annual
nearly Bi[nal, the aummer iniL uinter Icmporatunis sra very Ui
At Portree (on eistcoutof Ekye) the mean teiupenturesorj
and July anas* and M''8, whereas it TertU they otd 37''G ani
Tba prominent feature ot ths Isothemiila of the winter ma
their nortli and JHUtli direction. t]iu» pgintiii^c not to llie <
to the wirm wil^ra of the Atlantic u the mor- ponerful in
in dotonnining the Scottinh climote <^ this seuon thrau
agency of the preiailing westerly ninili. The Atlantic is in
Tut repository of hut, iu which tho higlier tempentnre of ■
■nd tint ot more southern lititudes »m traurarcd np sgeii
rigours of Tiiutar -, ind \a eireptioimlly cold eenaoni the
protects all placeii in ibimorc immediate neigh boi
n tnlaii
eituatioi
Whi
sfflinst:
! this inl
>ttha
<n a* the locality is
tha temporatup
of the I
inter ; ind It Is more decided ia proportioi. . . ._ . ., _
ided by the winu walem of the Atlantic. At Edinburgh
rature is 2rfl and it Lamick SS*'fi higher than n-ould
be the case ; in other words, hut for the amcliortiling
influence of the Atlantic tba tampcraturti of Edinburgh in miiT
winter would only be I£*-G and of Lerwick 7*'5, or such winters aa
chancteriEa tba climstes otGreanluid and Icelaad. The inBucnce
of the North 3ea is nmilarly apiarent, bnt in sleeedcgree. Along
the whole of the eastern cout, from the Pentlsnd Firth tontliwardi,
tempenture ia higher than what ia found a little inland to the nest.
The lonest temperature vet observed in the Britiah Iileawas -16°0,
which occurred near KeUo in December 187B, In enininer, everj--
whers, lititudo for lititude, temperature is lower in the west than
in the esst and inland aitualionn In winter tha inland climate*
an the coldest, hut in summer the warmest The conne of the
iaothermal liuea at thla aeaaon is reiy instructive. Thns tba line
of 69* pasaes from the Solwiy directly northwards to the north ot
Perthshire and thence cunea round eaatwarda to near StomhiTcn.
From TerioCdile to the Grampiins lempersture filla only one
degree ; bat for the same distance farther northnaHs it fall> Uirce
degrees. Tba isathemul of £9° miu-ki olT the districte n-heie the
Huh- «real> .™ meet Buoceecfully laieed. Thie distribution of the
bat tlie influence of the Atlantic in modeisting
b rery groat and is felt 1 long wiy into tha
of the countiT. On the other hand, the hi^h lands of
western districte by robbing the westerly winds of thetr moisture,
and thns clearing the skies of esalem dmtricts, eierciee an equally
striking effect in the opposite dtrectian,_in raising the temperature.
There is nesriy twice is ranch wind from the sonth.weat aa from
tha north-eiet, bat tho proportions Tary greatly in diSbtent months.
The soutli-neat previils meet from July to October, and again from
December to February ; sccordingly in these months the rainrall la
heaiieet Tlieee are the summer and ninter portions rf the JMr,
and an important result of the preialence ot theae winds, with
their accompanying rain^ which are coincident with the annual
•Ttremei of^temperatare, is to imprint a more etriitly insular
character on the Scottish climate, by moderaling the beat ot
snmmar ind the cold ot winter. Tha north-esst w^--"- '—
their greatest froqnency from Itarch to Jons snd ii
which are accordingly the driest portioDe of the year.
The mountainous ragione of Scotland are moetly maeeed in tlia
ind lie generally north and south, or ipproiimalely perpen-
r to the nin-bnngina winda from the Atkntic, Hence Ilia
weaterty winds are turned out of their boriiontsl coatee, and,
being thmat np kito tho higher regiona ot tha atmosphere, their
temperature is lowered, when the vapaur is condeneed Into eland
and depcaits iu rain tha inter they can no longer hold in aus-
penaion. Thus the climates of tha nest sra eeeentiolly wet On
the other hand, the climatM of the east are dry, bociuae tho ourface
is lower and mora level ; and the breezes borne thither from the
weet, being robbed of most of their injieiabandin
ov'^™
dimi
n hills, sre therefore d
aitant of mounlainoae ground, and that the 1
■nd precipitate a greatly
tt the dnest climates in
.-n climates
shed between tt
The breakdow .
Forth exposes eouthotn Pertlish
and Sinroaa, snd nearly the whole of Fifo to the clouds and rains t,t
tha wast, and Ibeir ctimatea are conaaquently wetter than thoae ot
any o^er of the eastern alopes of the conntrv. Tha driest climatei
of the east, on tbe other hand, are in Tweeddale about Eelso and
Jedboi^, ths low gronndi of East Lothian, and those on the Uoray
lirth from El^ numd to Dornoch. In these districts the annual
rainlaU for the twanty.foar years ending 1888 waa about S6 incho^
whereas orer exteneiTe breadths in the weet it exceeds 100 inches,
Olencm baing nearlf 130 Inchsa and on the top of Ben Nevis
lEOin
(A-B.)
SCOTLAND
PAET m.— sTATisnca
I^bUm) FVal and Soeiaieiaiiilia.— At OataiottUiSOi
eantaiy it ia sappOMd that the papnlttion af SeotUdd diil oot
■xeead (00,000,— Edinburgh btruig ibout 20,000 inbabitiiiti,
follomd by Perth vitb aboat 9000, and AberdMn, DnndH, and
St Andrswa each with about 1000. By the tfms of the Union In
1707 It tt rappoaed to lure reached 1,000,000, «hiU according
to th) retnma fDraished ij tho clergy to Dr Webster in 17GE il
ma 1,265,330. At the' time of the fint CoTaninient cennu in
1801 it had reached 1,908,420. The increase through all the
■Dcieeding deeadei has bs^ continuous, though fluetn»ting in
■mouDt, inil in 18B1 it had reached 3,735,573 (males l,79S,47fi,
remales 1,930,098).— an iacnais «ilhin the eight; years of 182
During the name period the population of England and
' ;o 18«, d
wdilTei
enturj. The
lUowiog table (1] gira
the whole ol Scotland, the population in 1871 and 18S1, the m
her of persons to the aquare mile of land-surface in the latter y <
and the increase or decreais per cent between 1871 and 1881 :-
KiriccQdbcight!
Unllthgoit'!!!
OitafF and
BhtUuid .,,
noibiuvb . , . . .
fcttirk
Stlrilnj
ToUI
^fC
Table II. (see bslair) alforda a compsriton of the nambera of the
population in IBSl, 1871, and 1381 u gronped in town*, TiHisea,
and rural diatricta. The returns do not afford a mean* of oemparuon
between earlier yean than thoae giTen. A atrikiag &ct deaerring
or mention is that in every county in Scotland the popntation
Increued between ISOI toA 1811, the inctraM baldg mote than
10 per cant, fn each cminty, with the McepUon of IrgjU, Perth,
and Sutherland. The eensna retuma for theee yean do not
■npply materials ibr an accurate eatimata a* to the inet«Me of
the iinrBly rani or igricnltunl population, but it must hare bren
considerable. Between 1811 and 1881 the following j»nBtio»
declined in popnlstioa: — Argylli Inreraesi, Kinross, I^rth, Bo^
and Cromarty, Sutherland, and Wigtown, — all chiefly agrirnltoral,
and fire of them in the Highland^ when much of the land
was held by crofters. Only one county, Einrota, hu ft enuJler
population m 1881 than in 1801. Between 1851 and 1881 the
island popnlstioD, chiefly crofters, decreased by 18W, and the niral
nopnlstioQ between 18S1 and 1881 by 126,588. In the fbUowinK
Highland coonldes the diminution in rnral popnUtion between ISSl
and 1881 was a* followa :— Argyll from 80,109 to 48,081 Caithnan
f^ani28,270 to 24, 800, Inremesi from 71,189 to 67,36 5, Pnth from
69.480 to 57,018, Bow and Croniartj from 50,147 to 49,88^ ud
Satherhind from SI, 660 to 18,896. In the total popnUtloD of
Scotland the rate of increase woe considerably leaa betwsen 1841 and
1881 than during the first forty yc»re of the caatuiy, — la-B to «2-»
per cent. The ratea per cent, of increase In the eeveral decades
&™ 1801 have been »i foUows :— 12*27, 16-83, 18-04, 10-8^ 10-25.
8,9-72, »nd 11-13. The high rate of increase between 1871 and 1881
waa dne to an eiceptioaelbriiknesB of trade, and unless it haa been
maintained [which ia not probable) the eatimate of the reglitnj*
(.-eneral, which makes the population in 1885 number 8,907,7S<,
must bo n^arded as much too nngnina Table III. (see below)
girea the population of the eight largeat towna of Scotluid at
decennial periods since 1301. It Is a cnrioua fact that each (rf
theee town* has maintained it* place in the "eight," iiltJkonf^
seTeral towna nov tread closely on the heels of Path, whose rats
of prosraa with that of Faltley hu liggad greatly behiiid that at
While in England and Vales the nnmber of persona to the aqnar*
mile in 1881 waa 462 and in Ireland 160, in Scotland the number
waa only 125. The small deniitv of Scotland is dae chiefly to the
large proportian of monntainoae land. In the Dorth-weatsm conn-
tiee the deoeity waa ouly 23 to the aqnare mile. In the northern 31,
in the west midland 68, In the southern 68, while in the north-
eastern it wa* 116, in the east midland 149, in the ■outh-eutara
299, and In the aonth.westem— Renfrew, Ayr, and Luiark— 411.
Table IT. (see p. 5291 shows by the excees of birtha otst deaths th*
incnose th^t should have taken place between IBSl and 1B71, and
between 1371 and ISai (hut for the balance of emigntion om
immigntion). compered with the actual increaw^ the gionping bung
into town* with over 25,000 inhabiUnta, towns between 10,000 and
26,000, towna under 10,000 and abors 2000, and rand district*. It
ia impossible to make * comparison between 1 861 and 1881 inasmuch
as the proportion of targe and email towna and rural districts hu
Taried. It must also be enilained that in comnring 13S1 and
1871 the cenmi of 1881 is taken as the authority for thesroaping
and in eomparing 1871 and 1881 the census of 1371. This taUe
ahowi in both decades an actual Increase in the large and in
the principal towna grealar than that resnlting from siceM d
birtlu OTer deaths. It ia the reenlt not only of migralioa ftom
the small towns and mral districts bat of the immigntion o(
English, Irish, and foreigners, and the retora of naliies ol Scotland
t^m abroad. By a comparieon with Table II. it will he obsared
that the increase in the raral distilcU between the decade* in Tabl*
IV. occurs only in the TiUagee, and * closer eiomination of Tthia
IT. further shows that any seeming increase is reallf delsaiTB, and
arisee &om th* f*et that then ia no proTlaion for tlu inenu* in
areops.
Total PoTnlaUoD.
-TSSK-*
-Tsssiisr-
„,.KSE». 1
■HI.
im. 1 leai.
ActnsL
Pemnlegt.
FaHuttc..
lesL
tm.
inn.
i.im;.m
i,Mi.nH
,.ffiS
UT.sat
«M,B>T
lis
- TM
*ss
- s-se
R3
»«
tils
»,oe2,a>i
),««l,»l*
»,T3a,6ri 1 +m,Tu
^.e-d
+»7t,SW
+ti-is
10(P«I
10«MO
Mm
.».
,...
.«u
WL
i»i.
>u.
lUI. IML
tm.
!».
"^r
sr""'
il,4M
B.OM
)1,I)M
KS
1B,I*4
1I«.WI
I1M.MS
1
i«,m
1
as
'KS! 'S-S
1
1
SSSr ■:":;:":•
&::;:::::
STATumciij
SCOTLAND
Iin tbs ronl populAtioi
nml popaUtion of 1661 acaording to tha gronpug of 18dL
i* from tha filUgBi und anull towm tbtt tbs bu^ towna m
principally nomiladt tha pnivlj rani popolatum prafnTing 4b a
nUa to amignta.
Tabla Y. ihowt the natioiulitiea oT tha peopla of Scotland in ISn
tud ml, witli tha nationalitiaa in ISSI in IhoM bnishi which
~ ID of 10,000 and npwuds :~
8(9tlaadl«n.
Bl»tludl<«l.
s^mr 1
«„u,.
sSi:
Hombn.
SVup.
PH.
K.::::::::::
"is
(HBl
Mtai
)'ttl)
e-wa
1,«».M«
Ma
s-at
WUa
S,IMI.«1g
IMDW
1,7M,5II
ioo«ia
i,«t(i,*aci
IMIXIO
This tabla indicatea uat neral; an actual bat a propartional ig-
crease In non-natiTaa, then bains an actual incraan but a pro-
portioD*! dacraaaa of uatitn of Imind. and both an actnal tod *
pniportional incrtaae of natirea of England. Orn tha vhob <^
Scotland tha proportion of non-iiatitea i> a little orai 9 par cant.,
vhila In the bnntbi it ia nearly 13 per cant Tha nnmbgr of
pencms of Scottish birth in In^fand in I83t via 22,398, and in
England it vaa 2ii,i2»,—t total io tha two eountriea of !7i,8Se.
On tha other hand, the natiTas of tha tiro conntriu Jn Scotland
in 1B81 wars together 308,7<>S, ao tlut there la a amallar migra-
tion fnun Scotland to thaae eountriea than from then cDoatiiaa to
.| TO,Wa 119,01) W)M
3f emiffranta
tionaCcly mnch greater than tlia population. There an no atat
as to the nombei of iinniignnta utto Scotland ; and tha ^gnificauca
ut Table TI. ia further lewned by tha fact that it includea peiaona
who may hare been for Borne time naidenti:! England or Iraiand, ot
-who Toay hare been bom there of Scottieh pannta^ and alao anp-
pliea no information rt^rding emigration to the ContLnenL Only
tbenrincipal porta, moreoTer, ara mclnded in tha letnrn.
The m^a population in lESl was ],7ge,t7G, an increaae ainca
1fi71 of 12-2 percent ; the femslo population 1,936,0^3, an bcreaaa
of only l<hS par cent Since 1811, wEen there were HS'Sfemalea to
erary 100 milea, the proportion baa bean continuoualy dimioishLng,
«ud is 1881 it was 107-e. but etill greater than preraila either m
England, which waa 1051, or in Ireland, which waa 104'3. Tha
proportion diBen greatly in diflarent countiia, being aa high aa
ISl-Tl in Shetland, chiefly on account of tha number ot malea at
aea. In Scotland tha proportion of female birtha ia amallar than
that ot male birthi: in 188S it waa 100 to lOfi ; and mala
preponderato in the papulation up till tha ago of twanty-fira,
daail)' ahowing that the eiceai of famalee ia due to mala emigra-
tion or the graater mortality of male occupatioi ■" - -
of Qlagltlmata to tha total BDnlwr of btrthi In ia» waa r-S,
and raaohad ib maxtnram In 18S5, when it waa ]0-2, while hi
1885 it waa iU. It ta much Ugbar In the lowland mnl
diitricta than In tha Hi^iltnd ratal tUatlicD. and ioweat In 111*
lar^ towna. Tha peroantagM of Urtha, daatha, and maniagea
to papoUtkm in tha unnal ttpotla of th* tagiatrar-sanata] ara ih
a grwt dean* mlaUaillnfc iaaannilh aa the eatimatA poptlatioB
MDoally Silttn paitl; frnn tin aotoaL llxy pUca it, hoiravar,
Esjond donbt that the graateat Uith, maniaA and oortaliqr
ratal ara in th* town dtatnota, that tha •matlaat InirUi and miniage
■mtaa an In tha inaolar diaMota, attar which eoow the malnlanil
nual diatricts, atid that the mortality ia not ao hi^ia tha inanlar
roral aa in tha mainland nml diatnola. Thbia ¥11. (tea belo«i
giraa tha patoaotaga of aingl^ maitiad, and widowed to tha total
of «Mh tea in SratflaiiJ, En^and and Walia, and Ireland Topaet-
i»dy in ISBL
'At muabtr of blind unoni In Scotland in 1S81 wu SIN
(males IBM, bmalat ItOSj, tha proportion to tha tot^ population
beiDgIintl81(malMll6a,fanulaa 1208); tba pToportlon in 1671
wailinUlS. Tha deaf and dnmb in IBBI nnjnbarad £1U (malaa
IIIB, femalai M>), tha pnportisa to the total popnlation bring I
■ orery 1810 ta 1871. . TJm mm
■ M», tha pnportisa
M a* B^dnn 1 u vrtrj
lei. Id addi&Q to tUa thm were tMl Inbacila* (mdea
S«H, lamalM SOU), ot 1 to aracr tU '
" in 1B71 ba^w 1 in enrj 727.
inararriei. 1
S«H,IemalM8<
portion in 1B71 „ — , - .
'nbla VIIL glTaa a daaaiflcation of ttw poHlatlM aocardiM to
occupatiDni in 1871 and IS81 :~
7 fltS of tbs pi^nktioa, tha pro-
ClaaataotOesapatlo*
im.
uw.
T^eeat-if Total Vop.
Wl.
Itai.
^^■=
..Sa
«.i»;Me
s:
i
■44
U4t
It abonld ba eiplainad that tba ap parent dJMinMiaa In tha am-
portioD of tha nnprodn^tiTe olaaa may bt aceomited for I7 the bat
that in 1871 panpera wan retnned in thia clam, wh«rali* in 1881
they ware nturaed nndsr tha oCoDpalion at wtkh t^ ' '
The tncnaas in tha propntim of tin
hich thwnasd to
I ptofiaaJ«uI and
of hl^MT sTinga
pToeperity, bnt thia ia Bmv eencWTdir aata)>Uthad''lff tbalict
that the nnmbar of panpen has br mtnj y«ri batn ^awB'
the decline, tha pn>portiao being now (18M) only 1-4 a
^-^— "" ---■■ • -- '- ' -nna im knvH* a
popnlatioiL
. owing antiroly to th* inoreaaad coat id
the lunatic poor.
Crime, h'ka paapsrJBn, la alao ataadHy J— lining, aa li ihowB
by Table UL :—
Agftlnat property with
Anlnal pnparty wltb
TabliIV.
Or^ie.
»&Tffi-
-a™„1S?"
uei.n.
^5t
SRSr.
trtsssr
■SSTmSnSrl
^
.^
™.
^
iMi-n.
—
otBMlie
^
as
i.SoiSSS
■■as
.,s
BB
■as
m
1
fas
iS
fiS
+UMM
>,oet,»t
tMi>.ni
(.SBftoia
»,ItM7>
!,u<i,ni
roMM
t,«H,»l
Ws,Mi
+«,m
+41t.N«
■tmfiu
-H«Mn
1 BooUand.
■atfiadaadlTdea.
Wand. 1
j Blagk.
Married.
WI1««L
aia^..
VanM.
widowed.
Ma^
Kankd.
Vldond.
Mtll
IIS
s^
S^
ttM
mn*
tr-m
KS
'•"^ 1 «-«^
S30
SCOTLAND
fff^zisnci.
TOw«M<iiAultoi.~ln th« IStlienitiiTyui AotwupuHdpniTid
log Omt tiM hijAmf* betman mirkst-towiu ahonld b« *t lev
SO tM braid. Ot*t tlis prlndpU riran it~ thi> su-l; perwd th«i
' ■— '■■ irth* moit popnlooi pluai. «» c — "■- '"-- - —
joIniBg Hu Jutkw id tba pMca, *m tftarw
than tka aommlHiaBen of rapplTi ><> t>^ i
■ttintonuiea <rf lotdi ml* pHMd In 1ISI7,
to iatv -iMni dileontinDad fbt muf yetit. fiapanta Acta
..,:,-- .1. .__..___ _. .._ __j afturwMd* ijonff wiin
mguam ior Uu
, IMS, IBTS, uid
^ IB ohinflT to vlut aftanraidi
iB to ba k^>»n u "itatnt* Ubonr ntd*, iulendad plmui];
111 BOp^ a miBM Of commoitiaition irflbln tb* wrcnl puidm.
Tb^ «■!■ kspt 111 npiir bj tb« tanut* and eotttr^ and, wbaa
Okta laboor wu not aufflefant, by th* Uodlocdi, who waia nqidnd
"* ' ualMbabwaonntiniiabrfad
Bj MpanSa lecal A«ti tha
ji eannrtad into a paratant
caUad "oonranini monar," and tha Oanantl Bead* Act ol 184t
nadathaaltoatinimiiTatBL Br QiaBoad* and Bridgta (Scotland)
Act <d 1878 tha old oiganintiaii nur tha nunagamant of tbaaa nadi
«H antinlj aapmadad in 1888. Tho Highluida bad good (miU-
' — ' — laiari&rthaa tte natottbacoanttr.' Thapi^ad^bagnn
lo oomplata, and tha raadi wan aftantud*
... _...: . ^ ., Uj, LowUnda
m tba l^uspiks
AcOf UB BaniBH ox vmca ma oDtamaa at i/ou. Oilj^nallj thaj
wan malntunad b; tidl* aiaotad fnm thoaa who oaaa tham ; bat
tbki nHtbod ma— aftai lannl ooontiaa bad obtainad aepanta
Ada for lla abolition— muiMdad tbronefaoat Scotland in 1883
bj tha mnand Aot of 1878, proriding B>r tba maintenanoa of all
olaaaaa <i toad* bf aaasaamant Isrled ^ tha SOontj nad tnutna.
Sootlaod poaHsaaa two oanali eonitnieted uiniailljr to abridge
tba H paaaaga nnnd tba cMat,— the Cabdonlan and tha Crinu.
tuT}t«ad*e^&rtl
in l73S, took Ian jti
t eoaat to tlw Hon; FirA mi tba out eoaat, wu
bagnn In 1801, opened while yet nnflnlahed in ISlit, and eom-
pUtad in 1847, tba total coart bauig about £1,100,000. Conatnicted
Mjginalhr t« aflbrd ■ qtUokernwaga for ihipi to tba aatt ooaat of
Beotbuur and tha eoaata of Europe, it bai^ owing to tha Inoaaaed
dM of realila, otaied to ftiUl thi* parpoa^^ ill ohiif Mrriee baTing
bean In opaniiig np a piotniaiqaa route m tosriili, iwlillna loou
ttada, ana aJfixdju a pawiga for Aihlng boala bitwaan ue aait
lod wait eoaHL 1^ Orinan Oanal, Mtetching acrai the Hall of
Oantjra from Looh QHp to Jura Sound, a diatuoe of l> milaa, and
adMlttingaapai^ofrMaila^flOQ tombnTdan, wu opened in
1801 at a coat of orar £100,000. llie principal boat caiMla are the
rortil and OlTda or Onat Ouul, begun in I7H, between Orenge-
month on the forth and Bowling on tha Clrda, ■ diitanoe of 80J
tnile^ with a bnni^ to Port Dnndai, matdng die total dialance
881 mflM ; the Union Caul batwaan Kdiabnr:^ ind tha Forth and
Ctyde Cual at Put Dnndia, oaar QUkDw, oom^atsd in 1823 ; and
ttia MonUand Oanal, completed In 17S1, oonnecting Ola^w with
&a UanUand mioanl diatrict and commnnicatiiig with a lateral
branclMf the PofUi and QjdB Chnal at Port Dondai. Seraial
other canala in Sodtlind hare been laperieded by nilmr nntai.
The fnt niln; In Scotbod (or irtiich an Act of Pirliiinsnt
wu obtilned wii thit batwaan Kilnianioiit aod Tivtiu (Sf milai},
opanid b 1813, and of oonrae woAed by hcnei. A dmiJir rail-
way, of whiob the cbiat wniroe jf profit waa the piawngar traffli^
waa opened between Edioboigh md Dalk^th in 1881, bnucliaa
afterwardi aztmided to I^di and Knadbnrrii. Br 1810
' of tha nilwiT Unai in ScotliDd for wl^ Bilb ware
lUi Kfllia, the oapltil being £S,»S,I8S. The chief
laHway "■"P*"''* in Soofland an the Ouedonian, formed in 1846,
total capitdln 1881-88 £87,MB,»S8; the Korth Britiab, of the aama
dattt total coital £>S,8S1,E» ; the Olaigoir and Sonth-Veatam,
- I '-^tion in IBAO, total capital £18,280,849 ;
being aflar
tba length
10,963. Tha:
1840, total o^dtal
local' «
Bj 1849(1 . .
table <X.) ahowa the pngreai ilnoe 1857 (aae alao Sulwit,
— pp. 2M-230) !-
mmigenent of tha araall branoli lUiaa belaigiifi
ii nnnally nndotaken br the laner eompuua.
« 7eS milee of railway in Scotlasd. The laOaw-
nm{4,Tu,Ki« i,Tu,gsi|M,7rT,Mi M,Ni,i7r4 i,Mi,Tn i,en,on
Scotland, la compared with aitliar England or Ireland, li em-
phatically a oonntry of Urge proprietoia. Taking tha popntitioii
of 1871 aa tha baaii of oomparlaon, a Uttle orer S4 per canL of tb*
nopolaHon of Sootland ban a ahan in the owncnhip of the lul,
tba proparHon in Inland and Walea being aboot I pM'oant.,whil«
In Iralaod it i* only about 17. On an aTuage each owner ii
England teueMM tS acn^ in Scotland 148, and in Inland Ita.
While in Irelind, however, onlyaIlttUo*craii»-lulf of tin nanber
of propriaton poaiaaa lea than 1 acre, and bi Bidand ibeat iire-
agrenfiuLdrti daa bi SootUnd amoontad to abootfirHixtbi e( th<
whole. Tbay pnmmid only '1 per cant of tha total area, Ibe te-
mainiu 9n being poaMaaad br 10,181 paraoni^ whUa 171 pencuii
bald U-3, and SB peraona tS-l. Vhereaa in EruUnd I ind ia
Ireland only 8 proprlelon held npward* of 100,001
diridon into imall propaitjaa ; bat two ollwr canaH ban tlM
pownMly oo-opantad with thii, ric, tha wido terrilorii] antboii?
exardaad bj nma of the lowland noblea, a* tho Scott* uu
Dondaaea, ai>d iDch powerttal Highland noblea ai the Argyll* x"
Bre^albinM, and the itricler law of entail intiodiHed b; the Act
of I68S (aae Bntau, toU riiL p. 4B!). The laigiat «*>»W "•
tbni in tha bindi of the old Eareditary tkniiliee. Tb* i1k>«
iheolnle power aneienl^ wielded by the landlord!, who witOi
thatr own tarritorie* ware lorda of renlity, tsnded to hindv is-
dependent apicnltnnl enteipriae, ud it wa* not
abolition of berwUtaiy Juriidlctlon* in 1718 that i
Sootlaod mads any real progran. , ... ^
The IbUowlng table (ZIL) giru a claMilitatian of the holdiD#
of Scotland in 1878 and 1880 :— .
ni,st4 uImi
It win be oturred that nearly one-half of the total ana of the bold-
inoileoaoQptedl^ tbaaa pcaiaulngftinnioa to 800 acnaHch. The
holding orer 800 aen* are generally *heq> tarmi, and it i* to the
^nterpnaa of the TPf^^"™ uaH of luJdeia that the agricoltniBl
liiiiiLiiaa of flmUand li diiafly dm A loolaty of improrara in
tbalnunrlidfi rf ^liMiUnM m* Jboadid iBl7», btit taaud to
and the introdnctien of ?■ ^
imiHOTod methodo, where not the rtmlt of pri"*" ??*?^!j,
bwm chiefly aaaocUted with tha eflorta of flio Highland »^
inalltoted in 17S8, and Utteriy known a* tba BW*^J^
enltnnl Sode^. A great atimuhia wu aba lAirdal mw°
jini^mjnf tlitlfUi riintiiiyl7tlnl'tfi piMeohfa""'"'"*
■ o~
SCOTLAND
531
1, ud, iltbonf^pctigdiof oMuioDil htho dcnns-
«1 unci theD, not ontj hu the Kinnca or •gricultun
Thfl ijitom of Dinctani Tean' l»vi tuJ pi. ..-, __ ..„ _
■griaJtnnl prtignu and tnc intemU of ths rurmcr, a murh lupcrior
amngamgiit lo tha ifatcm off early tenaiii!]' ao lir^ly pnmlling
in EngUnd ; bnt it wm coojomeJ irilh cnrtofna and moJifiwl bv
conditicKU nbich dixriag the period oT af^ultnroJ distreaa prerul-
ing tinn 1873 hare cliuwl the rebtiaua beUePD latidiorJ and
UBant to beeoBU aereroly ttnancd. The ajoro prominent griov-
■scsa of the (armer vara the difficulty of obtaining iulHctent com-
penaation for iDiprarenient), the inconreniDDpea mulling fnm tbo
LirotbjpothM (aee Hcfothec, toL kiL p. &VSJ, uil the hirUdupa
■nifend Rum tb« exlBlHUC* of the Gume Lira. Hj-pothrc irai
kboUihad in 187 V, aicept aa ngarda the Act at SQltmnt ; a gniuid.
SiDB Act VM pUMd in IBSO ; and, eacceeJiig Iho rqnrt of the
k* of Kichmond'acomtiiiuion In 1882, the Agricultunl Holdin"*
Act na pMiad In IS8S, amtalnini proTiaioni for lecurine to tQe
tenant contiol in the di^ontion of hu loue, mi alio compeniatiDn
tl>r faanoTtnwiita ; bnt already It ia arident that Iheeo reronni
hare t^lsd to meet tlu dUflndtin created tnr th« attend cotulitiona
of thiOA doe to tha Incnaaing ictrdt; of land and Iba import-
ntion of foni^ pnidtice. ■
Vhit* the relationa bctnrii the UmUord and the large fanner
CiBiuit be n^rdcd aa aatiabetory, the difficuttie* of the ctoflnri —
(DuU holder* nor chieflf to ba foond in the weatem Highlandi
■Dd t)w iebodi to the north and in*t of Scotland — lure reached
a mon teota atue. The entltr •}'at*m prtrallinff is Orkney and
SbtUai—dfXTihid in the article on Iboaa ialandi— hai a lotallT
diflennt origin fiom that praTtiling in the Hisblanda. On kccount
of the andeot' relationa betveen the Higblanoar and hit chief, the
inhnilanc* ii eUimed b; th* Highluid crolten of an isalianabls
right to ascuritr aftenilraj but vhen the old finulnl tjateni of the
Highlanili naa aocldenlj aboliihni after the Rebellion of 1715 no
Ic^ itcp* Ken taken for the recognition of thia rifftit, and fnmi
the bcginDing of the l»Ih century wIioIiikiI* clcaniicLi of (orunla
Here carried out in niouy diitricta >tuu bj Uie boiia oftho old
Highlaud chiafi. In tbo irorile of the report of the croftsM com-
miuion oriaM:~'-Tho oroftcr of the preecnt time boe thmush
p(ut ovictioua been couQucd iritiiin narmw limite, aomcrtimpi on
uifcrior land and eihauatod eoiL He ie auljject to nrliitnrT
proTcmenti," Tbo croflore in Scotland are now eatinuitial to
nDmber <0,DOD liuniliri or 200,000 peruni, sad Inauj of tbent lu^i-
port tbemielTei partlr by Eehiog. lA the atruggia for eiiatcnco
ther bare had to contend againat the tfindonrry to^'arcle the creation
of large formi, (he demand Ibr (porting eitatee,' the dnira of
landlf^dt to cmaras the harden of poor rataa, and tha fact that
they hive abaolutely no choice aa rtgarda tiia condltione impond
on them bjr Iba landlord. In ilmb 1883 a conuniaeion wm an-
pointRl to Inquire into tha conditjon of the cotteie and crofter* in
ita nnort in 18S1, and an Act Isaad on their recommeiidatioaa iru
paaiod in 1886.
Ifotvithetonding the anaatiifactorr condition of agrlcTLltartl
aJIain in Bcotland at ptwnt. then li no country in the Torld
irh«Te fanning is proiacuted with more akill and entarpriaa. On
acoonnt of the Erral Tiriettr of joil and dimat* the melboda in
ration dilTgc grcatlr in difTercnt diitricts, and for apecial detail*
reader i> referred to tha irtidei on tlia meral CDontiu. Tba
following table (XIII. leboire the col tiTalcdcni and tha area* under
ttoch kiad of crop in different Jtan, nith tba proportion of tba icnaga
nndeieacb kind orcrori, l:c.,to ererT JOOOacna of culthttad land
for 1886 in Scotland, England, and IreUnd :—
Torlf ATnacH-
SXi'"
le-fourth 15
Thaaarliett year iuclnded iu thia table (lBe7) ia the date at which
tile agricultural elatietiM begaji to tie collocWd arid pnTiliehed by
the Board of Tnda. Tha vork pnTioui to this had been under-
taken by ths Highland and Agricnltural Society of Scotland, but
their return* wsra neceasarily lea complete and accurate. The
ratnm lot 1857, for eiample, giyea the anble anwge ("acretge
under a rotation of cropa ') aa 3,77fl,fiTZ ; but thia u clearly too
much, *g it exceedi that of 188S, and aincs 1807 tbeia ho* been
■ gradual increase. Only a littl* OTer one-fourth "' *■- -~- "'
Scotland is eoltintad, while- in EngU ~
uncDltiTitsd. It must. howeverToe
that in tba «gticultural retnma "pmnsncnt posture" dorn not
tlOB of tha mrfacs of Bcotiuid, where heaths and natural gnsKs
occupy tha soil and yield a scanty herba^ for ih«p and cattle.
In the return "permanent puture" ia reprtsenlsd aa occupying
BB aJ«. little more thsa a third at largo ae that occupied by
arable land, while in England the two area* art pretty nearly
equal, but a* a matter of Tut jsstunga play* a much more im-
cotUsh than jf the English
regards the main diTiiions
both com crept and gr*en
., . — o__j o. "liile there ha* b«n a
eoa^dsrablt increase in tha area under mUtion gn«e*. The toU
lowinn tiUe (XIT.) ihowi tbo T>«>d of tb* pdndpal crop* in
bmer. It will be obserred 1
of arable land the total areas
B baan lUghtly
™,.
1M4.
1M3.
AieneeiwAaTe
IIM IMS.
W1i«t .. Buh^
POUIM... „
being founded on eitimatescan, of course, only be regarded
as approximately correct. Tha areraga yield of Iwth wheat and
barley ia higher than that of EnelaDd, while the aTcnce yield af
both oat* and poutoea ia lower, which may be accountod for by Ae
while tha last two ocen
Wheat la grown chiefly 'in the
TitBT-talioya The area Dnder '
half aince 1S«7, the combined ct
Increased foreign competition.
keep up a steady demand, and oi
opt occupy thf beat t<
..^ of toil ..
ined Hon than a
' cl"^
£33
SCOTLAND
tnONU^ on of utifioial utafSi in nttle-f«d% ^Tb* foUairiiw
tabls (Xr.) ihon th« aumlMi el Myo itock in ditennt juin, witE
tha (TOig* taaahtt to owj 1000 moei of cnlaretsd Und in 188S
lll8ooHud>DdbBbnd^
TiulTAnn^
«
«
S.
IMT.TO.
im-n.
B
^
in,B4(
'WW
!».<»
1U.M1
koptbrmolliw
ToMboiM
iir».ni
1TS,«M
1M,I]1I
ia.rai
SB
u
StidU-,.-..
WHS*
tan
KT.IK
K
;;
u
Total crtlta
Vidir mo IHT DiU
L.tns.tM
l,l»I^
i,i]m,iu
IplTtOM
lU
lffi>
;2I;?«
as
tss
i;SSS
tu
MO
i,MT,m
,isi,ua
r/iTi,M
(tMI.Ul
im
on
1U.K.
1M.1«
UD,ne
««^
ti
B
Thii labia do« not Indletta uw conaUnt docraus or inenue in
any of the olvm of live stock. It mil ba oh«rTed that tlie iierage
nnmbsr of cattle to tba acretgB of coltintod Und In Scotluid u
about ■ third mon tluui in Eoaluid, uid of abtap mora than doubls
M Tunf 1 bat tha nnmbai of ^igi in England i* mon thin danble
u maay to tha icreaga of cnltinted Uod u it la Id ScotUnd, and
tha nnrabar of honea ii graatar. Tha facial breoda of boraea iu
Scotland an tbs BhetUnd pgnlM, tho Higfaland ponia*, and tha
ardsdala dianght hanga, tha Uttn originally bred in tha Cljdea-
dala diibict from croaiinf with Flemlah italliou impoHsd about
tha baginoing of tha 13th centnTj. Tha bnada of cattis includa
tha Ayrahire. whiob, ainoa thaj an ohiaflj noted for their jltld of
milt^ and an apeclally adapted for dal^ brma (whioh prorail
«apacla}lj in the soath-vmt of Scotland), har* in a gnat meaann
aupplanWd tho Oalloiray in thoir natlTB diatrictv aioapt nhere th«e
an kapt for feadiag pnrpoaa ; the polled Aogoa or Aberdeen, fair
uilkai^ bat chieBr Taluable for their b«ef-making qnaliUi
Iha
hardihood, in aapacud bvauT in
Tth-eaat of Scotland, Irban tlie art of cattle -feeding haa
iiBcind ita jiraateat perfection ; and the west Highland breed,
noted for their long horaa, their ahamnesa, the dociilod character
of their nriona coloura — black, ledT dun, cream, and brindla —
and their power of thriTing on wild »nd hoathy paatnra. The
apeclal breede of ihoep an tha fine-wooUed breed, pecutiai to 3hst-'
land ; the blackfusd, natiro to the HighUnd diatricta ; and the
Chariota, native to the ranga of hilla of that naIn^ and now the
faTODrita breed in tbe »nth of Scotland, although border Leicaatan
and other Bngliah breeda, aa well aa a Tahatf of croaaefa, are kept
for winter feoiiUng on tha lowland fanna.
The area nndar oreharda ai ntamed on 1th June IftgS waa 186!
acres and under nonary grounds 10Ci^ Oreharda, chiefly for apjilaa,
am moat numoroua in tKe Carta of Oowrio and tha neighboorhood
of Perth, and along the banha of the Clyde aboTe KamiltoD,
Tho irea under wooJa in laia wni 907,986 acrea, of which B01,lfl9
aoroa were natnnU woodt and 408.220 planted ; by 1872 it had
declined to 734,180, but fa^ ISSl (i.e., by tho latest ratnni) it had
increued to 829,178, the principal increaae having been in Aberdeen,
Perth, and Inrernaaa, tha countiat whan tha growth of woods is
largaiL Tha Board of Trade ntuma do not dutinniiah between
eintad and natural wooda. but it ia well known thst large cnttingi
Te been made in the indinnoaa foreata of the HighUnda, while
at the same time conaiderablo attention has been paid within the
preaent century to tha growth of piantationa in the LowUnda, partly
as a coTsrt for game ; tha acience of f&restry has made groat ad-
vancas within recent years owing to the anoonngement and i^id-
ancB of the Scottish Atboricultaral Society, eitablisbcd in 1SS1,
and of the Highland and Agricultonl Socieff' Tha modem planta-
tions an formed chiefly of Scotch fir with a sprinkling of larch-
On tha boUny of Bcocrand H. C Watnn'a TopogrVfkicai Botany
(isaa) may tie conialted.
According to the report of the sraftan coinmiinDn, the ana nnder
deerroreitsin Scotland ial,B7B,20Ba<rea, or aboat one-tenth of tha
whole area of the conntry. The apeciea of deer peculiar to the
Soottiih Hilthlands ia the »d deer ; tha fallow den ia not uncommon
ia tha Lowlands, eapeciaUy In the hilly aoa^-WMtsn diatricta. The
grouse moon of Scotland occupy a much mora extanaiTa area, and an
' ly distnljuted, whila they tupplj inpott to B
Ptnnuigaii a
mnch g
aa harea, are carefoUy preaerred on many catatoa'ln tho'Enltitalij
districts. Eabbits are common throughout tha whole country. Fox-
hunting iaa fashionable sport in moat of tha Lowland oouQtiet; bat
otter-hunting haa almoet died ont The bear, wolf, and beaTer, at
one time common in Scotland, Iuts become extinct. The laat woli;
it ia said, was killed by Sir Ewen Cameron of Lochirl in 1 080. The
wild cat ii atill to bo found in the HinhJanda, and tlie poiemt, ermine,
and pine marten exiet in conaiderable nunibera. The golden eagle
and the white-tailed eagle tenant tha wilder mountainous diatricta,
bat other larger birds of praj, aa the oniny and the kite, are
becoming acarca. In all then are man than 300 apeciaa of birda
in Scotland, includinj a great Tarialy of water-fowl In the ao
and in]*nd locha
FMeria.-—Oei<aaa ngarding the Seottiah flaherie* will ba fbnnd
nnder FiaiiBRiBi (toL ii. pp. 257-SB2). The former Bosrd of White
Hatting Fishery was abofiahed in 1BB2 and the Fiahery Board of
Scotland eetabliahedi which has deroted mon ayatemitic attention
to the collection of atatistica and the general encouragement of the
isduatry. In 18SS the herring and deeu-aea esberica anga^ only
about SO.OOOpcnoos in Scotland, but in 1881 they emploTeddirectly
or indirectly 10B,S01 penana, irhile the total tstiniated pivdaca
in 1381 was nlaed at £3, 3M, 8 IB.— tlie value of cut«d fish being
£2,279,811 (herrinKa, £3.121,318; cod, liu^ and. hake dried,
£119107; ditto pickled, £886]]; ornhiteGah ■o1dbHh,£71S,!9S
(haddocka, £300,712 ; herrings, £160,720; cod, linft and hake,
£97,113; torak and aaitho, £10,181; whitings, £3S,S08j irnla,
£5232 ; mackerel, £6288 ; turbot, £9368 ; hoUbut, £17,621 ;
flonnden, £17,723 ; akale, £U,17I ; solci and other flat flah,
£21,727) ; of ahell-Gah, £80,939 ; and of salmon, £278,000-
iftning fiuliutruj-— The chief aourcea of tha mineral wealth of
Scotland an coal and iron, which an geasnllv found in convenient
Joxtapoaition. Tha pnucipal coal-fielda are deictibed under Cou
Bll. tL p. 52 a;.). The pririlege of digging coal in the lands of
Itenoriefl' waa conferred by charter on the abbot and convent
of Danfermlins in 1291, and at a very early period themonkaof
Ncwbattle Abbey dug coal tnia eurface-pits on the banks of the
Esk. .£ncaa SyMna (allerwanli Pope Pius II.), who viaital
Scotland in the ISth century, nfen to the fact that the poor
people recaired at tha church doon a apecies of stone which the^
burned in place of wood : but- althonob the valne of coal foraraitlis
and artilicci
employed ft
century. In IGOO at
fithin twenty yean has baaa
7,188,000 tons,ljy 1888 It had
ir fall
1813 forbidding the employment of children of tender .
of women in nnderground mines. According to the censnn of 1851,
the number of porsono engaged in conueiioa with coal-mining waa
38,973 mataa and BS8 females (the latter employed above groond)t
and in 1881 the nnnibora were 63,310 and 101. According to tha
mineral ttatietlcs of ISSS then were fl9,426 persona emplovni in
tba coal-mines of Scotland,— 16,082 in the western and 11.911 m
the eaatem dialiict. Tho output within twenty y
mon than doubled. In 1851 it ~' " ^
incraaaed to 12,034,888, and in
The rise of the iron industry in Scotland datci from the eatabliih-
mant in 1780 of the Camn ironworks near Falkirk. Tlia number
of penons employed in iron-mining in 1811 waa 7618, and in ilea
Dunufactnn 13,^98 ; and by 1881 the numbon had iucreaaed
respectively to 10,173 and 38,306. Tha total ontpnt of inn <m
W ironatone in Scotland in 1881 waa 1,886,873 tone, volcld st
£864,116, lew than the catimated amount in 1868, which vis
3,312,000 torn, valued at £760,ODa Tliere has been uo incrsiae io
the manufacture of ptg-lron since abont 1386. The imports of iros
ore were 358,830 tone in 1SS3, valued^ at £369,918, and in 1834
production
troduclion i
IS 13,810 tons, aiid ii
1,000, in 1816 to 176,1. .
«, .,l«i,0O0 1 but in 1881 it wna only 98S,Ty)0, the Indusliy boiiiB
confined to Ayrahire, Fifcabin, and lAn3rkBhi;«. Tha iron-mills
and forgos in operation an confined to the laat county, there bein^
in 1831 22 worka, 334 puddling furnaces, ami 82 rolling mills- Is
1881 Ihoni were 63 apenhearth ateetworke in onenbon, of *ixii
18 wen in Glasgow, 10 in Holytowii, 1 in Uolherwell, ud 3 a
Wishaw, tho quantity made in 1884 being 208,660 tons.
Since about the years 1860-66 sha1e-minine haa become al im-
portant industry, especially in Linlithgowshire ud llidlolliiaa.
tho total quantity railed in Scotland in 1884 bring 1,189,8(9 Moi,
valued at £370,021. Lead ore is worked at Abington in Unirk-
ahirc and Wonlockhead in thim^'esshire ; the dnssad lead oi*
obtuseil amouBts to 13zr tout, valued at £31,M7, and jisldinj
SCOTLAND
033
SSlBtnuoflndutdUtOlloaneMofritTra. Tbe imonnt of In-
GlBrdagliil8Miniiet,t»<t0D*,nIiHdU£ea,»T. Stonaqurrj-
iuft e^nallj of gimalt^ anditoDt, HagitoiM, mte, and llDMatoiu,
ia oiluuiTelf caiTMd on, but tha ntnnu of ths ntcikI Mnwmla
lalnd uiDullr m iiuDmplala. Tb« unmbar at peaoat an^i^ed
in qourln in 1881 wu 18,743; uid tha rdoa of the DUteriali nued
Is 1381 wu Mtinutsd at £l,030,flM. Ths priadpit maita worlu
occur in Abardmuhin and Kirkcadhrightahin, vbAa bseitooa
noanisa an oommoQ throaghont tha gnatar part ot ttaa Lmrland
diatilct, although whiutona alaa ia ireqaantif saed Tor bnildiDg
pnrnaH. La's" qnantitua of paTing atanea are eiporiid from
Ckithnaaa and foriuthin^ aod then an raiy aitaoaiTa ilat
I TB17 aitaoaiTa ilata-qnaiTiea
ineorponlad ly tha town conndl ol Edinborgh in 147S, tha cloth
vom bj tha Malthiar claaaaa dowa to tha begiimmg of the irth
cantoiy waa of EngUah or Fnach muin&ctan, tha lowai duau
larsaljn
«tght jraaia latar a companj of tFlaminga vaa eatabliihed in tha
Canonnta (Edinlmivh) for tha maaufactan of cloth imdar the
■pacial pnt«tion <? tha king ; bnt, notwithatanding alao the
atabliiliDiaiit in IMl of «a English compaBT for the ' '"
of woollan bbrica naai Baddington, tha indoetrj fo
BAj- nan altar thia made Tary Urd^ prognn in the coontiy. in
bet ita Importance dataa from tha mtroduction and impravement
of machlnoT in tha IMk eeatnnr. Tha moat important branch or
tha tndaf that of tweoda, Bnt bc^an to attncc attention ahortlj
altar 1830 ; thonefa itill having ita principal aeit in the diitrict
front which it takea its nams, Includiag Galashiela, Hawick, In-
uerlaithan, and Selkirk, it extendi to a large number of towna
UuiHigbont BeotUnd, aipecially lo Aberdeen, Elgin, Invenieaa,
BtirliiiA Bannockburn, and Paisla;. Tha chief seat of the hoaier;
trade i> Hawick. Carpet maniifiu^tnra ha) liad it) principal seat
In Kllmarnoi^ aince 1817, bat ia also carried on in Aberdeen, A;r,
Bannockboin, Clawrjir, PiiileT, and other lowni. Tartana an
'stared in 'nilicoa]tr7,Bannocl(bara,audKi]niaiTtDcL:,
- -' ■--lid in aeieral towns.
Qd wonted bctorin),
with aSt,GSS aidndlea and 217 power>looma, emploTing 10,210
perxnu Twenty-aigbt Tean later (1878) the total number of
uctoriaa wai tlS, in whien there were 669,031 spinning ipindlea,
03,013 donbking apimllM, and 6284 power-looma, tlie number of
tmbna amplorod being 81,007, of whom 1D,0SS wan malea and
IS^femalea.
Tha mannCactora of doth fh>m flai ia ot Torr andant data In
Scotland, and toward* the doae of the 16th cantor; Scottlah linau
dotha wan largeir aiportad to fonign eonntriaa, baidea having an
■itanaiTa sale in Englud. RagaUtiona in regard to the mannfatSnn
vara P*)*ad in 1641 and leOL In a petition presented to the privy
conninl in 1684, complaining of the serera trettnient of ScoUmen
aalling lioaa in England, it wu stated that 12,000 persona wen
angagod in the menuTactare. Through the interceaaion of tha
aaenUr; of state with the king thtae mtrictiona wen nmoved.
To forther encourage tha trade It wu enacted in 1086 that tha
bodin of alt pereons, with the aiception of poor tenants and cottars,
ahonld be buried in plain linen only, apon and made within tha
kingdom. The Act was repeated in 1693 and 1696, and in the
format jear another Act wu passed prohibiting the eiport of lint
and permitting ita import frcs of duty. At the time oi^tha Union
Ilia ■■'*'i'"J amount of lijian dcth manufactnred in Scotland is
auppoMd to hara been about 1,600,000 yarda. Tha Union gave
A conaideratile impetos to the mann&ctnre, u did alao tha
eatabliahmant of the Board of Minnlictnm in 1727 which applied
an annnil snoi of '£2650 to its eoconngement, and in 1729
eatablishad a colony of Fnnch Protestants in Edinburgh, on the
alta of tha praaant Kcardy Place, to teach tha spinning and weaving
-, 1.... „. ... 1* L- 172; to Isl November 1728 the
Q Scotland wu 2,183,978 yards,
Tajoea at ssiua.aiz, oat ny the year ending let November 1771 it
bad increased to 18,872,6*8 yirda, valosd at £632,389, during tte
year ending let NovembeT 1 793 to £1,297,059, veined at £850,406,
and t? the year ending let Kovember 1822, nhen tha n^^tions
■a to the inspection and stamping of linen ceased, to 36.268,580
yards, valued at £1,306,296. Tiiennoties inwMcb
Picardy Place
From 1st Noveml
.t of linen cloth stamped it
0 the inspection and stampu
Cirds, valued at £1,306,296. The
now most largely carried on are Forfar, Parth, Fife, Kinross,
nod Clackmannan, but Aberdeen, Renfnw, Lanark, Edinburgh,
and Ayr an alao in a considenble degree associated with it
Dondee is tha principal aeat of the coarser fabrics, Danfermline
of tha tabla and other Guer llnana, while Paisley ja widely known
for its aewiog thraada. The allied indnstry of jnte is the eta[Je
tndoatty irf I>iuulaa. The number of panona amployed in tlie
flai-fifctorlea of Scotland in 1837 waa 16,461. Tha following table
(XTLldTaa pirtoilan of Uum &ctoiiM for tha yean IBH, 1807,
r^
iptaUM.
KS
™'5S5
BiaimlnS. 1 DoabUog.
^:::::
in
arr.BTt
tu,wg j ia,iM
m
liahad cotton-bctorias in 17BG at New Lanark, afterwards so cloeely
asradatad with tha sodaliatlo achemea of his son-in-law, Bobart
Owen, and thni laid tha fonndation of the indnstry in tha two
oonntiea, Lanark and &an&«w, which an now ita principal ant*
In Scotland. Hina-tantba of tha cotton -lactorics ot ScoUand an
nolv oonoantntad inGlatgow, Paisiay. and the neighbouring town^
bnt tha Indoatry ailanda into other distnots of the west of Scotland
and is also repreasntad in tha conntiea of Atcrdoen, Perth, and
Stirling. The following tabU (2T1L) pvoa particulara for 18S0,
1881, 1876, and I68B1—
J^
lactorisa.
Bpmu...
ffis
.^ssa.
;i
linijtn
i
st.m
W.ltT
;"»--■'
For t^irther particolan regarding the mannfaetnra in Scotland, saa
CorroH, voL vi. pp. 601.603.
Silk is nunnbctured in Paisley and Glasgow, bnt tha indnstry
is of minor importance, amploying only aboat 6(KI penons. Floor-
cloth is mBnufactnrad at Kirkcaldy, whan also tfae fint linolenm
factory In Scotland wu eetabliahed in 1877.
Neit to taitile fabrics, the moat Important mannfacton in
Scotland is that of whisky. In which it has Inland for Ita
only competitor. Distillation wu intiwlDced into Scotland from
England, bnt by 1771 lann quantitiea of spirits von sent to
England from Scotland. Tba legal manofactnn of whiaky wu
greatly checked in tha 19th century by occasiona] aicassiTe ad-
ia in the ntoa of duty, bat altar tha rednctian to Sa. 4jd. per
Test.
Oallcos.
Tear.
ijalloia. Tmr.
Oalloaa.
;^
SloSS
ISSB
ii,ns,«M lan
'■^t^:^
ion beverage In Scotland u oariy aa the 12th
centnry, there being one or mon bnw-hooaea attached to avary
nligioos house and barony. Bo important waa tha uaa ^ the beveav
age even In tha beginning of the IBth century that a threatened
impoiitioD of a tax on malt in 1726 led to aerioua riots ia Glasgow
and a pioposal to npeal the Union. Though ale hu been super-
seded by whiaky u the national beverage, Scotland atill posaeaaea
aevanl large breweries and Edinbargh ^es vie in npnte with tboaa
of Burton-on -Trent The number irt barrels cherged with dnty in
Scotland In 188I> waa 1,237,823, the number in England being
24£ie,173.
The fint angar.TsGDai; in Scotlaud wu srected in 1706 in
Greenock, where tha industiy made rapid progress and has atill
ita principal seat, althoogh it ia eitansively carried on in Ldth
and in a Ismar degree in Glasgow end Dundee. Giaaa-making,
introduced in 1610 hy Sir John Say at Wemyn in Fife, is now ot
eonddenbla importance, Edintmrgh being cefebnted for the finar
branches of tha manuhcture- A paper-mill wu erected in 1676 at
Dairy UHIa on the Water of Leith, in which French workmen were
employed to give Inatmction, with tha result, u wu reported by the
ownara, that "gray and blna paper waa produced much finer than
ever wu done bofon in tha kingdom." nie moat important ecat of
the indnstt; is now TaHa^fiehineu' Penicuik, when it waa intra-
dnced4n 1709. Bdinbmgh has ^ce the time of tba Ballantynw
enjoyed a videly-aTlsndad fiuna for the BiceUence and branty of ita
printinft The other manufacturea prevailing in different porta ot
Scotland, such u those of leather, soap, eartbenwan and hardware,
a implements and ntensila in general naa.
It call To
- . <nt^nff.— That S^tland had a conaldanbla trade
with foreign conntnaa at a very early period may be iafornd ftom
tba importation of rich dnesss by ITalcolm 111. and the enjoy-
ment ot Oriental luiuriea by Alexander L David L receivea the
apecial pnlse of Fordnn foe enriching "Uie ports of his Idngdom
with Iraeign merchandise." In tha 13th cenCsry tha Soota had
534
Mqnii^ a comldanUe «d*W9 IB lUpboIldtDK;
htoeh bano hid » ddp amuIIt tiallt »t IaT»_
otmnu Urn and bii TMHla & tlw Hoir I^nd. Tha ptindp*! dup-
ewmn at thii period wan tba dsivr, who ambaik«d tlu vaalth of
Uuiii' nligimu lion» in commetcut - antorpriiei. Daflnlta Hate-
nanta n^rdins tha nambar and tonnaga of ahipping ara, howBTar,
lacUag till the ISCh cantuij. From two nporii piintad bj tba
Seott^ Boz^h Racaii Sodatf in IBSl, Itanpaan that tliaiiainbeT
otTaBHlabeloDgiag U the principal porta — Laith, DnDdea. Claagow,
Kiifceaiar, and Uontroae— in ISSfl waa G8, tha Umnaga balng BllO,
nnd tbat b; IB93 tbej bod larireaaed to ST of B9DB tona. Thau
£giiKi onljr npreaent a portion of tha total ahipping of tlia kioa-
i^oni. At -tha tima of tlia Union in 1707 tha nanibaT of Teaaeli
ma US of 11,48E tona. Tba following Ubls (XIX] gim the
nnmbarabr Tirioniyaaia from 18II0 : —
SCOTLAND
["
1
.«a
uadL
ISTD,
IIH. 1
1
T«>a.
No.
Toai.
Mo.
t™
Sa.
Tou
.ss^s?
ts
to,tn
"nl
MJ.«J
*»"
«;»!
KM
£^-^
1 r^....
a«n
BII,BI
utt
«.T.l
sir.tM
•4U
l,»Bi,(ltl
"Mils XX. ahowi the prograaa of tha coaaHng and Ibraign tiada
T-,.
Ooriliw
OnlmMaMnnkx-
T*. 1
■Ktnid.
OtouVL
■atim.
oi™t
BxtaKd.
OUnd.
ISM
{is
M8.DTa
SSffl
s
•M
l,aM,iM
m of tba f<K«iga and colonial
T-r.
Importi.
Kiporta.
Tar.
Import..
bpoRa.
§
ii
11
1*H
UM
•4.»T,aM
m,mo,tM
Tha nlna of the importa into Scotland ii only aboot a tenth of
that of England, bat tUi doaa not tapreaent the proper proportioa
of foreign uiporta ntad or conmmed in Scotland, aalirgaqnantitiai
find tbeit way to Scotland from England bj rail,— datI; all the
tea, for aumple, conituned in Great Britain being imported into
London, while rariona other porta hare atnioat a monopalr of
certain other importa. Reckoning by tbe comtdnad Talne of Uieir
import* and exporCi, tha Trrincipal porta of Scotland ars Glaagow,
Laith, Oreenock, Dundee. Grangemoath, and Aberdeen, in the order
named, bnt for particnlaia ra^irding tltf tiada of thcaa and other
porta relarenca moat ba made to the articlea on the asTeral towna.
For manj et the moat important imnmanenta in the conitrac-
tion ofahipa, aapeciajlr attwn Teaaeli, Great Britain is indebted la
the enterpriae and akill of the Cljda ahipboiMera. From the time
of the construction bj Ur Robert Na^ of tha ateamen for the
XI
mechanical appliancea and the beanty
V of tha internal arruigeinenla. Sbiplmllding a
to a conddenble extant at Dnndea, Laith, and
■ ' '"le porta of the
(ton, bat wltUn neent jtui the indnati]
flnctiiating condition, the tcmnaoe of the Taa_
ally TarTing batwaen 18B0 and 188G from a Uttla orei 100,000 to
nearly 300,000.
tiatiimat fKwim.— Tha immanie inenua In tha waaltli of
Scotland within the lait 200 yean ia anScienUr prornd t? the bet
that, while in 1S74 tha Talned lent wu only jei,tUUI,40S Soota «
£304,700 aterling, the gnm annnal Talne of the land acoocdlng ta
the eatimata in the reCnm of 1B7> waa £lS,at>S,404, ta Bum than
eiity tioiu aa mnch, and abont fifteen. tiin«a as xrsat a* the
proportional incrtue of population. Tha lucre— a n at coone
partlT dne to agricnltnral improTementa and partly to the diacoruy
and deTclopment of the minetal wealth in coal and iron, bnt it may
alao be accomitad for by the amaller repreaentatiTa valoe of money,
and by tha fictitioiti increaaa ia renta in towna, which doea not
repnaent an increaaa in abaoluta ralue. Tha anntul Talne of nel
property aaaeaaed for income-tax nnder achadnia A In 1843 wai
£9,481,000 ; the aTsiage value for the thne yaan ending Bth April
lS83wia£IS,99S,718, and for the 7«i ending SthAprQ I8S4 the
Talne waa £17,068,705. For the year ending 5th April 1857 the
amonnt of proper^ and income charged with duty waa iE23,SM,23S ;
and during tba roUowiug twenty-fin ycara it waa more than donblad,
the areragg amonnt for the three yean ending 6tb AprU 18S3 being
£te,W»,7«6, and for the year ending Bth Apiil 188« X4e, 000,34!).
Thia la leaa than a tenth ot that for tha United Singdom. The
total ameont oT iimimt lying In dapoait in MTinga banka In 1884
waa £7,709,471,— abont a aarenth part of the whole amount
depoaited in tlu aanna banka of the United Elnsdom. Notice ol
the riae and progreaa M banking in Bootland will ba found nnder
Baheiko (*oL BL pp. 332-383^ The total paid-np capital ol the
Scottiih banka at the datea ot balance in 1SS5 waa £O,<»^0O0 and
th^ total Itabilltlea £107,882,096.
fSducatim Ifoticea of the exlateDoa of achoola In tha prindpal
tWna occm aa early aa the 18th eentnir. They waia vadiii Ha
auperrudon^of the chancellor of each Aoceae vid were chjcffy
devoted to itndiea preparatoiT for the chnndi. Prvriona to the
"-' — -Ltion achoola lor general edncalion were attached to many
maof ganen
thia piopoaal nor an Act pa ^__ ^ .. .. ..
aatahliahment of a achool in erery puiut waa cairiad Into effert ;
and the mtam ot parochial achoola whicb prevailed tSI tha nuaiDg
of tha Edoatiou Act of 187£ really datea from the Act of William
and Uary in 1S9S providing for the maiatenanea ct a acheol in
every pariah at the coat of the beritora. Tha niiod* reljgJnua
aeceaiioaa in Scotland led to tha (bunding et a ^arva nnmM ef
denominitionil and aabacrintion achoola, ud at the ZHaintton in
1S43 tha Free Church made proviaian for the nqiply Oi eacnlar
edncation aa well aa religions inatrncUon to ita adheteDta. Ilia
Education Act of 1ST3 aboliahad the old maoagemeitt c(tba|ariah
achoola, and provided for the creation ot dlatricta under Oie mani^e-
ment of achool boarda elected tor three yaara by the ntcpayen^
mala and female. Theae boaida have the power to levy latia for
the maintananca and erection of achoola for primary inabnclioD,
elect the teachaia, and enfoite the elanaa in regard to compnlaefy
attendance. The maintenance of achoola ia alao aided traOeTem-
ment grant, and the aalarv ot tha teacher ia paid partly by acbcot
foea and partly bj a gisnt dependent upon the reanlt ot the uamina-
tioc of the Bcholen t>y the QoTeniment inipector, the achod board
harlsg the power, however, to make their own terma with tba
and] 81
achoola an permit
OR table (XXIL;
inOThe following table (XXIL) ahowa the pioi
II or the receipt ol edacation in Scotland hi IHl,
ittad to recdra a Oerara.
.} diowa the proportion
Tear.
Fop<]UloaatilAnat.liea.
Perwia )B BKsif t at amivikm.
iMreui.
■llraara.
Itandabsra.
lotaL
Mrnra.
(-llraan.
11.Hl.b.T..
I,»L
<M7~>,
i-Uimn.
ISudabova.
Total
isi
siSmi
TT«;»n
Sis
1(LM6
M.1M
kIm
s
?»;Jw
»«
^s
u«
are (^ven in the foQowlDg table (XXIIL) i-
1
n
if
FlaoiL
ii
0
t
i
II
II
4
ha-
sss
Si,-SS
mo
".-.^
ii,gu
s
.is
an
•^d
endance at the achoola of tha aldait
aona ot Woas and freehaldera until " they be (onided In parlart
I«lin, and thereafter to remain at the achoola of art* and liv
(where eccleaiaalica were traitmd). The granunac or bnrrfi "J"''
injoved a monopoly of teaching certain braaohaa, and prirala
t^oola were frequently prohibited la interfering with their nghta
Onmmar-achoola w«« efilofly devoted to instiuction hi Latin, ino
' tolhereport
if the adncition commiisionera,
twenty-aix. By the A
<e yaara. According to the repm
the number of bn^ vbo^ "
,ou, — . I..U.J-.U.. jjT i-o jiot of 3873 their managemnil "•
tran4farr«d to the achool tnaid, but they wen excluded frota [««-
clpatlon in tba achool fund, and no proiiaon waa made for Itnr
inspection. Tha Act of 1878 anthonaed certain granla of moaff.
and contained certain [nvviaioua for Inawction, which, ■e'*™;
have ham practically InopantiTa. The Educationa] Ka*'7™!'i,.
Act of 1883 prorldea for a men eamfrehaaiiva acJi"* ™ "*
SCOTLAND
r_ •tontiai, nd aln fai > ishMM of
«d prirata baqowt-^'bld an unul Iboobm of jGlTCOOO, ud, od
aooooDt d( th« chugtd onditiaiH of lodat;, tki prinar; at{j«Ci
otOuiaacmwm ioRBnat dtgna frutntod In tlu puiuMr in
irtiiok tbsr wan bMng admiiiiitnvd. Soma of t&a bart noimctnT
■chooli ia Seotland u* tmdM tha miiug«nMDt at ttcMtm-jFcK
th* fiMT snincritk* at Sootluid (Bt Andram, AberdMn, Oli^ow.
■ml UiabdT^) M* tlu aitialn oa tluM dttta, >l*a UnTHuarui.
UaiTuri^ d^]^ in DnndH ud Andwnn'i Collaga In Glugow
tiM-n limiUc ooocwi at iMboaUon to tb* nnlnnllli^ but ponaa
no powv to gnnt itg/tm utd nooiTa no OonniDant ud. A
aoUa ot tha miou aWio*] Kbooli ind MkntlAo «oll<8«i vUl In
found in tha trtiels* on th* toma In which fliaj in iltaatad.
AJviom.— 7<w an hiatoiical aeoonnt of tiw muv imporiant
nliljraa d«nomlnatia[» at Boatlasd On mdar la wfarwd to tha
utidN SooTum, Cnnum (», Fexi Cn^nxoi of Booti-ibd,
UMimt PwnmuM Cbtboh, and PunrnnuinBic Tba
bulk of tba popolation b Pnabjtarian, and tba (bUowisg table
(ZXtV.lsiTMpartknbnnportad In 1S8S npidlng thaOiiiRb at
" itluKl and oAtt chtiTcliai originated by •Hanoni from it at
■ -- mtribotiona"'""" " "" ' '""*
of Uw btabH^od Obueb :
asj-c-a.
v.r.
S32
pi
^
^S
«
tasat
1^ Boman Catholla Church haa (27 "ebnnhea, obapel^ and
■t>tiwi^"— tha eatlmatedpopnUlion amnictad with it baing am
IID.DOC Tha Epboopal OhanJi in Scotland baa about 3B0 choiclua
with 80,000 mambai (of all uaa) and naarif W,000 commonl-
auita, Tba chorebta in connedon with th* CoiwtwaUoiul Unioo
namlMr lOt, 7S ot which nport a mambgnhip of lO^ft, tha nuna*
lalad fbr all pnrpo« In 1881-8S baing lafitl. Tha " " '
Union baa 83 ohiuclua with •888 mambon : and the ^
union naa oo onorciwa wita vooo matuuvtaj am
Uathodiata hava 38 " dnnlta " with 4053. Than
0 Waalayan
afiiwotlMr
■hip ot aaob l> compaiatiTab' amaU.
Omnamit, Lai, and taoai JdvumitraH<m.—Sj tbo Act of
Dnion in 170T Sootlanil caaaad to hara a aepanls paiUaauait and
ft* ■govammant w« aaaimilatad to that at '^'e'""<
peilSonetit <it Onat Britain it* npnaentatlan waa nxad
In the
aixtata
ama nnmbir aa at raaamt) alectad hf tba paeia of
aach new pailianwat, in tha Honoa of Loida, and at
tortj-flTs mamban la the Houm of Oommona, — ttw soimtie*
rnhuoing IMi^ and tha bdtgha llftaan. Tlia poww of tha -~-
Toign to «caata naw Bcottlih paangaa lapoad at the Dnlin^ and
Biunbar baa alwtJy diminlaliad br naariy ot
Aot of ISSa the number at ScoUih wpnaan
ma laiaad to Utr-tbraa^ tba ooonfia* ol .,
BTnogiawnt ratnrnlog i^itj mamban «a bafon^ and tb* bUR^
rainfiniiad bj tha anotian of Taiiooa towna into parllanwntaiT
bnI^l^ twantj-thna ; tha aaoond Battem Aot (IMS) incraaaad
th* nninber to aixtr, tba miTaidtlM aUliaing repraaantati
tm mambeia, whUa thna additional mamban wan aaalBied
countieaaiid two to tb* bui;^: bfthaBsdlstributlim^Saal* Act
of 1SS6 an addition of dx membin waa made to tha :
baing laiaad to HTaatj-twa. Tlia naiiagamant dBa . ^
in parlianuDt haa alaoe 188S beau under tha chaiga ot tha lacntai;
ila old mtan of law and laol
Uuian tba law* «( Kn^aad and Sootland hara baan on manj
pdnia aadmilatad, tiu criminal law of the two cauntriaa being
in aanf n^aot* diflknot Tb* Court ot8*arian,aatli*nipnme
court in drfl canaea ia sailed, data* from ICtS, and waa fonned
on tb* modal of tha parlamant of Fufa ; it la held at Edinborgh,
tha caplUI. Sine* th* Union it haa nndargoDo oertaln nudifea-
tiona. It aoniltt* of thirtaaai judge*, aotlag In an Inner and
an Ontsr Honaa; The Inner Hooa* haa two diTiaoD*, with four
judna each, the Snt bring pnridad orar by the knd pmident
of the whole oouH:, and tha •■oond bj th* laid Jnatica oleik. In
tha Outer Uonn fln judgea^ caDad tarda ordiDary, alt In aepante
eouita. Appaala ma; be nude boni the l<ada ordlnaij to rithet
a tha dtriakmeaftlie Inner Homa^ and, if tha oocadoa damandt,
tha o^ioD ot an tha Jndm at tha Oonrt of Bearion maj be
called^ tor ; but whaOiai thfa b* dona «r not tha dacUon ia n-
gardad ae a dedrion of th* Oonit of Baadoo. Appeal* maj be
midathnnthBOaartotSeariantothaBoua ot Lorda. Tha lotd
Ju«tio* gananl (lad pnaidantJt tb* Ictd Juitioe daifc, and fin other
Jndgaa fcnn Ik HUh Oeot of JnalidaiT, bMtaft in 187^ fcr
erimina] caaaa. which rita at Edinbugh for th* trial of caaa* from
the thna Lothiana and of caaaa nfened fiom tbo circnit eonrta.
The latter meet fbr the eenth at Jadbarah, Dumfile*, and Ajr ;
'-- *•■- weet at Qlaamw, InTafarn, and StMiDg; and Ibr tha north
h, AbardeaOj Dondea^ and InTanieaa. lie law agenti who
— oa ooorta an either
to tha dgnet, Om
Abwdaa^Dni
ieaM*tob*d<
h* (aprana
ir writan to
latter at whan poaaeaa certain Ipeebd priTilena. The lawjw
antboriaed to Wid baton the aapieme coorte la taimad an ad-
ncala. ThaprinoipallawoSicer oftha crown lathe lord ^neate,
who la tolated bj tha laUdtor-genenl and hj adToeata*-d*pnte.
The lotd adroeata haa rise* 1886 caaaed to naTO the ohaige of
Bcottiah burinaa* In the Hooa* of OoBmana. Sea Astooat^ nl.
L 178. The nbonUnata legal coorta and oObial* an daacribed
nnder tha next heading.
The hraeat admlniatraUTe ana la that at th* coun^, hat fbr
purpcat* ot iwiatntlon Bootland ia partitioned into ei^t dlTiaiaDL
to eadi of which an iwamlnar for ioi^ection of regiateia ia appealed
Stha lagiatrar-genaTal ; and for the canTing ont of tha proTiaiaDi
the LmioT Act* it ia divided into twent;-two diebicb. B^gia-
tntion ooonfia* data tKm tha Act of I6H proridlng that for ppr>
u__ .1 at the countiea may be altered. Sot
ttwpnrpoMa of ^ Oenenl lUlo* A^ of 1883 part of the u
one conn^ may ako be brought into th* ana of uuther. Certain
counUaa haTa been united for parliamentary or athu pnipoeea, and
oertaln Otbon haTO been dirldad ht parlluiantary pnnoaea, while
othen uain lor oertaln adminiilnfira putpoeee ntetn tbidi old
LriJon^ Lanark far aaaaaamant pnryaa* being itill dirlded intt
wtrda. Hie dvil ooontia* w
oigiDuly ^nonymoQ* *idier widi
_ _ . laitriea caaaed with the aUaitbmoI
henditaiT juladletfc>» fn 1718, but KlAoudbririit atill niaina thi
daalnatlon. Ti» eSoe of dieriff, wbk£ foimwiy Implied a mooh
leaa limited anthori^ than at pnoant, waa in axlatenoe In the nln
of DaTid L , wluai the greater put at tha kingdom waa dirtdad Inlo
twenty-Bra aharifldoma. In tha latter part ot the 18th oentnry
thtynombered thlrW-fDUT. The coontiee now number thlr^-lbrei,
of which Boee and Cromarty conatitnt* onet while Xdinbni^ ia a
county of a d^." Hi* Bioheat connty dinitary la the lora-
■ '* olBoebeiDginatEtntedinlTsa. Her !—^-"-
Uuilanan^ the oflloe betng inatitnted in 1783. He la naminated by
Utn imiva. hnld* oOoa ToT lift, oicapt In caaaa of ndacoidnel^
crown in mUttary matten, ncommenda for o-m-
rapraaante the crown in mUttary matten, ncommenda for o-ji
ndaaion* of tha paace^ holda the pedtion of high iheriS; and !■
member of the polloe oommittett Pnetlcally, nowenr, the ofBci
la little man than honorary, and the real admlniatnUon of onmQ
afbln ia in tha handa of coominlonefa at mpidy, who won originallj
appointed to apportion and ooUeot the natiioiiureTeane, bnt who now
ngolate the land-tax, control tbe ocnn^ police, raiae tlie militia,
and lary rata* to meet tbe county eipauUtnre. In IS78 an Act
waapaaeadht Uiaareattesof roedbuateaa, whohaTe the power to
Utt ratea tai flu leaiutenanea throodiDirt the county of rceda and
bridgae (aae PL SM abora). The piac%ial admlniitiation ot the law
in the eonntyi* nnd*r tha aon&ol of the ahariC Sea Snurp.
A lam wmoTtloB vi hia duliaa ani however, delegated to the
abedAnbatitata. At one time tha Amctlona of the i^eriff-nindpa)
wma aanAned to one ooon^, bat bj an Act paaoed In ISSG it waa
amngad that aa aheritHoma fell ncant certau countlea ehoold be
grooped Into dlatricta, aaoh under tba control of one aharUT-prind-
pal, and in 1S70 thia anangement waa farther modified and ex-
tended. Tie aheriir-aleA, appoioted by the cnwn, haa, under tbo
Ballot Act of 1873, tha diaige of ballot papen in comwctkw with
the parliameotary election^ and ia eautf* nlulffnim. The jnUic
ptoeecutor lot coaDttN ia the prooontor-llacal, who takaa fh»
initiatira in ngaid to loapected eana of aodden death, alOwodi
in thia ronect the law at Seotland 1* lea* atrlot flian that << Bn(^a^
Jnatlgcaof tlwpaaa*, wboan unpaid and nqidn no apedal qualifl-
cation, but wb^ a* they an ncommended by tbe lora-Ueutenaat,
an genaraUy pereona of podUon in Qm amatj, eienaae a certdn
anbndinate jniiadiction. Their office expina on tha demin of the
crown. In ewr aommlnlon of the peace certain puUio i^Bdala
an Indndad. '&» juatioa* of the peaea hold quarter aunliilia^ lidu
affidavita and daolaiaUoiia (aach a* deelaratloBa of maniige), ilp
wanenb^ tiy pettf criminal caaa* (■uch a*p*clallv a* poactdng ud
aaaault), and reg^ala pabUc-bonie lloencaa. Under Boiouoa (roL
ir, pp. 88-84) irill be fimnd an account at Oiehiatory and oouaUtu-
tlon ef the thne ilemiia of andaat burriw In Bcofland, — rml
igaliW, and bnrgha of Detonr. " *'
any «( the other danea of fa
bnr^ buri^ of rtgaliW, and bnrgha of Wonr. ^dlca bur^
which may inclnda any «( the other ilnmiia of burgha, an foimed
i^cea which hara adopted the Oeneral Police ajid Improre-
a(18andl«Tictcnand3Sand!0Tict.o.lOl]. Tbey
an goramed by police aommianaaRt, who bare power to regnkla
an aanHanr manen. They bmj inelnda mon than one it the
other bnr^ and amy extend into another onuntT. Cndai the
Impnirament Aot (t( and 38 Vict. e. 101) meat of the bondia with
«T*r 7000 Inhabilenla m.li.t.ln their own police. The paruamant-
aty boT^ do not now Incliule aU the royd bnr^ and indnda
Tarimu other towiw in addilioa to tbau. Tba noatba^vC loyil
IB MTB MonnoMly fam«o«d m popnUtion md wMlth,
otban hns n daoIiMd or toids w littl* progiMi thit thaj doit
nnk ool; (i rinua. In 1S81 than mat tsD lonl harghi which
. , ,. . .i__ .-a.,...!,.-.^ —ll mud font nUch liEiTlm thiin
...d in 1879, th< trtctiou ofaibui lod
, 1 prorided for. Thn corporation of the
burgh* is finmid of tha potett (or loid ptOTCet), bulita, uid
coandlloni Btilia oonrta an held io ths barghs for ths trial oT
minor iilftnio Tha dril puiih or puiih suead omnia, arigin-
■IIt Uu *"'**'-*""' puiih or uea nHiiact to Ons am of nnli, ii
n dirinoB of the oooatT Sir tiqialnttan of Irirtbs, dMtlu, and
Puiilun and for pocs Uv ■dminirtroUon. The booiulariea an
datmniBad hj ttw bonuUriN of tlis titaba which appear to lie in
Uu patiab, l>ot mftr bo allarad tir oonxnit of pcopruton holding
tlu m^ Tains of tha property »> '>• f" "^ nnitarf parpoHa
tlM anu of boighi ate moorad from thoM of tha pariuic^ and
aad vadowed a churclL For adminiittiil
Dirish orguiiiation Lb that of the heritort or landonsn,
[Uired to provido aad maintain a chnich, cborcbfan^
the Edacatini Act in
required to provido and maintaii
and chureh glsbe, uid, before Ihe ,_.. _
1S72, had to msiuUin Che parochial tc£aoL In ISTS the power
VH gnuted them of aaaesunent Coi poor relief, bot in 140O the
kirk-MBion wMunilod with them rotthoMpnrpoaee. Thii oiganiza^
tion Btill eiiala in tbOH pariihea, now Terj few in nnmber, whicb
hiTe not adopted the Poor Law Amendment Act of 181S ; *>•*' Act
prorides for the canititation of a psrochEal booid compoaad of
nominee! of the kirk-aeaaioa and a proportion 4f permn deeted
bf the latepajen, Uuder tha Education Act of 1873 tha eoiuiw
ia dlTided into school-bDard dietriclo, whoee area correaponda witli
the eiril, or the guaid lacra, or landvanL or borsbal pnriali laBm
p. tii above).
lUi^tnalTDt KO.
KlUlK^nnkle, 11T.
Kudu, NO ij., KB, hu.
Iatri, tattle o<: tai, U3.
tauilerflala, A1&
MEltlED^ of LatUigteii,
. ,:nt,K».
Murgaiet. Hald ol
xiiTotaiiiia,ioa.
lUIUIOll, UL Uli.
BlTua, j>£^
MjMtot it, MW»«.
Ssutken aiilaat,lat.
BtatlMiei,IISj«.'
Btlrllng. 4BL «^ MT.
T^tal rtadiG. Mil
Will ot Antcoiaia, tn.
BCOTLAKD, Ceuxch- or. In the uticle Fsbst-
TBUimK ths hittorj ot the Cbiuch of SeotUod waa
bron^t down to the middle of the I8th cetitniy, atid the
atmy of the geceasione of 1733 and 17C1 wu there told.
We take up here the chnich's hittorj at the begianing of
the " Moderate " rule. Her annalt during the next tliree-
qnarters of a century are lingolarlj TueventfnL In close
alliancs with the state, she incr«asea in power and dignity,
and becomes the home of letter* and philosophy. But
there is no grcAt movement of a theological nature^ no
striking religions develapment to lend hei n^wlar intweat.
nie strength of the cborch as well as Dsr tendency to
moderation aroee id great part out of the political ciiciuD-
staocestrf theeariy part of the 18th century. Freebytery,
being lo;«l to the hoose of Hanover, while Episcopacy was
Jacobite, cngt^ed the royal favoor and was treated as a
firm ally of the Oovanunent The Patronage Act of 1 71 2
threw tha filling up of pariahee into the bands of thoee
veil-affected to die QoTemmen^ and the example of the
mode of patronage practised in England may have tended
to promote a dtsregafd of the rdigions feelings of the
peoplsL The effect on the clergy was to encourage them
to seek the friendship of the landed gentry and to regard
the higher rather than the lower wders of society as their
natural allies, so that they were at tha same time led to
liberal ways of thinking and rendered Ur^ly independent
It is remarked by Dr Hill Barton, and Carlyle repeats tfie
remark, that " Scots disent never was a protest against the
principles of the church, but always tended to preserra the
old principles of the church, whence the EstabUshmeut — by
the progress of eolightemuent as some eaid^ by deteriontioa
according to others — was lapsing." The secessions carried
off ths more fervent elements ; yet enough of the old leaven
always remained to exert a powerful influenifi. Thus, while
the diurch as a whole was more peaceful, more courtly, moie
inclined to the friendship of the world than at any formu
time, it contained two well-roarked parties, in one of which
theaa characteristics of the religion of the 18th century were
more marked than in the other. The Moderate party, which
maintiuned it« ascendency tilt the be^pjming of the 19lh
century, and impressed its character on the church, sought
to make the working of the church in its different parts as
systematic and regular as poaaible, to make th6 assembly
supreme and enforce respect for its decisions by presbyteries,
and to render the judicial procedure of the cbiirch as exact
and formal as that of the civil courts. The popular part;,
regarding the church less from the side of the Oovemincat,
had less sympathy with the progressivB movements d the
age, and desired greater strictnebS in discipline. The mwo
subject of dispute aroee at first from the exercise of patein-
Bge. Presbyteries in variona parts ot the country were ilill
disposed to disregard the presentations of lay patrons, and
to settle the men dteired by the people ; but U^ decuiona
SCOTLAND
<!37
itd dtDwn tint if tbcj acted in tliis mj tliedr nomioM,
whils legaUr miniitei of the puiah, ooold not dum the
at4>«id. To the rUk of such ncrificee ^a chnroh, led l^
the Hodente pwty, reFuaed to expose herself. B7 the new
pt^c; manxnrated by Dr Bobertson, which led to the second
Beoewion, theaaaemblj compelled presbyteriee to give effect
to pnaentatioDs, &iid in e long seriee of dispated settlementa
the "caii," thoogh still held essential to a settlement, w&s
leas and lees ragged, until it was declared that it was not
ueoeaaaty, and that the church courts were bonnd to induct
anjr qnaMed presentee. The subetitution of the word "con-
canence " for " caU " about 1764 indicates the eubsidiary
and ornamental li^t in which the assent of the perishioners
ms now to be resided. The church could have given more
weight to the wQiee of the people • she profeaaed to re^;ard
patronage aaagrievance^ and the BJinual inatnictionsoE tbe
Heembljr to the comminioa (tbe committee representing tbe
emnmblj till its next meeting) enjoined that body to take
ftdranti^ of aa j opportmiity which might arise for getting
rid of the grieraoce of patronage, an ^junction which ^ss
itot diaoonttuned till 1784. It is not likely that any change
in the law could have been obtained at this period, end diS'
ngard of the law might have led to an eihanating strogglt
with tbe state, as waa actually the case at a later period.
Btill it WM in the power of the church to give mora weight
thansiiedidtothefeelingB of the people; and herworUng
of die patronage extern diove urge uumbeiB from the
Establislunent. A melancholy catalogue of forced settie-
meata toarka the annals of the church from 1749 to 1780,
and i^ierever an nnpopular presentee was settled the people
quietly left the Gatablishment and erected a meeting-hou»
In I763therawBaagTeatdebatein the assembly on the pri
gren of achiam, in which the popular party laid tbe whole
blame at the door of the Moderates, while the Moderates
regcHDed that patronage and Hodeiatism had made the
church the dignified and powerful institution she hod
come to be. Lt 1764 the number of meeting-bouses waa
I20,andinl7T3ithadriaentDl9a Kor waa a conciliatory
attitude taken up towarda the aeceders. The ministers of
the Belirf desired to remain connected with the Establiab-
ment, but were not suffered to do so. Those ministers
frho resigned their parishea to accept calls to Belief con-
^jtegaticmg^ in places where forced settlements had taken
place, and who might have been and claimed to be recog-
nized as HttU mlotsters of tbe church, were deposed and
forloddes to look for any ministerial communion with the
clergy of the EatablLshment Such was the policy of the
Hodeiate aaeendency, or of Principal Robertson's adminia-
tratioD, oa this vital subject. It had the merit of success
in BO far aa it completely established itself in tbe church.
Tbe presbjMnriea ceased to disregard presentations, and lay
patronage came to be regarded OS part of the order of things.
But the growth of dissent steadily continued and excited
alarm from time to time ; and it may be questioned whether
the peace of the church was not purchased at too high a
price. The Moderate period is justly regarded as in some
respects the most brilliant in the history of tbe chnrch.
Her clergy included many distinguished Scotsmen, of whom
an account is given under their respective namm. See
Keid (Thomas), Campbell (George), Fbeouson (Adam),
HoM (John), Blaik (Hugh), Eobketsos (WUIiam), and
EuBEiNB (John). The labours of these men were not
mainly in theology i in religion tbe age was one not of
advance but of rest; tbey gained tor tbe church a great
and widespread respect laid influence.
Another salient feature d the Moderate policy waa the
consolidation of discipline. It ia frequently oaaerted that
discipline was lax at this period and that ministen of
scandalous lives were allowed to continue in their chuges.
It cannot, however, be ahowntiiattlH laadoacd tbe duudi
at this time aoDght to ptocnre the miMarriage of jn^M
in dealing with such cases. That some offenders were
acquitted on technical grounds is true; it was insisted
that in dealing with the character and status of their
members tbe church conrts should proceed in as formal
and pnnctiliooa a manner as civil tribunals and should
recognize the some laws of evidence, in fact, that the
same securities should exist in tbe church as in tlie state
for individual rights and liberties.
The religions state of the Highlands, to which at the
period of the Union the Beformation had only very par-
tially penetrated, occupied the attention of the church dur-
ing the whole of the I8th century. Inl72fi thegift called
the " royal bounty" was first granted, — a sulsidy amounting
at first to £1000 per annum, increased in George IV. 's r^gn
to X2000, and continued to tiie present day ; its original
otiject waa to assist tbe reclamation of the Highlands from
Roman Catholicism by means of catechists and teachers.
The Sode^ for Propagating Christian Knowledge, incor-
porated in 1709, with a view partly to tbe wants of the
Highlands, worked in concert with the Church of Scotland,
setting up acboola in remote and destitute localities, while
the churdi promoted various schemes for the dissemination
of the Bcriptores in Qaelic and the encouragement of Gaelio
students. In consequence of these efforts Itoman Catho-
licism now lingers only in a few islands and glens on the
west coast. In these labours aa well aa in other directions
the church waa sadly hampered by poverty. The need of an
increase in the number of parishes was urgently felt, and,
thouj^chapds began to be built about 1796, they were pro-
vided only in wealthy places by local voluntary liberality ;
for the supply of the necessities of poor outlying districts no
one as yet looked to any agency but the state. In every part
of the country many of the miniaterB were miserably poor;
there were many s^pends, even of important parishes, not
exceeding £40ayear; and it was not tul after many debates
in the assembly and appeals to the Government that an Act
was obtained in 1810 which made up the poorer livings to
£150 a year by a grant from the public exchequer. The
churches and manses were frequently of the most miaerable
description, if not falling to decay.
With the dose of the IStb centu^ a great change passed
over the spirit of the church. The new activity which
sprang, up everywhere after the French Revolution pro-
duced in Scotland a revival Of Evangelicalism which has
not yet eptait its force. Moderatism had cultivated the
miniatera too fast for the people, and the church had
become to a large extent more of a dignified ruler than a
spiritual mother. About this time the brothers Robert
and James Holdane devoted themselves to the work of pro-
moting Evangelical Christianity, James making missionary
journeys throughout Scotland and founding Sunday schools;
and in 1798 the eccentric preacher Rowland Hill visited
Scotland at their request. In tbe journals of theee evan-
gelists dai^ pictures are drawn of (be religious state of the
country, though their censorious tone detracts greatly from
their value ; but there ia no doubt that the efforts of the
Haldanes brought about or coincided with a quickening
of the religious apint of Scotland. The assembly of 179U
paned on Act forbidding the admission to the pulpits of
laymen or of ministers of other churches, and issued a
manifesto on Sunday schools. These Acts helped greatly to
discredit the Moderate party, of whose spirit they were the
outcome; and that party further iiijured their standing
in the coimtry by attacking Leslie, afterwards Sir John
Leelie, on frivolous grounds, — a phrase he had used about
Hume's view of causation — when he applied for the chair of
mathematicfl in Edinburgh. In this lUspute, which made
a grcAt eensatton in the country, the popular party success-
tailj defended Leelie, and thus obtained tiie sympathy at
„ SSX— 68_
538
SCOTLAND
the enBgBt«ned portion of the eonunnnitr. In ISIO tlie
CiritHa* Imtrtidor began to appear nnder the editonhip
d Dr Andrew Tlioiiuon, a churchman of vigorous intellect
and QoUe cbatacter. It woa an ably writtoa review, in
which the theology of the Haldanea assarted itself in a
somewhat dogmatic aod cooGdent tone a^nst all onsouiid-
neas and Moderatiam, clearly proclaiming that the former
things had passed away. The question of pluralities begou
to be agitated in 1813, aud gave rise to a long struggle,
in whidi Dr Chalmers took a notable part, and which
terminated in the regulation tliat a university chair or
ptindpaUhip should not be held along with a pviah which
WB8 not close to the onivenity seat.
Tbe growth of Evaogelical sentiment in the chorch, along
with the example of the great missionary societies founded
in the end of the 18th and the beginning of llie 19th
centoiy, led to the institution of the various missionary
scbemea etiU carried on, and their history forms the chief
part of the history of the church for a number of years.
The education edieme, having for its object the plant-
ing of schools in destitute Highland district^ came into
existence in 1821. The foreign mission committee was
formed in 1825, at the instance of Dr Inglis, a leader of
the Moderate party ; and Dr Duff went to India in 1829
as the fint missionary of the Church of Scotland. The
church extension committee was first appointed in 1828,
and in 1834 it was made permanent. The colonial scheme
waa inangnrated in 1836, and the Jewish mission in 1838,
M'Cheyne and Andrew Bonar setting out in the following
year as a deputation to inquire into the condition of the
Jews in Palestine and Turkey and on the Continent of
Bnrope. Of these schemes tJiat of church extension has
moat historical importance. It was originally formed to
collect information regarding the spiritual wants of the
conntry, aud to apply to the Government to build the
churches found to be necessary. Aa the population of Scot-
land had doubled since the Reformation, and its distribntioQ
hod been completely altered in many counties, while the
number of parish churches remained nnchanged, and meet-
ing-hon»e» bad only been erected where seceding congrega-
tions required them, the need for new churches was very
great The application to Gh>vemment for aid, however,
proved the occasion of a " Voluntary controversy," which
raged with great fierceness for many years and has never
completely subsided. The union of Uie Burgher and t2ie
Actiburgher bodies in 1820 in the United Seceasioa— both
baring previously ccme to hold Voluntary principlea —
added to the influence of these principles in the country,
while the political excitement of the period disposed meu's
minds to such discussions. The Government built forty-
two churchea in the Highlands, providing them with a
slender endowment ; and these are still known as parlia-
mentary chu^^hee. Under Dr Chalmers, however, the
church extension committee struck out a new lino of action.
That great philanthropist iiod come to see that the church
could only reach the masses of the jieople effectively by
greatly increasing the number of her places of worship and
abolishing or minimiring seat-rents in the poorer districts.
In his powerful defence of establishments against the
voluntaries in both Scotland and England, in which hU
ablest assistants were those who afterwards became, along
with him, the leaders of the Free Church, be pleaded
that an established church to be effective mnat divide the
country territorially into a krge number of small parishes,
EO that every comer of the land and every person, of what-
ever clasa, shall actually enjoy the benefits of the potoohial
machinery. This " twritorial principle " the church baa
steadily kept in riew ever since. With the view of realiring
this idea he appealed to the church to provide fnnda to
build a large number of new churches, and personally
carried his appeal throughout the country. By 183S Iia
had collected £6S,636 and reported the bnilding of uxty-
two churches in connexion with the Establishment. Hie
keenness of the conflict as it approached the crisis of 1843
checked the liberality of the people for this object, bnt by
1841 X305,747 had been collected and 233 churchea boili.
The zealous orthodoxy of the church found at this period
several occasions to assert itself. Mljcod Campbell, min-
ister of Bow, was deposed by the assemUy of 1830 for
teaching that assurance is of the essence of faith and that
Christ died for all men. He has sbce been rect^piited «a
one of the profoundost Scottish theologians of the I9tli
century, although his deposition has never been removed.
The same assembly condemned the doctrine put forth, by
Edward Irving, that Christ took upon Him the sinful nature
of man and was uot impeccable^ and Irving was deposed
five years later by the presbytery of Annan, when tbs out-
burst of supposed miiaculons gifts in his church in London
had rendered him etill more obnoxious to the strict censiirea
of the period. In 1811 Wright of Borthwick waa deposed
for a series of heretical opiidons, which he denied that he
hetd, but which were said to be contained in a aeries of
devotional works of a somewhat mystical order which he
had published.
The influence of dissent also acted along with the rapidly
rising religious fervour of the age in quickening in the
church that sBnae of a divine, mission, and of the right and
power to cany out that mission without obstruction front
any worldly authority, which belongs to the essential con-
sciousness of the Christian chimJi, An agitation against
patronage, the ancient root of evil, and the formation of
an anti-patronage society, help^ in the some directjon.
The Ten Years' ConOict, which began in 1833 with the
passing by the assembly of the Veto and the Chapel
Acts, is treated in the article Fbee Chubck of BcoVLAtm.
It is not therefore necessary to dwell further in this place
on the consequences of thoea Acta. The assembly of 1843,
from which the exodus took ptac^ proceeded to undo the
Acts of the church during the preceding nine yeora. The
Veto was not repealed but ignored, aa having never had
the force of taw; the Btrathbogia ministers were tecog-
nixed as if no eeotence of depoution had gone forth against
them. The protest which the moderator had read before
leaving the assembly had been left on the table ; and an
Act of Separation and deed of demission wera tweived
from the ministeie of the newly formed Free Chuidi, who
were now declared to have severed their connexion with
the Church of Scotland. The assembly addreaaed a pastoral
letter to the people of the country, in which, while declin-
ing to "admit that the course ti^en by the seoeden wav
justified by irr«Bistible necessity," they counselled p«ac|
and goodwill towards them, and called for the loyal support
of the remaining members of the chnrch.
Two Acts at once passed through the legialatnre in
answer to the claims put forward by the church. The
Scottish Benefices Act of Lord Aberdeen, 1843, gave the
people power to state objections personal to a presentee,
and bearing on his fitness for Uie particular charge to
which he was presented, and also authoriied the presbytery
in dealing with the objections to look to the number and
character of the objectors. 6ir James Qraham's Act, 1844,
provided for the erection of new parishes, and thus cifAted
the legal basis for a scheme nnder which chapel Toinistera
might become meE.bers of church coorts.
The Disruption left the Church of Sootlaod in a ladly
maimed condition. Of 1203 miniateis 491 left her, and
among these were many of her foremost men. A third of
her membership is computed to have gone with Ottm. In
Edinburgh many of her chnrchei were nearly empty. Th»
Oaelic^pealdng population of the Korth^m cgmttiM «m-
1 0 O T L A N D
ff39
pkfij d«Mrtod ba.
Bhahttd no gale erf popoki
left Iter but
I to cany W
forward, npnasBtiiigas ilw did not a newljariMn principle
bat Uie apptmtioa to a principle whkh libe miintained to
b« daDgcraiu aad csaggeiat«d. Fot many yean the had
mneli obloqtty to endure. But «he at once let heieelf to
the talk of Ailing up vacandea and recraiting the miuioD-
aiy ataiC A lay asoodation iraa formed, irhi<£ nlBed large
■lUtu of money for the tniamonaiy achemeB, so that their
income wia not allowed Berioiuly to decline. The good
X of the church, indeed, were in a few years not only
iined bnt extended. All hope being loat that parlia-
ment would endow the new churches bttilt by the ebvrch
exteoaion acheme of Dr Chalmera, it waa felt that thi«
also mnit be the work of volnutary Lbeiality. Under Dr
Jamea Robertaon, profemor of chnrch history in Edinbnrgh,
an« td the leading champions of the If oderate policy in the
Ten Yean^ Conflict, the eztenuon scheme was transformed
into the endowment acheme, and the chnich accepted it as
her dnty and her UA. to provide the machinery of new
parislwe where they were required. By 1864 SO new
parishes had been added at a coat of £130,000, and from
this time forward the work of endowment proceeded still
more rapi^. In 1860 61 new parishea hod been endowed,
in 1870 160, in 1870 250, while in 1886 ftere were 351.1
In 1843 the number of paridiea was 934. Of 42 parlia-
montaiy ehorchee existing at that time 40 have been
«r«cted into parishes quoad taent ; hence the total nnmber
at pariihee in Scotland at midsnmmsr 1886 was 1319.
^ the Poor IsM Act of 1845 parishes were enabled to
remore the care of the poor from the minister and the
kirk-seaaion, in whom it was formerly Tested, and to appoint
a parochial board with power to Bss«es the ratepayers.
The Education Act of 167S severed the ancient tie con-
ikecting church and school together, and created a Bcliool
board hsTing charge of the education of each parish. At
that date the Chnnh of Scotland had 300 schools, mostly
in the ?'g*'M"'lT The church, however, continues to
carry on normal schools for the bainiog of teachers in
Edinburgh, Glasgow, and Aberdeen.
iln 1874 patronage was abolished. The working of Lord
Abodeen's Act had given rise to many nnedi^ring scenes
and to lengthy straggles over disputed settlements, and it
waa eai^ felt Aat some change at least was necessary in
the law. .The agitation on the subject went on in the
aaeemUy from 1667 to 1869, when the assembly by a
large m^ority condemned patronage as restored by the
Act of Qneen Anne, and reaolved to petition parliament
for its removal The request was granted, and the right
of electing parish ministera was conferred on the congrega-
iaiaa; thus a grievance of old staadin^ from which all die
ecdeeiaatieal trouUea <£ a century and a half had sprnng,
was Ttmored aad the church placed on a thoroughly demo-
cratic bans, nis Act, combined with various {^orts made
within the chnrch for her improvement, has secured for the
Scottish Establishment a lai^ measure of popular favour,
and during the last quarter of a century she has grown
raindly both in nnmbws and in influence. This revival is
largely doe on the one hand t« the improvement of her
worship which began witt the efTorts of Dr liobert Lae
(1804-18S8), minister of Old QteTfriais, Edinburgh, and
professor of Biblical criticism in Edinburgh university.
" o his church a printed book of prayeia
and also an organ Dr 3Ue stirred up vehement controversies
in the chnrch conrt^ which twulted in the recognition of
the liberty of eongregatious to improve their worship. A
church service society, having for its object the study of
ancient and modem liturgies, with a view to the prepara-
tion of forms of prayer for public worship, was founded in
1866; it has published five editions of its "Book of
Common Order," which, though at first regarded with
suspicion, is now recognized as a useful and respected ad-
junct. Church music has been cultivated and improved
in a marked degree ; a fine collection of -hymns has been
iutrodnced to supplement the psalms and paraphrases.
And Bichitectore has reetored the larger chnrchea from
their disfigurement by partition walla and galleriea —
though much stfll remains to be done in this way — and
has erected new churches of a style favourable to devotion. ,
The fervour of tiie church has, on the other hand, found
a channel in the operations of a " Committee on Christian
Life and Work," appointed in 1869 with the aim of exercis-
ing some supervision of the work of the church throughout
the country, stimulating evangelietio efTorts, and organizing
the laboura of lay agents. This committee publishes a
magazine of " life and Work," which has a circulation of
about 100,000, and has lately been seeking to organize
young men's guilds iiL connexion with congregations. It
was to reinforce this element of the churdi's activity, as
well as to strengthen her generally, that Ur James Baird
in 1873 made the munificent gift of £500,000. This fund
is administered by a trust wMch is not under the control
of the church, and the revenue is used mainly in aid of
cbnrcb building and endowment throughout the country.
The church has greatly increased of lata ycftra in liberal-
ity of sentiment, and there has been no deposition for
heresy since 1843. A volume of Scotch Sermotu pub-
lished in 1880 by ministera holding liberal views brought
out the fact that the church would not willingly be led
into such prosecutions. An agitation on the part of the
Diasentera for disestablishment sprang up afresh after the
pasaiug of the Patronage Act and has continued ever since;
while a counter-movement was represented by a Bill, intro.
duced into parliament in 18S6 to declare the spiritual
independence of the Chnrch of Scotland, which, if success-
ful, would, it was understood, have opened the iray for a
reunion of the Presbyterian bodies.*
Ckiath MmitnMf.—'nit Church of Scotlud bu now (1836)
ISIB puialiH, ISO nan-parocliia] chnnbss, ud 111 prtuhinft ind
— .-u— in«ll 1B99 clurgM. Th* nnmbat of pmbjrtMi™
d []>«»
clureM. Th« ni
'iaciil lynods. '
»bi.
. . ^ ,1. The HBne™
ttaim dericsl ud 118 tiv mombars elected bv pitibytniei,
" oyil burghi «-■■ — ' '•'" — ' '
them
. a"«U *47 membimLli
ta M ntnnisd top>rliaiiigDtinlB71
187S
lS0,E2B;'ia 1873 th* nnmbcr u ntumed K . ...
i>u S1S,788 ; in 18S3 tbi Dumber returrwd U th« sntmbl; of
1884 w«iSi3,96fl; in 1835, 684,436. The prcfeoon of diTinitj U
the Ibui Scottiih univeisdes molt be miniitsn ot the cbnrcb, SLd
■todenti HpirinE to the miniitiy in raquired to itttnd one of tho
diTinit; hilli of the iuuTeiriLlea for three eenioiis, after an arte
conne of three yeen. A. Urge number of minitten o[ the chnrch
axt employed ebiewhera thu m SootlAnd. The CliDich of ScotUnd
in EngUnd coneirte of 18 chiirgee. There ere St chspleini minie-
tariag fc> Preabfterune in the umj ud nivj, 15 of these beinB
■tstioHd in Indie. The foreign mieaion emplojs 16 orduned vut
11 nnoidained Enropeen miadoulPiee, irith « Iwiinmnberof nitive
■gents, in Indii, Eut ATrici, end China. The Jevieh rnieoon em-
ploji 0 Dtilained miniiten, with other igentt, *t Coaetentinsple,
Smyme, Selonica, Baynnit, and Alexandria. The colonial com-
mittee lapplit* reliooni onliDBnceB to emigmutt from Scotland in
India, nil, CvprnvlUnritiai, Cevlon, and the Wst Indies beaide*
■eutiiunMCrterieu oollege* in (^sada and Aoatralia. A minister
of thecGnreh pMiidei over a Beota chnrch of old itindinf at Amitar-
danL Two laftasahipa have been founded in recent tunea in oon-
neikni«ithtli* tanch— one by XrJanua Baird (alnadjrmantianed),
it saeAd hoA fa Sr Stoty's
540
SCOTLAND
Iks otW hj Hr John Gmll tH aoathflald—tiKl thw hin iliad j
pndand wrsnd lotabla SHttribatioDi to Scotluh tbeolog)'.
■ims At bringiitg op to £300 x jeu All liringa ttut bU belov tlut
■am. SocbnnmbuedSIl ialSSt; udtLBiuiadiitribateduDOIig
Uum «u ie4S3F. which, bmrarer, wu £1000 ihort of the nun dmo-
■IV to (ccompliili futlj tha duiml object.
Ut Uw faUowiug dgtuk or the iacoine dF th> chorch m ^re Snt
th< Talus at her endoirznent* >ad then loma bg^ia ihoiruig the
gnirtii ttt hnr nlDBtuj libanli^.
Jftantftvm Siiaim>Menla.—(l) From ■ i)U'lIun«iitU7 return ob-
tdned in 1874 th< church ia leea to dcriTB from lamdi, indod-
IBg the Tains of muua and glebes tha uuiual aum or £Z8»,11S.
Angmentatioii) hira bean sbtuaed lince that data amouiiting to
npitardi of £10,000, but the Ban pricea halo declined during tha
■aiae parlod bj neailj M per cent, « thit tha totd amonnt u
deriTBd baa not inerauwd. The uneihauBtad Uinda amomited in
IS80 to£131,*13. (31 The iiclieqoer paja to IBO poor paiiaha
. and to *a Highland ehurehea, from iborch property m the hands
of the ccDwn, £17,0M. (B) From local eoorcea the chunb deriro
e2i,t01. (4) The tndoimanti laiaed by the chnreb ftir S42 now
pariahea amoimt to £1S,SOO. The total aodoirmoiita, not soontlng
chnrch bnildinf^ umnmt to£SB3,041.
shiin:h alnca the *a<M
llOBl—
T-r.
!SS
XdaoatloD.
SS™
wSL
iSS^
itIA
^
^a
^^
■»
tin
Noatteiapt
lllMnlitT oftlia cborcb; andchangea intioducsd ham time to time
fn the mode of atatiiu thi Tariooa nnu mako it hnpoaiible to giva
■ eom^et* oonparatfra M>tan»ut aince that da(«. The fiillowine
table (IL) (bom tha unoiinl at aidnqiMiuiial periodi dawD to 18SE,
tha ehBinh-don ooUactiosa and naVnmti probably tflbrdiiig the
moM aocBnto iwUcatloB of tba gaoanl pfogreaa ol Ua body. Tha
building opotatloni ot vUcli the Talnaa ara gjTen fnelnda only ancb
boilding aa ia tba taanlt of Toluntan aUbrt Iltider the head of
"geneiml cbnich ol^lMta" an Isclnded Uu soUactloDa for mlaoiona,
for Hull liTinn uid tad infinn mluiatan^ nuna oiaaion^ be
Tfaeae tanni do not Wdnda taicoms from tnut fimdi oi endoir>
M ) UHT itate (That vaa giTan in tha yaai nfomd to.
number otobjeota ot UbetaUty ace not inclnded in tba table.
sssss
luSto.
iSgi
o^St
Otkac
OVaeta.
TstaL
WTt
1
IS;!"
11
Tha fiiUowlng nnu van raiaad daring the thirteen yeata IB7S-
aj . ...-..— _ri«—1 ..J -1.— :*.h1. .»..J^.« «i laa nai . «.*_-.j
Ipaub, £SSS,4M; education
l««i«<s HI Mulv nwBu br tnlning coUwu], £lS1,fl81 ; home
mbaion work, 06S,MI ; dianh boilding iE7S7,7TS ; andowmuit
of new Mriabea^ £164,0*8 ; foraign miadon worli, £379,523 ; total,
£S,81«,H2. Hi Jamsa fiaiid^ ^ la not Indoded in thi* otato-
mant (A. M» )
SCOTLAin), LiTxuTCBi or. Literature in Bcotlud,
aa diatinct from EugUod, dat«a from tlie time of CJoldkba
(q.p.). AiUmnan, &bbot of Lid«, who in 690 wrote in
Latin the life of his predaceBBor, nutjr be regarded as the
first author that Scotland produced. In addttioD to hia
biography of 8t Colomba, a long extract from a work of
his on the " Holy Flacea " is incorpotated by Bede in hia
XecUiiiutieal ffittory. The greater port of Scotland waa
at that time inhabited by a Celtic popnlation and the period
from the 7th to the 13Ui century has left but few literary
iwnains(Me Cxijuo Litsbatdk^ vol. t. p. 313). In the
latter part of the I3th oentniy what may be called the
aDu«ut liteiaiy langnago of Scotland was used in Hm dis-
trict bttween the Homber and the Forth wd coastwJM aa
far north as Aberdeen,, fta earliest writer is 'Dimaaa of
Ercildoune, or Thomas the Hhymer, who reached the hei^it
of hla fame in 1280. The fairy tale or romance that bean
his name may be regarded aa the earliest example of
romance poetry in Britain. Nearly oontemp(»ai7 with
the Bhymer were two other distingniahed Scot^ UiduMl
Scot (q.v.) and John of Duns, or Dmra Scores (g.r.), botlt
of whom, howerer, wrote in Latin. Three Arthnrian
romancea taken from Anglo-Horman eources relating to
Sir Gawain, one of the most celebrated knights of the
Bound Table^ seem to have been composed about the end
of the 13th centnry. These were — Syr Gatpasfn and tAt
Grme KnychI, the Kjnghtiy Tale of Golagrot and Gavayiu,
and the Awatyn of Arthur at iJte Taiieteat^ytu. ^
Qawaia's eiploita were so popular in the south of Scotland
that he was claimed by tiie people as one of their own
chieftains and called the lord ot Galloway. The AtmUyrt
of Arihvr, or the adventures of King Arthur at the Tern-
wadlin^ a imall lake near Carlisle, and the PyM of >Sucte
S%uan, a veisioQ of the apocryphal atory of Susanna, are
sappoeed to have been Uis productions of Sit Hew of
Eglintoon about that period. The Taiil of Ba%f Coihtar,
in which the adventurea of the emperor Charlemagne in
the house of a charcoal-burner named Ralph in the neigh-
bourhood of Pffia are related with much poetic hnmonr,
and the fairy tale of Orfto and ffeui'odu were written in
the early part of the lith century and ware Tery popular
in Scotland in former times.
The War oE Independence gave a new impetus to Scot-
tish nationality and produced a corresponding effect on tbt
literature of the country. The Si-at, or metrical account
of the deeds of Robert Bmce^ was written by John Bix-
BOUB (q.v.), archdeacon of Aberdeen, in the Utter part of
the l4th century. To him we owe a translation of a
medieval romance on the Tr<^an War, nearly 3000 linea
in length, and a large collection of metrical livee of aainia,
which, after being long preaerrad in manuscript, have re-
cently been printed by Br Horstmsnn. About this time
was compiled the first formal history of Scotland by Jdm
of FoKDUtr (q.v,), which was written in Latin and brought
down to the death of David I. He, however, left materials
for the completion of the work, the last date of which ii
1385. In 1441 a continuation of it waa made by Walter
Bower or Bowmaker. The whole work waa then styled
the Scoliehrtmiam, and brings the history of Sootland down
to 1437. A metrical history was written between 14S0
and 1434 by Andrew of Wyntoon, a canon regular of SI
Andrews and prior of St Serfs Inch in Loch Leven. This
work, known as the OrygynaU Cnmylal of Seotlmtd, ia pre-
faced by an account of the homan race from the creation,
and, although for the most part its Terse is homely and
dull, its author occasionally describes stirring incidents
with considerable power. The beautiful poem of JaoKs L
called The Eingit (JuAntr, written about this period, waa'
far in advance of the contemporary metrical chronicles.
It possesses a melody of verse unknown before and gives
the king a conspicuous place in early Scottish lit^iaiuie.
He is supposed to have also written A Ballad of Good
Comud and a aong On Abtaet ; but two poems, Ckrulii
Kirk oftKe Great and PAlit to the Flay, believed to have
been hia composition, have been recently shown by Ih*
Rev. W. W. Skeat to be by some other early poet An
allegorical poem called the Bvks of At Boulat was written
about 1450 by Sir Richard Holland, an adherent of the
noble family of Donglaa, It ia a warning against pride,
exemplified by the owl, decked out in the splendour of
borrowed feathers, compelled on acoonnt of his insolence
to reeome hia origioal form. The poem displays some
inventive and deacriptiTe power, though marred by its
alliteration. The exploit* of Sir Tfilliaoi WaUtwe foniul
SCOTLAND
Ml
ftboot 1460 a irortlijr chronicler in Henry the Mmatrel, or
Blind Harry, irho, born with aucb a aerioui defect, matt
be nganled u one of the most extmordiuary individuals
neorded in the annali of literatiu^ Bia well-known poem,
which b«*n the name of his hero, is in veniBcation, ex-
preeuon, and poetic imagery a remarkable production for
that period. The grave and thoughtful jioetry of Bobert
HkhbviON (q.v.), notary public and preceptor in the Bene-
dictine eonrenl at Dunfermline, nho flouriihed about 1470,
oontraste favearably with that of hii English ooutempo-
rariee. Hia Ta^atenl of C/ttteid waa often incorporated
in the old editiona of the works of Chaucer, to whoite
poetry it ia not inferior. His Salient tJHrt Mnlj/nt a the
earliest apecLmen of pastoral poetc; in the Fcottiah lan-
guage. These, with his Fallei aod other works, entitle
him to a high place amoiigat the early Scottiah poets.
Nearly coeval with Henry son waa Sir Gilbert Hay,
chamberlain to Chsrles VI. of France, who made several
translatioiu from the vorks of French authors. One
of these, taken from a popular Frtncb romance of Alex-
ander the Great, extends to upwards of 20,000 linea, A
long anonymous poem called CUtrialvi belongs to this
period. It is a romance founded on a French original,
the more material incidents of which are aupposed to hare
happened at the English court It abountb with illastra-
tioDB of the manners and cuatoma peculiar to the aga of
chivalry. Being nearly 3000 lines in length, it is, like the
last-mentioned, an extensive specimen of the language and
Terai£cation of the time. The ThrU Talci of lAt Thrii
PitidU of PAIU (1490), the authorship of which is un-
known, are monl tales possessing considerable freshnesa.
Aa a fragment of an old version of them occnra in the
Ailoan US., written in 1490, they must have existed long
before the edition printed bj Henry Charteris in 1603, in
which form only they are now accessible. The Ledger of
Andrew Ealyburton, conservator ot the privileges of the
Scottish nation in the Netherlands, U92-1503, is a valu-
able source of infonoatioQ regarding the early trade of
Scotland.
The close of the 15th century exhibited a consider-
able growth of literary ability in the n-ritings of WiUiam
DiTNBis ({.r.) and his contemporaries. His works were
so highly eetaemed at the time he wrote that he was raised
to tha dignity of " the maker " or poet-laureate of Scot-
land. Such of Dunbar's writings as have come down to
the preaent time ore of a miscellaneous character, in which
there ia moch power of description and command of verse.
The TkUOt and Oie Kom and the Golden Targe are excel-
lent qieeimena of his poetic power. His satirical poems,
encfa as the Tvm Mariit TTmrn oni tht Wedo and the Flyl-
ing %riA KetmtdU, contain much coarse humour. Seven
of his poems were the first specimens of Scottish typo-
graphy, having been printed by Chepntan and Mjllar at
Edinburgh in 1508, followed in 1509 by the well-known
Sreuiarf for the church of Aberdeen. A homoroua poem
called the Freiru of Jierwii has been attributed to Dunbar
and is usually printed with his works. Contemporary with
Dunbar were a number of minor Scottish poets, of whose
works only a few specimens have come down to the present
time. These were Walter Kennedie, with whom he had
hie " flyting " or poetical contest. Sir John Eowll, Quintyne
Fihaw, Patrick Johnestouo, Meneir, James Afflsk, and
others.! The most claaaicat of the Scottish poets was Oawyn
or Oavia DoooLia (q.t.), bishop of Dunkeld, whose great
literary work was the translation of the ^ntid of Virgil
into Scottish versa. To each book he prefixed a prologue;
* Kmiwilla moU TSi Fraitt i/ Aijt woi Tlit Pammn t^ Ckntt ;
Bowll, n,C»nMgMOuattav^af>utFiMlU\ Shiir, .liMa (s a
OuBiMr \ JohuMtoan, T}\t T\tti Dtid Pinot, ; llNselr, Amtt hi
the one before the twelfth is an adniraUa dseeriptm povn
of the beanties of llay. Hid Pntia of Hoiumr and Kyiig
Hari, two allegorical poema, are aUe productions, the latter
of which is full of dFamatio vigour, Contemporary with
Doagtos was Sir David LyNPitAV (j.v.), Lyon king-of-arms
in the reign of James V., who may be regarded as the moA
popular of the early Scottish poets. His ilonanJiif, or
niM Dialog betiiii Sjytrimct and ant Cotirleour of tit
2Iiaerabyl Etiait of the ^'al^d gives a short <urvey o[
sacred and classical hLitory -nhich rondered it very popukr
in its time. Hid Sutin of tki Thrie Eu^iiit is a skilfully
written attempt to reform the abuoes of the period, especi-
ally those of the church. While 4omo of its choracterd
recite long and erudite political speeches, he introdneca
interludes of a farcical kind suited to the tastes ol Uio
timed. Thid work may be oocsiJered the fir:>t dramatic
effort of any British autlior. In his TetliA,naii of S</uirr
Mfldntm he relates the adventorea of his hero with much
poetic fire. Lyndday'a other poems consist of appeals to
the king for advancement and aome jeia iFnpnt of no
great length. One of the best scholars and teachers of thid
period was John !M^ar or ilair, a native of Haddington,
who was priuciiial of St Salvator'a College, St Andrews.
Besides being the author of learsed commentaries on
Aristotle, he wrote a well-known work, De kittoria gmtii
Scolomm libri ler, printed in 1531. Another Scottish
author that vrote in Latin with considerable elegance was
Hector Boece (q.t.), princiiial of King's College, Aberdeen.
His great n-ork, llittofin gtntit Seeterum a prima gentit
origine, was published in Paris in 1536. It was translated
into Scottish by John Bellenden, archdeacon of Moray,
under the title of the Ufifor) and CroniUii a/ Seotlimd,
printed at Edinburgh in 1536. Bellenden also tranalatcd
the first five books of Livy into Scottidh. The Ckrtmi<it
of Boece nas versified in Scottish in 1531-35 by William
Stewart, a descendant of the first earl of Buchan. It waa
written by command of Margaret, Ksler of Henry VIIL of
England, for the instruction of her son, the youthful James
V. A Latin poem of much merit, entitled Dt aniui Iran-
gut/Zifo/e, was published in 1543 by Florence WiUon, master
of Carpentros School, It is in the form of a dialogue and
displays much variety of knowledge, while its lAtinity has
long been celebrated. In an anonymous work, writtaa iii
1548 or 154S, and called the Complayni <^ Seotlaitd, the
author deplores the calamities to which Scotland waa then
Bui^ect. These are slated to be the wrongs dona to the
Sottish labourers at the hands of the landholders and the
clergy, the difiiculcies with England, and the treachery of
the Scottish nobility. The work is valuable as afliwding
a glimpse of the literature then popular in Scotland, some
pieces of which are no longer to be found, — such as Tkt
Taglt of the Rtydi Eyttyn Ired giant] vitk the Tkn J/eytlrt,
The Tayl of Iki YUfe of tile Varldit End, The Tuyl ^ tkt
Gianii* that eit Qvyk Men, The Tayl of tht Ihrie fultit
Dog of Norrotaay, and Robyn Hvdt and LitU Jkont,
In 1552 there was printed at St Andrews a Caledutut,
tiai it to taj/ ant Commont and CnlholHu Inttmeliowt o/
tht Chrittian Peoptt m Jfattrit of otir Catholike Faith and
Jtdigioun, written by John Hamilton, archbiahop of St
Andrews, the lost primate of the Boman Catholic faith in
Scotland. The poema of Sir Richard Haitland, which are
of a Bomewhat aatirical kind, are valuable, as they, like
those of Lyndoay, contain much information about the
abuses of the time (1560), such as the oppressive conduct of
the landholders, vexatious lawsuits, and the depredationa
of the Border tiiieves. Sir Itichard deserves Uie thanks
of posterity for the large manuscript collection of i>oems
by Scottish authors which he and his daughter formed,
and which ia now praserved in the Pepysian Library, at
Magdalene CoUe^ Ctanbridge, Thf nama of Qewgft
542
SCOTLAND
Buna^ne la innpuaUjr ootmeeted with ttie hiator; of
ScottiBh poetry, es in USfiS he too formed on eztensive
collection of McottiBh poetry which U certainly the most
ralnable now extant. It wu wiitten by liini at Edin-
bnrgh in the time of the plagne, when the dread of in-
fectitm confined him doiiely «t home. The Batinatyite
MS, now preeerred in the Advocatee' Libmy*eztendd to
600 pages folio, and includes lereral of Bannatyne'a own
poema, of which the two most conaiderable are of an
amatory character. The works of Alexander Scott, con-
xisting principeJIy of lore poems, embrace also a spirited
accoant of a Jo%itfi»g betieix Adanuon and Sym at the
Drum, a place a little to the south of Edinburgh. The
aathor, who was one of the most elegant poets of this
period, has sometime* been csJIed the "Scottij^ Anocreon."
Two poems of some merit — the Praitei of Wemen and
the Miteriei of a Ptiir Scolai' — were written by Alexander
Arbuthoot, priacipal of King^ College, Aberdeen, about
1570. A poem of considerable length, called the Se^e of
(i« (7a<«U c/ £<Jini«r7&, published in 1573, was by Robert
Semple, who also wrote an attack on Archbishop Adanson,
called the Legeitd of tkt Biihop of Sonet AitdroU Lyft.
To this period belong two poems of coo^derable length —
the CoKTt of Venut (197fi), an imitation of the Fi^ia of
//onoKT of Qawyn Douglas, and the ronuuice of the S<a»e«
Staga (IGTB), a Scottish version of ons of the most re-
markable mediaeval collections of stories belonging to the
same elaas as the Arabian Jfiffhtt, in which one single
story is employed aa a means of stringing together a multi-
tude of subsidiary tales. These poems were written by
John Holland, notary in Dalkeith. One of the best I^tin
Echalars that modem Eorope has prodnced was George
BlTmAiTAK (?.v.), who flourished in the middle of the
l&th century. He wrote several Latin tragedies and an
unrivalled translation of the Faolms. Hi« De Jure re^i
apad Seotot was composed to instruct James TI., to whom
he had been tutor, in the daties belonging to his kingly
office. His laot and most important labour was his HUton/
of Seotlatid, originally printed in 1582, of which seventeen
editions have appeared. An excellent specimen of the
ancient vBmacnlar Eangnoga is the Chr<mide of Scotland
by Bobert Lyndsa; of Pitscottie. It includes the period
from 1436 to the marriage of Maiy to Damley in 1565.
Although its author wan a umple-minded and credulous
man, he describes events of which he was an eye-witness
with circumstantiality and great prolixity of detail An-
other historical work of greater importance was the D«
online, moribat, et feiiu fftstu Seotoi-um (1578) by John
Lesley, bishop of Uoss. A translation of this vork made
by Father James Dalrymple, a religions in the Scottish
cloister of Ratisbon, 1596, is in course of pablication by
the EeT. Father E. B, Cody for the Scottish Text Sodety.
Lesley also wrote in Scottish a Huloty of Scotland from
the death of JamejS L in 1436 to the year 15E1. This
work, intended for the perusal of Mary while in captivity
in England, is written in an elegant style. The oishop
was the chsjnpion of that unfortunate queen, and in IG69
wrote a Dtfewe of the Honour of Marit Qvme of Scollemd
atd DaiKtger of Fraitee, with a declaration of her right,
tftlo, and inter^ to the succes«on of the crown of England.
The Reformation exerted a considerable influence on
Rcottish literature. Amongst the earliest Protestant writers
of the coQiitry may be mentioned Alexander Ales or Alesins,
a native of Edinburgh, who published several controversial
tvorks and commentaries on various parts of the Bible.
I!ut the most eminent promoter of the reform was John
Knox (?.<■.), who wrote several controversial pamphlets and
some religioufi treatises ; his great work wu the Hitlorj/
if tkf Sffonanti'-* of Seiiffion in Sootfimrf, first printed in
IBBG. One of Ab prtnd^ exponents of Kqox was Ninian
Winzet, a priest of eonaidetable abili^ aod one faouliar
with the scholastic learning of the age. He begaji life as
master of Linlithgow school and subsequently became
abbot of St James's at Ratisbon. He wrote Beveral tracts
in which he strenuously recommended the obeervnacfl of
certain popish festivals. In 1GG2 he pnb]ii>bed his Suie
of Fota- Seoir Thrit Qvettioni tuehiiu/ Dmitriiu, Ordo*ir, and
Mtatent proponit to l&e Prtchoont of th* FrotrttoMti* in
Scotland and ddiveni to Jhont Knox fhe SOth day of
Febrvary 1S62. The writings of Jsmee VI., who -was a
man of scholarly attainments, embrace several worfcii both
in poetry and prose. His earliest production, pnbtialied
in 1584, when he was only eighteen, wau the £a*aye* qf
a FifHtiee in lh» Divine Aii of Foetie. This was followed
hy bis poetical Extrciea at Vaeant ffourrt {1591%. He
also wrote a great many sonnetii and a translation of
the I^olms. His prose works are Danumologie (1A97),
'BaaiXtKov dapov (1599), CovnterNiot to Tobnceo, I'arii-
phrOK on Bevelaiion, Lau of Free llontmhiei, &Q. Among
the Scottish poets who Frequented his court were William
Fowler, the elegant translator of the TnuwjAe of Petiarcfa,
and Stewart of Baldinnisa (Perth), a translator of Axiodto.
Both these poets wrote other works which exist in US.,
but are still unpublished. The zeot of Sir David Lyudsay
and others for the reformation of the church initiated a
religious revival, and in 1597 was published the collection
known as Ane Compertdiout Boolx of Godly and Spi>-itiiul
Saaffi for avoidinff of Sinne aitd Hitrlotrie. This very
curious work is attributed to John and Robert Wedder-
bum, the latter of whom was vicar of Dundee. A nninber
of religions poems were written about the end of the 1 6th
century by James Melville, minister of Anstrather, after-
wards of Rilrenny, both in Fife. His Homing Vision,
printsd in 1598, consists of paraphrases of the Lord's
Prayer, the Shorter Catechism, and the Ten Oommand-
ments. He also wrote the Black Battel, a lamentatioii over
the Church of Scotland, which is dated 1611. Another
religious poet was James Cockbura, a native of Lanark-
shire, who wrote GabiieTi SaJiitaiim to Marie (1606), and
some other poems not destitnta of merit. An eminent
theological writer of this era, Bobert Bollock, first principal
of the university of Edinburgh, wrote many commentaries
on the Scriptures which show exteiuive learning. Most
are in Latin ; but one or two are in the Scottish langnaga
A very popular poem, the Cherrit and the Sloe, first printed
by Waldegrave-at Edinburgh in 1597, afterwards went
through many editions. Its author was Alexander HoDt
gomerie, who also wrote some translations of the Pealma
and the FlyUttg bttmsi Montgomerig and Folwtrtk, in
imitation of Dunbar's Flyiing vnA Kenntdit. In 1599
was published an interesting volume of poems written by
Alexander Hume, entitled Hyvmei or Sacred Songu, viiarrin
lie Bight Uie of Poeiie may be etpied. One is on the defeat
of the Spanish Armada. To iho bef^ning of the 17th
century belongs a comedy in rhyming stoma, iheauthorship
of which is unknown, — Ane verie EzvtUent and Ddectabilt
Treatite itoitulit FhilolvM, guiainn me aaypereeivt tke Greit
Ineonvenieneei tkatfattit out in the Marriagt Selvix Aige and
Yotdk (1603). Its versification is easy and pleasant, and
its phm a nearer approximation to the modem drama than
the satire of Lyndsay. In the same year appeared the
poems of Sir William Alkxamdeb (j.*.), earl of Stirling.
One, called Dootmday, or the Great Day of the Lorit Arfj-
nunt, consists of 11,000 verses. "St^ManarrhiiilaTragt^ti,
four in number, were not intended for repreeentatdon on
the stage. His exhortation or FaremetU (o A-tiwe Httixj
(1604) is his beat poem. He also wrote Rtertoiioia wik
the Mntet (1637), which is of a somewhat philosophic»l
character. One of the most distinguished writen (^ tbii
era was William DBUiaioKD l^.v.) of Hawtligndeiii wh«
S 0 0 — S 0 0
543
jpob^alMd Poenu, avtorotUtfiaurall, dirme,padoraU (ISIS),
and flaaert of Zian, or SpirilwU Poem (1 623). Ha also
wrote a Uiitory of Scodand dttnug iltt Eei^tu of (Ac Five
Jamtia (1665), some political tracts, and the Cyprtu
Onvt, a motal treatiBc in prose. As a writer of sonnets
be has alwajv been highlj esteemed. Nearl; contemporary
with Drammood was Patrick Hannaj, a native of QaJto-
way, who Beems to have followed James to England. He
pubiislied his poenu in 1623, the principal of which are
J*iilomda iht Nightittgala and Sltirttn»e and Mariana.
He occupies a t&Tourable position amongst the minor
Scottish poets. After the removal of the Scottish court
to London and the nnion of the crowns in 1603, the old
language began to be considered as a provincial dialect ;
and the writen subsequent to Dmmmond, who was the
first Scottish poet that wrote well in Eoglub, take their
places amongst British authors.
To the iliort »k«tch ibo™ giT«n nuy bo sdded » noOce of ths
nrlf Scottiib vritsn on mBtneamtia, phUoeopb;, JariepnidsDcc,
■nil medlciua. In matfaenulial kisdcb tha nune of Joinne)
SscTO B«sco (John Hotrirood or Holjbnih) mtj be menliODsd, u
bs ii bslieTsd to hars beou a utiTS of Nitluclile snd ■ anon of
tbe nmnastray of Holyirood, from which bs took bit nsms. Hs
aoorishMl sboat the taginnlsj oT tba 18th csuturr, ud hii tnatin
Zh i^brn JfwMli ws* Tsiy ganra*]! j ttnght in colle^ uid Khooli.
Tba ijitsm of iitroDomj sad tha other nuthamsticiil tnatim of
Tsmm FiMsntJB, who tvight at Part) sbont IStO vith much snccai),
■an altbrstad in their time. Tha gialcst of the Scottish luthe-
msMiiui, bowarar, Tu Joho KaFiis {j.v,) of Uerchistoa, nho
■rroli oa Tsrious klndrad nbjecli, sad la 1S14 utanuhed the
Irorld by bia diacoTery of loftrithma. la philosophy, bandea the
roiamlaoui irorki of Duaa Scotni sad Joha U^or already maa-
tionad, varioaa lasmad nmsentarisa oa AriitoUe, of ohlch Scottlih
pblloaonhv thea slmoat aadraij cooiisted, vera pobliahed by
kobait BaUoDT, prindpal of the oo'laga of Oaleoae ; bv John Eathsr-
Tord, pTofeaBOr of philoaopby at 3t Aadram {oader irnom Adaurabta
Cricbtonvaaspupil); and by Junaa Cheyna, proresioi of ahilooophy
it DouaL In jaiieprudancs a catabraled tnatin on tho Ffvdal
law was wiittaa by Sir Thornsa Craig about ISOS. It vaa nol^
howSTiir, publiehed tili about half a caatury aftei his death, aa tbe
[irinUbg or any tnatise on tha liir of icotlaad while ha Iliad bcidu
to haTe b«H ooneidered aa out of tha quHtioa. ConmientariBa on
■ome or tha titles of the F^ndcdi of Jnstialan, and a treatiaa Oi
PatataU Pn.^ US09], ia opposition to the oinrpation of temporal
C» I by t a pope, were imttcn by William Barclay, profmaor of
* in the onifandtr of Angon. Aaolhar early legal worii n-ai a
traatiso On On O.-ausdm letiotn ftjomtmnit roM Etligien, by
Ailam Blacknood, jadge of tha parlement of Poitiara, who «aa the
aatagoniit of Buchroaa and a BtraauoD* defeoder of Marrqann
of B«atB. In raedioiDe tha principal early Scottiah irorta irerg
writtan by Duncan Liddell, a natire of Aber.l«a, Tho in 160S
pabliahed «t HalmsUdt hie Diiputationa ■nuditiiuda, containing
tha thaaeg or diapatationi maintained by himKlf and his pupiU
from Ifiea to \m. He sito published othar irorka, nhich coatain
an abia digest of the medical learning of bis ago. Hcai; Blackn-ood,
dean of (acuity to the colliVB of phyeiclaiu at Paris, wrote Tarioua
tmtlsos on medicine, of vEich a Hit will be found in Jlackstuir's
Liva of Us SaUti^ Wriicrt, but which are aow oaly hisloricilly
interesting (J. SM.)
SCOTT, David (I806-I619), historical painter, was bom
at Edinburgh in October 1 806, and studied under his father,
Kobert Scott, an eugntvet of repute in the city. For a
time in his youth be occupied himself with the burin ;
but he soon turned his attention to original work in colour,
and in 1828 he exhibited his first oil picture, the Hopes of
Early Geiuus dispellod by Death, which was followed by
Cain, Nimrod, Adam and Eve sinsing their Homing
Hymn, tiarpedon carried bj Bleep and Death, and other
subjects of a [loetic and imaginative character. In 1829
he became a member of the Scottish Academy, and in
1632 visited Italy, where he spent more tban a year in
study. At Rome he executed a large symbolical painting,
entitled the Agony of Discord, or the Household Oo^
Destroyed. On hia retum to Scotland he continued the
atrennons and unwearied practice of his art ; but bis pro-
dnctions were too recondite and abstract in subject ever to
become widely popular, while the defects and exaggeratioDS
of their dtaftsmanahip repelled connoisseura. So the
gravity which had always been characteristic of the artist
passed into gloom ; he shrank from society and led a
seciaded life, hardly quitting his studio, his mind con-
staatly occupied with the great problems of hfe and of
his art The works of his later years includs Vasco da
Oema eneonii taring the Spirit of the Storm, a picture—
immense in size and meet powerful in conception — finiabed
in 1842, and now preserved in the Trinity House, Leitb;
the Duke of Gloucester entering the Water Gate of Calais
(1841), an impceuive subject, more complete and har-
monious in execution than was usual with the artist; the
Alchemist (1833), Queen EUzabeth at the Globe Theatre
(1810), and Peter the Hermit (1845), remarkable for their
varied and elaborate cUararter-painting ; and Ariel and
Caliban (1837) and the Triumph of Love (1846), dUtin-
guished by their beauty of colouring and depth of poetic
feeling. The most iuii^rtant of his religious subjects are
the Descent from tho Cross (1635) and the 'Crucifixion—
the Dead Bising (1844). In addition to his works in
colour Scott executed several reiiiark|(l^le series of designs.
Two of these — the Jlonogimms of Man and the illustra-
tions to Coleridge's A'satnt Hannet — were etched by his
own hand, and published in 1831 and 1837 respectively,
while his subjects from tbe Pi/^rim't Progrra and Nichol's
ATthittcture of llit Heaiitnt were issued after his death.
Among his literary productions are five elaborate and
thoughtful ariicles on the characteristics of the Italian
masters, published in SiachBootTt MagariTK, 1839 to 1641,
and a pamphlet on Sriluh, French, and German Painting,
1841. He died in Edinburgh on the 5th of Uarc\1849.
As a colourist David Scott occupies a high place in tbe
Scottish school, but the most distinctive merit of his works
lies in the boldness of their conception and their imagina-
tive and poetic power.
See W. B, Scott, Jft.HDi.- i/ Dorid Salt, JLS.A. (IBM), aad
J. U. Onj, Daiid Scmt, n.S.A.,a.dhit fCorl^ (1884).
SCOTT, Sm Geoboe Gilbebt (1811.1878), one of the
most successfiU ecclesiastical architects of the iSth century,
was bom in 1811 at Gancott near Buckingham, where his
father nas rector; his grandfather was Thomas Scott
(1747-1821), the wcU-known commentator on the Bible.
In 1827 youeg Scott ivas apprenticed for four years to an
architect in London named Edmeaton, and at the end of
his pupildom acted aa clerk of the works at the new
Fishmongers' Hall and othi:r buildings in order to acquire
a knowledge of tbe practical details of his profession. In
Edmeston's office he became anjuainted with a fellow-
pupil, named ^lofiat, a oian who pa^Aessed comiiderable
talents for the purely buUness part of an architect's work,
and tho two entered into partati'ship. In 1834 they
were appointed arcbilects to the nuion workhouses of
Buckingbamsbire, nnd for four years were busily occupied
iu building a number of cheap and ugly unions, both tJiero
and in Northamptonshire and Lincolnshire. In 1838
Scott built at Liiicoln his first church, won in an open
corapotitioQ, and this was quickly follo«-ed by six others,
all very poor buildings without chancels; that was a
period when church building in England had reached its
very lowest pobt both in style and in (loverty of conalruc-
tion. About 1S39 his enthusiasm woj aroused by some
of the eloquent wtitinpa of Pugio on mcdinival architect-
ure, and by the vorioua papers on ecclebiastical subjects
published by tho Camden Society. These 0|>eQed a new
world to Scott, and ho thenceforth studied aod imitated
the architectural styles and principles of the lliddle Ages
with tbe ntmost zeal and patient care. The first result of
this new study was his design for the Ifartyra' llemorial
at Oxford, erected in I8!0, a clever adaptation of the Utc
13th-century crosses in honour of Queen Eleanor. From
that time Scott became the chief ecclesiastical architect in
544
SCOTT
EagUnd, and io tl» nut twentj-mght jatm completed
an aliDoat incredibly liurge number of new chorchBi and
'-reatorstioQH," tbe (e*ci for which was fomented L^ the
EccleKiological Socirty uid the growth of ecclesiaBticaJ
teeliog in England.
In I84i Scott won the firrt premium in the competition
for the new Luthcian church at Hamburg, a noble building
with a verj lofty ^pire, designed etrictlj in the etjle of the
13th century. In the following year hie partnen<hip with
Hoflkt wod diMulved, and in 1847 Scott wad employed to
renovate and refit Ely cathedral, the fint of a long series
of English cathednt] and abbey churches which passed
through hi>- handd. In 1851 Scott visited and studied the
•Tchitecturo of the chief towns in nortbetn Italy, and in
ISSfl won the competition for the town-bouse at Hamburg,
dedgned after the mode! of aimtlar buildings in north
Gennany. In spits of bis having won the fiist prize,
another architect waj elected to construct the building,
after ft Terj inferior design. la ISSe a competition was
held tor dcBlgns of the new Oovemment offices in London ;
Scott obtained the third place in this, but the work wau
afterwarde given to bim on the condition (insisted on by
lord Palmenton) that he should make a new design, not
Uothic, but Claxuic or Renaiuance in rCyle. This Scott
very unwillingly consented to do, as he had little sytnpathy
Willi any styles but those of Ergknd or France from the
13th to the 15lh century. In 1862-63 he was employed to
design and construct tbe AJbert llemorial, a very costly
ftnd ehiborate work, in the style of a magnified 13tb-ceutury
reliquary or ciborium, adorned with many statues and ro-
liefd iuiroQze-acd marble. On the partial completion of
this he received the honour of knighthood. In 1866 he
competed for the new London law-courts, but tbe priie was
adjudged to hi' old pupil, G. E. Street. In 1873, owing
to illneds aau.wd by overwork, Scott sj>ent nome time in
Rome and other jiarts of Italy. The mosaic pavement
which he designed for Durham cathedial i^jon afterwards
was the result of hte study of the ISth-century mobsica in
the old basilicas of Borne. On hid return to England he
resumed his profenaional labours, and continued to work
almoat without intermission till hid short illness and death
in 18TS. He was buried in the nave of Westminster
Abbej, and an engraved brass, designed by 0. £. Street,
wad placed over his grave. In 1838 Bcott married hi:-
cousin, Carolina Oldrid, who died in 1870; they had five
KMLi, two of whom have taken up their father's profesuon.
Boott's orcLitoctnnil woilcs irero more numerous tb^n tfaoK of
any other sreUitcct of the cenCuiy ; unfortmifilclr for Lis fsmo, ba
niuUrtmk tu more thau it uu pooilile Tor Imu really to dedgn oi
sapervlsg with thaught imd cue. He csrriiiil out cncnsivs noilu
(if repuT, refurniihioK, snU n^riorBlion io Ui? followiii'' buildinei :
—tile cathednli of Ely, Ucrefon!, LicbBcld. SsliiUiry, Cliirlinter,
Durbun, St David's. Bingor, St Aupli, Cfaeitcr, GloumtDr, Rinon,
Worcotor, Eiutrr, Roch«tor, the ihbey. of Wc-tniiLsttr, flt Albaus,
Tewknbury.oii't ountlcv minor cLurcho, He bLu built tlie neiv
Covernmciil olSfca (ludin. Foreign, Home, snd ColonUl), iLo liid-
lud Biiln-ij tarminiia and hotel, inJ a higc Bmuba oi privit«
boiues and otiicr buililiugii. Hi:- etyle nu [vitli tlio oue exception
of the GoYcm^ueiit ofTicis) a circrul cop; of arclutortiinl periods
of (he Middle Ages, ntsil v-itli a praCDUitd knonlalim of detail, bnl
Tithout mncta real iu'^cnlivs power, end coniciiiiuully nllier dull
■nd uniiitvcnliuij iuelTKt. Aat "roitarcr" urgueieiit buUiUngn be
wu enilty of ou iiiuncnao amount of the moct IncjArablo ijcitmc-
tion, but SBV oilier urebitoct of bia gcnprntion noulil pmlmbly h«vo
done ai mucli or even more harm. 'Wliila i incinbrr of the Hoyal
AcBilemv Bvolt held Tar many yun tbe pott of prt>ri;uor or arclu-
tecturc, Bud gtxv ■ louf; acrioi of iMe Icctum ou ioedi,'CTBl ilyleo,
wbi^'b vere |)ubU.had in IS?S. Ha vnU ■ ivork on DmicHic
j4rriiliiclim . lui] »Te]]liaK>( Pene.inl nmi Prf/eaian/T! HaolIreliOivi,
which, edited by bit eldest ion. vat puhUiheil in 1879, sud iileo ■
larrt numlier of ertielee and rrporle on mFiny ot tlio oncifut build-
iii<M vilh which he had to deal. Ovruig In hu numsroui pupiln,
<iDOiij{ wboiu hare l»au many leadiuq srubitcctM, hit iuflacan was
for nma tiioo very n-iilely apreod ; but it it now rapidly paaaing
■w>y, laainly owing to th* {{rowuiq rencHoD iipunit tbo somewhat
w^ixvaliam of whkk ba, both in thmy nH pnkctlM^ w
Iha eiiiar enpongnt.
SCOTT, JoHir. Bee Eldox, Easl op.
SCOTT, HuxAXL. See Soot, Michaei.
SCOTT, Sib Wutss (1771-1832), poet and noweliat,
was bom at Edinburgh on ISth August 1771- His pedi-
gree, in which he took a pride that strongly influenced the
course of bis life, ma; b« given in the words of hia own
fragmentof autobiography. " Uy birth was neither dis-
tinguished nor Hordid. According to the pr^udices of taj
country it was eatsemad ffentlt, as I waa connected, tboogh
remotely, with ancient familied both by my fittber'it sjid
mother's side. My father's grandfather was AValter Bcott,
well known by tbe name of Hinrdir. He was the «econd
Hon of Walter Bcott, first laird of Baebnrn, who ivaB third
son of Sir William Scott, and the grandson of Widtar Scott,
commonly called in tradition Avid IfnK of Harden. I
am therefore lineally descended from that ancient chief-
tain, whoie name I have made to ring in many a ditty,
and from hid fair dame, the Flower of Yarrow, — no bad
gunealogy for a Border minstrel"
Scott's desire to be known as a cadet of the honae of
Harden, and his ruling paspion — >>o disastrous in its
ultimate resoltd — to found a minor territorial family of
Scott>>, have been very variously estimated. He himself,
in a notice of John Home, speaks of pride of familj sa
" natural to a man of imagination," remarking that, " in
this motley world, tbe family pride of the north counti;
has its effects of good and of evil" Whether tbe good or
the evil preponderated in Scott's own case ^vould not be
easy to determine. It tempted him into coaraes that
ended in commercial nun; but throughout his life it was
a constant spur to exertion, and in his hft yeara it proved
ibielf as a working principle capable of inspiring and main-
taining a most cblvaJroud conception of duty. If the
ancient chieftain Auld Watt tras, according to the anecdote
told by his illustrious descendant, once redoced in the
matter of live stock to a single cow, and recovsred his
dignity by stealing tbe cows of hid English neighbonr^
Professor Veitch is probably right in holding that Scott'n
Border ancestry were, as a matter of literal fact, sheep-
farmers, who varied their occupation by "lifldng" sheep
and cattle, and wbolever else was "neither too heavj
nor too hot'' The Border lairds were really a race of
shepherds in so far as they were not a race of robben.
Profe^-^ir Veitch suggests that Scott may have derived
from this pastoral ancestij an hereditai; bias towards the
obeervatiou of nature and tbe eqjoyment of open-air Ufa
Ha cerUiinly inherited from them the robust strength lA
constitutioQ that carried him xucceasfnlly through so many
exhausting labours. And it was hid pride in their reel
or supposed feudal dignity and their rough marauding
exploits that first directed him to the study of Border
history and poetry, the basis of hid fame as a poet and
romancer. Ui> fadier, a writer to the signet (or attorney)
in Edinburgh — the original of the elder Fairford in Rtd-
yni(B(/rt— was the first of the family to adopt a town life
or a learned profession. His mother was the danghter of
Dr Rutherford, a medical profeesor in the nniverai^ of
Edinburgh, who also traced descent from the chiefs of
famous Border clamu The ceilings of Abbotsford dinlaf
the arms of about a dozen Border families with whidi
Scott claimed kimh'ed through one >iide or the other. His
father wad conspicuoUd for methodical and thorough u>-
dodtry ; his mother was a woman of imagination and cul-
ture Tbe son seems to have inherited the best qnaliCias
of the one and acquired the beet tjualities of tbe other.
Tbe detaild of hid early education are given with great
precision in hid autobiogiaphy. Stuart Mill was not mMO
ninate in recording Iho varioua droamstaDces that shaped
SCOTT
545
kbhaUtiormlDdradimA. We I«uii from UmMtf tlw
Bwnt— umndat iMBtMocmldbeaBcribed to daflnita az-
tamowNW KddsDt— <rf th« " extempore speed " in nmuttie
oompcNitioi) agtinat which Corljle proteited In hia fuimu
leview of Loekhuf b lAft of Scott.' The indignant critie
anomed that Boott wrote " without prepantion " ; Boott
himael^ aa if he had foreoeea thia caTil, ig at pains to ahow
that the pr«patatioQ began with hia boyhood, almost with
hia infane;^, ^la cnrrBnt legend when Carlyle wrote his
ttMj waa that u a boj Scott had been a donee and an
idler. With a chwacteristicall]' conadentions deure not to
■et a bad anunple, the aatobiograpber Bolemnly dedarea
tbst he WW nntoer a dnnoe nor an idler, and ezplaina how
"-" -' — ' — "-mdiiig aioea. Hia health in boyhood
. * he waa eonsaqnentlr inegnlar in hia attend-
Mwe at aobotJ, nenr becune axaot in bia kDOwUdge of
lAtin ^nla^ and waa ao belated in beginning Oieek that
oat of bn*ido ho leaolnd not to ban it at aU.
Left TCfj mneh to himaalf thioaghont his boyhood in
the matter of nadia^ so qnick, liralr, excitable, and nn-
certain in healUi that it waa eonmdered dangarona to
piMa him and pmdent lather to keep him back, Scott
b^^ at a very earlj age to accumulate the romantio
lore of which he afterwards made anch splendid oae, Aa
a child he aeema to have been an eager and interested
Ustener and a great laTonrite with his elders, apparentlj
hanng even then the same engaging charm that made
him 10 mnch beloTed aa a man. Cbance threw him in
the wn of many who were willing to indulge Us delight
in itonea and ballada. Not onlv his own relativee — the
old wnnen at hia grandfather's farm at Sandyknowe^ hia
annt, nnder whose diarge he was sent to Bath for a year,
hia mother — took an interest in the prococioos boy'a qoee-
tions, told him tales of Jacobites and Border vrorthiea of
his own and other olana, bat <^ft<^?ift] friends of the family
— sni^ aa the military veteran at Pi^onpana, old Dr
Blaoklook the blind poet, Home the anthor of Douglai,
Adam Fergnaon the martial hiatorian of the B<nnan
tepnUic — helped forward hia edncation in the direction
in which the bent of bia geniua lay. At the age of aix
lalOn
7- 18.
■ Or ObailM Gta^tw rappllM w with th* foUointns sMdle^ cot*
to Sootfa asrijr Oaam :— 'SMlt^ hmmiin int owli« to as tzn^ of
■nnrtb in Ha ilAt kg In tntUur- Wl« Iia wm ilgliWeii aontha old
b* bad s brwM atlKk iMUng tlmo i*,'t\ at ttw uvl of >Fhlsh Oma
Ilwufemid that ba ' hid loat ths powvol Ui light hft'— •.«., ths
dilM butliMtlT^r dMliati] t* moT* tba aUliig aumbv. Tba m^tdy
«n ■ mlUog It ths ankla, ud ilther mnditad In or gata riaa to
«i«t of tb* bOD*-ti>rmiag tnnctloD along Um (rowlag Una tt outUtga
which nmneota tba lomr aplphjiii of each of tha two lag-buci with
Iti duft. In Ui fOnrlh jm, ■hu b« bad otbanriM neonrad, tba
Ug mkalaad 'mwdi dmuk and embmolad.' Tba limb wmld hira
baea Uightwl mr nrad man It th* amat <f frovtb had takta plana
at th* ipfar apl^nla at Iba tlUa at Iha Imrar afdphjiia ol tha fiminr.
Tha namwnaia ind pamllu' daptii of 8oatt'« h«d pdnt to aotne mora
ganini aengaaltal (fTor of bons-nuklng allied to riokata Int entalnlT
■ot *a aiina aa Ibat inaladr. Tba wdt «f lb* ikoll la tha tnHoal
* ioa{Mld ' or boat^bapad IbnoatkBi, daatopnautinainloaotthatwii
farlgtalboDH along tba awtttalntur^ WhanthaboMaofthaoanlam
«r* nnlmaaU J aflectad with that airart of growth aloDg tbdr IbnnalJTa
adgoi, ths ntnni baoama ^eoutonlf fixed and aflkoad, ao that the
bntn-^aa* oanoot axpand in any dlieoCioa to aooammodata tba glowing
bnln. nil lalTWBal (jmetoaii of the onolal boDM li what oooan to
Uu oaaa id siloncaphiloni Idloti. It hippmd to ma to ifiow to an
•mlnant Rnub anUuopologiit a ipedaien of a mlslatiin or mliirD-
— >--"' -•-0]] luiBuind la the Ciinhridga muanin of imtomT ; (he
mA boldiiw aptbe ekall and polnUng to the 'Beapbotd ' nnlt
>B and lb* aBaoad i^lttal antBia, aialilinad 'TsiU Walla
Ttnnata])> eacaped the eatty clann ot mat of
.. ^ mtsm than the nglttil, B tbit the growing
htabi oQold maka raon for itielt by tndhg np tb* Taoll of tbe iltnU
hodllT. Wha bbbead WHOpaudiftaTdeath.'tt waiobasradlliat
'tbalntavaaml lirgi, nd tb* onatnm thloDer thu It li unallr
tonud.to be.' In IkTodr of tha theoiT of aoDgmitil BibOitr It hia to
be Hid tbit ha WH the ninth of a bEally (rf whom tba fint ail died
ta'>N7*ariy}qath,"'
he wti aU9 to daSne Umaelf aa "
wtabas to aod will know •rerything.'* At ten hia «(dk»>
tiosi of elu^Kbooka and ballada had iwehed MTeral tolnmei^
and he waa a eonnoissenr in Tarions readinga. ^ina ha
tocA to the Hi^ Bchool, Edinhnrgh, whwi he waa atn^
enoo^ to be put in ragnlsr attendanoe^ an noDsnal aloM
of miaoellaneoiia knowledge and aa nnnnally qniekaBed
intelligenOB, so that hia mastec "{noooaiwed tlia^ though
many ot his schoolfellowa tindentood tho Latin better,
Onalleniu Seott waa behind few in following and ei^joyinf
the aotlimr'a meaning."
Thronghont his school days and kftvwarda when he
was apprenticed to bis father, attended aniTeim^ flswwi,
read for tbe bar, took part in academical and profeasional
debating sodetieB, Soott steadily ud ardently pnraned
' ' faTonrite studies. His reading ic
history was tmUt Study, and not mereqr the indnlgenc*
of an wdinary seboolbcT^ p ■ ' -" *
ing litemtoreL In fact, even aa a aohooCboy ba apedal-
iced. He fdloved the line of owpowerii^ indinatio*;
and even tben, aa he frankly tella m, "bme' was Ibo
■pnr." He acquired a raputatWD among bia adumlf^lows
tor ontof-tbe-wu knowledge and alao for atoty-teiling,
and be wwkeA Wd to natntaln tUs ohanteter, wlaek
compenaated to Us amUtJoat t^xii bit indiflerat distino-
tion in oidinan sdloo^vosfc. ^m Touthful "tirtooao,"
though h« nad ton timoa Qie unal allowanos of norda
from the dnnlatiug Kbrarj^ waa carried by bis entbnaiaam
into fialda nncb leas genenlly attnetlTe. He waa stiU k
schoolboy irtien ba nuntsced Frencb (offldeotlj well- to
read throodi ooQeetiona ot <Ad Tnadk rcHnancea, and not
more than fifteen irtien, attracted by tiaaalationa to Italian
romaatio literatnie^ he learat tbe language in order to read
Dante and Arioato in the original. Ilua willingness to
face dry work in tbe puisnit of romantio reading afforda
a measure of tbe strength ot Scott's paasion. la one of the
literary partiea broo^t bother to lionise Boms, lAen
the peasant poet visited Edinborgh, the boy (rf fifte«a
waa the only member cl the company who eonld tell the
source ot some lines affixed to a picture that had atbaeted
the poet's attention, — ft slight bat significant erideaica
both of the width of bis reading and of the tenacity <rf
hia memory. The same thoroughness appears in another
little circumstance. He took an interest m Scottiah family
histwy and geneal<^, but, not content with the ordinary
source^ be ransacked tbe U8S. preserved In the Advocated
library. By the time be was one and twenty he had
acqnired su^ ft reputation for bis skill in deciphering old
mannscripts that bia ftasiatanoB was son^t by profeasional
antiquaries.
Thia early, aadduotli, nnint«nnittent study waa the
main secret, over and above hia natural gifts, of Soott's
extempore speed and fertility when at last he found forms
into which to pom bis vast accnmnlatica of hiatorical and
romantic lore. He ws<^ as he said himself, "like an
ignotant gamsat«r who keeps up a good bud till he
Imows how to play it," ^Hiat he hnd vague thoog^ts
from a moch earlier period -than ia commonly ntppoeed
of playing the hand some day is extremely probable^ it,
aa he tella ns, llie idea of writing romances fint oeeumd
to him when he read Cervantee in the oiginal. ^ds waa
long before he waa ont of his teena ; and, if we add that
his leading idea in his first novel was to depict a Jaoobitio
Don Qiuxote, we can see that there wasprobaUy a long
interval between tke first conception of Wtntritf and the
ultimate completion.
Scott's preparation f(» painting the lits of peat timea waa
probably much lesa nnconscioiialy such than hia equally
thoroQj^ preparation for aotii^ as Uie painter cf Seottiak
naninn wd <Aanater in atl grades of aodoty. inth aU
54S
SCOTT
-tha utut of Lu TMdinj; u K teliciolboy aod « Toong m&n
he WW far fnnu being k douteral atodeat, absorbed in hit
book). In spite of liia lamenesa and his Beriotu illneaBcs
io fontli, his coiutit 'ioD wm naturally robos*, his dis-
lio«itioD genial, his ai.^it« high : he naa always well to
the front in tha Gghts nnd froUcs of the High School, and
a boon companion in the "high jinks" of the janior bar.
Hie future uOTeliat's experience of life was aingularly rich
and Taried. While he lived the life of imagination and
■uholanhip in aympathy with a few choice friends, he waa
brought into intimate daily contact vith many Tarieties of
roal Ufa. At home he bad to behave as became a member
of a Puritanic, somewhat aacetic, well-ordered Scottish
household, subduing his own inclinations towards a more
graceful and comfortable scheme of living into outward con-
formity with his father's strict role. Through his mothar's
family he obtained access to the literary society of Edin-
burgh, at that time electriAad by the advent of Bums,
full of vigour and ambition, rqoicing in the po^seBsiou of
not a few widely kuown men of letters, phUosophsrs,
historians, novelists, and critics, from racy and eccentric
Uonboddo to refin^ and scholarly Madienzia In that
Eociaty aluo ha may 'have found the materials for the
manners and characters of Si Eonati'i Well. From any
tendency Io the pedantry of OTer-cnlture he was effectually
saved by the rougher and manlier spirit of his professional
comrades, who, though they reipectad belUi lelirei, would
□ot tolerate anything in tha shape of affectation or senti-
meotalism. The atmosphere of the Parliament House (the
Westminrter Hall of Edinburgh) had considerable influence
on the tone of EkKitt's novel*. His pecnliar humour as a
story-teller and painter of character was fint developed
S[uoiig the young men of his own standing at the bar.
They were the first mature sndiancs on which he ezperi-
meuted, and seem ofteu to have been in his mind's aye
when he enlarged his ]iublic. From their mirthful com-
innionahip by the stove, n-here the brieSess congregated
to discuss knotty points in law and help one another to
enjoy the humoura of judged and litigants, " Duns Scotns "
often stole away to pore over old books and manuscripts
iu the library beneath ; bat as long as he was with them
he was fint among hU peers In the art of providing enter-
tainment. It was to this market that Scott brought the
harvest of the ncation rambles which it waa his custom
to make every autumn for seveii years after his call to
the bar and before hia marriage. Ha scoured the country
iu search of ballads and other relics of antiquity; but he
foiud aldo and treasured many traits of living manners,
many a lively oketch and story with which to amuse the
brothers of "the monntain'' on bis return. Bis staid
father did not much like the^e eecapadee, and told him
bitterly that he seemed fit for nothing but to be a " gangrel
•crape-gut" But, as the compAoion of "hts Liddesdale
raids" happily put it, "he waa makin' Mtmell a' the time,
but he didna ken maybe what he nas abont till years had
passed : at fint he thought o' little, I daresay, but the
qiieerneu and the fun."
We may as well dispose at once of Bcott'a profaasional
career. His father intended him originally to follow his
own business, and he waa apprenticed in his sLxleeatb
year ; but he preferred the upper walk of the legal pro-
fession, and was admitted a member of the faculty of
advocates in 1792. He seems to have read hard at taw
for four years at least, but almost from tha fint to have
limited his ambition toobtaiaing some comfortable appoint-
ment such as would leave him a good deal of leisure for
literary punuita. In this he was not disappointed. In
1T99 he obtained the office ot sheriff-depute of Selkirk-
shire, with a salary of £300 and very light duties. In
|60C he vbtained the revewon of the office of clerk of
sesaioo. It is sometimes supposed, from tli« Iniineitsa
amount of other work that Scott accomplished, that this
office waa a sinecure. But the duties, which ar« fully
described by Lockhart, were reaity seiioua, and kept him
bard at fatiguing work, his biographer eetimataa, for at
least three or four hours daily during aiz months ont of
the twelve, while the court was in sesaion. He discba^ed
these duties faithfully for twenty-five year*, daring the
height of hia actirity as an author. He did not enter on
the emolumeota of the office till 181S, but from tliat time
he received from the clerkship and the sheriffdom combined
an income of XIGOO a year, being thus enabled to act iii
his liteiaiy nndertakingi on his often-quoted maxim thit
" literature should be a staff and not a cratch."
Scott's profession, in addition to supplying him with a
competent livelihood, supplied him aim wiUi abundance
of opportunities for Uie study of men and manners. Char-
acters of all types and shades find their way into court* of
law. The wonder is that eo much technical drudgery did
not crush every particle of romance ont of him ; bat such
was the elasticity and strength of his powers that this
daily attendance at the transaction of affairs in open court
face to face with living men — under a strain of atl«n^on
that would have exhausted an ordinary man's allowance of
energy — seems rather to hare helped him in giving an
atmosphere of reality to his representations of the life of
the past.
It waa not, however, aa a prose writer that he waa first
to make a reputation. The common notiou is tliat ScDt^
having made a reputation as a poet, waa led to attempt
romances in prose by a chance iupnUe, hitting upon the
new vein as if by accident. The truth seem^ rather to
be that, as it is lus prose romances which give the fullest
measore of hia genius, so the greater part of hia early life
was a conacioue or unconscious preparation for writing
them ; whereas his metrical romances, in eveiy way slighter
and less rich and sabstantial, were, comparatively speak-
ing, a casual and temporary deviation from the main pur-
pose of his life. According to his own account, he was
ted to adopt the medium of verse by a series of accidenta
The story is told by himself at length and with his
customary frankness and modesty in the Eaay on latrtot
liotu of tie AndetU Ballad, prefixed to the 1830 edition
of his Border Minatrehj/, and in the 1830 introdnctiDn to
the Lay of Vm Latt MinHrel. The Gmt link in the chain
was a lecture by Henry Uackenzie on Qermau literature
delivered in 1788. This apprized Scott, who wan then a
legal apprentice and an eDtbiuia«tic student of French and
Italian romance, that there waa a fre:ih development of
romantic literature in Oerman. As soon as he hod tiie
bi£rden of preparation for the bar off his mind he leaint
German, and was profoundly excited to find a naw school
founded on the scj-ious study of a kind of literature his
own devotion to vi-iiich wad regarded by moat of tiia com-
innions with wonder and ridicule. We must remember
always that Scott quite aa much as Wordsworth created
the taste by which he waa eigoyed, and that in his early
days he was half-ashamed of his romantic studies, ana
pursued them more or leds in secret with a few intimates
While he was in the height of his enthusiasm for the new
Oerman romance, Mra Barbauld visited Edinburgh, and
recited an English translation of Biirgei'a Lenore. Scott
heard of it from a friend, who was able to Tej>eat two lines —
" Tnmp, tranin, acrosi ths land thsv speed ;
Siila>&, eiiluL, screw the k* : "
The two lines were enough to give Scott a new ambitioD.
He could write such poetry himself I The impulse «u
atrengthened by hia reading Lewia'a Moni and the faaUadi
in the Oennan manner interspersed through the werk.
Be hastened to procure a copy of B&rgerj at once txteatei
tmuitationi of wvfenJ of hia tiaUails. pnUisJied two of them
in a tliin qoftrto in 17B6 (hia ambition being perlupa
qnicbened bj the nnfortmiAte i«8UB of a love eiGhir), and
hsji much encounigod by tba appL.use of hii friends. Soon
after he met Lewis panooftll;, and bis ambition ««■ con-
firmed. "Finding Lewis," he says, "in poeseaaion of so
mach repatation, and conceiving tliat if I fell behind him
in poetical powere, I considerablj eiceedod him in general
iufonnation, I suddenlj took it into m; head to attempt
Hie style of poetry by which he had raised himself to
fame." Accordingly, he compoeed GUnfinlat, The Eve of
St JoAm, and the Gray Brother, which were published in
Lewis's collection of Tola of Wonder. But be soon be-
came cODvinced that " the practice of ballad-writing waa
oat of fashion, and that any attempt to revive it or to
found a poetical character on it would certainly foil of
■access." Hia stud; of Ooethe'a G^ nm Bertickiruien, of
which he published a translation in 1799, gave him wider
ideas. Why should he nofdo for ancient Border manners
what Qoethe hod done for the ancient feudalism of the
Rhine I He had been busy since his boyhood collecting
Scottish Border ballads and studying the mianUat details
of Border history. He began to cast about for a form
which abonid have the advantage of novelty, and a subject
which should secure unity of composition. He wae en-
gaged at the time preparing a collectiou of the Mimtrdty
of the ScoUiih Border. The first instalment was published
in 1602 ; it was followed by another next year, and by on
editiouandcontipnatianof theold romance olSirTrittruai;
and Scott was stilt hesitating about subject and form for
a large original work. It seenu probable from a eonveiaa-
tion recorded by Qilliea that he might have ended by
casting his meditated picture of Border manners in the
form of a proee romance. But chance at lost threw in hie
way both a suitable subject andasuitable metrical vehicle.
He had engaged all hu friends in the bunt for Border
ballada and legends. Among others, the countess of Dal-
keith, wif aof the heir-apparent to the dukedom of Buccleuch,
interested herself in the work. Eappenbg to hear the
legend of a tricksy hobgoblin named Oilpin Horner, ahe
B^ed Scott to write a ballad about it He agreed with
delight, and, out of compliment to the lady who had given
this command to the bard, resolved to connect it with
the boose of Bucclench. Tha subject grew in his fertile
imagination, till incidents enough had gathered round the
goblin to furnish a framework for his long-designed picture
of Border monaere. Chance also fumiahed him with a hint
for a novel acheme of vene. Coleridge'a fragment of
CkriiinM, though begun in lT97~-when he and Words-
worth were discussing on the Quantock Hills the prin-
ciples of such ballads as Scott at the some time was recit-
ing to himself in his gallops on Uusaelburgh sands^ — -was
not published tiU 1816. But a friend of Scott's, Sir John
Ftoddart, had met Coleridge in Malta, and had carried
home in his memory enough of Uie unSnisbed poem to
convey to Soott that its metre was the very metre of which
Iw bad been in search. Scott introduced still greater
variety into the four-beat couplet ; but it was to Chrietabel
that be owed the snggeation, es one line borrowed whole
and many imitated rhythms testify.
The Lap of tht Lail Mitutrtl appeared in Januaty 180S,
and at once became widely popular. It sold more t&pidly
than poem hod ever sold before. Scott was astonished at
hia own success, although he expected that "the attempt
to return to a more simple and natural style of poetry was
likely to be welcomed." Hany thin^ contributed to the
•ttraordinary demand for the Lay. First and foremost,
DO doabt, we must reckon Its dmpUcity. After the
■britract themes and abstruse, elaborately allusive style of
the I6tb century, the pablio were glad of verge that
1 T T «47
could be read with ease and even with exhilaration, ver^e
in which a simple interesting story was told with brilliant
energy, and simple feelings were treated not a;< isolated
themes but aa incidents in the Uvea of individual men
and women. The thought was not so profoaod. the line<'
were not so polished, as in TAe Pleamra of ileatory or
The PleoMuTU of Hope, but the "light-horseman sort o(
stanza" carried the reader briakly over a much n'on
diversiSed countiy, through boldly outlined i>nJ siroii^iij
coloured scenes. No stanza required a second reading ;
you had not to keep attention on the stretch or pause
and construe laboriously before yon could grasp the
writer's meaning or enter into hia artfully condensed
sentiment To remember the pedigrees of all the Scotts,
or the names of all the famous chiefs and hardy retaineix
"whose gathering word wsa Belleoden," might have re-
quired some effort, but only the conscientious reader need
care to make it The only puule in the Lay was the
goblin page, and the genersJ reader waa absolved from all
trouble about bim by the unanimoua declaration of tho
critics, led by Jeffrey in the Edinlmrgh Beniea, that ho
was a grotesque excrescence, in no way essential to tha
atory. It is commonly taken for granted that Scott
acquiesced in this judgment, hia politely ironic letter to
Hiss Seward being quoted as conclusive. This is hardly
fair to the poor goblin, seeing that his story waa tho
genn of the poem and determines its whole structure ;
but it is a tribute to the lively simplicity of the Lay that
few people ahould be wilting to take the very moderate
amount of paina necessary to see the goblin's true position
in the action. 'The supernatural element waa Scott's most
risky innovation. For the rest, he waa a cautious and
conservative reformer, careful not to offend established
traditions. He waa far from raising the standard of re-
bellion, as Wordsworth had done, against the great artistic
canon of the claasicol school
"Tnis srt is nstoie to sdvuit^ dnssad."
To "engraft modem refinement on ancient simplicity,"
to preserve the energy of the old ballad without its rudeness
and bareness of poetic ornament, was Scott's avowed aim.
He adhered to tho poetic diction against which Words-
worth protested. His rough Bordu«rs are "dressed to
advantage" in the costume of romantic chivalry. The
baronial magnificence of Bronkaome, Deloraine'a "shield
and jack and acton," the elaborate ceremony of the com-
bat betireen the psendo-Deloraiae and Muagrave, are
oonoesaiona to the taate of the 18th century. Further, he
disarmed criticism by putting hia poem into the mouth
of an ancient minstrel, thus pictoriolly emphasizing the
fact that it was an imitation of antiquity, and provid-
ing a scapegoat on whose back might be laid any remain-
ing sins of rudeness or excessive simplicity. And, while
imitating the antique romance^ he vas careful not to
imitat« its faults of nunblin^ discursive, disconnected
structure. He was scmpuloualy attentive to the clasaical
nnitiea of time, plac^ and action. The scene never
changes from BranJcsome and its neighbouriiood : the time
occupied by the action (aa he pointed out in his preface)
ia three nights and three days ; and, in spite of all thai-
critics have said about the superfluity of the goblin page,
it ia not difGcuJt to trace unity of inteution and regular
progressive development in the incidents.
The aucceaa of the Lay decided finally, if it waa not
decided already, that literature was to be the main boai-
nesB of Scott'a life, and he proceeded to arrange his affairs
accordingly. It would have been well for his comfort, if
not for liis fame, had he adhered to hia first plan,, which
was to buy a small mountain-farm near Bowbill, with the
proceeds of some property left to him by an nncle, and
548
SCOTT
divide kis jeu between this and EdiDborgh, where he
bad good hopM, Boou arterwards realized, of a aalaried
hpptnntmeDt in the Court of Seiaion. This would have
giTSD him ample leiiure and Bacliuion for Uteratnre,
while hin ptirate means and official einolunieDts secured
him against dependence on bU pen. He would have been
laiid as well as Hheriff of the c&irn and the Biaur, and
as a man of letters his own master, tjince his marriage
la IT97 with Uies Charpentier, daughter of a French
refngea, his chief residence had l>een at Lasswade, about
■ix miles from Edinbmgh. But on a hint from the lord-
lieutenant that the itheriS' must live at least four months
in the jear within his countj, and that he was attending
more closelj to tiia dutieu as qiiBrtermaster of a mounted
company of volunteers than was consistent with the
proper discharge of his duties as sheriff, he had moved
his bonsebold in 1801 to Aahestiel. When his tmcle'a
bequest fell io, he determined to bnj a small property on
the banis of the Tweed within the limits of bia EheriSdom.
There, within si^ht of Newark Castle and Bowhill, he
C posed to live like his ancient minstrej, as became the
d of the clan, under the shadow of the great ducal
head of the Bcotta. But this plan was deranged b; an
accident. It so happened that an old scboolfellaw, James
BaUantjne, a f rinter in KeUo, whom he had already be-
friended, transplanted to Edinburgh, and furnished with
both work and money, applied to him for a further loan.
Scott declined to lend, but offered tp join liim as sleeping
partner. Thos the intended purchase money of Broad-
meadows became the capital of a printing concern, of
which by degrees the man of letters became the over-
wrought slave, milch-cow, and victim.
When the Lay was off his hands, Scott's nest literary
enterprise was a proae romance— a confirmation of the
argument that he did not take to prose after Byron had
"bet him," as he put it, in verse, but that romance writing
was a long-cherished purpose. He began Wavtrleg, bat
a friend to whom he showed the first chapters — which do
not take Waverley out of England, and describe au educBr
tion in romantic literature very much like Bcott's own —
not nnnatnrally decided that the work was deficient in
intereet and unworthy of the author of the Lay. Bcott
accordingly laid WaverUy aside. Wa may fairly conjec-
ture that he would not have been as easily diverted bad
he not been occupied at the time with other heavy publish-
ing enterprisee calculated to bring grist to the printing
establishment. His active brain was foil of prcgects for
big editions, which be nndertook to carry through on con
dition that the printing was done l:^ Ballantyne & Co.
the "Co." being kept a profound secret, because it might
have iigured the lawyer and poet professionally and socially
lo be known as partner in a commercial concern. Between
1806 and 1812, mainly to serve tbe interests of the firm,
though of course the work was not in itself unattractive to
him, Scott produced bia elaborate editions of Dryden,
Bwift, the Somers Tracts, and the Sadler State papers,
lucidentally these laborious tasks contributed to his pre-
pai&tiou for the main work of his life by extending his
knowledge of Engliah and Scottish history.
MamioA, begun in November 1806 and published in
February 1808, was written as a relief to "graver cares,"
thongh in this also he aimed at combining with a romantic
story a solid picture of an historical period. It was even
more popular than the Lay. Scott's resuscitation of the
four-beat measure of the old " geetours " afforded a signal
proof of the justueas of their instinct in choosing this
vehicle for their recitaliona. The four-beat lines of Mar-
mion took poosession of the pnblic like a kind of madnees :
they not only clung to the memory but they would not
keep off the tongoe : peoplo could not help spooting (hem
■olitary places. and mattering them as th^ walked
about the streets. Tbe critics, except Jeffrey, who may
have been offended by the pronounced politics of the poet,
were on the whole better pleased tlmn with the Lay.
Their chief complaint was with the " introductloiu " to
the various atntce, which were olijected to as vexationiJy
breaking the current of the atory.^
The triumphant saccasa of JVamton, eetabliehing lum
at facile pritteepi among living poeta, gave Scott each a
httse, to use his own words, " as almost lifted him off his
feet." He touched then the highest point of prneperity
and happiness. Presently after, he was irritated and
tempted by a combination of little circumstances into the
great blunder of his life, the establishment of the publish-
ing house of John Ballantyne J[ Co. A coolness aro«e
between him and Jefirey, chiefly on political but partly
also on peraonal grounds. They were old friends, and
Scott had written many articles for Che SevieiB, but its
political attitude at thia time was intensely unsatisfactory
lo Scott. To complete the breach, Jeffrey reviewed Alar-
mion in a hostile spirit. A quarrel occurred also between
Scott's printing firm and Constable, the publisher, who
had been the principal feeder of its press. Then tbe
tempter appeared in the shape of Uurray, the Ix>ndon
publisher, eniJouB to secure the services of the moet popular
lilUralrur of the day. Tbe result of uegotiations was that
Scott set up, in oppoeitiou to Constable^ " the crafty," " the
grand Napoleon of the realms of print," the publishing
house of John Ballantyne b Co., to be managed by a
dissipated and swaggering little tailor, whom he nicknamed
" RigdumfunnidoB " for his talents as a mimic and low
comedian. Scott interested bimeelf warmly in starting
the Qttartaij/ Seviftg, and in return Murray constitnted
Ballantyne it Co. his Edinburgh agents. Bcott's trust
in RigdumfunnidoB and bis brother, " Aldiborootiphos-
cophomio," and in his own power to supply all their defi-
ciencies, is as strange a pieoe of infatuation as any that ever
formed a theme for romance or tragedy. Their devoted
attachment to the architect of their fortunes and prond
confidence in his powers helped forward to the catastrophe,
for whatever Scott recommended they agreed to, and he
was too immersed in multifarious literary work and pro-
fessional and social engagements to have time for cool
examination' of the numerous rash speculative Tentniee
into which he launched the firm.
The LadyofOe £aJ» (Hay 1810) was the first great
publication by the now house. It was received with
enthusiasm, even Jeffrey joining iu the choi^is of applanse.
It made the Perthshire Highlands fashionable for tourists,
and raised the post-horse duty in Scotland. But it did
not make up to Ballantyne A Co. for their heavy invest-
ments in unsound ventures. The EdinbitrgK Aiunud
Eegvier, meant as a rival to the Edvnhvrgh Btna», though
Scott engaged Soutbey to write for it and wrote for it
la^ly himself, proved a failure. In a very short tinM
the warehouses of the firm were filled with unsaleaUe
stock. By the end of three years Scott began to write to
his partners about the proprie^ of "reefing sails." But
apparently he was too much occupied to look into the
accounts of the firm, and, so far from understanding tha
real state of their afi&irs, he conaidered himself rich enough
to make his first purchase of land at Abbotaford. But be
hod hardly settled there in the spring of 1813, and begun
his schemes for building and planting and converting a
bore moor into a richly wooded pleatatmc^ than his businew
troubles began, and he found himself harassed by fears of
bankruptcy. RigdumfunnidoB concealed the sitnatkMi M
> Sh Hr Hatton'* Sntt, bi Bnglidi Hni o( Lattus Sarla^ p. H>
for a goad dafHUB of Ihett Introdu"-- "--■" ' — ""' ""
al|iiall7 ■■ a Mfuata pabllostiM.
S 0 0 T T
S4I»
loas W ha eonU, but h UD fher bill etme dne lie vaa
obliged to nwke orgmt &pplkfttion to Soott, Mid the truth
ma thai fonsd from him item by Hem. He had hf no
mnpTHi nrekled til when Soott, i^ behaved with kdinii^
•ble good-oftture, wm proTokad into remoiutmting " For
liMTen's nke, treat me u a man and not as a miloh-eow."
Hie proceeds of Roteby (January 1813) and of othei labcnm
rf Scott^ pea were swallowed up, and baukraptcy —
ineritablB, when Ooiurlable, still eager at any price to aecnie
_ ... . ., ^..^ his ' ■ ■'
« tided over in 1813.
'i aerriceH, cane to the reacue. With his help thrae
it WBB in the midst of these ignoble embtUTMtmeiita
that Scott opened up the rich new rein of the Waveil^
DOvela. He chanced apon the manuBcript of the opening
chapters of WaverUf/, and resolved to complete the Eton.
FoiiT weeks in the annimer of 1814 snSced lac the work,
and Waterhg appeared without the author's name in Jnly.
Hai^ plaorible nasons might be nven and have been
given for Soott** reaolDtion to pnbliu anonymoosly. The
quaintest reason, and poedbly the main one, thongh it is
haidlj intdligible now, is that given I^ Lockhart, that he
considered the writing of novels beneath the dignity of a
grave deA of the Oonit of Session. Why he k^t np the
mystification, thongh the secret was an open one to all his
Edinburgh acqnaintancea, is more easily understood. He
«^jlmd it, aind his formally initiated coa4jiitor8 enjoyed
it; it rdieved him from the annoyances of foolish onnpli-
ment ; and it wm not unprofitable, — cariosity about " the
Ckut Unknown " keeping alive the interest in hii woAa.
de secret WM so wdl kq)t by all to whom it was de-
finitely entiusled, and so many devices were nsed to throw
ooigectore off the scent, that even Scott's friends, who were
cratain of the onthonhip from internal evidenees were
oecamonallj pooled. He kept on producing in his own
name as much work as seemed homanly posdble for an
cfficial who was to be seen every day at his post and bb
often in aooetT as the Inost fashionable of his professional
brethren. His treatises on chivalry, romance, uid the
drama, beudes an elaborate work in two volumes on Border
antiquitiM, appeared in the same year with WanerUf, and
his edition of Bwift in nineteen volnmea in the same week.
Hie £onfo/tA< fWMWBspubliahedin January 1815; Q%s
Mtat»tring, written in "six weeks about Christmas," in
Febraary ; PauTt Letter* to kit Eiiufolli and 7%« Fidd of
Waterho in the same year. Harold Iha Daimtlat,'^ not to
mention the historical part of the Annual Reginter, appeared
in the same year with Tht Anivjaary, The Black Dwarf, and
Old Jfortalils (1816). No wonder that the most positive
interpreters of internal evidence were mystified. It was
not as if he had buried himself in the country for the
summer half of the year. On the contrary, he kept open
house at Abbotsford in the fine old feudal fashion and
was seldom without vidtora. His own friends and many
■trangers from a distance, with or withont introductions,
sought tiiTTi there, and found a hearty hospitable conntir
laird, entirely occupied to all ontward appearance with
local and domestic business and sport, building and plant-
ing, adding wing to wing, acre to acre, plantation to
plantation, with just leiinre enough for the free-hearted
entertainment of his gueets and the cultivation of friendly
fdations with his humble neighbours. How could such a
man find time to write two or three novels a year, besides
wbat was published in bis own namel Even the few
intimates who knew how early he got np to prepare Ids
packet for the printer, and hod some idea of the extra-
ordinary power that he had aM]uired of commanding his
taealtiee for the utilisation of odd momenta, must have
> TU* powD, Uk« tha Bridal i^ IMnuiH. did d
sntha tUl>.pig>, bat Um sstbonUp «u sr
ttM to MMMngi tU Ida as' ■'^- — "- '
wondered at times whet&er he tiad not inlierited Hm arte
of his anoeatial relation Mif.hml gcot, and k^ a goblin
some retired attic or vault.
Scott's fertility is not absolute^ anpoialleled ; the late
Hr Trollope claimed to have snipwed him in n^ as well
as total amount of production, having alao bosinesi dniiea
to attend to. But in speed of prodnctioo combined witit
variety and depth of inlereet and wu^t and wxxatKJ of
historical substance Bcott is still unrivalled. On his
IS as a seriona historian, which Oarlyle igncwed in hia
curiously narrow and splenetic eritidsm, he WW always
with all his magnanimitj, peculiarly smsitive. A certain
feeling that his antiquarian studies were undervaloed seemi
to have haunted hun fn»n his youth. It was probaUjr
this that ^ve the sting to Je&ey's criticasm of Marmitm,
and that tempted him to Uie someiriiat queetionaUe pro-
ceeding of reviewing his own novels in tlu QitarieHjf npoo
the appearance of Old Mortality. He was nettled bestdes
at the occoeation of having treated the Covenanteis un-
fairly, and wanted to justify himself by t^ production of
historical documents. In this criticism of himself Scott
replied lightly to some of the familiar otgeotuwa to hia
work, sn<£ as the feeblmess of his heroeo, WaverleT, B»>
tiam, Lovel, and the melodramatic character of some of
hia scenes and characters. But he argued more seriouslj
against the idea that historical romances are the enemies
of history, and he rebutted by anticipation Carlyle's ob-
jection that he wrote only to amuse idle persona who like
to lie on their backs and read novela. His t^mUffia b
li anoting. Historical romanoea, he odmita^ have
always been failures, but the fiulun 1ms been due to the
impOTfect knowled^ of the writers and not to the species
of composition. If, he says, anachronisms in maanen
1 be avoided, and " the features of an age gone by can
recalled in a spirit of delineation at once faithful and
striking, . . , the compoution itself is in every ptunt d
view dignified and improved; and the author, leaving
the light and frivolous aeaooiates with whom a oaieleos
observer would be diqiosed to ally him, takea his seat on
the bench of the historians of his time and oountry. In
this proud assembly, and in no mean place of it, we an
disposed to rank the author of theee works. At nice a
master of the great events and minute incidents of history,
and of the manners of the times he celebrates, as distin-
gniihed from those which now prevail, the intimate thus
of the living and of the dead, his judgment enables him
to separate those traits which are characteristic from those
that are generic ; and hia imagination, not less accurate
and diacTuniuating than vigorous and vivid, presents to
the mind of the reader the monnere of the times, and in-
troduces to his familiar acquaintance the individuals of
the drama as they thought and spoke and acted." Hiis
defence of himself shows us the ideal at iriiich Soott
aimed, and which he realized. He was not in the least
nncouBcious of his own ezcellenoe. He did not heaitato
in this review to compare himself with Bhakeopeate in
respect of truth to nature. "The volnme which this
anwor has studied is the great book of nature. He haa
gone abroad into the world in quest-of what the wecld
will certainly and abundantly supply, but what a man ot
great discrimination alone will find, and a man of the rtrj
highest genius will alone depict after he has discovered it.
The characters of Bhokespeare are not more exolnsively
human, not more perfectly men and women as thef Ure
and move, than those of this mysterious autlKV."
The immense strain of Scotf s double or quadruple fifs
as sheriff and clerk, hoepitaUe lurd, poet, novelist and mis-
cellaneoQS man of letters, publisher and printer, thon^
the prosperous excitement snstaiiied him fee k liiae, soon
told npon hia healtiL Early in 181T began » Mrias of
550
SCOTT
attMbi ot agonisng cnmp of the itomadi, whicli lecnired
ftt iliort iuwrvala diiriiig mors tlian two jean. But hia
appetite tad eapocity for work remiuDed anbroken. He
mule hi* fint attempt at plaj-writiug' as he van recorer-
iug from the first attack ; before the year was oat he had
completed Sot Soy, and within uz moiiths it was followed
by Ti« ffeart of JlidiaiAum, which by general consent
oceupiea the highest rank among hia Dovels. The Bride
of Lavuiunnoor, The Legend 0/ Montroie, and laatioe
were dictated to amaaueoses, throngh fite cd Boffering so
acute that he conld not mppress cries of agony. Still he
would not give np. When Laidlaw begged him to atop
dictating he only amrwered, " Nay, Willie, only see that
the doors are fast. I would fain keep all the cry as well
OB the wool to oninelvea ; bnt as to giving over work, that
can only be when I ani in woollen."
Throughout those two years of intermittent ill-health,
which was at one time so serioos tliat tiia life was despaired
of and he took formal leave of his fuoity, Scott's semi-
pnblic life at Abbotaford continaed as Msaal, — swarms of
visitor* coming and goings and the rate of production on
the whole suffering no ootward and vigible check, all the
world wondering at the novelist's prodigions fertility. Mr
Raskin lately pot forward the opinion that there is a
distinct falling off in the quality of Bcott's work traceable
from the time of his first serions illness, arguing as a proof
of the healthiness of Scott's organization that "he never
guns anything by aicknen ; the whole man breothee or
faints as one creature ; the ache that stiffens a limb chills
hia heart, and every pang of the stomach paralysea the
brain." Yetj when the world was not aware of the state
of tlie novelist's health, and novel after novel was received
witliout any abatement of enthusiasm, but rather with
growing wonder and admiration, no critic was acQte enongh
to detect thia, and it is somewhat jmfortunate for £e
theoiy that Ur Raskin hoa miataken the data (d Scott's
first illQess and included among the masterpieces produced
b p^ect health £06 Boy and The ffeari 0/ UidloAiaM,
hoOk composed through recorrent fits of intense bodily
pun. The first of the seriea concerning which there were
tnurmnra of dissatisfaction waa The Mona^ery, which was
the first completed after the re-establishment of the author's
bodily vigour. The failure, such as it waa, was due rather
to'tiie subject than the treatment, and The Abbot, in which
Uary Queen of Scots is introduced, was generally hailed
as fully austaining the reputation of "t^ Qreat Tokuown."
Eenilaonh, The Pirate, The Fortmiei of Nigd, Peveril of
the Ptak, QuenUn Duneard, St Sonm't Well, JHedgamtUt,
followed in quick succession in the course of three years,
and it waa not till the last two were reached that the cry
that the author was writing too fast began to gatlter
volume. St Sonati'i Well was very severely criticised and
condemned. And yet Mr Leslie Stephen tells a story of
a dozen modern connoisseore in the Wavetley novels who
agreed that each should write down separately the name
of his favourite novel, when it appeared that each hod
without concert named St Sonan't Weil. There is thia
certainly to be aoid for St Bomnt't, that, in spite of the
heaviness of some of the acenes at the "hottle" and the
artificial melodramatic character of some of the personages,
none ot Scott'a stories is of mot* absorbing or more bril-
liantly diversified interest. Contradictiona between con-
temporary popular opinion and mature critical judgment,
as well OS diver^tisa of view among critics ^emselvee,
rather shake confidence in individual judgment on the
< ntDoomqfDttorgoa, Thli ud hU tatwqnmt dnmiUo ikatchH,
MatUvfi Ona, BiUidm Sill, ud Th4 A^rMr* Trttgndf, wn iligbt
cempoaillDu, duhad oS fai ■ f«ir di^i, u>d iflbid so nuunn of whit
Bcott nJ^thsndDiuuadmiiatistlClwlyidftadlsd thsewdltiaiu
vexed but not portdcnlarty wise question which is the beet
of Scott's novels. There must, of course, always be in-
equalities in a seriea so prolonged. The author cannot
alwaya be equally happy in his choice of subject, SLtnation,
and character. Naturally also he dealt first with the
subjects of which his mind was fullest. Bnt any theory
of falling off or exhauatioo based npon plausible genet^
considerations haa to be qualified so mu<^ when broufj^t
into contact with the facts that very little confidence can
be reposed in its accuracy. The Forlxmet of Sigtl cornea
comparatively late in the series and has often be«t blamed
for its looseness of constructioD. Scott himself always
spoke slightingly of his plot^ and humorously said tlut
he proceeded on Ur Bayee's maxim, " What Uie deuce ie
a plot good for but to bring in good things!" Tet so com-
petent a critic as Hr Button haa avowed tiiat on the whole
he prefers The Fortvnet of Nigel to any other of Scott's
novels. An attempt might be made to value tbe novels
according to the aoorcee of their materials, according as
they are based on personal observAtion, documentary
history, at previous ima^ative literature. On thia prin-
ciple Ivanhoe and The Tata of the Crutoden might be
adjudged inferior aa being based necessarily on previous
romance. But aa a matter of /act Scott's romantie dhar-
acters are vitalized, clothed with a veriaimilitnde of life,
out of the author'a deep, wide, and discriminating know-
ledge of realities, and nia observation of actual life was
coloured by ideals derived from romance. He wrote all
hia novels out of a mind richly stored with learning of all
kinds, and in the heat of composition seems to have drawn
from whatever his tenadoua memory supplied to feed the
fire of imagination, without panaing to reflect upon the
source. He did not exhaust hia accumulations from one
source first and then turn to another, but from first to last
drew from all as the needs of the occ«aioa happened to
suggest.
Towards tlie close of 162B, after eleven years of brilliant
and prosperous labour, encouraged by constant tributes of
admiration, homage, and affection such as no other literary
potentete has ever eqjoyed, realizing his dreams of baronial
splendour and hoapit^ty on a soiJe snited te his targe
literary revenues, Scott suddenly discovered that the
fonndadons of iaa fortune were unsubstantiaL He had
iipagioed himself clear of all emhortassmenta in 1818,
when all the unsaleable stock of John BoUantyne di Co.
waa bargained off by Bigdom to Constable for Waveriey
copyrights, and the publishing concern was wound np.
Apparentiy be never informed himself accurately of the
new relations of mutual accommodation on which the print-
ing firm then entered with the great bat rashly apectdative
publiaher, and drew liberally for hia own expenditure
against the nndeniable profits of his novels without asking
any queationa, trusting blindly in tlie solvency of his com-
mercial henchmen. Unfortunately, " lifted off their feet "
by the wonderful triumphs of their chief, they thooght
themselvea exempted like himaelf from the bxinblesome
duty of inspecting ledgers and balancing accounts, till the
cro^ came. From a diary which Scott began a few days
before the first rumours of financial difficulty reached bun
we know how he bore from day to day the rapidly unfolded
prospect of unsuspected liabilities. "Thank Qod," waa
his first reflexion, " I have enough to pay more than 20*.
in the pound, teking matters at the worst." But a few
weeks revealed the unpleasant truth that, owing to the
way in which BoUantyne it Co. were mixed up with Con-
stable A Co., and Constable with Hurst A Robinson, the
failure of the London house threw npon him peTsonal
reeponsibility for £130,000.
How Scotfa pride rebelled igoinst the dishonour of
b(U)knQ>t(7, how ha toiled ior^^it^at hi* 1^ to char
S C O — S C R
SSI
<^ this tnonaona debt, dedinuig all offer* of aaiatance
knd Bskiiig DO oonaidenttion from bia erediton except tima,
and how nearl; lie lacceeded, u ona of the most familiar
chaptoTB in literary hiitorj, and would be one of the
•oddest were it not for the heroism of the enterprise. His
wife died soon after the struggle began, and he tmfFered
other punful bereaTements ; but, though uck at heart, he
toiled OD indomitably, and, writing for honour, ezceeded
even his happiest days in iodostrious speed. If he could
hare mainttuDed the r&te of the fiist three ye&n, during
r which hs completed Woodiioek, thiee Chrtmicla of tka
CanonffoU, The Fair Maid of Perth, Anne of GeitrtUin,
the Life of Napoleon (InTolving much research, and equal
in amount to thirteen novel volumes), part of his History
of ScoUand, the Scottish aeries of Tola of a Grandfathtr,
besides several magacine articles, some of them among the
most brilliant of his miscollaoeous writings, and prefaces
and notes to a collected edition of his novels,— if be could
liave continued at this rate he might soon have freed him-
self from all his encumbrances. The gresult of his exertions
from January 1826 to January 1828 was nearly X40,000
for his creditors. But the terriHc laboui proved too much
even tor his endurance. Ugly symptoms began to alarm
his family in 1829, and in February of 1830 he had
bia first stroke of iiaralyais. Still he was undaunted,
and not all the persuasions of friends and physicians could
induce him to take rest. "During 1830," Mr Lockhart
aajs, "he covered almost as many ^eete with his MB. u
in 1829," the new introductions to a collected edition of
his poetry and the Lttttrt on DemotKilogy and WitcherafI
being amongst the labours of the year. He had a slight
touch of apoplexy in Novembw and a distinct stroke of
paralysis in the following April; but, in spite of these
warnings and of other bodily ailnjents, he had two more
noTel^ Cotmi Sobtrt of Parit and Cattla Dangeromt, ready
for the press by the autumn of 1831. He would not
yield to the solieitations of his friends and consent to try
rest and a change of scene, till fortunately, as his mental
powers failed, he became poeaesaed of the idea that all his
debts were at last paid and that he was once more a free
man. In this belief hs happily remained till his death.
When it was known that his physicians recommended a
sea voyage for his health, a Government veaaal was put at
his disposal, and he cruised about in the Mediterranean
and vimted places of interest tor the greater part of a year
before bis death. But, when be fait that the end was
near, he insisted on beiog carried across Europe that he
might die on his beloved Tweedsido at Abbotsford, where
he expired on 21st September 1832. He was buried at
Dryburgh Abbey on 26th September following.
i. complats lilt of Scott's works ii giieo ia tho Calalofut ^ Seaa
EAibUion, 1S71, Edinburgh, lS7il The eUndsni biomphy ot
Scott ia thit by Lcxikhiu't refamd to ibove ; ses tito AUu, L^t
^SceH, Edinburgh, ISSl.
SCOTT, WiLUAif. See Stowbll, Lord.
800TT, WmraLD (1786-1866X American general,
was bora near Petersburg, Tirginia, I3th Jane 1786,
the gtondsoa of a Scottish refugee from the field of
Culloden. He was a student at William and Hary
College in 1805, and was admitted to the bar at Rich-
mond, Virginia, in 1607. One of the sudden war eicite-
msQta ot the time changed the conrse of bis life, and he
obtained a captain's commisuon in the United States
army in 1808. He served on the Niagara ftontier
throughout the war of 1813-16, and became one of its
leading figures, rising rapidly through all the grades of
the service to that of miyor-general, which was then the
highest. Among other curious testimonials to his valour
and conduct, he received from Princeton College in 1814
tho hmortrjr degree of doctor of laws, a distinction od
which he never ceased to look with peculiar satisfaction.
In 1841 he became the senior nuyor-generol of the army,
and in ISfiS, after he had passed out of political life, the
exceptional grade of lieutenant-general was created for
him. His most noteworthy military achievement was
his conduct of the main campaign against Hexioo in 1847.
Landing (9th March) at Vera Crux with but fiSOO men,
he fougnt his way through a boetile country to the capital
city of Mexico, which be captured 1 4th September, thereby
practically ending the war. His service, however, was
not confined to the army; from 181fi un^ 1661 he was
the most continuously prominent public man of tho
country, receiving and justifying every mark of public
confidence in his integrity, tact, and reasonableness. At
a time (1823) when duelling was almost an imperative
duty ot an officer, he resisted successfully the persistent
efforts of a brother officer (Andrew Jackson) to force him
into a combat ; and the simple rectitude of bis intentians
was so evident that he lost no ground in public estimation.
S3 1632, when ordered to Charleston by President Jackson
uring tiie "nullification" troubles, he secured every advan-
tage for the Qbvemment, while his skilful and judicious
conduct gave no occasion to Boath Carolina for an out-
break. In like manner, in tiie Black Hawk Indian
troubles of 1833-33, in the Canadian "Patriot War" of
1337^38, in the boundary dispute of 1838 between Maine
and New Brunswick, in the San Juan difficulty in 18D9,
wherever there was imminent danger of war and a sbong
desire to keep the peace, all Ihongbta turned instinctively
to Bcott as a fit instrument ot an amicable settlement,
and his success always justified the cholca Such a career
seemed a gateway to political preferment, and bis position
was strengtbened tiy the notorious fact that^ as he was a
Whi^ the Democratic administration had persistently tried
to subordinate his claims to those ot officers of its own
party. In 18C2 his party nominated him for the presi-
dency; but, though his services had been eo great and
his capacity and int^ri^ were beyond question, he had
other qualities which counted heavily against him. He
was eanly betrayed into the most egr^ons blunders ot
speech and action, which drew additional zest from his
portly and massive form and a somewhat pompous cere-
monionsness of manner. He destroyed lus chances ot
election in the North. The Southern Whigs, beliovinR
him to be under the influence of the Seward or anti-slavery
wing of the party, cast no strong vote tor him, and he was
overwhelmingly defeated in botb sections, completing the
final overthrow of his party. In 1661 he remained at the
head of the United States armies, in spite of the Mcetsdon
of his State, until November, when he retired on oceoimt
of old age and infirmities. Afler travelling for a time in
Surope, he published in 1 864 his autobiography, a work
which reveals the strong and weak points of his character,
— his integrity and complete honesty of purpose, his inclina-
tioD to personal vanity, liia rigid predsion in every point of
military precedent and etiquette, and his laboriow affecta>
tion ot an intimate ocqcaintonee with belU» UttrM, Ha
died at West Point, New York, aSlh May 1866.
Tae Aalnbiografkii qf UtttUnaM-Otntni WinficU Saitt, LL.D.,
in two VDlamHi, give* th* GicU of bis careei St Igngth. For bl4
defat in 18S2. wi Von Holst'i CmilitutHmal HiHory, voL Iv. p.
171 oT th< origiasl, ii 2M of the Engluh tiuilitiDn.
8COTUS. Bee Dmrs Scorns and BoaoLisnoisii.
8CRANT0N, a city of the United States, capital of
Idckawanna cotmty, Pennsylvania, on a plateau at the
junction of the Kouing Brook and the I^ckawanna river,
162 miles north of Philadelphia. It is the centre t^ the
great coal-mining district in the country and tho scat of a
large number ot iron and steel works, rolling-mills, blast-
f nrnacea, &c, and extensive factories for the production of
S C R — S C R
&^
nil^-IaeoMOtiTM, niniiig mwhiiwtry, atMin-bcMlen, Btovea,
awiuge% tigfi-fodbi, && A pnbUa libmi7, a theatre,
ftn kMdemjr ^ muK^ ft konnU, a paUia hall, a driTing
" " ■• Jio cathcdtal, a hMae for tha friend-
if Indian rtoiM nlics are among the
non praniiWDt features of the placa. The popnladon iraa
9333 m 18«^ 30,093 in 1870, and 40,850 in 1880.
Bioaan FUm, m tlw nto m* calUd isbaMjuuit ta 1708, mw Ita
Int blut-tttnusB enctti in ISIO bv Gaorgs ud 3dd<n Smmton,
who nm >dd«d a nUinff-mill ud the mumhctora or nik. Thi
Qpudagaf tlw nihrtj in 1864 oan ■ gntX rtunnliu to tha new
tawB (IBUX vUeh DbtilDBd • oUr elurtar in ISBO. It ii dindiid
Into twaotf^ona wait, el which tha 4tli, Gth, Etli, Itth, IGth, and
18th art known la Enla Park, tha Itt, £d, uid td u Proiidenee.
8C!REAM£R, a Dird inlubitmg Qniann and the Amazon
Tails;, so called in 1781 bj Peonant {Got, Birdi, p. 37)
" tcom the Tiolent im^hi it makes," — the Palariicdai eomula
of LiniuBiis. First made known in 1648 bj Uarcgrave
nnder the ntee of " Anhima," it was more fully described
and better figured b; Bnffon nndsr that of Eamieki, still
applied to it by FreQch writers. Of about the size of a
Turkey, it is remarkable for the curioos " bom " ca slender
earoucla, more than three inches long, it bean on its crown,
the two sharp spur* with which each wing is armed, and
its elongated toea. Its plumage is plain in colour, being
of an almoet onif orm gr^ish Uock aboTC^ the space round
the eyca and a ring ronnd the neck being variegated with
white, and a pal^ of pale rnfoos appearing above t&e
carpal join^ while the bwer parts of the body are white.
Ooselj related to this bird u another first described by
lionieDS as a spedes of Farra (J^ciJiA, voL t'". p^ G31),
to wbieh gnmp it certainly does not belong, but separated
themfrixn ^ Illiger ta form the genus CAauno, and now
known aa O. dmaria, very generally in English as the
" &eated Screamer," > a name which was fint bestowed on
the Bmnu (;.«.). This bird inhabits the lagoons and
■wampa of Fa^gnay and Southern Brool, where it ii called
"Clug&" or " Chftiai" and is smaller than the preceding,
wanting its "horn," bat having its head fnmished with a
dependent crest of feathers. Its face and throat are white,
to which succeeds a blackish ring and the reat of the
lower parts are white, more or leas donded with dnereons.
According to lit Oibeon {Ibit, 1880, pp. 160, 166), its
neat is a hgbt constmetian of dry rashes, having ita foonda-
tiaa in the water, and contains as many as six egg^ which
are white tinaod with bn£ The yonng are covered with
down of a yaUowish brown cokior. A most singular habit
possessed by this bird is that of rising in the air and soar-
ing tfaera in drdea at an immeuM altitndsv uttering at
intervala the veiy loud aj of which its local name is an
imitation. From a doian to a score may be seen at ones
K> occupying themselves. * The young are often taken from
the nest and reared by the people to attend upon and de-
fend their poultry, a duty which is faithfully ■ and, owing
to the spurs wiUi which the Chaka's wings are armed,
■Qoeeatfully discharged. Another very curious property
of this bird, which was observed by Jacquin, who brought
it to the notice of linnmu,* is its emphysematous condi-
tion,— there being a layer of air-cells between the skin and
the mnsdea, so that on any part of the body being preaaed
a crackling sonnd is beani. In Central America occnrs
another spedea, C. dtiHaiia, chiefly distinguished by the
darker colour of its plumage. For tiiis a distinct genue,
Iiekfronu*, was [wopoaed, but apphrently without necee-
dty, 1^ Beachenbaeh (^ftt. Avutn, p. xzi).
Ute taronomic poaitJMi of the Polamedadm, tot all will
' VtOa tUa BSB* Ha rarioiu hsUta hirc tiaaii nU dsBribsd bjr
Ifr W. H. HadauB (flwrhaiaa'j Jlagammt, Sept. 1S8G, pp. seO-ZST].
' Hnet LatliSB'a aana (or tUi ap«dta K " FalUtfol JuMU,'— ha
siDpodag tt to bdoag to tha Bsos in which LI '--' "
* "Tu^ Bumn snlii, nb paanii atl
tltB- (d^ JM, ad. 1^ 1 1. SW>,
allow to the Screamers the tank of a Faniit; at least, hal
been much debated, and cannot be regarded aa fixed. Their
Anserine relations were pointed out by Prof. Farker in the
Zoological PraettdixMiot 1863 (pp. 611-618), and in the
same work for 1867 Prof. Cniley placed tlia Family among
his CAmomoryiA* ; but this view was contravened in 16T6
by Qarrod, who said, " The Screamers mnet have sprang
frtnn the primary avian stock as an indepeodent o&hoot
at much tne same time as did most of the other important
families." Accordingly in 1880 Ur Sdatei regarded thoa
aa forming a distinct " Order," Paiamadtm, ivhich hb how-
ever, placed next to the true Jajerca, from the neighbour-
hood of which, as has been already staUd {OKinTBOLOOr,
ToL xviii. p. 17X the present writer thinks the PalattudtidM
cam hardly be removed. (jl k.)
SCREW. The screw is the simplest iiutmment for
converting a uniform motion of rotation ialo a unifomt
motion of translation (see Uechasics, toL xv. p. liA).
Metal screws requiring no special accuracy are generally
cut by taps and diep. A tap is a cylindrical piece of sted
having a screw on its exterior with sharp cntting edges ;
by forcing this with a revolving motion into » hole of the
proper site, a screw is cut on its interior forming what is
known aa a nut or female screw. Tha die ia A nut with
sharp cutting edges used to screw upon the ontside of
loond pieces of metal and thus produce male acrewK Vore
Bccorata screws are cut in a lathe by cauainK the carriage
carrying the tool to move uniformly forward thus a con-
tinuous spiral line is cut on the uniformly revolving cylinder
fixed between the lathe centres. The cutting tool may be
an ordinary form of lathe tool M a revolving eaw-like diet
(See MxcHnra Tools, toL xv. p. 163.)
accnra^ gan Milj ba niada whao it ia Soiihad and set np A>r bm
A laif(a scraw usii, howaver, ba ion(^Jy aisBilnsd la the foUonisg
nunnei. (1) S«a whathar tha anrbM of tha threads has a ptri«i
poUih. The mora it departa from thi^ and approaches tha rougti
iara mrfus h cut bv tha lathe tool, the worse it ia A perfact
acnw ita a perfect pamb. (S) Honnt npon it botwaan the eaolTEi
of a lathe and tha alip a abort not which fita psrftotlj. If lh« sit
movaa from sod to end witti aqnal trictian, the aeraw is aailbnB in
diamater. If tha not ia lon^ inuosl naistsnea may ba daa to
either an arrorofnin or stand in tha anraw, (8) rixjiDdaoaDOpa
on the lathe cairiasa and focus itt sinolt rtiws hair on tha adga el
the scnn and panlld to itt aiia If uie acraw nuts traa at aniy
point, jta uia IS atnight (4) Obagrra vhathai tha ahort nat nuii
bum and to and of tha acmr withoQt > «abbllnf[ motioa vhtn tha
screw ii turned and the not kept from raTolving. If tt wthhbt
to be dmnk. Oni
fixing a long pointer to the nnl^ or by attaching to it
obaerrinK an image in it with a taleacope. Tha following alptri-
ment will alio delacl tliia error, (6) Put upon tha aoraw two weB-
Gtting and lather tbort nati, whicti an kept from ravolviiK If
srma Dearing againtt a atniight odga ^arslltl to tht alls oitw
J focnt, tha screw la not drunk; sad, if tht
cratt-haira biaact tha line in every position, there ia no trror of na.
llaJnng Aammit Senrat. — To produce s screw of a foot or ewn
s yard long with anon not exceeding T^rth of an Inch it not
difficult FroIeBaoT William A. BooBt of Harvard obttrtttaiy
has invented a procM in which tha tool of tha Istha while n«uS
tha Bcnw is moved so as to oonotanet the «Ron of tbt lalht
acrew. The screw is than partly ground to get rid rf la™
arron. But, where the liighaat loenraoy it aatiM, wa aunt nKrt
in tliecsMoftert«^aainaIlotharetstt,logiiadinBi AlosgnW
nut tightly fitting tht lerew in ana podtion, cannot bt w™
freely tc uothar pcaitioa onloa the acraw ia vaty sccaiMfc "
firinding material it applied sad tht nut ia eonatantlT tjghtve^
It will grind out all trron of mn, dmnkenneaa. emohtdaa^ ass
irragnlarity of aisB. The eooditlon ia that the ant mattbely;
rigi<l, and capable of being tightanad aa the erindiiia l«^""JV
auo tha icrewmottba ground longer than it will Snsl^ ■>* ntesw
BO that the imperfect end* may be removed. „ _
, The foU»*ing prooeM will pndaee a screw soitaUs br '■'^
S C R — so R
patta^ hr optleil pupoK*. SanpoM it ti our pnrpnae to {nvdona
■ •cnwwtaidi ia fluill; ta be t inrhoa long, not including Maiiogi.
tad 1 1 iMbM Id disnetei. Be]«t ■ bu of K(t BaHmer UmI,
nnti oiuallf found in aut utMl, tbont 1 1
SO long, rut it iHlweaD Utho caotn* inJ
irrvhere, eiccpt ibout la inchu
553
tnra it dnm to 1 inch diii
In Qm MnCra,
EottiBB Uiatcn
bttk duupn tt
Flo. 1.— 8«ctioD of grlsdlog bi
«f Bnaamar ituL It iwnibU of four ngmtatt.—a. a, which cm
bt dnwa ibout th« Knw hf tiro coUui, i, i, mi ths Kraw t.
Wadge* betwHn tht ugmeoLi nnvsnt too gntt gteaan on tho
■cniT. The Su»l dimping ii elFocted by tho riun lad Knwi, ^
A which (Dcloae the Hingse, t, ot tha Hgmeiiti. The *cTav ii now
C'ued in « lithe uid •urroundeJ b; witir whose tampenlaie ceo
kept onutant to 1' C, and tho DUt placed on iL In order that
the weight of the nut tni ■ --'- " ' —" -• — -
■ither bit coaatarbi lanced
OTBT palleyg iu the ccilii
At whole
arinding inaterials, though a aarier lilica poi
towardi (he eud of the operation to cicaa ou the emcrj and prerent
(talure wear. Now grind the acrew in tho nut, making tho nut
paaa backwnrda and forwaida over tho Mreff, its nhole ruiige being
naarlr 20 inches mt GnL Ttim Ilia nut end for end STerjr tea
miautea and coutinie for two weoki, Enally making the range
ot the nut onlj about 10 iuchaa. niing finer waihetT amery aud
mariug tho lulho iloirst to avoid heating. FiHiah niih a fineailira
nowder or rouge. Duiiug tlie proceaa, it the thread becomes too
blunt, reent thg nut bj a Mhati tap no t» cot to change the pitch at
anr point. Thia muit of eoune not be done leaa than fire ctayi
before the Buiih. Now cnt to ths proper length j centre ignin in
tho lathe under a microscope ; and turn the boaringa. A screw bo
The periodic error lapec^ly will lo too small to be discovered,
thoui^ Iha monntiogs aad gradiiatiou and centering of tho head
will introduce it; It must therefom Giiallf be corrected.
lloutti-tg tf Senun, — Tho mounting must be deviaed most care-
Tully, and i> indeed more dilflcult to make without error thin the
acrew itself. The principle which ehould be adopted ia that no
WDrkinanehip ia perfect ; the d&iigu must mnkc up forito imper-
bearinga, aad heuco tho doTioo of renting one end of the carriage
— ■■■- "■■' must be rejecto-l. Also all rigid conneiion between
ipiglitj hung from a rope passing
ssa. Emery and oil seem lo be the onlj
isis, though a aorier silica p
th<
1 thee
oidod, a
be adjoated parallel to the ways on which the carriage reata. For
many porpoaea, such as mling optical ctatings, the carriage most
mnv. ...-..^f.u fc^.^i in . .._.:„i.t I, no u far as the horijontal
irraturo In the Terlical plane
onditions can be aatiafied by
ling with a ninder somewhat
reversals and by lengthening
finally become nearly perfect,
itly tcatod by a abort carriage
cartjiuga delicate spirit level. Another snd very efficient (brm
oT wayi li V-ahapod with a flat top and nearly vertical aides. The
aarriaga reati an the fiat top and la held l>y springs agiinat one of'
the nearly vertical sida. To detarmins with accuracy whether
the ways are sCriiglit, fix a fiat piece of ^lass on the cairUge and
fulo a line on it by moving '* ..-..'*- . j.....^„.i . .... j — i-
or abortouing the stroke, they
le first, and m
m ana at ina cwo ends 1^ a mi
It ia equal to the mean of tho t
a b better than the method
•s and a telescope. The i
10 distal
I apart at tho
le ia atraight
intsd on tlio
reat in bear
earriue and a teleacope. The screw iCaelt most reat in bsaringa,
and the end motioD be prevented bv a point bearing; against ita flat
and, whioh ia protaotad by hardened steel or a fiat diamond. Collar
iMaiiDp Intndnoa petiodlo error). Tha aeeret oT aiiceea* ia n to
design Iheirat and lla cennexiona aa to eliminate all adjuatmaals at
the acrew aad Indaed all imperfect workmanship. The eonneiion
must also be such aa to give meana sf oorreoting asy ntidgal
periodic errots or errors of run which may be intradnwl is ths
mountings or by the wear of ths machina.
"" "^ — '~'~ " It Is made In two halrea, of wrought
The nut is shown in (It 2. Il is made in two halrea, of wrought
inn filled with tKuwoo-lor lifnam vita plugs, on which tho screw
iacnt. TaeachhsiralangpuoaofsbeststHliafiuiIwhich bean
Bgainat a guiding
edge, to Im described
Casntly. The tno
Ivea are held to tho /
•crew br iprings, so (
tlut eub moves for. I
ward almoat indepen- '
dantly oT the other.
To Join the nut loth*
carriage, a ring ia attac
verUi^ and which ci
The bars flked midway
igainat this ring at p
other in moving the
paralleliam between tl
tridty in die screw
die displacement of the U:
nch from their mean poeilion will pro- "
n tho apeclrum.i Indeed thia it the moat aaniilive method of
lelecting the eilstence of this ejror, and it is practically impoa-
ible to mount the moat perfect of screws without Introducing IL
tisplaced sidewayt oi
f the pitch ot the acrew. On now looking al
□per light BO ».tD have the si-ectral cotoun.
ai'k linea will appear, which ars wavy [f tttcia
lines, the I
, amplit.
'"%» waves"
o7^
le determined. Thi
it found by a aeries of triala aftar
letting tho corrector at the proper amplitude ss detannined above.
A machine properly made as ibovo and kept at a conalant
temperature ahould ba able to make a scale of t inches In lengtll,
with emra at no point eiceeding nVmth of an inch. When,
however, s gm ting of that length la attempted at the rate ot 11, 000
lines to the inch, four days and nights are raquired and the nanlt ia
seldom perfect, possibly on accoont of the wsai of the machine or
changes of temperature. Qralings, howavor, leaa than 3 inches
long are eaiy to make. (H. A- R. )
SCRIBE, AtrousTiN EijafcuB (1791-1861), the mwl
popular playwright of France, waa bom at Paria on 24th
December 1791, and died there on SOth FebmaY 18^1-
Hia father was a silk merchant and he was well educated,
being destined for the bar. But, having a real gift for
the ^eatre (a gift which unfartuuately was not allied with
sufficient literarj power to make bia works last), hs verj
soon brake away from professional study and at the aga
of twenty produced, in collaboration, as id common ia
France, tjio first of a series oF dramaa which continued for
fifty yeara. La Drroa (1811) is usually cited ai the first
play in which he took a band, though, as for some time h«
did not flign ids work, identification is somewhat difficult.
He achieved no distinct succeas till 1813, when Unt Jfuit
de Garde National! made htm fa a way famous. Thence-
forward hia fertility was unceasing and its resalts pro-
dlgions. There may be in existence a complete list o(
Scribe's works, hut we have never seen any that pretended
to be such. He wrote every kind of drama — vaudevilles,
periodic error is entirely due to the grsduatloa
liead. The mieorreelad parledle i
UnesnAssthofanto'
mling tratinfs the
>e dl/^ilaMS tha
SSi
S C R — S C R
•ouftdlM, tngediN, opera-Ubrettl. To one theatre alone
be la Mid to have fnnuahed mora than e hundred, pieces.
Bat his life was entirely uneraDtfal, bnd Ua election to
the Academy in 1831 is almost the on); incident wUch
dfleerres chroDicling. It ought to be said to Scribe's
■nedit that altboof^ he waa the leaat original of writera
and was more an editor of dramas than a dramatist,
altlioiigli he waa for many years an object of the bitterest
enrj to impecnnioua geniuses owing to his pecuniary
BQOceas, and althoogh be never has pleased and never can
pleaae any critic who applies pnrel; literary teets, his
character stands very high for literary probity and indeed
generosity. He is said in some casea to have sent aams of
money for " copyright in ideas" to men who not only had
got actoaliy collaborated with him but who were unaware
that he had taken auggeetions from their work. Eia
indoatry was untiring and his knowledge both of the
meohanism of the stage and of the tastea of the audience
waa wondarfoL Nevertheless he hardly deserves a phtce
in literature, his style being vulgar, hie eharacten commoD-
place, even hie plota lacking power and grasp. He wrot«
a tew novels, hut none of any mark. The best known of
Scribe's pieces after hia fint successful one are Dnt ChaUt
{lU2),ltrare<fEau(iU2),AdrieiineLeaim>rair{lU9),
and liie libretti of many of the most famous operas of
the middle of the century, especially those of Auber and
Hejerbeer.
SCBIBEa Sea Issael, vol liil p. *19,
SCRIVEKEH'6 PAISY. See Cituip, vol vi p. 6*3.
SCROFULA or Stbciu (formerly knovm in England
as "king's evil," from the belief that the toach of the
mvereign could effect a cure '), a ooostitutional morbid
condition generally exhibiting iteelf in early life, and
characterize mainly by defective nutrition of the tissues
and by a tendency to inflammatory affections of a bw type
with degenerative changes in their products. The subject
has been considered in most of its features under Fatho-
Loa; (voL xviii. p. 405), and only a further brief reference
is here necessary. Scrofula may be either inherited or
acquired. Heredity is of all causes the moat potent, and
naturally operatee with greater certainty where both parents
possess tbe taint. As in all hereditary diseasee, however,
the liability may be scarcely perceptible for one or two
generations, but may then reappear. Other caosea refer-
able to parentage may readily produce this constitutional
atate in children, as weakness or ill health in one or both
parents, and, as seems probable, marriages of consanguinity.
Bnt^ apart altogether from hereditary or congenital influ-
ences, the scrofulous habit is frequently developed, especi-
ally in the young, by such unfavourable hygienic conditions
as result from overcrowded, cold, and dark dwellioga, in-
■uffldent and improper food, exposure, and debauchery.
Even among tbe old in such circumstance? tbe evidences
of scrofula may be seen to present themselves where be'ore
th^ had been abuent.
There are two well-marked types of the scrofulous con-
stitution to be often observed, especially among the jotug.
In ^e one the chief features are a fair complexion with
(delicate thin skin, blue eyes, dilated pupils, long eyelashes,
soft mnaclea, and activity of the circulatory and nervous
system ; while in the other the akin is dark, the features
heavy, the figure stunted, and all the functions, phyucal
and mental, inactive. In many instances, howevra, it will
be found that both types are more or leas mixed together
in one individual The manifealations of scrofula generally
appear in early life, and are often exhibited in young
' Tlili 1111^1111)00 un U tnoed biob Is tbs Uua ol Edwird th«
Conisjaor In England, ud tn i inach Htlier penod la Frsncc Bunnal
JahtuMia vu UdcIikI V QsMn Aiih In ITIZ. ud tha uina pn.
lo^Uv* olrairiltT ni aierclMdtiy PiloM Ctwriai Edwud la 174G,
children during the Grst dentition by infl&mmAtory akin
eruptions of obstinate character on the face and other
pnrts; later on in youth thare appear ^ndolar swellings
either exterually, as on tbe neck, or aiFectuig the gland
structures of the chest or abdomen, while at the aame
time mncous membranes and bones may become implicated.
The distinctive features oL the scrofulous infiammatory
affections are their tendency to chionicity and to aappura-
tive and degenerative changes, the affected parta either
healing slowly with resulting disfigurement, as on. the neck,
or continuing to retain traces of the prodncta of the
diseased action, which may set up serions diotorbaiice of
the health at some future time. Further, the acrofulons
constitution always inSuencea the duration and progreas of
any disease from which the individual may anffer, as w^
as its results. Thus in pneumonia, to which the ocrafuJouB
would seem to be apecially liable, the prodocta of the
inflammation are not readily absorbed as in previously
healthy perKina, but, remaining in the lung-tiaauea, are
apt to undergo caseous degenerative changea, which may
issue in phthisis {see Pheuvonia and Phthibib). Hie
connexion of scrofula with tubercle is pointed oat in die
article Patholoot llx. ciL).
Scrofula may under favourable circnmatancea tend to
improvement as age advances, and it occasioqally happens
that persons who in early life showed unmista^ble evi-
dences of tliis condition appear ultimately to outgrow it,
and become in all respects health; and vif^orous. Tbe
treatment is essentially similar to that described for
rickets or phthisis, and is partly preventive and partly
curative. It consists mainly in hygienic meaeiirea to pro-
mote the health and nntrition of tbe youuK, and of aoitable
diet, tonics, &c., where evidences of the diseaae have-
declared themselves. Bee Rickxts, Phthisis.
SCRUB-BIRD, the name (for want of a better, since it
is not very distinctive) coufemd npon the membera of «Q
Australian genus, one of tbe most curious ornithological
types of the many furnished by that country. The first
examples were procured by Ulb late Ur Gilbert between
Perth and Augusta in West Australia, and were described
by Oonld in tbe Zoological Soclety'a ProcadinffM for 1644
(pp. 1, 2) as forming a new genus and species under the
name of Atrichia damosa, the great peculiarity obeerved
by that naturalist being the abs^ce of any bristles around
the gape, in which respect alone it seemed to diflbr from
the already known genus Sphenura. In March 1866 Ur
Wilcox obtained on the banks of the Richmond river on
the eastern side of Anstralia some other examples, which
Sived the existence of a second species, described by Mr
maay in the Prfteeeditigt for that year (pp. 438-440) a»
A, ruftteau ; but atill no suspicion of tbe great divergence
of the genus from the ordinary Passerine type was faised,
and it was generally regarded as belonging to the Malwidm
or Australian Warblers. However, the pecnliar formation
of the sternum in Airidia attracted the present writer's
attention nlmost as soon as that of A. damota was exhibited
in the museum of the College of Surgeons, and at his re-
quest Mr Bamsay a little later sent to the museum of llis
university of Cambridge examples in spirit of A, n^etcmt,
which shewed a common structure. One of tbe atenwl
peculiarities was noticed by Mr Sckter (Au, 1874, p. 191,
note)i and in tbe present work (Bmiw, ill p. 7*1) the
Scrub-birds were declared to form a distinct Funilji
Alrithiidm, standing, eo far as was known, alone with the
Lyre-birds (see vol rv. p. 116) as "abnormal PoMtrti.
Mnch the same view was also taken the next year t^ Oarred,
who, in the ProctaHngi lot 1876 (pp. 616, B18, pL B"-
figs. 1-7), further dwelt on the taxonomic importance ot
the eijually remarkable characters of the syringeai mnaclei
exhibited alike by MtHttra and Atrickia, which he aecont
1 c u — s. c u
555
ingly placed togetlier in a diviaion of the Acromyodian
Faitera, differtog from all the rest and since recognized, as
bas been eaid (Obkitbology, vol iviii. pp. 40, 41), by Mr
Sclatet aa a Sulxirder PteudJtnaet. A detailed anatomical
description of JfrtcAwbaa, however, yet lobe given, and a
comparison of many other Australian types is needed '
before it can be certainty said to bave no nearer ally than
Mtaara. Both the known iipeciea of Bcrub-bird are about
Wsrt-Aiuliillin Bcnb-bird (AlricMa ebnnota).
tbe size of a small Thrash — A, damoaa being the larger of
tha two. This species is broim above^ each feather
barred with a darker shade; the throat and belly are
reddish irhit«^ and there is a large black patch on the
breast ; while the flanks are brown and the lower tait-
coverts rutoiis. A. rufacent has the white and black of
the tore-parts replaced by brown, tarred mnoh as is the
upper plumage. Both species are said to inhabit the
thickest "scrub" or brushwood forest ; but tittle has been
ascertained as to their mode of life except that the males
are noisy, imitative of the D'otes of other birds, and given
to violent gesticulations. Tha nest and eggs seem never
to have been foand, and indeed no ozample of the female
of either species is known to have been procured, whence
that sex may be inferred to escape observation by its in-
conspicuous appearance and retiring habits. (a. n.)
SCUD^UY U the name of a family which is said to
have been of Italian origin and to have transferred itself to
I*rovence, but which is only known by the singular brother
and sister who represented it during the ITth century.
Qbobois Db Scud^bt (1601.1667), the elder of the pair,
was born at Ha?ie, whither his father had moved from
Provence, in 1601. Ha served in the army for soma time,
and, though in the vein of gasconading which was almost
peculiar to him he no doubt exaggerated his services, there
seems little doubt that he was a stout soldier. But he con-
ceived a fancy for literature before he was thirty, and during
the whole of the middle of the century he was one of the
meet characteristic figures of Paris. Despite his own merit,
which was not inconsiderable, and his sister's, which was
more, be was unlucky in hia suits for preferment. Indeed
from some stories told by men not his friends he seems to
have hurt his own chances by independence of spirit He
received, however, the governorship of the fortress of Notre
Dame de la Oarde near Mar^illes in 1643, and in 1650
was elected to the Academy. Long before he had made
>d tlut OrtsoutI (toL iviil. p. Si) di
himself conspicuous by a letter attacjung Corneille's Cid,
which he addressed to that body. He was himself an
industrious dramatist, L' Amour Tt/nami/jvt being the chief
piece which (and that only partially) has escaped oblivion.
His other most famous work was the epic of Alarv (1654^.
He tent bis name to tiis sister's £rst romances, but did little .
beyond correcting the proofs. His death occurred at Paris
on Hth May 1667. Scud^ry^s swashbuckler affectations
(he terminates his intToductlon to the works of Thfophilo
de Yiaud by something like a challenge in form to any one
who does not admit the supremacy of the deceased poet),
the bombast of his style, and his various oddities have
t>een rather exaggerate by literary gossip and tradition.
Although probably not quite sane, he had some poetical
power, a fervent love of literature, a high sense of honour
and of friendship.
His sister Hadelmkb (160T-1T01), bom also at Havre
in 1607, was a writer of much more ability and of a much
better regulated character. Slie was very plain and bad
no fortune, bat her abilities were great and she was very
well educated. Establishing herself at Paris with her
brother, she was at once admitted to the Bambouitlet coterie,
afterwards established a salon of her own under the title
of the .Soct^ du Sam4di, and for the last half of the ITth
century, nndar the pseudonym of "Sapho" or her own
name, was acknowledged as the first blue-stocking of France
and of the world. Her celebrated novels, Arfainiiu ou U
Grand CyrMt, CIHU, Ibrahim ou eillvtre Baua, A Imakiile,
and others are known by quotation to every one, and were
the delight of all Europe, including persons of the wit and
sense of Hadame de 8^vigD& But for at least a centnry
and a half they have htin unread, and their immense length
has often been satirized even by persons well reed in letter*
with the term "folio," when In fact they were originally
issued in batches of small octavoa, sometimes (allowing for
two parts to each volume) running to a score or an.
Neither in conception nor in execution will they bear
criticism as wholes. With classical or Oriental personages
for nominal heroes and heroinea, the whole language and
action are taken from the fasliionable ideas of the time,
and the personages can be identified either really or colour-
ably with Mademoiselle de Scud^a contemporaries. The
interminable length of the stories is made out by endless
conversations and, as far as incidents go, chiefly by snc-
eessive abductions of tha heroines, conceived and related
in the most decorous spirit, for Mademoiselle de Scud^ry
is nothing if not decorous. Nevertheless, although the
books can hardly now be read through, it is still possible
to perceive their attraction for the wits, both male and
female, of a time which certainly did not lack wit. In
that early day of the novel prolixity did not repel.
"Sapho" had really studied mankind in her contempo-
raries and knew how to analyse and describe their characters
with fidelity and point. She was a real mistress of con-
versation, a tiling qtiite new to the age at least as far as
literature waa concerned, and proportionately wekome.
She could moralize— a favourite employment of the time —
with sense and propriety, and the purely literary merits
of the style which clothed the whole were considerable.
Madeleine survived her brother more than thirty yean
(scandal says that she was not sorry to l>e relieved from
his humours), and in her later days published numerous
volumes of conversations (to a great extent extracted from
her novels) and short moral writings. Dryden says that he
had heard of an intention on her part to translate the
Canterbury/ Talei, and It is not impossible. She never
lost either her renown or her wits or her good sense, and
died at Paris on 2d June 1701. It is unfortunate and
rather surprising that no one has recently attempted an
anthology from her immense work.
SCULPTURE
THE preMDt article is confined to the sculpture of the
Middle Ages and modern timce ; classical sculpture
bu been alre.'vij treated uf under Abchaoloot (Class-
lOiL), ToL ii. p. 3*3 iq., and in Uie articles on the several
bdividuol artists.
In the 4ch century A.ti., nnder the rule of Constontine's
sncceaaon, the plastic arts in the Homan world reached
the lowest point of degradation to which they ever telL
Coar«e in workmanship, intensely feeble in design, and
Utterly without expression or life, the pagan sculpture of
that time is merely a dull and ignorant imitation of the
work of preiions ceiit'::Hes. The old faith was dead, and
the art which had sprung
from it died with it. Id
the same century a large
amount of sculpture was
produced by Christian
workmen, which, though
it reached no very high
standard, of merit, was at
least far saperior to the
pagan work. Although
it shows no increase of
technical skill or know-
ledge of the hnman form,
yet the mere fact tiiat it
was inspired and its enb-
jecla supplied by a real
living faith was quite
sufficient Id give it a
vigour and a dramatic
force which raise it tes-
tbetic&lly far above the
expiring ef^rts of pagan-
ism. Fig. 1 shows a very
fine Christian relief of
the jth century, with a
noble figure of an arch-
•ngel holding an orb and
sceptre. It is a leaf from
ja ivory consular dip-
tych, inscribed at the top
AEXOY IIAPONTA KAI
HAeOJH THN AITIAN,
"Receive these presents
and having learnt the oc-
casion ..." A number
of large marble sarco-
phagi are the chief exist-
ing specimens of this early
Christian sculpture. In
general design they are
close copies of pagan tombs, ai^i are richly decorated
outside with reliefs. The eubjecta of these are usually
scenes from the Old and New Testaments. From the
former those sut^jects ware selected which were supposed
to have some typical reference to the life of Christ :
the Meeting of Abraham and Melchisedoc, the Sacrifice
of Isaac, Daniel among the Lions, Jonah and the Whale,
are th(»e which most frequently occur. Among the New
Testament acenea do representations occur of Christ's
> the subjects chosen illustrate His power and
! : the Bmnon on the Uount, the Triumphal
Entry into Jerosalem, and many of His miracles ore
1 A pirtiil aiuptioD to thli ml* It th* K*n> of Chiiit baTan
frequently repeated. The Vatican and latflian mnaenmi
are rich in examples of this sort One of the finest in the
former collection was taken from the crypt of the old
basilica of St Peter; it contained the body of a certain
Junius BassuB, and dates from lie year 359.' tfany
other similar sarcophagi were made in the provinces of
Rome, especially Gaul ; and fine specimens eiiat in the
museums of Aries, MarseiDes, and Aix; those found in
Britain are of very inferior workmanship.
. In the 5th century other plastic works similar in style
were still produced in Italy, especially reliefs in ivory
(to a certain eitent imitations of the later consular
diptjchs), which were used to decorate episcopal tbrones
or the bindings of MSS. of the Ooepels. The scM^led
chair of St Peter, atill preserved (iiough hidden from eight)
in his great bsjiilica, is the finest example of the former
class ; of leSB purely classical style, datbg from about 550,
is the ivory throne of Bishop Maximionus in Raveana
cathedral (see fig. 2). Another very remarkable work of
Fia. 2.— RdlEfi Id ivory at Iha BipIUt ud the Faur Biugnllita fai
front of ths apiKopd UuoH of lUiimiuiu in Bitsiuu catliadnL
the Sth century is the series of small panel relieb on ths
doors of S. Sabina on the Aventiae Hill at Rome. They
are scenes from 3iblB history carved
in wood, and in them mnch of the '
old classic style snrvivea.'
In the 6th century, under the By-
zantine influence of Justinian, a new
class of decorative sculpture was pro-
duced, especially at Pavenna. Sub- i
ject reliefs do not often occur, but
large slabs of marble, forming screens,
altars, pulpits, and the like, were
ornamented in a very skilful and ori-
ginal way with low reliefs of graceful
vine-plants, with peacocks and other
birds drinking out of ch^cea, all
treated in a very able and highly Pio. 3.~Blnh-ceiitiiiT
decorative manner (see fig. 3 and "P"*! '™° & VlUb
the upper band of fig. 2). Byxan- " "■""*■
tium, however, in the main, became the birthplace and
' Sm Diony.ii«, Sac. Tat. Sat Otyp., ud Bwum, Aw*, i. SloM
Vmou lUlei him
nnt irchipokgutt, bnl iha oMaam of tfaa ugu
BTidaDM tlut tin at not Istv-thu tba Eth caatur.
n atdgned to (hew IsUnrtiif n
BrUMTHK.]
SCULPTURE
•Mt of all (he nwdiaral arta Mon after the traiuferaDM
Uutiier of tii« hwdqiurtera of (hs empire. The pUstic
•rtc of Bjmutium were for a while dominated by the
■urriral of the dall clusio art of the extreme deoidence,
but aoon fre«h life and Tigour of conception were gaioed
bj ■ people who were not without the germinating seeds
of a new nBthetic development. The bronze statue of St
Peter in his Bonian basilica Is an earlj work which ehows
some promiee of what was to come in the far-off future;
thoogh clasaical in its main lines and stiff in treatment,
it poBseBBOB a eimple dignity and foroa which were far
beyond the powers of any mere copyist of classic sculp-
ture.' Tary early in the Sth or 6th century a school of
decorative sculpture arose at Byzantium which produced
wmb, such u carved foliage on capitals and bands of orna-
ment^ possessed of the very highest decorative power and
executed with onrivalled spirit and vigour. The early
Byatntine treatment of the acanthus or thistle, as seen in
the capitals of 8. Sophia at Constantinople, the Golden
date at Jerusalem, and many other buildings in the East,
has never since been surpassed in any purely decorative
eoolpture ; and it ia interesting to note how it grew out
of Uie doll and lifeless ornamentation which covera the
degraded Corinthian capital naed so largely in Roman
buildings of the time of Constantine and his sons. It
was, however, especially in the production of >Ietal-wosk
(7.*.) that the early Byzantines were no famous, and this
LOtably in tlie manipulation of the precious nietala, which
wia« iLen used in the most lavish way to decorate and
famish the great churches of the empire. Thia extended
nse o! gold and silver strongly influenced tiieir sculpture,
even when the material was marble or bronze, and caused
an amount of delicate surface-ornament to be nsed which
was sometimes iiyurioils to the breadth and simphcity of
their reliefs. For many centurios the art of Byzantium,
at least in its higher forms, made little or no progress,
mainly owing to the tyrannical influence of the church and
its growing suspicion of anything like sensual beauty. A
targe party in the Eastern Church decided that all re^oe-
•entations of Christ must be "without form or comeliness,"
and that it was impious to carve or paint Him with any
of the beauty and nobility of the pagan gods. Moreover,
the artists of Byzantium were fettered by the strictest rules
as to the proper way in which to portray each sacred figure:
every saint had to be represented in a certain attitude,' with
one fixed cast of face and arrangement of drapery, and even
in certain definitely prescribed colours. No deviation from
then rulee was permitted, and thus stereotyped patterns
were created and followed in the most rigid and conventional
manner. Hence in By^ntine art from the 6th to the lath
century a miniature painting in an illuminated MS. looks
like a reduced copy of a colossal glass mosaic ; and no
design had much special relation to the material it was
to be executed in : it was much the tame whether it was
intended to ba a large relief sculptured in stone or a minute
piece of silver-work for the back of a teitns.
Till about the IStb century, and in some places much
later, the art of Byzantium dominated that of the whole
Christian world in a vary remarkable way. From Russia
to IreUnd and from Norway to Spain any given work of
art in one of the countries of Europe might almost equaUy
well have been designed in any other. Little or no local
pacnliaritiea can be detected, except of course in the methods
of execution, and even these were wonderfully similar
everywhere. The dogmatic unity of the Catholic Church
'and its great monastic system, with constant interchange
of monkish craftsmen between one country and another,
> Than Is BO paniHl tct thm popnlu ImpMBloa tbil thli li is
ntiqiis lUtua at Jnpnat Innarotmitd Into ttet ef 8t Pstor br tbm
sdditlM e( Ibe keii.
557
' were the chief cause* of this widespread monotony of
style. An additional reason was the unrivalled technical
skill of the early Byzantines, which made their city widely
resorted to by the artis(-<;raftsrr.en of all Europe, — the
groat school for learning any branch of the arts.
The eJitenslTi use of the precious metaU for the chief
works of plantin art in tiia early jicriod is one of the reasons
why so few examples riM remain, —tlieir great intrinsic
value naturally otusirg their destruction. One of the
most important existing exL.inptes, doling from the Sth
century, is a series ci oolosoal wall reliefs executed in hard
atuceointhechurcliof C:vidaie (Friuli J not far fiom Trieste.
These represent rowo of female saints bearing jeo-olled
crosses, crowns, and wresihs, and closely rrsemUlir.g in cos-
tume, attitude, and arrangement ihe gift-bearing mosaic
figures of Theodora and her ladies in S ^'itale al Itavenna.
It is a striking instance ot the elmcsC petrified slate of
Byzantine art that so close a similnrity ahouid be poesiblo
between w^rks executed at an interval of fully two hundrctf
years. Borne very interesting small i>1aques of ivory in
the libmry of St Gall show a still later survival of early
forms. The central relief is a figure of Christ in Majesty,
and closely resembles those in the colossal apse mosaic of
S. Apollinare in Classe and other churches of Ravenna j
while the figures below the Christ are survivala of a still
older time, dating beck from the best eras of classic art.
A river-god is represented as an old man holding an um,
from which a stream issues, and e reclining female figure
with an infant and a cornucopia is the old Roman Tellus
or Earth-goddess with her aocient attributes,'
It will be convenient to. discuss the sculpture of the
mediieval and modern periods under the heads of the chief
countries of Europe.
England. — During the 8aion period, when stone build-
ings were rare end even large cathedrals were built of
wood, the plastic aria were mostly confined to the use of
gold, silver, and gilt copper. The earliest existing apeci-
mens of sculpture in stone are a number of tall churchyard
crosses, mostly in the northern provinces and apparently
the work of Scandinavian sculptors. One very remarkable
example is a tall monolithic cross, cut in sandstone, in the
churchyard of Gosforth in Cumberland. It is covered
with rudely carved reliefs, small in scale, which are of
apecial interest as showing a transitional atate from the
worship ot Odin to that of Christ. Rome of the old Norse
symbob and myths sculptured on it occur modified and
altered into a semi-OhrisCian form. Though rich in decora-
tive effect and with a graceful outline, this sculptured cross
shows a very primitive state of artistic development, as do
the other cnMsea of *his class in Cornwall, Ireland, aud
Scotland, which are mainly ornamented with those ingeni-
ously intricate patterns of interlacing knotwork designed
so skilfully by both the early Norse and the Celtic races.*
They belong to a class of art which is not Christian in its
origin, though it was afterwards hirgely used for Christian
purposes, and so is thoroughly natioQal in style, quite free
from the usual widespread Byzantine inSuence. Of special
interest from their early date — probably the 11th century
— are two large stone reliefs now in Cluchester cathedra!,
which ore tradttionaUy said to have come from iht prn-
Normnn church at Selsey. They are thoroughly Byzantine
in style, but evidently the work of some very ignorant
sculptor; they represent two ecenei in the Raising of
' Oa corlj ud medljevil KulptnrB in Ivorj eomulE Oori, nuourvj
London, ISS! 1 DidroD, Imaoa axvrwnUi du Ur^rrt, Pui^ IS71-,
UukflU, Ivria in M* SouA KmrintUn JfuKkM, London, 1B72 ;
WleHJo-, mptychm ^uVn^aiiiBii n Brixia, OOttingw, 1SS8 ;
Wntt uid OldHgld, Scvlplurt in Imry, LoDdon. 18118,
* B« O'NbUI. Badflwnd Cromt <if Inland, Uiidan, 18fi7.
558
SCULPTURE
lAautw'; the figorei an stiff, atUDoated, and ngl;, the
poM verj ftwkward, And the drftpery of exaggerated
^mntine chArecter, with long tiuu folds. To r^pre-
MQt ths ejea pieces of glaw dt coloured enamel were
inserted; the treatment of the hair in bog ropelike
i metal rather than a stone d
inChkliHta
Daring Uie Korman period scolptiue of a very mde sort
was much nsed, eepedotly for the t;mpaniim reliefs over
tlie doon of churches. Gbiist in Mf^e^, the Harrowing
of Hell, and St George and the Dtagou occur very fr»-
quently. BeliefB of the zodiacal signs were a common
decotatioQ of the richly sculptured arches of the 12th
ceotDij, and ore frequently carved with much power, ^le
kter Norman acnlptnred omameute are very rich and
spirited, though the treatinemt of the biuuan figure is still
very weak.*
The best-preserved examples of monomental sculpture
of the 12th centnij are a number of effigies of knights-
tempUrs in the round Temple church in London.* lliey
are laboriously cut in hard Purbeck marble, and much re-
semble bronze in their treatment ; t£e faces ore clumsy,
and the whole figores stiff and heavy in modelling ; but
they are valuable examples of the military costume of the
time, the armour being purely chain-mail. Another effigy
in the same church cut in stone, once decorated with point-
ing, is a much finer piece of sculpture of about a century
later. The head, treated in an ideal way with wavy curls,
hu much simple beauty, showing a great artistic advance.
Another ok the most remarkable effigies of this period is
that of Robert, duke of Normandy (d. 1134), in Gloucester
cathedral, carved with much spirit in. oak, and decorated
^ Oaa of tbua nllaft Ij imperfAct uid hu been dnmiilj mended
with 1 frigmant of > third relict, now loit
*■ Id yomj ud Denmark during the 11th and 12tb MotnrlH
CUT«d fnnnment of tht rtrj highcat merit wu prodoud, especully
the frmmework roand the doon of tbt voodai chiin:li« ; thtH ire
formed of lirga-plne plinki, BDlptnTed tn eli^t relief irlth dngou
ud iaterlaclog lOiii^in gnnd iw^epicg cnrrea, — perfect muterpieMi
of decontiTg irt, fuU of UiE keowt Isreatiirt iplrit end origlniility.
> Sea BlchndKO, JfrmiBinKat .Mowe tf lit Ttw^ Outrck,
LaDdoD, 1B13.
with painting (fig. 6). Uoat rapid pn>gr««a in all tie
arts, especially that of scnlptiire, was made in England
in the second _ _ . ._
half of tlie 13th
and the begin- J
ningoftheUth M
centmy, large- I
ly under Uie ^
t«*««^ of FiQ. b.-mgy iD oak of Robert, duka <rf Nor-
UenryIII.,who maiidT, in GIohmMct cathedral; oooe palnled
employed and «"i gUt
handsomely rewarded a large number of Esglish artiats,
and also imported others from Italy and Spain, though
these foreigners took only a secondary position among
the painters and sculptors of England. Hie end of
the I3th century was in fact the culminating period
of English art, and at this time a very big)) degree of
excellence was reached by purely national means, quite
equalling and even surpassing the general average of art
on the Continent, except perhaps in France. Even Niccola
Pisano could not have surpassed the beauty and technical
excellence of the two bronze effigies in Westminster Abbey
modelled and cast by William Torell, a goldsmith and
citizen ofoLondon, shortly before the year 1300. These
are on the tombs of Henry III. and Queen Eleanor, and,
though the tomb itself of the former is an Italian work
of the Cosmati school, there is no trace of foreign influence
in the figures. At this time portrait effigies had not come
into general use, and both figures are treated in an ideal
way.* The crowned bead of Henry HL, with noble weU-
modelled feature* and crisp wavy curls, resembles tbe con-
ventional royal head on English coins of this and the
following century, while the bead of Eleanor is of re-
markable^ almost classic, beauty, and of great interest as
showing the ideal ^pe of the 13th oentory (see fi^ 6),
Pio. B.—Uead of the afflgy of Qomd Beanor la WMtmlndn AU)C7 ;
bronia ^t, bj WUllim Tndl.
In both cases the drapery is well conoeind in broad scnlp-
tureeque folds, graceful and yet simple in treatment. The
casting of tiiese figures, which was effected by the nr*
ptrdue process, is technically very perfect Tha gold em-
ployed for the gilding was got from Lncca in the shape
of the current florins of that time, which were famed for
their purity. Torel^ was highly paid for'thia, as well as
for two other bronze statues of Queen Eleanor, probably
of the same design.
Much of the fine 13th-centnry sculpture was naad U>
decorate the facades of churches. The grandest example
is the weat end of Wells cathedral, of aboat the middle of
the century. It is covered with more than 600 figures ia
the round or in relief, arranged in tiers, and of varying
sizes. The tympana of the doorways aie filled with reliefs,
and above them stand rows of colossal statues of kings and
queens, bishops and knights, aai saints both male and
muKi'
SCULPTURE
559
hatit, all tTMtod varj ikilfnllr witli luMf amagad
dnpwT, and grecefnl heads d««igned in a thorooghly
aifihite^onio waj, wifh dae r^atd to ths main lines of
the bnilding tkftj ftre meant to decorate. In this raspect
the eail; medisTal iciilptor inherited one of the great
merits of the Greeks of the best period : his fignres or
reliefs form an euential part of the deMgn of the building
to which they are affixed, and are treated io a subordinate
manner to their architectnral surroondi^gs — yery different
from the icnjptiire on modem fanildings, whidi nsoallj
looks as if it had been atnck vp aa an afterthongbt, ftnd
f requentlj I7 its Tioleat and incongruous linca is rather
au impertinent ezcnsoence than an ornament.' Peter-
borough, Lichfield, and SaUsbiuy cathedrala have fine
eiamplee of the scolpture of the 13th centar7 ; in the
chapter-bonse of the last the spandrels of the waltorcade
are filled with mitj reliefs of aubjeeta from Bible history,
all treated with much grace and refinement. To the end
of the same centory belong the celebrated reliefs of angels
in Uie spandrels of the dioir orchee at Lincoln, carred in
a large manive way with great strength of decorative
eflecL Other fine reliefs of angels^ executed about 1260,
exist In the transepts of Westminater Abbey; being high
from the grouiid, they are broadly treated without any
hi^ finish in the details.*
It msy bare ba well Uimjttew words on the tsehniesl nwthodi
aia^jM In th« sisentloB ot nediBTsl Knlptaie, which In Um
Dida WM* Toy tbeHi In Kagland, Frucs, ud Oomsiiy. WImu
bronn wis B«d — Io l^igi*""* u s mis ■mly for the sIBim of rojal
patBiis or ths itcbsr noUa— ths metal «m owt bj Qib ddini*
tinfiTdiu proWM, Slid th« whole nabct et ths Ggnre «u than
thlMly ^Idad. At Umogv In Fnnoa a liigt nuBiber of npalchni
sBUtw w . . - ■ .-' ' -
bsmoMrai
richly da( , d—
WMtminstar AbberpoHeaea > fine axsmple, anoDtedabcHit 1800,
in ths aOoy of WiUism of Vslsnce (d. l£Mi> lbs nound on
which thaljtiire liae, the ablald, the border of the tunica ^pillow,
and other parts in dMOtatad with thaas aumels vary mfiratel;
tiaatad. Tlu Teat of the copper was gilt, sad the hehnat was nir-
roundad with a eanmat aat with jewels wUcb are now mlidiig.
Osa royal afflgy ot Utar data at WastminataT, tbit of Heniy T. (3:
lUa), waa formed of baatao ailTer Ixed to an oak ooia, with Uis
exoaptiaD of Ule head, whkh appaara to haTe been east. The
whoto of tha rilTar disappeaiad u the tune of Hauy Till., and
B It t>
■e fcobably Bl Eo^jah workman
la moat caaM atone waa oaed
„ .__ ooloBiiag
aran in tha ease of axteiaal ac(U|
of wM m' iae pkatar mlxei
and onr tba drapery and other
si aoolptan.
gr mixed with
ti patterns wen stamped with wooden disa (eee Hn^ Di-
ooRATtOM, Bg. IT), ami opon thla thandd and ealouB wan applied:
thm the Hndineaa sad monotony of flat smoath amfica coTered
with gilding or Mght ooloaia wen anldad.* In additioii to this
" s borders of drapaty and other parta of atone atatoee ware tn-
manUd with amtali uA Uaa Inali. or. in a man
r, with holea sod rinkl
inen^ljoc
SienI
bor
foil, OD which Ten minata patta , . . . . ,
Tsniiah coloan; the whole waa then protected from the air by
if tnnanaroit glaaa, canfolly ahsped to the right aln
aths tidlln tha cariCy cnt In the atona Itisdlfflcolt
and Biad OTei the to
' ne acnlptnra ca tba nev Piili op«B-hoiua la a itriUBg '"1-t~
of this ; and BO, fai a mull way, an the atataaa In tha new rtcadoa ot
Wastniastar Abbey and Qkacttla athedisL
■ Ob tba wtiol^ ffiatanlnatig poiataiaa the Boat complatelr rerre-
asEnawDn bom the IStli to thsltth eentnTj.
* Other efligliB ttom Umogas ware Imported Into Betfaiid, bnt no
«lhv aiSBpla now ailMs In Uw eomtry.
* In tbe modem attampta^to reprodneo tl» medloTal potTohroinT
tlieaa dalloala Borhca rellul ban ben omitted ; hcnea tba piliiral re-
aalta of aach colouilng u Uist In Kobe Dame aod ths Balala Ohapella
ia Paris and maoj otber * lestored " fthmhes, eiq>eda]lr in Fnnoe
sadOsnuuiy
e of inlay of colonred
now to raaliiia tha extmne aplendonr ot this gilt, painted, and
jewelled acolptiire, aa no Deribct eiample eiists, though is many
caags truss remaia of all theM procemKi, end ihow that tbey wets
once very widely apfilied,' The ajuhiteelural amTonndings ot the
figtttaa wan tautsd in the sbdm slabonta vky. li <><• iJih im.
tury io Kngland alabaster came icto frequent oae f
scnlptore ; Lt too nas decontod with gold and Co
some oaaes thn whole eurface doea not appear U
tnated. lu his wide Q99 of coloured decoration,
epecn, the mediKval acalptor cai
than do any modem srtuta. I , _ ._
glaa waa coDDon at Athena during the Sth oentarr ao,, — aa,
for example, In the plsit-band of some of the marble boaea of tbo
Erechtbeum, — and Dve or ail ceatorlM earlier at Tiryus and
HyceOB.
Another outarlal much naed by medlaTnl acolpton waa wood,
though, from its periahable nature, oomparetiiely few early ex-
amplea anrTire;* tbe beat apeclmen ia the Geuto of George do
Caalslupa (d. ISTS) In Abergansny cliunh. This waa docontud
with ffimo relieh, gilt aod colound in the same way aa the atone.
The tomh ot Prince John of Eltham (il, 1334) at Wntmiosln' ie a
Tcry Goa example of Che early naa of slalaatar, both for the re-
cambaat efflgr end also for a number of small figures ot monmers
all raand the aroadliig ot tbe tomb Theee little fignrea, well pi«-
aerred on the aide whifh ia protected by the acreen, are of vary
great beauty and are axecotad with the moat delicate ninntencss ;
soma«t tbe heads sn aqnal to the beat eontemporary work of the
son and pni«b of Kioo^ PIssool Tba tomb an« had a high
stone canopy of open work— aiclm oanoplea, aod [do aaole^— a clua
of architsctiinl acnlptnra of whioh many extremely rich exsmplaa
exM, B^ for Instanoe^ the tmnb tf Edward II. at Oloncoatar, tha
Do Bpencer tomb at Tewkeabniy, and, ot rather later atyla, the
tomb el I^y lOeantr da Percy at Beverley. This last ia remark'
ehla tat tba great ricbneaa and beauty of ita sculptiuvd foUaget
whkh ia ef the flnaat Decomted period and lUoda nnriialted by
any Continental aiampla
u England purely decorative OLrriug in stone reached
ita highest point of excellence about die middle of the
14th centary,~-rathBT later, that is, than the beat period
of figora Bcolptnre. Wood-caxyiwo (;.*-}, on the other
hand, reached its artistic climax a full century later nnder
the influence of the fully dereloped Perpendicular style.
The most important ^gies of tbe I4th century are those
in gilt bronie of Edward m. (d. I3TT) and of Richard
II.andhisqueen(madeinl3S5),sUatWeatminster. They
are all portraits, but are decidedly inferior to tbe earlier
work of William TorelL The effigies of Bichard IL and
Anne of Bohemia were the work ot Nicolas Broker and
Oodfred Prest, goldsmith citizens of London. Another
fine bronxe effigy is at Canterbury on the tomb of the
Block Prince (d. 1376) ; though well cast and with caic-
fnllj modelled armour,, it is treated in a somewhat dull
and coDTentional way. The recumbent stone figure of Lady
Amndel, with two ongela at her head, in Chichester cathe-
dral is remarkable for its calm peaceful pose and the beauty
of the drapery. A very fine but more reaJiatio work is
the tomb figure of William of Wykeham (d. 1404) in tbo
cathedral at Wmchester. The cathedrals at Rochester,
Lichfield, York, Lincoln, Exeter, and many other ecclesi-
astical buildings in England are rich in examples of 14th-
century sculpture^ used occadoually with great profusion
and richness of efiect, but treated in strict subordination
to the architectural background.
The finest piece of bronze sculpture of the ISth century
is the effigy ol Richard Beauchamp (d. 1439) in his family
ch^>el at Warwick, — a noble portrait figure, richly do-
eorated with engraved ornaments. The modelling and
casting were done by William Austen of London, and the
gilding and engraving by a Netherlands goldsmith who
* Oa tba tomb of Aymer de Valence (d. 132fl} at Wutinlnitsr a
pjod dial of tha ataioped fftaao and coloured Jecontloo i> vielble on
eloae btpaetioa. Out of the caiitlea of the bug retains a fragment of
glan orerlng the painted Ml atlU brilliant and Jewtl-like in effect.
' He Booth KeHlflgton Vueam pDaaeaaea a magiij6cant coloaial
■rood fignn of an angel, not Eagliili, bnt Italian work of tbe 11th
eBBtarj. A large atone itatiie ot abont tba same data, ol Pnnch wark-
ff ijunped fomi asd Inlay of fainted and glaiad toll.
^- ■ o"~ ■
560
SCULPTURE
bad ■ettled in London, named Borthoromew LainbeBpring,
WBisted by sevaral other skilfnl aitists.
At the beginning of the 16th centarj Bcolptore in Eng-
laod was entering upon a period of lapid decadence, and
to some extent had- lost ita oative individoality. The
finest teriea of statnea of this period are those of life-aiie
high np on the walla of Henrj VII.'b chapel at West-
roinstar and othera over the various minor allan. These
ninety-fire figtir««, which represent aainta and doctors of
the church, vary very much in merit ; some ahow Gennan
inSaence, otheia that of Italy, while a third class are, as
it were, " archaistio " imitations of older English sculpture i
(see fig. 7). In some cases the heada
and general pose are graceful, and
the dhspery dignified, bat in the
main tbey ore coarse both in deeiga j
and in workmanship compared with
the bett«r plastic art of the 1 3th and
]4th centnrica. This decadence of
Rngliiili Bcolpture caused Henry Vil.
to invite the Florentine Torrigiano
(14721-1532) to come to England
to model and cast the bronze fignrea
for bis own magnificent ttnnb, which
still exist in almost perfect preserva-
tion. The recDmbent effigies of
Henry VII. and his queen are fine
apedmena of Florentine art, well
modelled with lif e-liks portrait heads
and of very fine technique in the
casting, ne lUtor-tomb on which
the effigies lie is of black marble,
decorated with large medallion re-
liefs in gilt broote, each with a pair
of saints — the patrons of Henry and
Elizabeth of York — of very graceful
design. The altar and its large baj- p,a. 7._eutne pue-dn)
dacchioo and reredos were the work at St Tbomu of Cutei-
of Torrigiano, but were destroyed ""^ ^ H™T "i-'«
reredos had a large reuei 01 tbe
Reaurreetion of Christ executed in painted terro-cott^ as
were also a life-siMd figure of the dead Christ under the
altar-slab and four angels on the top angles of Qk bol-
dacchino ; a niunber of fragments of these figures have
recently been f onnd in the " pockets " of the nave vaulting,
where they had been throvm after the destruction of the
reredoB. » Torrigiano's bronie effigy of Margaret of lUch-
mond in the south luale of the same chapel is a very
skilful but too realistic portrait, apparently taken from a
cast of the d«ad face and hands. Ariother terra-cotta effigy
in the Bolls chapel is also, from internal evidence, attri-
buted to the same able Florentine. Another talented
Florentine sculptor, Benedetto d» Haiano, was invited to
England by Cardinal Wolsey to make his tomb; of this
only the marble sarcophagus now exists and has been used
to hold the body of Admiral Kelson in St. Paul's Cathedral
Another member of the same family, named Giovanni, was
the BcnIptoT of the colossal terrsrcotta heads of the Cssaars
affixed to the walls of the older part of Hampton Court
Palace.
During the tronblous times of the Reformation acnlptnre,
like the other arts, continued to decline. Of ITth-centniy
monumental effigies that of Sir Franda Tere (d. 1607) in
the north transept at Westminster is one of the best,
though its design — a recnmbent effigy overshadowed by
a slab covered with armour, npbome by fonr kneeling
n OBc* no Urn Ihu lOT ititsea In th* interior of thli
cbi]»I,tiHidw(liii«iEamberon thiutoter; n* J. T. U icklathireU*
'- ' ' ' 0, tbL iItIL gL I.-II1.
fignrea of men-at-arms — is almost an exact eopy of tha
tomb of Engelbert II. of Vianden-Kassau.' Hie finest
bronze statues of this centnry are thcpe of Charles Villiera,
duke of Buckingham (d. 1634), and his wife at the north-
east of Henry VU.'s chapel The effigy of the duke, in
rich armour of the time of Charies L, lies with folded
hands in the usual mediaeval pose. The face is fine and
well modelled and the casting very good. The all^orical
figures at the foot are caricataree of the style of Michel-
angelo, and are quite devoid of merit, bat the kneeling
statues of the dnke's children are designed with grace and
pathos. A large number of very handsome marble and
alabaster tombs were erected throughoat England during
the 17th century. ' The effi^es ore poor and coarse, but
the rich architectontl omameuts are effective and often
of beautiful materials, alabaster being mixed with various
richly coloured m&rblos in a very skilful way. Nicholas
Stone (d. 1647), who worked under the supervision of Inigo
Jones, appears to have been the chief English sculptor of
his time. The De Vere and Villiers monuments aie usually
attributed to him.' One of the best public monnmeTila
of London is the bronze equestrian statue of Charles L at
Charing Croa^ which was overthrown and hidden during
the protectorate of Cromwell, but replaced at the Bestora^
tion in 1660. It is very nobly modelled and was pro-
duced under Italian infiuence by a French sculptor called
Hubert LeS<eur(d. 1670). The standing bronze statue
of James H. behind the Whitehall banqueting room, very
poorly designed but well executed, was the work of Grinling
Gibbons (1648-1721), a native of Holland, who was chiefly
famed for his ertraordinaiy skill in carving realistic fruit
and fioweiB in pear and o^er white woods. Many rich
and elaborate works of his exist at Trinity College, (Word,
at Cambridge, Chataworth, and several other places in
England. In the early part of the 1 8th century he worked
for Sir Christopher Wren, and carved the elaborate friezes
of the stalls and screens in St Paul's Cathedral anij in
other Loudon churches.
During the 18th century English scnlptnre was mostly in
the hands of Flemish and other foreign artists, of whom
Ronbilioc (1695-1762), Scheemakers (1691-1773), and
Rysbrack (1694-1770) were the chief. The Hdicoloua
custom of represeating Englishmen of the 18th and 19th
centuries in the t(^ or m the armour of an ancient
Boman was fatal alike to artistic msrit and eikonic truth ;
and when, as vraa often the case, the periwig of the Oeoigian
period was added to the costume of a Boman general the
effect is supremely Indicroos. Nollekens ^1737-1823), a
pupil of SiJieemakerB, though one of tha moat pc^mlar
sculptors of the t8th century, was a man of very littie real
abihty.* John Bacon (1T40-1799) was in some respects
an abler sculptor. John Flaxman' (1755-1826) was in
England the chief initiator of the classical revival For
mony years he wotted for Joeiah Wedgwood, the potter,
and designed for him an immense number of vases covered
with delicate cameo-like reliefs. Many of these, taken
from antique gems and sculpture, ore of great beauty,
though hardly suited to the special neceasities of fictile
ware. Flaxman's large pieces of sculpture are of lees
merit, but some of his marble reliefs are designed with
much ^irit and classic parity. His illustrations in outline
to the poems of Homer, fschylus, and Dante, based on
drawings on Greek vases, have been greatly admired, but
■ S« Anortt, Chtlau di Viayidcn, Pull. 1884.
■ Th< Villitn monniiiHit la «*ld«itlf Ui« wdHi at two Kilptan
working Id tbtj opporiW atjlH^
< An int«reatlng Kconnt of minv EagUib Kolpton of thli tlmt ll
glvm fa; Smith, /folUiau and Ui TVum, London, I8!».
> Beg Flamta, LicttBtt al Oi Stfol Acadtmy, London, 182*. Bil
daigni on ■ null tula ua the biatof taiiwo^ — u, tor uunple, the
MlTw ihield 9t AcUllM enraad witb diUesla sad gncehl nitafe.
SCULPTURE
561
Ui«7 kn nnfortniuttalf much iignred by the nae of % thicker
butline on one side of tiia figures, — ad uusuMessful attempt
to giTB B BoggestioD of dudow. Flixmui's best pupil was
Baity (1788-1867), chiefly celebrated for his nude marble
figure of Eve.
Daring the first half of the '19th century the preva-
lence of a cold lifeless pseudo-clauio ttyle was fatal to
bdividnal talent, and robbed the sculpture of England of
all real rigour and spirit. Francis Chantrey (1782-1841)
produced agreat quantity of sculpture, especially sepulchral
tnonumenta, which were much admired in spite of their
tery limited merits. Allan Cunningham and Henry Weekes
worked in some cases in conjunction with Chantrey, who
was not wanting in tochuicot skill, oa is shown 1^ bis
clever marble relief of two dead woodcocks. John Qibson
(1T90-1866) was perhaps after Flaxman the most success-
ful of the English classic school, and produced some works
of real merit. He strove eagerly to revive the poly-
chromatic decoration of sculpture in imitation of the cir-
eumlilio of classical times. His Venus Vic^rii, ^own at
the exhibition in London of 1662 (a work of about six
years earlier), was the Srst of his coloured statues which
attracted much attention. The prejudice, however, in
favour of white marble was too strong, and both the
popular verdict and that of other sculptors were strongly
adverse to the " tinted Venus." The fact was that Gibson's
colouring waa timidly applied : it was a sort of compromise
between the two systems, and thus his sculpture lust the
special qnalities of a pure marble surface, without gaining
the richly decorative effect of the polychroniy either of the
Greeks or of the mediseval period.' The other chief sculp-
tors of the same very inartistic period were Banks, the
elder Westmacott (who modelled the Achilles in Hyde F^rk),
R. Wyatt (who cast the equestrian statue of Wellington,
lately removed from London), Macdowell, Campbell, Mar-
shall, and Bell.
During the hut hundred years a largo number of hono-
rary statues have been set up in the Houses of Parliament,
Westminster Hall and Abbey, and in other public places in
London. Host of these, though modelled as a rule with
some scholastic accuracy, are quite dull and spiritless,
and, whilst tree from the violently had taste of such men
OS Bemioi or Roubiliac, they lock the force and vigorous
originality which go far to redeem what is offensive in the
sculpture of the 17th and 18th centuries. The modern
public statues of London and elsewhere are as a rule
tamely res|icctable and quite uninteresting. One brilliant
exception is the Wellington monument in 8t Paul's Cathe-
dral, probably the finest plastic work of modem times. It
was the work of Alfred Stevens (1817-1875), a sculptor of
the highest talent, who Uved and died almost unrecognized
by the British public. The commission for this monu-
ment was given to Stevens after a public competition ; and
he agreed to carry it out for X2<},000, — a quite inadequate
sum, as it afterwards turned out The greater port of his
life Steveus devoted to this grand monument, constantly
harosiied and finally worn out by the interference of
Government, want of money, and other difficulties.
Though he completed the model, Stevens did not live to
see the monument set up, — perhaps fortunately for him,
as it has been placed in a small side chapel, where the
effect of the whole is utterly destroyed, and its magnificent
bronze groups hidden from view. The monument consists
of a sarcophagus supporting a recumbent bronze effigy of
the duke, over which is an arched marble canopy of late
Itenaissance style on delicately enriched shafts. At each
1 aibBD beqaesllieJ hit fortnn* ind the modtli ol hii chieT oorkB
to 111* Bofll AMdtny, where the laller in dow orowdsd in *n uppw
noTD utjoiDing (ha DlpWiu 0lllai7. Sm Lsdy Eutlik^ Ltft nf
CAnm, Londoa, 1870.
end of the npper part of the canopy is a targe bronie group,
one representing Truth tearing the tongue out of the mouUi
of Falsehood, and the other Valour trampling Cowardice
under foot (see fig. 6). The two virtues are reprMentcd
FiO. 8. — Bronu group by Alfred StcTcba bun Om WelUsflai
by very stately female figures modelled with wonderful
beauty and vigour; the vices are two nude male figures
treated in a very massive way. The whole is composed
with great skill and largeness of style. The vigorous
strength and sculpturesque nobility of these groups recall
the style of Michelangelo, but they are far from being a
mere imitation of him or any other master. Stevens's
work throughout is oiiginal and has a very distinct char-
acter of its own. He also designed an equestrian statue
of the duke to stand on the summit of the monument, but
in its present cramped position there is not sufficient room
for this.' Owing to the many years he spent on this one
work Stevens did not produce much other sculpture. In
Dorchester House, Park Lane, there is some of his work,
especially a very noble mantelpiece supported by nude
female caryatids in a crouching attitude, modelled with
great largeness of style. He also designed mosaics to fill
tJie spandrels under the dome of St Paul's, The value of
Stevens's work is all the more conspicuous from the feeble-
ness of most of the sculpture of his contemporaries.
In the present generation there are some signs of the
development of a better state of the plastic arts. A bron;:c
statne of an Athlete struggling with a Python, by Sir
Frederick Leighton, ia a work of great merit, almost
■ Th« gieit muit oT llili work ci
oiiiDgton Huaoni, vlilcli paMesc
ale] his dcalgB tor the vbole inwi
only -u-
SCULPTURE
worthj to rank with the best examplei of any period, and
rem&rkablfl for a profauod knowledge of human anatomj
iBaa fig, 9). Uofortuoately the real cin fierdm process
or metal cwting u uldom practised in Englimd, and this
id pTtbon, by SEr Fndnick
statue, OS well ae all other bronze vorks produced in Eng-
laod, BtifTen much from the disagreeable surface which
results from the rude method of forming the moulds ic
sand. The colossal bronze lions in Trafalgar Square, de-
sigoed bj Sir Edwin Laadaeer, are a melancholy example
Fixinet. — DHfing the 12th and ]3Ui centuries the scnlp-
tore of France was, on the whole, the finest in the world,
and was there nsed in the greatest profusion. The facades
of large cathedrals were completely covered with sculptured
reliefs and thick -set rows of^ statues in niches. The whole
of the front was frequently one huge composition of atatn-
ary, with only sufficient purely architectnral work to form
a background and frame for the sculptured figures. A
west end treated like that of WeLs cathedral, which is
almost unique in England, is not uncommon in France,
Even the sluitts of tho doorways and other architcctaml
accessories were covered with minute sculptured decora-
tion,— the motives of which were often, especially during
the 12th century, obviously derived from the metal-work
of shrines and reliquaries studded with rows of Jewels. The
west facade of Poitiers cathedral is one of the richest ex-
amples ; it has large surfaces covered with foliated carving
and rows of colossal etatttes, both ««at«d and rtfcndinft
reaching high np the front of the church. Of th« Mme
century (the 12th), but rather later in date, is the Teiy
noble sculpture on the three western doors of Ch&rtrea
cathedra], with fine tyni;ianum
reliefs tinA colossal
L 10. — Statnea on Jamb of
'vnlril vAfit door of duitita
Mj doigatd la •
>ii« covered irilti |-'"""g uxl
■ On English Kulptum, let Cirter, ^iteimmt of ^nttal Smlplure,
London, 1780 ; Md\a,Sciilpliirt<i/ fVofxalrTCalitdral, London, 1874;
CiKikinll, lamoarapliy q/* Wilii CfUudral, Oirord, 1S51 ; Slothuxl.
ilanvnintat ^fiyia ^ Brilai<t, London, IBI7 ; WeatmKolt. "Scnlp.
turt in WsstmlmUr Abbej," in Old Landau (pub, bj Archtologicid
lu.slitut«).lSSS> P' 1SB •!'! <10' S°°t'' <"«Ki>'^ADn Watninitn-,
London, lSe2 ; Colling -^ri fWiase, London. ISSB, irith good <■-
unplu of m^iKn] dEOonti'e Kulptnre ; W, B, Scott, BrituA ScJuol
nf ScidfliLTt, London, 1872^ W. U, RasMtti, "Britlih Sculplun," in
jVonr'i Mag., AprillSSl ; muijgood lllunntloniofEngllab medisTi]
tcnlrlun in KMMnd throughout thi
' ' 'lit Journal, ud other bcIM
the Jamb-sbafta
of the openings (see fig. 10),
These latter figures, with their
eiaggerat«d height and the
long straight folds of their
drapery, are designed with
great slull to assist and not
to break the main upward
Unas of the doorways. The
sculptors have willingly sacri-
ficed the beauty and propor-
tion of each separata statue
for the -sake of the architec-
tonic effect of the whole fa^de.
The heads, however, aro full
of nobility, beauty, and even
grace, especially those that
are softened by the addition
of long wavy curls, which give
relief to the general stifiness
of the form. The sculptured
doots of the north and south
aisles of BourgBS cathedral are
fine examples of the end of
the 12th century, and so were "
tho west doors of Notre Dame in IWis till they were
hopelessly injured by "restoration." The early sculpture
at Bourges is specially interestbg from the existence in
many parts of its original coloured decoration.
In France, as in England, the 13th century wai the
golden age of sculpture; while still keeping its early digni^
and subordination to its architectural setting, the sculpture
reached a very high degree of graceful finish and even
aensuous beauty. Nothing could surpaee the loveliness
of the angel statues round the I^risian Sainte ChapeUe,
and even the earlier work on the facade of Lnoa cathedral
is full of grace and delicacy, Amiens cathedral is especi-
ally rich in sculpture of this date, — as, for example, the
noble and majestic statues of Christ and the Apostles at
the west end ; the sculpture on' the south transept of about
1260-70, of more developed style, is remarkable for dignity
combined with soft beauty,' The noble row of kings on
the west end of Notre Dame at Paris baa, like the earlier
sculpture, been ruined by " restoration," which has robbed
the statues of both their spirit and their vigour. To the
httter years of the 13th century Inlong the magnificent
series of statues and reliefs round the three great western
doorways of the same church, among which are no less
than thirty-four lifu-sized figures. On the whole, the single
statues throughout this period ere finer than the reliefs
with many figures. Some of the statues of the Virgin and
Child are of extraordinary beauty, in spite of their being
often treated with a certain mannerism, — a curved pose
of the body, which appears to have been copied from ivory
statuettes in which the figure followed the carve of the
elephant's tusk. The north transept at Rheims is do less
rich : the central statue of Christ ia a work of much grace
and nobility of form ; and some nude Ggnres — for example
that oF St Sebastian — show a knowl»lge of the humaa
form which was very unusual at that early date. Many
of these Rheims statues, like those by Torell at West-
minster, are quite equal to the best work of Nicoola Piaane^
> ema<ukia,ntBaU(/Aiiii€M,1^7t.
»]
1 C TJ L P T U R E
563
The abb«7 olinrch of St Denia poaMMca tlie Uigeet collec-
taoD o( I^vnch 1 Sth-eentur; moDomeDtaJ effigiw, » 1m^
nnmbar of whicb, with sappoeed portnuta of the etu*!]'
kings, mie made dnriDg the rebuilding c>t the church in
1264; lome of them appeu to be "Archaiatio" oopiea
of older contemponr; atatnes.'
In the 14th century French acnlptore hegui to decline,
Viongh much beautiful plastic work wu still prodnced.
Some of the reliefa an the choir screen of Notre Dtuoe Sit
Poria belong to thia period, as do«a also much fine aculp-
tnre on the transepts of Bouen cathedral and the ireat end
of Lyons. At the end of thia centurj an able scnlptor
From the Netherlands, called Claux Slater, executed much
fine work, eepecially at DiJon, under the pobonage of
Philip the Bold, for whoM oewly foonded Carthusian
monaster; in 1399 he sculptured die great "Moses foun-
tain " in the cloister, with aix life-siied atatues of prophets
in atone, painted and gilt in the oanal mediasTtJ fadiion.
Not bng before hia death in 1411 Slntet completed a
tery magnificent altar tomb for Philip the Bold, now in
the moaeum at Dijon. It ia of white marble, anrronnded
with arcading which contains about fort; amaU alabaater
figures representing mourners of oil claaseB, executed with
much dramatic power. - The recumbent nortrait effigj of
Hiilip in his ducal mantle with folded hands ia a work
of great power and delicacy of treatment.
The latter part of the IStb centuir in France waa a
time of trauaition from the medinvfj style, which had
gradnally been deteriorating, to the more florid and real-
istic taate of the Renaisauice. To thia period belong a
number of rich reliefs and stataee on the choir^creen of
Chartres cathedral. Those on the screen at Amiens are
later still, and exhibit the rapid ad-
vance of the new style. Fig. 1 1 showa
i atatoette in the coetiime of the end
of the ISth century, a characteristic
example of the later medinval method
of treating saints in a realistic way.
In the 16lh century Italian infin-
enee, especially that of BenTenuto Cel-
lini, was paramount in France. Jeaji
Ooqjon (d. 15T2) ires the ablest French
sculptor of the time ; he combined
great technical skill and refinement ot
modelling with the florid and affected
ttyle of the age. His nude flgnre of
Diana reclining by a Stag, now in the
Louvre, is a gracefnl and vigorous piece
of work, superior in sculpturesque
breadth to the somewhat similar bronze
relief of a nymph by Cellini. Between
1640 and 1553 Ooqjon executed the
fine monument at Ronen to Duke Louis
de Brfizi, and from 1565 te 1B62 was ^ l,._But»tt. of
mainly occupied mdecoratmg the Louvre b( u,r) tUgdalao*,
with sculpture. One of the most pleaa- Ut* Ifith untiirT ;
ing and graceful works of this period, *^«"' ' '"'""'
thoronghly Italian in gtyle,ia the marble ™*
'BartMemy Prieur. Franfois Dnqoenioy of Brands
(1Q91-1614), nanally known as D Flamingo, was a clever
•cnlptor, thorou^ily French in style, though he mostly
worked in ItaJy. Hie large statnea are very poor, but his
reliefs in ivory of boys and cnpida are modelled with won-
derfully soft realistic power and graceful fancy.
No sculptor of any great merit appeon to have arisen
in France dnring the 17tb centniT, though some, nich U
the two Couatouis
had great techni-
cal akill. Pierre
Pnget(1623-169*)
produced vigor-
rork, p4iii(ed
group of the Three Qraces berwing on their heada an
containing the heart of Henry 11., executed in 1560 by
Gennain Pilon for Catherine de' Medid. The monument
of Catherine and Henry II. at St Denis, by the same
sculptor, is an inferior and coarser work. Ualtre Ponce,
probably the tame as the Italian Ponce Jacqnio, chiselled
the noble monument of Albert of Caipi (1535), now in
the LouvreL Another very fine portrait effigy of about
I5T0, a recumbent figure in full armour of the duke of
Uontmoren^, preserved in the Lonvre, is the work of
■ Sw FfllUtD, niHoirt dt rAUoft dt SatHt-Df^i, Fvli, 1704.
such as hiallilo de-
voured by a lion.
Other sculptors
of the time were
Simon Qnillun,
Franjoia and Mi-
chel Anguier, and
Chas. Aut. Coyze-
voi (1640-)720),
the last a acnlptor
of Lyona who pro-
duced some fine
portrait basts.
Fig. 13 shows a
group by ClodioD,
whoee real name
was Claude Michel
(e. 1746-1814).
He worked largely
in terra-ootta, and
modelled with Pw «._B»oiM™a groop iy dodka in
great apint and t«ri»-«Wa.
mventdon, though
in the sensnal uuculptoKaqae manner prevalent b liii
time.
In 1^ following centnry Jean Antoine Hondon (1740-
1636), a sculptor of moet exceptional power, prodnced
some works of the higheet merit at a Ume when the plastia
arts had reached a very low ebb. His standing colossal
atatue of S. Bruno in B. Maria degli Angeli at Borne is
a most noble and stately piece of portraitnre, full of
commanding dignity and expression. His seated statue of
Voltaire in the foyer of Uie ThMtre Franqaie, though
sculpturesque in treatment, is a moet striking piece of
lifelike reejiam. Houdon may in fact be regarded as the
precnraer of the modem school of French sculpture of the
better sort About the middle of the ISth century a
revolution was brought abont in the style of sculpture by
the suddenly revived taste for antique art A period ot
dull pseudo-clasricism succeeded, which in meet cases stifled
all original talent and reduced the plastic arts to a lifeless
form ot archfeology. Bearded even as imitations the
works of this period are very unsuccessful : the sculptors
got bold merely of the dry bones not of the spirit of classio
art ; and their study of the subject was so shallow and
unintelligent that they mostly picked out what was third-
rate for special admiration and ignored the glorious beauty
of the beet works of true Hellenic art. Thus in sculpture,
as in painting and architecture, a study which might have
been atimulating and useful in the highest degree became
a aerious hindrance to the development of modem art, and
thia not only in France but in the other countries, of
Europe ; in France, however, the victories of Napoleon i.
and his arrogant pretension to create a Oauliah empire on
the model of that of ancient Borne caused the taste for
564
SCULPTURE
[onuux.
pwndo-Roman art to be more pronounced tluiQ ebsvIieTe.
Among the &nt scolptora of this bdIiooI were Antoirie
rhandat (1763-1810) and Joseph Bomo (1769-1845).
The latter was lai^ly employed by Napoleon L : he exe-
cuted with some ability the bronze spiral reliefs lonnd the
column of the Place Vend&nie and the statae of Napoleon
on the top, and also modelled the olouical quadriga on the
triumphal areb in the Place da CarroaseL Jacques Frsdier
of Osneva (1790-1852) produced the Chained Promethena
of the Lonvre and the Niobe group (1823). He possessed
threat technical ability, bat aimed in most of his works at
a soft sensnons beaoty which is specially nnsuited to
Kcolptore. Fran^ Bode (1781-185S) worked in a style
modelled on Orseco-Roman scnlpture treated with some
Treedom. His bronzs Mercury in the LoaTre is a clever
work, bat his stataes of Horehal Ney in the Laiembonrg
Oardena and of General Cavaignac (18^^ in the cemetery
of Montmartre are conspicooo^y bad. The reliefs on the
pediment of the PanthAon are by Herre Jean David of
Angera (178B-1856); his early works are of doll claedo
styles t)"t ^^^ ^ "^^ ^^ became a realist and produced
the most anHCulptnresqne resolts. A bronze statne of a
Dancing Fisher-lad modelled by Franfoia Joeei^i Duvet,
DOW in the Lmembonrg collection, is an able work of the
ffftrt clasa. Other French Bcnlpton who were highly
esteemed in their time were Ottin, Courtet, Simart, Etez,
and Carpeanx.' The last was an artist of great ability,
end produced an immense nnmberof clever but often veiy
oObngive etatuw. He obtained the highest renown in
Prance, and wan a typical eiample of the sad degradation
of taste which prertilled under uie ruls of Napoleon HL
The existing schools of French sculpture are by far the
most important in the wwld. Technical skill and intimate
knowledge of the human form are possessed by several
living eonlptota of Fiance to a degree which has probably
never been surpassed, and some of tilem produce works oif
vary great power, beauty, and originality. Many ef their
works have a similar fault to that of one class of French
liainters : they are much injured by an axceas of aensual
realism; in many cases nude statues are simply life-atudiee
with all the faults and individual pecnliarities of one
raodoL Very unsculpturesqne resolts are produced by
treating a statue as a lepresentation of a naked person, —
on^ tut is, who is obviously in the habit of wearing
clothes, — a very different thing from the purity of the
ancient Greek treatment of the nude. Thus the great
ability of many French scnlptors is degraded to suit the"
taste of the volnptuary. An extravagance of attitude and
an undignified arrangement of the figures do mnch to
iiljore some of the large groups which are full of technical
merit, and executed with marvellous anatomicsl knowledge.
This is specially the case with much of the sculpture t^t
ia intended to decorate the buildings of Paris. The group
of node dancera by Carpeauz outside the new opera-
house it a work of astonishing skill and prurient imagi-
nation, ntterly unscnlptaresqus in style and especially
unfitted to decorate Uie comparatively rigid lines of a
building. The egotism of modem French sculptors will
not allow them to accept the neceasarily subordinate ;
reserve which ts so necessary for architectonic sculpture.
Other French works, on the other hand, err in the direc- I
lion of a nickly Mntimentalidm, or a petty realism, which '
in fatal to BCiU|)tare3que beauty, "nie real power and
merits of the modem French sdiool make these faults all
the more conspicnoua.'
' Boo OinnMil, J. JL Carpca«x. •• w, bi., PiirU, 18S0.
■ On PkudIi aniliitiin u* AjIuhh, RkuiH ill Scuiplititt Oalhiquu,
IVIis tbns 1 Cvrf, lliitriiilian di Jfoln Daaa it lUivu, lUialm^
Gfrnumy. — Till the l!ith centuij sculpture in OMmany
continned to be nnder the lifeless influence of Bynntinai,
tempered to some extent by an attempt to return to
classical models. Tiaa is seen in the bronze pillar reliefs
and other works produced by Bishop Bemwsrd after bis
visit to Borne (see UktaIt-wobk, vol. zvi p. 77). Hildes-
beim, Cologne, and the whole of the Rhine provioeee
were the most active seats of German sculpture, ospociaUy
in metal, till the 1 Sth century. Many remarkable piecee
of bronze sculpture were produced at the end of that
period, of which several specimens eiiat. The bronze
font at Li^e, with figure- subjects in relief of various
baptismal scenes from the New Teatamont, by Lambert
Patras of Dinant, cast about 1112, is a work of most
wonderful beauty ajid perfection for its time ; other fonts
iu Osoal^ck and Hildesheim cathedrals are surrounded by
spirited reUefs, fine in conception, but inferior in beaaty
to those on the LiAge font Pine bronze candelabra exist
in the abbey church of Comburg and at Aix-la-Clia|>e!Ie,
the latter of about 1165. Mersebun; cathedral lias a
strange realistic sepulchral figure of Rudolf of Swabta,
executed about 1 100 ; and at Magdeburg is a fine effigy,
also in bronze, of Bishop Frederick (d. 1152), treated in a
more graceful way. The last figure has a peculiarity
which is not oncommon in the older bronze reliefs of
Oermany : the body is treated as a relief, while the head
sticks out and is quite detached from the greusd in a
veiy awkward way. One of the finest plastic works of
this century is the choir screen of Hildesheim cathedral,
ezecoted in hard stucco, Once rich with gold and colours ;
on its lower part is a series of large reliefs of saints
modelled with almost classical breadth and. nolulitj, with
drapery of especial excellence.
In the 13th centut? German sculpture had made con-
siderable artistic progrces, bat it did not reach the high
atandard of France. One of the best examples is £e
"golden gate" of Freiburg cathedral, with sculptured
figures on the jambs after the French fashion. The
statues of the apoetlEs on the nave pillars, and especially
one of the Madonna at the east end (12B0-70), possess
great beauty and sculphiieeque breadth. The statues both
inside and ontaide Bamberg cathedral, of'tbe middle of
the 13th century, are nobly designed ; and an equestrian
statue of Conrad IIL in tiie market-place at Bamberg,
supported by a foliated corbel, exhibits startling vigour
and originality, and is designed with wonderfnl lateness
of effect, though small in scale. The statnes of Henry the
Lion and Queen Matilda at Brunswick, of aboat the same
period, are of the highest beauty and dignity of eiprendon.
Btrasburg cathedral, though sadly damped by restoration,
still possesses a hirge quantity of the finest sculpture of
ths. 13th century. One tympanum relief of the Death of
(ke Virgin, mrrounded by the eorrewing. Apostles, is a
work of the very highest beauty, worthy to rank wiUi the
best Italian scalpture of even a later period. Of its class
nothing can surpass the purely decorative carving at Stras-
burg, with varied realistic foliage studied from nature,
evidently vrith the keenest interest end enjoyment.
Nuremberg is rich in good sculpture of the 14th century.
The chorch of St Heboid, the Frauenkirche, and the west
facade of 6t Lawrence are lavishly decorated with reliefs
and statues, very rich in effect, but showing the germs of
ScalptmidH I'm an XT/hu 5iieb. Parlis 18£1-B»; Hiuai,aaU^
Itin .lUtiM H ilodtmt, Vsi\>, 1M7; Didron, Annaia AhUb-
lojiqua, virlona Brlkleaj Filibien, Hittoit* di tAtt n Frwmee,
Partis 1S56 ; Un Pittlsou, UmaiiMnna q/' Art fa J'Vaiua, Laadaii,
1870; UauttincOD, UnamMni dt la IfnuireUt Fnuifam, Fsril,
n!«-S3; Jouf, atxlptvm Medtnui da Lonrrt, Pula, ISSB | RanO,
fSKm di Jtan Oonjox, Paria, 1S68 ; VloUgt-loDac, DulioHuiimU
I'ATthiUcluni, VnU, 1869. ui. "ScTiliitim," toL vtlL pp. W-iTS;
Claratig, /VuirM tl Sciii^un OMtrnfoniiu, Puia, Is pngnsk
iCULPTDRE
565
tliat mannerism which grew bo strong in Germany during
the 13th century. Of apocial beauty aro the slatuottej
which adorn the "beautiful fonntain," executed by Hein-
rich der Balier (1385-1396), and riclily docoratod wiib gold
aad colour by the painter Rudolf.' A number of eoloaoal
figure* irere executed for Cologne catUedral belircen 1349
and 1361, but they are ot no great merit, Augsburg pro-
duced MTct&l acoJptora of ability about tbia time ; the
mmeum posaenea sonie very noble n'ooden statues of tbis
school, large in scale and dignified in treatment. On the
exterior of the choir of the church of Uaricnbiu^ castle
is a Tery remarkable colossal figure of the Virgin of about
1340-50. Lfte the Hildesheim choir screen, it is mode
of hard stucco and is decorated with glass moesics. Tfae
equestrian bronze group of St Qcorgo and tbe E>ragon
in the market-place at Prague u eicellent in workmauahip
and full of vigour, though
much wanting dignity of
style. Another fine vork in
bronzeof about the same date
is the efligy of Arcbbiahop
Conrad (d, 1201) in Cologne
catbedral, executed many .
yean after his death. The
portiait appears truthful and
the n-hole figure is noble in
style. The military eSigies
of this time in Oermaoy as
elsewhere nera almost un-
avoidably stiff and lifeless
from the necessity of r»|>re-
bcntiog them in pkte ar-
mour ; the ecclesiastical
chasuble, in which priestly
effigies nearly always ap-
pear, is also a thoroughly
unsculpturesque form of
drapery, both from its awk-
ward shape and its absence
of folds. Fig. 13 shows a
characteristic example of
these sepulchral effigies in
slight relief. It is interest-
ing to compare this witu a
somewhat similarly treated
Florentine effigy, executed in
marble at the beginning of
the next century, but of
very raperior grace and delicacy of treatment (see Gg.
16 below).
The 15th century was one of great activity and origin-
ality in the sculpture of Germany and produced many
artists of very high ability. One speciality of the time
was the production of an immense number of wooden altars
and retedose-t, painted and gilt in the most gorgeous way
and covered with subject-reliefs and statues, the former
often treated in a very pictorial style,' Wooden sereena,
stalls, tabernacles, and other church-fittings of the greatest
elaboration and clever workmanship were largely produced
jnQermanyat the same time, and on into tbe 16th century.'
Jorg Byrlin, one of the most able of these sculptors in
wood, executed the gorgeous choir-stalls in Ulm cathedral,
richly decorated with statuettes and canopied work, be-
tween 1469 and 1474; his son and namesake sculptured
1 Bn Buder, Beitragt lur Kvnilgeicli. Ifimiergt ; ind Rattberg,
.Vtniirrgi fiinilMcii, 6lutt«.rt, 1B54,
■ Thii ctui ot lugs wooden retible wu mnch lipltmted In Bpiin
■Dd SandiuTiL Tlu> netropdUtin utliddnl <,! Biiskilde in Deomuk
posMUH 1 vtry Urgs ind migniBcant eiampl* covetsd with iul(|Kt
aOttt nrlehed with gold sad colasn.
■ Sm Wssc«, Siaui ««< SimiUr <l>t DnOielll., Lalftic, 1S13-4B.
a. 13,— Sepulchnl effigy la tow
relief oT GUstlier of Bchwwibarg
(d. 134B), in Fnokfart calhtdnL
the elaborate statU in Blauboiuen church of 1493 and the
great pulpit in Ulm cathedral. Teit Btoss of Kuremberg,
though a man of bod character, was a moat skilful sculptor
in wood ; he carved the high altar, the tabernacle, and the
stalls of the Frauenkirche at Cracow, between 1472 and
1495. One of his finest works ts a Lirge piece of wooden
lianetling, nearly 6 feet square, carved in 1495, with central
reliefs of the Doom and the Heavenly Host, framed by
minute reliefs of scenes from Bible history. It is now
in the Nuremberg town-haU. Wohlgemuth (1434-1519),
the master of A. Diirer, wan not only a painter but also a
clever wood-carver, as was also Diirer himself (1*71-1528),
who executed a tabernacle for the Host with an exquisitely
carved relief of Christ in Uajoity between tbe Virgin and
St John, which still eiiaCi in the chapel of the monastery
of lAndau. Diirer also produced miniature reliefs cut in
boxwood and hone-stone, of which tbe British Uuseum
(print room) pcsbobbbs one of the finest examples, Adam
Krafft (c. 14S5-1507) was another of this class of sculp-
tors, bat he worked also in stone ; he produced the great
Schreyer monument (149S) for St Sebald's at Nuremberg,
— a very skilful though mannered piece of sculpture, with
very realistic figures in tbe costume of the time, carved
in a way more suited to wood than atone, and too pictorial
in effect. He also mode the great tabernacle for the Host,
SO feet high, covered with statuettes, in Ulm cathedral,
and the very spirited " Stations of the Cross " on the road
to the Nuremberg cemetery.
The Vischer family of Nurombei^ for thi«e generations
were among the ablest scnlpton in bronie during the ISth
and 16th centuries. Hermann Tiecher the elder worked
mostly between 1450 and 1505, following the esrlier
medt«va) traditions, but without the originality of his
son. Among' his existing works the chief are the bronze
font at Wittenberg church (I4Q7) and four episcopal
effigies in relief, dated from 14T5 to 1505, in Bamberg
cathedral ' this church also contains a fine series of bronie
sepulchral montunents of various dates throughout the 1 Sth
and 16th centuries. Hermann's son Peter YischeT was
the chief artist of the family; he was admitted a matter
in the sculptor's guild in 1489, and passed the greater
part of his life at Nuremberg, where be died iu 1529. In
technique few bronze scolptots have ever equalled him'
but his designs ore marred by an excess of mannered
realism and a too emiberant fancy. His chief early work
was the tomb of Archbishop Ernest in Magdeburg cathedral
(1495), surrounded with fine statuettes of the apostles
under. semi-Oothio canopies; it is purer in style than his
later works, such as the magnificent shrine of St Sebald at
Nuremberg, a tall canopied bronze structure, crowded with
reliefs and statuettes in the most lavish way. The general
form of the shrine is Gothic,* but the details are ^oee of
the 16th-century Italian Renaissance treated with much
freedom and originality. Some of the ttatnettes of aajnts
attached to the slender columns of the canopy are modelled
with much grace and even dignity of form. A small
portrait figure of Peter himself, introduced at one end of
the base, is a marvel of clever realism : he has rl^rceented
hiniself as a stout, bearded man, wearing a large leathern
apron and holding some of the tools of hia craft In this
work, executed from 1508 to 1B19, Peter was Mmted by
bis sons, as is recorded in an inscription on tfaA base~
"Fetter Vischer, Pui^er eu Nilrwberg, machet das Werck
mit seinen Sunnen, und ward folbracht im Jar hdxix . . ."
This gorgeous shrine is b remarkable example of the un-
commercial spirit which animated the artists of that time,
* Thii gn«t work ie reellj s UDopitd p«dsit&] to nppott ftnd en-
doM th* ihrias, not the ilirioe itHlf, which la * work ot (he Itth
cantor;, herlog the gnbled form oommoBlI tiMd In tb* Hlddls igti
te mMoI rdl^nulsi. --■■-'■■ ^- ~ -- > ■ ~
566
SCULPTURE
[nsRiUK, spjjnsH.
Uid of the erident ddi^t whkh they -took in dieir work.
Dngons^ groteaqnes, ud little figures of bofi, mixed with
graceful KroU foliage crowd erei; poiaible put of the
noop7 and iti aWta, deugned in the meet free and nn-
eonvention&l way and ezecnted with an utter diategard irf
the time and laboor which w«re lansbed on tliem. Other
eziatiDg works bj PeUr Visclter and hia eons are the
Entombment relief, signed "P. T. 1G22,'' in the Aegidien-
kirche, the monument of Cardinal Albert (1636) in the
church at AsohaETenbnrg, and the fine tomb of Frederick
the Wise (1637) in the castle chapel at Wittenberg.
Next to Nuremberg, the chief centres of bronze eculptoTO
were Augsburg and Lilbeck. Innsbmck poesesses one of
the finest series of bronze statnes of the Snt half of the
16th oentur;, namely twenty-eight colossal figures round
the tomb of the emperor MaTimiiinn^ which stands in the
centre of the nave,
repreaenting a snc-
ceesion <£ heroea and
ancestors of the em-
peror. The first of
the statues which was
completed coat 3000
florins, and so Maxi-
milian invited the
help of Peter Viech-
er, whose skiU wm
greater and whose
work less en>enaiTe
than that of the looJ
craftsmen. Uoot of
tbem, howerer, were
executed by sculptors
of whom tittle is now
known. They differ
much in style, thongh
all are of great techni-
cal merit The finest
(see fig.l4)ie an ideal
statue of King Arthur
of Britain, in plate
Armour of the 14th >
or early 16th centory,
very remarkable for Via. 14.— Btoa;
the nobility of the
face and pose. That of Theodorio is also a very fine con-
ceptiOD. Some of the portrait figures of the Hapsburgs
are almost Indicronsly realistic, aud are disfigured by the
ugly German armour of the time.
In the latter part of the 16tb century the influence of
tiie later Italian Beoaissance bocomee very apparent, and
many elaborate works in bronze were produced, especi-
ally at Augsburg, where Hubert Oerhaid cast the fine
" ADgnatoe fountain " in 1693, and Adrian de Vries made
th6"Hercul68 fonnt<un"in 1699; both were infinenced
by the style of Giovanni di Bologna, as shown in his
magnificent fountain at Bologna.
In the foUowing century Andrstts Schliiter of Hamburg
(b. about 1663} produced smaller brouie reliefs and acces-
sories of great merit. His coloBsal statue of Frederick
III. on the bridge at Beriin ia leaa successful. On the
whole the ITth and ISth centuries in Germany, as in
England, were periods of great decadence in the plastic
art ; little of merit was produced, except some portrait
figures. In the second half of the 18th century there
was a strong revival in sculpturt^ especially in the classic
style; and since then Germany has produced an immense
quantity of large and pretentious sculpture, mostly dull
in design and second-rate in executjon. johann Gottfried
«f Berlin OHi-lSSO) finished a number ef portrait figuree,
some of which are ably modelled, as did also Pneonii
Tieck (1776-1851) and Christian Banch (1777-1867); th«
works of Ranch are, however, mostly weak and aenlimMLtsl
in style, as, for example, his recumbent statue of <lDee&
Louisa at Charlottenburg (1813) and bis statues of
Generals Biilow and Scharnhoret at BerliiL Friedrich
Drake was the ablest of Hauch's pupils, bat be lived at a
very unhappy period for the sculptor'a art. His chkf
work is perhaps the colossal bronie eqaeatrian statue of
King William of Fniada at Cologne. Albert Wolff was a
sculptor of more ability ; he executed the equestrian por-'
trait of King Ernest Augustus at Hanover, and a Horse-
man attacked by a Lion now in the Berlin Museum.
Augustus Kiss (1802-1S6S) produced the compauioD gnmp
to this, the oelebrated Aniazoa and Panther in Imms^ as
well aa the fine group of St George and the Dragon in a
courtyard of the royal palace at Berlin. The St George
and his horse are of bronze ; the dragon is formed of gilt
plates of hammered iron. Kiss worked only in metsL
The bad taste of the first half of the preeent century is
strongly shown by many of the works of Theodore Kalidj^
whose Bacchanal sprawling on a Fanther's Back ia a
marvel of awkwardness of pose and absence of any feeling
for beauty, Hietschel was perhaps the beet German sculp-
tor of this period, and produced work eaperior to that of
his contemporaries, such as Haagen, Wichmann, Fischer,
and HiedeL Some revival of a better etyle ia shown in
some sculpture, especially reliefs, by Habnel, whose ebM
works are at Dresden. Schwanthaler (1802-1848), who
was largely patronized by King Louis of Bavaria, studied
at Borne and was at first a feeble imitator of antique daesic
art, but later in life he developed a more romantic and
pseudo-mediKval style. By bJni are a large nomber of
reliefs and statues in the Glyptotbek at Munich and b
the Walhalla, also the colossal but feeble bronze alatne of
Bavaria, in point of size one of the moet ambitious works
of modern times.* Since the beginning of the second half
of the century the sculpture of German; has made visible
progress, and several Hving artists have produced works
of merit and originality, far superior to the feeble imita-
tions of classic art nhich for neerly a century destroyed
all possible vigour and individuality in the plastic pro-
ductions of moat European countries.*
^^in. — In the early mediieval period the scnlptote of
northern Spain was much influenced by contemporary
art in Franca. From the 12th to the 14th century many
French architects and sculptors visited and worked in
Spain, The cathedral of Santiago de Compealella pos-
sesaes one of the grandest existing specimens in the world
of lata 12th-century architectonic sculpture; this, though
the work of a native artist, Mastei Mateo,^ is thoroughly
French in style ; as recorded by an inscription on the
front, it was completed in 1188. The whole ef the
western portal with its three doorways is covered with
statues and reliefs, all richly decorated with colour, part
of whith still remains. Round the central arch are figu««
of the twenty-four elders, and in the tympanum a very
noble relief of Chriat in M^esty between Sainto and
Angela. As at Chartrea, the jamb-shafts of the doontajs
are decorated with standing statnes of saints,— St James
the elder, the patron of the church, being attached to m
Burpuscd by Uie figure of ARunci cuda Ld Puiiandooo [1S96)h'^
mclsd M s bwcoD .t the eotnmeo to the b.rbonr or N.w York Cl'I;
' On Gtmin Knlptnn ih Foerstcr, Ztaetma/i deuttlitr a>iil>|»^
Lsipaic, 18S5 ; WindErer, Adani Km/l and llu SchoA NlB«>IJ«»
1888; Ri,)>i>,DaiOnUmai<lesJ.vniSni*iltiib<iTe-.-'^''-'"r^
Berlin, 1843 ; Reisdel, VucJur'i Slirint ej SI fUoMiu, NurugMb
1855 ; LubtB, Bill, of SndpL, Eog, tranj.. London, IBTi , . .
■ A lin«luig portnit-itMue at Uttao it IntrodDOd U the but.''
tba Mnlml pier, Thii fignn U now mach rarered hj <*• Spun"
pMHIila, ud tba hasd it put))' worn swif vith WiiWi
BAiua.]
SCULPTURE
TbaM noble Bgorai, Uungh treated
667
c«nb«l pillar. „ .
■omswhat rigid manDer, an thorougUj rabordinate to
Dwin Unee of tlie building. Their head*, with pointed
b«a(da and a fixed mediAuical emile, together with the
atiJF dnpery arranged in long uutow foldi, recall the
.fginetao pediment Bcnlpture ot about 500 B.a This
•ppean ctiange at first sight, but the fact ia that the
work* of the early Greek and the medinval Spaniard were
both prodaced at a Bomewhat similar tiaae in two far
distant periods of artistic derelopment. In both cases
plastic art was freeing itself from the bonds of a hisratio
archaism, and had reached one of the last steps in a de-
vdopinent which in the one case culminated in the pei^
tecUon of the Phidian age, and in the other led to the
exquisitely beautiful yet iimpla and reserved art of the
end of the 13th and early part of the 14th century,— the
golden age of icnlptare in France and England.
In the Uth century the silyeremiths ot Spaio produced
many works oi sculptare of great eiie and technical power.
One ot the fluMt, by a Valenoian called Peter Bemec, is the
great sHver rotable at Gerona cathedr&L It b divided
into three tiers of statuettes and reliefs, richly framed in
canopied niiihes, all of silver, partly cast and partly
Iismmered.
In the ISth century an infusion of German influence
was mixed with that ot Franca, as may be seen in the
very rich sculptural decorations which odom the wain
door of Salamanca cathedral, tbe fs^e of S. Juan at
Valladolid, and the church and cloisters of 8. Juan de loe
Beyea at Toledo, perhaps the most gorgeous examples of
architectDial sculpture in the world. The carved foliage
of this period is of especial beauty and spirited execution ;
realistic forms of plant-growth are mingled with other
more cooventional foliage in the most masterly manner.
The very noble bronze monument ot Archdeaoon Pelayo
(d., 1490^ in Bnrgoa cathedral was probably the work ot
' s also anaiitect of the Certosa
at Miraflores, 2 miles from Borgoa. The church ot this
monastery contains two of the moat magnificently rich
monomeots in the world, especially the altar-tomb of King
John n. and his queen by Gil de Siloe, — a perfect marvel
ot rich aJaba«ter canopy-work and intricate under-cotting.
The effigies have little merit.
In the early part of the 16th centoiy a strong Italian
influence supereeded that of France and Germany, partly
owing to the presence b Spain of the Florentine Torri-
giano and other Italian artists. The magnificent tomb of
Ferdinand and Isabella in Qranada cathedral is a fine
specimen of Italian Renaissance sculpture, somewhat similar
in geneial form to the tomb of Sirius IV. by Ant. PoUai-
uolo in 8t Peter's, but half a century htter in the style of
its detail It looks as if it had been executed by Torri-
giano, bnt Uie daeigu which he made for it is said to have
been rejected. Some of the work of this period, though
purely Italian in style, was produced by Spanish sculp-
toiB, — for example, the choir reliefs at Toledo cathedral,
and thoee in the Colegio Mayor at Balamaoca by Alonso
Serrugnete, who obtained hu artistic training in Rome
and Florence. Esteban Jordan, Gregorio Hernandez, and
other Spanish scnlptoni produced a large number ot dabo-
rate retablea, carved io wood with lu^ects in relief and
richly decorated in gold and colours. These sumptuous
tnnminii of polychromatio sculpture reaemble the ISth-
century rotables of Germany more than any Italian ex-
amples, and were a sort ot survival of an older medieval
style. Alooso Cano (16O0-1C67), the painter, was re-
markable for clever realistic sculptura, very hi^y
coloured and religious in style. Montafies, who died in
1614, was one of the ablest Spaidah Hcolptors of his
time. Hit Anert vorka are the reliefs of the Madmina
and Saints oi
an altar in the university chnrch ot Beville^
and m tbe cathedral, in the chapel ot St Augustine, s
very nobly designed Conception, modelled with great skill
In later times Spain has produced little or no sculpture ol
any merit.
Itaiy. — 7^ the great revival ot plastic art took place
in the middle of the 13th century, the sculpture of Italy
was decidedly inferior to that of other more northern
conntries. Much of it was actually the work of northern
Bcnlptors,—- as, for example, the very rude sculpture on tho
fa^e of S. Andrea at Pistoia, executed about 1186 by
Qruamonsand his brother Adeodatos.^ Fig. 15 shoma
relief by iintelami ot Parma ot the year 1176. Unlike the
sculpture of the Pisani and later artists, these early figure
are thoroughly secondary to the architecture they are de-
signed to decorate; iney are evidently the work of men who
were architects first and sculptors io a secondary degree.
After tbe 13th century the reverse was usually the case,
and, as at the west end of Orvieto cathedral, the sculptured
decorations are treated as being of primary importance,
— not that the Italian sculptor-architect ever allowed his
statues or reliefs to weaken or damage their architectural
Borronndings, as is unfortunately Uie case with much
modem scolptnre. In southern Italy, during the I3th
century, tliere existed a school of sculpture resembling
that of Frances owing probably to the Norman occupar
tion. The pulpit in tiie cathedral of Ravello, executed by
Nicoiaus di Bartolomeo di Foggia in 1272, is an import-
ant work of this class; it is enriched vrith vety noble
sculpture, especially a large female head crowned with a
richly foliated coronet, and combining lifelike vigour with
largeness of style in a very remarkable way. The bronze
doors at Monreate, Pisa, and elsewhere, which are among
the chief works ot plastic art in Italy during tbe 12th
ceotoij, are described in Mohsealk and MbtaItWork.
The lustory of Italian sculpture ot the beet period is
given to a great eit«nt in tho separate articles on the
PiBAin (q.v.) and other Italian artists. During the 13tb
century Rome and the central provinces of Italy produced
very few sculptors of ability, eJmoat the only men ot note
being the Cosmati (see Boux, vol zx. p. 635).
During the 14tb century Florence and the D«ghbouring
cities were the chief centres of Italian sculpture, and there
numerous sculptors ot succeesively increasing artistic power
lived and worked, till in the 15th century Florence had
become the KSth^c capital of the world, and reached
a pitch ot artistic wealUi and perfection which Athens
568
SCULPTURE
[iTAL
a)one in ita best dajt Mtdd havs riTftlled. The rimilarity
between the pUatic vU of Athens in the 5lh or 4th cen-
tuiy B.C. ».ad of Floreace iu the 15th century U not one of
ftn&logj only. Though free from any loudi of copyUni,
there an many pointa in the works of such men aa Dona-
tello, Luca della Bobbia, and Vittore PisaoGllo which
•tcoDgly recall the Bculpture of ancient Greece, and snggeet
that, if a sculjitor of the later I'hidian school had been
surrounded by the same lypcii of face and costume as those
among which the Italians liveil, he would have produced
ploatic works closely resembliuj; those of the great Floren-
tine masters. In the 14th century, in northern Italy,
various schools of sculpture existed, especially at Verona
and Venice, whose art differed widely from the contem-
porary art of Tuscany ; but tlilan and Pavia, on the other
hand, possessed sculptors who followed closely the style
of the Pisani. The chief ezaiu[itc3 of the latter cIilss are
the magnificent nhrine of St Augustine in the cathedral of
Pavia, dated 13G2, and the somewhat similar shrine of
Peter the Martyr (1330), by Balduccio ot Pisa, in the
church of St Eustoryio at Jliktn, both of white marble,
decprated in the moat laviah way with statxicttes and
subject telicfa. Many olhcr fine pieces of the Pisau school
eiist in Milan. The well-known tomba ot the Scaliger
family at Verona show . . . . ■
n general form, though
oftransalpineOothic. '
la^
style of design, and
in detail, suggest the influence
Venice the northern and '1
almost French character 1
of much of the early 15th- !^
century sculpture ia more t-
ttrongly marked, especi- r
ally ID the noble figures ^
in high relief wluch de- I
corate the lower story and r
angles of thedoge's palace;' E
these are mostly the work ^
of a Venetian uuned Bar- !
tobmeo Bon. A magni- |
ficent marble tympanum |
relief by Bon baa recently i
been added to the South |
Keoaington Museum ; it i
haa a noble colossal figure |
of the Madonna, who shel- |
ters under her mantle a i
number of kneeling wor- |
shippers ; the background i
is enriched with fohage ;
and heads, forming a i
"Jesse tree," designed ,
with greatdecorative skill |
The cathedral of Como, :
built at the very end ot |
the 15th century, is de- i
corated with good sculp- i
tureof almost Qotliicetylo, |
but on the whole rather |
dull and mechanical in de- I
tail, like mach of the sculp- !
tura in the extreme north j
of Italy. A large quantity
ot rich sculpture was pro- P'". 16.— FJorentini
duced b Naploi during pL^''' . ,'„ 'J
., ,,, f i.p Crtioia Dear r Ion
the 14th century, but of
no great merit either in design or in e:
lofty monument ot King Robert (1350), I
altar of S. Chiara, and other tombs in tt
; uid Uathu, CmcA. tier Baui. u.
are the most conspicooiia works of ttda period. Verj
beautiful sepulchral effigies in low reliel woe prodoeed in
many parts of Italy, especially at Florence. The tomb of
Lorenzo Acciaioli (see fig. 16), in Uie Certooa near Florence
is A fine example ot about
the year 1400, which has
absunlly been attributed to
Donatella Borne was very
remarkable during the 14tb
century for its extraordinary
pover^ in the production irf
sculpture, TheclumBycSgies
at the north-east of S. Maria
in Trasteiere are striking ei-
amples ot the degradation of
the phistic art there about the
year 1400 ; and it was not
till nearly the middle ot the
century that the arrival of
able Florentine sculptors,
such as Filarete, Mino da
Fiesole, and the' PoUaiuoli,
initiated a brilliant era of
artistic activity, which, how-
ever, tor about a century
continued to depend on the
presence ot sculptors from
Tuscany and other northern
provinces. It was not, in fact,
till the period ot full decad-
ence had begun that Rome
itself produced any notable
artista.
For the great sculptors ol
Florence during the 14th and
15lh centuries we refer th
reader to the separate bio-
graphical notices on the sub- I'la W.— SUlue dI St Geoigt bj
iect The Ksani and Arcolfo Doi^tsllo, out>lJ« tin dmicli i*
del Cambio were succeeded ^ ^ ^"^"^ '' ^'°™"*
by Oicagna and others, who carried on and derekified tbi
great lesaans these pioneers of the Renaimncs saa
tanght. Ohiberti, the sculptor of the world-famed i*p-
[tTALUir.
SCULPTURE
tisler; galea ; DonaUllo, the nuuter of delicate relief and
dignified reftliBm (see fig. IT) ; Luca della Bobbia, with
hia classic purity of style and aweetnesa of expresaion,
came eert in order, Unseoiual beauty elevated by reli-
giotu Bpirit was attained in the highest degree by Hino da
Fiesole, the two Boesellini, Benedetto da Maiano, and other
sculptors of Florence. Two of the nobleet eqaestrian statuee
the world has probably ever seen are the Oattamelata etatne
at Fadoa by Donatello and the statue of CoQeoni at Venice
byVerrocchioaadLeopardi(seeGg.I8). A third, which was
probably of aqoal beauty, was modelled in clay by Leonardo
da Vinci, but it no longer exista. Fiealty came Michel-
angelo, who
rouedtba scalp- ,
ture of the I
modem world
to ila highest ^
pitch of nwgni' 1
ficence^ and at I
the Hune time j
sowed the seeda t
of its rapidly '
approaching do- ■
clioa ; the head ,
of hw David (see ;
fig.l9)iBawork k
of unrivalled \
force and dig- V
nity. His Rvajs
and imitatora,
Baccio Bondi fiO' 'B' — U»d of tb< cologad sutu« of Divid b;
nelli, Oiaoomo Micl«l«ig.lo at Pl<™i=t
della Porta, Montelapo, Ammanati, Viaceaio de' Roasi,
and others, copied and exaggerated hie faults without
possessing a touch of his gigantic genius. In other
parts of Italy, such aa Pavia, the traditions of the 15th
ceotury lasted longer, though gradually fading. The
statuary and reliefs which make the Certoea near I^via
one of tha most gorgeous buildings in the world are free
from the inGuence of Michelangelo, which at Florence
and Rome was overwhelming. Though much of the sculp-
ture was begun in the second half of the l&th century,
the greater part was not executed till much later. The
magnificent tomb of the founder, Ciovanni Oaleauo Via-
conti, was not completed till about 1560, and is a gorgeous
example of the style of the Renaissance grown weak from
excess of richness and from loss of the simple purity of
the art of the 15th century. Everywhere in this wonder-
ful building the fault is Uie same; and the growing love
of luxury and display, which was the curse of the time, ia
rejected in the plastic decorations of the whole church.
Tiie old religious spirit had died out and was succeeded
by unbelief or by an affected revival of paganiam. Monu-
ments to ancient Bomaos, auch as those to the two Flinys
on the fa^e of Como cathedral, or "heroa" to unaaintly
mortal^ such as that erected at Rimini by Sigiamondo
Faudolfo in honour of Isotta,' grew up side by side with
shrines and churches dedicated to the saints. We have
seen how the youthful vigour of tha Christian faith vivified
for a time' the dry bones of expiring classic art, and now
the decay of this same belief brought with it the destruc-
tion of aJl that was most valuable in medieval aculpti
Sculpture like the other arts became the bond-slave of the
nch and ceased to be the natural expression of a whole
people. Though for a long- time in Italy great technical
skill continued to exist, the vivifying spunt was dead, and
at last a dull scholasticism or a riotous extravagance of
design became tha leading characteristics.
The I6th centnry was one of transition to this state of
degradation, but nevertheless produced many sculptors of
great ability who were not wholly crushed by the declining
taate of their time. John of Dooay (IS21-1608), usoally
known as Giovanni da Bologna, one of the ablest, lived and
worked almost entirely in Italy. His bronze statue of
Mercury flying upwards, in the Uffiii, one of his finest
works, is full of life and
movement. By him also is
the Carrying ofi'of a Sabine
Woman in the IxigffA d^
Lanii. His great fountain
at Bologna, with two tiers
of boys and mermaids^ sni-
mounted by a coloasal statne
of Neptune, a very noble
work, is composed of archi-
tectural features combined
with sculpture, and is remark-
able for beauty of proportion.
He also cast the fine brooie
equestrian statue of Coeimo
do' Hedici at Florence and
the very richly decorated
west door of Fisa cathedral,
the latter much injured by
the over-crowding of its orna-
ments and the wont of sculp-
turesque dignity in the fig-
ures ; it is a feeble copy of
Ohiberti's noble prodoctior. i
Oneof Qiovanni'sbeetworks, I
a group of two nude figures
fitting, is now lost. A fine
copy in lead existed ttll^io-20.— GronpbjQIovumldsfl*.
rangle of Brasenoee Col- ^ ' ^
lege, Oxford, of which it was the chief ornament (see fig.
20). In 1681 it was sold for old lead by the master and
fellows of the college, and was
immediately melted down by
the plumber who bought it —
a quite irreparable loas, as the
only other txisting copy is
very inferior; the deetruction
was an utt«rly Laexcneable act
of vandalism. The sculpture
on the western facade of the
church at Loreto and the ela- j
borate bronie gates of the '
Santa Oosa are works of great
technical merit by Oirolamo ^
Lombardo and his sons, about
the middle of the ISth cen-
tury. Ben venuto Cellini {1600-
1569), though in the main a
poor sculptor, produced one
work of great beauty and dig-
nity,— the colomol bronze Per-
seus at Florence (see fig. .31).
His large bust of Coaimo de' .
Hedici in the Bargello is mean !
and petty in style. A nnm- '
ber of very clever, statues and
groups in i«rra - cotta were Fio. ji-— Btoiub rtstn* o( Pw-
modelled by Antonio B««arelli "" "^ Med™ hj Oflini, to
of Modena (d. 1565^ and ^^I^W** •!•' Luul « Ita-
were enthusiastically admired
by Michelangelo ; the finest are a IHet4 in B. Maria Fom-
- poaa and a large Detceat from the Cross io S. Taaieeteo,
670
aCULPTDRE
both ftt ModeDA. The colctsal bronze seated itatue of
juliiu TIL at Ferula, cast in 1555 by Tincenzo Donti, ia
one of the bett portnit-figuras of the time.
The chief Kolptor and architect of the 17th century was
the Neapolitan Bernini (1598-1680), who, wilii the aid ot
ft largo Bcbool of asaiataots, produced an almost incredible
cjoantity ot sculjituro of the most varying degreee of merit
and hideoiunesa. His chief carl; group, the Apollo and
Daphne in the Borghcso casino, id a work of wonderful
technical skill and delicate high finish, combined with soft
beauty and grace, though too pictorial in style. In later
life Bernini turned ont work of brutal coarseness,' designed
in a thorooghly unsculpturesque spirit. The churches of
Itoma, the colonnade of St Peter's, and the bridge of S.
Angelo are crowded with his clumsy colossal Ggures, half
draped in wildly fluttering garments, — -perfect modeb of
what ia worst in the plastic art. And yet his works re-
cmved perhaps more praise than those of any other sculptor
of any affe, and after his death a scaffolding was erected
outside the bridge of S. Angelo in order that people might '
walk round and admire his rows of feeble half-naked
S{eU. For all that, Bernini was a man of undoubted
ant, and in a better period of art would have been a .
■eolplor of the first rank ; many of his portrait-busts are
works of great vigour and dignity, quite free from the '
mannered ertiavagance of his larger sculpture. Stefano [
Uadema (15T1-I636) was the ablest of his cootempo-
taries ; his clever and much admired statue, the figure of
the dead 8. Cecilia under the high altar of her basilica,
is chiefly remarkable for its deathlike pose aod the realistic
treatment of the drapery. Another clever sculptor was
AJessandro Algardi ot Bologna (1598MQ54).
In the next century at Naples Queirolo, Corradini, and
Sammartino produced a ntunber of statues, now in the
chapel of S. Maria de' Sangri, which are extraordinary
enunples of wasted labour and igooraoce of the simplest
canons of plastic art. These are marble statoea enmeshed
in nets or covered with thin veils, executed with almost
deceptive realism, perhaps the lowest stage of tricky de-
gradation into wbidi the sculptor's art could possibly fall.'
In the 18th centory Italy was naturally the headquarters
of the ctasaicol revival, which spread thence throughout
mort ot Europe. Canova (1757-1822), a Venetian by
birth, who spent most of his life in Some, was perhaps
the leading spirit of this movement, and became the most
popular sculptor of his time. Bis work is very unequal in
merit, meetly dull and uninteresting in style, and is occa-
sionally marred by a meretricious spirit very contrary to
the true classic feeling. His group of the Three Graces,
the Hebe, and the veij pofmlar Dancing-OirU, copies of
which in plaster disfigure the stairs of countless modem
hotels and other buildings on the Continent, are typical
examples of Canova's worst work. Some ot his sculpture
la deaigned with far more of the purity of antique art ;
his finest work ia the colossal group of Theseus slaying a
Centaur at Vienna (see fig. 22). Canova's attempts at
Christian sculpture are singularly unsuccessful, as, for ex-
ample, his pretentions monument to Pope Clement XIII.
in St Peter's at Roue, that to Titian at Venice, and
Alfieri's tomb in the Florentine church of S. Croce. Fiesole
has in this century prodnced one sculptor of great talent,
named BastianinL He worked in the style of the great
] 5tb-ceDtai7 Florentine sculptors, and followed especially
the methods of his distinguished fellow-townsman Mino da
' TtM LndarUi grogp ot Pluco curjing oB PrMerpins i> * itriklDg
cumple, ud ihon Baraiul'i deteriontloa o[ Stj]t in liter life. It bu
BoUiiDg Id comniDa (rith Um Cun wd Abal or Ihe Apollo ud Diphne
' la tb* pf*Hat Mntnrr ux Ttiliin icnlptor umed Honti «oa vmeh
popolir npnta br tlmiUr nmrartby tncki ; loiDe niltd Uitata by him
is IIm IxndDB EihlbtUon of ISBI wire pull; sdiDlMd.
Fiesole. Many of Baatianini's works are hardly to be dts
tingulshed from geautoe sculpture ot the li>tb century,
' ' prices have been paid for
Fia. aa.— Colossal marble group of Thewua ud ■ ceuUor, by Cuois,
U Vlmnt
them under the supposition that they were mediteval pro-
ductions. These frauds were, however, perpetrated without
Bastianini'a knowledge,
Samdinavia, dx.—Bs for the greatest sculptor of the
classical revival was Bertel Thorwaldsen (1770-18**), an
Icelander by race, whose boyhood was spent at Copenhagen,
and who settled in Rome in 1797, when Canova's fame was
at its highest poiut.^ He produced an immense quantity
of groups, single statnes, and reliefs, chiefly Oreek and
Roman deities, many of which show more of the true
spirit of antique art than has been attained by any other
modern sculptor. His groap of the Three Graces is for
purity of form and sculpturesqne simplicity far snpeiior
to that of the same auhiject by Canova. No sculptor's
works have ever been exhibited as B whole in so perfect a
maoDer as Thorwaldsen's ; they are collected in ft fiiw
building which has been specially erected to contwn them
at Copenhagen ; he is buried in the courtyard The
Swedish sculptors Tobias Sergell and Johann Bystrom be-
longed to the classic school ; the latter followed in Thorwald-
sen's footsteps. Another Swede named Fogelberg was
famed chiefly for his sculptured subjects taken from Noise
mythology. W. Bisaen and Jerichau ot Denmark have
produced some able works, — the former a fine eques'n"'
Btatue of .Frederick VII. at Copenhagen, and the '»"*''*
very spirited and widely known group of a Man attacked
by a Panther,
Within recent years Russia, Poland, and other countries
have produced many sculptors, most of whom belong to
the modem German or French schools. Home is still a
favourite place ot residence for the sculptors ot all conn-
tries, but can hardly be said to possess a school of its own.
The Bcnlptors of America almost invariably study at one
of the great European centres of pUatic art, especially 'O
Paris. Hiram Powers ot Cincinnati, who product one
vrork of merit, a nude female figure, called the Onct
Slave, exhibited in London inlSSl, Uved and worked m
Florence. A number of living American sculpUtra now
reside both there and in Rome.*
r»n«,iw>i. .- _i.
Teobsicm Urhom of trb 8cin.m>K.
Tbs {rodsction of broon lUtas* by ths An perdM prMru ii
dncribnl In tlia «tlicle H«rAHn)ii», »oL in. p. 72 : thi* i* DOW
hut littls pnctbcd oul of Pun.
For ths eiKutina gf ■ nurbla alitua the icnlptor fint modul* «
pnliinininF iketch oo ■ null tale in cUj or ku. Ha then, ia
ill* CM* of B liTe-iiied or colognl ititiie, tau a mrt of iron akcleton
Ht Dp, with itout b«n tor ths anoi ind lagi, fiiod in tha paw o(
tlM futun flgura. Tbii ia placed on ■ itud with a reTolving top,
•o that tha BFnlptor na tatilj turn tha wbola m«]i;I round luJ
thw work with the tisbt on anj aide of it Onr thia iron akalaton
wall-lampamd mmleinnK-cUj i* laid and ia modallad into ahape
bT tLa b*lp of wood and boat toola ; without lbs ironwork a aoft
cla; tKore, if more than a lew inebaa high, woald collapae with
ita own weight and aqmieie tha lower jjait out of ahapa. Whiie
th* modelling ia in pmgreaa it ia BtcMoty to k«p tha eUy moist
and plaatic, bj (quirting water on to It with a aort of nrdan ayringe
npuil with ■ finely perforated roaa. When the acnlptor h not tt
work the whol* fi^ire ia kept wrapp*d tip iji dunp clotba. A
iDodem improTement ia to mix the modelllng-cUy, not with wat«T,
but with Btaarin and glycerin ; Ihia, while keeping the clay aoft
aud plaatic, bu tha ^vat adtantage of not being wet, and ao ths
icalptor aroida tb* ehiU and conaequent riak of rhetunatiam which
follow Ihim a conduit manipulatioa of wet clay. When the cUy
model Ii tiniabej it is cart inplaater. A " piew-monld " ' ii fonnei
by apolyiog patcbaa of irel pfaater of Paria aB oyer tha clay atatne
id mcb a way that they c«a bo ramoyeJ plseemeal from the model,
tfid then b* fitted kwjtber again, forming a complete hollow mould,
rh* inaiile ia then ruued out with plaster and water mixed to the
mulitsncy of cream till a akin of plutsr ia fanuod all over the
inner aurface of the mould, and thua a hollow oaat ia nude of tha
■hoi* flgnre. The " piece-moiiid " ia then taken to pieces and the
caatiu aet tree. If akilfotly dona by a good /ormalsra or moulder
tb* pUttar cut is a parlect (acaimile of be orwioal clay, rery
■lightly diaSgurad bj| a aeiiea of line* ahowing the joinla la the
pieee-ntoald, the aectinna of which annot be made to £t together
iri^i abaolnte preciaioii. Uany Mniptora hare their clay model
tut in pluter MTon the modallbig ia qnite CnishHl, u they prefer
to pat ths Gniahing tancbM on the pluter eiat, — good pUitar
beins a Terr eaiy and pleaaant anbataiica to work on.
Tha neiE atage ii to oepy tha plaat«r modal in marble. The
model ia nt on a large block called a "acale atone," «hlle the
Inarble for the futnrg atatae ia a<t npoo another aunilar block.
rh« pUater model ii then ooierKi with a ttrie* of marka, placed
m all the moat aalient parta of tha body, and the front ot each
" teal* atone " is corered with another aeriea of pointa, exactly the
in both atonaa. jl,n ic^nioos initmment called a painting
SCULPTURE
aUiledKr»7«77;'0Or"
S71
, ^-^ _p__„_ t called , ^
machine, which baa arou ending in metal points or "oeedlea" that
mOTe in ball-socket Jointa, ii pUoed between the model and the
marble block. Two of ita arms are then applied to the mod«
one toncbing a point on the acale atone while thi otbor tonchea
mark on the figure. The arma ate Oiad by screws in thia podtit
and the n
with il "
roLTad to tta: marble block, and aet
er needle lonchlnf the oannpoiiding point on the
The upper needle, which ia urangad to alide back on
. V .v ., .-j,( j^ (ji, atatue
.. tban dhllsd into
direction isdioated bj the needle.
ita own axla,
beeanas the maibt* block la in tbe
tbe block at tbe place and in the d
till tbe latter can alide forward n u to leacli a point' rank in
marble block exactly corrMpoading to tb* point it toiMhed m
K'utar mould. Thia |iroceaa it rapaalad boQi on tl
a marble block till the latter ia drill*] witb a i
tha bottoms of which oorreapond in uHtiM to
marks mad* on the nitfhoe of the nodaL A an
t,lmToL l.,aadU>m(MnilgH,^,ad.lfllaBM,nonBca,
IT, /lo&talBW rariAeaiaL IaMa,ter4I: De^TlnHM •i<3
ripaic MT» ! Pi*^ fimm •-•-— ._.._-.—..
■), and Hwif tstt ylMlaa *
oadoD, MM I anHr, Mmrma
L £'iras J« & 4orili^ Parta,!!
Pt, toL tU. i Crova aad Qanlv
9, T^ L : ■alratka, Jna. a Smttani n TMitii, vaaua
JrdL ill Jlatt^ XoduL IgEI40: Uraat (arouU &
mm V Aith imT^eaDit, Jfe—irit a^alm
jonao, ruriH^ mo i Da Hntanlt, la SlBh^ fdfabue *^«H, Borne,
IBTO-a Fraaeli rillta Mtn loprorad tat^aTTail awl BeaeUo, VoHwail
SacH A Sno, Bobs, ItU : CknUaeel ipd XoHnlsr, Ia OibSma, Parii,
int i Olconiua, JIMuHMi A I'lHtta, Vanlee, IMMO iBmiaa andLldnKi,
- Sadiitan at S. MartTa al Vaalast-
.nuitnaaaurt riHalaat, Venir-
rmmla, MUu, IM»! Betin& Oh
lam ; fatBctanaBB, Ms fcaW
aniiTl, ta (TeTitTtari., HS» 1 Jfci
mt-Mi FInU. hMaiui,aiiil Mi...
lrena,i.l.HL: OioUlnt Im ArlU
Solaie. hoHffuIa lipiHUla. Slfit
AmtUmilatim Ss^Eili, pablbhHl
of the pointing iMrhino, which i"
rcnionla, the Rorkman almoat com-
g only tho linisbing lonclie* to be
nd Romans and in tbe meJiicnl
partly niih thr comtant help
pletea the marble aUtue, k-aii
done by the aciilptor.
perioil it was the niaioin to ei' ,
dany surface of tb* hnman 'ik'm rcry ninch^ltcr Ibin the dull
loaf sugar like surface wliicil ia left od the niaiblo by modern
Bculpton. Thiahigli polish ttill reuwiiiain parta of 111.- |>tJiuient-il
figures from the Ivlbraon, viien at tlii- hoik, tlicy bavo been
' lly prolerted from the wealbrr. The Kcimn of [he Vatirsn
Jero ie a nUDV-kalile initmce of ths preierration of Ibie poliah.
parla of some of hia atatuca, ancli HI tiiD Jlo^jw, t)ic Iiighest poidbto
poliah in order to proilucc liigli lights juat nlicre he wanted them ;
" ;iatiB legitimacy of thia may perhaps bo doubted, and in
to be dosirtS that modem sculptors slionid to w>mo extent
: adopt tho cliasical preFlice, and by a slight but nitiform
remore tho disagreeable ci^-stalliuo grain from all the nu.le
part* of tho marblr.
' ronghor method of oblnininc fixed points to mcasnre from wia
aionallr omploytd by UiclielauEf lo and earlier sculptors. They
leraed the model in a tank of nster, the water being gradually
contour linea on any required number of pbnea In some caacs
Ukhalangelo appeaia to harecnt^iaatatueout of the mnible with*
-ut prerionalj rnaking a model — a moat nurveiloaa feat of skilL
In modellbg bas-reiiets the modem cculptor usually apjiliea the
lay to a alab of slate on which tbe design ia aketehed ^ Ihs slate
tbrina th* background of ths Ggnres, and Ihn* hcci« the relief
abaolutely tme to one plane. Thia method ia one of th" cauin of
the dulnsas and want of spirit ao conspicuoaa in moit modem
Bcalptnied reliets. In the beat Greek eiamptea there ia no ab-
Boiutely fixed plana aurfaca fbr the backgroanda. In one pl'to,
to gain an effectirD shadow, tbe Greek acnlplor would cut below
tha arerua aurface ; in another be would Isare tbe gronnd at a
higher plane, exactly aa happsned to luit each portion of hia
'--— Other difl'sroncea from tbe modem mschanical rales can
>y a careful eiamination of tho Parthenon frieze and
j'ieft' Though the word "bas-relief " ia now often
■ppHed to reliela of all degreea of projection from the ground, it
ihould, of coune, only be oted for thoee in which the projection il
alight; "baaao," "mono, " and "alto riiievo" eiptoss thrw different
denws of aallencs. Very low t«llof ia but little uaed by modem
acuJptora. mainly because it ia much easier to obtain striking
aStets with the help of more projection. Dooatello and olber lEilh-
centnry Italian artiats abowed tbe njrst wonderful akill in thair
trsttment of very low nlief. One not altogether legitimate
the relief itself waa kept vary low, bnt wsa "stilted" ot projected
from the ground, and^ then nnderrut all round tbe outlina. A
l&tb century tabernacle for the heat in the Brera at Milan It a
rery beaatirul example of this method, which u a rule it not
pleasing in effect, snce it looki nther at if the Ggnra were cut
ODt in cardboard and than ituek on.
The practice of moat modem sculptors ia to do rery little to the
marble with their own bands : some, in hot, hare Direr really
learnt how to carra, and Ihua the finiahed statue is oftn Tery
dull and bfelees In compari><on with the clay modeL Most of the
great acnlptora of the tliddle Agea left little or nothing to be done
by an aaiiatant ; Michelangelo aupccially did ths whole of tho
earring with his own hands, and when begiuning on a block ol
marble attacked it with such rigoroiia atrokea of the hammer that
large pieces of marble flew about in eretr direction. Bat skill u
a carrer, though very desirable, is not abaolutely uecMaarT for a
aculptor. If he caats in bronia by the ei'rc perdue process be may
prodnc* the most perfect plaitic works without touching anything
harder than tho modalling-wai. Tha sculptor in marble, howerer,
must be able to carve a hard aubitance it be is to bo maater of hia
art Unhappily soma modem eculpton not only tare all mtni.
pnlation ot the marble to their workmen, but they also smploT
men to do their modelling, the anppoaed at
or nothing but his *- ''■ '- '-
de&gn. 0
easily best
of popularity, aro inc
thwr underUking n
aecompliah,—
iloy aid of this
itaea Mulpton
on account ol
xiuld poatibi)
In of trae art As a rale, however, the •cnlptor'a war
•tldom derebpt into u original ai
S72
S C U — S C D
Ibr fiaaea ef slam tiitktrj In tCDljitan, imh n th* earring of tha
opMl mMhe* of 1 flilicrmin's nH, or i cjun with «ch link Tno
uid mOTBUt, iroaJd piM^pg be diiniaUhad if it nsm Imova that
■ooh vorfc u tliu ii luvBriabl^ doae, not by tho uulptor, bat bj
tiMnrwfJiiw. Uuluppilj It tho prHenCdaytlisnl*, sapKiollTin
Eoglukd, littl*Kppncuti(>nDfir)u(UTiliublalD plutla lit; then
ii pntaUr no oClnr drUiml eeiutiy whan tb* *t>t» doM ■> llttl* to
gin pncHoI npiiorttothgadTuicemaiitofmoiiiiTneDtnluKldaa)-
ntlTO Mnlptnn on a lain unit — the noat important branch oT tba
art — whieb tt ti baldly iii tha pomi of piiiratg panmu to hrtbar.
■esliitB^llieM
Sotdk gfHrtujte^ if— I, IPT ; FhM
■'ssrsiK'J -.
-*■— ^^-ni. ffriTf Ill rriiiirtliinMa.
"*--- ■""—'-UaFwnirl,!, Ra^ I*U.
ram, Bt tkoaTb Ita
EkjUbVV, or ScoRBnnra, a morbid oondition of the
blood, manifeatiDg itaelf by marked impainneiit of the
nutritive fonctiooa and b; the occurrance of hnmorrhagic
eztraTMittioDS in the tiaanea of the bodj, and depending
on the abaence of certain eaaential ingredients in ^le food.
Id former timea thia diseaaa iraa eitremelj common
among aailora, and gove rise to a frightful amount of
mortftlity. It is now, however, of rare oocorrence at aea,
its canse being well nnderstood and ita prevention readily
seonrad by simple measoree. Scurvy has also frequeatly
broksD oat among aoldiers on campaign, in beleaguered
citiea, aa well as among commnnitiea in times of seardty,
and in priaona, workhotises, and other public institations.
In all rach instances it has been found to depend ctoaely
apoD the character and amount of the food. It hoa been
snppoeed that a too limited diet, either in amonat or
mriety, might Indoce the disease ; bnt an overwhelndng
weight of evidence goes to prove (hat the cause resides in
the inadeqiiate supply or the entire want of fresh vegetable
matter. The manner in which thia produces scurvy is not
qnilo dear. Borne high authoritieB have hdd that the
inanffioient supply of potash aaJta, in which vegetables are
rich, is the procuring cause ; bat it has been found that the
mere administration of these salts will neither prevent nor
care scurvj. Hence, while it is probable that thia may
be one of the factors concerned in the production of the
disease the want of other vegetable conatrtuents, eapeeially
vegetable acids, is of still greater importance. Besides this
eaaential defect, a diminution in the total amount of food,
the large use of salted meat or fisli, and all canaea of a
depnesing kind, such as exposure, anxiety, bad hygiene,
ice, will powerfully contribute to the development of the
disease. Bee Dietetics, vol. viL pp. 207-208.
The symptoms of scurvy come on gradually, and its
onset is not marked by any special indicatione beyond a
certain failure of strength, moat manifest on making effort.
BreathlMsness and exhaustion are thus easily induced,
and there exists a corresponding mental depression. The
oountenance acquires a sallow or du4ky hue; the eyes are
■nnken ; while pains b the muselAS uf the body and limbs
are constantly present. The appsfite and digestion may
be nnim[iaired in the earlier stages ond the tongue com-
paratively clean, but the gums are tender find the breath
oflimdve almost from the first. These proliminaiy aymp-
tonis may continue for weeks, and in isolated cases may
readily escape notice, but can scarcely fail to attract atten-
tion where they affect large nombera of men. In the further
stages of the disease all these phenomena are aggravated
in a high degree and the physical and mental prostration
soon becomes extreme. The face looks haggard ; the gums
are livid, spongy, ulcerating, and bleeding ; the teeth are
loosened and drop oat ; and the breath is eicemively fetid.
ExttavBsationa of blood now take place hi the akin and
other textures. Th«M may be amall hke the petechial
apota of purpui* (see Pnapu&x), but are often of large
MtooDt and caose swelling of tha muscles in which they
occur, having the appearance of extensive bruises and
tending to become iiard and brawny. These extravasa-
tions are most common in the muscles of tha lower ei-
tramitiea ; bnt they may be ftKined anywhere, and may
easily be prodnoad by vary allghfr praeran upon the akin
w by iignriee to it. In addition, there are bleedings from
mucous membraneg, such as those of the noM^ eyes, and
alimentary or respiratory tracts, while eSusione of blood-
stained Quid take place into the pleural, pericardial, or
peritoneal cavities. Painful, extensive^ and destnicttvo
ulcers are dlao apt to brc^ out in the limbe. Fecniiar
disorders of vision have been noticed, particularly night-
blindness (nyctalopia), but they are not invariably present,
nor specially characteristic of the disease. The further
progress ot tiie malady is marked by profound exhaustion,
with a tendency to syncope, and with various complications,
such as diarrhcea and pulmonary or kidney troubles, any
or all of which may bring about a fata] result On the
other hand, even in desperate cases, recovery may be hope-
fully anticipated when the appropriate remedy can be
obtained. The eompcaition of the blood is materially
altered in scurvy, particularly as t^ards ita albumen and
its rod corpuscles, which are ttiminijh"^, while the fibrins
No disease is more amenable to treatment both as re-
gards prevention and cure than acorvy, tlie single remedy
of fredi vegetables OT some equivalent securing both those
ends. Fotatoea, cabbage^ onions, carrots, turnips, tc,
and most fresh fruits, will be fonud of the greateat aervice
for this purpose. Lime juice and lemon juice an re-
cognixed as equally efficacious, and even vinegar in the
absence of theae will be of aome assistance. The regulated
administration of lime juice in the British navy, which haa
been practised since 1795, has had the effect <rf virtually
extinguishing acnrvy in the service, while similar regula.
tions introduced by the British Board of Trade in 1869
have had a like beneficial result as regards the mercantile
marine. It is only when these regulations have not been
fully carded ont, or when the supply of lime juice has
become exhausted, that scurvy among sailors has been
noticed in recent timea Besides the administration of
lime or lemon juice and the use ot fresh meat, milk, Ac,
which are valuable adjuvants, tha local and constitutional
conditions require the attention of the phyaician. Tho
ulcers of the gums and limba con be best tnated by atimn-
lating astringent applications ; the hard swellings, which
are apt to continue long, may be alleviated by fomenta-
tions and frictions ; while the aiuemia and debility are beet
overcome by the continued odministiation of iron tonics,
aided by frcdh air and other measurea calculated to pro-
mote the general health.
BCUTAQE or ExcuAas was one of tiie forms of kni^l-
aervice (see Khiohthood, Beal Estati). It was prac-
tically a composition for personal service. When levied
on a knight's fee it waa called acutage uncertain, as its
amount depended upon the preaent noMla of tbe ciown.
Scutage certain was a socage tenure, and consisted in tho
payment of a sum fixed in amount and payable at regular'
times. Beutage appMrs to have been first impcaad on the
occasion of the Toulouse War in 11 B9. Magna Charta
(S IS) forbade the levy of acutage uuleas par eoawudu co«-
tilivm rt^i. It appeftis to haVe fallen into dianas In the
reign of Edward Q., and was finally done away with by
the Act abolishing feudal tenures <ia Cw. H c U).
S C U — S C Y
S73
BOITTABI (TnAUi, ttiU^ar), mdeaHj Chrytopelit, a
■ei^ort town of Tnikey in AjU, on the «i«t«ni «hore of
the Boqilionia, oppodte Constkotmople (see plan, voL li.
p. S05), of iriitdi it u regarded m a mboib. Climbing
the al^es of MTeral hills in the tonn of an ampMtheatra,
iti horaee generally painted in red, distingnished by a
nnmbw of mooqnea adorned with nnmeiom minarete, poe-
HMng aome fine bataan and public baths, and merging
farther inland into buTing-^roDDda, gardens, and rillas,
proached from tJie Stoaita of Onutantioe^ rigjit iu front
of ila most prominent point neinhabituitB are laigaly
engaged in the manufacture of aaddler; and Hlk, mn^in,
and cotton itofi ; the town also oontaina granariga and i«
priwd aa a fniit-market, more particnlarlj for grapes,
lemons, and figs. Th« pt^olation is estimated at 60,000
(Mtirelj' Hobunmedao, with the eroeptioD of same Jews),
nie streets, eqwcially Uio mun street leading from the pier
to Ae banadi^ are in general much wider than those oi
OonatantiD<9le. The cilj inclndea eight moaqnes. Behind
the landing-place is the B^jilk Jami (gmt moaque), boi^
moonted ^acapolaandaniinaret andpreaenting teiraces
nuunmillated by small leaden domes. The centre of Qie
•qvaM ia adorned by a fonntiun of simple architecture.
nie moaqna of Belim IIL, farther in the interior of (he city,
is likewtsa flanked I^ two minarets and sormonnted by a
enpola. Tlie moat elegant mosqne^ bowerer, is the Yaiide
Jami or BOeqae of the dowager aiillana, snrmonnted by two
minareta, built in 1&4T hj the dsagbter of Bolyman.
Another prominent moaqne, on the right of the main street
and Bonth of B^flk Jami, is Jeni Jami (new mosqae).
Other noticeable buildings ajo the barracks boilt by Sellm
m,, forming a bandaoma and vast quadrangle lormoimted
by a tower at eaci angle, and whoae corridors, ^., are calcu-
lated to have aa aggregate length of 4 miles ; an old large
red building now used as a military hospit^ and during
the Crimean War aa a hospital for the English sick and
woonded ; a aersglio of the saltans ; a convent of howling
derriabes, a umple wooden stmctnre of twA atoriea front
ing a small cemetery. Other bnsinasB quarters of the
town deserving mention are Jeni Hahalle (new qnarter)
and Ota Dohaigilar Mqdani (tobacco merduuits' square).
The moat cbaiactKistio feature, however, of Scutari is its
immense cemetery, the largest and most beautiful of all
the cemeteries in and around Constantinople^ ertending
f>ver more than 3 miles of undulating plain behind the
town.' In the centre of the ground risea the magnificent
dome^ supported by six marble pillars, which Sultan
Holuimned erected in memory of his favooiita horse.
Close to the barraclm, on the Boephoms, the scene of
Hiss Ni^tingale's labonn, 8000 ^lish dead are over-
shadowed I^ a larga grunita obelisk. Immediately behind
the town is the mountain Ol Bolgwla clad in evergreen
savins and red beeches, one of the plateaus of which is a
favonrite holiday resort Its summit commands a very
extensive view. In the plain of F'''^'"' I^aka close by,
between the cemetery and Kadikci (judge's village,
anciently ChaJcedon), the English army lay encamped
daring tbe Ctimeaa War. In front of Scutari, on a low-
' ^H MmatTj li tDtoTHCtdd with muDonnu paved sllej^ ind tiia
lombttoiug sn iuoifliHl with nnai of th« Konn gUdtd on i dirk
bin* grmmd and boring mehrimpljrtlu '"" ' ' "
Ibe niton of th* aTT«d torbui
k of tlH din— Id ud tbe bUon ot tlia tfans to
I Ibit Um tOBbrtoiM pnent tlw acsIptDnd Urtor;
■ from thfl ditl of 111* ^nUih onqiuiL
for Aiiitli] coorian, u it is itill tha gmt raidainnti lod
ving bum kbA d«till«d tor Briii,
"' the spot vhsoce ill triTellni
th« nit b^in tb«ir Joomn*.
lying rock almost level widi the water and abont a cable's
length from the shore, rises a white tower 90 feet hi{^
now used as a lighthouse, called " Leander's Tower," %tu\
by Hie Turks Kitkuleesi, or the'"Haiden's Tower." The
first printing press in Turkey was set up at Scutari in 1 7 2 3
Its aadait unu Chmcpoll* mot plol>a£lr hu nfacenaa to tha
bat tint thai tk« Fnnin tribsia wm n>llMt«l snd r<po«lt«d, u
*t ■ UtSF dits the Athsnlsus levlsd tbwa too s tantli en tho ihipi
punn^ from th« Eoxiiu. Its mora modam nsma of ttskodiir,
iignil^uig 1 couiiar who convByi tha fcjil orden tnaa itiUoa to
_._^__ '-- thafcotthil fomurlyScntMlwr--'
Auno oDurian, u it ii itUl tb
pointDfdapirtnraof CLTiTuii ir
ranii, ind other parte of Ilia, and tha
and pOgrim* from ConiliJitlnoplB to tha : ^ .
BCUTARI (Turkish, Seodra; Slavic, Stadar), the
capital of Stxtii Albania, at the sonth end of the lake <rf
the same name, with a population of 24,SO0 in 1880
(moetly Uohammedans). lliere is only one street widi
any pretensions to regolaritj. The straggling town is
built on the low flat promontory formed by the Bqjana,
which takes off the waters of tlie Uke to the Adriatic, and
the river which flows into the Uke after ctoesing the plain
between Scutari and the mountains of Biskaeu. In winter
the town is often flooded by the Bqjana. Tha moeqaat and
minarets are insignificant ; the handsomest of the dinrchea
is the Catholic church at the north-east end. In the
background is an old Venetian fortress perched on a lofty
rock. The town is favourably sitnated for commerce,
being connected by the Bojana with the Adriatio, whence
its boats carry the ptodaeta which descend by the Drina to
the mountaineers in exchange for their wool, grain, and
dy^g and building woods. There are somA mannfao-
tures of arms and of cotton stufih. In 1684 330 ships
of 133,923 tons entered the port and 325 ships of 123,713
Ltioa, who WM bars badagad in 188 B.O., and carriad cap-
tira to Soma. In tbs 7th untuiy Bcutail .foil into tha hsudi ot
tha Somioa, from whom It w»i wraated by tha Tanr*^ — --'
6CTLAZ of Caryanda in Caria was employed by Darius
L to expbre the course of the Indus. He started from
Afghanistan and is said by Herodotus (iv. 44) to have
reached the sea and then suled to tha Gulf of Buei (comp.
Pebsu, voL xviiL p. 669). Bcylaz wrote an account of
his explorations, which is i ef erred to by Aristotle and other
ancient writers, but must have been lost pretty early, and
probably also a 'history of the Carian hero Hersiclidea,
who distinguished himself in the revolt against Darius.*
But Snidas, who mentions the second work, confoulids the
old Scylaz with a much later author, who wrote a refuta-
tionof the histoiy of Potybius, and is presumably identical
with Bcylax of Halicamassua, a statesman and astrol<%er,
the friend of PaMetius spoken of by CScero (Da Div., ii. 42).
Neither of these, however, ran be the author ot tiie iWv-
plv* of the Mediterranean, which hss come down to na
under the name of Scylax of Caiyanda in several MSS., of
which the archetype is at Paris. This work is little more
than a sailor's hfuiidbook of places and distancee all round
the coast of the Mediterranean and its bronchee, and then
along the outer Libyan coast as far as the Carthaginians
traded ; but various notices of towns and the statea to
which they belong enable us to fix the date with consider-
able precisbn. Nlebohr gave the date 352-348 a.a, othenr
bring it down a year or two Uter, and C. Hiiller as Into
aa 338-33E, which is only possible if the writer's informa-
tion was sometimes rather stale. See ^e discussion in
MlUler's edition (Otoff. Gr. Min., vol L, Paris, 18KKX and
against him finger, in PkUologut, 1874, p. 29 •;., who eon-
> Baa A. v. Oatoohaildt, bi JUaw. Jfuc, ItH, > lU «
S74
S 0 Y — 8 C T
dndea for the year 347. The latest edition is that
Fabridna (Leipaic, 1878).
SCYLLA AMD CHARTBDIS. In Homer (Od., aiL 73
ig.) Bcylla ia a dreadful Bea-monster, daughter of CiatsiB,
witli six beada, twelve feet, and a voice like the yelp of a
pnppj. She dwelt in a sea^iave looking to the west, far
op the bee of a hage clifF. Ont of her cave she stuck her
heads, fishing for marine creatures and snatching the
men out of pasaing ships. Withia a bowshot of this cliff
waa anothec lower cliff with a gceeit fig-tree growing on it.
Under thia second rock dwelt CSiarybdia, who thrlco a dajr
nicked in and thrice apouted oat the sea water. Between
these rocks Ulysses s^ed, and Scjlla snatched six men out
of hia ship. Li later classical times Scylla and Chaiybdis
were locidized in the Strait of MeBsina, — Scylla on the
Italian, Gharjbdia on the Sicilian side. In Ovid CMelani.,
xiv, 1-74) Scylla appears as a beautiful mMden beloved by
the aea^od Olaccua and changed by the jealous Circe into
a Bea-monater; afterwards she was tranafonned into
fock ahmmed by seamen. There are various other ve
aiooa of her story. According to a late legend (Servii
on Viigil, J&t., iiL 420), Charybdis was a voracioi
voman who robbed Hercules of his cattle and was there-
fore cast into the sea l^ Jupiter, where she retained her
<m Toracious nature. The well-known line
"laddii in Beylkin caplani vitare Chaifbdim"
oocora in the AlexandreU of Philip Oualder (a poet of the
13th centorA which was printed at Lyons in 1SG8.
Another Scylla, confounded by Vii^ (Be, vi, 74 tq.)
with the seo-monHter, was a dui^ter of Nisiia, king of
Hcgara, When Megan was beaiaged irf Minoa, Scylla,
who was in love with him, cut off her fother's purple lock,
on which his life depended. Bat Hinoa drowned the tm-
dotifnl daughter fjEwhylus, CAo«p^, 613»q.; ApoUodonis,
uL 16, 8).
SCYUNU3 of Chios, a Qieek geograi^er of micertain
date, known to us only by a few references in iaiat writers,
but perhaps identical with the Scymnua Chins of a Delphic
inscription of the beginning of Uie 2d century B.C.,' was
commonly taken to be the author of an imperfect anony-
mous JParapkrami in verse describing the northern coaat of
the Mediterranean, which in the first edition (Augsburg,
1600) waa ascribed to Maroianna of Herad^a. Meineke
showed couclosively that thia piece iannot be by Scymnns.
It is dedicated to a King Nicomedes, probably Nicomedea
IIT. of Bithynia, and bo would date from the beginaing of
the Ist century B.O. See Miillar, GfOff. Gr. J/w~^oL i.,
whwethe poem is edited with sufficient prolegomena.
SCTBOS, a small rocky barren island in the jGgean
Sea, ofT the coast of Theasaly, containing a town of the
same name. In 469 B.c it was conquered by tho Athe-
nians under Cimon, and it was probably about thia time
that the legends aroee which connect it vrith the Attic hero
Theseus, who was aaid to have been treocheronsly slain
and bnried there. A mythic claim was thus formed to
ioBtify the Athenian attack, and Cimon bronght back the
bones of Theseus to Athens in triumph. The inhabitants
of Bcyros before the Athenian conquest were Dolopea
/Thuc, i. 98) ; but other accounts sp^ of Felasgians or
Carions as tho earliest inhabitants. There was a Banctuary
of Achillea on the island, and nomcrona traditions connect
Scyros with that hero. He waa concealed, disguised as a
woman, in the palace of Lycomedea, king of the island,
when his mother wiahed to keep him back from the Trojan
War; be was discovered there by Odymcns, and ^adly
accompanied him to Troy. An entirely different CTcIe of
legend* relate the conquest of Scyroa by Aehilleo. The
actual worship on the island of a hero or god named
■.jr«a,iar>,» iu<»
Achillea, and the probable kinship of iu in^Utanta with
a Thessalian people, whose hero Achilles also was, fom
the historical foundation of the legends. Scyroa was kfl^
along with Lemnoa and Imbros, to tho Atheniana ^ the
peace of Antalcidaa (367 B.a.). It was taJcea hj Riilip^
and continued under Macedonian rule till 106, when the
Romans restored it to Athens, in whose poBeesaioo it Te<
mained thronghont the Roman period. It was sacked by
an army of Goths, Hemli, and Pencini, in 269 A.D. The
ancient city was situated on a lofty rocky peak, on the
north-eastern coast, where the modern town of St Oeorge
now stands. A temple of Athena, the chief goddess of
Scyros, was on the shore near the town. The island has
a small stream, called in ancient times Cophisaiu. Strabo
mentions as its sole prodocts its excellent goats and a
species of vari^ated niarble-~tlie latter in great favour
at Rome.
SCYTHE Ain) SICKLE. Kll the invention of lbs
reaping machine^ which came into practical use only aboot
the middle of the lEIth century, scythes and aickles were
the sole reaping implements. The si^the is worked with
two hands wim a swinging motion, while the sickle or
reaping book is held in one hand and the reaper bends
and cuts the crop with a shearing or hitting motion. Of
the two the sickle is the more ancient, and indeed there
is Boms reason to umclnde that its use is coeval with the
cultivation of grun crops. Among the remains of the
later Stone period in Great Britain and on the European
continent curved flint knivee have occasionally been fonnd
the form of which has led to the suggestion that they woe
nsed as sickles. Sickles of bronxa occnr quite commonly
among remains of the early inhabitants of Koropo. Sdpm
of these are dee]Jy curved hooks, flat on the under-tddtv
and with a strengthening ridge or baci on the upper
surface, while others are small curved knives, in form hke
the ordinary bedge^iU. Among the ancient Egyptians
toothed or semted sickles of both brome and iron were
nsed. Ancient Boman drawing show that both the
8<7the and the sickle were known to that peopli^ and
Plinymakas the distinction plain.* Although both imple-
ments have lost much of their importance since the
general inliodtKtion of mowing and reaping machineiy,
they are still used very eztenaively, especially in those
countries where small agricultural holdii^ prevail. Tim
principal modem forma are tlie tooUied book, the scytbe
hook, the Hainailt scythe, and the c«nmon sf^tlw. 1^
toothed hook, which was in general use till towards tie
middle of the 19th century, consists of a. narrow-Uaded
carved book, having <m its cutting edge a series irf fiM
close-set serraturea ent like file-teeth, with their edges
inclined towards the heft or handle. Such sJckleswen
formerly made of iron edged with stoel ; but in recent
times they came to be made of cast steel entirely. Ta-
wards the middle of the centuiy the toothed hook was
gradually supplanted by the scyUie hook or smooth-edged
sickle, a somewl at heavier and broader-bladed impleuM^
having an ordinary knife edge. Both these impfemeDd
were intended for "shearing" handful by handfnt lI*
crop being held in the left hand and cot with the Icul
held in the right A heavy smooth-edged sickle is uieil
for "bogging" or "donting," — an oj^ration in which the
hook is struck against the straw, the left hand being ne^
to ^ther and carry ahing the cut swatL The Hwnsnlt
scyute is an implement intermediate between the wTtba wd
'Of tlM Ockia then sn tvo noMiM, tin ItnUn, "^^''^
rnd eu bs hudM tmaag Iwmbwood, and Ih* tm>JM*J
p«nio lickh, wUeh mikei qnkker woA of it vtan aploH " rTT
"M ClMls^ adiDd** dsoisfats ; fv than tl»v cot tbair rf w*
a middle ud pssi vnr lb« ibiirte UsdM. Hi* Ilul>s v^"*
t wltb tiw >tfifb^ QQly - (S if:, zritf. e7>
S C Y — SCT
575
Ofl lickh^ being worked iriA one bancl, tad the motion is
■ttbelr It twinging or baggiiig one. The implement con-
^A of a abort tcTthe bUde moontad on a vertical handle,
and in nnng it die reaper collects the grain with a crook,
lAioh bolda the etnw together till it leceivea the cutting
■troke of the iiutminent The Hainaolt ecjthe ie exteu-
ihfllf need id B^giom. The common haj Berths consists
id a alishtly cnrred tsoad blade varjring in length from
S8 to 46 indiee, moonted on a best, or wmetinKe straight,
wooden sned or snathe^ to which two hondka are atteofaed
at mch distanoea as enable the workmai^ with an easy
,(toop, to awing the scythe blade along the ground, the
•atting edge bdng slightly elevated to keep it clear of
theineqoalitieBof theanrface. The grain-reaping scythe is
■imikr, bat proTided with a cradle or short gathering rake
attached to toe beel and following the direction of the blade
lor abont 12 Inoheo. The object of this attachment is t«
gather the atallcB as they are cut and lay them in regular
awatha igaiDSt the line of still-standing com. Th« reap-
ing a^tha^ instead of a long sned, has frequently two helvee,
the right hand blanching from the left w mam helve and
the two handles placed abont 3 feet apart. The beet
a^tha blades are made from rolled sheets of steel, riveted
to a back frame of iron, which gives streogth and rigidity
to the blade. On the Continent it is still cwnmon to
mould and hammtr the whole blade ont of a single piece
<£ rteel, but aoch aejrthea are difGcolt to keep keen of
•dgOL niere is a great demand for acythee m Rosaia,
chiefly iiuiplied fiom the Qerman empire and Anitria.
Hie principal manufoctnring centre of acythes and aickles
in the United Kingdom ia Sheffield.
80TTHIA, SCYTHIANS. When the Qreeke began
to aettle the noth coast of the Black Sea, about the
■uddle of tlie 7th century B.O., they foond die south
Bosuan at^pe in the hands of a nomadic race, whom
^xBj caQed Bcythiana. An exactei form of the name was
BedotL The inhabitants of the ateppe must always have
been nomads ; but the life of all nomads is eo mudi alike
that we cannot tall whether the Scythians are the race
alluded to in K., ziii. 5 iq.
^e name is first found ii\ Hesiod (Strabo^ viL p. 300}
abont 800 B.a, and abont 669 (Herod., iv. 15) Aristeaa
of Proconnesus knew a good deal about them in comiexion
kith the ancient trade route leading from their country to
Oantial Asia. PVom the passage ot the Tanais (Don) for
flfteen marches north-east through the steppe the country
belonged to the nomad Barmatians, whose speech and way
of life reaembled those <d the Scythians. Then came the
wooded region of the Budlni, who ^read far inland and
(rare probably a I^nnish race of huntera with filtliy habits, >
In Qua region lay Qelonus, the Greek emporium of the
for trader round which lived the balf-Qredan Qelonl, prob-
ably tm the Volga and hardly farther aoutb than SimbiiaL
Beren more manges in the same line ran through dceert,
and tiien in the country of the Thyeeagetsa the road tamed
■oDth-east, and led first through the country of the lyros,
whose way of hunting (Herod., iv. 22) indicalta that they
dwelt between the steppe and the forest, but belonged
mora to llie former ; the road perhaps croesed the river
Ural near Orenburg, and ascending its tributary the Bek
MOoaod the Mngojar Mountains. Beyond this in the ateppe
aa far as the Bir-Darya and Amn-Darya the traveller was
■gain among Scythians, who were regarded as a br<jich of
ua European Bcythiana. Next came a long tract of rocky
•oil, till tlie bald-headed Argippei were reached, a race
med holy and seoningly Mongolian, who dwelt on the
• of impaaaable mountains, probably the Belur-ta^
and served as intermediariea in trade with the remoter
peoplw of Central Aain, The description of the fruit on
which they sabsiBted (Herod., iv. 23) snite the EltcoffntH
hoTtauU, indigenous on the upper Zerafihan. Many
notices of ancient writers about Scythia (e.if., as to the
eight months winter and the rainy summer) suit only the
la^ds on the first part of this trade rood ;' moreover, the
Greeks soon b^^ to extend the name of Scythians to all
the nations bOTond in a northeriy or north-esstsrly direc-
tion. But suui inaocniacy is not common till the fall of
the Scythian taoe, when their name became a favourite
deeignation of more remote and less known nations. Our
best and chief informants, Eerodotua and Hippocrates,
clearly distinguish tho fiocjots or true Scythians from all
their neighbours, and on them alone this article is based.
llie boundaries <rf Scythia are, broadly apeaking, those
of the ateppa, which had as wide a range m antiqnity as
' ' int day, cultivable land having always been
the immediate neighbourhood of the rivers.
__ west the S<7thians went beyond the steppe,
and held Great Wallachia between the Aluta and the
Danube (Atlas and Ister). Here their northern nei(^
hours were the Agathytaians of Transylvania, who were
perhape Aryans, thongh in manners they resembled the
Thiacians. The Dniester was Scythian as far up the
stream as the Greeks knew it On the Bug wen found
first the mixed Gcsoo-Scythian CaUipids and Alasnne* as
far as Exampnua (an eastern feeder 01 the Bug), then agri-
cultural Scythians ^Afim^pn), who grew com for exp<»t,
and therefore ware not conJBned to the atepptL Iliis pcHnts
to scFutlteattlVMloliaaa their dwelling-^Boe. Beyondtbem
on the appw Bug and above the Dniester were the Nenri.
who pa^ed for were-wolvee, a anperatition still eurreni
in Volhynia and about Eie£ On the left bank of the
Dnieper the" forest-Iu)d" CYAoM reached as far as the
modem Berealaffj then came the Scythians of the Dnieper
(the Borystbenians), who tilled the soil (of oonise (mly
close to the river), and extended inland to the Panticapea
(Inguletzt)*and up the stream to the district of Gerrhi
(near Alexandrovsk). Herodotus does not know the falls
of the Dnieper ; bemmd Gerrhi he placea a desert which
seems to occupy the reet of the steppe. Still farther
north were the wandering Androphagi (Cannibals), pre- .
somably huntera and of Mordvinian race.* The nomadic
Scythians proper sncceeded their agricultural brethren to
the east as far as the Geirhua /Konakaya), and their land
was watered by the Hypacyris (Molotdmaya).* Tha royal
horde was east of the Oerrhua and eitanded into the
Crimea as far as the foese which cut off Chersonesus
Trachea from the reat of the peninsula, and remains of
which can etill be tiaoed east of Theodoaia. The southern
neighbours of the royal Bcythiana were the savage Tanrian
moanteJneeiB. Along the coast of the Sea of Aioff tha
royal horde stretched eastward as far as Oemni (Taguu-
rog); farther inland their eastern border was the Don.
They extended inland for twenty marches, as fsr probabl/
as the steppe itself, and here their ndghbonrs wen thj
Melanchlqiiu (BUck-cloaks).
' The true Bcylbians led Uie usual life of nomads, moving
ths tiiM of Um AisbUn tnvBllara
* Hondotiu (tr. M) npramt* lb* Qoifaiu is * bnodi e( tb*
Ddtopw (kiTrisg too thi ejrpsiTita, wUoh it wrt ImpoidUB <Too Bmv,
Bilar. Fr^f. Wi. Bat r~'-^- "■' — " ' "-" »—— ■"
Olbia, md wbat ba llwe -
ngas, ucapt tor tfa« pnta vhieh th* brtoa trad* Rnt* bwn
toiufaid. Ha fluid Bp tU) Impvftot taftmuttott eo taaltf "
i« iMiii likM, •• tbs Bu did,
"offtatd
•ss.
S76
S C Y T H I A
throng the «teppe from eihamted to (mh puture-
groDi^ thair women in waggoue roofed with Telt and
drawn ^ oxen, the men on honebock, th« drorw of aheep,
cattle, and honea foUowing. Thej lived on boiled flesta,
mare's inilk, and cheess ; tbej never washed, but eiijof ed
a narcotic intoxiea^n in combination with a Taponr bath
bj ahnttiiig thonaelvea np within cnrtaina of felt and strew-
ing h«np Med on h«at«d aboaen. The women, in place of
wuhioft daobed themselves with a paste containing diut of
fragrant woods and removed it on the second day. Like
manj other barbarianB, the Bcjthians, at least in Hippo-
datei's time (ed. Littr^, ii. 72), we[« not a specioUf-bordy
raco; tliej hod stoat, Atehj, Bahhj bodies, the joints con-
cealed 1^ fat, their coontenancea somewhat roddj. The
obwrvatmi oi Hippocrates that tbey all looked alike ia one
that has (A«i been made by travellers among lower races.
Thflj were liable to dfsenterj' and rheumatism, which the;
treated t^ the actnal cautery; impotenoe and sterility were
common, and, thongh the aooonnts vary, it is probable that
the race was not very nnmerons (Herod^ iv. 81).
Hippocrat«a's deaniption has led many writers to mew
the Scythiana as Mongolian ; but the life of the steppe
improMOO a certain common stamp on all its nomad in-
habitant^ and the featores described are not sofficiently
ehaiacteristio to justify the assomption of so distant a
Hongd migration. What remuns of the Scythian lan-
guage^ on the other hand, fomished Zeoss with dear
proofs that they were Aryans and nearly akin to the
aettled Iianians. He most decisive evidence is found in
Herodotna (iv, IITX viz., that Scythians and Sabmatians
(g.v.) were of cognate speech ; for the latter were certainly
Xryons, as even the ancients observed, suppoung them to
be a Median colony (Diod., iL 43; Pliny, vi 19). The
whole steppe lands from the Oxus and the Jazortes to tiie
Hongarian posztaa seem to have been held at on early
date by a chain of Aryan nomad races.
The Scythian deities have also an Aryan complexion.
The bigheet deity was Tabiti, goddess of the hearth ;
next came the heaven-god Paptens, with hie wife the
earth-goddess Apia ; a sun-god, (Etoeyrus ; a goddess of
fecundity, Arippasa, who is compared with the Queen of
Heaven at Ascalon ; and two gods to whom Herodotus
(rr. C9) g|ves the Greek names of Heraclra and Ares.
These deities were common to all Scythians. The royal
horde had also a sea-god, Thamimaaadaa. In true
Iranian &shion the gods were adored without images,
altars, or temples, save only that Area had as his symbol
a sabre (Herod., iv. 62), wluch was set up on a huge altar
piled up of faggots of brnshwood. He received yearly
sacrifices of sheep and oxen, as well as every bundredtii
eaptive. Ordinarily victims were strangled. Diviners were
eommon, and one species of them, who came only from
certain families the Enarians or Anarians, were held in
high honour. Iliese supposed their race to have offended
the goddess of heaven, who in revenge smote them with
impotence ; they assumed the dress and avocations of
women and spoke with a woman's voice.* Divination was
practised with willow withes as among the Old Qennans ;
the Gnarians, however, used lime-tree bark. False pro-
phet! were tied on a waggon vrith burning brushwood, and
the frightened team was driven forth. Oaths were sealed
by drinking of a mixture ot wme with the blood of the
parties into which they had lUpped their weapons. When
the king waa nek it was thought that some one had
•worn falsely by the deities of hu hearth,* and the man
' Bdatggt in 17TA obasiTed the nna grnptemt, with Oa umc
ttoitBqiuDu at TBlagkUoa imDDg tlia ■omaa. In ontkin Soggl Tutiii
Ml th» Knbu.
* nis plnnl <B«rod., iv. W)nanl^iiiso(th«nnUUc(thtkliig
lBtha^««ta.
waa beheaded whom the diviners, or a majanty of theid,
pronounced to be the culprit When the kuig coDUnanded
the death of a man all his male offi^ring perished with
him (for fear of blood-revenge). He who ained 4 suit
before the king had the right to make a droldng-enp of
his adversary's skolL Actions at law thus stood on the
same footing vrith war, for this is what one did aftw slay-
ing a foe. The Scythians fon^t always on horeebA^
with bow and arrow, and the warrior drank the blood of
the first man he slew in battle, probably deeming that liia
adversary's prowess thus passed into him. No one ah&red
in booty who had not brought the king a foemau's head ;
the scalp was then tanned and hnng on the bridle. Cap-
tive slaves were blinded on the absurd pretext that tlua
kept them from stealing the mare's-miU: bnttw they w<Bre
employed to cbom.
The government was strictly deapotie, as appean most
plainlyin the hideous cuMoms at the bnnal of kmga. The
corpse of an ordinary Scythian vros carried abont among
all the neighbours for forty days, and a fnnraal feast waa
given by every friend so visited. But tlie royal ooipee
was embalmed and passed in like manner from tribe to
tribe, and the people of each tribe joined the proceaaion
with their whole bodies disfigured by bloody wounds, till
at length the royal tombs at Gerrbi were r^udied. Then
the kmg was buried along with one of bis concubines, his
cupbearer, cook, groom, chamberlain, and meesenger, all
of whom were skin. Horsce, too, and golden uteneus were
buried under the vast barrow that was raised over the grave.
Many such tnmuli (called in Tatar htrgan) have been found
between the Dnieper and the som'ces cd the Tokmok, a
tributary of the Molotchnayo. Then, on the first anniver>
sary, yet fifty hoises and fifty free-bom Scythian servants
of the king were slain, and die latter were pinned upright
on the stuSed hoisea as watchmen over the dead.
The Scythians deemed themselves autochthonous; their
patrian^ was Targitaos, a son of the god of heaven by a
daughter of the river Dnieper. This legend, with tbo
site of the royal graves, points to the lower Dnieper as
the cradle of their kingdom. The further legend (Herod.,
iv. 0) of the golden plough, yoke, battle-axe, and cup
(tokens of sovereignty over husb^uidmen and warriors)
that fell from heaven, and burned when the two eldest
sons of TorgitauB approached them, but allowed the
youngest son to take them and become king, has been
well compared by Duncker with the Iranian conception
of kvarmd, the halo of m^esty, which refused to bo
grasped by the Turanian FraSra94 but attached itself to
pious kings like Thra£ta6na. The ddest brother, lipozai^
was ancestor of the Auchatfe ; the second, Arpozais, of
the Catiari and Traspiana ; the youngest, Cblazais (whose
name seems to be mutilated), was father of the ro^
tribe of FaralatK, and from him, too, the whole nation
had the name of Scolota. Pliny (S'.JIT., iv. 88) places the
AuchatfD on the upper Bug, ao this seems to be the proper
name of tbo agricultural Scythians ; if so, the Catiari and
Trospians will be the Borysthenian and nomad S<7thisni
who dwelt between the husbandmen and the royal hordft
Colaxais divided his kingdom among his three eons, the
chief kingdom being tliat in which the golden relics were
kept ; and these three sons correspond to the three kings
of the Scythians in the time of Darins's invasion, vii,
Bcopoais, whose realm bordered on the Sarmatians ; Idan-
thyrauB, aovereign of the chief kingdom ; and T^aoeis, — the
last two being neighbours of the Budini and the QelonL
According to (he Scythians, Targitaus lived just a thousand
years before the year 513 B.a, — a l^end which, taken with
the tradition ik autochthonism, in£eatee a mnch earlier
date for tiie immigration of the S<7thians than we i^oold
dednoe from other nairattvea.
S 0 Y T H I A
«77
ArirtM* of Proeonneaiu (Herod., it. 19) lad hmzd of
• mignilioD of the Bcythiaiu into their Uter arttlanent.
^M one-e^ed Arimaapiaiu, whot u neigfaboort of the
gold-gUBiding griffio^ auty be Bought near the gold-6Blds
of the TibeUn vlatoo, bftd attacked ths laaedonee (whom
kter ftuthon are probably right in pladng in tlie Ttgion
of Euhgar and Khotan), and the latter in turn fell on the
SfTtbuuii and drove them from their seata, wberenpon
these occupied the lands held till then bjr the (Smmerian*.
It ia ft i)robBible eoqjectare that the broach of the royal
Scythiane spoken of aa dwelling north of the Ozns and
Joxu-tes was re«ity ft part of the nation that remained in
their ancient home. Arliteau'a story fau much internal
pTobftbilit; ; but it U imi.KMaible to hold that the Scythian
migratbn immediately preceded the Bret appcAranee o(
the eipelled Cimmorians in Asia Minor, in Ai^taaa'a oim
days (699. B.a). The Bcythiana must have seized the
■teppe M far as the Dnieper centuriea before, but the
older InhabitaatH, who were probably of one iftee with
the Thracians, remained their neiehbcmrs in the Crime*
And the extreme west till the Legitmiog of the 7tli century.
Concerning the complete expulsion of the Cumneriana
Mid the Scytliian inTauion of Asia that followed, Herodotus
(ir. 11 iq., I 103-106, iv. 1, 3 tg.) gives an account,
taken from several sources, which is intdligible only when
we put Buido the historian's attempts to combine these.
A barbarian (Le., Median) account waa that the Scythian
nomads of Asia, pressed by the Maasagette, crossed tiie
Araxed (liy which Hcroilotus here and in other places
nicaiio the Atnu-Darya) and fell on Media. Taking these
Scythians for Sculots and assuming, therefore, that the
reference vmii to their fimt migration, Herodotus had to
place ths expulsion of the Cliamerians between the crossing
of the Ataxes and the invasion of Media, and he had heard
fiom Orooks (of Puiitus) that on the Dniester was the
grave of the Uiiamerian kings, who bad slain each other
ill single combat mtlier than share the migration of their
people. This local tradition implies that the Cimmerians
reached Asia Minor tlirough Thrace, which, indeed, is the
only poitsible route, except by sea; Herodotus, however,
is led by his false presuppositions to conduct them eost^
ivards from the Dniester by tlie Crimea (where many local
names preserved their memory), and so along the Black
Seft coast, and then weetward« from the ^ucftsus to
Alia Minor. The Scythians, he thinks, followed them,
but, losing the trail, went east from the Caucasus, and so
reached Media. This he gives only as his own inference
from two things — (1) that the Cimmerians settled on the
peninsula of Sinope, from which their forays into Asia
Minor seem to have been conducted, and (2) that the
Scythians invaded Media. Tbe Median source spoke
further of a great victory of the Scythuns, after which
tfaey overran all Asia, and held it for twentj^eight years
(S31-G06), levying tribute and plundering at will, till at
length the Modes, under Cyaxores, destroyed moat of
them after making them drank at a banqoct.' HoTO ft
third, Egyptian, account comes in, vii., that King I^am-
metichus (d. 6111 bought off certain northern invaders
who liad advanced aa far as Phi)ista;a ; there is no reason
to doubt that those ore the Scythians of tbe Median
accouot. Still more impiortant id the evidence of certain
prophecies of Jeromiah (comp. iii. 6) in the reign of Josiah
(628-609), doBcribing the approach from the north of an all-
destroying nation of riduni and bowmen (Jer. i*. 6 ij., v.
15 K/,, vi. 1 iq,, 22 h}.),* Herodotus'e twenty-eight years
ore simply the period between the accexsion of Cyaxaros
I TlkLft Aatj mfcy lu Jidflaeunil bj tin mytli abaut
Such (Stnbn, iL p, B13). ciniu liv it Itast pu«
• Tbli U Bitiig'i dl>canry ui.l mivt ba BODd. I
Ninoali tbe Cluldmuu conlil not Ih ■ lOURe ot diogi
and the taking of Hbeteli, wUeh f<dlow»d does on tha-
overthrow of tbe Seythian* ; Jnitin, on the other bond,
gives the Scythians ught yean of sovereignty, whidi fits
well with the interval between the fint and the second
siege of Nineveh (6ig-609).i
A fourth account in Herodotus, whiok connects the
$^Ktia iwnt of the EnaHaos with the plundering of the
temple of Astorte at Ascalon, is Entirely apocryphal, and
must come from tbe Greek ideutiflcation ot this Astarte
with the Scythian Arippas^ Yet it seems to have been
ehieSy this story that led Herodotus to take the Scythians
of bis Median source for Sooloti. He is refuted by another
account of Iranian origin : Ctesias (in Diod., iL 31) tells of
a long war between the Medea and the Soc^ occasioned by
the defection of Parthian snbjecta of Media to the latter
nation in the time of Astibaras (Cyaiares); so that the
Scythian conqnerora actually came from Uie east, not
from the norUi. Herodotus's Median source clcaed nith
Cyaxores recovering his power ; the story which follows
about the resistance of the slaves of the Scythians to their
returning lords, who cowed them by asing whipi instead
of arms, must have come from tbe Pontie Qreek^ and ia
certainly a local legend,* which ha* nothing to do with
the vrart in Ana, and indeed is connected by Callistratna
(Bteph. Byi., n. To^^™) with a war between Scythian*
From the expedition of Darius upwards Herodotus
name* five generations of Scythian iinm, Idanthyrsus,
Saulins, Onorus, Lycus, Bpargapeiches ; the last may bo
contamponiry with the foundotion of Olbia (GIS Ka).*
Under IdanUiyisos fell the invasion of DoriDs (filS K.a).
The motive for this invasion cannot possibly have been
revenge for the Scythian invasion of Medio. It is poesibla
that a popular war against tbe chief nation of the nomad^
who are so hated by the Iraniau peasants, seemed to
Darius a good way of stimulating common feeling among
his scattered subjects, and it is certain that he had quite
false ideas of the wealth of Scythia, due perhaps to eqiort
of groin from the Grecian eitie* of the Scythian coast.
Herodotus's account of the campaign is mode np in a
puxxllng woy of several distinct narrative*, retouched to
smooth away controdictions. Here it must suffice to refer
to the article Pbbsia (vol xviii. p. S70), and to add that the
geographical conFuuon in Herodotus and his exaggerated
idea of the distance to which the Persions odvonced teem
to be due partly to a false combination between a Scythian
account of the camptugn and certain notices about the
burning of Qelonus by enemies and about fortrease* w>
the river Oorus which hod come to bitn from the inlond
bade route, and hod nothing to do with Darius, partly to
a confusion between the desert reochod by the Fenuano
and that which lay between the Budini and Thysssgetm.
While the Fersion role in ths newly conquered dulricte
of Europe was shaken by the Ionic revolt, the Bcythiana
mode plundering exi)editions in Thrace, aod in 49S pene-
trated into tbe Chersoneeus, whose tyiant Miltiodes fled,
but was restored after their retreat by the Dolonci [Herod.,
vi. jO). Dsriua bad Abydus and the other cities of the
Proponti* burned lest they should furnish a base for a pro-
jected Scythian ezpedition against Asia (Strobe^ xiii. p. 091);
thi* agrees with the fact known from Herodotus (v. 117^
» £ii>gbl
from Herodotui.
ts (034) for ths BiTtliluu In Pilsitliia U dMloeed
aipUla tha orlglii of tba foua [Hirol, h. 1), wUik
tbo ilavea irm a^d to bin iitg, and ot a anl^ict-nu in lb* man
diitrkt (niDT, S.tr., It. 60), ths Btmliiiia (Anim. Ua., uiL B, 41 1
Val. File. , Tl 8S), or raUiar perhapi thn Bilarebn
' That thg wiaa AmcBiun {q.ik) wim brothai ot Slnf SaullBi
(Caduiiloa ot Di!«. Lawl, L 101) aeema to ba a man gaiaa ot Hand-
olua'4 Beythiao iaformuit Tangn. Tha atoij ot Aoaohinla'l ttts Is
wkmnd br tlut of tba latai king Bcrln.
XXl — 73
878
S E A — S E A
that Abjdu had becA ntaken \ij DaoiitM k little before.
In thii ooDDszioa the ScyUuAii emboji; to King Cleonienea
At BpkTtA (Herod., tI. Si) to arrange a combined attack on
Asik becomaa credibla ; for, barbariani thoogli they were,
the Scjtblaos had a political organizadon and manj can-
nextoM with ths leDlaos of tbe Pontio ooloniaa, ao that
their entoja may veil have readrad Sparta at th« aame
tiaa with Ariitajpnas {499) bid aerved aa deeoyi for his
» of tba Si^hiana begin to ful after tbe
time trf King Soylea, who affected Qrecian habita and waa de-
poaed and finallj alain for aharing in Bacchic orgiee (Herod.,
IT. T8-80) ; hla dMth tell a little before Herodotiu'a ri^t
to Olbta (c. 45S). Wb read in an unclear context (Diod.,
iL 4S) of a diTiaion of the Scfthiani into two great tribes,
the Pali uid tbe Nap», the former of whom croesed the
Don from the eatt and deatrojed the latter and also the
Tanaitea.* Thete eventa aeem to point to a dunge of
dTiiait; in the rojal horde.
Ite I'triplM aaeribed to Soylax (346 B.O.) know* tbe
Scytbiana M (till occnpTtng alinaat enctlj the aante limita
■a in Hwodotni'B time ; only in the eaat there ia a amall
but aignificant change : the Sarmatiana bave already
croaied the Dos (J 68). King Ateas atill ruled Bcjthia
in ita old extent (Btnibo, rii 307), bat all that we know of
the wants of his reign took place south of the Danube, —
wars with the TribaJli in Serria, with Bvzantinni, with the
king of the Greek citj ot latnii, and finally with his old
allj Fbilip of Uacedon. Philip defeated and slew Atess
near tbe Danube in 339 B.a. Se was then over ninety
yeate old.*
The ScTthians aopear once more in tbe region, of tbe
Dobnutja in 313, w&en they helped the citizens of CUlatis
against Lyumachna and were defeated by him (Diod., ziz.
73). AH this points to a cousidemble advance of their
frontier ionthiraids, and in fact Pseudo-Scymnoa (Ephoros)
t^yta Dionysopolii (a little to tbe west of tbe modem Bol-
tchik) as the place where tbe Crobyzian and the Scytbiaa
tecritories raet'in his time (334 b.c.).* Tbis apparent ad-
vance of the realm contrasts ungularly trith tbe distreas to
which Ateoa was reduced by the king of the iosigniflcant
town of Istros, an evidence that the Scythian power was
really mnch decayed. Ateas indeed is sometimes painted
Bi a rode barbarian lord of a piK>r but valiant and hardy
laee^ and Epbom^ who mainly follows Berodotoa about
Seytlua, yet q>eakB <rf tbe Scythians in contrast with the
4e(ce BtmnatJans as corresponding to Homer's description
of ajnstandpoorpeoplefeedingonmilkfStrabo, viL 302).
Bnt AriiiUitle, on tba oontrary (Eth. X^ie., viL 8), speaks of
the effeminacy of the Scythian monarchs as notorious : and
indeed there can be little donbt that the Scythians crossed
tbe Danube and settled in the Dobru^ja under pressure
of tbe Barmatiana behind them, and that tbe idyllic picture
dmwn 1^ Epboms presupposes the tall of tbeir political
system. Diodoms (li. 43) tells ns that the Bannr'ians ex-
terminated the inhabitants of most part of Scytbia, and this
must have taken place in tbe later years of At«as, between
346 and 339.
At a later bnt nncertain date tbe great inferiority of the
Scythians to the Sarmatiana is illnatrated by tbe story of
Amage, tbe warlike consort of a debauched Sormatian Ung,
who with only 120 choaen honemen delivered Chersoneaos
nunClOMd Is Bovdatiu
' KlDg AtlsDtu, ThsH primlUT*
nv. BU —at to yn Sooildwl it inu nam.
• ' Plinj-, ff.Jf, TL W I aoa^ vl M, vlun
pstM, HiiM, ab his TsDsUsi st Nipw* " ta
FslaBk"
• roe AUsi, M PWntla., ah'ttag., U. 4, SO; Polrn., tiL U, 1 ;
AiWscritiis, in Clgm. AL, Blnm., v. p. SSS; juttB, li. ■ ; Ladu,
KamL, 10; ^Milim, a Ctuifkl., 1S8, p. 71.
* Cc^p. rVaj, OJt; Iv, U, riu oalls Um B17U. at AiotaiM.
id Taoris from tba nei^boming Scythian king, slew bim
with all hia followers, and gave the kingdom to his son
(Folysjn., viiL 66). It is, however, not onito certain whether
these were a remnant of the old Scrthians ; and It is still
more doubtful whether tbe powerful Scytbian kingdom tA
ScUnms, who brought the Qreek cities of the Crimea to
the verge of ruin, bat was destroyed by Mithradatea Eupa-
tor (lOd), was realty a kingdom of Scolota. The hist cer-
tain trace of true Bcythiaos oecnrs about 100 b.c. u the
Olbiin paepldtina in honour of Frotogenes.' Here they
appear as a small nation west of Olbia between tbe Thisa-
matie and Bandaratee^ who are anxious to take refuge in
Olbia from the (Scordiscian) Galatiana
A>unu— HsrodDttii (iv. 1-B2, S7-113) lud Hlpponalis {Of ^ir^
tinmiLili U
a (in Stnb'
IS (ii. t» i ..
1, sad JatdDD., Oct., t.-vL, x) da ui
itbsueil
Bifyt. — Ulcsrt, Otii§. d. Or. vs^ Simrr, iil 2 (rCDitilgto cslloctioa
of mslaiiAli tnaa original (ourcei] ; Nicbiihr, Kliln Srlirifla, voL
L (182a] ; ZaoH, DU DtuHdun <iiui ill jt'trcUnrKifmvK (IBSi)— «n
sdmlnbla dlKssnon, wldcli srtabllili(d the Aitib oHjId of tbe
BdjUusiu 1 BoMkh, in C. Itue. Or., ii. 81 19. i K. Nsiuninn, Scl'
linn, in Stylhfutanit (IBSE)— tb« but book, in apiu of cirtiia
fuodsmeoUl arron, such u tbe <^ea> th>i grrit part of the alcnpa
vu once >rooded and that Iha Scjlhiana mn UoDFola ; UaltanhoS',
-'Orijctn and Spuech of tba Pontic ScjtJiIiuia lud SarmatiaiH, " ia
UonalA. d. Bert. Ak. [ISetl The beat account of the trwl* roola
which m ■■ -- ■
cspsdallj is cast Oennanj, vht) abanrdlf laka tlw Scythians t(
bava bus SUra. <A. i. Q.)
SEA. Any part of the ocean marked off from the
general mass of water may be called a sea. In geography
the name is loosely applied : for instance, tbe ^T^*'i^i Sea
is an open bay, Hudson's Bay is on enclosed sea. Seaa
proper Ue within tbe transitional area which divides the
permanent continental masses from the petmanMit ocean.
basins, and tbeir boundaries are consequently eubject to
geological chan^ and to alteration by euhaidenoe and
elevation occurring in historic timea.
Inland Seat are seas entirely anrroonded by land {see
Casfu^ Szi, Dbu) Su, and, for general discaasion,
L&u).
Eadoied Seat hove commnnication with the ocean re-
stricted to one opening which may take the form of on^
two, or more straits cloea to each other. Tbe best known
are the White Sea of the Arctic Ocean ; the Baltic, Zuyder
Zee, Hudson's Bay, Oulf of Ueiico, and Uediterraneon,
with the Adriatic and Black Sea, of the Atlantic ; tbe Bed.
Sea and Persian Oulf of the Indian Ocean ; and the Yelloir
Sea aad Sea of Okbotok of the Pacific* They are all cat
off from general oceanic circulation and very largely from
tides, but tbe result is not stagnation. Tbe Baltic and
Black Sea are but slightly saline on account of tbe number
of laree riven falling into them, and the freah surface-mler
flows out OS a regular current, liable indeed to be checked^.
and even reversed for a time, but in tbe main persistent ;,
while the salt vrater flows in unif ormly as an undercnrrent.
A state of equilibrium is arrived at, ao that periodical
fiuctoations of salinity do not affect tbe average of a num-
ber of yean. The water of the Maditenanean and Red!
Bea is much Salter than that of the ocean, which therafoT»
flows in. as a surface-current, while the dense very salt
water escapes below. In the case of the Baltic and Black
Sea dilntioa by rivers, in that of the Ue<StwniMan and
Bed Sea concnitration by evaporation maintains a ciraO'
S E A — S E A
ktioB. Wind! tnd difbrencM of barometric presann u«s
M in ialHod naa, great factora in prodndng variable
nimnta. (B«e Buno Bu, Buck Su, Mcditxb&axuk
Bu, Rk> Bu, ^)
iWftoajp .fiitJoMiJJbaf tnty be (a) compiratiTely shallow
iiregalai "ii^"*!' thraagli whieli Btrong tide* sweep, or (b)
ooean baaiiia rat off bj barrieia buely rinng to the mrface,
or lemaioiiig permanentlj mbamged, in wliidi cue there
may be no brMk of contiDaitj in & ocean nirface to indi-
cate the aM. Seaa of the iitt deecription are related to
shallow eneloMd aeaa, bat are tnnch affected by tidei and
ocean emreDti ; the principal ar« tba Kara Sea irf the Arctic
Ocean, Baffin Baj ami North 6ea of the Atlantic, Behring
Sea and Japan Bea of the Pacific They are subject to
eonmderable temperatore changes owing to their proximity
to land- SeOH coming nnder the second cat^ory combine
the pecolioritlee of the open ocean and of deep inland mob.
The Caribbean Bea of the Atlantic, the China See, Java
IB amoll seaa of the eastern archipelago
ari^is that the temperatoie of tde -water instead of falling
tmiiormly to the bottom becomes stationary at some inter-
mediate poahdon eorTeq>onding to the top of the barrier.
Thsy ore nsoolly very deep. (See Noktr Bka, Kobwtcuh
Ska, and Paoiho Ocuir^
Othtr &ai.— Coral Sea, Arabian Sea, Se« of Ben^ are
oamea, now dropping oot of use, to dengnate ports of the
ocean. "Bargaaso Sea" is an ezpreeeioii devoid of geo-
graphical meaning (see Aiubtio Oouif, vol iii. p. 20).
Firth* ami BatwirUt. — A river entedog the saa by a
short estnaiy flows over the sorfoce, freshening it to a con-
siderable eiten^ ani, if the force of its cnrrent is not too
gnOt, the rising tide slowly forces a wedge of sea water Qp
between river and river bed, withdrawing it rapidly when
ebb sets in. In a flrth tl)^t is large compared with the
river foiling into it, judging from results recently obtained
in the FirQi of Forth,' a state of equilibrium is arrived
at the -water increasing in salinity more and more gradn-
ally aa it [noceeds aea^rords, the distnibing influence of the
tide becoming lees and less, and the vertii^ distribution of
salini^ more and more uniform until the river water meets
the sea, diffused through a nearly bomogeneons msss vith
a densit; little inferior to that of the ocean. Between the
extreme casw there are nnmerons gradations of eatnaiy
d^nnding on the ratio of river to sea inlet.
DqionU,—&i^ seas within about 300 miles of continental
land, whatever may be their depth, are paved with terrige-
nous dibris, and ^ at a greater distance from shore ■!«
camted with bne pela^ deposits (see Pacifio Ogkan).
Marms Fatata and FlH-a.—Tba mixing of river with
sea -water produces a marked difference in the fauna and
fltnaofMoa. Where low nlinit; prevails diatoms abo«md,
probably on account of the greater amount of ulica die-
xrfved in rivtr water, and they form food for minute pelade
animob and hrae, which are in' turn pieyed upon l)j larger
creatures. In aome teas, such as the North Sea, there are
many celebrated fishing beds on the shallow books of which
innumerable invertebrate animals live and form an inex-
haustible food-sappty for edible fiabee. Natniolists have
remarked that in temperate seas enormoos shoals of rela-
tively few qMCua ace met with, while in tropical seas species
on very nnmerons and individiuls comparatively few.
OigoniamB, Bodi as the corals, which secrete carbonate of
lime appear to flourish more loiuriontly in -warmer and
Salter seas than in those which are colder and fresher.
lliegeologieal and dynamic aspects of sea« ai« trEOtad of
b OaouMiT (vd. z. p. 2&4 tg.) and Qkoobafht (Peihical) ;
and in A^ruimo Ooeut, Baltio Bu, Blaok Bu, Ixdiak
Ocean, Hcdixibuxzax Su, ITorth Su, Nobwboiaw
Bu, Facdio Ooun, Polas Btcionb, and Bkd Sm. the
general geographical and physical eharoctera of oceans and
seas are described. In i^noBOLOOT some accoont is
given of the influence of the sea on climate, ">^ chonical
problems connected witJi the ocean ore dinmmod in Ska
Watir.
BEA-CAT. See Su-Wou, *»tft«.
SEA-DEVIL. See FrnHnro-lioo, toL ii. p. 2S9.
SEA-HOBSK Sea-horees (Sij^iocan^na) are umAll
marine fishes which, together -with pipe-fishes iSyn-
gnathata), form the order of Lophobranchiate fishes, as
already noticed in ICBTBYOLOaT, vol ,xiL p. 604. The
gills dl the members of this order an not ammged in
le&f-like series as in other fishes, but form a convex masa
composed of small rounded lobes attached to the bronchial
arches, aa shown in the accompanying figure (fig. 1) of
the b^ of a searhorse, in which the gill-cover has been
pushed aside to show the interior of the gill-cavity. Sm-
na 1.— Oilli ol BippocaiRpuM
horses differ from pipe-fishes by having a prehensile and
invariably finlees tail ; it is long; slender, tapering quad-
rangular in ■ transveise section, and, like the rest of the
body, encased in a dermal skeleton, which consists of homy
segments, allowing of ventral, and in a less degree of lateral,
but not of dorsal, fiexion. IHie typical seiii-horee (Hippo-
cantpw) con ooil up a great portion of its toil, and firmly
attach itself by it to the stems of sea-weeds or other
similar objects. The body is compressed and more or
less elevated, and the head terminates in a long tubiform
snout, at the end of which the smoU month is situated.
Tha whole configuration of the fore part of the body, as
well OS the pecuUar manner in which the head is joined to
the neck-like part of the tnmk, beam a striking resem-
blance to a horse's head ; hence the name by which these
fishes are generally known. Sea-horses ore bod swimmers
and are unable to resist currents. With the aid of their
Fio. 2.~-Phyaopltryi tpm.
sinf^e dorsal fin, which is placed abont the middle Vf
the fish's body ukd can be pnt into a rapid nndulotory
motion, tbey shift from time to time to some other object
near them, remaining stationary among vegetation or coral
where th^flud the reqniaitB amount ot food and nifScient
580
S E A — S E A
cover. Tlieir eobrfttion and the tnberelea or epmes on Xhe
heftd and bodj, Bomstimes with the additioD of akinnj
flaps and Skmants, cloeelj resemble their surroundings, and
constitute the means by wliich these defenceloaa creatures
eacapa detection bj their enemies. These protective
■tructurei are most developed in the Australian genus
Pbjilloiitergr, oneof tbo most singular types of littoral fishea.
Sea-horses belong to the tropica and do not eitend so
far north as pipe-fiiheii. They are abundant at suitable
localities, chiefly on the coral-bants of the Indo-Rwiific
Ocean. Some thirty species are known, of irliich the
majoiily belong to the genus Uippocampiu proper. Their
size varied from 2 to 12 inches in length ; but in China
and Australia & geuaa (Solenoifnaiitu) occurs the specica
of irliicL attain to a length of nearly 3 feet ; they, hovr-
«ver, in form resemble pipe-fishes rather than sea-horses.
The si>ecieB which may be sometimes seen in aquaria
in Great Britain is J/ippoeampua andquorum, froni the
Meditermneaa and the cooets of Portugal and France.
The food of the sea-horsea consists probably of very small
invertebrateu and the fry of other Sshes. Like the other
Lophobranrliiates, they take great care of their progeny.
The male Uipi>oeam}na carriea the ova in a sac on the lower
side of the tail, in which they are hatched ; iu the other
gi;nerit no closed pouch is developed, and the ova are
embedded in the soft' and thickened inttfgument of either
the abdomen or the toil
SEAL. In the article AfAnntim {^q\. n. p. 442) will
be found a general account of the distinguishing character-
istics of the anitoals constituting the sub-order Finniptdia
^ the order Camiiiora, and their divisions into families
and genera: It only remains to give some further delails
respecting those members of the group to which the term
"seal" is properly restricted (the sub-family Fhocirui),
especially those which inhabit the British coasts.
Although seals swim and dive with the greatest ease,
often remaining as much as a quarter of an hour or mors
below the surface, and are dependent for their sustenance
entireljr on living prey captured in the water, all the
species frequently resort to sandy beaches, rocks, or ice-
floes, either to sleep or to bask in the sun, and especially
for Uie purpose of bringing forth their young. The latter
appears to be the universal habit, and, strange as it may
seem, the young seals — of some species at least — take to
the water at first very relnctantly, and have actually to be
taught to swim by their parents. The number of young
produced is usually one annually, though occasionally two.
They are at first covered with a coat of very thic^ soft,
u^ly white fur, and until tt falls off they do not nsually
enter the water. This occurs in the OreenUnd and grey
seal when from two to three weeks old, but in the common
seal apparently much earlier. One of this species bom in
the London Zoological Gardens had shed its infantile
woolly coat and was swimming and diving about in its
pond within three hours after its birth. T^e movements
of the true seals upon the ground or ice are very different
from those of the Olarim or eared seals, which walk and
run npon all four feet, the body being raised as in the case
of ordinary qnadrapeds. The binder limbs (by which
mainly they propel themselves though the water) are on
land always perfectly passive, stretched backwards, with
the soles of the feet applied to each other, and often raised
to avoid contact with tha ground. Sometimes the fore
limbs are equally passive^ being placed close to the sides
of the body, and motion is then effected by a shuffling or
wriggling action produced by the muscles of the trunk.
When, hovrever, there is any necessity for ■ more rapid
mode of progTession, the animals nse the fore paws, either
alternately or atmoltaueonsly, pressing the palmar surface
on tlM gronnd and Hfting and dragging the body forwards
of short jompa. In this way Uiey n: _
to move so fast that a man has to step out beyond a walk
to keep np with them ; bnt such rapid action costs coa*
siderable effort, and IJiey very soon become heated and
exhausted. These various modes of progresai&n appear to
be common to all species as for as has been obaerved.
Most kinds of seals are gregarious and congregate,
especially at the breeding season, in immense herds. 8nch
is the habit of the Greenland seal {Fkoca ^rraUimdica),
which resorts in the spring to the ice-floea of the Nortli
Sea, around Jan Hayen Island, where about 200,000 are
killed annually by iba crews of the Scotch, Dutch, and
Norwegian sealing vessels. Others, like the common seal
of the British islands {Fhota viivlina), thoogh having a
Flo. I.— Uiuiinoii ml {PAoea tituliiia).
wide geographical range, are never met with in suck lai^
ntunbera or far away from land. This speciee is stationary
all the year round, but some have a regular season of
migration, moving south in winter and north in summer.
They are usually harmless, timid, inoffensive ftnitr^l*,
though, being polygamous, the old malcfl often fight des-
perately with each other, their skins being frequently
found covered with wounds and scars. They are greatly
attached to their young, and remarkably docile and easily
trained when in captivity ; indeed, although there would
seem little in the structure or habits of the seal to fit it by
nature to be a companion of man, there is perhaps no
wild animal which attaches itself so reAdily to the person
who takes care of and feeds it. They appear to havs much
curiosity, and it is a very old and apparently well-«ttMted
observation that they are strongly attracted by mumcal
Bounds. Their sense of smell is very acute, and thmr
voice varies from a harsh bark or grunt to a plaintive bleat
Seals feed chiefly on fish, of which theyconsume enormous
quantities; some, however, subaiBt largely on crustaceani,
especially species of Gammanoy wluch swarm in the
northern seas, also on molluscs, echinoderms, and even
occasionally sea-birds, which they seiie when swimming
or floating on the water.
Although the true st^Is do not possess the beautiful
under-fur ("seal-skin" uf the furriers) which makea the
skin of the sea-bears or Otarim so precious, their hides are
still sufficiently valuable as articles of commerce, together
with tha oil yielded by their fat, to subject them to a
devastating persecution, by which their nambers ai« being
continually diminished (see below, p. C61 *;.).<
Two species of seals only are met with regularly on the
BriUab coasts, the common seal and the grey seal. 'R*
SEAL
common aeal {Phoea vilWuia) ia « coiiBUnt lemdent in all
Bditabl* localities round tlie BcottiBh, Irish, and English
eoMii, from which it baa not been driven away by the
nioleetationi of man. Although, natuiall;, the moat se-
cluded and out-of-the-waj spots are selected as thoir
hibitual dwelling-places, there are few localities where they
Fiu. 2,— Skull oC couuuou bail, ikawlug form of uatk
may not be occasionally met witli. Within the writer's
knowledge, one was seen not manj years ago lying on the
shingly beach at so popnloos a place as Brighton, and
another was lately caught in the river Welland, near Stam-
ford, 30 miles from the sea. They frequent bays, inlets,
and estuaries, and are often seen on sandbanks or mud-
flats left dry at low tide, and, unlihe some of their con-
geners, are not found on the ice-floes of the open sea, nor,
thongh gregarious, are very large onmbers ever seen in
one spot. The yoong u« produced at the end of May or
beginning of June. They feed chiefly on fish, and the
destruction they occasion among salmon is well known
to Scottish flshenuen. The common seal is widely distri-
buted, being found not only on the European and American
coasts bordering the Atlantic Ocean but also in the North
Pacific It is tram 4 to 5 feet in length, and variable in
colour, though usually yellowish grey, with irregular spots
of dark brown or black above and yellowish white beneath.
Tlie grey seal ^Naiiduxnu grypiu) is of considerably larger
^ze, the males attaining when fully adult a length of 8 feet
from nose to end of hind feat. The form of the skull and
the simple characters of the molar teeth distinguish it
generically from the common setd. It is of a yellowish
grey colour, lighter beneath, and with dark grey spots or
blotches, but, like most other seals, is liable to great varia-
tions of colour according to age. The grey seal appears
to be restricted to the North Atlantic, having been rarely
seen on the American coasts, but not farther soutb than
Nova Scotia ; it is chiefly met with on the coasts of Ire-
Lud, England, Scotland, Norway and Sweden, including
the Baltic and Ouif of Bothnia, and Iceland, though it
does not a[q>ear to range farther north. It ia apparently
not migratory, and its favourite breeding places are rocky
islands, the young being bom in the end of September or
beginning of October.
Other species of seals inhabiting the northern seas,
of which straggl><rB have occasionally visited the British
coasts, are the small ringed seal or "fioe-iat" of the
sealers (Phoea hitpida), the Qreenlaod or harp seal iPhoca
jTOnlandiea), the hooded or bladder-nosed seal {Cyito-
phora aritlala), and possibly the Bearded seal {Phoca bar-
haia), thongb of the last there is no certain evidence.
The general characters and gec^taphicol distribution of
the remaining species of the group are indicated in the
article Mimmit.h, toL xv. p. 443. (w. h. r.)
m awls may be divided \ato two
sad tM bttar fiv thair ddo* bIods. The tax »ai% m pravidsd
with a deiua nit andcr.riir liks vslvet and ■ qnaiitity of long looas
aitorioT luir. which tisi to ba reiuoTsd in ilrtaiiiig the liiil«. Hair
a qiuDtity to rendtr tlu nVxaa pf mucb coinmBrcial value sa tmt.
Tba tvo gronpB corrupoiiii to the tvo diTifliou of eared saaU and
earless a«U deaetibed above (eM •Uo vol. XV. pp. 44!'413).>
Hair An^i.— The principal bair lul QihariM an those of Ksw-
roundland and Labrador (are* about SOO milaa), tlie Golf of 8t
Lamence, Jan Uayeu aod the adjaceut aoaa. Nova Zombis, ttaa
WLits Sea and Arctic OceaD, tlieCupiaa, sod the North and Soutb
P«Qi9c The fint-named ii by far the nio.t imnortanL To tho
immenM icafielda borne paat tbeseihorta during lho«iiriu|; months
great henla of aeala neon for tbe pnrpow of oriiigipq ^rlb ami
Buckling their jount Theaa are njually piwluced in tbe lait
week of Februaiy aud incnaae rapidly in uin. WLen boru they
migh sbout 6 B; in four veeki the fat bcneatb tbe ekin has
Lncroaaed to a depth of B to 4 inched, and crith the odbcriug akin
ireigha from 40 to (0 lb. At Ibia nm the aairoali are iu the beat
condition for being taken, aa the ou then yielded ia of the beat
(jualitj. They renudn on the ice attended b; tbelr dama for abont
BIX neeka, when they be)^ to take to (be inter, and it bcconusa
much more difficult to capture thom. ^Ylien a Hoc contsiuisg
yonng aeala is reached, tlie hnnten take to the ii'e armed irith »
polo or "gaff," having a book at one and and ahodnlth honatthe
...... . V. .V , ■'^- --ikljdeiipaltbea" -—■--'
e "■caipino-kniJa" tue Ah'' "'''' '' ''
r— J -JlAchod. The rat an.1 ak
and dragged t^
an leparated from tba tit and aaltAl for eiport to Vjreat Britain,
Hhere they are converted into leather. Of lale yean furriera havo
anccesded in con»
rti
'!
few
r the finer akioa in
a lad
"n^i^^^i
The fat was Form
ny
rata, nbe
and the beat of tbe
titnctad the
oil, but
m Ih
and then ataamei
ofntl
i the
ground into n
il, alter being
linutopie
r.x
machinery
coTored (xnka to
tb
ttbeaua
araya^i.
.. .. :11._,-„. „j „ . ,..Li-__. . [^ I,
kinda of soap.
From SOW to 10,000 men embark annually from NowfoimdUail
on thia purauit. The ateamera, which are rapidly luperBedlng
■ailing veaaela, an atootly timbered, abcathed nitb iron and wood,
and |)rorided with iron-plaltHl stoma ; Ibev carry from ISO to 300
throe, tri'pa in tbe aoaadn. From 20 to 25 atsanibliipe in all are
engaged iu this industry. 6 of theH being from Dundee, Scotland.
The Dundaa TMeb arrive in Newfoundland in Fcbniary and there
ahip Ibcir crewa ; at tho cloae of the sealing eeason they proceed to
tbe nottlietn whale liabery and roturu home la October. A " close
time " for aeala is now eslabliahod by taw. Sailing veiseU cannot
clear for thia fishery befura 1st Harcb, nor can atcomen before lOlh
in their aecond Crips eosafe in the pursuit of the old breeding auls
till the middle or end of Hay. Tbeae are taken either by ahooting
them or clubbing them when congregated in herds on the iae.
Thia practice, wbieb is moat iiyurioua to tbe Sabery, haa of lata
been partially abandoned, by an sgreement among the on^nen of
vtaeela not to continue operstions beyond SOth AjiiiL Tbofailurea
and dtsappointmenta of the t
Ota of tbe voyage
•ith few seals 01
it for ■
capital in the enterprise. It ia ul
to return two or three weeks alter b „ , „ . .
with leals. Aa many aa 42,000 baie been brought in by a single
steamer, ths valus at two and a half dollara per asal being f 10S.0()0
(£21,876). Tho men on board the steamen share one-third of the
proceeds of the voyage among them ; the remainder goes to tbo
ownen who equip and prevision the vessels. In sailing veisal* tho
men get one-half tbe proceeds. The number afseala taken annually
rangea from 360,000 to £00,000. In the three years 1S77, 1S78, and
IBSl tite average take was 436,413, valued at ;C2I3,B37. Between
1881 and 1888 the tttuma fell below thia average owing to tba
heavy ioa, which comparatively few veasela succeodod in penetrating.
Tbe lai^ number of young seals which escaped during these yeara
will impnva tbe fiabeiy in tbe future.
In the seaa around Newfoundland and Labrador then are fonr
of seals, — tbe tmy seal, the harp, tba hood, and tho aqusru
~ "of these frequents the mouths of riuera and
.. 'or found on tbe ico. Tho haip, ao called from'
a curved lino nf dark '" '" "'" *"'"' ^' '^ ' "~
resembling
ffi^i. Tbe
' arboun and
k Bpota on ita back making a figure somewhat
_„ int harp, ia by far the moat oumeroua, and ia
■timet the seal of cammerce. The hooda, which awe their
^ Soiae natnraMsta have proposed tbi
dr ssala and Oidoplaaiui fn ths fm aa
laiactsr of the sku in tba two gronfa.
aTriehephta
SEAL
IMMWalMKw baodon Om Ben of tka dmIm, «l>ieli flu; tm
InlUt* tt plowon br prataetioii, m maeh larger tbui thi kiqa,
but tlwir oil li Bot of (oob good ipulit/- Bnt t»w aiMn fliroan
u* tikaa: duj ir< lug> mUi bom II to Ifl tut in itag^ and
an baliend to ba idaalioal with tha gnat GrMnlasd nak Ilia
aaals feaqiuotiDg that am an migntorr. In tUj, atteadcd t^
tbdr jvag, taaj oommeDce thsir nortaorly moTeminti to tha
Onanlutd Ma^ whan tbay ipend two m thita moDth^ and In
BgptaDbar bu;m tbair ■outhwly mlgntun, munug doag Ch< coait
of Ixbndor, iSwdisg In it* fiords and ban. Oui dinnon pawcs
throng tha Stniti «t Bella Ii1« Into tha Qnlf a 8t lAKraooa, tht
Othar along tha aatt coart of NewToimdUiid. Bj tb< doaa ol tht
yaar thaj taach tha Oraat Btnki, thair Bathsn headqaartan,
and earl; in Fabniai^ commance thair northarlj movement to nuat
tha faw on which thair yoang are to ba fanoriit forth.
Tha KawToundland Gjhary waa of illa^t &np<»taiKa till tha ba-
ginaiagorthe laihccutuiT. At Snt tha nals wara taken in nata ;
the nait method wu sbootiD^f tbam ftam larga boata, which left
ahers aboat the middle ot ApnL Aftenrerda uaill echoonaia wars
amploytd, and a npiti axpaimlMi of tha fishaiy foUowod. OmlOO
of tliaaa amell veeuli used to leave the port of St Jobn'a, and aa
■unj moR tha porta o[ Conception Baj. In t7R6 the wh^ cateh
SaealawasbntSOOO. Id 1805 it reached 81,000; inlS1S.lie,000;
1832,300,989. The largaatcalcheaonranirdwara in 1S30, whan
B5e,M2 aaala wan talKn : in 1811, iW.SM ; 1348, «l,t70 ; and
in lSt4, 489,630. The fbllowiDg Uble ahowa tha number of aala
taken In loEne isoent jeara :—
c,;
leu 800.000 iBst tsa,Hr
iBN ass,7n I
Of Ute ycin an incnasing number of itaatpan bom Bt John's
luTa rcaortad to tha Qnlf of 8t lAwrenc* M well aa imall aaSiog
Teaaela from the aoDtbeni porta ot Newfoundland. A few resident*
ot the Hi^jdalen lilenda alas panoe the aeali on the Qnlf ice, and
the Canadtana carry on a aeal Qahary along the ahore by meana ot
nata both in apring and intamB. The neta ara made of atrang
hempen cord, aoma of them reiy Ib>^ and costinB with the ancbora
and gear aa mncb aa £1600 each. This fiaheij la carried on Itom
Bla=c Juberlia Bay to Cape Whittle. Tb* nuobar taken BTaragea
about 70,000 to 80,000.
Kelt in importance ia the seal fiahary carried on between Green-
land, Spitzbergen, and the iiLaudof Jan Hayen, — betwoen 68° and
71* H. lat ends* E. and ir W. long. In meat yean, howorer,
the aeala are taken mainly in the vicinity oF Jan Uayen. The
Saherr ia carried on bj the Britiab, Norwegiaita, Swedca, Dihea,
aiul Qermana The number taken by the Britiab veaaelB about
•quale tliat taken by all the others together. Tha apeciea taken are
the aamaasonthe IfeiHbandlsnd eoast, tha hsrp orsaddlaback and
the hood or bladdernoie. The breadino saaaon u about threo weeka
later thsn in the ettB of the Newfoundlsnd seals, the yooog being
bconglit forth between the IBth and lh« asd of March. The method
of capture ii almoat the eame as that of the Newfoundland htmtera.
Stoning™ are now almoet eiclnaivoly einploved. The only British
I in the enterprise are Dundee and Peterhead.
ycMre is;3 to 1683 tlie number of Britieh veasels
taking part in it was from 14 to 21, the number of men varying
from ftOO to 1200, and the number of aeale taken ranging TrDm 35,000
to 76,000. The loUl number of eoala Uken by these veHele during
the ton yeata oadine 1884 was <S2,0ia. Formerly, (rem ifiOO to
3700 men wore omnloyail, end tbe nnmbor of scale taken ransfid
from BO.OOO to 126,000. The decline haa been lii^ly caused by
tba Taeklee* and barlwroos way in which the fiahery has been con-
ducted, the practice of seal-huntan of all nationa having been to
reach tha atala eoon after the young wore bom, and then lo wateh
for the inothera ai they caiDa to audtta them and ehoot them with-
out mercy, lonving the young to die in tboueaods of atarvation on
the ire. The caniuqucnco ia that tbe herda are not now s twentieth
iiart of their former fun. Newfoundland hnnten, on the other
hand, do not disturb the aeala till tbey mjv grown and about to
leave their mothen, the old eeala not being killed till a later dale.
By an international treaty between England and Norway— the two
Dationamoatintotoated— a "close season "hat been Mtablisbed in
tlie Jan Uayen fiahery. The Dundee and Peterhead etaameti are
chiefly manned by Bhetlandora, who are taken on board at Lerwick.
The vessels make the ies from the IBth to the 20th March and
commence the chase in the dcatmotiTe way already described.
Tbey follow up the capture ot the young eeala in April, when
tbey an better worth taking. Then they proceed to aeparate the
skins from tbe fat. Tbe fanaer are ealled on board, and the fat is
stowed in tanka In Hay the purmit of tha old eesis on the ice
commanua and eontinnea till the ISth. when it ia time to proceed
to the *hale fishery. The oil ia not manofeetnted till the Tewila
teaeh home late in the lutuinn. Ae tha blubber nnder^oea decay
lu the tanka, the oil ia not toaood in quality aa that made in N>W-
■oundland bom tba freah Ikt
Tlw JaB Mayan lah«C7 «on>HBMd in ISM. In that yaar IS
BriUah vawala and «M men Bnaaged in It, and 17,800 aaala vara
taken. Tbe Nnwtgian* and otner nationalltiea alio took [latt in
The Norw^ian veasebi are all ateameie, abeatbed with wood and
iron, the cnwa averagiog fbr^-aii men. Tbey belong prindpallw
to Tonaberg, but TromsS also eeuda out a number of aoiall veaaeta
to hunt adult aeals. The total annoal product hae leacbetl
|SOO,000. Over twenty Norwegian and Swedish steamers are
enpiged in thia fishery. Since about the year 1373 or I8T4 the
Norw^ana and Swedea have discovered a new fiEhing-gronad for
adult seals off the coast of Oreenland between Iceland and <^>pe
Farewell. It is carried on in the months of June and July. Tbe
aaala taken are alt of tbe hood kind. At one time the Jan Uaysn
Saber; averaged 200,000 aeala annually among all the naOnnalitiaa
ennged. It does not now exceed 120,000 to 130,000.
The Danes, the Ealimo, and the half-breeds carry oa a seal-
fiahety off the western coast of Oreenland between Cape Fkrewell
' "° "" ■ ■ ~ ■ " ifly the floe or spotted acal
and 79
N. lat. The aeala taken ai«
and !h
square flipper. Rink, in
annual
t 8»,000, but
as theaalsan
■c.^'r
ThafieberieaorNov
. ones productive, have declined in
value, and are now carried 00 by only fiva veatela, which reach the
island about the end of June. The Sahermen commence with hunt-
ing the seal and the walrus and afterwarda fish for the c<miD]oa
trou^ ?ive kinds of aeala are found here, the chief being tba
Fhoca viliilina and tbe PiMa fnanlaaijieii. The unmbet taken
The Enniana carry on a seal.fiibery on tbs eaiten and wvstera
cosala of the White Sea, in the bays of tha Dwina and the Ifazen
tha coast of Eai^. Tha apeciei is th
These aaala live in the high redone of the pdar Mae fna M»j
till September, and appear later In the gnlfa and bayaottha Arctic
Ocean, where tbe young are bom on the floating ice early in
Febmary. Soon ailer the hunt commencee and lasts till the end
' March. On the eaatem coast of the White Sea the disse is
miles. Two tboiuand hnntece aesembi*
1 erected
a of ths
alto erected. When a
puTBued over a ipaoe of £30 milea. Two thou
at Sedv, near Cape Voronofll Hi^ woodi
along the abora, whenoe obserren watch the
esala. Hunting abedt far tbe
ind kill the young and old with clula snd gune. To
e aula without bung diacovered, the hunter* mnflle
:bemte1vea In longwhito
Ivor the anow. They ai
owing to tbe andden mo „ ^
chaae in April thov nae aailing boats 22 fret long, with an iruu-
plated bottom, winch they draw ap on the lea, where a vast en-
campment ia formed, and thootiog.partiBa search for tha aeala.
On tbe western shoie of the White Sea the aeal.hunt ia leaa pro-
ductive than on the eastom. The hunten meet at Devyatoe, a
few milea north of the river PonoL About 600 men engage in tba
chase. The Boialana take each year in the Arctic Ocean and the
WhitsSeafrom 2,600,000 10 3,000,000 lb of seal blabber. Allow-
ing an .iverage of 40 lb per sial, this would imply tba captua of
85.000 to 75,000 seals. The akioa are made bto leather.
The mmt aiteiuiva and valuabls seatfiahery r^ tbe But^ns is
in the Caapian Sea, where the aeala (P/iaca capita} are plBodfuL
They pass the summer in deep water, and in the autunn reaort
tlie eastern basin, when the ice forms earliett
rre tbe pairing takea place on the ice in
The aeala are alto hunted at the mouths of tbe Ti
January. Th(
Here tbe pairing takea place on the ice in December and
jutha of the Vol™
the aonthara part of th* tea, on tha islanda
it the Oiilf of Anaheron. There are thna msthoda of hnntilg th.
aeala,— kiUing them with cluba (the commonest and moat saooasafo]
way), ahootiag them on the ice, and taking tbsm In asta. From
130,000 to 140,000 an taken annually.
A few eeala are taken off the eoaet of Callfomi* and WaeWngton
Territory. In the Sooth Paoific, off the ooaat of Cbili, only a '—
formerly taken In gnat n
8 E A — S E A
583
Iti on. Thb lUkMT k BOW ilnKat & thtiu of the wt t tinea
^wqt 1S7S It Im bMB ouriwl on loUIr Ihnu Nev London lu
CoDDMrtiinit, tbo Boat numb* - - - —
ytildlnlSBOmi^OOOffiUi . .
Tha anrage Dumber of hur «]> Uksn umuallf ma; La eald-
imbtrmg ddIi
ItHu of oil, vcoth 921, <20.
-D the ihont of tbs Horth Atluttitt. Sonth of tha aiputat
ibaj extaod from DBir tha tro^dca to tba leglon of uitaictie lea.
Bj br tha moot important and valoabla Itar leal Biharlea an thoai
camsd on at St Ftnl'i and 8t Ooorge'a lalanda, bdongins to the
Fribyloff ffronp/ off the coaat of Aluka, at tlia CoumandeKUanda
in tha Bahrinff So, and tiut Id tha aama aaa TOO mHoi mat of the
Aljufan Mat ielot*. The ipeciea fooDd htce i* tha nortbern fur
aaal ^Gallerhimu (irriaaa). Tha Dialea attalo matoro nio about
the Bi^th T'*'t i^tin their lesftli ii from 7 to B foot, thoir girth
&om7 toSfoet, and their weigfal^ wbeo in hU fleah, from CW) to
700 Di. The lamalaa an fall gram at fottr nan old, when thej
maanire 1 feat in Isngth, 2i in f^h, and weigh tram SO to 100 lb.
Xhs yaarllDgs weigh from SO to JO lb. The toala rcaort to tbcM
talanda late in apriog obioflf for roprodnctlTe purpoaea, loaking
thrir app«anac« from the aonthiriLrd. The nmnber umaaUr
viiiting St Paut'a and St Oeorge'a ia eatimatsd at five millioiia.
Abont the miJdlo at April tha main begin to arriFo and take
their utacos along the ibore In " the rookeriea,' as tha breoding-
ftronnda are called. Tha younger malea are preTented from Ian Jin^
by the oldsr, and are compoIlM either to atay in Che inter or to
go to the nplaudi. By the middle of Jnns all the molea hare
asaamblod, and tliea the femalea begin to appear. Each old mala
aaal coUecta from ten to fifteen or more fonuilei, vhom ho guardi
moat jealoDoly, The males fight furionaly, "«o that nichtand day
the aj[granted aoond la like that of an approaching railway train.
By the imddle oT Joly the funily cinle 1* complat*. Swn aftsr
landing th« tennis girea Inrth to one pnp, weighing about 0 lb,
which ah* SDiiea at wide interval) without any aUection. Pairing
takea |iUoa iood ■fterwuda. No food ia tuken by the breeding
malaa while on the rooka,— a period of three to four montha.
WhoD tha malsi laaT* after tbii long faat, ttisy an nducsd to half
their tonoer weight In the end of October and middle of NormulMr
all leave tha ialand, tha young nulea going laat and bythemaelvea.
The UlliDS of the aMLla la caiofiilly te^ilalod. Bo famalea an
killed, and oiQy a oartain number of young *' bachelor " nals whose
akini an of aDperiar qnalitr. Thaaa yonngar niala aeala an apnail
ont OD the bIohi above the rookeriea to net. A parCT of man
armad with doba of hard wood quietly creep betwaaD them and
the ahon, aod at arivan aignal atart np with a about and drive
tha aaala inlaod. Whan they nach the killing-gromide near the
villagea, thay aalect thoao that an two or three yean old and aeem
likaly to yield the moat valoabla fur. ' Theaa Uiay deapatch with
a cinb. Tha akios are canrully aalted for exportation. Beaidn
the aklD each aenl yielda abont a gallon and a half of oil But
It la not naad, aa ita rank odont rendera refining very coatly. Tha
Talna of tha aldna in the raw atato variea from five to tmnty-five
dollan each ; at timo, when fun an apacially faihiooable, a
higher prioa ia obtained. Tha qoality of the Alaska fun ia aaperior,
but thoae obtained in the 8oDth Shetland and antarctic regions an
rated beat A cloak of tha richeat for asal, a yard deap or more,
will coat from iCIS to £40. The roota of the looae ailerior bain
ponatrata deeper into the akin than those of tha fur or abort hair,
and can readily ba cat by paring on the fleshy BId^ without
teaching the roota of the fur ; tha long bain than drop oS^ leaving
the Tiloabla far balow in a abeet tike pure veiveL The numbar
of aaala killed on the Prtbyloif Islands » limited to 100,000 annu-
„j -.-.i. .1.. „_ — h — t^an thay tncrease aa fast at if loft
ally, and with the prec
to themaolvea, "for when the n _, _
contlnnal fighting on the rookeriea deatroya
aad Tonng, which
the
ly of both femalea
^ "Oie eea.UoD (KmwtDpiaf lUStri) 1* a charaotariatiB pinniped of
tha PrlbyloS lalanda and ether {nrte of Aluka. It hu verr little
eommeidil valae ; but by the natlvta along tba Behriig Saa ooaat of
Aluka, Kamahalka, and the Karilaa It ia highly prized. From the
hide they make eOTtrlnga for their boatt ; the Intaatlnea an made
Into garmanta ; the ileniach walla an saad at ponchet for ell ; tha
jlaah la dried and eaten ; and the whiikara an aold to the Cblnata,
who Bta then aa plckan to their opluai plpea, and In atvtral oere-
Bosiea in their Joaa howat.
any of Bid Fnndaco (be twaotr yta
,at of CongRat auptoved l(t Jnly
EK.OOO with a tax of «2-«l on each i
intal tS17,000 p
ytan, bom Itt Uiy 1870, imdai
-'- 1870, Tha anoaal nnlal it
'lun taken.— making the total
' lI Company
Tha Alaaka Comi
._. CommaodacIalBndt frvm thaRnaaianOovemmcnt.
Aboat 80,000 for aeala an annnatly taken than.
Tha fithery at the month of the fitraitt of Jaao da Fuaa and Ita
viciidty it carried on by Americana and Cunediana The aeela
an captnnd Id the waten, the laT^att numbar being wuund at
and abont Ckpa Flattery, to the aitont of 111,000 auuually. The
Loboa IslaDda, at tha mouth of tha Rio do U Plata, an tmdar
the protection of the Oovarniuent of Unigaay, tha nnmber oF teali
annnal]ylakanbainglbnitodtoabautl2,D00. Somaof the nunur-
ont lalanda about Cape Horn an tha breeding-placoa of fiir tcaU, u
an alao the Sonth Bhattand lalanda farther eoatb. Tbit Capa Horn
region la visited bj a fleet of aaveu to ten veaaela belonging to Maw
London and Stoninglon, Connecticnt, and ilto by a lew Chilian
and other Soath American vesaela. Only occaiionnUy doea a reaael
Tint the Sonth Bhetlandt, though the quality of il:ius to bo secured
than ia vciy auparior. The headquertera for the fleet between
Kaaont ia at PouU Aranaa, or Sandy Point, In the Stnlta of
Magellan. The American fleet in 1380 nnmberod nin* v^nlt ot
119S lone. The resolt of the fiiberr Wat »i7i akins, voilh tS0,431. ,
Early in the 10th century tlia FaUdand LdunJs sbannded in fur *
aeala, but thay have been ailarmlnated. The number now (IBBfl)
annually aocnrad than doea Dot averago man than IriW ; in bodm
yoata only BO skini are taken.
Than an annually received at London Itam the Capa of Good
Hope about 10,000 aealskine takin at vtrigoe lalaailt In the
Southern Indian Ocean and along the eouth-weat coairt of Africa.
A few fur aeala an taken in Uia Okhotak 8«.
Nearly all the fUr.teat akina find their way to London, when
they are plucked, dreaaed, and dyed. A few, howa^'ar, an pirparad
in Haw York. At tha teal itlanda they an enltod and b^Uri.-lth
the for inaid^ and in thia manner ahippod to London. The ■unTinl
yiehl of the Au^aaol fiihoriea of tha world ia aboot 1811,000.
ToUlnliwofbElitadhitMla t>,wi.s«o
fiaa RaUoa and Huvaj, ITmJbiadJaid, IBt): fttt^tnt itf fta J.i
Sal rUltrim, by OutalD Mi^ IBSl ; VtUM Slalm fUt Cimitmit
IdTlBT>-T4iuidI9Tt-T(: J. A. AOai, Baml Stall ; (.liirln OrymuL Ho
Horair^rtr^d; H. W. BUIott, SoJ filaiiilxi/^a^hi. i
SEA lAWS, a. title which came into
-writers on maritime law in the 16th century, and waa
applied bj them to certain mediicval collectiana of neagea
(^ the aea which had been recognized aa having tha forca
of caatotuftiy law, either bj tha judguents of a niaritima
GOOrt or by the reaolutioiu of a congrcea of morchonta and
shipmasten. To the former claaa belong the sea IftWM of
Oliron, which embodj the luages of the marinom of the
Atlantic ; under the latter come the Boa lawn of Wtaby,
which i^ect the customs of the tnorineta of the North
Sea and of the Baltic.
The earliest coUectdon of euch Udages which waa re-
ceived in Fnel""^ ia described in the Ml<idii Book of the
Admirallp as the "Iawb of OliroD," wbiLiL the earlieat
known text is contained in the LUkt Uanorandanua vt
the corporation of the City of London, pro><erTed in tie
archivea of their Onildhall. These laws are in an earljr
handwriting of the 11th centnry, and the titie prefixed to
them ia La Chart* itOlenimi det JiujgemmU dt la Jfi^.
How and in what manner these " Judgmenti) of the Sea "
came to'be collected ia not altogether certain. CloLnM^ a
learned advocate in the pariiameDt of Sordoaoz, in tiie
introdnction to hia work on Ln Ui et CuuntumM de lit Mrr,
first printed at Bordeaoz in 1647, stated that Floonor,
dnchoa of Qnienne (the consort of Louia VU. of fi-ance,
bnt Bubseqnentlf divorced from him and married to Hent;
XL of England), having obserred daring her viitit M the.
£84
SEA LAWS
Hcdj lAnd, fi (SMBpuiy witli Lonia, that the eoUeetion of
onstcma irf tha «ea oontuDed in Tht Boot of tA< Coutvlalt
of UteSta (aea toL ri. p. 317) iru held in high rqinte in
ih6 Iievkn^ diiectsd on her letnm that a racord ihoaM
be twde of tha jndgmenta of the maritime conrt of the
iiland of Oldron (at that time a pecnliu court of the duchj.
of Qnienne), in order that thej might setve as law amongst
the muinera of the Western Sea. He state* further that
Bicbaid I. of England, on hia return from the H0I7 Land,
troDght back with him a roll, of thoee jodgments, which
he pnbliahed in Eoglaod and ordaioDil to be ohaerred as
hw. It ia probable that the geoetU ontliiw of Cleine'a
uwonnt ia correct, as it r^xirds witfa a imnonudmn on
the famoQS mil of 13 Edw. IIL, "De StipetiDTitate Maris
Aa^ib," which, having been for tnaiij Tears car^nllj
nmerred in the archives of the Towei of London, is now
deposited in the Public Becord Office. According to this
meinonndiim, the king's jnatidories were instructed to
.declare and uphold the laws and statutes made b;^ the
Ungi of Engluid, in order to iri.int^in peace and joatice
amongat the people of ererj nation poasing through the
na <rf England : " Que qoidem leges et statuta per
dominum Ricardnm, qaondam regem Angli«^ in leditu mo
R Tern Boneta conecta fuenmt, mterpvetata, dedarata, et
in Insula Oleron pnblicata, at ncHninata in Qallia lingoa
Ia heje OlTroim."
The earliest version of these OlAroQ na lawB, which,
Mcording to the roemonuidnm above menticmed, were re-
e^ved in England in the latter part of the ISth oentnrj,
aompriBed certain customs of the sea which wcm observed
in the wine and tlie oil trade, as carried on between the
C1a.<rf Qnienne and thoee of Brittany, Normandy, £ng-
d, and Flanders. No English translation seems to have
been made before the Svtter 0/ the Sta, printed In London
by Thomas Ftttyt in 1G36, in which they ore styled "the
lAwee of ye Tie of Auleron and ye Judgemsntea of ye See."
Tntuii wM, in foot, a tongne famiUm- to the ^'Vigi'"*' Hi^
Oonrt of Admiralty down to the reign of Henry TL A
Vleinish text, however, appears to have been mode in the
lattor part of the lllb century, ibe Pwrph Boat <if Bmiftt,
j^eserved in the archives of Brages, in a handwriting
Bomewhat Uter than that of the L^er Maiora»dorvm,
Prefixed to this Flemish version is the title, " Dit es de
Oi^we nn den Bollen van Oleron van den Tonncese von
d«r Zm.' Certain changes, however, have been made in
the JhirpU Boot of BrigM in the names of the ports
tnentioned in the original Qsacon text. For instance,
Slnyi b In several places sabstitnted for Bordeaux, just as
in toe £%Mtr of lit Sea London replooes Bordeaux. That
fluse Ma laws were administered in the Flemish maritime
oonits may be interred from two facts. First, a Flemish
tran*lati<m of them was mode for the nae of the maritime
briboaal of Damme, which was the chief Floniah entrepAt
of the wine trade in the 13th century. The text of Uiis
translation has been published by Adriaen Terwer undw
the title of the JAtdgntaiU of Damme. In the aecond
place^ tiiere is preserved in the archives of the senate of
Dontiic, where there wa« a maritime court of old, famoni
for the equity of its judgments, an early manuscript of the
16th oentuiy, which coutains a Flemish reprodnction of
the Judgments of OUron headed " Dit is Twater Secht
in ThusulerBn." Bo for there csn be no doubt that the
Judgments of Ol^n were iwcived as sea laws in Flanders
at well as in England in the 14th centnry. Further
inquiry enabUa ns to trace them as they fallowed the
course of the wine trad* in the Korth Sea and the Baltic
Ssa. Boxhom, in his Chiviiyt van Zalande, has published
a Dutch version of tb«m, which Tan Leeuwen has rejno-
dnoed in hia Bnlnviii Pliutraln, under the title of the
Lam tf Wat-Ct^rQ in Zealand. Terwer baa also jmb-
lished a Dutch text of them in hia Stdaiaxt* See-Bedki^m,
accompanied by certain customs of Amsterdam, of wliicit
other UBS. exist, in which those customs are described a»
usages of Stavoren, or as usages of Enkhnizon, boUi ports
of active commerce in the ISA century. Of these eustpms
of Amsterdam, or, as they were more generally styled,
"Ordinances of Amiterdam," further mention is mada
A new and enlat^ed collection of sea lawd,- puqKirting
to be an extract of the ancient lawa of OUrou, made ita
appearance in the latter part of the IGCb century in £«
Orant BovUer de la Mer, printed at Poitiers in Francs
by Jan de Uamef, at the sign of the Felicao. Tbe title-
page is without a date, but the dedication, which purports
to be addressed by its author Kerre Garcie idiai Ferrande
to hia godson, ia dated from St Qilies on tbe last day of
Hay 1463. It contains forty-seven articles, of which the
first twenty-two are identicid with articles of the "Judg-
ments of the Bea," in the Liber MettummdonaiL, tha re-
maining articles being evidraiUy of more recent origin. A
black-letter edition of this work in French, without a dat<^
is preeerved in the Bodleian Library at Oxford, and to the
last article this colophon is appended : " Ces choeu pr6-
cAdentes sent extroictes dn tris utille et profittable RooUe
Doloynm par le diet Kerre Garde alias Ferrande." Aa
English translation is printed in the appendix to A Fisv
of <Aa Admiral Juritdiction, published in 1661 by Dr
John Qoddphio, in which the laws are described as " an
Extract of the Ancient Lews erf OlSron rendered into
Rngliah out of Gaisios alias Ferrond." Althou^ this
new text had the recommendation of an advocate who
had filled the office of judge of the Admiralty Court during
the Commonwealth and been appointed king's advocate-
general by Charles 11., it seems to have been superseded
in a short time by Cleirac's Ui et Covttmne* de la Mer, to
which was appended the following clknse of authentication ;
"Tesmoin le Seel de I'lsle d'Ol^n, estobly aux contracts
de la dite Isle, le jour du Hardy apres la Feste Sainct
AniH i'an mille deux cens soixant-six." CleinM dose not
inform us from what source or under what circnmstaaoM
he procured his text, nor on what authori^ he has sdopled
in certain articles readings at variance with those of Uerciis
whilst be retains the sune number of article^ to wit, fbr^
seven. The clause of authentication cannot be accepted
as a warranty above suspicion, as the identical clause of
authentication with the same date is appended to the early
Norman and Breton versions of the rolls, which contain
only twenty-wx article*. Cleirac's version, however, owing
probably to the superior style in whioh it was edited and
to the importance d the other treatises on maritime matters
which Cleirac had brought together for the fint time in a
single volume^ seems to nave obtained a prefsience in Eng-
land over Garde's text, n> it was received m the High
Court of Admiralty during the judgeship of Sir Leoline
Jenkyna, and an English translation of it was introduced
into the English translation of tbe Blaek Bo<A of Mo
Admiralty made by John Bedford, the deputy registrai of
the Hi^ Conr^ and dedicated to Sir Leoliue Jcokyun.
It seems to have been Bedford's intention lo print this
translation under the title of " Sea Laws " ; but the manv-
script passed into the hands of Sir Leoline Jenkyns, who
gave it to the College of Advocated in 16liG. The Bladi
Book itself, which was missing for a bng time frcm tbe
Admiralty registry, has recently been discovered and has
been replaced in the archives of the A<lminJty Court. Of
these two vereEons of the SM laws of OUroa the earlier
obtained a wide-world recejition, Ua it was tnuiolated into
Castilion {Fvxro de Layren) by order ot Kiiig AijihonM)
X., and a Gascon text of it is still preserved in the arduTU
of Lc^^m, apparently in a handwriting of the Itilb ceo-.-
SEA LAWS
585
B •• Ik M(i» dtu BoDv da Laraode
IIm MfentitM^of tlisWi*b7Mftkirawcntd upwr
* naMTTcd in the dbaiwcn of UUMok,
Buontoo ' ' ■ "■ "
JnwBiiMiM da mar,'
11m Mfentitod.
to lUbTO beea ft coda . ,
dmiRii^inth»01dBazontoiigae,aiMld«ted 1340. This
coda ooutuna amoDgrt nuuj oUum certain artiolM on
maritima law triiich am idantical with aiticiea in the
OotUand an law% Oothland bsiiu[ the iiland of irtiieh
Wubrwaa the dUaf pott. Thia odiaetiRi compriaea u^-
nx articlas and it ia now plaoad barond a dovbt hf laoant
rowaichoi^ espedallr of fttrfeaaor BehlTter ot land, that
these Qodiland aea lam an a eomiol^ca derived from
throe diatinct aoonei^ — a LObeek, an OUnjn, and an Am-
atardam aoane. A Sanaa or Low Gtnnan text of this
ooUeetioD waa printed for the fliat time In 1605 at Copan-
hagea b; Oodfrey da GeaMti, « oative of Oonda in Holland,
who ia npoted la have aet np the aadicat pdnting-pMN
in Ot^anhageD. Tbia print haa no litlefMte, and in (Ida
n^eot naemblea Uia earliaat known print of 2S« C^ONwfal*
i^AeSaa; but opon a Mank leaf, which otw^eatiiephee
of a frondsinece in one of two oopiea t£ Qodfn; de Gemeo^
text, both prwerved in the ro^ library at Ct^enhagBD,
there hoa been iiuerted with a pen in alternate linea of
Uack and rod ink the title "Dat ho^iaata Ootlaoadie
Water-Beght gedmckat to Koppenhaven Anno Domini
ILD-T.," and thaie has kIbo been inaerted <hi iba Hist page
of the text the introdootoiy title "Her beghynt dat
ho^Mto Water-Beeht" (bste ugins the nwKme aea law).
Profesm Behlyter haa diaoorered a Ma (No. 3123) in Qia
royal library at C<H>enhi^eQ, which ia written on parchment
in a hand of the IKUi century, and from whkh it seema
probaUe that Oodfi^ de Gemen mainly deiiTed his text,
as it comprisea the aame nnmbet of artialee, contuning tiie
same matter arranged in the muds order, with thia minor
difference, that, whilst both the MS. and the print have
the simple title " Water-Becht " prefixed to the &Bt article^
the MS. haa also a similar titb prefixed to the fifteenth.
Farther, aa this article to^etkea with thoee that foUow it
in the MS., appean to be in a handwriting different fran
thivt of the arodes Uiat Meeede, the fifteenth artide may
jnstly be considered aa the first at a distinct aeriee, more
pardoolarly as they are tramboed in Boman charaetere,
beginning with g ], and such characters are continaed
with a nngle intemption down to the end ofthe H3.
Althon^ however, ue numeration of the aiticles of this
second eeriea ia continnons and the handwriting of the
MS. from the fifteenth to the aizty-eiith article ia nn-
changed, the text of the aeriee is not eontinnona, aa the
forties article conuneacee with an introdootoiy claoae —
"This is the OTdioanee which the akippen and merchants
have resolved amongst themselves as ship law." There is
no difficult in recognixing the first division of diia second
aeries of sea laws aa a Low Gennan version of .the Jodg-
ments of OUron, tnuwmitted most probably throo^ a
Flemish text, ^lia hypothecs would aecmmt Ix the sab-
atitation in several articles of SUys tor Boideanx. On
the other hand, the inbodoctoiy olaDse vrtuch nshen in
the fortieth article ia identical with the title that ia gen-
erally prefixed to MSS. of the maritime Ordinanoes of
Amstenlam, and the text of this end of the following
articles down to the aixty-flf th inclnnve is evidently of
Dntoh origm and more or less identical with Terwer's
tart of the naagss of Amaterdam. M. Budeesn^ In his
valoable CoUeetion dt Lcn* Maritime*, published in Puis
before Piofeosor Schlyter made known the rsaalt of hia
rMearchee, has juat^ remained that the proriaiona of
several articles of tlus last division of the sea lawa are
inconsistent with the theoty Hiat they criguiated at Wisl^.
It may be observed that the sizly-rixth article of the US.
it a Labeck law idsntiGal w^ tiw flat artiekof the first
series wfaidi is of LUbeck ai^ TSn oolmAon is ap-
poided to this floal artiole in the MS. NeverthelcM,
OodfrsT de Q«aiai^ edlti<m of 1D06, which breaks off in
the middle of the rixty-sixllt article of die MB., has the
ftdknring Mdophcn : — "^se end the Oothland sea laws,
whidi the oanmmuty of merchants and akippen have oi^
dained and made at Wiaby, that all men may regnkte
themsehes by ttum. Printed at Copenhagen, a.d.k.i>. v."
The question natanJly anggests itself. To what MS. waa
Qodfny de QeowD indebted for this colophon, or is the
altemativs more probable that he devised iti There is
no known MS. A this oAUection of an earlier date to
which an Vpeal can be made as an anthority ior this
colophon; <hi the oootrary, the only known MSS. of
which the date ia earlier than Godfrey de Oemen's print,
bothof lAidiarein thelilnaiyof the university of Copeo'
hagen, are without ^cia coloiAion, and one of them, which
pniporla to have bean completed at NykOping on the Eve
of the Tintation of the Tiinn in 1494, coodndes with a
M^hon iritich pnchides all idea that anything haa been
omitted 1^ tiie scrilM^ viz., "Here enda this book, and
may God send ns his gmee, Amen." We are diapoeed to
think that Gemen himself devised this colc^hon. He was
on^tged in minting fot the fitat time other collections of
laws for the Danish Government, and, as Oothland was at
that time a poaaaorion of Denmark, he may have thna die-
tingniahed Ibe sea laws from another coUection, namely, (4
land lawa. Ftofeasor Behlyter, however, believes Gemen
may have borrowed it from a US. which ia lost, or at all
events is not known. Ilere is sonip support to this view
in the fact that in the archives of the guildhall of LUbeck
thero is Reserved a US. of 1533 which contuns a Low
Qerman version <^ the same collection of aea laws, witii a
rubric prefixed to the fint article annonndng them to be
" UiB water law <» sea law, which is the oldest and highest
law of Wisl^,' and there are good reascms for aupposing
that the scribe of this Ua copied his text from a VS.
other than the O^enhagen 1^ The same obeervatiMi
will appfy to a second Us. of a similar character preserved
in tiie libraiy of the gymnawnm erf LQbeck, whicb pnr-
potta to have been written in 1037. Bnt as regards the
Wiaby sea laws little reliance can be placed on sach
rubrics or colophons as proofs of the facts recited in them,
though they may be valuable as evidence of the reputed
origin of the aea laws at the time when the scribe com-
pleted the US. Lt illuatration of this view it may be
stated that in the same year in which the moro recent of
theee two MSa purports to have been completed—namely,
1SS7 — theie was printed at liitbeck an enlarged edition of
the sea laws conaistiDg of seventy-two articles, being a
Low German tnmstet^on of a Dutch text, in which six
additional Dutch laws had been inserted which are not
foond in the Copenhagen US., tux have a place in Gemen'a
text, yet to this edition is prefixed the title^ "This ia the
higheat and oldest aea law, which the community of mer-
chants and shipmasteia have crdained and made at Wiaby,
that all persons who would be seetuo may regelate them-
selvee l^ it." Furthw, it haa an introductory daoae to its
thir^-aeventh artirie— "This is the ofdinance iriiich the
commnnity of skippers and merchsnta have leadTed upon
amongst themsdvee as ship law, which the men of Zea-
land, Hollaod, Flanders hold, and with tlte law of Wisby,
which is the ohlest ship law." At the md of the sevens-
second article there foUowa this colophon : "Here ends
the Gothleiid sea kw, iriudi the commnnitf of merchants
and mariners have ordained and made at Wiaby, that
each may r^olate himself by it. All honour be to God,
KDxxxvn," Each article of thia editiop has prefixed to it
after its portieolar munber the word "bdevinge" (judg-
rnant). It wonld thna appeal that ^eWisby sea laws
S E A — S E A
have f«nd lika the Oliron «ea bwe : ibej have gathered
bulk with increwiiig je&ra.
The qusation TsmaiDB to be answered. How did this col-
lection of eaa laws acquire the title of the " Wisby sea Uwb"
outiide the Baltic t for ooder nioh titls they were received
in Scotland in the I6th centur;, u may be ioferred from
oitracte from them cited in Sir James Balfour'i 5jufnn o/
li* mon Ancient Lam of Scotland, which, although not
printed till 1754, wa» completed before hi« death in 1583.
The ten of the Wisby eea latra general]/ current in Eng-
land n an Elngliah translation of a French text which
Cleirae publiiihad in 1641 in fus fj << Couitumet dt la
Uer, and is an 'abbreviated, and in many respects muti-
tatad, veiaion of the origioal sea lawi. This inquiry, how-
ever, wonld open a new chapter on the subject of the
northern £ea laws, and the civilizing influence which the
merchonla of Wisby exercised iu the 13th century throngh
their factories at Novgca^ lickitig thereby the trade of
the Baltic to that of the Black Sea.
iv, lliduiui, CoHtHiea lie Lo>i tfarilinui anUrituTC4 dm X VIII.
SUclt (B vol*., Puii ]858 45) ; Schljtrr, IVisbg SloMofaeJ, Hjarall.
bein^ roi. viii. of the Cwpus Jnrit avao Ootorvm AiUlqai (Liini],
less; ; and Ifu Blade Book of thi AdmiralUj. ed. by Sir Tnien
Twite (4 vols., London, IB71->S). (T. T.)
SEALINQ WAX. In medieval timea, when the princi-
pal use of sealing wax was. for attaching the impression of
cenU to official documents, the composition nied consisted
cf a mixture of Venice turpentioe, beeawax, and coJoming
matter, usually vermilion. The preparation now employed
contains no wax. Fine red stationery sealing wax ia com-
poaed of abont seven ports by weight of shellac, fotir of
Venice turpentine, and three to fonr of vermilion. The
teuus are melted together in an earthenware pot over a
moderate fire, and the colouring matter is added slowly
with careful etining. The mass when taken from the fire
is poured into oiled tin moulds the form of the sticks
required, and when hard the sticks are polished by passing
them rapidly over a charcoal Ere, or through a spirit fiame,
which melts the superficial film. For the brightest quali-
ties of sealing wax bleached lac is employed, and a pro-
portion of perfuming matter — storai or balsam of Peru —
is added. In the commoner qoalities considerable admix-
tures oF chalk, carbonate of magnesia, baryta white, or
other earthy matters ore employed, and for the various
colours appropriate mineral pigments. Ia inferior waiea
ordinary reain takes the place of lac, and the dragon gum
of Australia (from XanlkorThixa AosfiVu) and othei resina
an similarly subatituted. Such waxes, used for bottling,
parcelling, and other coarser applications, run thin when
heated, and are comparatively brittle, whereas fine wax
■hould soften slowly and is tenacious and adhesive.
BEALKOTE. See Sii.edt.
BEAI£> (Gr. (n^yi's, Lat ngilltm). During the
medieval period the importance of seab was very grea^
as they were considered the main proofs of the aathenticity
of all Borta-of documents, both public and private.^ That
is much leas the caae now, the written aignatore being
thought a safer guarantee of gcnuineneas. In order to
make illicit use or imitation of a seal difficult, the seal
itself was usually locked up and guarded with special care,
and in the case of royal personages or corporate bodies
was often made a very complicated work of art, which it
would have been almost itnpossibiB to copy exactly. One
very curious precaution that was adopted is still iu use
with the corporate seal of the monasteries of Mount Athos.
The circular matrix* is divided into four quartets, each
' For iDliqoB (uli, wa asm, Jiwellisi, auJ Rma
* [u .anxe aaen. Id tUt piHeoca of •ritnnsn, ■ BBil oliich did sot
li>:1iii>g to tb> nlgner of i docnmout wu n»d whin th> right niitrii nu
Mot iL hand. TIiLi hni Ditnnllj uuHd naj inhKikigftat poalH.
' Till' >or>l " Mil " U iiR«a us«d to d«B0U both th* Imprwaioo made
of which ia kept by OBe of the four tputatai or rnEng
monka ; the four pieces are joined by a key-handle, whid
remains in the custody of the secretary. Tbus it ia only
whan all five guardians of the various ports of the matrix
meet together that the complete seal can bo stamped on
any document. The device on the Uonnt Athos seal is
a half-length figure of the Madonna and Child, and tbe
imprint is mode by blackening the matrix in the flame of
a lamp and then prosing it on tbe paper or vellum itself.
Medieval seald were applied in tw-o dilTcreat ways : in
one the stamp was imprened in wax run on the surface
of the docnmeat (Fr. piaqui at en plaeartf) : in the other
the wax impression wss suspended by cord or strips of
parchment (Fr. ptncUini). The hitter method was aeeeu-
sarily used with metal seals or bulla (see below).
For the sake of greater socurity in tbe case of plaqt,i
iieals, it was a common ptaetico from the l:tth century
onwards, or even earlier, to make a crcaa cut in the veUum
of the document, the comers of which were then turned
bock, thus forming a square opening, over which the wax
seal was stamiied ; the tnrned-up romcrs helped to hold
tha wax in its place, and the aperture allowed a second
matrix to be applied at the b«ck. This was usually a
smaller private seal called a tecretum. Thus, for eiampls,
on abbot vrould use on the front of a document the large
corporate seal of his community, and on the bock would
stamp his personal seal as a Mnvfun.
Till the 12th century purs white beeewejt was generally
used, after that wax coloured green or red. The use of
shellac or other harder materials, such as modern sealing-
wax, is of recent data. Thus it was usual to protect the
soft wax seals by soma sort of "fender," often a wreath of
rushes or plaited strips of paper twisted round it ; another
method much employed in the ISth century was to cover
the seal with leaves of oak, bay, or beech. Pendnni seals
were often encased in boxes of wood or euir bouHli, which
in some cases are very richly decorated. From the 13th
to the 1 Sth century original royal documents are usually
on fine vetlum and have green seals hung by many-colonied
silk and gold thread, while office copies are on coaraer
vellum and have white teals hung by parchment strips.
In Engkod an important official, called the" clerk <rf the
chafe-wax, on office which still exists, was entmsted with
the duty of softening the wax for state seals over a
chafing-brarier. Two different methods of sealing docu-
ment^ either closed or open for inspection, are recorded
in the legal terms " letters secret " and " letter* patent.' '
Owing to the enormous number of medinval seal* which
still exist, and their frequently great biatorical and artiatie
importance, it is necessary to adopt some method of
classification, especially for large collections, such as that
of the British Museum, which contains about 3S,000
specimens, and the very important one of the Society of
Antiquaries.* The chief classes are these :— (1) Salai-
atticai. — (a) Seals belonging to offices, such as those of
popes, bishops, abbots, deans, &•:.; {h) common seals of
corporate bodies, such as chapters, religions colleges, monas-
teriosj and tbe like ; (r) official seals without the nam* <A
the officer ; {d) peraotAl seals, with or withmit a name.
(2) liag. — (a) Boyal seal^ including those of queens and
royal princes; (b) official seals in the name of the
sovereign or a state offidal ; (e) common seals of corporata
bodies, such as tovms, universitiee, guilds, echoed hospi-
tals, Sic. ; (iJ) personal seals (not being royal) with effigies,
heraldry, merdiants' marks, or other deTioes, with or with-
out a name, or with name only, or with legend only.
ud th« ottJ«t tbit nukoi th* improK Hon oonctlr ths Utt« !•
MU*d th* " mitrii," ind odIt th* tminiilon U ullsd thg " Hal. *
* Hi* TilBiUa wlltcUoD lua brai unngtd «d catnlsgosd bj Dr
C & Findnl, Um bMt Duden MtbrattT en Bn^Uh sMda
SEALS
JVoNft Sofal jSm&< — Hm Mtliart ud moM ompleta
aeries of feaia is that of the French kiii^ Tho Cftrlo-
Tingian •nd MeroriiigiMi monarcha meetly naed antiqiiB
gams or Matee, — portmit beads b^g seleeted and k
legend added in the metal eetting of the matrix. CSuvle-
magne med a head d Japiter Sempie,* Pippin tiie Sbmt
diat of the Indian Dioa^Biu. The British Hoseom poa-
■enea a aeal of Odo or Endes, king of France (888^98),
impreeHd from a fine Greek gem of the 3d centnry B.C.,
with a portrait of Selencua 17. The oldest eziatiDg matrix
i« that of Lothaire L (e. 817), noT preMrred at Alx-la-
Chapalle, attached to an altar-crosa. It ia an oval intaglio
in rock orrstal, with a lamented portrait and the legend
■^XFi.ADiTTA.BLOTHABm.Bxo, ; It Is not an antiqna,
bnt ii of contemporarj BTmntino-Bheniah work. Till the
time dLonitVL (1108-1137) theee Male were iifajvi^ bat
he introduced peadaitt eeala aboat 1108 ; and counter-
seals at the bock were fint used bjr LouU TU. (1 137-80).
The grand aeriee of roond Reals with an enthroned figure
of the king begins with the Ctpet Haniy L (1031-60).
The king bolda a sceptre in one nand and a flower in the
other. Those of the queens are frequently of a pointed
oval fonn, with a standing portrait figure holding a flower
in each hand. In the 13th and 14th centuries the French
rojal seals were eiabtvata works of art, with » finely draped
flgore of the king seated under a rich canopy on a throne,
daconted with lions' or eagles' beads ; the king holds a
sceptre in each hand. The qaeen^ seals, of a round or
Eld oval form, are also verj beautiful, with a gracefol
standing be^een two shields under a rich canopy.
the 16th cenffuy there was a rapid decadence in the
fotbI seals, and in the 17th and 18th centnrise they were
of the moat tasteless styles far worse than those used in
England at the some date.
MngliA Sopai SeaU.—TiiJt, which is on the idiole the
most beantiM of all royal series, begins with tlie seal
of Edward the Oon-
fEfflor (iw - fig. 1).*
The great seal of Will-
iam the VIotmaa and
his
IB not
plaqtif, like the earlier
one«, but pendant ; it
has on one side an
enthnmed figure of
a king copied from
contemporary French
seals, uid on the ra-
Terse the king on
horseback armed with
spetf a-Ttf^ ehield.
These two ways of fto-i—S-lrfBdwiri thsOtttaw.
repreeepting the sorereign hare been used on all the rojal
seals of England down to the present day. By degrees
greater elaboration of oroameat was introdncod into the
thnme and its canopy. In Edward IIL'a time niches with
minute statuettsa (^ aunts were added at the sides of the
obverse. The climax of magnificence was reached in thd
reign of Henry T. On the obverse of his se^ the king
> Bh Wifllf, ^Umimti dt PaUograplui, loL ii, _ _
wthon, Trtur dt Nun. H dt Otyptifiui, toL L, Puli, 1S31 (irhich
oontilni ilio jUitm ot Bi^Uh rojit M*l«}| Dmst-d'Amq, CbU. d*
aMnadirampin, Fumsa34S; BiittiitdiiaaeeitUdt^mgit-
tipu, Pud, V.J. ; IVAiilcT, £«»u>Z <j> Baaia SonnaiuU, Omu, ISSE.
* Thg raonka o( Dartumi ilu }mi ■ gsn iritb i head at Japiter
S«np[i, Tonnd irUch *■■ addad thg legtod — OAm . OASOn .
oevAU>L
• Tha Ai^ithkiiigi1»fiiratlisCanqairtilgn*dnaiuIl7wtthsereM
cmlr, bnt a fnr, nA M Oflk, BthalvnU, ud Ethdnd, ooculaBiUT
iNd Mill, mpinUnr oi dooimHiita oontilnbig grBiti to St Drnli
"' ~'*^ B Fndch abbgji, im whloh th«]r fgllawvd tb* fisnoli cwtan of
dti holding the oib and sceptn; the gorgeous eanc^y
dODtains atatoettce of the Tirgin and two saints, and at
each idde are three rows of slatuettea In minute canopied
niches, each row two tiers high; about fifteen minute
figures of saints and angels are introduced into the design.
Chi the reverse is the king on horseback, bearing a swml
and shield; the horse, going at full speed, is clothed
with richly embroidered heraldic drapery, and on its head
and on the king's is a Uon crest. After Henry T. tho
seals began to decrease in magnificence, and in the reign
of Henry TIL the new taste of the Benaisaance bt^gan to
sn^lant the pore Qothic ot the earlier seals. In the time
of nulip and Mary both sovereigns appear together, seated
under canopiee, or riding aide by mde.* The great seal
of the Gommonwealth is a marvel of uglineoe. On the
obverse is a perfective view of the interior of the House
of Common^ and on the reverM a map of Qroat Britun
and Ireland. Cromwell's seal has an equestrian portnut
of himself, and its reverse the aims of the Commonwealth
between a lion and a dragon as supporters. Little is
noticeable about the seals d sueoeeding sovereigns ; that
of Tlctcna is minotBly cut, but is very poor as a work
of art
Olhtr Bn^iA Stal*. — Gilt bronie was the commonest
material tor Urge seals, but other metals were used, such
as gold, silver, and lead, also jet and ivory, especially
before the Norman Conquest Bock orystal, camelian,
and sard were the favourites among the hard stones cut
for matrices. large seals were nsiullj either round or of
a poiated oval fonn (as in figs. 3 and 3) ; the smaU secpeto
as round or ovaL' The most elaborate and IwMitifnl of
all were tbosd of religious corporations, such as the chapter
seals of monasteries.' These ace among the most esqnisitQ
works <A art that the Middle Ages produced, eapedally
during the 14th century, and exceed In delicacy d! wo^-
manahh) and elaboration of dedgn the finest seals t/t all
other cbsecs, not exceptiiig those of the sovereigns. FJ^
3 ahows the common seal (rf
Btucgrova priorr (Sussex)^
the matrix of nhidi is now
in the British HasBom. On
one aide is a figure of the
Tirgin enthionec^ and on
the reverse a repreatotalioo
of the west front of tha J
priory church, with open I
traoeiT and niches contain- 1
ing minnte atatuettesL llis I
elabc»ate matrix is made I
up of four distinct pieces '
of cplt broue^ and to form
the perfect seal must have
been a work requiring coo-
aideiable skill and patience.
The reverse was formed by
two stamps nsed on two
separate plaques of softened tvt. S.— TovitMatb.e«tsT7 •wl of
wax ; one of these formed Btagrora jriory ; iitvm.
the background with the various statuettei^ and the second
was used to stamp the open tracery wvck of the front of
the church ; the latter when hard was fitted on to the
h') Mil* : lb* ta rapnMDt*!] itaBdlBg, boldlss tlia orb lod
...,_.. «Dd wiui ■ dnM with OKiniMB* bocfb HaoUmiMlhu
tlu uul Bqnsatrian portnlt on t^ tBTKM.
• Ai a nlB, tnm tha ISa to th* IRb ambinj, aeolNiutleal Mak
md thoM ef ftaalM ii«i* c< tba pototad onl Ibnn, moat otbm
bgfng cdnmlu' | Ibera an, bowsnr, buuit «BMftk»« lo (Ui n)^
• A ipeiiial Sn^Ub oaoa for ths blaniBS gf IMl* Is fdatsd ^lf
XiAall, Mm. £itaaKa, IBSS, vsL UL
SEALS
impngrioD tA the tttckgraimd, ud thtu k aort of nunkttm
nuidst of tlw church was mode, with its statues and the
inner planet of dte facade seea throagb the open tracer;
work,— the efltet being extremely rich and delicate. When
the flouhed obrerte aiid rarerae had been fitted together,
the legeod wu added on their edges bj means of the fourth
^iece of the matrix, — a atrip of bronze with letters cut
into it on both its
tiigai; first one
BioB and then the
other of this atrip
was preased BgainBt
- the rim of the wuc
seal, which thns
TsceiTed the im-
preosion of the
complete legend
all round Its edge. J
The seal of Sooth' ' i
wark priory, also i
ot. the Uth oen- I
tnij, is even more ] '
olaboiate, u both
udei hare open
tneei7 sepantelj
applied, Knd thus
toe tnatriz consists
of fiya distinct
pieces. Uany of
the biahopt' aMlf ,
thon^ leu com*
plicated in deiigi^^ _
an of eqoal beaut]'
to those of the
ehuten. The common deeign has a standing figore
nflder a richly deoocated canopy. Fig. 8 ahows a very
licantifnl example, the seal of Kchard, bishop c^ Dnr-
luun. I The standing figure of the bishop in moss vest-
menlA is modelled with wonderfnl skill and shows
treme taate in the tnatmeot of the drapery; the legen
■[igiUum] BIOABDI . DB . CAA . mWKLKENEIS
great tarielgr (4 Mcred snliijecls eocnr on - "' "''
^ten added. Fig. 4 ahows osa of the meet n „
of this class, with, in the centre, a figure of the Virgin in
glory, between Bt Nicholas and Henry TL, each under n
Tery rich canopy ; at the side* are shields charged with
England and France, and France (modem) aloof^ held by
two monks.! xhis very beautiful wwk of art datea about
the year 1443. In the IGth oentniy the "-'—■■«*■'"'
seals began to fall off .in richness and beaoty, and after
the Befonuation were of little artistic Talue. Tery h«nd-
•ome aeak were need by lay corporatJons, especially tJw
municipalities of towns, Tiuaa last frtiqsently have k
careful repreaentaUon of the town itaelf, with it* drcnit
of walls or that of its due.* cattle or cathedral, and tfao*
often afibrd Tslnable eridenoe as to the fofm of its do-
fencee and principal
buildings. Fift 5
shows a fine example,
3 inchee in diameter,
— the corporate seal
of Rochester, made i
in the 13th century; f
it has a minute re- g
ilation erf the ^
Tta. (.-^Sesl of Eing't CoUtget OunteUga
in ■dfltioB to sin^^ figmes tt patnm aainta ; the most
frequent wen peoap* the Oncifixion, the Annnndation,
Uie Oonaatioo at the Virgin, and tiie Virgin enthroned
in ^aftTcn ; hmU tgatm ot kaatfiDg wonhippers wtn
Caetle^ enironnded '
by an outer oircnit
wall anda moat. On
one of the tntreta
of the gateway is »
sentinel blowing a p^ s_corp,™i. «d of ltod.rt.1:
signal horn ; legend,
noiLLVX . civm . bottsbib. The rereiae has thft *mim
legend repeated round the scene of the Cnuifixi<»i o< St
Andrew. Other corporation seals are corered with small
figures under elaborate canopy work, much like thoaa ot
the ecclesiastical foundations. - - -
Seals of hospitals are often designed in 4 tjmilar im,
Willi a representation of the hospital building Tscy minutely
treated. In the Ifith century seals began to be demgned
in a rather pictorial style, which, thon^ vary giunfnl, m
inferior to the earlier — —
and more architect-
onic class. Tery
magmficent ' seals
were used by state
officials ; those of
the lord high ad- .
miralof En^^and are
eepedally fine, from
the beautiful form of '
the ship on the ob-
verse. Fig. 6 ehowa
that of the earl of
Huntingdon, who
was lord high ad-
miral in the reiim
oIHbhijTIH In To. S.-a^tMtl^ll,M
design It resembles
those of the ■"i"'i'*li of the previons century. On the
sails are embroidered the royal arms of Englaiid.
Among private seals those of powerful baroos are often
large and very beautifully cut. Fig. 7 dio^s a slver
matrix, now in the British Museum, which is remarkabb
for the great beauty of its workmanship. Its leg«ad ia
BiaiLLTX . BOBEBTi . nui . VAI.TBIU. On it an anned
knight, of the time of Henry HL, is riding over a drapn,
whose tail ends in a scroll of very beautifd eovtentional
foliage^ modelled with the greatest spirif'and delienty.
IE A — S E A
689
Aoonunonutd gncefnl fonn of privat^Nal in the 13th
and 14th centarioa has umplf a shield with the owner's
ftrma on a dUpeied
bockgnmnd, the
whole encloeed witk-
h many-cttsped tra-
cer;. Fig. 8 showB
aa example of a im
Oneeo-Booun gem,
— a cameliaa en- 1
graTed vith a female I
head, full face. The
14 th- century owner
of thia had added a
tnetal set ting with
Uio words OAPVT.
HABIS . HAQQAI^RE,
to give it a sacred
meaning. The le-
geDdd of priTOte eeaU
sion to their use ; coi
togo," or " lecta lego, i
ingeniona devicea were practised to enable
the same matrix to give two o
ferent varieties of impression.
cases the border with the leg
contrived aa to elide np ths handle, so
that the seal conld he made either with 7iq_ e. — AnUqiw
or without an inscription. Others had gem nsed u ■
the border made to revolve oo a swivel, prtvsw auL
BO as to supply two different legends ; and the magnificent
monastic seals (as that shown in £g. 3) were arranged so
as to giye a perfect seal withoulr the use of the ela-
borate open tracery. In the 15th and 16tli centuries mer-
chants and handicraftsmen frequently employed devices
connected with their trade — either some tool or badge or
an arbitrarr sign used as a trade-mark ; or a rebus of the
owner's name was need, such as a bolt and a tun (cask) for
the name Bolton. The use of seals by the humbler classes
was more common in England than abroad ; even bonds-
men sometimes had seals, both before and after the Nor-
man Conquest Seals of other coontnea mostly followed
' FIO. 7.— 8«1 ot Bobert FlKwJter, c l!7a
rrria were often chosen in olln-
1 phrases are " clause secrets
a tege." Many
0 A k.
the tuDO fashions aa those of England, thoo^ of eoone
varying in design and workmanship vrith each conntij.
On the wholes the Ti:ngi;ah seals were superior during
their best period (the 14th century) to those of any other
country, thoogh matrices of gr^at beau^ were produced
in both Qennany and France. In Italy leas car« and skill
were usually spent ou seals, partly owing to tho greater
use of metal buUte for important charters.
Metal BvUm. — These are necessarily not pla^ bat pair
danl, and are held niruaJly by cords passed tjirough a bole
in the seal Lead was the metal most commonly used,
but some sovereigns had bullra struck in silver or gold,
either as a mark of tbeir own dignity or to confer special
honour OD the recipient of a charter. An ertant letter
from Petrarch to Charles IV. thanks that emperor for a
diploma of the rank of count, and especially for the
honour shown to him by the attachment of gold buUte
to the document. Lead bulla were also used by various
ecclesiastical dignitaries, from patriarchs to bishops, but
were rarely used by ecclesiastics of loirer rank. In some
cases, however, especially in Sicily and Syzantium, bnlhe
were used by laymen of very moderate rank. A large num-
ber of fine papal bulla ' exixt dating from the Tth century
onwards.' Since the time of Pope Paschal U. they have
borne heads of St Peter and St Paul ; previoosly they had
such simple devicea as croases or stars, with the name of
the pontiff. Another early series of bnlhe begins in theBth
centuiy with the buUe of the patriarchs of Byzantium.
Those of the doges of Venice eiist in large numbers, bear-
ing figures of St Mark and the reigning doge kneeling
before him. Existing bulhe of Charlemagne have a rods
profile portrait crowned with a diadem, and on the reverse
the monogram of Kasoltb ananged in the lona of a
Coniult, in addition tc tha mirki nuntd ^bovs, Thnlatnariiu,
Dt Bulla Auna, Fnukfort, 1T£1 ; Eomiu-BUchiier, Die Sieffil d«r
deultck. Eaver, Frankfort, 18S1 ; Vo»berg, Gaek. dtr prtuMuAni
Siigel, Berlin, ISIS ; Mslly, ^ii^il-fuiuff da IfilUIallm, Vianu,
1S46; Heioscciiu,Zh Siaillu, Fnnkrort, 1709; lermia, SpkragU-
tiidu AfhoriTTnnt, BaUe, 1842-tB ; Omlfield, Sisilla Sulma
Bibemiat, London, 1S£3 ; ind man ap«[allr miou* ■rticln in
ths On. da Bcaux-Ati>, Arr/iKoliigia, AnAtMlogical Jnurnal, and
Proueiiagt of other sntiqutnsu sodebes. (J. B. ^)
SEAMANSHIP
SEAMANSHIF is the art of sajling, manoanvring, and
preserving a ship or a boat in all positions and under
all reasonable circumstances, and thus involves a ^und
practical knowledge of all the forces by which she may be
actuated and the means at command to assist or counter-
act them ; it is a branch of appUed mechanics acquired by
experience and stody. The former can only be obtained
thoroughly in many years spent at sea, in personal con-
nexion with, the work of the ship and her boats ; that such
training should commence at an early ago is very desir-
able, if not even imperative. The practical knowledge so
gained should be supplemented and improved by reading,
conversation, and discussion, as the casualties which befall
abjps are so varied that a man may pass forty years in sea-
going vessels without experiencing one-half of tboee which
might occur. Many of the old maiimB are still applicable
to evei7 class of vemel and must always remain so.
The terms " ship " and " vessel " ore here intended to
embrace all classes, though " ship " is generally applied to
the larger without reference to form or description onless
such is specified. Though the nsa of stuls has been greatly
superseded by the introdnddon of steem-power both in the
navies of all nations and in the mercantile marine^ it is
■till generally admitted that setunanship is beat acqidied
i on board a venel which is dependent upon her sails. The
I construction and equipment of sailing ships had reached a
' high point of perfection at the time steam came into general
use. The power derived from the steam-engine does not
change any of the former conditions, but simply adds
another element, confined to propulsion directly ahead or
astern (except with reversible wheels or twin screws),
which whan combined with sails renders a ship much more
manageable and safe, — that is to say, assuming all the
forces at command to be properly applied. Hence it is very
desirable that all ocean-going steam vessels should have
sufficient sail-power to turn them round (wear) or to enable
thorn to soil with the wind abeam without steam, espedally
when fitted with single screws or with paddle wheels which
do not work separately. Twin ecrews, of course, give a
double chance as far as the engine is concerned ; but even
with that advantage the loea of the rudder would leave the
ship in a helpless condition if she had not efficient head
and after sails to balance her on die desired course.
At present the excessive desire to make quick pi
has greatly augmented the danger tuutToidably attending a
sea voyage, the risk aa well a* the violence of a eoIIini» '
■ Tba ton "ban "tors pud chotSTO^Mft
'ftVioami.PiemtiAa&lii.SimttVa,
SM
SEAMANSHIP
kt high Bpoed in thick weatliBr being thereby mnch in-
creaaed. Through the want of maata and sails there is a
probability of total loas by drifting helple«aly on a lee
sbore during a gal«s or by foundering "in the trongh of
the Bea.° it spite of hei monstroua die (32,000 tons),
the "Great Eastern," in 1863 or 18S4, with her six com-
paratirely small mastB and veak sails was, after the loss
of her rudder, very roughly used by the naves striking
her full on the aide. She was in the pofiition which ia
expressed by the common saa-phrase " wallowing in the
trough of the sea," from which her crew had no power to
extricate her. A smaller vessel deeply laden in snch a
position would moat probably have foundered, learing no
one to tett the tale. Too moch stress is laid upon tlie re-
tardation caused by masts and rigging when steaming
head b> wind ; it is the pitching and plunging motion of
the ship into a succession of waves that principally retards
her speed. If the waves are approaching at the rate of 10
miles an hour and the ship is steaming against them at a
umilar rate^ they will strike the lx)ws with a force equal
to 20 milea an hour. When a skip is steaming through
comparatively amooth water (sheltered by land) against a
gale of wind, her speed is but little reduced by the force
of the wind aloDC^ when other circumatancea admit of her
working full power. Storm-sails only require short masts,
but these and the canvas they support diould be strong,
which is not the case in the merchant service generally.
Every seaman is expected to be thoroughly acqn^nted
with the rigging of iba veaael in which he serves, and
when in charge he should frequently examine every part^
to see that it ia efficiently performing the duty aaaigned to
it, being neither too taut nor too slack, nor Buffering from
chafing, wet, or other ii^jury. He should be capable of
repairing or replacing any port with his own hand if
necessary and of teaching otheiB how to do sa He need
not necessarily be a navigator, though a good navigator
must be a aeaman; nor is it necessary that a seaman
■hould be a ahipbuilder, a mast-maker, a rope-maker, or a
sail-maker, but he ahould poaseaa a general knowledge of
each art, eapecially the last ; every able seaman should be
able to aew a aeam and assist the ship's sail-maker in
repairing sails. It ia greatly to be regretted that various
circumatancea have brought about such a change ia the
aystcm of rigging ships, in both the British navy and the
mercantile marine, that thoae who sail in them seldom see
it done. Tonng officen were in former timea frequently
entrusted with the charge of day watches, during wluch
they would give the necessary orders for making, shorten-
ing, or trimming soils, perhaps even tacldng and wearing,
llat practice gave confidence and quickened the desire to
learn more j it was more frequently done in small than in
large ships. The general adoption of the steam-engine in
ships has not only diminished the value of aail-power but
of seajnanahip abo, and haa produced such a change in
the rig that instead of masts and yards we find only two
or three poles. In the Britiah navy sopnany new sciencea
have bem introduced that seamanahip takes but a low
place among them at the eioiuination of a midshipman,
who has had but little boat duty and probably found the
discussion of seamanship in his mess-place contrary to
rule. The rapidity with which all sail and mast drill ia
executed, combined wi<th the perfection of the "station
bill," renders it worse than useless as a means of teaching,
OS it gives a falsu conlidence which fails in the hour of
necessity, when the accustomed routine is thrown out by a
^ sail actually splittingr to pieces or a spar snapping. The
fact that the same men perpetually do the same thing most
tend greatly Jxt render each evolution quick so long as
every one ia in his accustomed place, bnt sickness of the
kbeenoe of a par^ &wn dutj will disorgoniie the ship (or
some time^ as the general nsefnlnen of the men tkaa ttoen
cramped. Sul drill in harbour is open to grave objeo
tims : unless in a tide-way, the ship must be invariably
head to wind ; for reefing and furling die yards are laid
square, conseqaently flat atiack ; both earings an hnnlwd
out at once, and aa it is only for exercise they are only
half secured. Even when reefing top-aails at sea either f<^
exorcise or of necessity in aimpaoy with other ships, the
yards are laid square to enable the men to get readily on
the weather-side ; therefore, if on a wind, the sail most re-
main ab«ck or the ship muat be kept away till the wind is
on the l>eam in order to shake the saiL
The foundation of all teaching of a«amanahip must be a
knowledge of the Icnota, bends, and aplices, and their noe
in the various ports of the rigging and equipment of a
ship.' Some knots, bends, and hitches are intended toafford
security as long as desired, and then to be easily disengaged.
Other knots, splices, and aeinngs are of a more permanent
character, generally continuing as long as tlie rope will last.
FlgitTt^if-Eicht Snti fSg. TX— UHilonlJtapnTeDtniFflifrimuiMflDS; It
Sti/ICKa(i»e EnoT. Inc. cH.. So. s udn— FlntlmuimABidkBiit', Om
akaUii«]i) aoisrlLendbSdUiroa^tlieUallbl lUa knot U M lUHd
arpoliieaiiriBn.iiuattvmHttam. Uth*
lb, t irnuuft *M< ■rwU^fct ^™'°- , ,,,
!^St™ It ^^ Wt o™ oul d ud nmclS In tt^^tkn Sown li «i. t
"gg":j"^p^"S.'r];zL;'5,i sSdi..,-^y£iJcs.s* »> w-
1 A pmoa wiihiiig to nuke bHot'i knoU aMd iwt ba if*mtiij
th. i™l rf m.t«riiJ. u n«tflr lU lh«l m hart ripnMtrf ■«• ™**
> For »n arpUoition of thli Md oUmt t»ehnl«»l two* "• <"
^oasuy gn p. e03 bdov.
SEAMANSHIP
tr nMH raol >IM* AMwn
r-u<u XHiHtod i tUa b ma
■Da taoujWjrt n^tN^ft"
^S^U&fb ranluT lued HfTlbt u«1g( to U» ob)KC uid la Impra^V
QiHlBr thaBCudiiwiHrt frat tbvlutoroi. The ocmufj Bkekmll I
oEtHidi toMiODt aoH ■( i. ml )■ qiiMU]' Rmnail 1^ nuilac th
■ JtavliiioiiAthi Utfit ot> niH h thittbtadiitVHlimiMi
ttl3ath.il^upB^framl>fcr<i. UHdtDrMWnc v(*Mii>*
•vl (iaiW ltaM*ak «taB ■ dip li << B ttli ccoHDeon
CafHuvtSTn— Tout DP tvt Mil gCslujrnf ia opwltl OmoKdu a4
hook Oh M^t £ tti* •}« (, <■ A^«a nfwoad AcoUlw pluidbrtaHa
tfa> jMrts U r. A Wr(( Imnjud ■tunfld tM olim-Utalied mmd « luge tagga
ud ■ ikip iiim |1 noBIl it txloir the tosEls.
Moffdv-^ttT jfiiA (Hk. n.— U:rUi«ra>la(mri; IbldtbilMiDaTa'ODtbg
nd Ih* (tmdbvW Hd »g
etmbUnfaaO M^SS(tt. K^-SlBfUr to tbt ibmv OMpt tliM tba
nd iitaohtlDDdtrlba lint mud tun ! tUiliaun ■QBE. AwHuukUek
hH tn mmd totm ud ou on Oi* otlur ltd* ot tlM Uualii( lan villi at
■kd (kfiMKh tlw bi^ht.
nHtH- IfU<A (He. liy— Taki tlic tod a of ■ npa nond • ipar, tlioi nnuid
b^tauUng put (^ Uwo HTBid tImH raoad Ito own jati, igMiutlbglaJ
ra ll.-<lwriek BsDil ni
4b|oalA>^iiiiwiiufelt«k(Khtlm(. UihI to kHpwDsldliio ud lali.
uipibnkiajwthnBlMllBB
^<M taiI(llE. l».~^w&a iDd of OH hunar onr U* on nit ID Km
aU(litia/,»: panHiaaBdof uotlnrhawaKDptbnia^tliita^tBMrh
r^ nt vmaa tnt and U e. snHliia mdar tlia lint 1sb( ia>t and vnr Ri
« U A OtE ■Ddo' botb loss pam, )bniilU| tba lupa. and ahun tbg llnl
■Mtpamt^ tamlnatliig at the nilf'.tii Ua oppMta dimtkm mtkalli
aadbonaqlallyBatlwotliareDd. TbaaDaadwvldHBHnirdjBtoppadtotliafi
'^xflQia MaiidLitfr partiL aad alao a atop pat OB th* b«k<t aranniDe and t«
rnnot tt aBahlx a plpa or emok ; ta bat tm lUa la aa baat qnlak Haau
^ulUutinlaigili»nian,iiBaUMraoiu>t>B. Wlualaqnhawankm
to nrk &ni«k loiU pipta, (ond tHorttr i«r ba olMiKid dtbD br panlM
« « tnin toot ncUu trnai Willi a anltaMa atnod aod atooiiiiitwd
n^loimidiBf part of Bw hawaar, ar bf tokbiE baU aa imiur mmTtiinu
tt^«di.~ftto AoDld ba npaatad to Ibna plKaa aTSifotnm anda w3
^IM badL— hH Uia andof obo npo Uuonah Iba Msbt of anotber^ naw
nkntny tbaotbar.ndudtr RaowBaSwUni tart. Uaad br iKDdliM
Man ibata to U» olawi ot iaO^ whlab pnvit Afu iwlr ter Iba Mtob
lindtainiirttoainipoaedoCai0laao(£iatbeiidh Baa Km, La, ll(. K
* Wn'ili.d I. iMto^llcg a abaat bad.
Hi|li rui AH(~IIalar tb* ao« « ■ nn a^ «>lk Ibt And • ■■> I
,yGooglc
■^ttian(lHiivb>:lln^liuip4knail u Isglia, win I Udiaiidwt
•TL* ■SP"' •-?*»
Awt a^loL—Tbi BUit SBUuKi dHoHpUiia of icUiis ii -* ■-
SEAMANSHIP
npi, ">>><A. nAv Mae >itfr MMl. MpM^ i* «te> M M l» tt* ■■
AoaM ban tau lulTal baton tcnlu Khdi Ii > nmod Uma. a*
*'¥'''!!"' •*!■■' OBljlHing tanud lii UiiB ■Uaniot off imaMk
Bitea^ud«fllHKM(u>1»T*)ud lb> olbtr twu Id 1 ilinllH Duu
Quad bol ir two pin at nn, Uiwartin with Iwg lullogt. DBd tor luM-
hmil ptsdut^ JRwiTi, tnwl IxoluMn. uia inii tit ahroudA b> knp Ibt
•THOftttitnl^l^^b^olMi]^ ItlsnoIHRnoguImipanlaivM.
AhvAw ajini*.— Hull daUMi to tbe aboio, tnl dm ptn much diDrUr ihin
a* Mbv, er uoUht pint or np> ti ijilliBd iircu u in, totmliu a born-
M« wUk two keg W Dtad for tack-ropn on Solptlo miiiTTiaalcaUii
(•■• "iS "^[J"''' "* »■''«'■ nmnM pmiUDU. loin Jrtlin —Tin •tmiiSa
auaMiiftakntapnaamitatliiToribiipaoriaali. UalarinaDt tbaaEiuda
•ttn tutiir iHl EdiKiw ap Oia ncut aiia irttb U» aamaiioodliii (touid aC
tta othit pHt^ IKIna It AtiDl* Into Ih* nn till onli > bw Indus nmiln.
TlHt tka o«bac iMalB ■ tbalW uiniHr. ^an will then UHar two )«■
atnndah tbaaotniudslouudadiat ana on laeh aldZ^^^ ipUca la
■nedcaUf dJTUgd iato Ding datliKt paita : at aaeh Uig itrula an diTUaJ
ud at annapoiidlBg lutTaa kosUoil (/u ibovii « tin top of Dfr M) ind
wu4 fai twiaa. Th* bair aOand mar. If <l«lr«d, ba ttO] fnitber ndacnl
n* toiia apUoa alona la adaptad to numlng jvpn^.
An^ ti»(f4. M>— Paaa a atop at aocta dlataon rron aiFli tad ot tba
fnt • pnrldaa tlia twE on tba •'O'
tl* i«t • (iDTMat HukuolaDd i.^.«— o^uu.,
tba Bida i, 4. Altar tba knot tua baas wall itntsbad Uit
laM aooAlf batwttn tba tlnn<l< of tHa ibninil, and tirmly I
iht putt wUb a tlmlkr tn^^ir'i^ aa bXil , aUp ona !
n ai Iba tbosd (to kacp tba parta lontbet) ; aniT tun
UWrvwa put dinaliiE b^ila. Kaka a alnila wall knot wl
ilnndansBdlbaKMbi^iDdabmiit; baol tba knot l*u
ttawbola: Ibn baan dews tba M|bta gtoaa: KwUHook
abnadkBoL It la t«t Ikbla to aUp. IfOwanda b; wbleb tbawallknotan
■ada afttr Mil bora waia paBad tbnaib tlia 1*^^ It wnild inakt tb*
Itbot akouar. Ttia aada would ba lapcrad and aarra^
rmMlfi n^ u^-aaou« a mar or logda t— ■— ' -• ••■-
■spa lattadad ia^ rora Umafb tit tj« ; anlqr
an abottl tbnt lAam IGa ahcumlenncat at
nioh nM pitta t itnu wblppiac, Rilit
tba npTnftlBdly nidifaia ajIXrf bUid
M taot IP to tba eon H II )t fou-atiasdad
mpa, otbKwba br a fcv jaiu mfitdolnii
Ba,aataiisBBlTortwaIva placa of apon-ram
at tqaal dlaUnaaa on tba waod and anally
b£gtbonii«l
Si's
i^ [opaa Ira 7onipniicrl of ao maaj
over ita Vtgslt cu^ tlma ; a 4-liioh
va lania fioa tacb alda naar tba «cblra :
of auu-tan wUcb wan pkoad andar tba
tjr* b^af noBd lartoot parta to katp lb*
m bi alu^ wbtB takaa off tba apar, till
*' 'HMl bi tuna of laulliia hota do u tiot aa poaalbla, t)i
hi: It mai (ben be puceUad mn'
LO-lub lopa hu au rarna, tl
bair tba jania an bitcbad. tba Olban bala^ manly pawd ovar Tba ebiaf
nja cf Ui»4 tjrta baa batn u lorni tba ooJtaia of ataja, tba wbola ataT In tacb
caaa bavlnt 10 bt tofa tbnwflb l^^a rary iDcanvtuttDl davloc. It U alfliQit
ivp>r>adta for tbat pBrpoat 1^ a lag apllctd In tba atarasd latblni ar** abaft
Iha laaati lOr wbtcb H la ctiDAonrr laad at praatBt Tbli an li niA alwara
cailadbT tba wna nama. but tba wclBhl of aildanct la In bToni of olllnill
a Flaiaiiib aja- E^Tvnotf/'if fa, wblcb alaohaaaltamatlTanaisft^ la rOmadOf
lakiu ant of a ropa oua tltand lotigat by 4 Incbaa V a foot tban tba nqnind
turiitBoa Df tba Dna ttnnd, that Ib» at tbaaln of tba aya; tba ilofte aband la
lid baok tbronEh tba Ticant apaca U laTt till It arrivaa at tba nack of Ibo art.
wltb a aUnlbBTtnKtb of a^wa and lo Ota olhai two ttnnda. Tbay an ^
aflaad logatbcr, totapad, lapsnd» marltd. Bad varrtd- Tba prbwlpail vtilt
aa rpu-yirn boat tant nmnd tbt
I Ctom tba an to form tbt ooUaj ;
ma dlAlbsltdtqiallrnnadtte
CoUlv Blfct (He- i9>i— Two mad ta
of lama to ba bkaB. An nt la aptload In
tba UjH and tba and Icra ibmsC Iham-
pvt ;^vatuTad eantit nndar tilt ttUlDir :
and panlbaand t«ek tbivtiAh
(bimisb tba a^ Bacnn tba (
isar
Iha Adan moat be paaaad tbo opr«lta way Ui onliT lo toDtv tb* dbvrilDB
Wbcn tba ridan an mnaplata, tba end la Conad balaain tba Itat Vniar tutsa
and [wo emta tnm an BkaB. tba and aonUni ap wbm It want dowB, wbas
bt tBkan ofMa roond tbt ahnndp nnafSflrJaA— Two roptatr parta of rafiaH
anlaMonvab otbai ibbIM and iwlna t^tbi( itaillar In IM abon M
(«,ll.-lUt ta.wltbiAptTtBdrid]a(,tat»cnHtBni. AatbttwapHts
oTropt an Intandtd tannin op Bt H^ «tat to tba dtntttoa IB wblab tbiT
wtta taeutd, tbt aaWng abaidd be of atonttr >>^*j!nd '™^^^'"^^
tnuod tba aUaiunE nit. Uatd Sv (mint li) da>d-*T<a and mtoaalf. fbri
.'(■lilig.— CommanoeJ aUuUeiiy to tba abate, but It bH ntltbai ildlat b«
JtaeHa^aWM (flg. m-A "inniag eTt haTliiB baoa tpUaad itmid tea part
of tbe npa, tba iLu b ptaaad antjnl;r loond tbt oUw part, amated back muad
IDB to tbt txpeoltd alt
taarr bun btUu bon
tl^ ta podbla, I
taUnt tba andaortnoS
patla Into tba boUow It i,
DVBT loi Wban 11 raaobn p^^ 17.— Batldhg BTlibi^
tbit'l^i^ly. tba «d love nader K. u4 1 hilf-bltcb Ukca, wMeb wm tatm
^ib It balf tba alaa of bamp) and Iba tkd timtd ip nHwl t dad-tyi tC aay
, Trira Mialniit an BnttnUa. It ippaan tarr ■Bdoabiblt la bin win
riobu conUBtfwitb plata or anwt hr aanlB>It on aa la saa araeiidHt
-TtiSEai tbu of tbe inU lolB* OTtr tbt aldisTikiit or etUMcB InaUia IkB
iNa>Hnd£iK<(nn.n.B^~^n>ptB1iatba BnMd la feitt tbrnatn*
tbe knot la raqabvl tben, ud tba ahwida bandltd wnb ptal an In ktif
SEAMANSHIP
SSd ta dodlil* Oh HmlBd ilH or tba nph Ailiifl*ftl
■Bp-Uou noaH DB ooalu t
,»^- ,A*oiu^tt aid (0 IbB thlmbUJ And is itnldliad Into plKfl Iva JEntr ^
. nOtat In %tm Btm^ tvio nmul Uw niia brtntu Um blocli uirilu
blBtila ud bovoturt br ■ Bpulak MbiIUbIii enap Uh pull lontlKt rttit
K ttaa rtoaptfca of ■ imtirnnBd wliiii^ tha cnrnplng or pGichlag Into
mtboiMlBktHD^CBK Wlnnu«BdottiwtaMM,mill
MoiiitolMapTSHl!^|ilMia2.t£ — .
. ■"!y^.?'T*'Jftfr W^H»" opwiioB b«nHi IT vtaa ■
iptloc bda^ lirvuibt
■biipg li (OuUboi dcm tv naolili — ._ .
dooliTirt. TtH (tivp oMf U Slid! Uh n^ulnd Imatk lij ■ long qUco,
- On i8fa5(S.«<»— £So^°»l»Tla«»pt«e«rfinn»Bftt«Ji«li«Jia»
AboBt ■ EoDt men tbu thn* tlmia tba kDcu nqnind ■« tta Blnia. Elao*
llnc»tn<(llHnptniiiid th* liloek uTAlmtila; ibu« wlttcblUwlHn
tog^her: bAddrwtliastrud Ln Uit l^oalHui
DDiMr tKlTvo tailMrvittad ud patad ovtr VM usdn t^ :
MOHpirtoCllODCIpUU. AplHer-' n -_i.
rtUln In ihape, dvob wbioh iucovb a
uid If thno or mnluplti g( Uina (00^. -n » « — '• '<
OmUi Shi9 f^. ll>— lUde wlU OH pitet Of »», Uii
u QHWl to llHeniini or tha MDOk, t, thsUsliti Dct&iE lulu
koom Bine InobH u«rt, bnTunclDg to u» nppor part,
ibm wMeli Ui( Uiliubla nailna Ui> btfit* a, a ; >nl tbo
loor atitm at Out itnp m wnnd nth tla > looiid HtiiDZ
<i«iIilTcrgnd. IflblilaoklBBottlinonUtriihtilew
(tht iIhU Inrimtil otnrtls1)ft union tUrnhhli oud
Willi uolbit Mnpi wUeh pndnsH Uu deilnd tCM;
Uioa tlu Rr* ud rutin bOHt-lilKka, MU trt Inn* una
Uiln, an nqulRd Cllv ivpauooa) w Ui lurlBnitiillr : •
■ingW itnKi mind tha jijd TeMaair bu i naloii thImMa
donUa atrap li Had Ibr luga b&cki: IL ^m man up-
port to aa Bbell Ilun lh« alngla Atrop and admltH of
amaUer rnps Mna OHd. Wlra lopa b much oaad for
Iilseli4biipa: tlialtUii«lialDillir. Vatal Uoolu ara aim
cbalallLaTDMvlilehpaaabf Ibeniia wcU aa thcaa vhleh
£r;M0it 5(n^— Twlua, ropa-wn, or ropa la wirpe^
rwuKl two oc fflota tf plwaJ at U]a dailrHl dlitiDU
iH^alii^ am appllad In Hraral pljHaa to bindtha parts
(ofBttar bofOn tba ropa or twina la loimwoil troai tba
Mh artir vblob It la uaiM with nlCaMa matsriaL A _. ^ „ ^.
Ian* atrop abnld .b« warpad nuDd bar or all jwa la Fia. ^-Doobls
Dtdar to i^T* n tba ahape In wblab It b to ba bmc£ TUi Btrop.
diaarfptioii of itiop b uaeli atmifn and man avpplo tban npa at •i^nm,
liM. Xwlio ibepa (ixiTand with dnok) an uad for bomU thckt and Id
ilinllir plaeaa ngnlrfiig Miiliiiia. Bopa-nn and ■pun'Tani atniia an na«l
(w attaeUng laRisUM to ahionda and £r man; ilmllar punoaea. ToMpe
IDdaknndoTbamattbaeanlnDttliaatioptipiiaaadniindt&aRipaand tacE
paft cnaaad tbjaa or tovr Umaa bofbra '''"■'"g Iba " lulT" ; a apnn-yarn atop
aboTa tbaaaMnwUnianiiliUnntiiaaiid b yaij nwaaiaor flUi wire rope.
block-atnp being aaad,— whao Iha
(CUniX tha Baln.piirchue-bloilk wu
IwllbaHlnmoontalnlDgMparlBotl-Uiciinipa; thatwouW
fta In tba nack, aqnal to a bnablng iljmFa of in tma, which
IDT i^rU of a iff-lmh oihlD. Hie eatlmatad atrain It bore waa
SIocJirttormUiiaiTnniiilngrepeiara raada briBllotiig a nlea oftonato
a bolt or to a hoak and thimble, onlajlDg a or 4 laet, taperiiu It hr cattlna
away loiia or the yiru, aod marling It down lecsnl]', wllh a good Hhlpplnl
aba OD Ibe and. Icb >>^ br niUu a balf-UUb nmul tha rope iriiich b U
ba baulad spoil, dMalqiUie and np & Ibt tar. and koldiiif tl bTbaDd. Um
»» c» aoiH {hnn^K vkan iMMaad, bat oaiBot 10 bliiAr
IniMlaf inimtol(ii#,-Tba 1^ 5 eranr worldnc nipe fbonld at kart be
whlp^ tanvrent it hoAvoBt i fei Alpa of war and raehta tber an Innil-
doable atnpped '
pidduoe ui 1 — ■
auji MintedT^Wblpp^nBaoM bjr pla^ the end c< ■ r4e«^
toiltUa-itiiSoBiiapeaboinm bwhoom iSe end, taking t£na a
BalonTtt(inc1dBgtowuda tbeeoilli the twbia b thmUl' "
ugthwHi coataiT to the Onb lanTbig a alack Ught oC till
re npaaiadl> paiaad nimd tha npa D>nr tha areTend and
banaMtaaDalitolBtaina; thm hail the b^bt taot th
one and n( It eloo. To niliit ■ np^ pliea a good ■hleping a hw lachM
nm tba jodaeeoidlai ts die 1 opn sot &e end uUnlT ; l£3 lU the ostor
ami and twM Ibem into knlMH eltbir elu^i or tin w thn* Itr-"- —
!SK^T=J*?:P",i*"™"F»lI^™^^'*''»ll- Tumi™
seta ^tOa and aaenn the nmalodar down Iva tomoF tvlne era
re; ^^ ^•i^StSo'Sr'iJ.ir - ■" '??^ *^- *»lt
S^:
.the rope B^la
and tint torai
rtlMMgh^ffil
nailv TtebBltUeav
id hanlad Uirosgb tightlj,
th which the am ii out or
fomodlathilrondedDrlbg
epii6-^«»-™"5.,aii-Whii?i7b^r^!;^!£*„'s.'2,s
(canal to ■ atiwd) are taluB at a tlM (Dd tiAM ap : open the ende dS^
a, wanr rme which II b deilnHe to Uiorten. end tiUngi hair-hlteb
ana,mna,a. Iwfe-fiin ileiii a( (y ft an daalnUa to kaep it In i
iajiiiHraaeloiMher. the knot hanEffant. and the aodamt^*''™"
*« gHiitKto f^-kade of Uach npe. eaah pab brtng M fee* H lM«h.
with an qaqdfied bone Old, thni^wbleh thi^(br7»i« hignbetai
ptaedowmaendofthaaaihJlErnpab then ..^^JT^
»BadRiiiiidthe«n«ltaaMeefthawtaiid tn -taa,—.
hair-Utobea made riOi the «d, ftmlog another na-
al- - " -' ' rhlch an baalaa down tent ■> tha .
tl weight UtanlOramaneTeaaka '
n iM bof tUTdiKilptioB, thonahl
of thaaaAanapt padbl^iUBiiSt.
A abr^lteingUiiiBdaetafoiitt „
jki not fagathar, whUh Ohb kKAi ^^
U) ImOtr ta tha doabla itnp lapia. J~
ea haUAtalbUkcplasadnndar^ "°-
M e<«thabi|htia,an»alhna^tha«ib
■a kad-lhie an laUher at ^ A ud 10 blhoB^ wUta at t
« 1 IT, md bloa at IK Ihalu^K tha lead but aoaUr
in i-enllneewDeBeiiwnhtkaotialM^aBatfcarkBatbelig
ai bOioma, lad a dub knot at aaah tatenadiate <. Log-
Ui aip<e(tn]>Uiia(<U(bBabitwaeatba)i«4Upai>dthalixt
m •0f4Thataiida»aec«d«liMwena£niadtoaadiBiM*
3moe ipu» will not hUow of > 1 „ _~_, .™
^Bpte- onlr > linr of tiie mora impiuiut pointi wUl ba iKiticad.
T£« maiU mnit b« Hepped bafon thej in rijFnd ; acoordlnd;
v« will flret daKTibe tha mauMT in whldl tlwT m pnt on boud
in OHB where tlia uutuea of Oima on hulk a jatn la not
nTiilabla; at u oat-poct a Munan ii atUl laft to hit own rwnioaa,
jostubewatinranaer Kmn. FllinE tbo muta is ■ Urgs frlgita,
nub aa tbit ibown in fig. S6 belowTu • NrioDi eoniidantion, u
ths TTninmiat wdgba iboat twenty tons.
Two (iiitAble gpan mart bo pncored abont Umo-foutlu tha
length of tLa main-mut and abont two-third* lb diamatar,— tha
greater the homing ths Ushor tha ihMui. Tbej an towod along,
■ids 01 Under tha iteni with tha thiakar andi fotwwd, and par-
bncUsd over tlie dde or holitad in thronj^ the itom-porti br OHUi
ofa derrick, whichsm la moat oonvanieDt. Thaonallar and* an
rested upon ■ ipiir acron the gunnel at the Imak of the p
CToasod, a--" '—'-J -J"- -■ ■ ■ ■ ■'^
Inchsi) p _ .
retuniiiig with ii4ing tuna ii ■ raokiog laldn^ and iuimiiiI again';
the tome at the ezbema endi elionld not be eo tut n the oSoa.
"- ' be taken to iJica tba ee " " " "
wu ■ nor acron the gunnel ta the braak of the poop,
md laabedwitli rtrong weU.ibetekad np* (abont 41 or S
aaad flgare«I-«lght ftihion, oominenriiig at the oanto,
flt be eo tut n
ken to place tlH Sailing eqnldlitaDt frc_ .,-.,.. „.,„
eTCer thejr hare been trinuned to fit &t upon dies of atrang oak
pUnkiDg J tlwr wiU remain within thalr flUI apraad ij about 3
feat each ode till aftst tbe head aeiiing haa been aecnred T^-b a
tbreetold pnrcfaaae-bloek to the homi ibore ^a laiblno, to hiog
down clear nnder the creaa, so ai to oomapond with a twoftild
block to ba luhed to the mut If aneh blockacausotbenoaned
tup-blocki ma; be aubatitnlad for tha npper block uiil one on
meat, naarring tha fourth top-block aa a lead eeonnd to one
he iheii lags or near it' Two pnrtlkUM may ba oaed at the
a time with idTaoUge, one block banging on tha bm, the
r on tha after ode. A oid-line ia alao placed on tha bigbjtt
port of the honu to ueiet in canliiig the nui^ and another te
ihepnrpoisDr boistingapaman should ujthing tcqnira alten-
tion. The laahiog it tbe ahear-heid miut be ina pratfcted with
old canvas and all the decks mnit be aboied up In &e Ticinit* of
the places where the shear-legs atud for each maat. The Ie«
must be lashed together at the deaind ipnad and heal tackle* led
forward and aft from eeth. To form the tour head-guja the osntial
■0 bawsen ere clore-MMhad above the laufng and anead
. _, is convenient in foor directions and set up bj taekla.
When all is isady and the pnichase rove, the lower block ahonld
be secured forward si high is can be ; and, while the pnrehiaa te
beins bove upon, ■ light denick ta unall ehean lifting the ihear.
bead will gmUy asLst ; of ooune the after heel tacUes nurt be
well lecured. After the shear* an erect and the heals cleated and
lashed to tha abooa thor qui be ecoffsd about br the hael tneUes
end guys to any deeired podtloD,— the hole for the miseD-mist
is first plumbed.
The miizen-mast should be brought alongsida with it
id a sufficiently atropg lalvagee strop Isihed on the foi
1 Top-blQoki In large ■hlna mn M lMh» wTTrin.. qi-i..«>i. >.m>- a. ■L.ur
'^£:^'S^'^^J^.*^-- •^"iwa.^SX'^dSS't^la^
Twanty-twi^bicli bloeka and m g-leeh »» wnld brKt^la bniT tlill
eUp. £.» «H M-lndi «d o» sUaeh^MruodTh; taJ; vu^ ^
~".ng-lBehni». Tha ala or a Moek lm[U« the bagairthe *attK
S84 SEAUANSHIP
{•tDb«UM1ir«MpMilMMsdaMcin«M3i>ldalftwoiniued, I m now nnuDr bolted on li
and w h^ np H the tbmn will illow, tha limit beiiu ftum h«ol the sheir-hsid muit be ben. _ „_ „™„ „. .^ ._. „ „ «iii«u«i
to Inliiiig g or 8 bet led than fam the lower aide of t£e porcbue- | helgLt to act u ■ topping-lift As Ois mast li hors Dp by tb»
W:
.96.— Hm nwi u»I itaciBC oti M9U.I LOW bcmpnt; 1, telsttji, thn* Ttini t, >pflt-uU-nffl>, ptolMttu on MCh Mt ol the ''"■'i'". Ht
npia at ths aitniiiltC* si jll^tm ud lytM-JHuorij < JIMuom ; 1, ■urtiaole-ite'r, ud 1)3^ lE Oa Ijliii-jlb-uitliwla i •• tadi-nnea : T.
fljrbc-JlUui ; % tnHanMar, qplarJ'bxtar. ul kaljanli ; ■, (fm-b^^luiefUr, ^bMur, and hiljardj : 10, cm SMfrtop-maiMaj* lad bra-
fop-inaal ttrnj-ma baljaSt ; II, tba Ilaa-lap-biiwlliHa, ati^iptd lute tba tcp ud tm (Dn^tari ; 11, two Sjn-bi^ ; It, fOn-trnck ; 14, ftl rrnl laart.
nn, ud lift 1 li, tiip«inut-iiia«h jaML aad UR ; U, tanAapiaiit, toMill-TUd, lilt, tai n«t-UcUa ; IT, t»«-ta|i, fbctJIlt, ud tapmHAik ; is,
fDra^nait and IbraakroBd^ ahia pun; 1^ fOnAcata; n, fon^pUT; SI, Cbra-top-man liacli^tnja and top-vll-(n; n, rojal and to&^JIabt Hck-
-' — ' " * — ■ ■■-—.•. »— . ii^-»i ..* „._,^_ii— . j._. — ^-^. , '-iMopirfUaaeaa a»d
. Lt-MMM
— , and malD-tAi-bowi
-lojal-ataj mud mlxHn-ntykl-Drac« ; __,
"'4Uj ; t&, niliBn-(Dp«aU-bnMX« ^ SO, hanllpg j
~"'~-jaTd- tackle;
nqidnd ; in the meantime both the heel of the maat and the etap
ehonld bo well coated with while l(*d or ooal-tar. Lover and dew
aoeordlu to dinctfama&ani below; when the matt la ttepped and
broo^t to the denred
poaitaon, fbct tan
tamporai7 wedgea, rig
a triangl*, trka it np
by the giid-linea, an-
•tnmoT^aal dowih
unrig the triangle, and
hatdUw|ird-liiM*t«tit
amtlr an alight poai-
tion b; liat polliiig the
haal-ta<UM and then ■
thegnya, billing t]iap,„:„:Zst£io„^lKfl,t^i.l»wipritiiriu,«s^
tniTB forward one at a unpi* to ti» itnn: 1, lon-mf^BMxnttT. ]ll>,
nine ae liimiwij nia and itti ftrfl nil ; i, fon-gatrtap-faU ; 4. fon-
mata-man and the aail anJ nulnjbmjiS, nuin-jaff-top-iaUj «,
Ibra-maat an taken En "■•l"*" 1 '."" ""««»■
in the aame w^ aa the nlnen-maat, deaciibed above,— all three
abaft tba aheata ; bnl^ '"''% ""l^ longer, thej teqnira greater
hoiit and greater care geneiallf .
To take m the bowipiit the aheara are again mvred forward, all
the heal'tacUea being led forward and extra Inahll^ placed on Itia
heela. A prnvbaae nearly aa atrong ai that to be naed in lifting
the bowipnt ahonld be aeenred betiraen tlH fon-maathead and the
dMar-head,or twopartaofaatontliawaer may banned, the middle
baiog dora-hitehad over the homa and the enda taken roand
beama well a(t on either aide, reedy for Tearing aa the abeaia are
dnwpcd (to an ai^ of abont 4S*X then to act aa the principal
mnurt ; die fore-gora ate alio taken aft to anirt. The foie-mast
outside tho houiing,
wbida length. The mnln purcbaae ahould plomb nearly the length
of tba botmng outaida the bowt, and the higher the abeai^luBd
the greater the freedom of t~>/
motion. The outer pnrchnae
Bttocbed to a etrop through the
hole in tba cap and tht
from the cap to each cal
•like tend to forca in the bow-
■prit when it ia high enough ;
Meidee thji, a heel rope ia pat
round it before it learea the
water, and a atiop with a tackle
to tbB b"
ia hoisted to about an u^ of
4C° before the heel ia entered.
A rough aketoh made to aeole
will greatly fkdiltate rtoli opera-
tioBi and enanre aocceaa. When
a bovaprit ia put in by aheaia an
a hulk or jetQr. it ia boiated up
ahead of tba ibip nearly bon-
aonta), or at the angle (ateeve)
which It ia intended to uroma '
and the abip ia mored ahead _
toward* it, tul the bowsprit (
teis in tbe desired poaition.
Tba direotiona for msstinf, _
Urge abip are more thsu suffi-
cient for msstdng a sinall odj
which ia BO mach eoaisr.
Gammoning the bowiprit _ ,
the BKiat important point in '
rigging a ship, aa the stays of the fcm-maat and n
depend for aecority on the bowsprit. In large ships thMe m tm
diatinct laahin^ (of either new sbetclied rom or c£^) to kagplhi
bowaprit down ; thsy are paaaed in a rimilar manner over a low
saddle-Bhaped {deoa of wood called a pmmoniitt lah and thnn^
the holes in tiie head knees, the outer OMflnt OnaondiacQinehod
t« ihaeUed roQsd the boini^ OT^^iDia^pa^tir tlxfcolti Oi
naa and toHiaafr
, ., , It deHsMtht tta
Lub to vU& iha lialiiaai', t, ■>
Mi mnid UuMl halSa j r nala-
SEAMANSHIP
595
oChar, Mng ww (teongh ttie llt•^^■r^ of the bals, , ._
tlw bR idda of tb» fint turn on the bcntijirit and down ioiUla that
part ftnd befon tiu turns in tlia hole, thtu fonnLng a doabiB err'
ivith tha fint tonu outnil& Ererj turn b nt up u puaed
■"»»■»« of ■ pondant throogh ths h*ir»-|ilpc or bow-poit, and
block ia Mcnrad to the hola for tbe bobalaj's, which un attached
tbe ffammoiuiig by a aBlTogas at toggle, nud held xhlle the next
turn ia beins pUBM by ■ nckiOK Kiiing if rope imd by mila diiven
tlirongh tlia lioka iato tha fiih if chain. WGea the bole ti full ot
tnnui — ai^t or tan — the •bole ia flapped togodici ai tig'
possible, eoDUBeucuia at the lower part
Tha olothing of a bow^irit of i large iblp cansuta of nine
for ita oim MciirJty and tbe fbre-ataya. A babitay collar i
on St one-third the distance botwesa tbo nif^ht-haaas ejid the onter
extremity, and cloae oatddo it two bowapnt ahroud collara and a
fore-stay collar, then the second bobstay oiUar, two bowaprlt thrond
coltan, another fore-stay colkr, and the thini bobstaj colkr ; In
additfani to theae there ii a capbobitay, which sets Dp to a bolt
close Indda the bowsprit cap. The botauy and bowsprit ehrood
coUara are hore oa at right anclea to tha ipar and ninall; cleated
in that poaition. Bat thia cTeating ia a mietalce ; *■ the etnln
oomea npon each of them vei; obliquel]', it ie paoeeBaiT that thej
ahoold yield in thitt direction before the clcata an nailed, or they
irill ipre way and alncken the rope when it ia most required to Iw
ttnt. Bobataya an cut to the required length, .wormed and parcelled
towsrdatheeiidB,aadaerTed; thm are rove through
^tiTe holea in the rutwatei before beiiig spliced, which
- ■ psicelltd, and nrred orer^ and resta on the bui*
ftomtha
tlteil
Slice w oqivmi, parceuea, ana leiTea ore^ mm resu ua luv ijwu
tlie hwt wbra it ii aeind in. The bobstaya and bowaprit
■hmnda *i« set up by lanyards lialf Qw nominal A» If rope and
Oa Mine die if wm ; tha itan^ng part* are secured by tuaning
eyes round the necln of the ooUan aonBning Uia hewta, >ud ~ ~
■at np by t^ loBk, one acting npon the other.
The crai-lnea ate amyed up one at a time by tha tiro gird-lii .
whcaeonited action andsgnyon deck conduct tbemto their plicea,
where they drop into TacsBes and an bolted to the treetlo-treea.
'Wbenawbole topiato begot up it is placed abaft tbe matt (except
the minen) with the lower eide forward and the fore part nppor-
moat ; the pid-Unea are pawed under it, that is, before It, each
n Dp thionj^ the secoad hole &em alt ft
„ _, p ... ._e f\ittock-
Jtatea and Utehad bshtly to ita own part aa it passea the lubber'i
Die, wbidi Mrt ii also stopped to the bola at tlie fore port of thi
top. If U be B Iar» top each giid-Iine may be taken down the
fan (ondar) dda (aa Deton), rove np through the aftcr-hola tat tbo
fottoA-pUs, down through the lubber'i bole, taut np through
tha fofonost hole, and bitched to tha boiitiDg part, which is
atonied Brmly to the fora part, when a giid-Une leading from the
mut abaft la alaoatoppedaftw the and haa tnen mado last to the
teatn bole for tbe top-nil ; that ord-Iine ia to keR« tbe topdear
«f Oe tnstle-tn«a la It goes np and to aarist in placGig IL There
an ianni slightly dl0u«nt wiya of alingiog a whole top ; but in
all Olaea the gird-line blades (aHer the stop ia cut) hoist the fore
part HAar Ota tiemsslTt^ till it falls orcr them and hangs as
ntady horiontal ai aonld ba judged in ilinnng it. The final ad-
jiutmaat of it in itaplaot fa doae by hand, and then it la bolted
to the onas-traaa. The minan-top la put orer either in a aimilar
■"janner with a goy to the taffiail or aent up before lie mmt with
tbe aftet part nppennort, a gitd-line from the main -nust -head
keeph^ it olesr of the tnctle-treea, which project much farther on
tha fen nd«. Tops are taken o7 by tha nverac proeeaB i but it is
men diOenlt to get tbe hole back onr the mast-head.
Tops an now Tory seldom made in one part, but in two holvea.
Which is mon conrenient and equally aarticooblo. Each half is
CL np hi a aimilar manner to the whole top ; the gird-lines are
t on pndaaljr the Buna way, bnt one half at a tim^ which falls
■qun at ths aide of the mast when the atop is cut instead of going
"J" ,1» top of the mast Ailar the top b bolted, it is adruable
to hoist np Eba lower cap into Uie top while the whole space of the
iubbar'a hole is atil! fr», but not to put it on till aflor tha lower
nrainB ia fixed. The cap bdng placed near the mast with the
bolta doviwarda and the hole 6» the top-nust forward, boUi giid-
miea an tatoght down throng Ike Inbber'a hola on ths nms ndo ;
Uat which crosasd before the mast ia bant on to the lore part of
theiap,aiid that wbiehbilongi to the aide on which tha cap is
Irinriaoade toiling tbe after part birly and is then stopped to
lunn part, K that tUa iMt is li^atad np by both gird-lines end
«UliBthetop,wlian, thastopat theCenand being cnt, tht
cap hugi in brat of the mast and the muid bole csnlw ^ced
™av em tha space hetwean tbe traatl^traoa when tbe tOMnast
■ulcMiaBp. Aaoa^aoeefwoodcaUeds''boUaT"Ianu(latofit
zS r'."V' fbcmed V tke treatla-traa and tha nust on eacb aide,
2* "WW in pboe ao aa to preeent a onooth ronnded anriioe
*™R>Mnc)adiatanaaraqnitedfciT tha rigging to rest upon, and
■UToal lij a psddlDg of tanad canraa fi^ or bi parts thick,
"°™Byaioworiat-heBdedDaIla along the Qppet aid^ £«ah
■"tfaAdkrly pnitldad.
"*liatiaj b Bsndln^ tip tha lower riggiqe on tha magta it 1«
necesniT to rearrange the giid-lioM^ aa it la olniootly inconTouient
to hoiat the eye of a shrona o'-er the nuit and ailow it to f^ d.
over both porta of a heaiy ro^ which would rai^v'
np from tbe deck or rorora eirorj lime ; tbotefon
to the leads in ths trntle-treea for llie truss falls, anil a small gird-
line is lubed high up shaft the moit to be worked in ths to^ for
both seta of rigging. Tho atarbuani tackle- |<eudaut is pnt orer
first, then the port pair, next tha itorlxnni foreiuoat i«ir oi ihronds
followed by the iwrt pair, and to on allomately tiQ all llis ijironds
ate in place, emGiig with an odd one called a aicirter on each side.
liTga ships hare four pairs of (hrouda i ' " , . >
They ore all sent np in a aimilar manner
tbo treatle-tivc Li Boeurod to tho peodau'
tho ahrouda mora than thelenf^thofth -
AbehaiUed
: the lart^e gird-lino tna
-■■ ■ jiullBlon-f
by meauB of a strop with a ilip-ropo, to^le, and dowu-hnnl ; th"
eye ie opeaed to tbo bUnpo of the moat-hisid »nii the altet-port i*
stopped to the ginl-Uno, which iways it up lo the Inliber'i hols,
when Iho men lu tbe top bend the eye in tbe direction it is lo go
over the uuiat and make last llieii smalt gird-line a fathom or two
below tbe nizing, with a stop on tito aflor part of tbe eye, which
ia cut when the pcnitant or slinnid is fair for epian over tbe maat-
head. ^VhaD tlio shroud is over, each eye in hardened down hf a
large mallet callnl a "commander." Ronea ahould be roTethronj^
the titimbloi of the peudants and hanlnl taot when tliey an beinii
driren down; hen the "up-and-doit-u" taeklea ahDulif be hooked
to tbo abort legs (vhieh are forwanl), while the isng le^ an being
lulled abalt the mut and tha runuo^blockB laaticd to them foi
staying the mast by tha runnera. As each poir of siiroudd an pnt
Tor^ or bv 0
befora anotbai
Inff-Iackla i
pen tlicm. It ia ofve
lo keep each eye tsnt beroro others pi
„ through alipping out I
A i^ece of roonding made fast to a holt in the liouuda of tht
been stripped i
jugnp
ight
I Vfliy useful for keeping tUe back oi
tho eye down while it is beine mntto tact, by teeviug the short eyr
end np through the eye of the shroud and hooking a burton fhna
tho deck to it, which >a pullod upon at tho aame time that the
ahroud is act np on tha other aide of the ship ; when liniafaed, that
C' M of rope win be jammed. Tha lower stays, after they hare
n complclily fitted and the hearts hare been tnmed in, sf
aloppcd together one over tbe other at tbe fork of the ocllnr, at
the sidea, and at the eyes. The gird-linoi, having been put back
to the mast-head, are sent down tbrongh the lubber's bole, ouo
crossing the fore aide of the mut, and an bent to both atayn below
tbe fork of collan and atopped to tho eyes \ they aro tbns swayed
up near their places the respective eyca being luhod together by
rose - lashings low down OTor tbe eyes of all the ehrondi. Thr
hearts ini then canned forward, the fora to tho hearta in collan
round the bowsprit and the main to hearts prorided for tho ]iurpo«p
near the farnpaxtncn, while tha collara of tha stays an snapenda)
from tbe fon-port of the top, the collara being eosoj down oa n-
quired to presorye a Htrrught line between the laahliig-eyes and lh>'
point where the stay ia set up.
The following ia the raetliod employed lo set np the ri^dng oii
the mosta. It la fir^t drawn forvvni-d by the runners and ticklii
(laahed to ths long lege of mast-hoad pnJantB, which am Uslicd
together abafl the moat) till brought before tho imilion it Ix
intended to atand In, aa the etroiii of the alirouda trill dnw it of).
Many seamen recommend, iritb reason, that a atroiii nhonld br
brought on the aflcr-sB-i flora while it ia being Ftayod, to krcp i:
mon firm. The propriety of n-cdgiog the mast before tho riggiiy
is set up may be considered an open nneation ; it was considcreJ
lubberly forW yean ago, but ia now the eomnion [^^ctice. The
lanyards of tho atayi an in proportion amnltcr tbsu iIioko of th"
■hrouda, nneo many more tunia con be passed through hcorU Iban
tlirongb dead-eyes. The sCaniling porta an mule font round thi>
ooUar or strop of the lower heart by a running eye i the cnj is
rove np through tbo heart in the stay and daun through Uir'
lower one twico and the alack hauled through by tho eail-tockic,
which must bopnviouBly aeonred for that purpose rouuj the lower
mastrhead and hung over tho foro-nart of the toji ; or the two top-
bnrtons may be used, one for each stay. When tho slack of tho
lanyard is throu^ and racked, the double block of a lulftaekle is
attached by turning the bight back orcr a togglo or glut, as ilingx
— rBprtaanteJ in fig. 18. Than a solvagee strop is pa«cil twice
id both parts below the bight t (when tbe liguro in turned np),
brought np on tho side of tbo arrow, and hooked to tho luff. A
oat's-paw, as shown in Bg. 7, may ba naeJ with a glut nkccd at «
lo keep the parta open, clherwiao a large roiio ifould be injured.
The single block or the luff ia " '
lo keep the parta open, clherwiao a large roiio !*(.-_
The single block or the luff ia secured to the atay aa high np
It will reach by a long donbla-tjiilin! selrageo, which is doggi
sofUy
igge.1
first, but tarminslea with close-ta... .
}. Can most be taken to pnvent kinking the ropo,
it ia wire lif hemp, it should bo paroelled tr —
Bier yinia. The &li of tlw Ir" = *-■' -"
SEAMANSHIP
Ufl#«Bidf flat _,
lad !■ tfM (U(mU«i of th* >t» ! it b pulled cp i
of Uu lujiidi hkrliig bMD wall taind to mik* Qmb iGp thn
jMd) nd tlw Mll-tMkU bU
>t» i It k pulled cp MMdilf . the dIm
L wall fund to mik* Qmb iGp tlmn^
Osbaiti. vhiU ttur u* alia ^iduii op bir Uvsr- ^>-— — -
eM«^ m laojud li mntnlT eaiad to tbt nul
tomNT^ Mti^ UMl*Bl»d, nil the MXini in the
Umb ridlu tomi in tikra. Wbibt the £nt ndlnc ton
been the aatSa, all the — '''"^ on the liujude ihoold be ou
' aad oUun pot m when aeoh pert be* tikan orer ut vmd itnln.
Aftar tte Hdhtg lonii en eompleted, the end of the lenjeid b
noand bj m dore-hileh and * miiafr When then !■ sot a nQ-
tidd* I bog lu> mn b« niad in a dmilar meuner, the d««ble
Uaakbalncnoand abora the riagli block ot the otbat IdC It
ii iUlnU* that both tUn m the maeti ehoold ha art op at the
ia«a Ibat, bat It ia sot imperaliTB i can ahoold be taken that
A*r ■!■ eqoall; turt.
A lanjacd for tigging with daed-eni !• half the nominal tin of
nf atuooda and So aama oiia u w&e ligglng. The knot Ea Iwide
ondv tlw and of Am ahraod, or ia fint ipiiced to a bolt tn the
Alia, aid IhHi ran dmogh that hole ) it is rare Ml befbn
It up. The mait baring been atafad. ln& an
lod* with the dout^ block down ead bnw^t to
uH lanjuu B anDTe deeoribed ; fh» BMnd-dom tackle fttmi tb*
naet-blad paodaat ia aeeond to tiie ftu oT tba luff b; a wtVpiw
and ebop ud poUed up tin taat •noogh, Qie foiemait iluooa on
tbe ataiboaid aide flnt, than that on tin port alda, and to on
altmiaMI; tiU tfaer an ta omAj twt alike (the aflariwiften not
qitte ea butt aa the othen), which la beat aeoertainad b; an
experienoed man ahaking than ; If the dead-eTca an not aqnan
(arao) whan *"*'''*^| It la lai batter to tun tham in aftaah tlua
tb ha*a en aneonal itnin on tlu ehrooda, ■ a pair of ihroode
wafB aet op at the aanu time it would be better for the eje and
the eeiilng. Tar ihonld be need IMal; on the lanyarda aa tlia^
enter the dMd-«7M, whether tber an of Iran ot wood ; it eanaei
them to eUp qnlte a* wall at jneeaa and preaema th* rope, wliilo
gnaiae (aaan U to deoar. Aa lanjanta an tailed to the next
part till a doT« hitoh la taken above the dead-evs and the end
■iliad down ; th* pertt af the lanyard ihonld tban be made to
bear an eqnal attain, aid afterwatdt aeiied together l«t uij part
ahould be tnjarad. The numen ahonld ba' kept Uot till ereij-
thing it aecDied, than eaaed op gentlj, to aiaid atnining the
matt. Lower matte ganenll; un an Indinatiaa to bellj, — ia.,
band alt Space will not admit oF detalla being dTen at to the
variout parti ot the riggbu ; the main prindplat follow the linet
of dut which hat bean flnadj tatho' hllr daaotibad abon.
The (op-mait ataja and rigging era tet np bf meant of top-bnrtoni
■nd iiggett, tiM top-galDmE-riggiiig and Oat of ill amall vaaala
bf Uggan ud light ippUaneea.
The lowet oapi wen ntrooitd to hart been iwajad np by the
Ad-lina* ud placed in pouuon to neetTC the top-maati beton the
wwtr riggins wii pot ortr. To fix one of thtm in ita placo, let a
top-blof be noiited vf kahed to tlia nait-head oloae bebiw tlie
aqnan on which tbe cap ft to ittt, on the Ma aoltahle to the thtara
In the top^mat ; dinMi^theblockteeYaa«dtiblehawaer(>inahia
Ibr a laiga ali^) ; aend tlie tan and down through the tqnara hole
bttween the trtatto-lnei ; lur italong the top-mart (the apan one if
allowed two) 1 nere it thnogh Oa Uva theaTa in the haal ; and *" "^
it raond tht bead of the top-matt and luwaer, learing oontld
end; alao place a good laaUng nnmd the Biaat-llaad and tlw
ing-part oC the bawwr'tod aeite the two part* ot the hawtar to),
abont half-way op, atrong enon^ to Mir tha wnghtof the mart.
If the top-mart be mnoh longer than tiie apace betwoan the deck
and the tnatle-tne, tbe Uihing mart be placed low eaon^ from
the btad of tha mart to allow it while impended, to pnjert
abon the top oalaid& while tha bad It gnlded down tht tuln
batdlway or Ibce-ecntue. The capattn it <uad to iMare the mut
np; wluu it ii pointed between the Inalle-tiBea, tunave the laihing
nuid the hnd, and if Undad— i-«n rertlng ita weight oa the deck-
make the end of tiie hawnr bat round the matt-bead, tha hitch
biiu CD tha aide oppovte to tlia block, ud eaat off th; raokins
laihln^ leaTinn the maat ready to be bore np by the two parta M
tha hamar. u not landed, baiTe np 9 or » feet bafon tecnrisg
the tnd of the hawaat, ao that, when that haa bean done and well
eeiaedi the e^atan may be moTod back till botli porta beeir in equal
■tiain ; tht noUng can than he taken off without fear of a jeik.
After flu head of the top-maat hai been bore 3 or 1 feet through
tike holt in tlie cap, it la aacnralT Uabad. oouuneu dug with a doro-
hitch tDund tiie maat, the udi being paeeed through the bolta
andar tha cap on one aide and repealed on the other, ao tint It
will be ton to hang horiionlallT. Roaie lonnd the capatan tDl
tile cap it aboTa.the lower maat-taead ; then ateer it hj maana of a
handaplka or capatan bar in the fld-bole, while mm In tha top
^am tbe bead of tha top-nurt by handipikea, till the hole In
tha oap ia niujtljp orer the ti|tura of the mait, when by moriug
baok the outtaa and beating tbe cap down wiUi a oommuder it
win fit Iralj In ita place.
If tiM bMl of tht t^mart nrta on Oa deok Itlan th* htad
b bm ban (he taatl*-ttM% It k •■ wD to lower It dmm to OM;
po^tiOB i bo^ if it it too abort to nrt thtt« Am np-and-dawK
tacUaa mart be ntad to ttunnd It by itnna throng the U-lxdtt,
while the tcfi-bloi^ k b^nc --^r*—* aM he^ed to (ha aller-
bolt Bied tat that pllrp«ta& tht aap and tiie aid of tha hawitr
aeonied to the fi>einort bolt on Oe opporito lUe. In higt thipa
a ehon k plaoed andar the faco-part of tbt cap to tnp»rt tha
weight and raalrt a pottibk blow l£sm tha top-eaiLntd. The top-
mart may now (anleB it la blowing hard) be iwajed tight op and
Idded to BOTO that it will fit whan nqnind (an allowance Mi^
Bade br the wood iwelli^ with mt], and tent on djA in ai-
ahaog* far the oUiir maat, whkh whra awajred iboTa Aa lownr
oapwiUharea^id-Uiiab^hedToaiid the head and then benked
I» w W ket mon. One pert of the gbd-line ahonld be Mot down
abaft all and bant on to the kn-part of tbe top-mart eroaa-trMa ;
by thia, aaikted by a guy, they can be awajed np Hn aboralha
lower aapt upon which tha tftar-part wHl rort; aacuraly lathed to
tbe bolta to pnrent It allpfdu^ whUe the fcm-part will kan
^iurt the ti^nitat at luidi a uatanot aa to aniun It Uling fn
the ri^t poeition when the top-mait k lowoed and to laotdre tha
head at the mart between the naatla-treea aa it k avaied np again
to a oonvenlaut podtion ibr leceirlng the rlgrinf^ llie ligghu k
iwajad np by ^rd'Unat on the uroaa-beaa, a^ put orer In •Smlltr
lianner to the lower rlg^n^ the top-hnrton pandanta fint thn
the dirouda and bukataya in ancceaalon, and the ttayi ate kibad.
Tbnt k DMially a ohain nefclaee TDimd ia<^ top-maat-head, luk
in the boliten ; one leg of each k Ibr the top-iaIl-ty« banging-Uock
to ihai^B to, and forwaid then an two other le^ for £e Bb-hal-
Tirdt and Itv^top-maat ttoy-aail-halTanl& After tha rlg^g hat
been placed orat the top-maat-head, the cap k aent up by two gjid-
liue« lathed at high at poaaible ud bant to tha Dnemoat put o(
the cap, frith ttopa to the aner-boltt, by whkh meena It goea m
befbra all. with the nndar-dde towirda tha maat ; when it la UA
enongh the aftw-tUpe an eat and it lUdea np en tiie }op e( ua
maat iHletad by man at tha maat-faead, who En it orar the tqnan
aud iMat It down. Dinetly the top-mast k in poeltlon to lecoi**
the rigging the top-rope peuduti an roTa and the tacklea tecore^
fitat one to raliara the bawter of tbe weight and than the other la
ita plaoB. Copper fnnnek an aomatimtt naed to reoaln the top-
maet rigging, aunilar to tboee for top-galkntmaala.
Top-pliant and royal riggtng la tomatlmee ttrlnped of the anrloa
and ooiarcd with eauTaa, which k afterwaida palntad, (br tlie anka
of neatnen : but the durability of the npe k thentnt gieitlj
leaeened. Another bad practice k Qiat of taking off one of ue top-
pllant-backitoya, thaniiy directlj diminiihlng tlia Kippoit. But
worta ttiH k tht trick of lonniog tha vjaanf rigginginl baekitayi
In two aaiiin^ the onda of eadi n»a gdng to dUltoaBt ddaa et
the ihip ; th[i glTee two eyat orar the mart liiileail of fanr, and
makaa arerything dapend on the itroigth of tiie "iWrg^ It k HOW
a veiy common ptaoooe to oroat the top-pliant rlQ^i and t«t 11
upon oppcalto tldet of tha top, intteed of rae«1iigtt throof^ the
neoklaca ou (lie top-mart and tatting It np en th* md* dda.
Tbit ia done tntiiaty tor the Mk« of laTing aecondt to ddltlilg
the ^ai^ aitim (he top-alknt-mut or tht top-matt Bhnwk
to treated glre no tupport to the maat whatanr ; pobabh they
aet lnthateTanaway,aini^beee;ril7ahownby dramngaibal^t
Una to repreeent the aiiati when atauding avi^ ud Unai in
rough proportion at rl^t an^ei for tha top and erpm traea Dnni
the top-giiUut rigging on one alda tram mart to uiuea liae and
thence to the oppodto aide of the top. Th* top-mat^ htrlig a
littk pky in tht oap tnd rt tbe bed, k bound to go orat lome
InchMat ttw had, takiug Oie cfON-ttee with it; it w" '^- '^-
yard oo board raqnitel gnat can to iToid inhny
to the huunoek netting and other thlno. Span tboald ha dang
orar tlie dda for it to rob againat and ^p-rerea throng th* porta
to eaee It onr the gnnnd. If it k to b* liouted in on tha port-
dde, the itarboanl yaid-arm k towed Isnmoat A haweet mn b*
rare throngh the port top-block down thmudi the Inbbar'a hok
andbant Touud tbaoutnof Iheyaid. Tha batch of tbalnbber^
bob mart be open and a ttrong mat proridad. Inrtetd id tilt
hawav th* iaan tnay b* partkUy rare, the ttanding part *--*--
aaeored to the yard, and ako tiia aall-toekk fion the lop-
I the atBrbDanlTard-ann,akoab<lrtoBli<ni thaftn-mart toiha
iain-yaid,orbomthebowtp(itif kka fon-yaid. Thecapatoa
ad Jean wJU baaTS up tha balk of tin WN^t, whik O* otte
icklaaeantltandeateit aerota tbannneL A dtrrhi k K —
timaa naed to keep It offthediip't aide. TThM a JJp H ilrmgddt
a Jetty, a guy tmta a •tnmg-hold U then Taanera* all diSaoIto,
ud a Ikt toward* the aide at which tte yard k eealng in k dub-
able. Lower yaidi an nanalljr rigged wbik inliag aaav** th*
gtmnd s 0>*1 an iwand op ^ the Jen^ tad ahmg wl& tboog
dialna— tht part mond the yard balag coniMoted vlU flwt tnM
tho lower mait-haad bj a tragn* im dip. tSm fnl* aawt b*
AMANSHIP
fi9^
pnoibd fr«n eutlng fermid wia Oi might nd dn( of tha nil 1
■Doordingl; tlu illiigl, aitba cbdn or rope, ihoold ba pot on irith
th« bight ooming up th* ton aids (ih Rg. 18, irhen Uia uroir
indlcitaa tha fan nda and tha dtrectiDn the nil pulli} ; iIkt in
gananllv pat oa tha 1170112 mf. Uatchut ihin an iuTarublf
fittad (nth Inn bttaaa«, vtlch an flituna on tha mast, holding
tha yard *t tha nqidlit* diatanca and acting a* > nniTarail Joint
Thar tn of grakt adrantaga vhan than ii not a Urga enw,
Whila tha rising ii prograanng tha diapoaitiou of all haavy
wrif^tt ia worthy ot aenona attantign ; for not cmlj ought tha
1 'o he bKmpht to tha dnoghl and trim daimed bj th<
baildor, or that which hu b; experieaoa baail toDnd tlia beat, but
.»!.-. ,-■« ^^ K. .~, ^„,i, .< . .._ -_. pjft^ eapscullj the
kr ataamiog rapidly
: any one part, eapeciilly the
_.. aallinjf or itaamio ■■"-
1 of Tjtal importuica ; the bowa and stems of
schoonar yachti ihoaid ba empty. Placing tha weights
winga of the hold will ateadj tho rolline motion uid make tha
intenale longar ; bnt this majr be oartiad too tu for atabilily, —
eipecially it the veiaBl haa ■ low frea-boenl. Weights low down
closa to the heel will iniiuaa atibility at the aipensa ot ■ quick
nnnay jerkine motion. A yacht which ciniea mncb balUat
low down will be raiy stiff nndercuiTu in9 msy nil well in tha
Solent, bat would ba unfit to go ontaidatlieTsla of Wight- When
heary weights an curied in mercluDt ship! u put cargo, thay
ahoDld narer be placed sa ■ aoltil nuaa ; nilway bar^ for inatance,
nay ba stowed gridiron bshion a toot apart, by wbich mauu they
will oecopy aa much space and act npon tha ship in tho aame way
M an aqoal weight of proriaioD cului
Belbre banding aaila all the ropn are roTB nady for nwL Aymcbfa
aails if Daw ahoiUd be Bcrabbed, to take the etiShea out of^tham.
In an caaas they shonld be set when bant and the ysrda braced
each way (unlets it i* blowing too hard], or then is e risk of soma-
thing going wrong when they ara raquirad for osa. In setting
them cars ahonld be tikaa that no part le stretched or girt ondaly.
Tlla ioncr end of s chain cable is nsuslly eecimd by s tongne-
alip and by a short piece of cable which paaaea roand the tntat or is
•hackled to the keelson 1 it still ntsins the name of "clinch."
The longna ahould not have scope enough to
1 it haa been known to ' ' ' ' ~ '
B^Dod thing to trica ,
that it will be Boceaaible at all times, either for shpping, ^
snoChar eMt, or bending a hawser. It may ba thought that e
chain cable would run into tha locker and stow itself, but that is a
mistake ; if care u not taken to apnad it evenly, it will form a
pyrsmid with tuiia raond the baao, upon which tha upper part
inll tall aa aoon as Hie ship leans over ; it will lien be neoatnry to
■I small bight* bafore tho cable will ran clear.
hsul up serersl small bigh'
A ship should ueTBT lii
!.._- riablo winds, for fear
r fouling I
te-wsy ot
r anchor and thereby
1 by dose
or their anchors A long acope <yt able will only kee]
of bar anchor during very li^t winds, onleaa Bade
attention and correct judgment on the pert of the eeamsn. ine
lUrection of the two atnama ot tide ahtmld be coosidered in cos-
anchor each time she panes it A strong wind blowiog across the
direction ot the tide snd acting on the hull ot the ship will secure
that effect ; but when the directions of wind snd tide are the asme
or nearly ao, precaution is nocesssry at each turn of the tide ; it ia
Chan that a buoy watching ovei the anchor is of great aerrice.
When the wind and tide are in the suua direction the helm ihonld
ba kept orer to that aide which will csase the ahip'e head to point
in the direction on which aha has prenoDsly passed (he anchor, sa
the bight of the able will l>e dng^g that way. The force of
the tide alone will cause her to ahoot over considerably ; but whan
she is sssistad by the fore-lop-msst etsy-ssil (or stay-rors-Bsil in a
small v»el) the sheer will ba much greater. The aheet in either
case is better to windward and the fore-top-eeil braced sharp aboi
if the wind ia light ; bat, when Che tide commences to chsng^ the
■ail should be dlowBd to £11, or it should be taken in and the helm
placed in midahipa. If anffldent effect has not been produced by
helm and head'oaila before the tide anda, tha mioen'top-aail ahonld
be BBC aa BMn aa tha ihip talla head to wind, Snt bmced aboE to
tiun her stem in the deaind directicin snd than flat *l»ck so as to
djag the cabla atiaight Cuttaia and ■bhoonan have not that ad-
vantue ; they most depend on the helm and head^nlls. AC the
end of a weather tide the hslm and Btsy-aail will guide tha vessel
psst tha anchor. If a ship shonld break her sheer mass the wrong
way), or during calms and VBjiable winds shonld approach her
anchor, the cable ahould ba hove in, and if there is reason to sna-
is of the anchor It should be sighted, since iC will
. an anchor if a turn of cable is round Che flnka
When anchoring the atate of tha tide must be considerad in con-
SMdon with the depth of water ; a vHsel wes once taft high-snd-
drj by the abb-tide naar Dunganan, and a large Iron ahip drove
peetlh
be of 1
The avoidance of tha anchon in ahalloir w
form '
r ti uathai rouon
ahip ia in an axposad pnllion, where it mar bmme
neeeasaiy to let go two or three snchors through straM tt weather,
in any part of the northern hemisphen, tha bonr on tha port aiiJa
shoold be used firat next the foremoat one on the itorbbaid aide,
and sa a third the al^ one on the etRrboard aide, unoa the DrdinilT
wind veera with the ann, and at the end of the gala the (xhlec will
be clear of each other. In the southern hemisphere tha terens
order holds pxd.
When s ship is likely to remain many days at an anchonge
where then is a tide or variable winds it is better to moor at ouco
on airival, with a acope of cable each way liK or eight ttmes greater
than the depth of water, snd an open hawse (owirds the worst wind.
The two csblcs combined ahonld always be murh In eiceM of tho
distance between the anchors, othenrise they will poasess bat little
strength to reiiat a recUugulsr strsin, — en error frequently com-
_:.».-i -m. . .. -ipport which tables will render under
cuHLaiueu uci^ween ine aociicr ixod the ship's bow snd a line from
one snchor to the other. Suppose, for aismple, a ship moored with
Bochois east snd west of esch other, 100 latlioms apart and having
Si lathoms on etch cable, in ID fstboms of waler. With chain
cables the hawse pipea would not be mon than SS fathoms trma
each anchor, consequently with a aonth wind ttie support given to
the ahip by each cable will only be 3S per cent of the strain on the
cable, — that ii, say, M tons combined ithen the cabiea an itrdned
op to IDO tons each. The support increases rspidly as the cable
is veerad ; sn addition ot S fBthoma each way trill (ander ikt above
dicumatancea) give 101 tons, snd a scotki of 80 lathoms each way
will give 1E3 tona la practice the cables by dragging over the
ground, especially Botl mud, sssnmasdirectianmon^ead, psrtint-
uatancea will b
larly when each cable haa a long scope. Tha snchors ahonU ba
E laced sufficiently fiir apart te-prevent looling with the alack chain,
ut not Csrther, unleaa the water ia too ahallow to allow the ship
to [wa over her anchor at low tide. Such in anchonge ia not
■uitsble for very long ships unless epecial moorings an provided,
tor which purpoae l^rlus mooring -blocka are very euitable and
inexpensive ; they are commonly need in Portsmouth harbour.
These blocka are recommended aa moorings for the use ot jschts
snd small craft, aa being trustworthy and leea likely to be stolen
than anchon of any kind. Should 1 ship that is mooted with a
good acope on each cable have the misfortune to part ons of them,
her position will be preferable to what it woold be it parted from a
single snchor, is the bight of csble dragging over the ground will
ES of veering
will fiU off
cable c
be let
should be done so freely
the wind, when it may
fstboms, or even a tew feet at 1 time, tha aldp not being alloweil
to get inv stem way. Veering during a aquall should bs avoided
if possible ; it should be done in time, before the vio.^nca ot Che
squall is felt ; but if *' >s intended to pay ont tnely till bnadnde
on, the head.yards should be braced abox to taiisC end another
anchor should be ready. A cable ihonld never be sscoied entlRlj
by the bitta or windlasa, but the compteaeoi and deck atoppsn
should participate in the etrain. When unmooring, the tlilli«
cable ahould be veered freely to allow the ship to gat directly over
the lea anchor : it it is embedded, stopper the csblii while vertical
and heave on the other, which must break it ont
The laboriouB operation of clearing hawse ttu niidgated or
avoided by the introduction of chain cables and the invention of
the mooring swivel. Ah the cablea unshackle at every ISl or IB
ttthoms, the end to be dipped rauad the other cable need not bo
long. There are two general methods of holding the wei^C ot tha
lee cable while the turns sre taken out Tha sunpleat & to have
a light tongue tlip to take the flit link, but only aboat one-tenth
the etrength of the cable ; in a targe ship it ahould have a roller at
the top, so that the and of a hawser may be ,to*e and form a
standing part The alip being fixed on the leecabls rloss shove
by the foie-bowlina, ot else by a rope from the bee* of the be
rops beiug also attached tor hauling it inboard again. A
best shonld ba In attendance from which to datach the hot^-rew
from Che end ot the cable, paai it round tho riding-cable, and make
it bit tg^ to the end ot the cable (han^ng by the bowline) (or
hauliig It back throngh the hawse-pipe ; thus an elbow is fonned
taat round the liding-cable in the nvene direction to the elbows
and turns below the slip. That opeiBtion most be lepnted till the
sams number of turns i* formed above ■■ below the slip, — obaerving
that a cross cannot be nmoved, buC the lee cable can be hraoght
under the other. When tha cable is tant In and abadJed, tha clip
is knocked off, which illows the tumi to drop clear. The cablea
will then be as thn wan when moored, with tha addition of on* itf
SEAMANSHIP
SSiT
rill euSce
e of paper n
isB, vith two
X thfj are «ulj cleared LDbaud ; if then ifs toMnj
i._i: .11 „.i,. jjj niodoratoly doep water.
- "■ - to alack mooring is that tonu are
ij an not vUibre. To mnt thia
■esonting a ship atuclc to tha glass
iTetEntlf folonifd threada attachod
Sper anchon or inBarted into cuts at tha edge of tha card,
B directums the aricbara actually bear from each othor, will
npTMent all Iho tnnia which tha ship makes with the cables.
Thare an Ttriom waja of patting on a mooring-swivol, bot
doing il inboud ippaan to be tha tuest and easiest Fint place
It in tha riding.cablo by shickllDg tha tiro ihort legs of the iwitcI ;
leara the two linked endi for the second cabla, the end of vbich
being haded out of the hawse by tha bowline ia hauled iulo tho
•ther pipe by A hook-rope and shackled to tho outer long leg ; the
itoppet jiut inside the hawso (which had been holding Uie noight
oDttMani of the laa cable] Is then slipped and that hawse-pipe is
left clear for hanling ont the inner ujd of the lee cable, which it
hauled in tha other side and shocklad to the inner (upper) long leg
of the BwiTsl ; it then becomea a bridle. There ato thus Uiiw
Krtsofeablainthathawse-piiM ; the last, having no weighl^shauld
stopped her* and than to the othon bo as to be carried out as tha
mini la rearad Icwarda the water's edge aud tho bridle have np
■quue. Shiu eoostmcted as isms take in butb brldlaa on the
nma >id& A mDoring-swirel should always bo taken off bj iint
hearinir it inboard. It moond verr ilank. tnmii mm form h '
ken off bv iii
lay form bolt
nrirel and tarns may be hove in t<^thcr. If it^wcomu daairablo
to jpnt on a nooring-BwiTel whan turns an in tiio cables, let it bo
pnt on over them ; they will soon shake out One of tha bridles Is
aometJmes taken olf the swivel for the sake at clearing Uiit aide of
tha deck i the enur ia obrioua on considering that tha itnngth of
the span, an!! the nip ia the hawse-pipa is always tha part most
■anrely tried. Tho importance of frequently white-leading and
madng all cable shackles and enireb is o>ious, bnt, fiains
fronblaKima, it is much ntujlectsd. The bow of a cable ahackle
doold always be forward ; if the reverse ia the case, tho shoulder
tniy strike tha nde of tha hawie-pipe or get lammed under tho
eomprssKW. The shape of a ahackle bolt shonld be snch as to pre-
rait it entering the wrong way ; thay oftongohalfw^ In and jam-
It la donnbla that evsr; nwal should canir anchoci aa lane as
abe ma stow and worit ooDvanisiitly, and cablss to corrsmoat A
wwden-atoeked anohor is lifter when nnder water than an iron-
■tockedoneofrimilar holdiiw power, aitd Ae wooden stock ia lasp
liable to fon] when let go i lal Oa dnnUll^ of inn ha* neuir
rendered the wooden stock obsoleta The oU-fiuhioned andor
with long shank, fluke, andatock had gnatar holding power and
oertaintj of grip than the more compact dunpr anc^ar now In
common use. Backing large anchora I; smaUar one* ts now
■aldom pisctised, except tfben vsawls are on ahoie and tha auJur
Is laid out on a tandy bottom ; it is genaially bcttBr that each
anchor abooIdlUTo its oun cable and ptRNHtioDate strain. list-
inc anehon were formerl; need to keep ibi^ bow* np In a nle ;
tlwr Tare nude of iron ciuabtra and thrMW fnrr ttilrkiiiiMiis iif
Btamg oanvas. or a spar with a heavily waited sul, ncnnad
with a stoul hawser ; snch a oontrlraneB nught fteqnantlv b« im-
proTOd and ustd to prevent a boat or nnall Te«el (rSn fhSdeilDft
"^™''' '■"' ^ lost m sand or soft nnid altar having Unw
r be barred entinlj, when it can only be
^. .-,- - c-rr— rt tn« chain, if that ia of sofficiant length,
pia IS best dona by a small anchor with a bar of iron to awat the
rtock and dragged hy a long scope of chain. If the anchor is on
ordinary gronnd and only sunk aa bi as tha ahank or a Uttle mon,
as shown in fig. SS^ it ii easily reoovend whsthet tbera is any
cable on It or not Tha full -
length of a hawset strong
enough towsishthe anchor
riunld be naed as a sweni,
with a boat at each oS
pnllii^ my slowhr or diot>-
ping with the tide, in tha
ravmwa diiactton to tha ***■■
attain ^len it parted, *o aa to catch Ota flnka aa a hocL IVnrfnir
ahawaor agalnat tha tide ia generally waMe of time, Bd a chiS
finros too namw a hi(^t.nnlaa* the anohor iahdoyeJ. Whan tha
wAMia Wt both boats shonhi close togathw' and tbaif eiaws poll
wtthaUthanatnogthforamlinitBOTtwo. Than, lAOa one B«t
resa^ *^^'™^' k^P*^ bar pit a( the hawnr ati^y, tha
otb« ahoQld onw bar btnra with ft dack hawMT, iriileh thna paxB
Shonld
recoverad by grai
under the taster part ; tUs aeoovd baai^ by oMitinpiii( ha a dide
round the anchor and retnming to tha dda of the statioiuiy one,
wHI cause a tnni to be (armed ronnd tha flok^ aa nprsaantad fn
the flgnra. BoUi crews shonld again poll hard to ^Bhtea tb* tain
roaudtha fluke, ahat which, both parb being hehl in one boat and
made aqnally tant, an anohor ahackle (bnoyed) is placed round tham
and sbalcen tlown by a Teerand.haul imll on both parts by th* craw
of one boat, while the other tons ahead to keep a stnin on the hawiar
till it is nearly vertical, nbon tlic anchor is secured. The ship can
flraft
In getting a ship nnjcr way there are a few precantions w
should necessarily bo objerveJ. If the ship is moored, tha
snchor to bo wcigheil is tfaat which it would be least convanlent to
call from. At the time of unmooring tho direction of tho tide ia
VC17 important in tha case of sniling ships, and should not be dii-
regarded by etcamera. The hauling part of the cat -fall !s alwaj*
through the foremost shesve, to prevent tho tackle from (unliog
owing to the ship's motion throuf^i the wnter. Tho cable on tho
second anchor diould alwaya be hoTe short bofore making sail
Sboukl there ba plenty of reom and the wind moderate, there ia do
caution necotnaTy beyond placing leadsmen in tbe chains with newly
marked Unea, aod putting tha helm hard over nch way to enanre Its
being clear. The after-yards should be braced up on one tack aud
the head.yards on the othor, to pay her head off ; in cutters and
achooners the stay-fore-sail ia used for that puipoaa. If anolhor
vessel is at anchor too close astern to ensare gathering way while
gathering wi
ifter-yarda as bood aa the anchor ts tripp
,iay otf till it becomes safe to f 11 all the
stem of tha other vcoel. The anchor shonld bars bean aUted and
should not be attempted ; but, by aqoaifcij
^ DD aa tha anchor Is tripped, the MiipshaaL
pay otf till it becomes sara_to f 11 all the saus and paas nnder the
perhaps jliirf also dnrlne the interval ; much waj shonld never
be on tha ship till tha anohar is aacimd, ibr feai of it slipping or o(
a man blling overboMd. Should rock* or shallow wator betneaii-
Teniantly dose aitsn difteant menu mnit be adi^tad. If the
wind blowi directly on shore, ofllriu no ehale* (d diiectlan, and
a cnrnnt mns parallel to tbo abon^ us riup's head ibould be cast
against tha etream. Tha jarda ahonld ba bneed abn sharp np,
with a* much aail set over them as the fone of the wind will aUo*,
•very means being taken to heaia tha anchor np qnkkly ; and, in
a well.manned shii^ as aoon as it Is out (f tha gtoona, haul cm
beard the main-tact and alt vitb the sheet, ast ph and spanker.
Tha halm beina alee, keep it so a* long si Is required, tai tnea
round the head-yaras ijuieklj ; the ship wQl eoon apiing ahead.
Then, by keeping claae to the wind, the rate of movement will ba
mtarded till ths anchor la Mcond ; then set the fonMaiL
The abova is applicable In modarata weather whan all or neartr
all plain sail conld ba laL But, shotild there ba a itnng wind
and a roodi sea, it Dnidit not b* poadbla to wai^ the atidwr «r
to pMTant it (taring lEha bova if It wm hove np ; In that cms it
mid be aaoifiead for the aafety of the ship by paaing tbe ittongest
hawMT from tha after-port (padded with mats) to O* caUs^ maMw
it brt In a rolliwhitch, and hanling it tAit ; an an and block
shonld M In raadinaa alao nya, to piwent the qnins of tb*
baWMrbrtaklngnwD'altga Ilia eonrasa ahonld bsresMandall
ready fix tiMng ; tha toH*il* (doable or treUa ndM) shonld ba
■at or sheeted borne tndy for setting; and all the yiid* shonld
be biacad np on tha tack It i* Intaaded to go off on. Tha fint
opporttmity ahonld be taken when the aUp u commnxdng a yaw
in Iba daaind direction to alip tha caUe, sat die fDt»alay4aa and
Jbn-top-mast ftay.*all ; aa soon aa the topsail* fill, eat the min^
set the rMftdconnn, and tha main- and mlmsn.ti74«Ila. llveer
the oUa pnrloiia to slinpiiw wonid ba mora liksly to break the
hawisT. The expedient of loabig an anchor ahonld onlr ba nsortsd
to when there & too much wind and isa to admit ca walking it
and not too mnch to pnrvent the ibl^ of vfiateTar deaeriptjoo, fnirn
mining aomathing to windward nnder a pre** of sail. Otherwiaa
bar oc^tion Is imulo««n*bT the leas of die anchor: it would be
better to dedda opon ridiiur Ota gala out lettfaig go othdr anchora,
Tearing all the caEla artfatl*, attiking Oa top^masli, and htadng
the yud* naarly fbra^nd^ft The entting away of tlw loww-
masta, whan neoeavy, niMt always h« doiM Mth great ear* to
avoid killing people or Ul^ngtb*«faipwlditb*WT<dnge. The
lanyirds of Qia lower riggitw on OM ddo ahonld be ont as tb* ship
ndls in that dimtiaa, aad a Rnr notdm made in the mat on
both lUa 8 or 4 fbet above the deck, the men nmning aft oiit of
the w«y whan It ia UkdytoEtll, for whieh opoatloDa tbey would
have from oi^t to Ibmieen aeeonda. Aa aeon aa the mast has
Ulan th* lanyarda of the stay* *hoald ha cnt and tha moat
•trannen* ^Rnb mad* to cut uid dear wmj rnw miSdt would
(till h(dd th* maat to tbe ^
-When wd^iing in re«|b wMt&srvRli isffidMt nan to drfl^
It is better b> ban tbe toAot ftOly aacnrad baftre making any
in ; or. If It is tntandad to nm haioTs tb* vittd, Ow (Up oan b* k*pt
ahsrooorasbythajlb onlytm thaandiorlKtowal Steamiu
- 'o an anchor a^lnst itrmgwind or tide i* objaatHoabK a* ft
nqnirea great attantlm andjndgment to avoU isA*: Om aaiaa
■ppliaa to rtaamiDB In a gd* to •••> tb* (train on th* raU* I ■ oB.
SEAMANSHIP
Mint Wltd ihoBld b* kapt ta prtnnt th> eMt anr hurwnitng
klick. Fon-ud-kft rigg«d nosls luT* mnob Iom difflcnltj in
nttiu imdflT wftj whoicloH tarn lee ihon^ u tfafllr miln-wilB out
bg fiill)' sat without liolding vind, ind (Unctly ■!» jtje off ill ths
N dng md th* ililp rtrika tlu bottom, «ip«eiillf 01
-<--~'^ tbst lb* DUj» to piMH or fbud«
r, it voidil bo i^ to Mbot tlu bart
_„ , adiMooVMid amUtTanr to OniM hu
Inbt It bj dipping tt btakinf ill tbe nblM lod nakigg mH, U
thonii itill Ok meuu of dotu ao, vitb tlie>ie«oFdrlTiaglwriip
Bi bigb *• poMlbla and •» w™« lii!) : lat it aim ba *t tbc lop of
higbmtar.lf tlutnobemlttdfor. Wben then la i hoij itnln
on > olwin eaU* it If aaailj bnkaa by aentebing ■ notch with ■
commas aw on ■ link Oat rata finJj on thB bltta aid thtattiiking
It vtth a nul or aUdga-buninar.
ndta, and it ia ipjAhaiulad that
ta o^puatiTalT dtap vatw, it «i
nlao* on abol* (!r Hmc* bo adini
Tka aaoal wj ottMtiaf wbathac
b bj (IroppiBg Uia Ind one tha dda I
tha ahip la liaUa t> awing orot it, i
and loiTiBgtho Una i
■• an hoUing or not
wiuwalaoki
badiatniW.
a ahip la liaUa t> awing orot it, OHuing it to __ _
•pMlom thaboTorftDM tha bowaprit iiprrfMUa Alaolqr
^Dg oa a ttUa bafon Hu Utti a tnuBloai motion ia bit if tb*
Ifinitaad^adMdleoilioranbaTa tlu wind obllqiu with Uia
Una of ooaat, uid tba ibf * - • -
atarn-boatd towarda it,
laiUp thm
a it, th< haa>.
cart ber bead inahora, vhib tha ahar-juda are kapt tqiiu* ; Ihii
"""udiiom'
< haad-wda ahoold lia bnoid aboi to
It t)m< maj M Espt m muuoipi, u tnan i
tbs cnrra. Ai tha itwn-wu ti krt the 1
I npi tb* head-iraid* •fund, and Um mil
irins till bn«d up on tha diaind tBk.
Id ba kept tolL If it ia nacaasan to gat
■bonld ba pot haid
top-aail kapt ahlvsri
maio-top-aail ihonld ba kept tolL If it ia naeaasair I _
^ip nnsd ia quickly and la abortly aa poaaibla, tha fiin-jard,
initaadofbaiDgaqnandwhan about to ahaka, nui; be bnoad antiralj
round qolDUf ao aa to oontinae paying bar !>ow off till tha wind
eomea A, than-aqnind to allow ber to coma to. Tha Jib or tha
ror*-top-Buat ataj-aail (teeording to the »<ather) may be hoiitad
when tha anchor ia trippad ot not, until the wind la iMfon tha
beam on flia daaicad task: if at the tomer time the aheataahould
ii before the
.J ..,.._.._ _. . in aa it will drur the
\fiuit haa been eild about trimming the mill ai tbe ihlp la
tnnied raontl after <aating with bar hod inlhoiQ ia aqoallj' appli-
cable to a eate of ordinti? waaring wlian it te deainble to torn the
ahip with aa little loss of grnond aa poanbla. Aa a general guide
to the ponttoa in which the yard) ahonld ba placod. It na^ be
ramembetwl that thepreimn on the anili alwayi acta at ngfat
anglea to tha yarda. This may be eiemplifled by bradng tha y«da
ahup np when tha wind le two or three pointe abaft the beam. Ai
it will then blow directly into the aails they will certainly ncaire
greater (train, bat the speed of tbe ahip will be leat thui when
the yaida were eqnaie ; and it may ba observed that oonddenble
leeway will ba canaad by the lateral preatnn. In wearing ahip all
the fon-and-aft saila thanld be taken in except the head-ialla, and
when tha helm ia put Dp the nuin-iail ehonld be taken in and
the miaxea-top-eeil etuTered, — the latter continoed till it ia eharp
up (or the DOW tack. A fashion hu been adapted of leafing the
miiun-top-eail aqnve till after the hoad-yardi We been aqouvd ;
hence eTerything depends for a time npon the action of the mdder,
and the ahip wile a considerable diitanca before tbe wind and loasa
ao mnch gronnd. The operation at wearing a cutler tviuirea much
more cm than with a eqnare-rigged vesaat on acconnt of the heayy
boom. A achoonar ia treated simiUrly, lint the tpsn and (aila an
lighter in proportion to the sin of the vesssL Befon putting tbe
' ' ■>, the tack of the main-aiil ia triced np (the top-aiii dewed
ID with the boom
a called „ " .
Ml finoly in midehipa by meane of the down-
_i_ 1. .t. j;_: — "—J of after-sail necessary
t the change of wind
« 1 gybe wKioh is per-
ue), ana ^ peak dropped till it is Qeai
topping-IifU, which ir -■"-•' •■-'■-
paak and boom an eeom .
biol and ibeela Kot only ia the dim
w the reaul to pay off quick
IB quarter to the other
ftotly under oontroL The jib and at
ing the ahceta flat just before th(
iA ■ ■■' -
IlOlsl , -, -
The rnunna and weather-boom toppice-lilt should be
while the ship is before the wind and the top-aail-Bheet biaini oni
fia soon (s the peak la up, — the tack-t&ckle being abined to wind-
irard and polled down. In wearing during fine weather, especially
In yachla when racing some risk may be preferable to tbe loas irf
time and the mnin-aail may be kept act Aa the raain-eheet la
nsoally tore through a treble block on tha boom, a double block Is
moTa along the hone, and a ringle block on each qoarter, a atnng
cnw sui man (wli put at the mdm time and haul tha boom lE
nldablpa qniakly, belaying tb* put wUoh m at tk lei rid* and
i> about to beeoma tha weathar rid* dlreetly tha boom ia ont tha
leading blocic, while the othar part ia kept in hand till tha nbe
haa bean eHtoted bi Uma the JaVk.
a of all Teasel* an noat e IfaotiTe wboi Mt aa Mnrir lit
ibk, and alao each eall, aa well ai Meh put of a Mil,
apnad at tbe nm* angle bom the kaaL If nndai that
too much or loo little waathra-belm li nqaind, Uta
TbeaailaoT
u pnctLcabk, _
ahoold bsapiaid
A tiOia and Or by altering tba trim, net by permiMBtlr auiag
off a (beet, for that is aa daferimaatil aa dr^jgbig tha niddet at a
lane angle. By tltarlig tha atand of the maatt matarlally the
an^ and conaoquant set of all gtff-aaila an thrown ont
To taokaiiHa4ad-afi'ilggedTtHeliaT<ndmnlai by Maingoll
tha jib and fora-iheeti atOa time tha bebn I* tuad down and
hauling OTtt tha main-alwat, th* ve^ wiU soon ni an to tho
wind ; than If tbe fwe-ibeot ia hraled lat onr u Ibr tba fbmar
lack It will aaiiat to pa;r bu bow oS tha riglil way. Tbe jib-shest
WDotd be bwiled tft while «»i«H"a bat not too aoon to canaa it to
tak* tha wrong wajr. Tbe bra-aheet ia ahiftad over aa the other
Mill an aboat to Gil, according to the speed with which tha nail
ia paying cB. In a smut ^imtL mch as a outtec-yaoht in onooth
watw and with ■ good breeie, tMra will be no oeoaaion to retain
the fota-iheot; bnt allow It to Aake itaolf orar aimllarly to tbe jib.
Katomlng to tha idea of tuklng with diOoalty,— the bsln dionld
bepothaidoreiM thaipeeddaonaaaaaiid raraned dii«:tly stern-
way eoBneneea i tUatimaA ap^iM tOTCnela of all shipv ud
riiOB, ■■ will aln tha adTloa not to put the helm orer to a larn
■n^ while the tmssI Ii going at great ipaed. At in an(^ ot 10
dipee^ man than M par seat, of the f«ce on tha ladder !■
ai^liod to turning th* Tenal and IT} per oenL to ntard her ; wUla
at to dagroM ODS-hilf the fona wotilil ntard ud SSI P*' cent,
land to ton. H*do* w* (m tb teiaoni for ncommeniung eloM
fittluL broad, tapning radden.
Wiula tbe Tiaail ia m >tay« the weathar-boom toj^lng-Uft ahould
be pulled to tike the wdght of tha boom, tbe mnuer.and.tackla «■
the waathu dda aat np, and th* lae ou* ilacked aa aoon as ah* la
Tonid ; aba ihift tiu main taak-taokla orer to windward and Mt
it up ; get a poll of tiie gaff-top-aail tack if neoeasanr.
The ^b of a euttar, nwl, or aehooner with a nnnlng bowsprit bi
a dilHcnlt aalt to haadle iriwn the Taaaal ta under war. It tharv
ia aei-mom it la better to ka^ Oie yacht away baton the wind and
let go the ontbaol, whan the tnyailar will nin in, or pall at tba
same tlma on the inhial, which ahonld b* fltlad with a t^m to
keep it aqnars. Haul the atay-ftm-Mil ihaat oral to sake roon
to haul in tha Jib to leawaid of it. Oather in tha slack canTaa
smutlr to keep it from gattlu oTUbonrd : gat hdd of the luff el
the sail by the atsy-rope, whde aome haada poll on the downhail.
When tba aail ia perfeotly ni>der coatrol let go the balyarda and
continue hauling on the atay-rops and downhioL When then la
not room lo run bebn the wind, it b bait to heaTa to with fina-
aheet to windward whila taking in or shiRing a jib ; by letting go
the outbanl tbe trareUer will run in and the aaU cu b* hii^lad
aa befon, a good hold being always kept of tbe weaUier dde, that
is, the luff ot tbe sail IfanothBT jib is to be bent It •bonld be
laid along the weather aide of tbe deck in readiaeaa, with the tide
forward and the head aft llie sheets an then nntiWEded bom tha
former sail, handed acroBi ontaida (to windward) ofthe fore-atay,
and toggled to the second Jib ; abo take the tack to the traTsUar,
hook it, and run it out Book tbe balyaida and hoiat the Jib np
by them ) then tauten tha luff by the purchiae whUa the sheet u
A Jib-headed gaff-lop-aall la preftnbk for use on a wind and
idSfig breeis, tbougb for iigbt winds a long yard spreads
fine sheet (A canra*. 8uch ■ yatd ihould be elung it ~ "'~
from the fon-end [aa a boat'a dipping lug), tbB claw-l
aecured at tbe length of the leaet
standing part of the clew-line made i
t'a dipping lug),
leacb bom the
made bat to the lower end,— thla laat
[esp it dIbu id the croM tree whan being hinled down, which
Ft always bo done on the aide it haa been aet, a tack being mida
' — iiarr to bring it to windward. On the approach of aiqnill
the fore-ml should be hauled down by msana of the downhiuT and
ths Tssssl luSed up; it b dangeroaa to attempt bearing up at anch
a time until the main-Bail haa bean acindalued ; the eflect of tho
' ou tha rudder aida gnitly in tripping a reassl orer.
bad wnthar comea on the main-aail must be rwfed (a smallsr
Inidy eet) bf topping up tha boom, eiiiiig <
lat, and hanhng down tha reet cringle to the '
; lash the tack and ti* the points without re
It rolling
hiving been alnidy se
rk and throat ""
roef-taoklej '. . ..
i slack canvas. The seoond u
(bn-sall nsfkd again o
ahould be hauled fiat, tb<
np, and the vend kept close to the wind to aT^ plnnj^ the asa
over the bow. To tsof the bowsprit, — honae the top-mast, letdM
jib nui in, slack the bobitaya and bowsprit abntudaj take out tha
£d, ind 1st the bowsprit ran in ana or two reals ; ^en refld it, ast
tint flia gsar, and aat a bmU Jib. It la at «U Ham mnd imh
eoo
SEAMANSHIP
iSMknlttttttmm Aatt \tmi\ thn tloag on«^ bat erptdtSjin
m kMTTM^ «fcn a* node <tf ttHUMBt mut b* «iitirdr dlBennt,
It aoUl iwnl Amid Iw In&d op to ms«t arery lu« mn in
oritr to bnr it u modi u poMlUa. Slu will bin Iml little waj
CBitflMtiiiMofiiwrtiaBttudwlU drop into it (uUt i the bow
iriH tbw hU <ia; tlw 1^ «L ud • ran b« lud* pm.'" -- "^ -
oan br pnlUnirnp to ^
« do£nd,UK[ jBrtb
lit IhanullartHi
. _— . am; dingar-
baSK« it Moka orw
a(nil*bi«1l
Out latob (bciTg tha don-naf erin^ Tha piu ia mora fiwuoitlT
adqitad br Aahing aniiAi than by ncbb n otbar weU-foana
Twitli; thayhnaa tijr-ailvMoli, Mnglaoad m araialkrgafl;
lahoUad t^ tbe MOW Mk and thiaatkalraidaiatlNlaivgTnil,
and lua iti ihaat aaoond to a bolt naar tba itani, wliila t£a boom
ii cratdud and nennd Willi tha tuin-aail and tba bugs gatr luhad
to It Tha tiT-aall uUiit* ot bdiig nabd ; It ii a aaft aail aithn
00 waff tba wind in lOBgliiwathar. TliagnataateanianauaauT
«han innning be<bn the wind to kasp the TMed on bat oontae ud
to araid gfbiag. A **anl aboald" narar gat BBdar war without a
HMlIbMtiandaanttar ahonld narai b« wtthont lier laga (br Gmi
cf taking tha groand ttBajpuctodlj. In ladu to windward, it tba
wiad la TailaUa, kaap naail j daad to laewara cJ tha mark tmboI,
m tnrj cbanga In Iha diiwtioil of iba wind will than be an
■dvantaoa : nnlM* thw* ia a tidal prafamua be oat dinctkni orei
tha otbR, that will of ooona d«:l<leit
If taken abadi by a cbanga of wind, and wiihlng to ismaln on
Om tuna la<^ pot tha babn up and huil orer tha fon-ahaet In a
A^ biuit orat tba baad-abaib and bnoe tba head-rarda abto.
llw >v to tack a ibip nndar Ihnnuable dienmatanoM mH hen
ba aMoaad aa wall known, and onlj a fow binta nlitiTO to oonbt-
ftd caaaa stTaa. A fnr minntM pnor to tha attempt act all tnlt-
d)l«aail,Eaap«taadllT"nniAiU*w1thaniall halm, ao aa to get
aamnah wares pcaalbla. If tba new li hraeenon^to lict Q»
ahlh aMd tliem oral to hwward,' ceaa down ue helm alowlj, haul
diaa^Mpthebead-bDwIinM^ and check tha hwd-bnaeB. DirecUj
tha irtnd n oat of the fbto-top^all, btaoe iba htad-jaida aLaip up
^atai and hail the bowlinaa. When the wind la aAtbely oat of the
main-to^MlL let go the top-gallant bowlinea (if thoaa nile are a^)
and lalaa taeka and ebceta, aicopt the fbi»-taek, which abodld be
itlaad alht tba main-yard baa been iwnng. Aa aooa aa the Ttaaal
kaaa hei way, ibilt the halm hud orar, and aend the nan to their
atatton. If die brinp the wind aaraae bar bow, boiat the btad-
BtUa wltb the iheeta on the aama aide aa befine ; U tha wind tokea
them wall and tha ahip fa atlll goiiu toiud, give tha ocder " maln-
•ail haul.'' haol down tba main-tad^ aft tba abee^ dilft OTer the
'—'-—'■- hanl the aftar-bowUnea. Aa the main-topsail Alia, or
before, aosoidiiu to the nptdity witb vbidi aha paya of^ awing the
head-yard* to tbe order Of "hod off alL"
If wban neat bead to wind it ia foond that the bow ii blling
baA and itern-way eaounendiia It ia erident that aha hae " miiaed
BtBya." The helm in that oaaa abonld not ba ihifted, ia with
atoB-way It will help bar to p« bar bow off in the direction it
WM befom The hnd-eallaabould be holatsd, the maiasaH and
nnkar taken liw the Itoe-abaat hauled af^ the «fter^irda aqoued.
Aa tba wind eooiia ibaft the beam the mincn-topsdl ahcnld be
k^ ihtTering and tha nuln-topsail Jaat fall ; ahift Aa helm la
die aathara ^adway. When before the wind aqiiaie the head-
yardiit aUft oirer the bead-aheat^ and kaap tbon flowing. Bat the
apankea whan itwm take the right w*y; complete wearing ■* before
deectibad. TUai* atmilarto "boz-hnling^'j it la not naceevuy
to braea the luad-yarda abox If aha willlUl off witbont Tha
of potting the halm down and lettiu the ahip Aoot Dp
d More wearing ia aomatiinea adopted for uw nke n
in tha wind „ , — „
dimbdAing tha rnn to bewaid. Hm'*^ all the yarda at once ia
my aU««tiooaUe ; the adl> are longer aback and have to ^ -'' —'-^
Toinid Df main atrengA againat the praeenia of the wind.
•CtnbJiaaling" mayoccaAvially Mvaa AipaTenintbeaadaya
afateam,e*« paddlHlaanur will not torn wiA her head i^init
s Mnog gale ud ■ heary aaa, nor will a sailingA^ with an aaii-
UaiTeorew-pKullBr. ItmaybedonewhenAeAip Mfonndedging
doimonaleeSbar^ toodoeetowaar, ■ndharlngadepA-'—'-
not exceeding 20 Mhonu. It will take two or Ana mi
^an the hawaa-p^ «t Aa cable dear, and promre bam.
ponchaa far miebadLUnfe and manb fix btealdng Aa cable if
aaaij Pnt tha helm down and act aa In oidiuaiy tacking till
_t _^, HrtothewindithenletgotheaiidieeiwbeAar
ehe oaaiM to ton tHarei to the wind I then let go the andicc wbeAar
eha baa aatinlly bit bar wiy or not, aa pamug the ancbca a little
wU gira a greater aidw back what A« etnin ODmea.and allow
men tlnw £r dipping the ceblet whidi dioold be dona diieedy
tha wind baa cnaead Aa bow ; at the ame time awing the atter-
yatd*. If tba cable has bean dipped aiiui leiftillji Ae hcsd-yuds
^y be huled aa aooa la the alUr'yaida ban been bnoed np^ aa
■pring from the afterlee-port to the anchor, bnt
*-■ maoh time.
' Backing uid fillini
wiA the jib and qianlur oceukmaUy, u gtmnilly inffldsnt to glr*
dlfdit head or stem way, tosroid either bank <r anetbar Toanl,
while the tide caniea her fanoddde anlnit tba wind : Aa teaa atfl
eipcaad the lea Aa lee-way. rig»aad-aft Tiaaels hsTlMg la» powa»
to get atern-way should hare a beat In attendanoe with aUneand
" Ked^ng" w»a a fMqoent parfonaanes bafora ateam-tng) wem
introdoced ; it oondated of a araiea of moTanienta from one imsll
anchor to another, prariondy laid ont by boats, for a sbnilsT
pnrpcae baiboon that wen nuwb ftaqoented wme Sinua^ fiir^
niAed wi A a ancceadon of warping bnoyii The Isige ropga mail
t tian^artiag ahlpe an called bawien^ and by ft etwige anomalw
n formeriy caUe^Isid nlnestnnded. SoA rope is hard and etilr
-. handle ; it sbaorfaa inon wet and retains It longer, AanAn la lea>
dmablei whannew AaatungAlafar inferinTo hawear-laldropa
therefore very na^U.
Drop[riDg Arongh a namnr tidal dunnd trr meaiu of u anchor
eit toudung Ae bottom la called " dredging or dubbing ; it can
prsctiied in a passage which is too narrow for backing ud BU-
ing, each as the upper pert of the Thanioe, where " "-
ofcabla
_._ the tide
haaTing In cable Ae will
■hip oD U' bit u it ia tanning so ksig a* the conne lemui
When it is dediable to approach dthn dda, a ibw bthMU
paid out will cause 11 to bold ; the helm and the aoUon of
willtben iheertheAipaadeBired, and l~'"~~^~' — *'
_ __ brauior, aaAaac
wHI atraighten her ae well a* tha tide, and when Utiy pointed
through an open apace Ae can nuke a etem-board at Ave Ufrta an
boor while porfncUy nnder control.
A fen wonls may be saiil alwat making ind Aartmlng aall la
bad wesAer. One point holds good in all cue* : the aaila Aoold
never b« allowed to Asp, as that eipoaee them to Ae dann of
BDlitUng. The tack or loff is Innnably secured Ant, wbUe tha
ahcet b«n a eteady strain a&oagb to keep the aajl ttoni diaMng.
Befon hoisting foTMnd-aft asUs tha ahaeta an ataadlad alt; an^
diould a aheet carry awn, the sail ia hanlid dtnra ok bfaibd np
inalantl/. Spankervand try-aails Aonld ba taken in entirely tn-
Ae lee-bnil^ Ac stack only of the weather- bnU* b*bi(( at fliA
taken down. A practice haa become gansial in the ~ '
of securing Ae (op-sail clew-line blocke to the lowti c
rooud Ae yard, for the sake oFaaTlng time when shif „ _
yoids; the s» of the cIcw-IinesfiNrhMUUigAe yard down udi
rooud Ae yard, for the sake oFaaTlng ti
yards; the use of the cIew-Iine*fiNrluuUU]|
ingit la thus lost ; Ala ia one of many oljso
There has been * diSannee of i^dnian aa
bdngati
■ OifiAu
m cap instead of
■hifww biri sail
' ddeady-
good (train OB tba
. Bsppkig. The lee
sed down by dew-Une end bunt-
line. Sacb bowline Aoald also be steadied taut In n
pierant the Ie«b from Sapinng. Than aroean to be no ainn-
lage in erat banlingAe lee-sheet partially down. ThetaUagin
of Aeee sails hss been aqnally a matter tf dispute, and man* mt-
Tocats taking in a top-aU In a diflkrant manner from that wblak
Aej woold adopt in taking In a conm. lUconer's nls «M rtCB
qootad and followed in foimar timea. It mns Ana—
«m BSfsr im sminll Sab^iid^im.'
It mnst be tenwmbered that the dadaion then sopported by As
sea-poet wu then ■ nord^, and opposed to Ae opinioo of Via
praidkal seaman. A main-sail bMl been nlit by " letting By ~ tbe
sheet ; bat that prores DothlnK a* all adla wOl aplit IT the dsw
Itst prorea nothlnK a* all m^ wUl aplit^tbe i
a gale. The lee dew of an el^ty-gnn Aip^ m
as blown over the yard-arm In conasqnance of '-'^ '
ateadily ; bat that the weather dew Aonld ba aet flnt and takn
In taking in top-pllint-Bails betire the wind boA Aeata ehould
be kept fiiat tin the yard ia down. When a topasa Is to be laAd
the yard should be pdnted to Ae wind t and for the fint rwf As
top-nllant-aheat^ bnnt-llne, and bovlinas diauld be hanled (ant
for the second reef the top-gallant-eail sT^uld be dewed np^ t»
kaap the shseta from knock&ig the men at the yaid-aims; Innugh
SEAMANSHIP
COl
•(•thef k yiMTonter p»r«l anft relliiiB- t»ckl» thaali b» pnt on
WForr liw men go on the' j«rrtii. For • foqrtb reef the top-nil
•honld be clswed up rlurinc the opention ; it vitl then be performed
vith I<9B diRicnltj. The long reer-pointa in top-nlli ind couna
liBTB (renenllf giieo iilice to the lighter and more eipaditiooi
method oF hiTiDK reef-lin« oa the atiXx with btcVctt knd toggle*
en the jukjta^. The whole itnin of Ihn nit u thus throwu on
the jnckJitny and amslt eyelalti, initcad of the point* being firtniy
tied round the jurd itvllL Alio the almb of each reeT ii uiually
■lloweil Co hang donn end chaTe at the fold ; but '.his can be nn-
Tonted In btttening three or four amall eliblinea on each aiile at
'•ac\ rent Cuniiingham'i invention for reefing top-eails Is Tery
■i|iiere u;<aii the rant nUilg rotliiip un. If it beconea UBCewiry to
shirt a top-sail during a Rate, it dhonlii bo mudo up oG deck in the
shape it trontd aatome i/ fiirlml on tha ^ard. and stopped vith
theenda and tli' rlewiand bunt-line togglei naar the centre, where
it would 1« alun^ bja alip strop. When the two caringa .re taken
into the centre it will fomi four parta, and the wsither topmast
■stBdding-iail halyanU Iwing bent round it will eanae it to look like
a large bale. In that itato it ia heietad into the top bj the asil
tackle, at the same time being il<aJi«l hy M/x itudJing-nil hal-
.jarda ; there all the ronal are bont, clcir-linu-and buiit. lines hauled
np, reef-taeklea hanled out, and the sail bent to the-jard before the
ilip|»doi
It ; then
-eofcd as dealre
before
_ ./ *lii'^'' "I** ""'""' "'*"'" it is swayed up.
BtuiHing-aailj are veiy useful in long Toyages ; thi^ir Uignse on the
aiain-mast is to be regretted, upcciallr in long ships. A. top-maat
' " "-'-iftod "Ufore a11,"bys nmn on
lolenle
« top-gallant atudding-aail is
the yard ntheriog in the ail as it ia lowered
the oater leech till it canta the right way.
During a coasting voyage tha lessel mnit be within a i
distance of the shore, thercTorfl tha person in charge shr
atantly bo ready to mn for sholtor when necesa^y, and have the
moral conrago to do it in time. In yachting Toyagea, however dio-
tant, then is a natural desire to *ee the land and all that is worUi
seeing, and, being welt provided with cbarta, nich ve«el« can antor
any harbour, when perhapa a pilot is not abts to get oat A ship
atatting on a foreign Toyize ahoiUd seek " hlo« natet " ai aaon u
pwsible, end keep a tare distance from all land which (a liable to
Siecome a lee shore, and not be tempted to edge in bacauM a certain
tack is much nearer to the desired courw than Che other. For the
choic - - - - - -
To heave to for the purpose of itoppin)
B done in a cutter by
'eanng on lub jiD-eaeeb, uauung over ijie weather fore-aheeC, ana
tricing tip the tack of the main-saiL A Khmaer is trealad aimi'
larly : the top-sail {if she has one} it hacked and the gaff-fore-aait is
takan in. A ehip has her ooursea hauled up, head-iheets eased off,
and either the main at fore yard aquared. Upon the latter point
opinions differ. If two ahipe are close tiKeCher, the one to wind-
ward had better back the main-top-aai! and the ship to leeward the
fon-lop-iait ; they should always preserve a little headway. Boats
invariably board ahips on the lee aide ; small veaaela, when driftiDg
bat, on the weather side. A ship st anchor in a tide-way will
always present a lea aidedunngsoma period j but a "weather tide"
csnass a dangerous ses for boats. A boat's oars shonid never be
toaaad up or forward when there ia danger of their fouling, for fear
'" ^"'ing the boat or injuring some one in the sfter part.
When in tha vicinity of a lee beach and landing by
ia determined on, the oara should be manned to the nnnoa
wavaa Katchad (as they always vary], and the boat forced
' 8, oara being takeu to keep hi
top of Cba third large wave, car* being
end on to the ssL At the instant of tonchii „ „ .
man ahonld jump out and begin to haul up the boat, if ahe i> M
masonable weight ; tha next wave will probably pot them all out
ofdang^. By holding on to the boat they give andraoaive mutual
support, and avoid being luokad back by the receding water or
crushed hy the boat
The term ' ' hove to " aa applied to a vassal in a gild of wind ia
■e* ; this andar all circnnutincee of mil should be the point aimed
at, dnoe then the seas strike the side obliquely and also tba bow,
irhlcbia thestrongut part The bieai sails to keep on a ship during
[B-stay-sail. Tha forc-try-aiil also may do good,
*M is fat pTtfnsbIa to a main-atay-eail. The praasnca i^ tba main-
tap4ai! tenda greatly to mitigate the violent mMiOB ; also by heeling
tba ahip afae presenta a higher lida to keep the aea oat and ■ slopiiig
deck to aid the .water in running off. Th* halm should bs atmut
'{ns tnm "a-leo," never hard down. When north gf the aqnator
diips Bhoald heave to on the starboard tack, and th* israns fn
ajtering enine, M> that th* p*riod be-
tween tba waves reachfnf; tha vessel may h- made to diiagn^ srtth
bfr own period of oseiilation, or when running befoM the wind W
bracing the yards up in opposlU direotloni. Steamers at a rsdnced
speed can searcaly be conitderad aa hove to ; Ihiir nsata aird B[l>
tn too waak to be of any n«e in a gale and too small In moderate
winds ; thay maka the rudder do all tbe work. The bat «il to
«nd under is cloas-reefed niain-top-sai!, leefud ibresail, tail lun-
top^maat staj^-aail.
th* alailn should loee faalVita dread a
in filling ovciboard, Are, and collision. A
appointed in auh watch, who on going on
uc,.. should see the boat ready and the plug in. If the ship be on
a wind and capable of lackinF, on the ciy " A nun overboard I" th*
holm should be put down »nd the shin ateored round on tha other
tack, itith either tha fore or main yards left e^uani snd the connea
Three contiiHeooiea should always be anticipated by tba captatn
nnd offitw of the walih, and in some degree by every man in tha
and be met In
u Biila, '
to pick hi
e been devimi for lowering boats,
1 eiecDled by tmstworthy men ; tl ^
m with plain blocks and tackles ; pracdea and eool-
if them veiy
lights in th*
ne« will rendei
With regard to fire, pievention is heller than cni
hold ahonlu never be without a protecting lantarn.
Bleeping. cabins should lie lighted by lirepa fixed in the'bulkhcad,
inaccessible from the inaide. Pumps and englQes for eitinguishing
lira should ba on tha upper deck, For fear of being cut off by the
.first ontbreak. Tira ttatlou* end exercise ihoutd bt ftiqnent evea
irith the amalleet crew. On the finl alarm all ports and ventilaton
should be closed, wind-saila hauled np, hatchniys closed as much
as practicable, awnings and all lower sails taken In, and th* ahln
kept before the wind, nnlesa the fire Is in the after-pait. in which
case the boats should be lowered it one*. Uany other tlifnra will
present thomselT** to a cool bead i perhaps tha flrat orierShonld
te"BilenceI" '
ColliuoTis may ba nckonad among Chose dangers agalnat iiUdi
no man can gnaid himself, be he ever so wise and eipiriencad ; tt
avsils not that ons ship sboold do what Is right, imleaa fliey both
do BIX Hie laws i^n the subject appear to be all that cmn ha
desired (see "Rules of tha Eoad.'' nndar Fatioajiok, voL ivfi. p.
V7); but tha mode ofeaforiiing obedience is very lax and teutant.
A porely nautical tribunal ia greatly Deeded, and every unJoatiBabla
deviation abonld be severely punished, whether followed by an «oeI-
dent or not It ia admitt»! that in most cases of collision the ari-
danca Is so conflictiDg that a judge must be punlad vhars to lad
tha truth. Tha great increase of speed diminiahea the tiiu of
approach ; the increased length of vessele demand* it laner drcla
to tnm in ; the want of sul at the aitremitlaa dimiidBhea Oie
ewer ot tnming, throwing all lbs work on di* rnddar, irtiich
proportionately much amaUer than It was. The perptndicinlii
:_.. . j„j,_ i,._ ,t the eat aide, luitaad offint enttijlg
eadly Mow at the ...
r works by the ilopins ant-water, and piabaUy at
of rest befara reaching the tnlar'B edge. SnlBolaBt
— jt taken to keep all JighB from the nppar deck and Ul j^tCM
whare thay may disable the eyesofthaofilcsrincha»sortiie look*
ont men. Even holes have been made at the back if tha bow-ti^t
boi to enable the officer of tha watch (o saa then baming ; of
eonras his eyes ire thereby rendered unserviceable f<7 laeing distent
objscta. OSlcen in tha merchant service are invariably in two
tratchea, which does not allow them sufficient time for sleep, aiped-
ally in windy weather. It immediate action is not taken the inatut
a sail or a ligiit is reported, the officer in cbaige should take bearinai
by the compass, by which he will soon know if tha other viiiillB
inclined to p«ia ahead or astern. If it remains stationary by th*
compass, ther must both ba converging on tha auna spot
If a ahip ahould spring s leak at eea which may be sttribntebla
to straining and ia sutBciantly serians, she ahoufd ba run bafora
the wind and aea nnder small saiL If the pumpa then clear ont
the water, aha miiy run for a port or raenme her voyage wlien tha
Sla cases. If the leak doca not abate, though the motion of the
ip is ea^, it will be eviilent that a butt (end of a plank) has
started if it is a wooden ship, or that a plate has given way if an
iron ship. In tbit cue, two stout bauling-Iinae should b* placed
nmea to the otiier sidi , . - ^
id 16 (athoms from the mil, Haifa hundivdireigbt
of iron (shot or fttmaoa ban) should be attached to each clew, tbe
ship'a pngrsM oomplalcly stopped, (be asil throwir overboard and
drawn sqnan acnai the bows ; the hanling-linee on tbe clews being
osrried aft and kept aqnara by the coarka, while tha ronea on the
head of tha sail an vsared, lbs sail ia plscvd llks « luge patch
"is nlace desired. Bhould the poeition of the Isik not be dii-
1, it mjj^t ba well to place the asij nndar the main-Diasl ;
XXL— 76
oovsiad, it mij^t ba well U
SEAMANSHIP
dinmplsdaficsli Da doubt Tcrrj sucient snll wu nrob-
OB called Id Ihebook orAcU-'undcrginlitig thu Bhlp."
lolfl hu been a
idoby
Sdu ban anull; bon thiumi
ud Um ntUity ii qOMtlonabla. ii i iir)
coUiiloii i ipniuJ ail sould bs bunt by .__ ^.. — .
liola btlDg niiullj It the tide and putiaUy vinble, a Urga uil
mrW '1 tha fona ia which it iru Iton-sd, liaving the itopa cat,
ihonld bo thrown oyer betora tha hole «n<! downwarila, and, when
soak helon the anppued dapth ot tha fieiura, brought tovirda it
liU tha hiffbt ot tha Bi' — — "■ • '■- " -■" "- ' - '
in TiolantlT and aithe
hsla; it tbs UttiT, ai
]>o1a I
d In.
irangal J neglacled during lata jan, thai
freqaentlj na»d«d.
A leak can be alopped from inboard nhan ausanble by placing
overitpadiof oUadorturadcanTU, tarred coal-iBcki^ hacaaf whita
liad, t«]|oTr, paint, cUj, or anr matarfil which £t> close when
pniaed by boanla and iborad down flimly,— that or aomethlng
rimilu could be done when a abip i> on ahon. If i ship ia on
ahore with > Iucb hole in one part of har bottom, ahe might ba
rwoTand, aapacullT if ahb-dds racadea many feet, by boilding a
■ ■■ rtifionwilh a .(-'-'--"'— ■— ■■ -'-
doable partition with a ipsca of about S tut beti
of the injurad part, filling the (pure with clay, and
—in other word*, by ' '-'— ' '"■ ""'■'
ig it well,
, ._, J. ^ . . -tight bulkhead*; the
<t having btoa purepad out ot the Bund puta tha.riiiag tide
would float her. whan a ehlp i) on ihore with nmneroua cracks
battom. but not a clear hole, aba may bo floatad by coastant
fn though at lint the eipedient ahould (all to ytavent
pmupmg
""5"
ahould ....
ordinary pumpa of a ihip may ba anpplometilsd by nailing lopether
four common deal boarda and fitting two aqnare Talvt* weighted
with laid, hinged and llnad with leather, ' . ' ■
t .. _vi.i "- -raiihtad on thi
provided with a leather lip to
comhiags. When along in the bights of
ropea four men Jark it np and down ; the force with nhich it
«nda thnnigU the water will aand a itream up the tuba witli
m laboni thin baling antaila.
Shipa on abon ihoiud ba ucmd from driTing into a wona pod-
tioD befiifa baiag fnad from anv weight. Hatd autMancaa anch aa
gnna and ahot uoold not ba Uirown on tha lee aide or wfaara tha
(Up In btoling off might atrika an thara. Keep anfficient &aah
va&r foi immadiata UM. An ucbor 1* anuJly carried ont between
two boah, the flukea bai— ■^— ' "- •— '- -'--'-■
oab, the flukea being hang to a ipar aofoai the boata chocked
.. _. NB tha thwarta, whila tha atook la aaapended acron the 'atema
of the boali. The boat! ihonld ba hanlad ont to a kedgo ancEor,
wbil* other boata nipport ahort blghli of homp cable. Good axaa
■honld ba nwd for letting go tba inchor.
A wooden nidder when iniinensd li Tcry littla heavleT than
waCar and an ba ihip^ and nniUpDed bv icunen with ordinary
appliance! ; but Iran >hlpi hare m
aa moch ai 9Q tona. The following remarki apply to vooden
roddert only. To unhang a raddar roroore the woodlook, — a chock
receieed and nailed to the stem-poat clcoe abo>e the upper pintle, —
the Die of which ii to prevent it being nnhong by aocideuL From
a beam or chock aboie the mddet-head laniend two laff-tacklea,
alngle blocks and two leada up, and the double blocks down to
■ti^ throodi tba tiller bolo. A few man on each luff- fait
will eaaily lift tha rodder tha lonsth of tha pintlea ; and aa they
an drawn fnim the godgeous it will awing IVea end may ba lowend
hatwaan two boata proridad with ipan acroai their gnnnale ; tha
bight ofaropa will bring the heel np to a poaltion Kmllai to that
ot tha head.— nearly horizontal It oan then be taken under the
main-yard and hoisted in, or ba carried for repair Co a wharf or luit-
_i... I.. .1 _. i,_i — .__ Bjfofj , rudder is taken off to be hung,
■ -' > fore-part
chains, whila the other is Is nidinea to hand into the ahlp half-
way fi»ward and low down. On the mddar-baad being suspended
by tha Inlf-tuklea a little higher than Its poailioD when ahippad,
the gny> wUJ hsnl It to tha exact line with the stern-post ; it la then
lowered Into tha gu jgsoua, the guyi unrora by means of tha short
anda, and tha woodlock nplicad. Smooth vatir is desirable for
tbatopantlon; a Httla tidi in * 11m with tba keel will aiiist The
tiller uooid be firmly wedged at atcored In the rnddar-bead
^vant any Jerkins motion ; lot tha M ...
ihonld ba krot mooerataly tint ; they ahonld al
parti; lasbed togsthsr on top of the wheel, for col
wheel n
H in ihift-
imCL The raddar-ohaina are ehacklad to 1
le rnddar a llttla abore the water, and an
attached to a atoat rope, nanally stopped np round the oonulir teadjr.
lUg them one |wt at
to rcceiTe lackte^ hy
aTtet tha rud.kr-hcud :
The conslruclioo ol
ihich tho iliip may be ilacnit imperfectly
1 disiblod.
a temporary rudJsr has ilwaji been cou-
eaay plan ia to nua thceod of a large hemp c
hole or centtal port, haul it ti|i to tha ship'
ondle about tho i
aa guya, thnw it overboard, and hca
cable, leaving the part with the spars buhcd t(
ooi^h away not to be liAod oi ' ' '^
lia
re throucb
rt of tl
alit f^ •
the pitch of th
■pare top-aoll yard-aime, which are lashed acroea the gunnel for tlio
purpose, an taken to tha capstan ; by this mciiiis the ship miy bo
sloored with the aisistauce of her aails. If there be not a hemir
cable on board, the largest hawser must bo used v^th a Qnn to]>-
mait or Iba largest spar attdlablo.
Early in tbelBth centuiy Captain Edtrard Palenhsm contrivad an
efficient rudder with the malarial in his sliip. Part of a lon-niast
' »t up formed tba radder head and maiu-iiicce, the Gd-hole becom-
ing the tillcr-bole. The nudn-ptece passed through the roan J bola of
the lower cap, which was made ot elm and linal with leather, anil
which, being sacnnsl by a collar near the loiret put, acted for pintlea
and nidgeon^ and u-as dtawn into place by two hawben A, A, till
it embraced thaslom-post by the square iultuded . ^
for tba mast-head (Rg. 39). There ahould be
ropas to tho bolts i, b to keep it boris
Another top-mast was cut, which nith tl
nuinder ot the first maJa four perts in all, flat-
tened and fitted together, wDolded and boltcil,
and so forming the tequind width. Three pigs
of ballaat were let into the tower part and Ilia f ^
whole planked over and sreored with apite nails. '■■■
Fine weathet^aa neceeeary for shipping it and a
uitlar wia built abore the raddcrhole to confine
the moHon and to snpport the weight Tha
materials carried in modera ships may differ, hot
a fertile mind will generally find substitntes.
The -Riine' frigate, commanded by the Hon, j.
H. J. Rous, steered across the Atlaintle during
aliteen days ot almost continuous gale% a dis- '
tanca of liOO mlleB, by means of a cable over the
■tern and a Pakenham rudder daring part of the time. She bail
bean on shon in the Onlf ot St I^wnnca ; dnring the royage she
waa making 20 inchei of water an hour and she had alto two mub
rSachcd St Helens in tba Ilia of Wight On the 13th
inning; i
It ia a dlKcult thing to get a lower yard from tha deck into its
-.thont letting go either ttayi or rigging, and this tha fol-
"" "-T— — ' — ■' ~ light^-four
igffooi
imustn
iwing Instanca will mnstiale. The ' ' Thi
gun £lp, broke her m^-yird, which was IIS feet long
in two, II feet to leowaid of the alinga. The broken parts
down, snd a main-top-njl-jard cnMsed instead, whila a reded top-
sail did duty as a coune and a i
soil Tha potts ofthamaiii-yacdwiniil
tao halTai ofa qwremclior nock wen let
anduiiiakm>itfiahontop,withK>maib
it off. All parte wen bolM, hooped, and Woolded to
eUiarondack; the
._ .lefbrsand aft ride*
« top, with K>ma itudding-uil-boomi to nnuiil
._. _.. bolM, hooped, and *oolded together, mikiag
SB itrmg •■ erer it wai, entirely from tha mitariircaiTfad In Um
ship. Tie ekatoh (Sg. '
repreienti the Ume or d ,
ping the port yird-orm
under the maln-atay; 7
nptesenti the iaen, which
bear the prini^pal weight
(tatal,Ufcins)j/thatwo
fon-lacklei laahed to the
maat-baad pendants; i a
top-burton; a a aaii-tackla
to the top- mast-head ; «,
miut-head pendanU ; I
the maia-Uff ; y a j»ti- "«■ *■
tackle lacured to an upper-deck boim. Tha miju-yard WIS antlnly
ringed before being crosaad; tha blocks are nt* "'^"" — ' — ' —
itiou woatd be easier. Wiwn a fi»e-yird bae to M
got acnaa from the deck, time and tnnble can tn MTed by letting
go, half at a time; all the fotv-riggliig and baok-etayi wbick «n oa
Uiat sida
When feeling the way into harbour during a thick Rift let ■ bolt
pntend to tow the ship with the daep-sea lod-liae ; by this mean*
■ margin ot 100 fithoms of snfsty w!l! ba aaenrad. Can sboold
bo taken Chat erery running npe in tha ship be slicked prariooi
to rain or heavy daw.
Pot rortlHr InAinDatlon end vsrletr of oplnJou see Osptala Tnattt Uards^
B.N,, /Will g/ GsiHiidllr Ifut DItolrlliu ; SotMil KlmilliiL WUtst, )(•»
hMiW, av< Mnltv'Stlfa : VsodwlKlisn, »■ TwM SaiHr : B. B. Dam,
Snni't VsshI COih ti, IMT): Ospan alatoa, biiwutio; OmSk
BaHtta, B|»Wi Oa** I OaiieW tft aaa«>a »■ BaiwjTiaainsHitf (Jtt eJj,
AS.. ■tUt-bodbd,- ilfiiinH t tnkiM mbmb. Aialt (pnp. and 4d>A rcU
UcU, lolttbli foe bdlH. J4r^ Hvtnd ftom aU hciuRt. ajl £mnli tin
■pHtnai (nm Ika botloH. ,4iun, tahlml; U jam uun ii la ga brhlcrt
yUAiH't, «arw; n htoh IA* baiv*> ^fo^ (u la tin «xpn«iloiu, *'Avul
jSet nd jULi modi ol^iUtloi
. N S H I P
i^? iw'm MTto iljrt'ii!'''?™' '^""\»"'™™'*>'»'>'™i:'
pro*™. ^■w,.Elim"orir^''IIiS,7b™''bol2^'lrtM?1J'.i?
iron rniu for Hnlni up HgiHrnp Dtrriak^ a ftLnirlA aiia^ h^m hv mH t
tl..T«^o<lk.»nti.[w«iitli.«.I.I.C;n,[|ownlIo,ticir^: Do
M:ai^JlU,imadiord^ltlBciife1rwnhlbalfdt,uilD>tt1ie wind. Hck
bU, to >•( Uw wtnd pnM tt^t »nna m. Ba£lii|i, > luppiirt it the
»ida ud ftlHfl «D Qpper mvL BaiMilaMt 9, Jong itrmp of Top« Tor JiobtinE
TiHkwn. Ssllul.urth<n| aurMtOtUia Mkaof luvalglit. Amymilaf,
fmntflTIl lMt-d>]' on which MCuial vu IhdhI in lliu of tiiat. ISart pola, It
nir tail «et. Birrtai, b ■mill ouk (or w»tsr in boitt. BnU™
ns&fi
AdawbeQlndinlDAOTtrjitaris^t ugl«. ,
ud bfar up, Atoer ftriber nwn Ibf wIdO- <_- — ., — _
. 1_^,_ .1.. '--'inaiionof BmodiliipatwWobib
«ivfl & knot or tonla. Jtur, ibi
jB^impDrnlinUialiwIiiiaUDIiDf lEWdiliipAtwhtoblL
IlHrktf. a TOM en to nnivfl & knot or tonla. Jtur, ■&■„._
DWfpriL iMofj lo Kcun a rope hr (unu roiunl 1 takyine
fi^oa* Huibd u uwlo for cacb huMnMir from Ktling Iii<]
Hi^^ irrenf IhKi 1t-
uimipoluiirui
AU|r-i<ii|r. > iviw I
nakaftaCujtfalae; tobmdoB. BthtiA ^nbdM, foniitrl;r nnd lo ualtt lh«
flUlnekikrsudiuilHtiipandHk. ArM.lbtiJtuUoniirxhlporcitiMrtKiiig.
MHWtwlJidmdiiidiF.UUwwUar'iidn. Bl«*l, > loop formed tir a rope.
BU«a,a|iUtaBaarlrthalai«thofaat»II«iortboihlp; benoe bllEt-wiUr.
Blmoili, a bu IH Uia earapaH. SUc, tha aiclior UUa wluui It huokB tlis
eTDOnd. BUtfi. a jaak wUli ikoarea bid piu ; oroai tlmtieii or Iroq to aecura
tbe oal>la. Bod^ a ilull of wood or nietal containing one or mart abeavea.
BIw waur. elar ot (he Engllal' Ctiannol : at b ditlancc tmm ihon. Bla/, bioad,
an appllai to Ua bowi. BoordfJij-».Bin«, a Inp* net In eldude an eoeiiJy.
JkbJam, itTong Top« or chaini lo keep Ibe bowapilt down. Bold aUrv, tliat
vhicb uaileep water cIoh to It. BoiaHfi, aoft wood anil canvaiundBrlhaeyea
of tba rifging. BMrT^p^ a luparlor deacription, made of flna ram. uied for
Kfliit wu- Boaael, an addition to a tiy-iall (or otliar aaii), -~ ' ' ' 11
. Bax-^vJfaf, letting th
bncS ^ UwVaij-rar
».^i/, to to™ her ^nw ft ,, . ...
tlM wind, baullng round all Hie Taidi, making a atem-boanl, ig.
ihnof toor by, to bring tha fajda l.BCk a tittle, lo maka tlieni a] rl/
10. bnot ap, to ptaoe llie jarda u (kr fi^rward » 'tbej wit] go *'^
tektInaainiijDwiiuoriKailL Br«k ^ lo auiMDCt dbc
BnUt k«r ahair, lo baaa tka wrong iljle of ber aoehor. B^OJ^J
at right anglfle to dip aida. Br'AU, two parte of cable ftwn th
noorfng- Br^a^ bjtOitlatUi &]] oir tJll the wind, al^ crntai
taeka Elw aaila. Bring U, either to anchor or to >»□ bj bacU
oonnecl (ba cable with Ui capitan, or a tackle lo a rope.
innliw wttll a dooN* ud a alugla Moek. Burt 4^1 jhnnt. the braai lining
npoawhIohthaplBiMla. Aid, ibatidofapluk. BaUiKiin atrong illniti
for OHka. Bt, Ima tba fardi lij,ii«rlTlD Uio dlrectioQ of tbe wind, imt
not ao aa (a ahaka. ^TAt ttnnt, overtBard mtjralT, « « maat golsjorcrthe
C^Mi-lnld. tba daalgsaEaa tt una^tnadad mna. (Uoh^ a ooot-honie oa
IM, to tme orar. OnalaiiaplageotdiBllttoi
ra hole. *Uh a roqnd Iwlf nr an apper maatli
Mat i^i««b : wiik
maala tba OKI li of Ims. auAart,a anpnoct to tba bm-oirtMn lower
CafHUiLaibniaoBaTartiealaplsdlatorlKaTlngbcaTTinlAta, Omta,
Ml onr Wtoa out of watw fa repaln. QM </, to lat go. OiMM
iil-im. Bant iBbotaUMtbaiBehor. CuOiirptub^AciiTi^tcmt^af
ftitiock ibiiKHb. CM4<i<, tiDber-bead inijaelf^
aaOieaiiohor. Oifa)ian a alight poffofWiiidi ai
(o [ivtoef tba rfg^s. cWa^tolK aa bun plat* aanuini a AHd«:ra^ «aln-
pt-vp. Uia lanaafliBDd-pnmp, whliA bf an endtaaa chain ud nlna nMncaa
a eonllnKaia low. (31aiMeborckalaa.BrqlecttoiuEnnith>ablp'aaM>foaprt*d
tbai^flng; Ootita^lMlarUietnirMoelr, wbeBtbobkickaalalHklenaet
togalEer. Ctt^tttmf, to na (uu o( nsB-yatn rsond both paita of tha Ikll
lo prtnnt Ibalr aioiinc wh« kt ro. Cbri, * piaea at hooch with two bona
for belarlng npea: a plaoe ot wood lalM to tgcnre a thing Itom illpplng.
Omc-suniM, for hanllng up tha claw ot a come. CltK-Hm, the rope wUiS
I to an anehoT, and tor othar parr nan, ChdHu, Hi
word Impliea dropplai with tte fida, vhlle Ibe Ailti I
word ImpUea dropplag with
Bi ga and loalng an i^icbor. .
a, when tba anehor bann W
I of tba alafa and larsa iCtapa
D oaUa agalut a beam aa a atoppai
ilB', the uult or tba iltm m altbiri
■ra.rig|eJTaaaBL Onidt, onata' '
IB howBpriL Comt 1
I of vIncI allowi a nea
br himiDerJtJB npa.
■or, a eamd bar lo
laaaJng, ittraellDg "
noaiiv "^ ivm. paaatiig olooa ahaaiL Awfraai.
uH wpa asd at tba top-maai btada to aoppart Um lopeUlaat tu
fitU aaaanl apaaa at naall ifipe Inndii to a oocnmon oantia.
■at tic a loiyoiit aian at the tpp-pJlantaiaat-bead. Crapp
>Bw«lw tba WBlaaatlcB >»■».» at y sh.
BandntErd.
\1.'- ' *V™**^- ■ •!»«» »« DeoK to lowar a aUl ; put ont a Ilahl.
PT!'' !?E™1," •■.e"'™:?* *°'l"^ DmfiU, Iba depth oTwatec roquTrwl
"clubUnjt firtHloallogwllhoutgiiWanoa. J)rlr/i,*^™irti,g ibi MthoT
nniToldaOr m a Ma ; dnppbig Intaotlonallr with ib^ tide inB veri llttia
coble. iVtpM^.rih lo fall behind. i)nip «/^« ajii, tha dluaica Ihe foot la
'"^1?*1^ £"a<iK nnwood or valMlaaa thing, plac* under the oario.
,Ihonpnerooni(nio(atqnamaU:lherop.aby »blchlherare
■tbajanL Ba.rtn-,ln««aiM»coyow. Bo»o/,loUickeBaiope,
rarda uiidablpa. idft nni, to itear Ikrthei
u. n&lig an an^ form
lowarda uiidablpa. Sd
»f^ ft aUtr oHIjnclX
uiwarni aomauiDg. aSoai.an antfe foritTad ST-ooablei orroDca. BmtrH
to belli np (pbaolete). £»J Jbr .i^^changiM i lialf-wom noi^M^^i
£i(°^£?^r^il^' ' "■ *" * 'I™' '"" "'"' "» I™"'" "f tha Ji"
faind, the end or a rope nnlald : rernia. Fatr-mt, the Am lauuun to a
oflhaibln. «** mi|r, to moro Ibroo^ being Inaac'ure, Aid, a ple^'^TSn!
oc 1™ to Vaj^np a maat or koep ont a cntlar'a bowiprlt ; a Scyenlont nSl
n*, a plan ot wood (r bna aaoirad to a weak maat or yard to atnniithan IL
rul>:dn<«, a detitek te bolatlu Iba flokco or an anchor 1 benea jUmASTuI
loot. jlrt)dL ru aA whan t& abaat o( a Bil fu taJt u tV^lTbcTTlg^^
'f ."^ t* J^" *°. t™hB« a»t «nbet /l™ Kf Bin* wind toddan au'd an-
n«w »Sl?rh^;S°S t£^.iSMK^™*i?«2!d'Sr'57M''"
L.'Ti?":.'":*^™^"'"' *•"■""*" iwMgpiaMainaiinawjHitliaaeal,
WU, Iba front part of the nppar dock, but mora ootncUy the deak buiJI
Tlhatpatt;(DWlIaa(j»<iriw£.aihoitnleeeardaahopeebeBMtb. Fan
konderlbaftonlpaKorthtdadiilhe^rwanloilnallT: AratwtLU
I fa^ Ihtoaih tha water Uian uodiar whan on a wind, tboagh not ntalH
>" windward. fti>i nkwl, the ahlpnuTlK ahead allghtljr when bDnto,«
In* callow over a (hoaL Hnil, entaailedXor arepe); eonbarT(ar awlnd);
weedy (o( the bottom), real buaat, whm Iba Hbtf an twMed. Fnin<liv,
an iirrguiar iaablai lo bind tbinca togatbar. ^Varteant, tbu part wh«h fa
alnnnlar. rr2»a<iii0.tonarBUtUe«Me.oraBxropa,<norderlo
S^ "m n^"' ' """"^ '!""' '*''"'° **P-'™' " top^Vt-iMii'lfca.*
repel below Hcii lop,
{^dHvioalaiT, a itrong Tubing of rope or ebaih to locure tha bowiprCt down
to the head koae. Ga^^Mard, a pUrik with ballcna for people to walk upon.
f?anywy, the narrow deck betvcob tba ^uajt«r-dcck and frtrtcaallai tha en-
tianco to a ihlp ; any paaaage kapt clear. OuLiu, tanda or platted lope.tama
Id a«ore the aaltl wUn ftirlad. GM.Iiau, lO]W whkb an on a maat wSen It
it holated la and by which the thromjaua tricadnp. Gift, when the mooring
or wood which koqw a kaot or hllcb froiri cloaing. SMttsisC, a croolLod^ron
lo loppott a atDddbig^aiMwam. Cwatwia^i, tba paita of a eoaiaa which
are tipoaod (o the wind when eoalaad by «)aw.ganiela and bnn|.|lnea only.
Cro/I, (DooTararopa wllh lint Una In an omamenlal maBHr. Orlpiao, cmnlng
uplothawEcdasalutlbabtlm. l!nnrMM(KUi,ai)ehara,aldea,aniyilleon-
neclad with them. Cm, a torn appliod to Iba dlneUon or tba able when
It hi bdDg ben* In. Omiiul, a rope ring mad* by ■ itnnd. "uiIimii, that
ran bI the hanging of a ladder which la bolted to the atom-poat. thiaa-
mrp. a rope tttetobad tant to hani aomethlDg to and rto upon. Caaael «
naimla, tba bigbeat pari of the bnlwaik. Oaye. lopaa to kerp a anar or olher
ihlDg in lb* dealrad poalllon. O^bt, to lel a ^l^^adHift nil ■hilt ftvm o»
•Ueb the oiker wtiea natlT btfora tha wind.
Batiirtt, mpea enhuiraly Ibr holatlng bUb. JTaiut oarr lan^ U pull
'■llh<ai9lHiad*nalbaatbar;ngiratlnly,doneqDlckl>. KmilH^^aain.
deck. J^i^hAliitri^liLrtatm^otl^'b.ini.'^tHnimtlSr^-
malD-tack. iTinl ip, allariiu the eoorae moir tuotida tbe wlndr7li»iar4o'B.
the Dpenlnga In tba bowa throngb which the cahlia lua,— (be Iron lining la
the 4nntf£pa; a large pffceof wood which atopa the hole al aea li theJIavK.
jiitg ; optit uiM, whan the ahlea are dear of each other ; a craai. when the
lowmf. a lam lopa for
,tlie<lyingjlG,}ib,and
Faanaalo^ to throw Iba log onrto'taat Iba ap*d. AA tbe lower part oT a
maat, anar, mdder, or atflra-poat. Bmi AaiHt from tba bowaprtt cap 10 keep
tbaJIb-bootB onb JMn'j <i4a>, a word of oommaDd Implylni tlial tiia helm la
down. Hit, to asab or eerapa tba bottom. Htnti, applM to ■ na«l when
ttuoaoh amkiicB Ibo bowasd atani droop, » that tba [nnBle la that of (hog'a
tieck(aaa"broken.backed'). IToma, wban aheata are oloae down tolbe yani
la lald to ooma home. Uatft, knMd woodea haoda aatd wllh M^^dlTend
laarli nm. Bonadi, la^ ebaaki on a maat to npport tbe tnrtla-lreea.
wtfatf , of ( maat, tbe part halow tba npper.deek. Vow to. an abbnvlatinn
■n, tba bodyS^naaelenlllBlTeormaalaaDd rigging, H>n.dain>, ao CU
Intaari, (oy place wltbin tba abtp. in irtni, when (be aafla an ao ha>lly
anangad that tha naal will not oferth* halm. In Ml aiinj, loo oloae. 'IM
aal1aaapp|q&
N S H I P
1uTd«TlDa fit mvny bIL Round iovm, to onrhanL t^ itioh bf W&i
■iviinf, olcl B-1neh0T4'LliclirD|itAir hack bnrpoan. AHjhf Iji fc wtnrkwr-
'Wplbs^nd bcoofntnf mora hTQorabla, toTrint t>< j»Titw wm tBayw,
ctHt AmiMf irii, to Plioitai an 1 bsklai'touUI ipiduk ran UaauA m
block. ilDiwU^isuhulliwilHinertirliuawlltuiitsiiveliHH. MtStt.
KD Diwiliifl ia Uu Anmk df ft boftt ft)r cb ov. JixUfr «l«r«i ivd pt^drikft
•n ihukfid to ft lui) oa tba nul«v ladr ts ilHr thi dilr U tbft niAH-bHrt
£ia my. Jliiddn-»il,euvHorl<ftnHr ronBd thoiiMrtinftDdniiMiFbHHl
axoloilfl tlie ttft. JhtvHff and MeU*, ■ loBf pendftn ftod iHiklft IDr MAftett
lovETniuta; tlusUtt mppiirtftlllaacBttariaiut Mt,.Umt HffStg, I^S
wblcb 1ft roTO chmtflh bloon, oi to otbtrvlftt hmM npiS-
SmMb, I nodiD mt tor tlia bttl cf tlia}1b)nem ftuTtSa (Bf <<tkt nuka'
booo. av lo I<™™!, to a^' ™~ !->"• tt" biiftrf_*. MI d«. 1. ifc.
hove on br I jfrrinff tvJItL Btt n, ftppllfta to ilftDAsgiuriBf to mitm n
tiEht Sriil]if-jU,i1it»eant of vW iiHd talltttHibi^ timi,\o1m
vSii out at t£> <nt>r. u bjnnnriig on ■ ]«]g> u%>S« kft br thi Ute.
SJIdd[-b, ft cnrred b.ir, with two «Ta ftnd « bolt, nr iolnlu ^tahm. Awik
hJii/«'-, ft fttopiisT niiiDh boldiaptiw dakB of ftn ftnehor ft£ tba bsvc Albni*
a touw, to ftw III Uft dmlnd^dlniTUDE, Dm wbul hnnrti^ Oor-iS.
hoftdft ll^iaij ftlid htvlft apreftd, for raftatldg ibllift ftnd llrabg bHVf veltb^
Stuart, ■ wlml of Uua or licnntn Tna tn ropw to tnni os ; (U Uw fct— ft*
in for uft. ativlt^f, UL ft TTopfT ftad ■iiMltti
owiun-. enirmTamiiL, ul Inftlia It lllftlia ftjid midvr EC UCOtlftL flbdol, tO fft
ftbaid ftflat tba propnlalDn hu «uad- Ocrtn mit, to take 4a hbo porUiH.
Aid, ft ipftT ftw ftometblag to nat or titdo npoiL jAlftiirft xM^ IfeapHta-
nneL Slob V •»"• tbe aU^ wt wLlcb liftiia down (ftn th* Inoh-lliiH
ftn bftDkd Qb. 5£fr»n. Umbcra in the hold ftna atranjctbaiiliw ntoeao b tba
chIcd tJ T^Jololl^ fi^tClft^roltj^lfthOTtpJeOflOfflbftlBTtU ttlTH tftpai^
IlK ten apUcliig to ft bamp cftbli. avlu ■ hftwiv boa tla ftftftr-pnt la
ntt)Hii5|i. J^ia«iM^naiuaft)aftk^itnlBln ^rflMad, fcrnlr
t on thi iKlt-aill-Tftrd 1 ftn aAciaut tbor^ldtd iftjl (orboda ud baiia^ tba
•kofirhI&l(bddBBbv«ft(iftieftlladaniC. t^^^ angkad, ftaiftiaai.
•ttH'tont TOH-yanu IftH np togetliar ■ofilr, SfliraraHHfpad, liable jwrtt
■d4 aqiun Mlia, at ablpa and brfcft btrft. Smutn mVt, Iboaa aM apoa mA
nidi ftB bar* ]m aad bntn nnudltH of tfrb t>iiipcntkii& S|Hn ht^^
toftdjut thtm brmftUi ottbaFurlaud bnoH. Ond hi a rv^to%i to
rvdiiw to M It «(k frnifiiif ^ aad ea, bHIu to asd bo, ho* i |at.
AiMHxf)sitt>i*lndiBd<4ftttiEiJii|ioiMt iSIaiiJra<r<pliiy, »di M ftbnw*
tba Tlghl^umd ilda. Aarfoirdftnd portUit aiptMftlbadlnotlaicf thftMa^
oa tba rigbt hftbd and oa tha lift mpntlTaW. Jtof-jaO^ ftajr atfl art •■ >
■tftr, nc^ tbBjtbjfflytni-JlbtftiidftHt-ianBofaabanaadBabedBaiL Stmi%
trCbab(lia:toL«pthtiaBuuii»t. SUiUlfl>rJlfta, ptiiad ftoi m-bdfi
Id tbegnnnalotftbDattotbeilfavtoka^ltniAdit. Sm.Oiau^irWcli
till bowiwlt foma wJtb Cha bortioB. fiUii>oii,fttn1UBghaftdHviiualati1^
ftDglaa, lat rvrftna of ■tern oil £M-a-bear4 baiiiw oondd«»bto AUaa-«aK
SUMtm, lea "aaUndoT.- A^^HiMtobllltT nsdai Haraa. 3Ilrr>r. * abnt
ropa boEft a jftrd to lapiioTt ■ fbotfofia. Sfep, a Ugbt tiBpoiaiT aoMa^
GUriHiUL itV^tflft and bry^allft t4 tba fttlwiiiHt MBIftft. flniaM. wba
ona atRBd It bioliaa ; vnckad oa ■ bauh. S&uii(H!>er, aboM oO'tbM
toonft-foaitt tbanl(bt of abottariBcbic Ama Oil »»■, to tbnw ow
Iba baor wUcb la to ntch mtr tba UHbor. SUOt, to and dim IKu iMt.
Stritt tcUm, ft tokaa of aabnlaaloa. SrUa anudligft to nooad bi nubliii
Ik. hnttoai iritb thft kad. AHUlif^ilh >^t bnOdad (aOa aat oalr '<>E
bid. Anw to alack baok qskskb, aa a bnair nBsd a opitfti
ftUpv toita I*- -— ■■ - •— ' — "--•
wnoa loa vma nulling ftiHfta raraiwa VH aoRoa or auuavu^ jiwHf ■■
■oU, etawtog it HP ftbd paibftn tarllni It TVniiif, blib ■natft, eiaiiamtidT.
I^UUaKWfkAtboonljiiwd ftunill ftiaiHBto^Dl^tl^t. TnMmtH
ftalULbaglsiiliicUawliu to tba cbft^ of Hda to o|i|ulti« to ihtirlBd.
niiiiS, an liDo <t« mrtlL ft loon to reoaln 1 »pa; wOoa *to>»k !■•
tUmbka wldad Mthlii ifteh oOkt. Tloli ft*. * pw o( wood (K IU nawlk
|to^ ika A •( • tMUt baG« to^
SEA
60S
. _ Uu •UVL 1
■tUdWtkU. ruiv, ■ tonr vbki m
od nmns ^ ^t^nt, ftaoMr HeuTH tv ww pion a npo ■
- -*uiDtb«r, H A Hubn. Top^ * 1u^ plitronn nflUnn on
ih iDnr nut ; to top • yuil t> to Him It 1^ tU IIR. 1 . . .
v„ thnas^ Uia laotTor Uia top-nuA. re^. ww "mil pnlilng mothg
r nliUn pooiUok. IViji44t1 a jihfii, toDovtlHcLnabHbcpiir brropat-
_ _ tkr, u iToa ring eflrorvl irltk latur. In- lllXi nnlit uid but tu)*.
rmiaii^ tocbfan > niviHirt to tlu (opuurt un)> dIuh ibon tbt jonL
l>aHrH, toHikiannltuki: tbi fret modni of ■ ibiiva triiif*. Tmilt-
ow-lnu. IVIcJii«-UM,a mil runt nwlfiir hoiiUiigupitieUBHk^
TOpa. TVM f/tt* iftlp, eMHut too nap nor too llBht»aiia hiving tlw ricbt
dnoufat oC vMar fijTWinI uid Alt Trim hUl to tneeUia Tirdi and adjuat
tbadHata. Tr'nUaaasi^erii Mppadvlmi tha iluiiktinlaailuiilUHaukai
fen4nHtortfairBsiu4. rrgw* gf Hw lai, ttaa hollinr bitwHii long mna,
■Uob in tnenl^ naulir pwifleL rnct, ■ dUk at mod il Uia luniDlt of
Iha i*M< nmarl])* bftVlAa ahana for algBal balmdi ; h Iode woodan fhlr
laadHlatdlotluabnatd. TrumM, (lUM vuiOMlT to c™i»»a Ui« Mnlra if Um
lowar nidi to Hi* BHt. IVraUl, ■ bnl-sauLir nO'-iaU. Trt^a-mM.
1 DaoMb ajar daft aHih nut to Hppiirt U>g>«aatllisgiilli>ir "-
alL T^niJij fii n Juirf^M ffltttu tfia abTond «* atay round It
loMlia. mdunropaoiiwlilclitlialiaij^nliactHhealMiiiUiiemja^d.
Vndir Jluf, Hid or u iihIk* wbta dnnpHl vllboot TteriDg mora aM
t/mdtr mil, ftva from Buorliiga and pniMllM bj van oa];. Undrr ilMia, pj
pilMlTiUimuilr. (fHltraB|r,£i*liigiiu)tkuiUiaBsebai<>ItUiigiou
thaoldanRflBlofkror^vaair.' I'larndL— ^ — , , _-
bjr miiulw of rHBilBDltuuoiuilj'.ao Utopia by Ibajark.
VVoM. tha aaatn part of tha abtp bebra tba gancwajr pwL WaJu, tba tra«k
lin u tht watar- wMr^ a spall bavaar tot Bovfag tfae ahip : varaa or ivpa r
attitobadoTtrpigaforiiiikliigMnfa. Ifai^af-tagK boon imnnl la aott-
abl* poiMsiu Ih ahlpa to waip Vfjuw RDdirad inriT bIw^ bi Uit sat
D'Dtoeli, ilKi at « r.K. : a baoa aver la amhoT l> sid to ntEh irbHt It goati
IHl gio ba aaiD. H-lttr-torw, Hi ba aoUralr a&at Volar- bggad, IBIl tf
valar, naiauiMiWi. Waji, DotloB, u uodtr war, liLailaaj, atarssaiL
Wier Alf, toMq tbe nfd oa Uii otlwr ilds bThat nmtng beSn it
WaArr-lmiiii, MklMd b} unDin vlndi or ted nilho', WtaOur-fii.
a»n«^ HVh, (o bMva an
, ,. pa br wbld a loppHaBt
m tba d^t and alter-nnU bacoDU tbe tfb aid
.^ parruiicDllj CD tbe lower flrd-lnDi of larRB ibli*
■ India jtraTcaUr brmnu. Yaw^ in InvaluatHT dfivliUoa
' 1u iUp 01 boat vhrcti aelaaii
BEAMEN, LiWB rsutibo to. In most legal «;stemB
tagulation has interfered to protect the seemaii from the
consequencea of thaX imprudence which ia generally aup-
poBed to be one of his d'lAingiUBhing chaiActerUtics. Id
tha United Kingdom there has been a very large aiuonnt
of legislatioa dealing with the interests of Be&men with
anoBoa] falaess of detail, proving the care bestowed b; a
m&ritiiae power upon those to whom its commercial suc-
ceaa U m> Urgelj' dna. How far this legialation has bad
the efficiency which was expected maj be doabtfal. The
lOKi of life among sailora was one in eighty in 1871, ooe
in uventy-fiTB io 1883. There haa been besides a steddy
dimiuntioD in the Domber of British seamen employed on
British ihipa, nearly one-eighth being foreigners at tha
present time.
For legislative pnrposea seamen may be divided into
three claHee, seamen in the loyal navy, merchant seamen,
and fishermen.
Btamtn in Uie Sat/at Savv.—it ii atOl Uirfnl to inpnn meo for
th< nard Hrrict, subject to certun aiemptions (13 Qeo. II. &
17). Among th* nnons Bxempt u« namen in the mirchint
•aniML Ib csms oi smrageucy afficari and men of tha coutguiid
and nnaus erniaBn, leaiiian riggen, and peniiDnan mi; be ra-
Jolrod to aaira In the nary (16 lod IT Vict c. 73), There sppeaie
1 b* an other iattanc* (uov that bdlotmg for the militia la aui-
pgndad) irhars a antyect may be foned into the Mrricd of the crown
■gslut hil vilL Tag navT la, honever, at the pnaent day vholly
iwraltad bj valontaiy anliitment The navy Htimstea at 18S5
provided for EV.OOO men [ua Navt). Special advintagea ue
aSbnlea by the Merchant Shipping Act, 1854, to morehuiit eoamen
anUating In tha navy, Tb«y an enabled to leave their ahip withant
pnnlihment or forfeitnrs in order to join the niral aervica. Tha
dJKipliD* or the OSTy la, onlilte that of the umj, for irhich an
anatial Army Act ii neceaaizy, regulated by s porminent Act of
ParliimeDt, tliat now in force beinj tlio Nival Discipline Act, 1S6S.
In addition to naneroui hoipittiJi and InGnnariH in the United
EingdoiA and abioatL the great charity of Greonwioh Hoapitil ii
a mode of proviiiDa for olil and disabled eeameu in the navy [see
Qrkehhich). At present auch seamen are ont-peniioners only;
the hospital has been for some yean nied aa the Boyil Nival
College for officer itudenti. Tha enactmena of the Uerchint
Sbip^g Act ISSt, aa to nvingi banks iren axtandcd to eoamen
in (he navy by Ifl and IS Vict c. 9J, a. 17. Enlistment irithont
the licenoe of the crown in the naval service of a foreign state at
irar with another foreign state that is at peace with tha Dnited
Kingdom ia an ofiance pnnlshsbla nndsr the Foreign Enlistment
man Io sell Oovamment property ia llaUe Io penaltiea omler the
Seamen's Clothing Act, liTO.
JfercioHl &amn.— Moat of the Acta desllag with this snbject,
commencing with 8 Elia. & It, were lepaled by 17 and IS Vict
a. 130, after having been oonsolidatad and extended by the Uer-
abast BMpning Act, ISit (17 and 18 Vict. e. 104). Tha main part
of the legulatioa affecting seamen in the merchant ser- '
tn tha ttird
d pact of tbia Act Sinca 18SI
to 18SS." The enactmoa't of a now conaglidation'j „ ,
req^uirod, and can ha only a ijnsation oT time. The Merchant
Shipping Act. J3S4, doflnes t seamaB to be " eveiy person (except
maiters, pilots, and apprentices duly indentured and legliCeTsd)
employed or engaged in any capacity on board any ihip" (s. S). It
should be noticnl that most of the enactments relating to merchant
seunen do not affect seamen emplof ed on foreign vessels, on fishli^
boat! on the coasts of the United kingdom, on vessels belonging Is
the Trinity House, the (DomminioDen ofNorthtro Lighthaasea, and
ths port of Dublin corpontion, and on pleanre yichts. Theprlnd-
pal provlsioni of the Uercbant Shi[ipiiig Acts dealing with asamen
are aa foltoivs. When no other reference is given, the Act of iaG4 is
intended. An elective local mariu* board ondet tha gcnarsl lUpar
vision of tbe Bostd of Trads ii appointed in the principal porta of
tba United Kingdom. One of the iatiit of tha board is the astab-
liahment of mercantile marine offices under snpeiintendcntB or
deputy snperinlendenta.* It is the general bo^ea of soch offlcen
to sfford (scilitles tor engaging seamen by keejHng registries of their
names snd characters, to anperintend and (acihtita their eBf;ige-
mont and discharge, to proriJe meine for secnring the presencs on
board at the proper times of men who aia SI engtged, and to fhdli-
Uta tbe making of ipprvnticeahipa to ths ses service (a. 114). A
seaman mnat be hired before s (nparintandant or depaty inpanii-
tandant, aa officer of eostoms, or a conaolar offioer on a form sane-
tioued by the Boird of Trade (anally called the shipping articlea)
containiEg the following particnlant — (l)llie nature and, as bras
practicable, the dnration of tha intandad voyag* or angagement, or
the maiintani period of the voyage or enngement, and th* place*
or parts of the world (ifany) to which thavoyaoB or snwameDt
is not to extend ; (!) tba noailMr and dsKilidton of the cisw,
specifying bow many are employed as nilw*; (9} tha time st
which each seanisn is to be oa boaid or to begin work ; (4) tbe
capacity in which each seaman ia to sarvei (B) the amonnt of
w^;es which each nrrsmsn 1* to racdva | (0) a sola of tbe provi-
sions which are toba fnmiilud to each »e<imiji ; (Danyngolatiana
aa to condnct on board and aa to fines, short allowanca of provi-
sions. or other lawful pnnlslmenla for iniacondQCt, which havs bees
sanotionsd by the Board, of Tnda as r«giilatbini propsr to bo adopted
and which tha partiea agree to tdopt Envy i{^«amant la to ba
framed so as to admit of aUpnlations as to allotment of wagn, and
Among illisal stipulations wonld GUI any agnamait by a snanisii
to ova np his right to salvage, to fbrftit Us oon on the ship, cr to>
be deprived of any remedy for tha recovery of ngoi to which he
would otherwtaa have bean enlided(s.lSS). In the «■■ nf fhrttm-
going ships the following rules in iddition u
every inwment mada in tha Diltad Kingdo
with snbatltntaa) b to ba dgnad by each sesi , -
the anperialandent aC a roeroantaa msrfaw officst (£) Uu saperln-
tendent Is to ansa th* agraamant to ba read ovar and explained to
SEAMEN
tlw mm btton at mgat it, Ukd ii to attsst euh ngmtnic ; (1)
Ot unenwot ii to b« in dD|dicita, one p«rt to ba ntained hy tbe
•UMlntaitdtiit, ths other by tlie muter; [1) in tho om of mb-
atftotM, Uu7 an vhen poMible to bg engiiied beroie ■ npoin-
tandan^ Jn other euee the agnmHiiit ii to b> md orer ud ex-
C' Inad to thg MUtuu bj the mutai uid ^gnti by the aeaiaa in
preeenee oF a witnoe (a, ISO). Hie onQ' cua irhsre no ■([»•-
meat in initlng (■ luceMuj ii where the hiring ta far a coatter al
)e« than dghtj tona register or ftir a fbrdRS tbbhI. In the caas
of noian appnntian the Indeutona mnit be azecntad in the pre-
ienee of and atlaatod t^ tiro Jneticoe. Tia atamp duty !a charge-
aUa OB lodeDtoiea tor tbo aea aerTicB, In the oaea of fonign-
going (htpe making voyagta arsraKing 1m than di mmthi tn
Unntion, ranning agraomeats «ith the crew may be made (a. lEI).
Ko iwaon aDBnoiod hr ths Board tf Tiada, other than a aaatar
or mate or agent of the owner, ma; engi^ or niiipl; ■""""
Tho iliacharga of a aeanian, like hia anguemant, mut lalce place
Iwfn™ a MperinlenJent or an offloar « eqnfTalent anttorihr.
Tha eoaman ii entiUnl to receive a certiBcata of aarrioe and db-
charge. His wagea most be ]iaiJ within a limited Hme from hia
diKbii:gB, Taryiiig according to circnmMancea, and are not now
da]wudant, aa they were at common law, upon the earning of
(teighL If he ii diechaived before a month a wages are earned,
hi) ta entitled to a month's wues, Aa far aa pnuible, pajmant
ia to b« made la moae; and not by bill. In tha abaenoa of special
atipulatloua, wagea are not genetally dae until the contract of
■errice la complete. Bj 8 Geo. I. c 24, i. 7, a master may not
adrance a aeaman more than half hia wagea while abroad. Snnu
recoTcrable aa mcea ar^ in adaition to wagea properly so called,
the eipensaa of suMstenca and of the TOyagD home when a abip ia
told or transhmd abnad, and the maiter does not deposit vitb a
conaalar offioer a aaffldant earn for the eeaman'a eipensea jinraa-
ant to*. SOS ; tha eipenjea of a leaman left bebinU or diachar^
from a Britiah abip, or a British snbject Crom a foreign ship,
out of the United Klngilom ; allowance for abort or Eud pro-
TUona ; the moneya and eflacta of ■ deceated seaman who has been
employed on a Britiah ship ; aapenaes causnl by illnest from want
of prai>sr CxHi and accommodation and msdicines ; and doable pay
for enry itj, not .axeesding ten, daring which payment of v^gea
bdeUyedwithanlprDperimaae. Wages cannot h« attached. Tbey
nay be forfeited or radoeed t^ desertion, wilful disobedience,
■mngglln^ want of eiartion in caae of wreck, UlneM catued by
oerir^t or dafaolt of the aeaman, and miseondnet of other kinda.
Adrance notea—that i^ dacnmanta pnanbing the hitnre {symant
at money on account of a seaman's wageaconditionally on his going
to sea and made betbra the wagia hare been earned — are Toii^ and
no money paid ta raspect at an adrance note can be deducted Tram
the wagea earned, UeichaDt Seamen (Payment of WaAet and Hating)
Act, lleO (a and 11 Vict c. le, a. !). Allotment notea may Ea
made In the Ann aanctioned by the Board of Trade, and may
•tipolat* for tba allotment of not more than lulf the eeaman a
wages in bronr of a wife, parent, gTandgiareut child, grandchild,
brother or sistar (a. IW), or of ■ myiagi bank (IS and 11 VicL
c IS, a S). Beaman'a aaTinga banks have been aatabUabsd and are
adniiniatered by the Board of TWle, ehiaBy under the power* giren
bj tha'Beaman\ Bannga Bank* Act, ISte. It dnring tha abaence
era seaman on a ronge his wifii arid fkuUy become ctiargeable to
tho pariih, two-thirds of hia warn at the moat are all thaA can be
tecorenid 17 the parkL Carafu proriaion ia made Cor the cuetodj
of a deoeased seaman's alheb and wigea, and their deliTen* to hia
repreaentatlna. Tlia pcadbUity of a teaman'a being left dndtnte
>bniadiaim)Tidadtaniatby>'S0fl,S07. Consular affieaaalmad
ai« bound to asnd Eodm say dlatratsed or ahipwrscked seaman,
the axpensea b^ng ehargaable tlpm the nurcanUla marine fbnd.
Compensation is To be made lOr Innffldeney or bad quality of
prorlaloDa or water on board- If a oamidaiBt of the qnali^ or
itdaint of the qnalj^ _.
be friTolona, ths persona oompUning are liable to for-
' wages. An foreign -going sMpa are to canr proper
j-^.„.., ^ 1? J Won juice and^other
aufflciencT be BiTolona, t!
felt a week'a wages. All
medicinei and medical
other than porta io Knrope
of the crew alter tbe ship bu bscn 1
80 and 81 Vict c IM, a 1). A .. „ „ „ .
hondnd parsons or npwarda on board most oarry a onilified medical
lU dan(i
an (a. 1^0). Each aeamaD or apprentice It entitled to a space of
-it leaa than 7! onbic f^t, the placs to be aecorely conalmcted,
properly, lighted and Tentilated, and properly protected from
mathw and aea. and as tar ai poaeible mini efflnTiom cnnsed by
caiso or btlge-watei, 'The place ia to be inspected and certified by
a foireyor of Uie Board of Trade, and to he kept free from goods
and stores. Tha local marine board (or the Boud otTrade where
there Is no local marine board] m» a^>iHnt a medical inapector
of seamen,' who may on ^iplication br tha master or owner report
to the snpailfllVDdsnt of the mercantu* marina oSo* as to wlwther
any. Mi£a Is fit to doty (W and SI Tkb 0. Ill, H. >, 10).
Bya-Iaws and regnlationa relatinf; to aMnen** lottgla^hanaa may
be made by the sanitary authont* of any seaport tawm with tha
sanction of the president of the Boaid « Trade, Bneh bye-Iawa
and regulations an to proriJa for the Ucendng of ssamaa's ImUna-
bouaee, the inspsctian of tha nnie, the tanitaij eoDditfons oit t£*
same, the pnbltoatioa of the &ct of a honae being Ucenaed, the dna
eiecntionofthebn-lawi and legnlatioDS end the non-obstnietloii
of paiBOnB engaged in aeenring each execution, the pteventing of
persona not daly Uosnssd holding themaelTss ont aa k^er^ or
purporting to keep lieenssd honaea, and the eitjnsian from fioraaed
house* of^penona of impniier eharectsr (IA and 17 Tict C II,
a 48). ProviKion ia made tor ths protaoSia of eetmsn from im-
position by crimps and ladging-hooes ksepera, liiaiaotectimi maf
m certaia csset be eitenOFd by order in conncU to foreign sbiiiB
(a 237, and 43 and 44 Vict c 11, aa. ^4), At ths tints of £s«har»
of the on in the United Kingdom a list Im tha Item saactioMd Ew
the Board of Trade ia to be made ont and delinnd to a anperiatmid-
rat of a msrcantile naiine olios ocntaining. Mar otto, Ote Ibllov-
ing particniara: — (1) the nambw and date of the tUp'e relator and
her roistered tonnage ; (!) tba length and geDeial natm* of tbo
voyage or employment ; (3) tbe Christian names, enmams^ ags^ and
K* aces of birth of all the crew, including tha mutar and apprenticea,
rir qoalitiaB on board, their last abips or other employments, and
dieil.wilh aiCatemant of the manner In which they have been
dealt with, and the money for whii^b any of them have been add
[t. 273)- Erery blrlh or death occurring at aea ia to be recorded ia
the iog-book and rejwrted on arrival at an^ port in the United
iiingilom to the ragutnr- general of ahlppiog and aeaman, who
forwatda a cortiSed copy to the rtgisti«r-E«nenI of Urths and
deaths (37 and Sg Vict, c. SS, a. 37]. An official log-bookta a tma
■auctioned by the Board of Trade Is to be kmt ^ tha maitcr at
every skip except a coaater. It unst conUin, M<r oJlis, 0)
evei7 Ifcn] conviction of any member of hia enw and tha pnniah-
ment iuflicted ; (2) erat? oSencs oommltMd by any mssnbsr sf faia
crew for which It is intended to prosecute, or toenibrte* ftofidtoie,
or to exact a fine, together with a atatement concerning the reading
over of such entry and concemtng the r^y (if any) made to the
charge; (3) every DOWtefiir which nmlahmentlslnflictedaiboant
;haigef 1
character,
he decline
of illness or
i(«
quatificationa of (aeb of Us crew, or ■ statemsBt that
give anapinton on laohparticiilarst <5)aTerTeaae
jury happening to any membn of the eiew, *ta tha
nature inareei and the medical treatment adopted (If aay) ; (<) tbe
name of sveiy eeamali or apprentioe who ceases to be a mesahar of
the crew, otherwiaa than l^ death, with the time, plaoe, waanar.
and canae tbtrsoft (7) tha amcont of wage* due to any aeaman whs
enters Her Uajes^'e ssrrice daring the voyage 1 (3) ths wagea dna
to any aeaman or apprentice who diea dnring the voyage, ud the
gross amennt of all dedactiona to be made thenfitim ; i») the aala
of the eOecta of Any seaman or apprentice who disa daring the
'oyage, including a statement of each article sold and 01 tb» anm
received for It (a 232). At common law there was no oblintfoa
of the owner to provide a aeaworthy ship, bat by the Act of 1876
every person who sends or attempts to send, or la party tc
ar attempting to send, a
state that the lift of any person is Uliely to ba thereby enJani
is guilty of a mlBdemeanoDr, nnteas he proras that he naad all reaaon-
able meant Io insure bar being sent to aea in a sstwortby state, or
that bar piing to sea In auch Bnssa worthy atata waa under the
drcumttances reasonable and jnatlflalde. A maater knovindy
taking a British thip to tea In anch onaeawtiaT state that ths US
of sny person Is likely to be thereby oidangerea la goUtj ef a mis-
dameanour. In every contract of envioe be^reen tike owner and the
master or any seaman and In erery indentnie ^M* apuentkaaUp,
an obllgatiou ia implied that tha owuct, master, and aoent shall
use all reasonsble means to Insure tbe aeawortUaeas of th* al '
(3B»nd40Vict t 80,ss. 4,S). Are ' "
aliatsot
chara*. birthi
ar-genersl of shipping __
■Tho seaman U [irivilcged in the matter^of irtta (ses Will),
__. Bhip
of certain particniara anch
- asnt hcma IntB abroad,
lea. mnst be made to the
~ nofthe Board of
pt from serving in tbe militia (IS Geo. IIL c M, a 13V
Aieaalta upon teamen with iutent to prevent them working at theji
occupation are punishable aumnurily by 21 and 25 TIct c 100, s.
40, There are special enactments In bvoui of lucart and {artiga
teamen on British ships [aea 4 Geo. IV. c. 80 : 17 and 18 Tict 1 104,
a J44 ; 17 and 18 Vict c 120, a. IS i 18 and IB Tict c SI, a Id].
In addition to this leglilatian directly in hit inttrett, th* seamsn
ia indirectly protectedby the pnvitione of tbe Usrchant Bhippina
Acts requiring the poatsaalau of certifcalea of competence by sfiiff
officers, the periodical tnrvay of ships by the Board of Trade, and
th* anaotmtntt agalntt deck caigosa and onrlnading, u well aa bj
SEAMEN
607
othar Aota, «*cli u Um Chain CiUe* *oi Aachon Acta, •nforclng t
minivinia (tnogth of cablet and (nehon, ind the PoMuger AcU,
nndar which a propsr anpidT of liTS'bMl* and UTe-lnoyi muat be
provided. Tha datlaa of th« namaa appur to ba ta ob«j tli«
inastar In all birAll raMtala nlatmg to the UTigaCiou o[ the ihip
nnd to taalit aMmlM, to ancoungs him In vhkh he mny become
cDtitlod to prin moasr onder 23 uiA 23 Car. II. c. II [K« Fhize).
Any aarricM bqroiul tluaa woald fall UDder the bead of lalrags
■erriee and b« racompanaed accordiiiglj. There are cntaln otTeucH
tor vhioh tha anamin la liahla to bo lainiDarilf puulahed under the
Act at ISSl The; comprlaa doaecticm, neglect or recital
bia ahip or abaance nithont laara, qaittW tha iliip TithoD
i_,__. _!._ - — ,__., ._ — inritT, TUhl otaobodienca to a
ocWon or continoed, atMolt i ,
iliu to diaobay lawM CMnmanda o
itCenaTlf -" — '■"■- '■■ — "■
command, «it£ar
maalar or B>ato,
no^Mt dntj or to iinpeda
of tha Tojaga, wUfnl dan
weeBuT Immiionracnt (>. US, aa amended b; tha Uenhant
Act, lftBO> A maater, aaaman, ot u^fenlKO vho hj irilfnl breaoh
ot dolT, a ^Jt tHglect <rf dnt;, or h; naaoa ot dronkenneaa, doe*
any act tandhu to tin iminedUta loia, deatniction, or •eiiuui
danuga tf tha ihlp or to immadiatel]' endanger ttie llie or Uoib of
any peraoa ^longliig to Of on board of tha ehip. or 'O'bo bv wllfal
breach of duty, or by neglect of duty, or by reuoii of druiikcuneu
Tefiua or omita to do aiiy lavfal act proper and requiiite to be
done by him tor preaerriug the ibip from immediate tou, deatmc-
tisn, or aarioiiB damage, or Ibr praaeniug aay penon bcloDgiiw to
or on boaicd of Uu amp from imnwdiate danger to life or lunb, ii
guilty of a mtedaMeanoor (a. Hi). A teaman la ilao ponisbable at
eonuDOn la* fbr ^ney and by ilatate for piracy and offeana sgainit
the SUre Trade Acta. Anotona aeaembly of ' '
riotona aeaembly of aeenten ti
c,«7(«*
aa ahipa are pnniatiabla by IS and 13 Vict c £5, and
, ja ahip br IG and 10 Viet c 28, of cootaa by rinae
of conTtntJona vith rortngal and other foreign poirera. . The
raltag of anamim la now rqiolatad by the Uerchant 8amen Act
1880. By that Act a aaaman la not entitled to the ntiug ot " A.B."
milaat ha haa tarti Una yean before the maat, or thne jttn or
more in a tegiatered decked Sahins Toeeel and one year at aea in a
tradingTeaael<4Sand44Viete.l^a.7). Tha Act of 18G1 enabled
contributioiia to aeaman't refugei and boa^tala to be ehaiged upon
the mercantile marine tnnd. Aa a matter of tact, howeTer, there
■ppeaia to ba nognut in aapport at kkuul'* hoapitala oat of any
pnblia fnndti Tbt priDdpal aeaman't hoa^tal ia tiiat at Orean-
wich, eetabUihad hi ISil and ineorpcmtsd tntnAi WilL IV. e.
t nndai the name •of "The Beaoan't Hoaidtal Society." Up to
1870 thia hoapital oeeopied tha old " Dreadnoorflit " at Qnaninch,
bat in that TMT It obtainad tha old luflnoaty of Qiaemrich Ho^Ul
from tha adininl^ at a noailnal rent, in iKnm tbr which a eartain
nimlNr of beda are to be at the dlapoaal of the admiially. Tlu
hoapital Ii mppoKad l>y Tolnntary contribntion^ including thoae
.. .__._n __. i._.._. ... -- -didinand
d imdartha powin « toma of
9 Mnwnt of tbeee contribotiona
it one tine there waa an anfiirced contribution at i
MMe a DOBth ftam tha naT of maatara and aeamoi towardt
randaof Ore«n«i«hHaa
Iba QteaaMeh H<a;ltal
maUad tlum to iveeiTt
Heae "GreeDwkh Ho^tal aLtpanea^" howarer, became tha nuRo
cf Terr eonaidaratda initatias and hara now been dlteontiniud.
In thdr place a pontr Tohmtany aeaman't [aorldent Ikind haa been
ttUhliahad, It* ol^ btdnf to pstanadt aeamtn to mbnaiba rii-
penc* a nunith towaida t^ eeaaun't hotpitaL
nHtemediaaorOiaaaaBiaa tmwtgm ant
. _ . I)(tJ,J^ 5, pl^j jm j,^i_
■tlnOa Adiniiil^DiTlaiao tf the BiA Conrt
diniiiltylXTlaic
d lo tha Oontt of Seerioal a Vloa-Adniialty Ooart, or
a connn court harlug admiiatbr jmiadistion, tr aommaij praoeed-
bp before JnatloM, naval eonrti^ or eaperintandenta ot mercantile
maiineomM*. Tlw maatai hat now tiit taoe mnadiet a Qie aaa-
man for hit wagM^ nsdec wUoh an inelndad aU diabmaemanta
Hilda on tasonnt of At diip. At cowmoa law he had on^ a
pennial action aglinat tha owner. He haa the «.titltJ»B-l advan-
ttp of baing abb to inanre hit waga^ which a teaman cannot do.
A eonmon Uw aotiai for waagea it aeldom brnidit, the ilatuton
maUta bring more eaonttient By the Adi^ialty Conrt Act
\m, tha m^ Ooart tt /nitioe (A^i^ty Diridon) haa joria-
diction orer any dain byaaaamanof any ahip fbrwam eamad
bj him on board tha thin whether the aama be ana under a tpecial
l^tnct ot otherwiae fSJ Vict c. 10, 1. 10). Tlia taction haa been
ubmtly oonatmed and held to apply to mch peraona at a torgeon,
ytnu, pilot, eatpanter, and ateward. The oaort can antartain
clalnu by foreign teaman againtt a foreign tbip, on notice being
giten to the coitaul of the fbrelgn country. It ha proteat, the
coort hag a diacrctlon to detarmiue Thetlier tha action ahall pro-
ceed ortiot A claim for wagee in the High Court mutt be brought
nithin hi year* (4 and i Anne, c 3, a. 17]. The Vica-Admirally
Court Act ISeS, pyet jurlidiction in claima for wagea irroipective
of amount to rice-admiralty eourti. A county court haviugadmir-
iltv joriidictian nuy entertain clalma for nugea where the amount
cUimed dooa not exceed £160 (Bl and B2 ViiA. c 71, i. 3). The
jurisdiction of the inferior court i» protected by the prorlio thit,
if the action be broiiEht in the High Court for a claim not oicecd-
Ing £150, the plaln^lT may be coudomncd in coeti, and will not
be entitled to roata if be recorer leea thsn this tarn, nnlcai the
judge certiflei that it waa a proper ctae to be heard in tha High
Court (a. S). In actiona in ab coorta of admlnlCy jurisdiction tTia
aeaman haa a maritime lien on tha ahip and freight, ranking neit
after claima tor aalrage and damue. The amonnt recoreiable
annunarily befon Jntticet it limited to £M. Ordert may ba en-
foiced by dittrew ot tiia ahip and her tacUa. Proceadingt mntt
be taken within tix montha. A ntTal conrt on a foreign atation
may determine qurationa aa to waget without limit c« amooat
Ai a rale a aeaman cannot aoe abroad Ibr wagiB due tor a Toyago
to terminate in the United Kingdom. Tha aaporintandeul of a
mercantile marine officAhaa power to decide any qneetion whatever
between a niaater or owner and any of hia crew whidi both partiet
in writing agree to aubmit to hlro. Theee anmmary renwaias are
all giien by the Act of 1851. The Merchant Seamen Act, 1880,
further providea that where a queatiou aa to wagea it labtd before
- '--^dent, if ttie amount In qncetian doea not exceed XG,
-'-'- ■■ " -' "--11- -nln^he ii rf oplnioii
_- Acteitood* thi
^Vorkmen Act, IBTfi, to teamen,
aclnded them, A county couK
(tha latter limited to claunt not
. iog £10) nuy'n'nder the Act of ISTS determine all dispatca
betveen an emplorsr and workman ariaing ont of their relation aa
■och. The juriadiction of concta of aummoir juriadiction la pro-
t«cted by tha enactment of the Act of 18H that do proceeding for
the recoTery of wagea under £S0 la to be inatitnted In a tuperiei
inac a court oi law ougnt to aeciae it. ine
proriaiona of tha Employen and 'Workmen
The Act of rSTG itMlt apedally excluded tl
or court of mmmarr jutlHUodoa (tha latter
refer the caae to auch court, or neithL_ __ _.
leaidci within £0 mllet of the place where the teaman ta pat aahore
(a IBS). It ahould be noticed that clalnuupon aUotmant notea
may bo brought in all county courta and before Jnitloca witboot
any limit at to amount (a IBP). In Scotland the aheiiff coart haa
concumnt jnriadicdon with jotticea in claima Ibr w^ea and upon
allotment notea.' <
Fitienim.—Tb* regolationt reapectins ftaheimen are contained
chiefly in the Sea Fbheilea Acta, 1808 and 1883, and in the Uer>
chant Shlpriiu (Piehing-Boala) Ant, ISSB. Tha Sea Fiaherid Act
of 1S8S ctma^tad a le^ttj ot fiahing-boala, and that of 188S
gave powen ot enfordng the proririonaot the Acta to aea-flaherr
offinia. Tha Harehant Shlpidng (Ralilag-Boat*) Act waa pasted
In cDnseqoanoe of the ocentlvnea of tsma catet of barbooua treat-
ment of bi^ by the dlmii of Iforth Sea tiawlera The Act po-
TideL ttUtr alto, that indantnraa ot apprenticeihtp are to be In a
cortain form and entered Into belbra a aoparlntoDdent of a mercantlh)
- -^- -iSce, that no boy under thirteen ia ta ba employtd in aea-
'bat agreanientt with aaaman on a flihinrbatt tie to ooo-
atme partiaulan aa thoae with ntnhtnt aaaman, that
j agtaemanta may be made In tha oaat of ihort Toyagat, that
nporta of tlu namea ot the crew are to ba aant to a enperintendent
ot^B meicanlila marine oDot, and that aeoonnta of wwna and cer-
tiacatta of diaoharga are to be ginn to aaaman. Ho Aahing-boat
=- .. _ i ;.!._. - j_i .;«_i .1-1 PiOTlaioai fi alao
atharir,thi
tain the ei
aea withont a duly cartiOed tktepar. Fnniidcii
— ,.. ^ .. , deaSlninry, iU-t
d Ibr inqolry Into
tpadal rapor
BAofinyon
auch death, kc I>liputee between diDpan
are to be determined at laquett ot any of the
ownera and
the wtleac
tained in railoaa Ada at Parliament deallngwlth
ftbeiy regolationl. Thaat proiriaiana aot a* aa indirect protection
to honaat Eahannan In their •mnk^mant The righti of Britiah
fiaherman In foreign wateia and breign EihemMn In BriUah watan
are in many aaea regulated by treaty, gaueially confirmed In the
United Kingdom by Act of Farlianuut A royil fund hr widow*
and oriduna of flahermen haa recently been fbnnad. the nnidane of
the hnd bain^ mit of the proflta of the Tlahetiea Exhibition held
in LoiKioninl^ ,
nniM AotaA— The law of the United SUte* la In ganeral ancori-
leaaet, Sam Iar«*)tm Ar *■■•» •^>'
SE A— SE A
wpet wia tbtt tt taAaS. Ths liir leliUiig fo taanm ta tha
BXT will tw (bond in Qm irtfelia for llui gorerninant of lbs caTj
(JtMiNif aa(ii«« 1. lau). LuUhtloniDtSBUiteruUafmerebint
HHDaB d*t« from ITWk A fin of tbe onw must be ddkerad to
* ooUactor of inatoiiM. Tha dklpplng articln uc th« mms u thou
fawein theDaitcd Ciogdotiu For twwIi In tbe couHng Cnde
tbej in, vftb MTttfn axceptioiu, to be in writiiig or ia piint.
Tbif matt ih ths cm of foreign- boand ibin be ngned belon i
■hipping conmiMioiiei tppoinCM br the circi^t court « m collector
of ooMomi, or (If entered Uitoubnud) a consaUr officer, irhere pncti-
able, and mnit ba icknonrledgcd bj hi* ngnatnnl In i preacribed
Ibnn. One-third of > Mtnun'a TUM earnn op b> thai tims ii iIds
tt «nr]' port irbere ths ahip nnlidea ud Uellvcr* bar cargo befora
flu Towe ii ended. They mut ba (tally paid In gold or Ita anoln-
lent intUa naatx diya of tha diacbi^ of the sargo. AilVuice
Dotw era fw nad* only in (kroBT of the ■■iniii hlnualf or bli wif^
or motber. There 1* a aiininaiy remedy Ito mgea befon a dittricc
emit, > inatio* of the peftM, ■'— ' '
A ihippliie coET-'-'
oTthep^lrSaa. .
There may Im in eiunlnation of the ihlp on the compLilDt
mate and a minority of tht eivw. The expauaaa of an nnnemaary
iDTMljptign ire a ehirga npon the wage* of Ihon vho complaln-
A aeamu maT not leave bia ahip witboot tha coueDt of the maater.
For foreign -boand TOnget a medidna- cheat and antiacorbatica
moat ba eaitled, al*o DO aulona of vatar, 100 lb of aaltad meat, and
,«»^_.„. . — ., TD»rw)n on board, and fcrerory
itblog, aikd ftul for tba fl>«
An aaaeennent of for^ eenta per month par
la lerlrad on amy Taad arritine mat a tbreign pott and
- " ■ " ' in dd of the fund lor the reliaf
<( di^ anddlaabled aeamea. In the nan a dedwtion of twenty
ante par month from eaob man'* pay ii made for the aame pnrpoaa.
Tba oBalioaa and pnniahinenta are aimllar to thoae In the United
Klaidain. There la alio the addltimal oflenca of wearing a ihaath
kniK on iblrtnard.' (3. WiO
BEABCH, BiOHT or "Hieriglitc^TiutingandBeBrcb-
fng ahip* OD tbe bigh BBU,"n7s Lord Stoml^ "whatever
ba tlie ahipa, vhatever be the cs^ioea, whatever be the
deetinotioiH, ii ta inconteatible right of the tevfnlly oom-
niaiioned ihip ot ft b^Umrent nation ; becanae till tbey
H« Tinted ana aearahed » doea not appear what the ehiua
or t)>e cargoes ot the deatbiatioiu are ; and it ta for the
pnrpaae M aacertainiiig tbeae poiota that the necesdtj of
thia ri{^ of Tuitfttion and search exiats. This right is ao
ehar in foxtdfie tluU no man can deny it vho admits the
rif^t of marittma eaptnre, becanae if yon are not at Liberty
to aaMTtain bj anfllciant enqoirr whether there is property
iriiioh can be legally oqitored, it ia impoeaible to capture "
(" The Itaria," 1 C. Bobinson's JEeporia, 36). This right of
•sarch or TisitstioQ and search baa iMt been at all timee
lacogUMd. The secmid aimed nentialit; of the Baltic
powers hi ISOO attempted to withdraw their vessels from
the ri^t The bombardmeot of Oqpenhagen in 1601 was
OM of tba ntnlU of this Poli(T> Bmn tba oonnntioa
which followed that errat Um right baa been regaided as
attaUMked within proper limits, and is oftea radiated by
treaty, e^MdaUy aa to the asanft of vessels sospeoted of
baing enyiged in the alava trade. Apart from treaty, the
main roMi wfcidi govern the i^t era tbeae. (1) It is a
belligerent ri^t, ud oaa be exeteiaed only in tune of war,
tmkaa in the ease of ft vessel rtaaonaU; nuucted of
plra^ or breadt o( mveniM ragulationa. (3) It ean be
ssardsed only bj ft ship of war dnly oommiMoosd hj the
aovec«kn of tha baUJgmnt po««r and oolf in the ease of
* mtrdiant vessel, whather of an enemy or neutral power.
(3) It cannot be axarciiad in oeotral waters, and an
attempt to ssanisa it in sdcA witeis-is a gross violation
of nentralitj- (4) It eau ba oetciaed only for certain
pupoee^ Biub aa to enunine the ship's papers and to see
whether aha carrisa any oODtrfthftod goods. (5) After
the ship of war baa raiaad her Bag an affirming gon {cotga
^auitraitct) loaded with blank cartridge moat be fired to
bring the nMTchapt vesael to. (6) In ease of reaaonabla
suspicion it is ths dutj of the ship of war to detain the
mercbanf reasel for the decision of a piiie coort. Renst-
ance by a nentral veasel, whether alone or in convoy, renders
her li^le to eaptnre according to the English and United
States doctrine. Bnt most Continental anthoritiee lay
down that the declaration of the officer in cliarge of the
convoy is to be accepted, and that a refusal to accept sucli
declaration may juotify the convoy in resisting se«rcb.
There- ia also a conflict of cniinion as to whether a nentral
loses his neutral rights by loading hia goods on board an
armed ship of the eoemy. It has been held in Endand
that such a proceeding is a violation of neutrality, as word-
ing a presumption of resistance to search.
The rigbt of aurcb ii biatoricall;- inbmting, aa on two ocrasioDS
it baa broagbt Great Britain into colliaion with thr United Htatca.
oftha war ofJ812 iTUthi- riphtthm tiaimal
itnin ofBCftTibin;; vnaelaof the
. . w to ioipmaing them for tlie royal navy. In IMl tlie IJtitiah
moil ataamar "Trent" <tiu< atoppcd ou the high acaabya United
Statee ahip of war. anil Jicain Bliiljll and flaaon, two commia-
■ioneia of tha Confrdonln Stalea procmliDg to Enropa, ware taken
out of her and aftcrwanls iniprlaounl in the UuitM Sti
src^
;EENT. The belief in e
both terrestrial and marine, datee from very eariy tiuiea.
Pliny (B.K, viii. 14), foDowing Livy (Bpit., xviii.), telU
US of a land-serpent 120 feet long, which Regulua and
hia army bedeged with balistce, as though it had been a
city, and this story is repeated by several other writers
(Floras, iL 2 ; VaL Max., L 8 ; Gellins, vi. 3). The moat
fs^flo in accounts of the eea-sorpent, however, are the
eariy Norse writets, to whom the " So-Orm " was a ant^ect
both for prose and verse- Olans Uognna (fiitf. dmf- £^.,
Kxi 24) describes it as 200 feet long and 30 feet ronnd,
and states that it not only ate calves, sheep, and swine,
bnt also "disturbs ships, riwng up like a mast, and sMne-
times snaps some of the men from the deck," illustrating
his account with a vivid representation of the animal in
Uie very act. Pontoppidan, in his JTufkraf Bitlorg (Eng.
tr-, 1TS3, p. 19B iq.), says diat its existence was generally
believed in by the sailors and Aahermen of hia time, and
recounts the means they adopted to escape it, as well as
many details regarding the habits of the creature. The
mMe circumstantial records of comparatively modern
times may be most convenieutly grouped according to the
causes which presumably gave rise to the ^enoroena de-
scribed. (1) A nnmberof porpmaea swimming one behind
another may, by their diaracteristie mode of half emeising
from and then re-entering the water during reepiraticsi,
prodnee the ftppeamnee of a single ammal showing a
aooceasion of snske-like ondulations- The figure given by
Fontoppidan was vwy likely suggested by such an appear-
ances and a sketch of an animal seen ofi' LlaodudiKi by
several observers' looks aa though it might have bad a
similar origin, notwithstanding that this hypothesis was
rejected t? them. (3) A flight of sea-fowl on one occasion
recorded oj Professor Aldis ' produced the appearance of
a snake swimming at the surface of the water. (3) A
large mass of seaweed has on mora thou one occasion been
eautionslj approached and even honKXined under tha im-
preaeion that it was auch a monster.' (4) A pair of bask-
mg sharks {Stiadit wuixtma) famish an eiplanation dt some
of th0 reouded observations, as was first pointed oat by
Frank Buekland. Tlese fi^ have a habit of swimming
* Uott, Satmt, nvlL pp. SM, SIG, S38 ; also Zdwt awl ITafar,
Beptambv 1872.
* iTat^n, iUd. ; alao Draw, in vol IvlU- p. 48> ; Bird, ton, e«.,p.
Elt : In^by, (m. at. p. Ml.
* ?. SmiU, TitHt, I^tauar; 18SS; Herrimaa, qootad by Ooaa,
eg. tU. fotiia, p. SS8 ; Prluj^ i'alvt, ivilL f. £19, 187B.
S E A-S E R P E N T
609
in pun, one foUoiring the other with the donal fin
and the tniper loba of the tail jost appeeriag above the
water, aiia, as each aaimal ia fuUy 30 feet long, the effect
of a bodf of 60 or more feet long moving through the
water ia leadily prodoced. To this category belong! the
famooa serpent cast up on Stronsaj', one of the Orkneys,
of iridch an acconnt waa read to the Wemerian Society of
Edinbnigh 1 ; tome of its vertebna were prceerred in the
Boyal College of Sorgeone d Londoo, and identified as
thoeeof Stlachi maxima by both Humeand Owen.' There
is alao evidence to show that specimens of Carcliarwlon
most have ezietedmore than 100 feet long.* (C) Ribbon-
flah (Btgaltetu), from their sodce-like fonn and great length
(sometimes as moch an 20 feetX have been suggested as the
OTiran of BD-called " seo-Berpents," amoogst others by Dr
AiMnw Wilson * j bot Dr GUnther,^ from what ia known
regAiding the habita of these Btih, does not regard the
theory as tenable. (6) A gigantic equid (_AnAiteutJnu)
was most likely the foandation of the old None accounta,'
and also of those tdiich in the early part of the IQdx
ceotory came ao frognently from the United States as
lo gain for the animal the sobriquet of "American eeo-
aerpent."^ These stmies vrere so circumstantial and on
tbe whtde ao oonaisteot, and vouched for by persons of
■Bch enuDeDCeittiat do doubt was posuible (notwithEtanding
the cavilling of Mitchell) ° as to the exiatonce of a strange
marine monster of very definite character in those regions.
The description commonly given of it haa been summed
np by Ooese* somewhat thos:— (L) general form that of a
aerpent; (ii.) length averaging 60 feet; (iii.) head flattened,
^e geneially not mentioned, some distinctly stating that it
waa not seen ; (iv.) neck 13 to 16 inches in diameter ; (v.)
appendagEB on the head, neck, or back faccounts here
variable) ; (vi.) oolonr dark, lighter below ; (viL) swims at
the BOrface, haid thrown f orwiird and slightly elevated ;
(viii.) progression steady and uoiturm, body straight bat
capable of being bent ; (ii.) water spouting from it ; (x."
in shape like a " nun buoy." The annexed figure (fig. 1,
rnneaent
ftom H.M.S. ^
i'D«dalna.""'To '^' '^Tfi ..
show the reason- --^ ..-y .■■ —.^yv., --^
ablenoaa of tliis ~ — "'^'^ZL.iiiS^ -^,-~^ "r-. '- -''
bypotbesis, it Fra. 1.— Bn-tonHat. « aMo bom E.ILB.
may be added "Diidslm."
that gigantic Cephalopoda are not nnfraqnent on the
shores of Newfoundland," and are occasionally met with
on the coasts of Scandinavia," Denmark, and the British
lilea,'^ that their extreme sixe seems to be above 60 feet,
Bod, furthermore, that their mode of progression ia by
means of a jet of water forcibly expelled from the siphon,
which would impart that equaUe motion to which seveial
<L ill. p. 308,1667.
of tii«« lim, aeb Timlll, Froc fioy. Ac Sdm.,
' Owa, (U>iU(vng>hy, p. SO.
• Lmun Time Stiiiia, p. 116, _ _
a»I on ths Inject ; SaXmin, Bth Sepuinbii 1878 i Satmbx. at.
* atMdf nf Fuiut, p, 6-21, Edinbmgfi, 1880.
: ^^^ * ' "^ I'«'nl"lt, qnotod In Zoofe^it p. 1804, 1847.
^^"' ."if- ■'™™- *»■• "■'■ "■ PP- 1*7- "6. 1820; Wttburtou,
-. ™L iu. p. 375, 1S23 . zo-iogit, p. 17H, 1817.
Iff. Jb«™. SA, VOL nv. p. 361, 1829.
- Imy, p. 845 "
ir-IjTr^ • ' ^848 ; /i
Vmill. Ttant, Cmntct. Acad., vol. t. put L, 1080, ™, ^
•II inthcntlcileil •peciraeDS of gigiDtic (anii.
n. »v»i.,..j; si~.j ifai,„/,, ■Jit ifftfepp. 182-186,
" Btaeiatnip. ForJuHdl. i
*«^, ^ «2B, 1876 ; sbo .<Ihn. Uey, A'at. Ei^., ger. *. voL it
obeervMS allude as being evidently not produced by any
serpentine bending of the body. A very interesting
account of a monster almost ceii^nly wiginatiog in one
of these squids is that <A Hans ^[ede," the well-known mis-
sionary to Green-
land ; the drawing
by Bing, given in
hiB work, ia repro-
duced here (fig. 2\
along with a sketch
of a squid in the
act of rearing itself
out from the water a
i'&g. 3), an action^
which they have
aquaria habitually
to perform. Nu-
merous other ac-
connta seem to be — ^=
oiplicabia by this Fla. l-S«-«irpm^« otMrred by Hwu
hypothesis." (7) A ^"'^^
sea-lion, or "Anson's seal " (iforto^a (frpAoitiimi), was
BUggeated by Owen" aa a possible explanation of the
serpent seen from
H.M.a"D»daIuB";
but as this was
afterwards rqeded
by Captain H'Qoa-
hae," who stated
that it conld not
have been any ani-
mal of the seal
kind, it seems bet-
ter to refer the ap-
pearance to a squid I
as above st^ed.
(6) A plesiosanms,
or some other of
the huge marine
reptiles usually be-
lieved to be extinct, n^, 8,_flqnid, raring ItMlt out of tlw mW.
might certainly
have produced the phenomena described, granting the
possibilit; of one haviiu; survived to the present time.
Newman " and Ooeee '* have both supported this theory,
the former tnting aa evidence in its favour the report of
a creature with Uie body of an alligator, a long ne^ and
four paddles having been seen by Captain Hope of H.M.R.
"Fly" in the QuU of Califomia.** (9) No satisfactory
explanation has yet been given of certain descriptions of
the aea-serpent ; among oUiers of this class may be men-
tioned the huge snake seen by certain of the crew " of
the "Pauline" in the South Atkntic Ocean, which was
coiled twice round a large sperm whale, and then towered
np many feet into the air, and finally dmogod the whole
to the bottom. Perhaps tbe most remarkable, however,
ia Lieutenant Hayne's^ account of a creature seen from
H.M. yacht "Osbome." Two different aspects were rc-
oorded, — the first being a ridge^ 80 feet in length, of tri-
" DU ganU CMMaudi nyt Ptrl^atnUim, Oopenlngni, 1741
(fiig. tivu., A Dacriptiim c/Onmlamt, Uaiaa, 1746, pp. 88-S») ;
il» Pinl Sifdt, ij/twnftiuifW m OrMmtd, Copvlucwi, ii.d., pp.
16,46.
M L. da Ferrj, qnottd by Pontoppldu, cp. <iL ; Daiid*an Mil
BudTord, qDolal In geologic, p. 34SB, 1841) ; Bmior, OngAv, l»tli
April 1870 1 B>Riett, Xaian, tdL u. p. SSS, iei».
T» Aia. Mag. WBt. BM.. •«. 2, vol. IL p. 481, 18*8.
Zoola^p. »»■
• Op.o
p. 868. .
P^V, 'm. LaiiiL jr«n, vol. IxvlL p. 616, SDtb N
» OnfUc, SOth Jims 1877. ^^ _
610
S E A— S E A
angnlu fiiu, mdi rinog 5 to 6 feet abore the -nater,
while the aecond view showed a large round head 6 feet
m diameter, with huge flappeia, which moved like those
of & tnrtia,' It would thus appear that, while, with very
few eiceptiona, all the so-called " ua-serpents " can be
explained bj reference to some well-known Etnimal or other
natural object, there ia still a redduum sufficient to prevent
modern soologists from deayicg the poasibilit; that some
such creature may after all exist.
Quite distinct in origin from the stories already touched
on is the legend of tha sea^erpent or finnfn among the
Arabs (Mastidf, L 266 19. ; Kazwlnl^ i. 133 tq. ; Damiri,
I 186 >q.), which is described in such a waj as to leave
no doubt that the waterapout is the phenomenon on which
the fable rests. The ItnnCii is the Hebrew tannbt (E.V.
" whale," " dragon "), which in Ps. eilviii, 7 might in the
context be appropriately rendered " water«pout."
Id addition to Ihs »nn:eB already cited, the niulor ma; conault
BlackoBari Magasine, tpI, iiL, 1S18 ; Lea, Sea i/mutert Utanaikrd
(Intornatiomil Fiiherioa Eihibition Handbook), London, 1883 \
Cof!3HBll. Zootogiit. pp. 1811, 1911 (1817); and Hoylo, Pne. Roy.
PkyL Soc Kdin.. vol. ix. (W. E, HO,)
SEA-SICKNESS, a peculiar set of symptoms experi-
enced by many persons when subjected to the pitching
and rolling motion of a veeael at sea, of which depression,
giddiness, nausea, and vomiting are the inoet prominent.
Although the vast majority of persons appear to be
liable to this ailment oa exposure to its exciting cause (the
instances of complete and constant immonity being rare),
they do not all suffer alike. Many endure distress of a
roost aiute and even alarming kind, while others are
lumply conscious of transient feelings of nausea and dis-
comfort. In long voyages, while many are affected with
seasickness for the first few days only, others are tor-
mented with it daring the entire period, especially ou the
occurrence of rough weather. In short voyages, such as
ncross the y-Tigliali Channel, not a few even of those sus-
ceptible escapes while others suffer in an extreme degree,
the sickneBs perusting long after arrival on shore.
The symptoms generally show themselves soon after the
vessel has begun to roll by the onset of giddiness and
discomfort in the head, farther with a sense of nausea
and sinking at the stomsich, which soon develops iuto
intense sickaess and vomiting. At first the contents of
the stomach only are ejected; but thereafter bilious matter,
and occasionally even blood, ore brought op by the violence
of the rotching. The vomiting is liable to exacerbations
according to the amount of oscillation of the ship ; but
seasons of rest, sometimes admitting of sleep, occasionally
intervene. Along with llie sickness there is great physical
prostration, as shown in the pallor of the skin, cold sweats,
and feeble pulse, accompanied with mental depression and
wretchedness. In almost all instances the attack has a
favourable termination, and it is extremely rare that serious
reaolts arise, except in the case of persons weakened by
other diseasee^ although occasionally the symptoms are for
a time sufficiently alsfming.
The causes giving rise to sea-eickness have long been
discussed, and a vast number of theories have been pro-
posed. The conditions concerned in the production of the
malady are apparently of complex character, embracing
more than one set of causes. In the fint place, the rolling
or heaving of the veesel disturbs that feeling of the relation
of the body to surrounding objects upon wliich our sense
of security rests. The nervous system being thus sub-
jected to a succession of shocks or surprises fails to effect
tlic necessary a^juBtments for eqnilibriom. Giddiness and
with it nausea and vomiting foUow, aided probably by the
profound vaso-motor disturbance which produces such
manifest depression of the circulation. Vnclt Iim 1)Mn
made by some of the effects of the displacement <rf the
abdominal viscera, especially the stomach, by the nUing
of the vesBoI; but, white this may possibly operate to
some extent, it can only be as an accessory nose. Ho
same ma; be said of the influence of the changing impres-
sions made npou the vision, which has been regarded by
some as so powerful in the matter, since attacks of sea-
sickness occur also in the dark, and in the case of blind
persons. Other contributory akusas may be mentiooed,
such as the feeling that sicfaiess is certain to come, which
may bring on the attack in some persons even before tiie
vessel has began to move ; the sense of the body being in
a liquid or yielding medium as it descends with the vessel
into the trough of the sea, the varied odours to bs met
with on board ship, and circumstances of a like natnn
tond also to precipitate or aggravate an attack. Dr Chap-
man's view is that the essential cause is an undue afflux of
blood to the spinal cord. But, in the few rare instance*
where sea-eickncss has proved fatal, pottJoiorteBi appearances
have been almost entirely negative, and only such as are
met with in death from syncope,
Innumonlili! prcventiveB and romcdiei hsve baen piopoaed ; bat
moat of tbcm fall far lUort of ttao saeam clainiad lor thom. ITo
Dicanabu yet boea discovered vbich on a1tc«ether prevent Ihsoe-
ciirience of^soa-dckneai, nor ia it likely an; wSl be faiuid, lince it !■
be accrted. Sninging couches or chambcn hsve not jiroved of anj
S.IILI n'Bll-ballaatoil veaml than in a mull one ; but, even tbodsn
Che roll i^ig may be conaiUembly modified, the aeccndin^ and da-
KcudiiiB movcmtnta which k readily produce nnnaea conlinna,
Monaorthemediciuiil agonti propoetH] ixHsen iDfalliblapronerUes:
a romedy which iuils oue nenon will oftsu wholly fail with another.
There ap[«ara Co be a wide eoncurreace of omuiou Iliac nerve aeda-
tiree are ainon^ the most potent di-Dga which can be employed)
and full medicinal doaes of bromide oi potaeaium, chloral, or opium
(the last two only Huder strict niedioil direction) taken before aail-
ifully In the caao of many penona On tlie
meal of D<
coSSae to b
quently prcvo:
high lothc
in.aanta, »
a befe
lall capful of vary strong
:iU fre-
er mitigate tbe idekneea. When ..
moDDii, or even before alartlng, the recnmbent posilioo nitll tbe
head lew and the eyee cloeed abonld be aaanmed by those at all
likely to sufTor, and, should the weather admiCi on deck rather
than below, — the body, especially the extremities, being veil
Qovered. Alany pereona, bo^i^ver, find comfort and relief fnuu
lying down in their bertha with a hot boCCle Co tlie feeC, bj which
moans sleep may ba obtained, and with it a temporary abatenunt
af the distieaaing giddiness anil nausea. Sheold aickneaa sapervens
small quantitisa of some light fooil, such Is thin arrowroot, gmel,
or Boup, ought to be swallowed if possible, in order to lesHD tbs
■enee of eihauation, which fs often cilreme. Tbe vomiting may
be mitigated by salins sffervescing drinks, loo, cUloroform, bydro-
cyanic acid, or opium. Alcohol, altheugli occuianallj Uselal in
great proatratioa, is not generally found to bo of much servloB,
but tenda rather to aggravate the sichneaa, Dr Chapmaa, In
accordance with his view of the cause of the dckne•^ introdnosd a
spinal ics-ho^ which has been eitanaivoly employed and rsoras-
mended) but, like every other plan ot tnatnient, it has only eeoa-
sional success. The mon recently proposed remadlei, soA as
mtntBofunyIsDdcuaune,doDot seam to yield any bsttwnsnlti
than the agnnts already mentioned.
SEATTLE, county seat of King county, Washington
Territory, United States, on Seattle Bay, east side ot
Puget Sound, with l^ke Union, 3 miles lon^ on the north,
and Lake Wo^ngton, S6 roilsa long, on the east, i* tbe
largest city of the Territory. A ship canal to connect
these lakes with Fuget Sound is now (1886) in course of
oonstruction. Seattle has shipyards, foundries, machine-
shops, sawmills, lumber-yards, breweries, and manufac-
tories of furniture, carriages, cigom, crackers, ^tent
medicines, boxes, and barrels. It possesses the Territorial
uTuveraity. The Columbia and Puget Sound and the
Puget Soimd Shore Railroads have their terminna here^
whence large shipments of coal take place. HhA population
in 1880 was 3533, and in 16S0 it was estimated at 13,00a
. E A WATER
SEA. WATEB.1 Tba oomo eoren ver; d«u1j ei^it-
•laveDtha of the total urn of the globe ; ita iTengs depth
may ha e«tim«ted u 2O0O faUumia, and its total mam at
1-322 X 10" (i.e., 1'3 million millioD millioiu) tons. Ita
geamal oonfigiiration must be assumed to have beea sub-
Htantiallj the nine as it ii now for thonianda of ysara ;
henca we may safelj conclude that the absoliite compoei-
tios of the ocean aa a whole id constant in the Mose of
being only nubject to vsrj slow progressive millemual
Tariation, aod that, taking one jiart of the ocean witli
another, the percsntaga oom|ioaition of the fixed part of
tiie KJuitan can oscillate only within narrow limits, ^le
composition of this solatnni is rery complex. According
to Forchhainmer, ocean salt in addition to the chlorides
and snlphatas of sodinm, magnesinm, potauimn, and cal-
cium— which bad long been known to be ita principal
components— includea silica, boric acid, bromine^ iodine,
flnorine a* Mud, and the oxides of nickel, cobalt, manganesei
almnininm, linc, silrer, lead, copper, barium, and strontium
aa basic compoiieats. Arsenic, gold, lithium, rubidinm,
cnnum have been discoTered since Forchhammer wrote.
But all these subsidiary components, as that ioTsstigator
found, aniouot to verj little, — so little that in his nomerons
Quantitative analyses of waters which he had procured
■om all qoorters of the globe he conGued himself to the
determination of the chlorine, sulphuiic acid, magneiia,
limE^ potash, and soda. The soda, however, he determined
only by difference, assuming that the muriatio and sul-
phoric acids are nnited with the bases into perfectly neutral
salt*. Ss a general result he found that, in the open ocean,
the ratio to one another of the several acids and bases
named is sabject to only slight variations. But his samples
had all been collocted at the surface ; the potash had been
detemiinod b; an insufficiently exact method; and the
assomed neutrality of the total salt had not been proved.
With the view primarily of sapplementing Focchhatnmer'a
work, Dittmor made comnleto analyses of 77 of the samples
brought home by the " Challenger," so selected that 34 oat
of the TT rapresented depths of 1000 fathoms or more.
EtB analyses brought out a small surplus of base, prov-
ing the presaoce of carbonate in alt the waten ; but the
numerical values thus"[oand for the "alkalinity," being
charged with the observational errore of the whole series
of determinatiou^ could not be relied on. Dittmar there-
fore snbsequently avuled himself of a very easy and yet
exact method for the direct determination of this quantity,
which meanwhile had been diaooveted by Tomoe, and ap-
plied it to over 130 "Challenger" samples. He befddes
mads a special inquiry into the relation between the
quantity ol lime and the depth at which the water bad
been collected, and a timiUr inquiry in regard to the
bromine. As a general nunmary he givee the following
three tables. 1%e total salts contained in ocean water
amount on an average to about S'S per cent, thus leaving
96'5 pw cent, foe ths water proper.
> All cnr kiKiwbdi* of thi nibjeet of cliamlciJ ocMiiogiai^iy— a
IxsiMh of ptafiiesl (XiinpliT vhlcti hu onlj lutaly come to bs aim-
tinij onltintad^a diiiml from i ttim of laTHtigstlou chiefly sm-
bedlHl Ib ths lollawiDg poblicatiODii : — (1) FoivhTi«irrTtnr, "On thn
OonpoiUloa at Sm Witn-," kc., to PkO. Tmiu., I IGE, pp. S0S-2S2
ilSeS); (S] Ohu Jicobn, jin%. d. Cktm., Tol. cliril. p. 1 J;.
Wny, {») Dn JTonti JTenlham Sxpidiliim, 1376-73: dumi, bj
'onot) ; H) tlK JaJmitiriMt of Um Kiil conmlttH te tb» Kltn-
llSe inTMUgstlm of tlla Omaxa Ocon, 18TS.8S ; (S) Phytia «<f
OmMtiVU* Vofogi nT B.if.a. "ClaUrwn-"— I. "Itaport on
BmrahM bto tbs Compo^tiaii of Owia Wntn-," Ac, b^ Prof. V.
DUtmsr, Juurr ISSi; IL " Report on the BpMiBc Onvitr of
■■mplea of Odhii Witir," Ita., bj J. Y, Boeluiuia, Junur 1884 ;
in. "S^ort OB Doep m Tooipsntan," Aa, br Uh offloai of tli«
•ipcdltloo. A ibortar ud nmc popolur aqxaltioo ot tb* wbole li
TaimL— ^tTB|iCwifeiftfMiyOwB»-y«l»r.a»t».
Bromfno -
SulE^oifa sdd, BO,
Carbonle sd^, CO,
Sodvl
(BsiiB
0188/'
6-410
100 mo
Kot datanBinsd.
Rot dstermiiied.
11 '88
ITot d«t«imliied.
Kot dsCarmlncd.
181-1
■i(Dittmsi]k
Tabls IL— flsHlfij^mn at
CUorida of sodinm T77M| 8Blpbat* of potub ...
Chloride of nu^oiiam ...10-878 BnniiidB oF nufpicsiiuii u m
SulpbMe otmngDHinni ... (717 CsrbonsU i^ lima O'ltS
Snlphstsofll™ (-000 I Total b1(i... 'iOO«M
Rsdndng to the abeolnte man of the ocean ai (^veo
above^ we airive at the following numben : —
Tasli m.—Aimluli Otmgmiliim i/fOi EaUt tfOU Oawm.
Unit-1 million million-lO" toos.
Chloride of sodinm 88990 1 Bnlpfaats ef poUdi 1141
Chlorida of mi{[nii[iuu ... 6034 Bromids of BugBsduui ... 100
SnlpbstB ot m^pudBa ... !1M Chrboasts oflins 100
Solphata of lims tOU | Tssii
Total bniDln* ST-4 (Dfttmu].
Total iodina 0-08 (BBttitorrei ).
ToUlcbloridsofcnbidiom SG-0 (C. Schmidt^
Of the several qnontitisa recorded in colnmna 3 or 3
of Table I. "carbonic add* i* proved to be subject to
variation; all the rest, including even the bromin«^ are
practically constant Thia shows that Forchhammer's
proposition holds for ocean water from all deptlu^ with
one important qualification : special research on the lime
showed that its quantity increases slightly but apprvciably
with the depth. Taking s, m, i as representing the lima
per 100 of chlorine in lUialtow, medium-depth, and deep-
sea water respectively, Dittmar found as mean results of
analyses wludi agreed very well together —
tt 1-0178 H-SUSOO d^l-OBOS
Probabls snvr, ±0-0019 ±0-0014 ±0-0011.
Bnt M-s-0-0121 and tf-s-0-0133. One explanation
of this result is that the crnstaceani^ foraminifera, and
molluscs which fonn carbonato of lime shells live chieSy in
surface waters^ but after their death sink to the bottom,
where — especially in great depths — their carbonato of lime
is partially redisaolved.
Obbbs Oarbenie Add. — It is nil knows thst not only in the
anAbboarfaood ofaotnsl volcasoeabnt in thoniuidi of olhar ulwe*
on tba drf luu) oatbonk sdd gss. it constitnll; strsuningftorth into
tbs itmoiphan^ sod
of tslluric oaibook ac
•prmgi should bs sh
so seaomptiou to be antertsinsd : Imio*, nnvosiDg ovan Um vttat
of tha ocean ««r« psrlMly naattti, tt nmld not bot eontalu dia-
•olvsd carbonic add. Kit noh canunlc acid, at tbs ocwn ■luCua
■t laait, wonld constantly tend to uannw^ and in nnnal probably
actnslly voold ooma doirn to, the ciBall limit valna jasBRfbed to
" bylhagi
satbonk add gas. b constanll; atrsaming ftorth into
sod it ia gaBarally admitted no* that lUiia anppir
lie add amoonta to vtan than al) thst it faiaiAsd
a givan proportion by TOhnm of the csrbonle sold In
lare snd tba lava oF gas-abaorption. Tills pnoortion,
.„ to tba beat modam riaiawhes, la slmoat conniat, eva.,
I amonnttiff to vary nmrly 0-0008 Tolmna par unit vnlamB
. Tha eo^daDt of abaoqitton by (van pnra water ia I'S at
I I'O at 18*0. Hsnca, eren in tbe polar nfdmi. the aurfaos
conld not bold in pannanent aolntlon more than abont D'Bl
IT aaj one milligiamnie per liCn ot vatar. Jaeobsni, ht Us
612
SEA WATER
JilpB rfHorth 8e» m-itr, fooitd from W to 100 milU-
gnnmiM par litre ; but be al» otaottcd (hit on); a imill portion
nf th* cutxinic acid ii eliniiiialed on bolliiig : the reit coBua oat
■lilf vhtD tbfl ntar ii diitilleJ to dryncu. Hfl prBiamad thmt
tlw gu wu retained dumicall; by the chlotids ot mif^ncaiiuii.
Buchuiu, vbo inquired iuto tbs tnbjsct ijulheticallir, arrived %t
lb* coooluBon tliat it warn tba Bolpnaloa ' jo n iratcr (qua ml-
phstM) which Tttainsd the carhonic aciil. Aeconlinsly ia hii
larbonio acid determioallom bo liberated tb« gtu bj
Tomiis waj tbe Brat to ptiTt tliat tlie carbonic tcid in eea wilsr
UpreMDtM ea^boDate, aiid Ibit. in the northeni lertotthe Nortb
Atlanlic at leut, Uu total caibonio add, while conndemhl; greater
tbin the qoautitj which would conTort tbe eiirpliu liue ~~~
normal, hlle ihoi' * .-. .
fulW
to find tlw tru intvpntati
ii woulii be requii
j> produc
"Chilitager" bji BnebuiaiL Dittmar bad no difficult in prov-
ing the aao-nikmea of tho allmd affinity of nil]riialeB Air car-
txniia add, and aatorally candaded that tha chlorida of htrinni
usd in the pwpeawa libuatea tha leem part of the carbMiie add by
coanrtlns tha nonnat oarbonata part into a pTednlata of carbonate
ofbaryta,lhi«— BW),+«00,+BaCl,»R^+B»C<^-»-iCO. A
■olaa of ajnthatkal aipMinwata ihowed that tlila ii ■nbetastiallT,
amnawbat ahott of ua actual amonnt of locae carbonic add present,
wUla on taaoniitig Oit diatfllaUoti after addition of fneh water an
appiadabla part Mt find oaitMiis add pawn awaj aa gaa. Yet,
Bdohanaii'a neolta briag af great valoa, Dittmai diiciiiaed them
(ooqiointtj with bii own aUulinity detemioatiani) on the bane
of tha usBmntion that the^ afloTdod a (air approximation to tha
pTopoitiona oflooee carbonic add in tbe taepectlre waten. His gen-
eral omdaaioiu an ai fbllowa. Taking ''alkalinity" u niauiii:g
the "weight" of the carbonic add, CO, in the normal carbonate
part of the carbonate preeent per 100 parts of total aolids, the alka-
linit; in tbe water vinplta analjied (omitting a tew obriouslj
abnormal caaot) wm fonna-to be t» follows (Tible rv.) i —
<lUU»n„
atma
»™lw
A^^n^rnu.
^•^
ffl,-riS!
tS:tS
1 "
1
t:SE;:;:;
range m^ be nid to be from 0-I( to OlA. Thf ... . ._,
MCUTiagnlneawentifiind tobaabont a-14a In the case of anr&ce
or diallow Ma water, and in the caae ot bottom water aboot D'lt!.
In noard to the loos carbonic add a (Ull disooaian of Bnc)ian>i<'>
i«ai]& lad to tb* Ibllowing conclarious :— (1) carbonic add
ocean in thafrsastatg; as a rule it Uls short of the '-'^
would pndnca bicarbonate ; (3) In tir&oe waten
fh when the natnni t«mp«ntnn is relatiTdf low,
' In aqoat ranges of tamparatan it seems to ba loss
•thsSdflr "—■"-'- *■--
JnantitT which
t is rdatlTely
Ic than it is in that of the Atlantic Ocean.
blgfaw!
{Bjwit ,
Hurface water of the i
(kaa cartionle . „
17) aanidss Uie "«ariK>iilc aofal dafidt" (msaalng the proportitm
of carbonic add which waa wanted to coniplata» trnworm tha
eatbonata into bieaibonale) aasomad tangfhb and often considemUa
nlosa. Wa an ptobahlr aalk in ooxbdinB that the ocean as a
whdla win hava to conUima taldns in carbonic add lor thonsanda
of yean bsliwa tt« eaitcsiio add da&dt bM hsan radncad to nothing.
But it is as wan to obaarra that at it* snrbca in tha wanav Uf-
tadea tha attainntant of this nindiUcn ia a rAjskal impoadUlity
M loM M ths pwoanlv of carboak add u tha air ntaiaa its
inaant low lalne.
A Bolntiau of a bicarbonate when ihaken, aar in a bottle, with
mua air (ha* of carbonic add) at (ammer heat giva* up its com-
Unsd carbonic add to the air apace in the bottle antil Uie partial
iacalledtha _
ing tan^aiatur* I. Oanetal eipsrianoo oouceminE snoh phratmena
wamut* tha preamnptton that, np l« a certain (low) tamperat —
(b fmO, and thenoa onwards^ p loOTaassa wi^ t It ^ea
foUow that Ui* Ucaibonata in a aolntion when ibaksn again i
again wl^ eran pore air tends to become normal carbonate ■
ugbt wa know, tbe elimination of carbonic acid may tbm aa
a* tba reddaal carbonala baa onme down to aoma cmopod
1 lae OaoLoav, toL a. p. n.
It^Xl+')CO, (whenzis less than IJ, and z ma; bs a hnsUca of
temwrstnra. Dittmar has attempted to determine tbe coon* of
the j^inction 1 +z-/T() in reference (o natnnl to. water on tbe eras
id) and ffidisBiy
intaiamg iti snTpIna
band and to pure air (air ftwd of
air on the other. One wmple of Ha water containing iti anrpliu
baae »a nraclicaliy bicarbonate eerred for all the eipOTimonl*. It
waj shaken srain snd again at a fixed tempeistnn t with ana or
the other tin^ of air, until (after "S" shakingi, alwa;* with
renewed air) the stage of saturation appeared to have bscoma con-
Mant. The iovcatlgition ie not completed yet; ths following
table (V. ) gJTci the teanlts which have come oat so hr. Ths flnal
carbonate was E,O.HCOr
air tree from carbonic acid, tl
the state of seaquiearboData, wniie witn omuiaiy air, ercn at m' ix,
it never fell bclov r^I'S. At 2° n, as well as it, was >% the
value characteristic of bicarbonate. Kow Buchanan reports a good
number of cases where, even at lower temparatnn^ ■ wsa coa-
aijerably leas than I'B at any rats. Hmce, if bia nnnbsn ara
correct, unloaa the atmoaphere acts more powerfully than &» air
in Dittmat'a bottle. It would appear that deep-sea watfr ia in
general below even the stage ot caibonic add saturation which It
could attain at the snifac* at high temperatnrea.
In any mixed solntiDn of aalti every base is combined with iraiy
add; hence the "carixinate" of sea water is strictly nxaking ■
complex plnraL Bat as a matter ef probabiti^ the carbonic uid
has very little chance of nniting with any of the potash oraod^
and the overwhelmingly large quantity of alkaline chlcnlde wonld
no donbt convert any carbiuiale of muneaia that wis introdaoed
into double chloride of magneoium ana alkali metal ; hence it la
fair to anuine that oceanic carbonate ia chiefly carbonate of Uma.
Now Imioenae quantitiea of thia compound an being conatantlj
introduced into the ocean 1>y riven. Dnmaa once gave It as hu
opinion that thia imported carbonate raniains disolved in the ocean
aa long sa and wherever the carbonate then is at the bicaibonata
stage; but, aa soon u part of the loos* carbonic add goes oil into
the air, the correapondjiig wdght of normal carbonate aepatita* oat
aa an addition, ultimately, to the aolids on the bottom. Dittmar
haa tried to teat thia notion synthetically, but wl^ont aniviiw
at very deBnite reaulta. According to his aniviaanta as* water
which contaiae free carbonic add dissdves added aolid eaibonata
of lime, and more largely carbonate of magneala ; at* walar wUA
cootaini tUly, or almost folly, saturated bicarbonats dlasslraa ear-
bonata of magneaia very amrodably, but would not q^waito aot on
carbonate of lime at all. But, when caihonate of linw waa {mdnead
In the form of dloolved
oslcinm chtoride, the original carbonate
very largely, with formation of aoluti< .
dnnng a long-contlnned period of ohaernltuin. As * s*t.off u
of potentisl caldum e
trbonate and ita eqoli
lata of lime could be f
reiy largely, with formation of aolutiona which nmainsd d*ar
Innng a lon^contlnned period of ohaernltuin. As * s*t.off uaiust
ly hundred samples of sea water which h*
thia - - , ^
recdvedfrom the "Challenger" depodud in the MdrM of a nnmber
of years cryatalline crueta of carlxmate of lime on tha ddea of tha
bottle*; and the mother-liquor never contained mon than tba
niwAial quantity of lime per 100 puts of chlorine. In discnadng
tbi* qnestiou Dittmar gives an estimate, based on data ttamhdied
by Bwnatawaki'a work, of the total carbonate of lime intrndnced
into the ocean annually by the thirteen prindpal riven ; and by
donbling the quantity he estimates the carbonate of lime intro-
duced by all rivers aa equal to about I'St k 10* tona. Kow tha sum
total of carbonate of lime, CaCO^ in the ocotn amonnta to about
100 X 10" tonal hence it wontd take IISO yean to iocraaaa the
present stock of carbonate of lime in the ocean by ana par cent of
Abmritd OxgftH and Ifilivgen in Oaan tCaUr. — Aa a mattir ol
phynoal necesniy theas two gas« moat ba pnaent in tbe wster
of the ocean — and they may be presumed in general to pwado it
to its greatest depth — becauae the whole of the surface of the an la
in constant contact with tha atinoapbere. Onr knowledge regaxlinc
their distribntjon in the ocean may ba said to data haa 187%
when Jacobaen Inqulnd htto fbamanerinameat maatariymaniMr
in connexion with tbe Oeiman Rorth Baa eipediUon. n* WoA
of bis prodecesson poaBesea oo edeutifiD valna, becanaa the* am-
ployed inadequate metboda. Unlike tbem, JacobaeB did not
attempt to analyse a sample of sia water air on board ahlp : he
extracted the air from measnted tamplea (br an excellent nwthod
of hia own} and (hen sealed them up in gbs tabsa, to maassn
SEA WATER
613
-CluinBiimr" cmiie adopted JiMbion'i method. Of tlw 181
■unnln which lia walsd nn iiucn>nillT 09 camr. from tho tarftci-
llul 95 from Ucptlu nryiae from G to *576 fiilhonii. A good
uiiuibuT of tliHo ho aiulTHil him«lf iftsr Uij ntura ; ths m^voritj,
houoviT, van llulyBJ-l and »U aero raoMUtod by Dittmnr. Tlie
L-ittur, iu onlor to bo able to iiitoqiret Ibo rmulti, ilso invMtigntad
tho »b«i-i.lioB of osygon ind nltrogon gu from air lijr hh natsf,
Tho folloiiiiiB UUo (VI.) giv- tho roinlt of hi. ii.TootiGmttona,
Ono lit™ (1000 ToloTDOi) of ocean water when aatnrated with «m-
ewod air at r, and a prwaun of 760 milUmttm ' plua
TolaniM, laoaiureil
dryal
irc., t»kM upth
Tfltrwan and Ox^rson hk
Tha method <ued Ibr obtaining thcM uumbard adapted iticlf
tloaalf to UiB one irhlch Buchaiinn had employed fcir extnutii -
tlie gu Bamplea. In tho oalculationa it wu anumed that ata
apherio »ir oonUtna 21-0 toIiuum of oiygon for 7»-0 volumoi
nUracon, tha Blifilit rariatloa In thia ntio, which ia knotm
occanonDll; pmont itulF, being neglected. From tha table i
can calcnlate ap|>n>iimalelf the limita beCivMn which the propoi^
tiona of disaolToU oiygsn and nitrogen in the water o( the oceos
mnat be pmnmed lu oeciliats in natnre. The preunra of th(
atmosphere at the eea-loTol, though by no meani conilaut, ii novci
far removed from that of THO mm. of morcurj. Tho temperatun
»f the int&ea watar (with rare eieeptioni) may be eild to «ry from
-TO. (in tho liqnid part of the ocean in tha »rctie_and autirctio
region!) to about SO" C. [in tlio^tropira), 1^.
m the anrface ;
dinolted oiygen and nitrmen tiom
in from below, except perhapa a relatirely insigntHcint
of nltrogBB derived from tho decay of dead organiami, w
nfol; be neglected. Hanca tha
than IG'4 cc of nitrogen or mors
and the nitia^u will noTer fall belt
8 CO. of oxygen per litre.
regvd to the oxygen, bociusa
. of i-tO cc par litre ia liable to fnrlher
of lift and pntrefaction and by_oiidation generally.'
it any point In tl
o the water t>ainj
iitaatly
dfy poaaible
III tint ibnuluto atagiiat
; and thla cenBrmi th»
an an approiimation to abulnta nat at IhaiB
lo. On tlie whole, tho roiulla of tho gaa aualy-
ais, u intoinroti^l on tlio baiii of Dittnur'a abnrptiametrio detsr-
minatiow, agresU fairly well with the inferencea which n Iuto
jnet beeu deiludng rram phyiicnl lavs. There wai bo lack of
aiiomalouH rcwilti, but it nai not fonad pfl«ihle to traee then to
Ultutal cauws. TIio ci[uililjituni iu regard to the ahaorbed nitrogen
ind oiygon in tho ocean la maintained by tlio atmoiphera ; and,
from (lie fact thnt the air contained in lurfaca water ii alwaya
richer in oiygca than is atmoapheric air, one netorally concludea
that th» ocean ahonlJ conatantly add to tho peroenLipa o( oiymn
In the air in the tropics and conatantly dinuutah it m the wider
latitU'lca. But Ri'guault'i nnmorona aii^nalysa do not conGrm
thid. Nor need this be Tondorsd at, ainM, aa we hare leen, eton
(he eormponding inflnonco on the ahnoaphario oarbonio aeid hai
BO far jeSod tlio powen of chemical inalyaia.
SaliHili/i^Ortnii ffa(A-.— Eren in the open ocean the "ealinity "
—meaning in a given quantity tha ratio between the weight ot
dlnolvod salt and tho weight w volume of the whole — ii subject
to coniiderablo variation ; and it obviouily ia one of the foramifit
duties of obeerving ocnni^rapher* to collect tha data by meana of
which it may be potsible one day to repnaont that quantity niatha-
matically aa a function of goognphio poaition, depth, and Unie.
For tho quantitative determination of the ealinity an Dbrioni, easy,
and mfficient method ie to determine the ipeciGe gravity S at a
convenient temperature t ; thia In lact ia tha method which haa
■0 far been employed by all obaarveta almoet
every other. Buchanan naed it daring tlw "
perhaps more ailcneivoly than any of h.'
>r the arithmetical relation betweeD aaliiitty on tl
I anr&ca of tho <!b«n the water
tend* to' aaaume the compodtion demanded for the
tempeiature by the law* of gas abeocptlon.
Ibr It to asanme thia oompodtion, owinp
eontinnsl state of motion ; and, aapponn^ _ _ .
ocean nu&H wan lu a etato of ttaf^tion, the temperature would
rary In dinmal eyclea, and even tha calculated votnme of nitrogen
per litre would be a periodic function of tune, eihibiting its maii-
mnm at the hour of miuimum tempenture, and via vtria. Tha
proceaa of abaonitiomatric eichango, however, evenat tha constantly
oscillating anrttca of the ocean, ii alow ; it could not koep pace
with the changa of lampeiature, and the actual nitrogen curve
would never go aa high np or aa low down a* the theoretical one.
In addition to tMa, the lower strata of tha watar constantly add
to, or take away from, the surface nitrogen by diffusion and
ociauional intenniiture. All thla holds for the oxygen likewise,
except that it ia liable to eonitant diminution by oiidation. On
the whole we may assume that all the disturbing influencee will
only modify, not eOaco, the course of evonU aa preacribod by the
laws of gaa-abaorptiau.
In n^rd to non-aurfaca ntar wo have to canfhint a greatar
eoniplaiity of phenomena. The gas-coatcnts of deep-sea natcr,
•^ conns, have nothing to do with the low tempenture and tlio
high piH>utB which in genoral prevail there. For tha puquae of
a preliminaij nirvey, let us iniagiue * decp-aea watar fanned from
oue kind of^ lurfaca watar, which took up ita air at a constant
temperature (1), and then sank donn unnuied with other watcra.
The volumea of the oxygea and nitrogen per Utra hive at Gnt the
Talnoa asiignod to them by.the laws crt gas abaorptian. But nhile
the nitrogen (as long as tho water remaiiia unmixed witL other
watar) remains conitant, tho oxygen vill become 1w and lea
thtongh the jirocbaea of oxidation ithich go on in tha deep with-
„^ ,__ .,__._„.L ' -jataffliati- ■ •"-
■■lecimena nhich were
) Witt Ike salritatallBUUs.
Lad don*.
_id S and t on the other the auocesdv* rsnanhea of Ekman (aa
anpplamented by Tomiie), Thorpe and Biickar, Dittmar, and other*
have given n* a practically sufficient knowledge. According to
Dittmar the function (within tha linuti of Bucbanan'a Taloie}
coincides practically with the formula
<3--jW,-x[a + « + i^.
where ,3, meana the apecific gravity at C 0. rafeneJ to that of pun
watar of -l-l'C. aa equal to 1000 ; ^W, baa a similar meaning in
nference to pure watar ; x atanda for the weight of total balogaa
calculated as chlorine per 1000 parte, by weight, of aaa watar ; and
a^l-4G9B3, A=~0'005G92, e=i +0-0000019. For oceauographie
putpoaea, howavor, it is not neceeaarf to go back to x ; 't mmoaa
from serioa of value* ,8, to deduce the coraponding valnea ^^
tor a eonveciant standard tamperatura, and to reaaon on theee
t«duced numbara 11 if they meaeured the Mlinity, ja*t aa we take
the readings of a tbermometeT a* in thamaelvea roprsaeuting
" tsmperatHTea." Thia, in bet, ia always dona ; only unfortanataly
different standard tamperatuita have been choaea by diSerent
obaerveia; Bnchanan adopted 16*'M C =00* fihr. Befora going
fhrtber, let na obeerve that the speciGo gravity of sea water,
taking it ae it Is ^it aUit, bos an important oceanographio algni-
Gcuic*, even as sucJl But this quantity in the case of deep-asa
~ I* by the preeetue of the snpar-
.taelf is a complex function of
the sncceaeiva tcmperaturoa and salinitiea— and nu fortunately m
stiil lack tho Constanta and fonnuls for making tha nacenary
reductions with adeqaato exactitude. Meanwhile all oor statlatln
of sea water apeciBo ^vities, valuable ai they aia, oonstltuta
staUstice of only lalinitioB and nothing else.
At the anrfaco of tha orcan tha ealinitr ia Uabl* ohiaSy to three
inflncnccB,— (1] concentration by formation of ice or by the action
of dry winds ; (2) dilution through the malting of ies«' tha Uling
of rain ; (S) coucantnitian or dilution thrangh the virtaal addition
of salt or watar by inOowing cunenB of aaltar ot ftwher water
reapectively. The effect of the fonnatioB or maltiiv of icc^ though
gnat within the antic circlee, doea not tell mnch on tha non-polar
sea*. Uoteimportantinregard totheaeiathaeffectoftheaooth-aat
and the north-east trade winda, which in tha PiciBo blow between
about 3- and 21* S. lat and between about S* and SO* K. let le-
apecttrely, Invlng between tha tiro a bait of Ii* of ■ ngion ofcalma
(see more exactly, UETRORDLoaT, vol. xvi. p. \U), In the Atlanfla
tha limiting lines of both tradea oadllata annDall]^ ao that tha
equatorial bonndanr of the &orth.ea*t tr«de ehitta mm 3* to II
W. lat. and that of tha sonth^ast trade from abont 1* to 8* Jf. lat.
■tmnplieie Eh tae sptoite cravlty ioH, It assawi at dsntlis-lOOO, «Mt:
taco^ihoiiis a deutftf St 10» + 1, 1, g tlaaa T-9 uJIs- mi'«, MU-t, IMM
614
E A — S E B
which blow
tmd*a, psHini . „.._.,
direction ai'jiight bo mjiected. Is the belt oT eqa-' — ' "•--
between (he two ti»il« ahnndin
ths water Ten perceptthly.
Whit haa Ixwa niil UiDj br (bant the distrlbtittD
nlinitr ippliei chiefly to tho Atlantic, which in fhct
- -implotelf kuoitn In thi* reepect than inj other ocei
:^i
^^
Cnrrea iliowing Tuletiori of luritu
D >bon how on the trerage the mrfice aalinit]
« htituds. The bokler curve i« drawn after i
■nb,
PT axnerant >ntItonttee wftb reference to standard tempentui
Tarying from 16° to lj°-i 0.,— coast wsteti affected bv the Infli
of large riYBn having baen omitted.' In the Kortb Allan tie tht..
iian a™» of maiimmn (anrface) aalinitr [8 = 1028 S) between 26°
•Dd B6' N. laL and 80° and 20' W. long. The tone of minininm
•allnity liei between 16° N, lat. ud t£e equator. In the Sontb
aboat St Helena ud between tliet ulacd and Aacenaion, and a
TBstem north orSaD Trinidad,— both DMrer tho equator than that
of the North Atlantic. Aa pointed oat bj Bncbinan, a relatively
high aalinitv (not merely on the eurface) ia quite a characteristic
feature of the Atlantic, and in iti northern part prevails np to the
high latitndea of the Konregian Sea, which was k> thoroughii in-
veatigated b^ Swenaden (1878) and Tombe (1877 and 1878] during
the Norwegian eipeditiona. The salt (and heat) conveying infln-
■ence of Uie Galf Stream roakei iUelf felt np to Spittborgeu (78* N.
Is the n»cific gravity
push™ northn-ardi,
•outhwardj and, creeping along the eaiti
Btatee, forms what is Vnown aa the " cold
Faroe lalt
Bear lelande it ainke to lOSB'T',
■■:::. "":.;:_ the Gulf 8t«am
of relatively fraeh polar water travela
is that
United
-- — . -.-. —11." In passing from
the depth of the ocean the general nils (Buchanan)
'™ "Pf^fi? gravity in Ma iucreaue with the depth :
aalinity (or Bpeclfio gravity reduced
I or IOC
orial calmi
lehanan).
It thb decs not hold for
to standard temperatare).
-at the surface [I.;., in the
a rule increaaea down to ao
vardi it foUowa the genei
or lOODbthomi, and thence incriaaes steadily "toflie bottom'.' 'in
the Soutll Atlantle the salinity of tho bottom water baa an almost
constant Tain* (Ah=10267 to 1025-S) ; hut northwards it in-
crcaaea to IhNn I0261B to 1026'3a at 2000 to iOOO fathomi
(Bnehanan^
o the Paciflo onr kuovledge is &r le«i complete. A
.V .... , , „ij„;jj, ,^ ,
- 'ntho-wLol '
F» that the (snrfa_., __
, ■ — J (t Is in Che Atlantic
Ihe Pacifle then i. only one ooncentration n
about the Socielr Iiknda, *ith ■ maumnm ntin
toAti-ioniS. ,„ „,
SEA-WOLF, also S«*-OAT and WoLr-ron {^twrrAioio.
input), ft muiat, fish, the largest kiod of tlie fwnily
I, wUch lies
>rTeaponding
C*.D.)
Slentuida or Blenniea. In spite bf its large mi, it haa
Tetained the bodily form and geoeral eztemal chatacter-
iatice of the small blennies, whioh are so abtmdant oa
every rocky ])art of the coast. Ita body ia long, ■ Bubcylio-
drical in front, compressed in the caudal portion, smooth
and slippery, the rudimentary scales being embedded and
almost hidden in the skin. Ad even dorsal fin extends along
the whole length o( the back, and a similar So from tha
vent to the caudal fin, aa id biennis. But its fonnidaUe
deotition distlDguishas
the sea-wolf from all ths
other membera of tha
mti family. Both jawt are
armed infrontnith BtHini;
conical teeth, and oa Aa
udea with two series of
large tubercular molat^
a biserial hand of simt-
lar molars occupying the
middle of the palate. By
these teeth the sesrwolf
is able to crush the hard
carapaces or shells of the
crustaceans and molluscs
on which it feeds; but
whether it uaea the teeth
as a weapon of defence
and deserves the character
ean wilh latitude. of ferocitj generally attri-
buted to it would appear to be rather qoeationable from
observations mode on specimens in tiie aquarium at
Hamburg, which ' '
allowed them-
selves to be
haudled without
in any way re-
senting the loss
of their liberty. /
It must, how-/.
ever, be added '
that the small
blenniea bite '^'^ "' t^ Io*cr and nppo Jawi of tbe'iea-mU;
readily when caught Sea-wolves are inhabitant! erf th«
northern seas of both hemisphere^ one (A. fvptu) being
common on the cooata of Scandinavia and North Britain,
and two in the seas ronnd Iceland and Qreenland. Two
others occnrin the corresponding latitudes of the Kortk
PaciGc They attain to a length exceeding 6 feet, and in
the north are esteemed as food, both fresh and prmerved.
The oil extracted from the liver ia said to 1w in qoali^
equal to the best cod-liver oil. Of late jears smdl noin-
bera have reached the Engliah markela, where, however,
the prejudice which attaches to all scaleltta Gshe^ parti-
cularly such OS possess a varied patteni of coloratiDii,
limits their use as food.
8EBASTE. See SrvAw.
SEBASTIAN, Dok. See Powcuai, vol xix. pp. {146-
SEBASTIAN, St, tha potron saint againrt plague and
pestilence, was by birth a Norbonese. According to the
Komon breviary his nobility and bravery had endeared
him to tha emperor Dioclatian, who made him captain of
the firBt cohort Having aocretly become a Christian, ha
was wont to encourage those of hie brethren who in tho
hour of trial seemed wavering in their profession. This
was conspicuously the case when the brothers Harcna and
Morcellinus were being led forth to death ) by hia eihorta-
tioDS he prevailed on them to resist the entreaties and teaia
of their wives and children. Tho emperor having been
I informed of this coudoct sent for him and earnestly remoo-
8 E B — S E B
615
■Inrtad widi him, bu^ findiag liim infleziUe, Ofdand tint
IwiboDldiM bomiltoftitakeudakot todwth. After
the mhan had left him f<^ dead • dertnt womu, Irene,
miM bj ni^t to take liie bod; unj for bnml, bit, And-
iog him atill altre, nrried him to her hone^ where hia
wonndt were drneafld. NoiooDarbadba whol^raeorared
dun be iMwteaed toeonfantUieemperar, nfooaehingliim
with liis impietj; Diocletiaii, filled with eatoaiahmeDt,'
which BOOD chan^^ into fniy, ordered him to be inataDtly
earned off and be&tea to death with rode (388). The
■entence waa forthwith executed, hia body being Uirown
into the cloaca, where, however, it was foand b; another
pio» matron, Locina, whom Sebaatian Tinted in a dream,
diieotins her to bmy him in the Cataoomba nnder the nte
of the ^nrch now called bj hii name. He la odetnated
bj the Rtmian Chnrdi on 30th Janmuj (di^ex). Hta
imlt ia eUtfly difibaed akng the eaeten coait t^ Italy and
in other didriota liable to viaitMionB <d plagoe. Aa a
yoong and beantifnl aoldier, he la a favonrite ml^ect ct
eacted art, bung moat generallr npieaeoted aa nndrtfied
and sererefr, tbovrii not morta%, wounded with arrowa.
SEBASriAKO DEL PIOHBO (1480-15J7), painter,
wae bora at Venice in 146S, and b^onga to the Tonetian
•chool, exMptionalljr modified t^ the FlMentino or RomAn.
Hia fNollT name waa lAciaiiL He waa at fint a mnaurion,
chisfi; a aolo^layer oo the late, and was in great reqaeat
among the Veoetian nobility. Ha aoon showed a turn
for pfii-tingi and became a pnpil of Giovanni Betlini and
aftMinuda of Qtorgione, Hia fint painting of note waa
dona for the ehnrch of Bt John Chryaoetom in Venioe,
and ii ao doeely modelled on the er^le of QitH'gioDe that
in its anthor'a time it often paaaed for the work of that
master. It Rpreeenta C3u7M«tom reading aloud at a
desk, a grand Hagd^ene in front, and two other female
and three mala saints. Towards 1612 Sebaatiano was
invited to Boms b; the wealthy SiaDose merchant Agoatino
Chigi, who occnpied a villa by the liber, since named the
Farnedna ; be executed some freaooa here, other leadmg
artiste hung employed at the same time. The Venetian
mode of cdour was then a startling novelty in Borne.
Uichelangelo law and approved the woik of Lnciani,
beaune lua personal friend, and entered into a peculiar
arrangement with him. At thia period the pictorial
ability of Hiohetangelo (apart from nil general power as
an artitt^ regarding which there aroae no qneetion) waa
Bomavdiat decried in Rome, the rival faculty (rf Rq)liael
being invidionsly exalted in comparison ; in eq>eeial it
was contended that Buonarroti fell short as a oidonriat.
He therefore thought that he might try wheAer, by
fnmishing designs for pictoiee and leaving to Sebastiano
the ezecntion of thorn in colour, he could not maintain at
its highest level his own general supremacy in the art,
leaving Bapiutel to eostain the competition as ^e best
mi^t. In thif there seems to have been nothing porticn-
Urly nnfoir, always aamming that the oompact was not
fiaodoleatly oonoealed; and tlie facta an so openly stated
by MichelMgelo'a Mind Vasari (not to speak of other
writers) that there ^tpeara to have been little or no dia-
gtuse m the matter. Bendea, the piotorea are there to
q>eak for themselves ; and connoinenrs have always ac-
biowledged that the quality of Michelongelo'B unmatched
dengn is patent on the face of them. Of htte years, bow-
ever, some writers, onneceaMuily jeolons for Bnonajroti's
POTioaa] rectitude, have denied that his handiwoil is to
he traced in the pictures bearii^ the name of Behastiana
Foot leading {natares wUch Sehartiano painted in pnisn-
•noe of hia league with Buonarroti are the Fiet4 (earliest
of the four), in the dmioh of the Oooventoali, Viterbo ;
the Tranafignration and the Flagellation, in the ohurch of
fit Fiatn in Uontodo^ Brate; and, n '
all, the Buaing of lannu^ now in the Londcm Notional
Oallety. Ibis grand work — men remaikable for geuetal
ftiaigth of [»ctorial perception than fear qualities of de-
tailed intellectaal or emotional ezpreesion — U more than
13 by 9 feet in dimansiona, with tha prindp^ figurea of
the natural use; it is ioiicribed "Sebastionus Venetns
faciebat," and was tmnsferred from wood to canvas in
1771. It was painted in 1517-19 for OiuHo de' Medici,
then Ushop of Noibonne, afterwarde Pope Clement VIL ;
and it remained in Narbonne cathedral until purchaaad
by the duke of Orleans early in the 18th century, — ooming
to England with the Orleans gallery in 1793. It is
generally admitted that the design of Michelangelo appears -
in the figure of Lazarus and of thcoe who are bosied
about him (the British Museum contains two sketches of
the Lazarus regarded as Michelangelo's handiwork) ; but
whether he actually touched Ibe panel, as has often been
sud, appean more than doabtful, as he left Rome about
the time when the picture was commeo^ed Raphael's
Ttansfigontion was painted for the same patron and the
same destination, lie two works were exhibited together,
and some admirers did not scruple to give the preference
to Sebaatiano's. The third of the four pictures above
mentioned, the Flagellation of Christ, though ordinarily
termed a fresco, ie, according to Vasari, painted in oil
upon the wall This waa a method first practised by
Domenico Veneiianos and afterwards bj some other
artisla ; bnt Sebastiano alone succeeded in preventing the
blackening of the coloois. Tha contour of the figure of
Chtist in this picture u supposed by many to have bean
supidisd by Buonftrroti's own hand. Sebastiano, always
a tardy worker, was occupied about six years npon tins
work, along with its companion the Tia^figumtion, and
the ^ed figures of saints.
After the elevation of Giolio da' Medici to the pontificate
the office of the " piombo " or leaden seal — that is, the oflica
of sealer of briefs of tha apostolic ch>unber — became vacant ;
two pointers oompeted for it, Bebostiaoo Luciaoi, hitherto
a comparatively poc^ man, and Giovanni da Udine. , Finally
Seboatianc^ assnming the habit of a friar, secured the very
lucrative appointment, — with the proviso, however, that he
should pay out of hia emoluments 300 scudi per annum to
Qiovanm. If ha had heretofore been slow in painting be
became now snpina and indifierent in a marked degree.
He lived on the fat of tha laud, cultivated sprightly literary
and other society, to which ha contributed his own fnU
quota of amusement^ and would scarcely handle a brush,
■^Tii^f joenlarly that he benefited the profession by leav-
ing u the more work for other artiste to do. Berni, one
of his intimates, addressed a aipUoio to him, and Sebastiano
responded in like versified form. One of the few subject-
pictures which ha executed after taking office was Christ
carrying the Cross for the patriarch M Aquileia, also a
Madonna with the body of Christ. The former painting
is done on stones > method invented by Sebastiano himiwlf,
He likewise painted at times on slate, — as in the instance
of Christ on the Cross, now in the Berlin gallery, where the
slate constitutes the background. In the same method,
and also in the same gallery, is the Dead Christ supported
by Joseph of ArimaUieo, with a Weeping Magdalene,:—
colossal half-length figures. Late in life Sebastiano had
a serious disagreement with Michelangelo' with reference
to the Florentine's great picture of the I^st Judgment
Sebastiano encouraged the pope to insist that this picture
should be executed in oil. Michelangelo, determined from
the first upon nothing but fresco, tortiy replied to hia
b(J)ne« that oil was only fit for women and for sluggards
like Friar Sebastian ; and the coolness between the two
painters lasted almost up to the friar's death. This event,
cousequeot upon a violent fever acting n^ndly upon a
6I«
S E B — S E C
v»rj auigniM tenpenunent, took place tX Rome in 1947.
Bebaatiano directed that hU burial, in the church of S.
Maria del Fopolo, ehould be conducted without ceiemony
of piiesta, frian, or lights, aud that the coat thus saved
should go to the poor ; in this he waa obeyed.
Kumsntni pupils Kught training rrom Sebuturio iel Piombd ;
butf D«iii^ to hu dilAtoiy uid wLf-indulgBnt lubila. thoy learned
Uttls Enia bim, with tbc Diception of Tomiauo Uunti. Sebu-
nuds hiniBir apeciaUr celebntod u t portnjt painter : the likg.
nuB oC Andrw Doiu, in the Dora. Pmlaca, Rome, is one of Uio
Dwat renawned. la the London National Gallsrj an two fins
■peoiinenvr ono cairtaa reprasoota the (nar himeelf, along with
Cki^nal Ippolito de' Usdici ; the other, a portrait of a ladj in tha
ohanetar oVst Agatha, used to b? identined nitU one ot SebsBtiano'i
ntime worka, the likenoa of Julia aoniaga (punted for her loTer,
the afDrcmamed oardinal), but this a^umption is nov diacnditad.
Then wen (1*0 portraits oC Mucantonio CEilouni, Vittoria Colotina,
Ferdintad nurnnit oT Feacara, PowA Adrian VL, Clement Til.
(atuitj Oallsn, Naples), and Paul [II., Saninicheli, Anton Fran.
caaoa de^ Album, and Fletro Antino. Ona lihenen Ot tli6 laat-
nuMil ntUr i> in Amu and another in the Berlin gillety.
SEBAOTOPOIs or Sevabtopol, the chief naval etation
o[ Busua on th« Black Sea, ia aituaCed in the aouth-west
of the Crimea, in ii' 3V K lat. and 33* 31' K long., S35
milea from Moacow, irith which it is connectad by rail via
KharkoS The eetoarj, which ia one of the best roadsteads
ia Europe and could ^Iter the combined fleete of Europe,
ia a deep and thorough!}' sheltered indentation among
chalkj cliffe, running eoat and west for nearly SJ milai,
with a width of threa^narteis of a mile, narrowiiig to 930
yards at the entrance^ where it is protected by two small
promoatoriee. It has a depth of from 6 to 10 fathoms,
with a good bottom, and Urge ships can anchor at a
cable's length from dio shore. The mtun inlet baa also
four smaller indentations, — Qoamntine Bay at its entrance,
Vnihnaya (Southern) Bay, which penetrates more Uian a
mile to the sooth, with a depth of from 4 to 9 fathoms,
Doe^tid Bay, and Artillery Bay. A small liTor, the
Tchomaya, enters the head of the inlet. Tha main part
of the town, with an elevation ranging from 30 to 190 feet,
stands on the southern shore of theichief inlet, between
Yuibnaya and Artillery Baya To the east are situated
the banackis, hospitals, and storehouees ; a few buildings
on the other shore ot the chief bay constitute the "northern
Nde." Before the Crimean War of 1853-96 Seboatopol
was a well-boilt city, beautified by gardena, and had 43,000
iohabitoDta ; but at the end of the aicge it hod not more
than fourteen buildings which had not been badly injured.
After the war many privileges were granted by the Oovem-
ment in order to attract population and trade to the town ;
but both increased slowly, and at tha end of seven years
its population numbered only 5750. The railway line
connectiog Sebastopol with Moscow gave some animation
to trade, and it was thought at the time that Sebastopol,
although precluded by the treaty of I^is from reacquiring
its Dkilitary importance, might yet become a commercial
city. Ill November 1870, during the Franco-Oerman
War, the Russian Qovemment publicly threw off the
obligatioa ot those clauaea of the treaty ot Farie which
related to the Black Sea Beet and fortresses, and it was
decided again to make Sebaatopol a naval arsenal. In
1883 Sebastopol had a population of 26,150 inhabitants,
largely military. The town has been rebiult on a now
plan, and a fine church occupies a prominent site. There
are now two lycoumii and a loological marine station.
Although belonging to the government of Taurida, Sebaa-
toi>ol and its enviromj are under a separate military
The peninsula betiroon the Bay oT Sebastopol and the Black Sea
became known in the 7th ceotiu? *i the Hencleotic Choraonesa
(see Tol. n. p. 587). In tha 6th centniy B.C a Gnek celooy waa
itrong roTtificatioa
"ids by tlis Hon^Ia,
ot the Lithniuian
new ioflui of ooloiiizen,
trlbatary to Borne. tJader the Rfnatina amparew CluiHiBMn
was an administntiTe oenCr* to tbeir pOHNOoaa in TsTida, Ac-
cording to the Ruseiaa annala, Ylsdimir, {Kince of KieA^ couqDcml
Chcrsonesue (KonuH) befon being baptiied there, ami rcrtorail i:
to the Greeks on muryiog the piioceaa Anna. BulMBqnetttlj tbc
8lavoiii«BB wen cnt off from nlations with Taurida br tlir " '-
and only made occuioDal raids, auch as ' ' '
prince Olgerd. In the leth ceutuiy a i
the Taton, occnpied Cbenonesue and foontiea a seLuemsni *■»"*—■
Afchtiar. This Tillage, after the Hnisan n>nqa»t In 1783, was
selected for the chief naval stution of the empin in tha Blaii Sea
nuns ("The Aognst atf"). Ia 1S3«
_ ___ bwun, and in 18SS it was a formidable
In September ISSJ, aftei having defeatnl tha Kusmiuis
in the battle of the AJma, the Anglo-Frrnch laid sega to the
southern portion of the town, and on 17ch Octabit bepn a faoavy
bombaidmeat. Sebastopol, which waa nearly qnite open tnaa tha
land, waa Htrengtheoed by corthwoiks thrown op ander the Giw
of the beaisgcra, and eustained a memorable eleven months' aocffa.
On atb SepLonibar 18SE it ms evacuated b; the Bnanana, who
retired to the north aide. The fortiBcationa wgn blown np by tb*
alliaa. and by the Paris Ina^ Uu Buiilaaa wen boiuid not to
reston them.
SEBENICO (Sibaui), a town of Austrian Dalmatia, on
the coast of the Adriatic, about holf-wa^ between Zm« and
Spalato, is situated on on irregular basin at the montb of
the Kerka, connected with the see by a winding ehanael 3
miles long. The channel is defended by a fort deeigced
by Bonmicheli, and the town itself, picturesquely eitn&l«d
on tlie abrupt slope of a rocky hill, ia guanled by lliree
old castles, now dismantled. There ia also a wall on the
landward side, Sebenico is the seat of a bishop, and its
Italian Qothic cathedral, dating from the 16th and 16th
centurieo, is considered the finest church in DalmatJa.
Its excellent harbour and its situation at the entrance of
the Kerka valley combine to make Sebenico Uie entrepAt
ot a considerable trade. Fiahing ia carried on exten-
aively. The populatioD of the commune in 1660 waa
18,104, of the town proper about 8000.
SECCHI, Akqelo (1818-1878), Italian astnmomw, waa
bom on 29th June 1818 at Reggio in Lombardy, and
entered the Society of Jesua at an early age. In 1849 he
was appointed director of the obeervatory of tha CoUegiD
Romano, which was rebuilt in 18S3j there he devoted
himaelf with great pereeverance to researchee in physical
astronomy and meteorology till his death at Bome on 36th
February 1678.
Tha rnnlts of Secchi's obeerratiaiii are ooDtained in a gnat
number of papcra and memoirs. Prom about 1844 ha occupied
himMlI almost excIosLvely with spectnira anijyria, bath ot Btaia
{atlaJiigodtlleSUUedi{uiiitdaermitialolaSpeaniLllmiMeio,Ttna,
16B7, 8vo 1 " Sugli Bpettri Prismatlci delle Stella FisM," two puts,
laflS, in the AUi delta See. /Col.) and of the son {£t Beltil, Patia,
SEOKENDORF, Vkit Lubwio voir (1626-1692), a
Qernmn statesman and scholar of the 17th century, was
the modt distinguished member of an ancient and wide-
spread German noble family, which took ita name fnnn
the village Seckendorf between Kuremberg and I^ngeu.
Eenn, and is said to have been ennobled by the empem
Otho I. in 950, though it traces its own genealogy no
further back than 136S. The family was divided into
eleven distinct lines, but at present only three are pie-
served, widely distributed throughout Frussia, Wurtem.
berg, and Bavaria.' Voit Lndwig vou Seckendorf, son
of Joachim Ludwig, of the Oudentine line, waa bom
at Herzogcnaurach (uear Erlangen) in Upper Fianconia,
30th December 1626. Hin youth fell iu the midst of the
Thirty Years' War, in which hia taHinr was actively
^ AmoEgut the Beckendorfi leas known to Tame tiian Veft Ludwig
an hii nephew. Ftiedricb Hemiich (1B73-17SB), soldisr and diplo-
loatlst ; Leo (1T7S-I809). poet, Uterary man, and BBldiv ; the tnthan
Chrutinu Adolf (UB7-183S) aod OuiUv Antoi ("lUllk Pads")
(177e-lSS3), both Utena ueo of raae Sole.
S E C — S E 0
617
engaged. But Us talented kod noUe mother cttrafnily
watcbed orer his education. Iq Cbbui^, Miihlhausen,
and finally in Erfnrt, whither his mother removed in
1636, he acquired the I^tin, Oreek, and Freacli lan-
guages. Id 1639 he returned to Coburg, and the reign-
ing doke, Ernest the PiooB, made him his protege. Enter-
ing the univeraitj of StrflBburg in 1642, he devoted
himself to history and jnriBpmdence. After be finished
his universitj course his patron gave htm an appointment
in his court at Qotha, with the charge of lus valuable
library. He there laid the foundation of his great collec-
tion of historical materials and mastered the principal
modem languages. In 1653 hewasappointed to import-
ant jndicial positions and sent on weighty cmbassagea.
In 1656 he was made judge in the ducal court at Jena,
a poution which he held many years and in which he
took the leading part in the numerous beneficent reforms
of the duke. Li 1664 he resigned office under Duke
Ernest, vho had Just made him chancellor and with whom
he continued on excellent terms, and entered the service
of Duke Maurice of Zeit£ (Altenburg), with the view of
lightening his official duties: After the death of Maoriee
in 1681 ho retired to hia estate, Meuselwitz in Altenburg,
from nearly all public offices, and devoted himself to his
intdlectual labours. Althoogh living in retirement, he
kept up a correspondence with the principal learned men
of the day. He was especially interested in the endeavours
of the pietist Spener to effect a practical reform of the
German church, although he was luirdly himself a pietist.
In 1692 he was appointed chancellor of the new univenity
of Halla, but died a few weeks afterwards, on the IBth of
December.
SsckandorTi prindnl Torks wsie the following i—Beultcher
FMUaitaat (IflH UM oftso atteniiid)), a handbcnk of Otnnan
paUio Uw ; Ov Chridtiulaat (lASfiX putly an apolwy for Chrii-
tEanitj sail putlv suggastloiu (br ua tefinmition oltlu chuich,
fooDdsd OD Pucal'i J%ujw and anbodjiog th« tODdunental ideu
of Spaner ; Oammntariia AMorfcuf tl i^logtUeiu dt LiUhencnitijui
live dt a^ormatioiu ft vols., LeiiMie, ISfKt) ocoiioaed b* tbs
Jamit Uaimbonigr* BiiMn da JLuA^nmimi* (Puti, ItSO), hii
'.ani.
, ,. _, -.-.. iFSoS™. '
ITUa JikAo^oV' ia ViUr-i ArAin fir dU »
SECRETABT-BIBD, a rery singular African animal
Brat accurately made known, from an example living in
the menageiie of the prince of Orange, in 1769 by Yos-
maer,' in a treatise published simultaneously iu Dutch
and French, and afterwards included in his collected works
issued, under die title of Begaum Animate, in 1604. He
was told that at the Cape of Good Hope this bird was
known as the " Sagittarius " or Archer, from its striding
gait being thought to resemble that of a bowman advanc-
ing to shoot, but that this name had been corrupted into
that of " Seccetarins." In August 1770 Edwards saw an
example (apparently alive, and the survivor of a pair which
had been brought to En^and) in the poesessioa of Mr
■ La ViUlaot (3e. Koy. 4/M;ih, 1L p. 2TS) traljitato that Kolbni
la 1719 (Oiput Bonn A«' hBdiemum, p. IBS, Fnndi Ttnlon, ii. p. 198)
hid meDtioned tbli bird ondsT lla locil Dime of "Soitt-sitar" (Sim^nt-
weHer, Datah tnoiUtJon, L p. 3U] ; but tbtt tutlior, who wu a
bad natnnlut, Hianght It ma ■ Pelican and also eootoandad it with
Ihe B|»onbill, which ia Sgnrad to lUutnta hit auonnt of lL Tboti^
ha donbtlau had iMu, and pertiapi triad to dsKiiba, tba Seciataiy-
blrd, hg oertainl/ failed to CODVC/ aoj coirect Idea o( It. Littuun'g
mjtgiatiaD {loe. in/ra at.) that tha flgnn of 4hc "Oroa Capenaia
ctada oiatata" in PeCirar's Oiuripkylaaum (tab. liL Bg. 12) waa
miant br thla btrd la negativad b; hi) deaeriptlon of It (p. 30). lla
fflgon waa i^ohablj copied from ona of Bhanrd'a painlinga aikd ia mon
likaly to faara had iti origin In a Crasa of aooie ipadta. Voamasr'a
plats ia lettand " Ainttlkuiiiacbeii Boot-T«aL" Of nona br mistake
l(r-AIHkM»Wl«."
Raymond near Dford In EtMX ; and, being unacquainted
with Votmaer's work, he figured and doacribed it as " of
a new genua" in the PhUotopAiml TVonaorttoiu for tho
following year (lii pp. 56, 58, pi. iL). In 1776 Sonnerat
(roy. A'oBc. Guinfc, p. 87, pL l») again described and
Baonlarr-lflnL
figured, but not at all eoneetly, the tpedci, tayinft (but
no doubt wrongly) that he lonnd it in 1771 in the
Philippine Islands. A better representation waa ^ven by
D'Anbentoa in the Plaxchei BrUtiminia (731); in 1780
BuSbn {OiieoMx, vii. p. 330) published some addidooal
information derived from Querhoent, saying also that it
was to be seen in some English menageries; and tha
following year TAtJimn (SynoptU, i. p. 20, pL S) described
and figu«d it from three examples which be had teen
alive in England. None of tbeee authors, however, gaTe
the bird a scientific name, and the first ctmferred tipon it
seems to have been that of Faleo ttrpenfariiu, inscribed
on a plate bearing date 1779, by John Frederick Miller
{HI. STat. Hiitory, xxviii), which plate lyipears also in
Shaw's Cimelia Phjfiea (No. 38) and ia a mialpaHing
caricature^ In 1786 Scopoli called it Otii terttariM —
thus referring it to the Bustards,^ and Cnvier in 1798
designated the genua to which it belonged, and of which
it still remune tiie sole representative,* Utrpeitiaritu. Suc-
ceeding aystematiata have, however, eneumbaed it with
many other names, among which the generic terms Ofpo-
geraitMt and OphioiAertt, and the specific epithets reptUi-
vorui and erutatiu, require mention here.* The Secretary-
bird is of remarkablB appearance, standing nearly 4 f$et in
height, the great length of its lega giving it a reaemblance
to a (>aee or a Heron ; but lite expert will at once notice
that, unlike those birds, its tibiie are feathered all the way
down. From the back of the head and the nape hanga,
loosely and in pairs, a series of black elongated feathers,
capable of erection and dilation in periods of oicitemetit.'
* OoiamlrBwneli.Boddiait ialTBSoailttedto^va It aadcotUia
' OgObr'a attempt to dEitii«iilih tbraa ipadaa (/Vac ZmL SKutg,
1836, pp. 104, 105) baa met with no anaoaragameDt ; but exaniplai
from uu north of tlie eqnatfir an a9niawhat amallar thin thoaa trnn
tha ionth.
* Tho adastlflo aynonyny of tba apadaa la givsn at gnat length by
DnFjaichandHartUnb(r^ (M-.^>itat, p. 98} and by 111 Sharpe
(CU. B. Ait JrwmM, L p. U) ; but each liat haa eonie anon in
* It la from tha boclad tteemUanee of tbeaa faalhen to the pens
which > dark la idppoaed to (tick sbore hla ear that the Unl'a urn*
of SecirtaiT li ntllr derived.
018
s b: c— s e d
^e lUn tooDd tho «jtB ia bus and of an orange colour.
^M ImocI, neck, and nppet parts of tlio body imd wing-
corerte are Uoiih-gNy; but the carpel feathers, incloding
the primariea, are black, as also are the featheia of the
vent and tibis, — the laat being in Bome examples tipped
with white. The tail-quilla are grey for the greater part
of their length, then barred with black and tipped vith
white ; but the two middle feathers are more Man twice
as long as thoae next to them, and drooping downwards
present a verj nnique appearance.
Tba Imbiti of Uu Secnlarf-binl hsn bsni •nrj tMqiuntlr
dncribvd, od« rf tho bat ucoanti of theta balng br Tamaui in
tht ZoolDgial Sodcty'i PnuKtingi for 186t (pp. 3*8-892). Ita
obiaf pnj ooiuiit* of iiuNU ud nptilsa ud w s foo ta malu« it
is htld la high mtttDL Haking arery aUawsnca for axugontioii,
it Nnu to ppHM a Itaogt pwtlalitjr fbr the dcatncllm of tho
kttn, ud saeoanAillf att^ii Uw moM TonomonB ^ecia^ itcikine
th«iii with iti kuobbod viugi and Uddng fbrmtdi at than with
ill feat, until tbar on rendnvd Inc^abl* of offences when it
amllowi tham. Ili« n«t ii ■ huge itniiztura, plKod In > biub or
traa, lud In it two whita egga, apotted with nut-colour, ue Isid.
The Toung renuin in tbe nosC for i long while, and avea vbso
four montha old are nnablo to itund upright. The; an ver;
fraqnauUy brougbt up teua, ud becoma agreeable ~~'' '~ —
■■Mbl paU -'--' "- — - -'---■ — ' ■-- ■- -1 —
. Tb* SecnUn-bird ii foiuid, but not Terr
„ y in aoma localitiea, ovar tba grestac part of
Africa, aipaolaUy in tba anitb, aitendiug northwmida on me west
to tha Gatubia and ia tba intarior Co Khutnm, where Ton Hei^lin
ebsarred it bneding.
MitioD of tbe gsntii Berfntarbu has kiog bean
It of the
well agned in pladna it in (bo
^ , __ _i(ni, howarar, ban ahown gwat
want of wnaptlan by Mtting it b the FaniDT Alamidm. No
amtomia can donbl it* fbrming a pecnllir Family, SirpniUrfitIm,
dlffating mora tkiun the lUanudm than da tha FiiUuridm ; and
tbe hn of Prat A. lUlna-Edwards baring reoogaind in tbe
Ulocaua of tba Alliar tba temSl bona of a apadaa of thii genna,
~ " -- - - - pp_ i«6-*«4 pL 188, llga l-fl),
a, oot powibly oanrinE on a
. • — . — juji^,^ form.
illOU.fi
prorea that it ia an andant form,
diiaot uid not mncb. modifled deao. „
whence may Iuts epruDji not mHj tha Ritemidm bat perhapa .__
prasentton of tha Ardndm end Oieantidm, aa weU as tba pnnlino
Ca^m4du (Sibibma, q.t.). (A. H.)
SECULAIt GAMES wen celetmted at Rome for three
days and ni^b with great ceremony to mark the com-
mencement nf a new timlunt or generation. Originally
th^ were a propitiatoiT festival, miported from Etruria
nnder the name of Lofli Terentini, aiid held at irregular
intemla, in view of extraordinary prodigies; but in 249
B.CI. it was decreed that they should be celebrated in every
handredth year after that deAe. This decree was frequently
disregardei^ partly for political reasons and partly because
in Augustus's time ana with his approval the quindecem-
viii, acting under Qreek inflnenot^ sanctioned the longer
period of 110 yaara.
The dates of tbe eetnal eelebratvini are u follows :— the Hnt In
sot 8.0., tba seoond In ue, the tbiid in S4V, the fourth In llfl,
tbe Uth by AonitBB in 17 (foe this occaaiiin Horacs wrote bia
Cbraua OHHte^ tba rizth fay raaodin* ia 4Ta.D.=S00 A.u.a,
tba aatantb by Diwitiaa in 8l tbe (With by Antoninoe Pica in
14T=»00s.D.a, tbenhithbyBeranslntO* <S30 yean after tbe
AuDMaa cdebntlon), the tenth by KiUip in S48, the elerantb
and laat by OalUenua a Sts. lie piqlesled ealebiation of Ifaxl-
uien in Ml did not take plu&
dima, IL 1 Kt I TaL MBjr., li. o.
uJio mt «ly e> the aabotHx
ikL ^e auliulaeiiiiilnl boaha aaalpwi
11 tilthaOpaa Oonp. Maiqaudl, DU
aetttkiBa 4atat krr tta pn-Ainataa
ifcwmawni iianii» ul ^lMl»
SEOnNDERA.Bii}, one of the chief British military
cantiHunents in India, is situated in the native state of
Hai^rtbid (Hydaiabad) or tiie Nimid's Dominions, in
ir 26' 30* N. lat. and 78' 83' E. long., 1830 feet above
Ilia level of tite sea, and 6 miles north-east of Budarabid
d^. SecuDderibid ia the largest military station in India
Kid f vnns the headquarters of the Haidaribid subsidiary
foTc^ which eonstitiilea a division <rf the Madras army, ^i*
strength cI tha miUtary force stationed at Secunderib^
in 1883 was 6632, EnropBan troops numbering 3276 and
native troops 335G. To the south-west of the cantonment
then Is a large reservoir or tank, known as the Huaain
S&gar, about 3 miles in circumierecce. Secundarabad
town, which forms the cantonment bazaar, contains a
population of over 30,000. Adjoining this cantonment to
the north is tha Bol&ram cantonment, one of the stations
of the Haidar&b&d contingenL under the immediate com-
mand of tbe uiiam ; and 2 miles to the south of SecunderA-
b^ cantonment are the lijiea of the Hatdarab.^ reformed
troops, also belonging to tho niaom. During the mutiny
(1857-68) Iwth the subsidiary force and the Haidaribid
contingent rendered good service.
SECUNDUS, JoHASNES, or Joranm EvEK'ra (1511-
1536), Latin poet, was bom at The Hague on 10th No-
vember 1511. Ue was descended from an ancient and
honourable family in tho NcthcrUnds ; hia father, Nicholas
Evertfl, or Evcrard, seema to have been high in the favour
of the emperor Charles V. On what account the son was
called Secundua is not known. Hia father intended him
for the law ; but though he look his degree at Bourges it
does not appear that he devoted much time to legal pur-
suits. Poetry and the sister arts of [minting and sculpture
engaged his mind at a very early period. In 1533 he went
to Spain, and soon afterwards became secretary to the
cardinal-arcbbisbop of Toledo, in a department of bnaiiiesa
which required no other qualification than that which hs
poeaeesed in a very eminent degree, — a facility in writing
with elegance the IaUu language. It was during this
period that he composed hia moat famous vrork, the Baiia,
a aeries of amatory poems, of which the fifth, seventh, and
ninth Carmifia of Catullus acem to Lave given the hint.
In 1034 he accompanied Charles V. to the aiege of Tunia,
but gained few laurels as a soldier. After quitting the
service of the archbishop, Secundus was employed as secre-
tary by the biahop of Utrecht ; and so much did he dis-
tinguish himself by the classical elegance of his compou-
tions that he was called upon to fill the important pott of
private I^tin secretary to the emperor, who waa then in
Italy. But, having arrived at St Amand, near Toumay,
he was cut off by a violent fever on Sth October 1G36.
SEDAINE, MicmL Jeak (1719-1797), dramatist, was
bom at Paris on 4th July 1719. I'ew men of letters hava
risen from a lower station. Although his father waa an
architect, hs died when Sedaine was quite young, leaving
no fortune, and the boy began life as a mason's lal>ourer.
Ho worked himself up in hia trade and waa at last taken
as pupil and partner by the builder who employed him.
Meanwhile he had done his beat to repair his deficiencies
of education, and inlTSS he published a volume of poems
of some merit He then took to tbe theatre and after
composing various vaudevilles and operettas attracted the
aitention of Diderot, and bad two remarkable plays ac-
cepted and performed at the ThUtre Froncaia. The first
and longest, the PkUotopht tan* h Satoir, was acted in
176G ; the second, a lively one-act piece, La Gagncrt Im-
prfpue, in 1768. These two at once took their place as
stock pieces and are still ranked among the beat French
plays, each of its class. Sedaine inclined somewhat to the
school of dram« or tragidie bovryeoite, bat he was free
from the eiceasive sentimentality which in the bands of
Diderot and others marred the style, and he had a vein
of singularl' natural and original comedy. Indeed his
originali^ ia one of his chief pointa, though except the
two pieces mentioned little or nothing of his has kept tbe
stage or tha bhelves. Sedaine^ who became a member of
tbe Academy, secretary for architecture of the One arts
division, and a prosperons man generally, was personally
S E D — S E D
619
both popnbr and Kipeeted. He lived to a considerable
age, dying at Paris on JTth May 1797.
SEDALXA, a city of the United Btateo, coanty town
of Pettia'connty, Hiaaouri. lies 169 milee weet of St Louis,
on the higbsst swell of a rolling prairie, which drains by
■null streams north-east to the Missoori. It is a railroad
centre, and, besides the machine -ahops and carriage-
faetoriea of two railway companies (Uie Misiionri, Ttuni*,
and Texas, and the Misaouri Pacific, Middle Division), it
contains foundries, flour-mLUs, and establiahments for the
mannfocture of furniture, woollen goods, soap, beer, Ac
Among the public buildings are two opervhouses, a public
library, a tugh school, and a ^mnanium. Founded in
1860 by Qeoeral George B. Smith, Sedalia had 4560
inhabitants in 1870, and 9561 in 18S0.
SEDAN, a town of France, the chef-lieu of an airondisse-
ment in the department of Ardennes, lies on the right
bank of the Heuse, 13 miles east-south-east of Medtrea
by the railway to liioQTille (Lorraine), and is surtounded
by heights of about 1000 feet. Since its fortifications
vrere didatiia, a process of embellishment has been going
on. Place Tnreime takea its name from the statue of the
illostrions maishal, who was bom in the town in 1611.
The pablio bnildinga includa a Protcatant church, a syna-
gogne, a mnsenm, and a college. The manufoctore of fine
black cloth has bng been, and still continnes to be, the
st^le industry, employing in the town and neighbourhood
more than 1 0,000 workmen, and producing to the value of
40,000,000 francs anuoally. Several spinning-mills have
been erected by Alsatian refugees since 1871. Consider-
able activity is also displayed in various departments of
metal-working, espepially in the surrounding villages. The
population was 13,807 in IS7S, and 19,210 in 1881
{I9,&S6 in the commune).
S«lsn was in th« '~"
Hooion, ths ponasric .
U^uilRhtim& Unltsd „ .,
It wu eadsd bj ChsrlM TI. to Qoillauma d< Btiqunoant, who
K>ld It to tha llii Huoki. For tm anturiai thu povaifol lunlly
1 of th> pUee in iptta or th* tdshopii
"nrgondy ud Lornina ; and in tba
. . ._ . . _ _ , -ioptMttha mis "prince otSedin."
Jn tlw lUh <aiitiu7 tbs town *u u mlam tat muy PratMut
nfagMs, who laid tbs basis of fta indoitrial prosperity, and it
bscams tha aaat of ■ Prolaituit aamiiiaiy. Tha last heirsB of tha
I* Hvdc tasHj brou^t Ssdaa and tha dnehy of Boaillon to
Haori da la Tour d'Anvargns, vfasonirt of Tnraaw. When the
H by Charlei
of U^ aikd tbs duksB of Borgtui^ and Lornina ;
puna of Hanrl Eobart thay adopt *■ - ■"'- "-- '-
Intbs V ■" -
the gnat 01
■nd tht hi
captored Sadsa in thna dan ; and tha mcowI dnka (ddut brothe
of tha nast uanhalX iRiO bad aavsral Umca raroltcd arainit
Iioois XIII-, ma at laat, altar hit than in tha conaidracy of Cinq.
Usra, obligad to aartaiular his piinoipality. Sadan thna braaipa
part at tha ronl dosiala in ISO. On lit Septembar 1870 tba
tutnaa was am oantn of the moat diautnm* nonaict of tba
Fraooo-Oannan Var. Shut in by tbs Oannana, who bad occupied
tha nuTonadinB bai^ts, the wbola Frsnch anny, aflir a tarrifio
contaat, ma obUoed to capitnlaMi— tha ompoor, W ganarala, 230
atB-<aoaa, aew otSean, and SS,000 Eoan b8C<niiing priaongn of
«ar. The villan of Baaillei ma tha acone of the heroic stand
--'- '^- tha mulnes nndar Martin dea Pallitraa. It now contain!
— oHuary, and a monamant to the memory of tha marines ;
t honaa which has been nndired (amooa by IfeiiTille'i
K'ntiog, "Lea Demlina Cartoucbas," ii a maaanm of otnscta
nd on tha battMald.
8EDD0N, TfiOius (1831-1856), landscape painter, was
bom in London ou 26th August 1821. His fother was a
cabinetmaker, and the son for some time followed the same
occupation; but in 1812 he was sent to Paris to study
ornamental art On his return he executed designs for
furoitnre for his father, and in 1848 gained a silver medal
from the Society of Arts. In the following year he made
sketching expeditions in Wales and France, and in 1853
began to exhibit in the Royal Academy, sending a figure-
piece, Peaelope, and afterwards landscapes, deriving their
subjects from Brittany. In the end of 1863 he started for
thoEastaiidJdnsdSbEoliiiaiiHuiitatCalro. Hewwked
for a year in Egypt and Palestine, ezeen&ig views which Mr
ituskin has pronounced to be " the first landscapes uniting
perfect artistlcal skill with topograpliicat accuracy ; being
directed, with stem self-restraint, to no other purpose than
that of giving to persona who cannot travel trustworthy
knowledge of the scenes which ought to be meet interest-
ing to them." Seddon's Eastern subjects were exhibited in
Bemen Street, London, in 1855, and in Conduit Street in
1656. In October 1856 Seddon again visited Cairo, where,
after a very brief illness, he died on 23d November. In
1857 his irorks were collected and exhibited in the rooms
of the Society of Arts, and his important luid elaborately
finished picture^ Jerusalem and the Valley of Jehcfihaphat,
was purchased by subscription and preeentad to the National
Oallery. A memoir of Seddon, by hia brother, was pub-
liahed in 1659.
SEDGWICK, Abak ^1785-1673), geologist, vras bom
in 1785 at Dent, Yorkshire, where liid father was vicar of
the pariah, fie was educated at Sedbcrgh school and at
Trinity College, Cambridge, where he graduated as fifth
wrangler in 1808, and was elected a fcUow in 1809. For
some years be devoted himself chiefly to the studies and
duties of academic life, but gradually he acquired an ab-
sorbing interest in geology and natnml science, which was
fostered by long excuisioos into the country, rendered
necessary by the state of his health- In 1816 he sdc-
ceeded Professor Hailstooe in the Woodwardian chair of
geology. Among his principal discoveries, which appeared
for the most part in the CambiT^e TTaatat^om and the
TVoiuacttona of Ike GtologKal Socieif, were those of the
true position and succession of the Pabeozoic stnta of
Devonshire and Comwall, of the geological relation of
the beds (tfterwards named Permian in the north and
north-west of England, and of the general structure of
North Wales, — a subject which led hjm into controvcrqr
with MurchisoQ. In 1834 he published a Biacottrwe o» tht
Stvdit* of tht Unittrtiig of Cambridge, which reached a
fifth edition. By hia generosity and energy he succeeded
in rendering the gaologicai collection of the Woodwardian
HiHonm one of ^ moat complete in the kingdom. He
was one of the original secretaries of the Cambridge Philo-
sophical Society established in 1619, and was president of
the Oeologicol Society of London from 1S29 to 1631.
Having taken holy orders, he was advanced to the dignity
of canon of Norwich cathedral, and for soma time also he
was vice-master of Trinity College. Sedgwick died at
Cambridge on 36th January 1673.
SEDITION in Soman Ian was conmdered as motMoi
or treason. In English law it is a very elastic term,
including offences ranging from libel to TneAaoir (^.k).
It is rarely used except in its adjectlTal form, e.g., sedi-
tious libel, seditious meeting, or seditious conspiracy.
"As to sedition itself," says Mr Justice Stephen, "I do
not think that any such offence is known to English law "
{Hilt. Crita. Lao, voL iL chap, xxiv.).' Tha saoo high
authority lays down the law in the foUowiiu terms, which
were substantially adopted by the Draft Criminal Code
" Every one conunita a miademesnom' who imblLihu verbally or
otherwiaa any vonla or any document with a leditioua inlsnoon.
If the matter ao pnbUahed conaista of wordi apoken, the oSeiice ia
called the apeakuiH oF aedllioua wordi. If the matter ao pobliibed
ia contained in anythina capable of being a libel, the oBeooe ii
called tha pablicition ofa aeditiona libel Ever; one commilaa
' agroea with any other penon ot '- ■*-
^ aeditiona intentjon ia an intention to bring Into hatred oi
tempt or to axcita diiaffection aa^t the panon of Her UaJuQr,
her beire and aoccaeora, or the Govammant and conatitatLon of the
' The word " sedition " oocma, bowsrar, in 40 and 41 Vict. o.
S E D — S E D
Qocfaa, M b; Inr MtaUbbMl, «r ddw Boom or P*rii»-
tlM Rdaiiuirtmtion of justini, or to oxdta Htr HuMt?'*
oTnymtttv.
tempt at
n hj UvTbI meana thg tltantun
~- low Mt&bliihed, or to nua dia-
„ _ ir Xtiatfrn laiAaeta, attepif
noU baliBgi oT Ill-will ind bostility betwMn diifenitt oliw at
Hot M^toMjr't ml^jscta. An intenticin to alunr that Her U^js^r
fau baan milled or mutaken Id her scuoro*, or to point out
ernin or daTscta in tlu Ooreniiiient or conititutioa u by law
■MtbUtbad, with ■ Tiew to thoir nTonuatiaii, or to aioita Bei
MajtAj't mljaeta to attampt br ■•«f<>l iw>°* Uu) altentiDa of
Mtymtttar In oliarcli or tbta hj law eaiaUialitd, or to point out,
'~ ~^— 'a thdr rauonl, mattan whioh an producing or hava a
' ' " ga of hatred and ill-will between diffoienl
■ not a Bsditioiu intentioa. In
n with which any wonla wen
in Haar u uuir ramonl, mattan ^
taodBMjrtopcodnce ftelinn of batti
dtmm of Her IMaa^'i aatjeeta, ii
drtanwlnliig whaUiei the intsntian
the ccnaeqMneei wbldi woold natonll; Mow from hii i
the tioa and nndsr tbs airBimutuiwa in which he ao
hlmnU " IDtgnl if 0^ CMRfaoi Laaa, H Bl-M).
He pnndp«I enoirtmentB now ia force deblisg with
■editioiu offeueea were all paaeed during the l&at twenty-
five f«tn of the reign of Oeorga m. They are 37 Geo.
m. c 123, prohibitiiig the adminiEtering or taking of
nnlawfiil oatha (we Oath) or the belongiiig to an nnkw-
ful oonfedewcy; 60 Geo. m, »nd 1 Geo. IV. c 1, pro-
hJKting nnlftirfni drilling and milittuy exercises ; and the
Acta for Um BuppresBion of conwponding societies, 39
Oeo.IILaT9and07GoaIILc.l9. No proceedings can
be institDted under these last two Acts witiiont the aotho-
rityof thelawofficeiBofthecrown(9andlO VicL c. 33).
Under the head of statntes umed at seditions offenoee ma;
also be elaued 2 Ric IL at 1, c. G and 12 Bic. H c
11, against icaiKfo'wm nofTnohan or slander of great men,
mdi as peen, jndges, or great officera of state, whereb;
discoid may arise within the realm, and 13 Cor. ZL o. S,
ag^nat ttuniiltaons petitioning (see PmnoKV There
MB ban no imwecntion in recent times for seditions words
aa diatingQished from seditiona libel, bat such words have
been admitted as eTtdence in proceedings for seditious
CoHSPiRiOT (o.e.), as in the prosecution of O'Connell in
lS4i and of Hr Famell and others in ISSO (see Beg. v.
Parnell, Cox's Criminrd Ca»e», toL xiv. 608). Bj the
Prison Act, 1877, any prisoner nodor sentence for sedition
cc seditions libet is to be treated as a misdemeanant of the
fint division (40 and *1 Vict. c. 21, s. 40).
Attfawt— "An Ida by ohicb the minJe o[ the people miy be
ludtad to deftat the Oorgmment or control IwlaUtfon by rident
«* numutitntioiul maatu are wditloaa" (Hacdonald, CHm^iutJ-
I^iw, no). SedltiMi la pnnlahable by Ina or imprinnmeDt or
Mth (« Gm^ IT. e. 47). A vny lane lumber of Acta of tbeBcot-
tUi Farliamant daalt with tedltkm, baoiiuiiiiE is eariy a* 11S4
withthtaariieof Williim tlw Um, 6 wi^ Ls*dng4n>kiiiB la to
h« dldligoiahed Irom sadition, aa it attaokad only the aoTerelni
indMdaallT, aot the '^ '
^^^ sny saditiOD or who, being present at any aedltlon, doea not
nwUsataort andoiToar taanppnee the aame la pimiihable with
Osalh. A aaUor attarins ledithHu wnd* ia pnnialiBUa at the dia-
etetbrnofaoonrtjiiaitid. Is 17Mui Actrf Oongnaaeslled the
D Act was Maaad, Whkb explrad liy effluhm of time in ISOI.
latitatioDalltywia violently aaaaDed it the tina. (SeeSton
I GonstttotioB ot tits Uidted SUteLM Ii»S-t.) Sevard
Btate^M 1
lUDndertheActwIIIbaftinndill Wbarton'efitoto Triala.
I* al» ileilt with by the State lawi moetly in a very
liberal tptrft Thni the Looliiana Code, 1 194, anacta that "then
ia no aioh offbnee known to our law la defamation of the OoTeni-
nent or sillMr ot its bruchea, either under the name ot libel,
Blander, aedltioda writing, or other appellaUon." B; | 111, to oon-
■tibita the affence of aedition "tfaero m
bat an
drawn between Aitfairf, the remaining
tomther ot ■ mob after the anthorities h»TB thiioa bid it dispene,
aald Ai^ntkr or Ai^fitaitd, as organiiad raalitaaee_to the autho-
« deMtl
ittaa b given ot ikt
MBsl eode d .
the intention <f attaokiag a clan of ei , _ -_,
leligkiai body. The Frraieh penal oode ncMnina a i
VnaittdllimmirtiatiainiihlUim. IfenTwdontwMaaOciaat
nnmbenindanlBd«ntrorooaAUNmba«omearA(afDB, SeEtlmi IM
enmpta ftam the penaltiea tt aadltion thos* who have mtraly baa
pteaent at a leditlona meeting withoat taking any active part Hwiii
m, and have iliiperaed at the fint wamiiuE of the milituv or ciTil
antborJUea. '
BEDLEY, Sib CHinLBs (1639-1701), a noted "wif
and patron of literature in the Restoration period, tha
" LisidsiuB " of Dryden's Ettaf of DramatU Potty. H«
was bom in 1 639, the son of Sir John Sedley of Ayleeford
in Kent Like many other men of tank and faahion at
the court of " the merry Inonarch,"Bedley had poetical ajn-
bition, and wrote comedies and songs. Bia moat famona
son^ " Phyllis," is much more widely known now than tlia
author's name. His first comedy. The Miiiberry Gardoi,
was published in 1668, bnt it doea not anstain Sedlflj^
contamporaiy reputatbn for vrit in conversation. He was
probably too indolent to mast«r the art of providing eon-
tinnons opportunities for brilliant sayings, olthongh lie
cont^ned to tryj wrote two more comediso, and left a
comray and two tragediea behind him to be published after
his deatL An indecent frolic in Bow Street, tot whkA
he was heavily fined, made him notoriona in hie youth, bat
kter on he sobered down, entered parliament for New
Romney (Kant), and took on active port in polices, A
speech of his on the civil list after the Bevolntlon is dtad
by Macanlay as a pnxrf (which bis plays do not aflbri)
that his reputation as a man ot wit and ability was da-
served. His bon mot at the expense of James IL is anotbar
well-known fragment of lus wit. The king had seducad hia
dauf^ter and created her eotrnteea of Dorcbestcs^ whera-
upon Sedley remarked that he hated ingiotitade, and, aa
the king had made his daughter a counteas, he woidd cm-
deavoui to make the kiu^ daughter a qneen, Sedlay
died on 20th August 1701.
seduction; Theacti(mforsednction<rfantmntamed
woman in England stands in a scaaewhat anomakm* poM-
tiou. The theory of English law ia that dia woman bvaaS
has snfiered no wrong ; tha wrong has been aofiend l^
the paient or person m jompangil*^ who must soa form
danuge arising from the loss of service oanaed by ^b»
seduction of tha woman. Boma evidence of aariea nnst
be given, bnt very tli^t evidence will be nfieiiBt
Although the aotkni is nominally tat loss of asnio^ alill
exemplary damages may be given for the dishottoar of tbs
plaintiff's family beyond recompence for thr mere Ioh of
service. An action ftwsednatico oanitotba brDti|^ in tks
county court except by agreement of tha partica. Aa to
■ednction of a married wconan, the cdd actum for oriminal
conversation was aboliahed by the Divoroe Act, 1807,
which sabstitnted ft^ it a claim for dam^ea apunst the
eoHrespondent in a divOToa snit, Sednetiini in fiigUod-
is not as a mle a criminal offenock Bat a eon^nmcj to
seduce ia indictable at oommon law. And die OinuDal
Law Amttubnant Ast, 188S (which aztaoda to the United
KingdomX nuikca it felony to eadnoa a girl ander the age
of thirteen, and miBdemeanonr to sadnee a giri betweea
thirteen and sixteen (48 and 49 Vict o. 69, |S 4, 6). The
same Act also deals severely wiA the cognate cdencea of
procuration, abduotio^ and unlawful detention with the
mtent to seduce a woman of any age. In Scotland the
seduced woman may sue on her own aooonnt.
UniUd StaUt. —In the United 8tatea Stat* l^aladon has naer-
ally madifiod the common law. In aooM Stataa tha fitthei briB|a
Qa action la the rapreientatiTB of ^ hmlly whoa pari^ ™*
been inraded -. in othera thr wonun henalf mij bring tha aetiaB,
In many Stataa then ia a diminat aa well aa a oivU reoH^. Tte
p*D(! codea of Hew York, New Jnsey, Loolnana, and od» Stataa
make it a crime to eadnce under promiaa of marnago an mmaniid
wamuofgoodnpntation. Bnhaa^if t jatsrsMUtiy «f tfr* partisi
S E D — S E 6
m
„.. . , m (lull b» pnslthMl by impriton-
mant dqC eiceadiag thn>a moDtlui or bj ftn* not exwdiEiff S^-
TlieisdncL.Dnof ilsnuls nunnEW od ■ TMMloftht DnitedSUM
14 u offanDo paaijUiAble i>y fine or imprisoDiBflat. Tha fluo nuy
ba ordered by tbi court to bo pud to tho perron Boducad or htx
child (Act of UoDgnw at Sttb Htrch 1880). The SUto lafiiUtioa
of Ih* United SUtat i< Id nmirkibls oppoaitioii to the rul« of the
asan Uir, b; vbioh the Mduction of n voman by ber bttrathad
wu not poalahtbla od tccoont of tha Incbotte right otot her paraon
gtran by (fa« batrotbtL
SEDULIDS, Cduus, (t Christjao poet of Uie 6tb cen-
tnij, TM the ftuthor of an kbeeedttrian UjfBmtu de ChriMa
in iambio dimetere, portions of which maintain their ground
in the offices of the Church of Home, viz., in the Chriatmas
bjinn "A Kliii ortus cardine," and in that for Epiphanj
(altered from " Hetode« hoetia tmpie '^. His other works
are P<uclialt Carvun i. Mirainliiait Divitiorum Libn V,,
orii^inaUy in four or fire books in hexameter Terae and
afterwarda enlarged and timed into proee, and Veterii tt
Ifori Tatamenti Collalio, in elegiac verse. D« Terbi
Itteantationr, a Tirgilian cento, has also been ascribed to
him, bat on insufficient grounds. Of his personal history
nothing is known, except that he is called a presbjrler by
Isidore of Seville ; by some other writers of leu authority
be is designated "antistes" or " episcopus." A Scoto-
Irish origin has sometimes been clamied for him ; bat at
all events he must not be confounded with Sedulius the
grammarian, an Irish lijcot who lived in the 9th century.
The best edition of hia works is that of Arevalns (Ito,
Rome, 1794).
8EDUU. About ISO ipedea are entimerated in this
genos of Cnuni'te**, mostly perennial herbs with suc«nlent
leaves of varied form, but never compound. The indivi-
dual flowers are nsually small and grouped in cymes. In
colour they range from white and yellow to pink. Thtg'
have a calyx of five sepals, as many petals, usually ten
stamens, and five distinct carpels, which have as many
glands at their base and ripen into as many dry seed-pods.
Several species are British, including some with taberoua
TDotd and large leaves {TeUpAium), and others of smaller
size, chi^y found on rocks, walls, and dry banks. Hany
are cultivated for the beanty of their flowers, and many
are remarkable for their prolonged vitality nnder adverse
drcumstances. Bedums ue very closely allied U> Seinper-
livums (see Hodselbik).
' SEELAND. See Zkalaitd.
B£E3, a town of France and a bishop's see, in the de-
partment of Ome, is situated on the Oroe, 4 miles from
its soQTce and 13 miles north of Alen^on by the railway
from Le Mans to Caen. The very fine cathedral, dating to
a large extent from the 1 3th and 14th centuries, occupies
the site of ehnrcLjs founded in 440, 996, and 1053. The
west front has two stately spires of open work S30 feet
high, which have been restored more than once in tJie 19th
centnry. Hie nave, built in the beginning of the 13th
century, was remodelled in its npper portion fifty or sixty
yean after its erection ; the choir, boilt about 1 S30 and
rartored in 1260 after a great fire, is remarkable for the
li^tneas of its construction, — the inner galleries of the
preabytery being the boldest venture ever made in this
kind. In the choir are four bas-reliefs of great beanty and
delicacy representing scenes in the life of the Virgin ; and
the altar is adorned with another depicting the removal
of the relics of St Oervais and St Protaia, Most of the
■tained windows are good. Around the cathedral are the
cbisters of the canons ; the episcopal palace (1778), with a
pretty chapel ; the great seminary, located in the old abbey
of St Uartin (supposed to be one oi. the fourteen or fifteen
moBaateries fouMled in the 6th century by St Evronlt) ;
Ou Utel da rille ; and the statue of OoDt^ a member of
die Egyptian expedition of 1798. The popnlatlon of Uea
was 3463 in 1881. and that of the commune 46ST.
Tb* firat Usbop of a^ {Sagtum) vu Bt Uin, viui liTed si tba
dosa of tbaSd or beginning ottiiettbcoDtarT. In tlia Mb aantnr?
it wu s fortifipd town uid fall a pray to the Normaiu ; and ttlu
itaDea from ita mined ranaparte were aeed for tha enwtiou of a
cbarch in tba cine of tba lOth contury. In tha 11th cantnry
Sea belong to tha oouct dF Alaocon and conaisted at tiro dLatinet
parta, sepanlsd b^ iht Orna,— tha biihop'i bureh, and to tba aoutb
lont a bBi^h IBaurg U CamU). Captured in IISI by
Henry II. of England, it wu ncovered in Iha following year by
Gnillanma da BeJlhoe ; and in 1138 it via partly bnniMf by tbo
ooont of AnJDU. After IkIds taken by Philip Angnatua It eiyoyod
ime yean of poau, during wbicb a hoapitsl and • Fnnciiciii mon-
ra built; bnt it vaa oi
a Bnt t
of Nor
to foil Into the htndi or th* Etigliih (H17), who retained poasea-
■ion nntil their final oipnlaion from Franca. Plllagad l)y tba Pro-
teaUnta during the Wan of Scllgion, B«aa attached itaelf ta tha
Laagaa In Uti, bnt volnntarily aurrandariid to Ueary IV. iu ItBD.
SEBTZEN', UiAiCE Jasper (1767-1811), one of the
most distinguished of modern travellers in the East, wa4
a man of sahatance, sent him to the university of Ofittingen,
where he graduated in medicine. His chief ial«r«ats, how-
ever, were in natural history and technology ; he wrote a
nnmber of papers on both these subjects which gained him
some reputation, and had both in view in a seriee of
journeys which he made from time to time through various
parts of Holland and Qennany. He also engaged practi-
cally in various small manufactures, and in 1802 obtained
a Oovemment post in Jever. In 1801, however, the ill'
terest which he had long felt in geographical exploration
had culminated in a resolution to travel by Constantinople
to Syria and Arabia, and then, when fomiliariied with
Uohammedan ways, to try to penetrate into Central Africa.
He relied maioly on hia own resources, but received a small
subvention from Ootha, where also he learned from Zach
to moke astronomical observations. In the summer of
1S02 he started down the Danube with a companion
Jocobsen, who broke down at Smyrna a year later. His
journey was by Constantinople, where he stayed six months
thence throuffh Asia Minor to Smyrna, then again through
the h.iart of Asia Minor to Aleppo, where he remained from
November 1803 to April ieOG,andmade himself sufficiently
at home with Arabic speech and ways to travel as a native -
and without an interpreter. Now began the part of hn
travels of which a full journal has been published (April
1806 to March 1809), a series of most instructive journeys
in eastern and western Palestine and the wildunesa of
Sinai, and so on to Cairo and the Fayyilm. His chief ex-
ploit was a tour round the Dead Beo, which he made with-
out a companion and in the disguise of a beRgar. Frosi
Egypt he went by sea to Jeddah and reoch^Mecca as a
pilgrim in -October 1809. In Arabia be made extensive
jonmeys, ranging from Medina to l^hak and returning to
Mocha, from which ploci; his last letters to Europe were
written in November 1810. In September of the follow-
ing year he left Mocha with the hope of reaching Muscat,
and was fonnd dead two days later, having, it is lielieved,
been poisoned by the command of the imAm of Sana'a.
For the parts of Seetzen's journeys not covered by tha
published journal {Beken, ed. Kruse, 4 vols., Berlin, 1854)
the only printed records are a series of letters and papers
in Zach's Moiuiilicke dyrrtipondmi and Hammer's Ftatd-
jfTKiCTt. Many papers and collections were lost through
his death or never reached Europe. The collections that
were saved form the Oriental museum and the chief part
of the Oriental MSS. of the ducal library in Ootha.
SE-QAN FOO, the capital of the province of Bhen-se
in north-weatem China, is situated in 34* 17' N. lat. and
108* 68' E. long. Like most Chinese cities, Se-gan Foo has
r^eatedly abuged its nHoe i.nna% ita "tigiiirj, ^iA.dilM
G2-2
S E G — S E a
back to the time ot Che Hwaog-te (246-210 B.a), the Gist
ttniveml emperor, whose oame will be ever notoriotu m
that of tbo monarch who built the Great Wall, bnmt the
books, and ostabliBbed hid capital at Kwan-chung, the site
of the modora Be-gan Foo. Under the succeeding Han
dynastj' (20G b.o.'2S a.D.) this city was called Wei-nan
and Nof-Bhe; nndcr the Easteni Han (25-221 a.d.) it
was known as Yung Chow; under the Tang (618-907)
wKwan-nuy; under the Sung (360-1127) ob Yuog-bing;
under the \uen and Uiog (1260-16U) as Qan-ae ; and
under the preeent d^'naot]' as Se-gan. Daring the Ts'in,
Han, and T'ang dynastic^ it was the capital of the emiiira,
and is at the present time second only to Peking in tiize,
population, and importance. The city, which ia a aquarc,
measnring 10 ChincBa milcH each way, i» prettily situated
on ground rising from the river Woi, and iacladod within
its limitt the two diittrict citLOd of Ch'ang-gan and Hiou-
ning. Ibi walls are littlo inferior in height and mosaive-
aees to those of Peking, ^vhile its gated arc handsomer and
better defended than any of ^vhicli the capital can boost.
The popohitionu said to be 1,000,000, of whom 50,000
are Monammedonii. Bituated in the basin of the Wei
river, along which runs the groat rood which connecrts
northern Qiina with Central Asia, at a point where the
Talley opens out on the pluna of China, Se-gan Foo
occupies a Btrategicol podition of great importance, and
repeatedly in the annals of the empire baa history been
made aronnd and within its walls. During the late
Mohammedan rebellion it was besieged by the rebels for
two years (1868-70), but owing to the strength ot tho
fortifications it defied the eCTorts of its assailants. From
its eastom side three great roads radiate, one reaching to
Shon-se, one to Bo-nan, and one to Hoo-pih ; while from
it mns in a south-westerly direction the great highway
into Sze-chuen. It is thus admirably situated as a trade
centre and serrefi as a dep£t for the silk froni Che-keang
and Sie-chuen, the tea from Hoo-pih and Ho-nan, and the
■■ugar from Siochnen destined for the markets of Kan-
si^ Turkiatan, Ili, and Russia. Marco Folo speaking of
Kenjanfn, as the city was then also called, aays tb^ it
was a nlace "of great trade and bdoKtry. They have
great abundance of silk, from which they weave cloths of
■ rilk, and gold of divers kinds, and they also manufacture
all sorts of equipments for an army. They have every
uecfBsary of man's life very cheap." Hanj of the temples
and public buildings are very fine, and not a few hbtorical
monuments are found within and about the walla. Of
these tiie most notable ia a Ncatorian tablet,* which was
accidentally discovered in 1625 in the Ch'ang-^n inburb.
■ TbB i»nlrat» of thu Natoriu Isicriptlini, which ooulib ol I7SD
chiruten, miiy In dsscribsd u rollowi. (1} An sbMnct of Clitiitiaii
doctrlDtofs iigue uid SnintiTe kind. (!] An umoiinE of ttia Ulinl
of the mMosu? Ohipon (probablji ChinoM tcm of Bilibusr Hook),
(rDm Titi'lD in tha jimi S85, bringing lund booki ud Inugu ; ctftlH
tnnslstioD of the uid booka ; ot the impariil tppnml of &e doctrlna
snd penniHioD lo teach it pahlidr. Thui foUom i decme of ths
emperor (Tui-nuig, i very IvDoog princs), Imn) b S3S, in IkToor of
the new doctrine, mnd ordetiag » chnroh to be bqllt in the ajniie of
juitice uid pence (/miv/iniff) in the capltiL Tho •mpeior'i portnit
wu lo be phuwd in this chnich. Alter this ODntaa ■ doaiptlon of
Tjtte'in, ud thsa Mine ncconnt <rf the fnrtnBM ot the dinivli in China.
Kiumtenng (850-883, tbe dennt pstron ;<J>a of ths BnddhU InnHar
wrt doctor, Hwim Tii'uig), It ta added, aniHimed to Utobt tht new
blth. In the end of the centmy Boddhina got tha upper hind, bat
under Ynen-tnng (7I8-7fi6) the church ncotered Ita pmtlge, sod
Klbo, I DSwmlBriimaij, arrind. Coder 'nh-tiaDg(7ei>-7U] the monn-
ment ma anotad, sad tbfi part of the iucriptini anda vtUi a Mlogy
ort-SM, s atateaman and bmetBctor of the ohorch. <8)T>wi foUowi
a iwapilnlstloD of tlw sbovo in octoajllalilo tkw. lis Ohiseee in-
taipUim, which oondndaa with tba data of arectioB, rii, 7BI, ia ftil-
lowad lij a eeriet of dnrt liuoriptioni in Bjiiio and '
-^—--- — ■-■-']gthedalei«tha«Tection,(heii*ina
Kaataiapi paMoelk Har Haasa lahtia, Uiat of Adaa^ bUMtp tad paw
rf CUi% tad Ogis of Oa sMeid stal of tte o^iU IW MLnr
Tho stone alab which bean llio inscription ii« 7J feet hi^
by 3 wide, and at present stanJd embedded in a brick
wall, which forms part of a dilapidated temple.' From a
Chinese point of view, however, the Pei Lin or " fcnat <rf
tablets " is a place of cton greater interest than the above-
mentioned tempts. For there are coUocted tablets of tha
Han, T'ang, Snng, Yuen, and Sling dyna<iticd, some of
which bear historical tsgends, notably a set of stone tableta
having the thirteen closaics indcribed upon them, wliile
others ore symbolical or pictorial ; among these last is &
full-sized likoness of Coufucins. As might be exiiected on
a ute which ban played no prominent a port in Chineso
hidtory, antiquities ore conatantly being (U)4»voted in tho
neighbourhood of the city, t^., rich stores of coins and
bronzes, bearing dates ranging front 200 B.i'. onwarda.
BfXlEKJTA, a very onciont city near tbe north-western
citromity of Bicily, so named by tbo nativcd and by the
Itotnona, while the Greeks colled it Egoata or ^genta. Ita
origin was ascribed by tradition Bomotijuai to Trojan
refugees and sometimod to Phocians, foUowors of Philo-
ctates ; the accounts agreo only in making Segesta old^
than the Orook coloniiation of Sicily in the 7th centtin
B.O. A tribe named Elymi, distinct from both the Sicnii
and the Greeks, occupied the country round the d^.
The scanty references to the history of Segesta show it m
continual warfare with the Greek city Scliuus from tbe
year 980 fi.o. downwards. As early as 426 B.a it con-
cluded an alliance with Athens; and in 416 a great
Athenian floet soiled to Sicily, ostensibly to aid Segestft
against its enomics Belinus and Syracuse, but really to
attempt tbe conquest of tbe bland. After tbo destractioa
of the Athenian fleet and army, the Segestans turned lo
the Carthaginiana But, when Hannibal destroyed Selinna
(see Selinus) in 409 B.C. and Himero, and established tbe
Carthaginian power firmly iu the western port of Sicily,
Segesta sank to tbe position of a dependent ally. In 397
it suffered a long siege from Dionysius of Syracuse, but at
last was relieved by Himilco. In 307, however, the Qre^
arms had better sncreea ; Agathodes of Syracnse sold tba
inhabitants into slavery, after massacring 10,000 men, and
changed the name of ^e city to Diaeopolis. But it socw
recovered its old name and passed again to the Cartbft-
ginians. In the beginning of the First Punic War the
Segestans murdered the Carthaginian garrison and became
allies of Rome. Being soon after besieged by the Corthv
ginians, they were relieved by the great naval victory of
Duilius, S60 B.a. Segesta was always highly favoured t^
the Bomans, both on account of its early adhesion to their
cause and from its supposed Trojan ori^. Its ute is now
deserted, having been exposed to the Saracen depredatiiMU
in the 10th century ; but the ruins are very fine. SegeatA
was about 6 nulea Ai)m the sea, and the modem town of
Castellomare probably occupies the site of tbe ancient
harbour. The Crimisus, which is represented on corns of
Siesta, is probably the river S. Barttdommeo, about 6
milea to the south. There ware hot s^o'ln^p and baths not
far from the city.
8EGOTIA, a province of Spun, fwmerly part of Old
Castile, ia bonnded on the N. and N.E. by the provineel
of Burgos and Scda, on tha S.E. by thooe of GuadaLyaia
and Madrid, on tbe B.W. by Avila, and on the N.Vf. bj
Yalladolid. It has an ar«a of 2670 square milea, and the
population in 1877 waa 149,961. The greater portiOB of
the country consists ot a dry arable taUeland, l^ted annaf
S E G — S E I
G23
2900 feet atrnve the sea, monotonoiu enoagh ia appear-
ance, and burnt to b dull brown during Bmnmer, buC yet
producing Boms of the finest com in the Feninsuia. Along
the vhols Boath-eutem botmdaiy the Qtiadarrama range
of monntaing rises up euddeniy, llfce a huge banier, sepa-
rating Old from New Castile and the baun of the Doaro
from that of the Tagos,— affordiog, too, among its ravines
and npon its slopes some remarkably fine scenery. There
are two well-known passes or " pnertoa " over ^e sierra,
those of the Nava Cenada and of Somoaiera. The former
has been, until qoiM a recent date, the chief means of
commnnicatbn with the outer world, save when blocked
by winter snows. It winds roond the lower southern
slope of the Feilalara (8500 feet). The Faerto da Somo-
siera lies north of the Pefialara. By it in ]80S Napoleon
descended upon Madrid. Though to the eye of the stranger
almost desert-like in appearance, the province of Segovia is
well watered by the streams which rise in the Otiadartama
I'ange and flow northwards to the Douro, and by careful
methods of irrigation. The Erosma, Cega, Dnraton, and
Rioza are the principal watoroouraes. With the exception
of Segovia and Sepolveda, there is no town of any import-
ance,— the inhabitants being for the most part employed
in agricultural and pastoral pursuits and backward in
civilization. Since the completion (1883) of the railway
from Medina da! Canipo to Uift city of Segovia, however,
the towns ett nwfa have begun to show aigna of animation ;
and, as tbe province contains monuments of deepest inter-
est to the historianand ecclesiologist, it bids fair to receive
its due measure of attention and enlightenment. At the
foot of the Nava Cerrada pass lies tbe royal demesne and
summer residence of La Graiga, or Sau Ildefooso, one of tbe
great show places of die Peoinsola. The chief trades and
nmnufactureB formerly carried on in the province — weaving,
tanning, making of earthenware, &c. — have been drawn
away to more commercial centres. Paper-making holds its
own to some extant, owing to tbe ezcellence of the water ;
and for the same reason, together with the superior quality
of the breed of sheep, the picturesque scenes attendant
npon the preparation of tbe fleeces may still be witnessed.
Such prosperity, however, as Segovia retains is dependoat
npon its agricultural produce — wheat, rye, barley, peas,
hemp, flax, f-c — tagether with the rearing of sheep, cattle,
mules, and pigs. The sierras yield excellent granite,
marble, and limestone ; but hitherto the difficulty of trans-
port has prevented any development of mineral wealth.
SEGOVIA, the capital of the above province, clusters
upon a narrow ridge of rock which rises in the valley of the
Eresma, where this river is joined b; its turbulent little
tributary the Clamores, and is one of the best specimons
extant of tbe Qotho-Castilian cities. Founded originally
as a Roman pleasure resort, it became in tbe Middle Ages
a great royal and religious centre, and was Horrounded by
AlphonsoVLwith the walls and towers which still give to it,
oven in their dilapidation, the air of a military stronghold.
Tha streets are steep, irr^ular, and narrow, and are lined
with qnaint old'fashioned houses aa irregular and* forbid-
ding, built for the most part of granite from the neighbour-
ing sierra. The place teems with records and monuments
of the many vicissitudes of fortune and art through which
it has passed, foremost among the latter beinit tbe ancient
Alciiar, the cathedral, the aqueduct of Trajan, and a
notable array of churchea and other ecdesiastical edifices.
The Alcizar is perched npon the western tip of the long
tongue of rock upon which the city is built, and which at
this point has a sheer descent npon three sides into the
VB%. Of the original Middle-Age fortress but little ro-
mains nave the noble facade, — the building having be^n
wantonly fired in 1 862 by the students of the artillery school
then domiciled within its vtUa, and all but destroyod. It
is now in course of slow btit praiseworthy restoration. The
work is Gotho-Moorish, with an admixture of itenainsance
In the decoration. Some of the rooTis deserve notice,
especMly the Sala del Trono and the Sala de liecibimieuto.
The views obtained over the outlying wyn from the towers
and windows are superb. The lfith-centur7 celhedral
(1S21-1S77), the work of Juan Oil de Ontonon and his
son Rodrigo, occupies the site of a former church of the
llthcentury, of which the present cloiiiters, rebuilt in IGSI,
formed part. It is a well-proportioned and del>cat>' piece
of l£.te Gothic — the latest of its kind in Spain — 317 feet
long by 177 vride. Tha central nave riam 99 feet and
the tower 330. The exterior is the leaiit ratiafactory
portion, at once bald and over-deco»ted ; the interior is
light and pure, with an effectivenew greatly enhanced by
some very fine stamed glass. The churchaii of Segovia
are legion, though many of them are closed and fsdt fall-
ing into disrepair. The most remarkable are tha>e of Ia
Vera Crus (Knights Templar, Romanesque of tha early
1 3th centuryY San Millan and San Juan (both Romanesque
of second half of 13th century V El Parral (Qothic of early
16th century), and Corpus Christi, an ancient Jewixh
sanctuary and an interesting specimen of Moorish work.
The towers and external cloistering, or corrtAorei, of several
of the later churches — eapeoially dioao of San Est^lian and
San Martin — are fine. The great aqueduct, honever,
called El Puente del Diablo, ranks usually as the glory of
Segovia, and ia remarkable alike idt its colossal propor-
tions, its history, its picturesqueness, and the art with
which it is put together. Ei«cted first, according to fairly
reliable tradition, in the time of tha emperor Trajan, and
several times barely eseaping destruction, it is now, after
nearly eighteen hundred years, in perfect working order,
bringing the pure waters of tbe Bio Frio dqwn from tbe
Sierra Fonfria, distant 10 miles to the south. The bridge
portion striding across the valley into the city is 847 yards
long, and consists of a double tier of auperimposed arches,
built of rough-hewn granite blocks, laid witnout lime or
cement The three centra arches are 102 feet in hdght,
Segbvia finally lost its ancient prosperity when it was taken
and sacked by the French in 1608. Some inaignifieant
manufactories of oloth, leather, paper, and rude earthen-
ware still exist In the suburb of Pan Lorenso, but the trade
of the place languishes year by year. The city is tha see
of a bishop, Bufiragan to Talladolid. The population in
1877 was 11,318.
SEIONORY, or Bekiniost, is the relation of the lord
of a fee or a manor to his teitant. There is no land in Eng-
land without its lord ; " Nolle terre sans seigneur " is the
old feudal maxim. Where no other lord can be discovered
the crown islord as lord paramount. The principal inci'
dents of a seignory were fealty and rentsarvice. In return
for these privileges the lord was liable to forfeit his righia
if he neglected to protect and defend the tenant or di<(
anything injurious to tbe feudal relation. Every seignory
now existing must have been created before the Statute t.(
Quia EmptoTtt, which forbade the future creation of estatis
in fee-simpla by snblnfendatioa (see Reu. Estate). Thd
only seignories of any importance at present are the lord-
ships of manors. They are regarded as incorporeal heredita-
ments, and are either appendant or in groas, A seignory
appendant passes with the grant dt the mejuat ; a sdgnory
in gross — that is, a seignory which has been seversd from
the demesne lands of the manor to which It was originally
appendant — most be qwcially conveyed by deed of grant.
SEINE. This, one of the chief rivara of France (lAt.
Sequatta), rises on tbe eastern slope of the plateau of
Ingres, 18 miles to tiie north-west of Dijon. It keeps
tha soma general direction (north-westwards) thronghout
Its entire oonrse, bnt haa niunerona windings : between ita
6H
I E I — S E I
KNirco and its mootli in tin Engltih ChMiTiel tbe ur dutance
k oul; 250 miles, bat that acttwlty tntverted (tlirougb the
dapartments of COtfrd'Or, Aube, Seine-et-Marue, Seiae^t-
OiM^ Bein«, Enre, and Beiaa-Infdrienre) ia 483. Though
Aoettt than the I/Hte and inferior in voluine to the atroams
at the Bhona tjstem when th«M ore at their fnllest, the
Seine derives an axceptional importance from the r^ularit;
<d its flow. This featnre is due to the geological character
of its baaia, an area of 19,400,000 acres, eotirel; belongiiig
to France (with the exception of a few communea in
Belgiom), and formed in UiTee-fotutha of its extent of per-
meiU>le strata, which abxorh the aCmoEpheric precipitation
to r««tOTe it gentlj to the river by perennial spring It
ia beUeved that the Beine never attains a volume bo high
M 90,000 enbic feet per second. At Paris iti average per
BKond is 9000, and after it lias received all its tributaries
it raises between 34,000 and 25,000 cable feet At Psris
it tails as low as 26i)0 cubic feet and in exceptional droughts
the figure of 1200 has been reached. During the flood of
1876, which lasted fiFty-fire A&yt, the volume between the
qnajB at Paris rose to 6S,6O0 cubic feet per second.
Siting St % bdglit of 1 H& TMt ibors wi-leTol, st the bus of the
iilataB of s nymph erected ou tie Bi»t by tho dtjr of P«rl«, the Sai no
ii it fint luch in insimiiBcuit stremiUct that it ii often dry in
mminer u far u to ChntlUou (rZ2 f«C). At Bur (SSI foct) ibi
ntan foed lbs Hsnte-Sciua Coniil, ao that tb<n ii tmintomiplcd
lUTiinlioii from thii poiut to the •n (BBS milaa). At Troyei it
hu deBBO'lad to 131 feet It next pum llory, aud at llardlly
nceiiea the Aabe [ri^l'')' ^^"^ vbEch point It boooiiiFB navii^ble ;
Iwia it ii doflectpd in a aoulli-iristerly direction fay tho heigkta of
l» Brie, tha b«« of which it iliiris pMt Nogout aiid Monterean, at
the latter point Tocriifng tha Voone. iti moat Important left-hand
Itibntwy. It tiien nromes Iti genanl north -weatorly diractioQ,
roooivlnii the Loina (laft) at Moret, then Tamnits Jlelun (121 feet),
being joined nt Corbeil by tho bwnne (lelll, and after itajund'
with tin llama (rightl - ■-" ~ ' "— "-" '- *' -'
mchaa l^rie- Ytvm thi
punea P
and after it. junction
LB (right), s tributary longer than Iteelf liy 31 milai,
Ftvm tbia point to tha eos its chsoDol hai been ao
damaned by recant worka that vewola of S to 10 foet draught can
rMeh the cnpitil. The riiar then wliida through a pleuant cbam-
wlgn country put St Cloud, St Deuli, Arganlault, St Gemiain,
Conflana (vhan it ia joined from tho right by the Oiee, tifl feet aiwro
tha m), Poi*^, Hantea, La* Andelya, and Poks, nhere the tide
Int begina to be natceptibl*. It next raceiToa tho Eare (lad), ud
it da I'Atche, ElbonT, and Rouao, whet* tha sea navij^-
eucea. Tlia river liai been dyked to Bonan >o ai to admit
le of 20 feet draught, and large sreoa hsrothne been recloinioil
ite enltintion.' At o»ory tide the™ ia a "bora" (ia/rt or nuu-
^afii)t nagiDg umally from 3 to 10 faet. Between Houen &nd tha
Hkthara an UDmeroua wlndlnai, as iu tho noighbonrbood of Parii>i
■narCaudebeeaQd Qoillobccaf jvhere tha Eille ia itceivwl fVom the
laft) the catnoiy bcf;UM> aet with eitanilre mndbanka, between
which flowi a narrow navigable channel. At Tsncsrville tright) ia
tho connnanoemen t of a crnal to enable rirac boats for Havre to avoid
tha aoa paseofe. The rivar finally fall* Into the Engliah Chinual
IntiraeD Uoa&enr on tha Icfl; and Havre on the right. The llama
liriiigt to the Baine the waters of the Omain, the Ouroq, and tlie
Horin; the Oiia thoM of the Aleno ; thoYonnotboae of the Annau.
Min. The kw elsvadon of the bonndina hilla liao rondorod II com-
puitiValv nay toeonnsct the Beine and its affluents with idjoinina
rlvarbssinshyiaosnsof canale. ThaOUeand Somme ara connected
by the IWr^ or Crtnat Cansl, which in turn is continued, to the
ScbaUt V tanmt at tha St Quandn Caual and tha OLsa, and to the
Sambra b; that of CHse snd Sambre. Between the Aiana and the
Uaoaa b tha ArdaoDas CuiaJ, and the Aiane and the Mama ara united
byscsntlwhlchpuaeaBheiaia. The Mama haseimilarcomniDnici-
tion with tha Hauea snd tho Ehino, tho Yonna with the Safine (by the
nurgundy (knal) snd with the Loire (by that of Nifarnaia), Tha
Seine Itaalfii conneatad with tha Loire by the Loing Canal dividing
at Hontargia into two brsnoboa,— thow of Orlaana and Briare.
BEINE, the department of France which has Paris as
ila chief town, waa formed in 1T90 of part ot the pro-
vince of tl»Je-FTKnce. It lies between 48' 44' and 48*
08' K. lat and 2' 10' and 2' 34' E. long, and is entirely
nrrotuided bj the department of Seine-et-Oiso, from which
it is Bspaiated at certain parts by the Seine, the Mame, and
the Biivie. The aiw of the dspartment is only 118,306
' Comp. Rttek El
(. p. STB 1 H
," iB J'Ttc lia/. dr. X
vol liizlv., 1SS6,
acres, and of this surface a seventli or a sixth is r'cnpied
by Paris ■ the suburban villages aUo are clo^e together and
very populous. In actual population (:i,790,329 in 1881)
as well aa in density (237 perxoos ]>er sere) it holds tho
first place. Flowiujj from south-east to north-we>-t through
the department, the Seine fonrs three links : on the riglit
it receives above Poria the Mame, and below i^is tho
Ronillou, and on the left band the Siivre within the pre-
cincts of the city. Tbe left bank of the Seine is in general
higher than the right and consii'ts of the Viltejuif and
Chatillon plateaus separated by the I!i^vre ; the highest
point (568 feet) is above ChstiUon and the lov.eflt (105)
at the exit of the Seine. Below Forid the river flows be-
tween the plain of Oennevilliers and Nauterre (conunanded
by Uont Tal^rieu) on the loft and the plain of St Denis on
the right. On the right side, to the esiit of Pari>s are the
heights of Avron and Vinceunes coinmanding the course
of the Mame. Coiumonicatioa is further facilitated by
various canals (see Fasis).
Untket KsrdoDS occupy about S7M scrai within and without the
city, sad by meana of irrigation uid manuring are niaite to yield
from ten to eleven crojia per annum (ue Pabw). Some dlitrictn
ara apecially cole brated,— lion tranil for Itj laacboa, ?ontODay-aux-
Koaea for its etran-faerriea and rosea, and other phieaa tor Howen ami
nuieerios. The dopartmant produced in lasS t!«,S2S bufhala ol
B-heat, «42 of mBaTm, 76,008 of ryt tllE of barley, 387,837 of oats,
1.fl5e,00aDf notntoes, 11,950 of pulse, and 15,100 tons of baatnut.
Altogether, 00,000 {lorsona are engaged in agriculture. Tha live >t«k
in ISai romprissd 9S,7BS honea (70, 280 m Paria), 4174 aatlle, tSO
cilveB,SlS0 ahoep, 8620 pl^and OCO goats. Vluejanla, prodaeinc
300,718 gsllans of wina auuually, cover 2160 acres. Th* priuctp^
woods (Boulogne and Vliioannot) belong to Paria. It la partly
oHing to tha number of quarries hi the dietrict that Paria owes its
origin : ChatiUoa and llantrouge In tha aonth yield frtaatona, and
Bggneni and Clamart in tha eonth and ilontnnll and Bomainville
In tho eaat poaaeiB tha richeet plaster quarriea in France. Within
tiie circuit of Paris are rortun old quirriei non forming the cala-
comba. llost of tho IndHBtrial oatabliahmcnta in the dcfutment
an aitnated m Paris or at 8t Denis. Fautln (17.857 inhabltanta in
1881] on the Ourcq Canal ie the seat of a national factory of tobucco^
and alio of glass-work^ and AnbetvUliars (1>,137) on Iha St Denis
Canal ia the »at of great chemical works. Along the Seine, beUnr
Paria, Boulogne (211,0111) is portly occupied by lanndry eatahliab.
nieuts; Puteaui (18,580) mauuficturea woollen goods, audhaadyo-
worka, printing works, cloth -dressing worka, andanglueariBg wond
of considerabia linportanca ; Cljchy (24,820) manafactuns ei7>tal
and has a hrgo gaswork, io. Above Paria, Ivry (18,442) has
iron-vorka and ouglueerlng worka; Cho>y-le-Boi (8S78) haa
factories for the making of porcelain, glass, snia, chcuiioals, morocco,
and waioloth ; llontreoil (18,003), near Vlncannca, makaa patent
luthar, porcelain, Ac Tha department is of couria tlavaned by
all the railway lines which convarae Id Paria, and also contains the
inner circuit railway and part of the outer circuit, — making a total
of 122 miles of railway, to which are to be added nmneraoa tlui-
waya, 72 milos of nntional roads, and 458 of otbar reads. Then
ara 3 arrDndissoments (Paria, St Denia, and Bceaui), Sg cantona
[20 in Paris), and 72 commuuu. Tha department forma tha anhi-
epiacopal diocne of Paris, falls within the joriediction of tlia Pari*
court of appnl, and is divided between the four lorvt ^armdi of
Amiens, Kouen, Le Han^ ajid Orlaani. Among the important hi.
atltutiona in tha department an the lyoeomi ol Vanves and Seeau,
tha lunatio asylum at Charentou, tha vatarinary collage of llaiion*-
AifoTt, and (ha great Bicetra hoepltal at OsntiUy.
BEINS-ET-MARNE, a department of northern Frsnc^
was formed in 1T90 of almost the entire district <^ Brie
(half of which belonged to Champagne uid half to Il»de-
Prance) and a portion of GItinais (from Ile-de-Fiance and
Orlianais). Lying between 48" 7' and 48" 6' N. 1st.
and 2' 23' and 3' 13' E. long., it is bounded N. by the
departments of Oise and Aisne, £. by Mame and Anbe,
B. by Tonne and Loiret, and W. by &eine«t-Oiae. Hie
whole department belongs to the badn of iha Seine, and
is drained partly by that river and partly by its tribntariea
the Yonna and the Loing from the left, and from the ri^
tbe Toulrie, the Tires, and the Mame, with its affluents
the Ourcq, the Petit Morin, and the Otand Motio. With
the eieeption of the Loing, flowing from south to rtorth,
all theae streams eroos tha fteparttOBat fron east to wmI^
S E I — S E I
tt^wlng tlie gcnentl xlope o! Uia nurface, which is broken
an into nveral iilateeoH from 300 to fiOO foet ia height
(hiebeot point, in the north-eset, 705 feet, lowest lO-*)),
Mid laparoted from each other by deep vallejs. Most of
the plutBdiis belong to the Brie, a fertile (wd well-wooded
district of a clayuy character. In the south-west lies the
dry Bftndy district of the Poiitaineblcan eandBtonea. Tho
rlimato is ntlicr more " coiitiiicntiii " than that of Ruia,
—the summers wanner, the wintem colder^ the annual
nunfall does not exceed 16 inclioa. Here is a strildng
difference between the BOUtli of the department, where the
famoM white grupo (rhiunrlas) of Fontainebiaau ripon^ and
the country to the nortli of the Mama, — this rivet marking
pretty exactly tho northern Laiit of tho Tine.
With t lotal iroa or 1,117,53 turn, 3c!ne-et-Mam< had in 1879
101.074 Dndm vlimt, i74,eOS under oaU, E3,SS3 under Imtnwt,
G1,1S0 under viiifi. Boaid-a tbcH, mcHlin, m, tarlajr, nulH,
potBtom »re tho iirinriral iroia gmwn. In 1884 the yield -nt
8,.'JaT.Bt7 bujilidi of nlmt, 231,1IS9 of maidiii «8S,fi05 of m,
471,Z£IorU>iler, »,104,fJt ofaib<, 3,03S,1C7 of polaUMS, S21,ilD
toil! of baatnnt, and 401.127 Iouh of groPH fodder (liicerDo, clover,
Hi n fain, Ik.). Thr Uts itoclc in 187B induced 10,100 horsn, GIBO
JO sheep (173,TO0 superior brood), lOI.lOOMtUe,
__, ,, ,,(, l^hSyoB [75 ■
rigs, 871* g«t», ■
noy, 15 of
aUDiul iilue of £2, lOO, ODD,
not reach £1,800,000. Tho ., ...._.^
esteemoit, ss an also the nhito grapes of Fontalneblaau ud the
n»M of Prorins (seo toL lii. p. B88). ThDiuaDds of th* well-
known Brio choBWB sn manurnctared, and large namben of oilTes
--rereired. The for«t»(i»Tiiringa'"' " '
ith oik, beech, chcstnat, hombe^
T, poplar, and conlfeni. BeM kni
mrtuit is ths forest of Poataineblenu, the inniu! product of vhich
Ii worth £14,000. Bmllont freestoae Is (jnsrried in the deiort-
nienl, especially iu the vsltoy of the Loin^ mill-stODOB it Id ?ert^-
eous-Joaarre ; tho FontsLnotilcaii undstons. nsad eitensiTely for
imployn
anta, Ind the •
„ _ . _. in great reqi
foctBTB of ghuiL Along the Uaras ire nnmoroui plastsr-aaarriea :
lims-lulns Ofcar throualioat tho dopirtment ; ud p«t is found
in ths TiUeys of tho Ourtq sad tlie Toulzio. Bejfe of common
cliy and porcelain clay sup[)I; tho pottoriea of FanUineblsu, ind
ospecudlj those of Montareau, where opwirdi of 700 hands are
employed. Otlior industrial eatablishmenCs are the namenns lirae
fionr-mills, the sogar-fictoriea, beetroot distillarien pipcr-ioiils (ths
Munis paper.mill maaulictures bank-notes, to., both for Ftuieo
and foreign nurkols), saw-milla, foundriea, printing irorke, tanncriea,
tawing works, glove faclorias, oheinioal works, to. Most of tho
madn-power tuad in thwe establiahmenla ia mpnlied by the
Rtreama. The Seine, the Yonne, ths Kama, aud the brand Korin
an navigable, and, witJi tho canala of tho Loing and the Ourcq
and thOB of Chalifert, CoraiUon, and Challos, #hieh cut off the
winding of the Uame, Ibrm a total waterway of 219 luiles. Then
are 213 mitei of railway. With it* 818,991 inhabitant! tu 1S81,
Stios-et-tUrne ia In danalty of popolatian slightly belov the anr'
Sfta of Pianos. It haa E arrondiseements, 29 caabms, 530 oom-
mow*, bnns ths dhxnse of Meani, belonga to the jarisdlotion of
the Parii eonrt of appeal, and to tho district of the Orleans curjt
faroM. Among the places of nota In the department, Monteroaa
(7107 inhabitants in 1881), distuignished as Honteroaa-iknt-Yonns
bseaoio of it* aitiiatian at tho conduonce of the Yonne with ths
Ikctan but also as a gnut railway statioD on the mute from Paris
(o Lyons at tho ionction of tbe Troyes lino, aa the scene <rf the
aasaadDStion of John the Bold, dnke of Burgundy, and aa one (^
ths battleSelds of Napoleon I. in tho campaign of 1811. Its
church is an historical monamoDt of the 18th, 14th, 15th, slid 18th
coatnries. A status of Napolson aUads between th* two bridge*,
SEINE-En^-OISE, a depattnuDt <A northern fVance,
formed in 1790 of port of the old proriiice (A Bede-
Franca, and tTOveraed frwn aoath-eost to north-inet by
the Seine, which ia joined by the Oisa from the right.
L^g between 48* 17' and 49V14' N. lat. and 1' 27' and
3 37' £. long., it ia aunounded by the departments of
Sain»«t-Hanie on the east, Loiret on the eoath, Earfr«t-
Loir OD the west, Eore on tbe north-west, and Oiae on tbe
north. It eoclosee tbe department of Seine. The Epte en
the north-weat ia almost toe only natnnl boiPtdaiT of tiie
iepartment. The stnaou (all belonging to tbebamn of
the Seine) are, on the right the Yiree, the llanie, tho (Hue,
and tbe Epte, and on tlio left the Eftwnne (joined b* the
Juino, which paHsee by fitampea), the OiBe, the Bitrre,
and the Maoldie. 3eine-et-Oi.io betongn in part to tbe
tableland of Beance in the eouth and to that of Brie in
the east. In the centre are the high wooded hilln which
m^e the charm of Vcrtaillea, Marly, and St Oennain.
But it is in the north-west, in the Veiin, that the
culminating point of 690 feet Lj reat^cd, while the lowest
point, where the Seine leaves tho department, ia hardly 40
feet above tbe sea. The mean temperatore is 51' Fahr.
OftIiBl,38l,8eSacn!a 912,205 are arable loll, 50,830 ■nsadow*,
12,852 tini^anlB, and 199,884 woods. Id 1881 ths linstock com-
priaod 48,6(0 hones, 5828 smh, 162 mules, 70,800 cattle, 811,800
siieen (wool-clip, 1110 tons), 18,200 pis^ 1500 goata, aud 18,500
beohivea. Soiiie-et-OIie is a great agricuitural and liorticultnnl
department The croiis in 188^ were— "wheat, 5,817,858 bnahell;
moalin, 853,127; Tye, l,0ai,B72 ; barley, 811,894; oala, 8,705,18Si
buckwheat, SSuO ; potntow, 8,479,000 ; beetroot for sugar 208,816
tons, and for fodder 237,015 ; colia ecal, 415 tons; hay, 18,241;
clDVer,13,505;lucfrufl,11O,3S1iiainfoin,67,2a8. Oika, homboann,
birch, cheatunta an the preralUng tlvea In tho fonista, most of
which belong to tlio sUle. Bnllding, iiavin^ and mill ttonea (1978
Korkmon], lime, plaater, msrl, chalk, BBnil7clay, and peat (ahmg
tiio Easonne) ore all found in the dejiartinout. At Enshisn are
cold mineral springs, and Korgea haa a liydropsthie ntablLahmsn^
wiieiT! the town of r'arismalntiiluBahotfdtalfarscroruioiiBchlldrsD.
Tlia moat important industrial aatablislunsnta an Che national pot-
colain factory at SivRs ; the Oorsniuiant powdsr-mills of Bevran
and Buichet ; the na{ier.|iiilk and eardboard mills [1670 workmen)
of Corbell (popuIatlDn 8588 In 1881), Etampf* (7186), and Pontoiwi
(8«7G}, but V ta ths lirgaet Is at Essonns fl099} ; tlia Bai-splnnlnt
niltU (8368 inf udlos), cottcn.mlll* (17^30 nrindl«tk a)lk-miU*<67MI};
wool-milla (8800) ; the fooadilH and boat and Inidp bnUdiag
St Corbeil, Kc. ; the igricnltunl ir
(2819); the snnr-relineriu with thonaandaofworkmsD; dlatUlsif**
on most of the large tarms ; sttrch'Worki, Ianndil*a large printing
establishments cloae to Psris ; faetotis* for obsnio*! pTodncI^
candle*, omhroidery, hosiery, perihmory, (hoes, and bnttOB* ; one
of tho flncst ilno-works in Francs ; saw-milla, ic. Bedda* the
navigation of th* Seine, the tlime, the Olse and ths Canal
d'Ourcq, the deportment haa 420 miln of railroad, 157 of national
roads, and 30&S of other roada. The population of ths denaitment
in 1881 was 577,798 inhabitants (one and a half time* the STwac*
density of the French departmentn). Thin an 0 aiiiiiiitiaanmiinfl,
87 cantons, and 888 commnnei ; the department forma the dloceae
of Versailles, is divided between the nrrTiiTannAaf Amisn^ Rouesi,
Le Hina, and Orlesna, and haa ita court of appeal at fteU Ths
commune of Argenteuil (11,849 inhabilanta) 1* not only Impcstant
for ibt manufactnm but alao for ita market nrdena (aaparagDs, Bo,
Kpee, iu:.); and Its church, rebuilt ill tbe 19th century In uie
nansaque itylo, Is a &shionab1s pUc« i^ pUgrimaga
SEINE INF£RIEUKE, a department of the nwth of
France, formed in 1T90 of four districts (Normaa Yezin,
Bray, Canx, and Roumoi*) belonging to tbe province of
Nomuudy. Lying between 19 16' and 60 V N. Ut.
and 1* 62" and 0' 4' E. long, it is bounded N.W. and N.
by the Eai^ish Qiannel for a distance of 80 mika, N.E. by
Bomme, from which it is sepanited by the Breele, K. tw
Oise, S. by Enre and the eetnary of the Seine, wbitn
Baparates Uie department from QJradoa. It is divided
almost equally I^etween the basin of the Beine in the aoath
and the basins of certain ooaat streams in the north. Um
Seine receives from the right hand before It reaehea the
department the Epte and the Andelle frean tlie Biar dn-
trict, aud tlien the Danidlal, tbe Oaill^, the Anstiebert^
tbe Bolbec, and the L&sarde. The mam coast stieanu are
tbe Breele (which forms tlie ports of Eu and Trjpert), the
Y^res, the Arques or Dieppe stream (formed \t3 the junction
of the Tarennas, the BiUmnev ^°^ ^^ Eanliie), the Bcic^
the Saane, the Dnrdent, As avAole the dqiartment lOKj
be described aa an elevated plateau enlminating towards
the east in a point 807 feet above the sea and terminating
along tlie Sdne in high falnb and towards the sea in ateep
chalk diffli 300 to 400 feet hi^^ which are continnaUr
being eaten away and traaafOrmed into beds of shln^e.
There ia BO atrfkuig line of parting betw«ea the banaa ol
eee
S E I — S E I
the Seine and the Channel, liut deep Talleys h&re been
hollowed out hj the Btreuiia. The Bnjr district in the
sonth-eut ii a brood itilej of denndatioD formed by the
sea M it retired, and it id tntverced b; mialler valleyB and
eorared irith eicellent {mature. In the comparatively
n^CiUar outline of the coast there ore a few breake, as at
Trtport, Dieppe, at Valery-Bn-Caui, Fecamp, and Havre,
' the Cap do la EAve, which commands thia last port, and
Cape Antifcr, 12 or 13 tmloa farther north. Tr^rt,
Dieppe, Teules, St Volery, Ficamp, Yport, Etretat, and Si«
Adnoae (to ntentioD onl; the more important) are faahion-
able watering-places with the Fariaiana. The winten ars
not qnite eo cold nor ia the Eommer so hot u in Paris, and
the aveiags temperatuie of the year is higher. The rain-
fall IB 24 inches per annum, increasing from Houen to
Dieppe as the sea is approached.
Witli a total UM of l,491,4Ca imt, Baiua InKrisun luia
tll.SSS lent of anbla SToasd, ltl,126 ot wood, BS.TOl pan,
S3,*77 moorlud ud putnnga. Out of a total popolation of
S14,(WB in 1881 tbom dtpsodcDt on agricnltnra namEgrml SS9,e8II.
Tha lira itock in tba rnuM nor comnriaed 81,661 honaa of good
bcwdi, 1121 saMi, 12S maK S8a,m cattU, IS»,«r7 Bliaap of
wdinirr kind* and Z7,Bi3 oT nnclal braada (iraol-clin MO toiu),
78, 18« rio, 8U1 soati, 18,202 bMluvas (E4 toni at horn); and IS«f
wax). Ulleli cowa'ara keut in great uombeta, and Qouniay batt«r
•nd Ooonwj ind Haufct&tel cheaa ue (n nputa. Tlis farms of
tha Cauz plataan an aacli rorroDnded b; an euthon dyke, on vMch
«ia plaotwl fbtiat traea, gcnsrally boach (luL oak. Within tha
aholtai thoa noridMl applo and r«ar traea giow, nliicli prodoc* the
ddat gaaaraBj drank 0]r tba inhabitanta (89,003, OnnlloDa in
Tba ctbar ermm in 1888
•aim, 89,800; ij^ tlM.lSO) bi
)tatOK^<IU,l») palaa.»8,73«; b««tnwt fn luai
id for bddar 118,0B> ; coin aenl, O.OTS tcM ; a^ 1S7,M7 tooa
-whast, 6,667,
^.*4J,TBli ■
a. 08,738; bcatrootfcsi
(8,837 toiui.
cf ordiaaij fbddar. Id geaeral tha depruttnant ia fertile
oDltiTated. Along tha Seine Bno mudoir-laad baa beau ledalmed
by djrkiDg ; and aaady and baireu diatricta hiTQ bean plantad with
tnas, meat) J with oaka and bMohu. and thef often atbU nuguifi-
Cent dimennouB, Hpecially in tba foraat of Arqon and along tha
railwajf item Rouon to Dieppe; finuuyipni™ i« the principal com-
[leunt of tha foreit of Bou mj oppoalto Rouou. Tith the aiception
of a little peat and a Bumlwr of quaniea. emnlojing 7*5 workmen,
Sdna Infiirienre bu no tninentl eonrce of noilth ; but manufactur-
ing indnatry la well developed. Eonen ii the chief oentre of the
eottOD-tnde, whicli ia lu the depiutineiit ropreaonted bj IM iiilnaing
sndwaaTing lactariea, aaiploftDg £2,017 luDda, 1,100,000 apindlra,
11,000 powar-Iooma. and lOOO band-lotnna, and worklog up BO.OOO
toiuof ootton annualljr. Haiid-loom waatin^ earried on tbrongbout
"•- »mitiT diatriet^ emploja 18,000 loomij in the bnnch of Ihi
ootton tnMle known u roueinmie 100 mann&etiinta are employed,
imdaeing to the valne of £2,100,000 par annum; in that of
tlw fi^inam 80 aatabUdimenla with GOOO workpeople torn ont
jeorif 1,000,000 |decoa <rf I IS yarda each. There sr* 22 eatablish-
■wnta fiir dyaiog cotton ctoth with TOO workman, and far dyeing
eottoo ysm SS Mtabliahmenla with 1200 w^kman, The woollen
manilketnn^ of which Elbeuf ia the centre, employs 21,000 work-
meo and produoaa gooda valnsd at about £8,(00,000, with raw
tnatariM nluad at £1,720,000, mainly imported t>oiu Aoatralia and
partly ftom the la Plata pmta. The wool-q>inaing mills (at Elbeaf
and DantiUd) baT« t^OWl nindlas, and there are OtiO power-loonu
and 1800 faand4ooma At Elbauf (21,888 inhabitants in 1831)
than an 17 dTaworfca, 50 twist heti^ea, a nunafietory of carding
naehtiws, and IB eh>th-dne>liig bctoriea About 18,000 apindlea
are emidoyad la flai-aidnDlng, an indnatry men widely distributed
thnnuhoiU the department Xngineering work^ foondriaa, and
iMne&Ipbnlhllngyudaaeeorat HaTn(popiilatton lOB.MO hi 1881)
lad Booan (10G,UO). Wooden ehlps an alao built at Havi^ Boucn,
INappe (91,t81>), and Ffcamp (11,010). Othw MttbliabnaDta of
impc^tancaanthe national tobaoco-botoriNat Dieppe (1100 handa)
' anaHiTn(6S0haiids),eiigai-iatDraia((£1,110,0Wwarthoraiimr
m 18811, din-worka (BTS woikmen), BO*p-w<^ chemical woAt, '
■andle-ltetorie^ floor-milli, oU-bctoiiea, Itmt-wo^ laee-woiis,
oloek-betorlea, Ac Tha total nnmbo- of indiutrial eetabtiabmenta
In the department la 07G ; and it is eetimatsd that 10S,460 paraons
depend on Indoetrbl pnnnila. The fiaheriea an a great rcaource
for tha lahabitaala of the •eaboard. Vicamp aenda yearly £100,000
wortliofcadand£80,000 worth of herTtnnmac^raL&c., into the
ms&et ; Diemn liaa the aoppljins of Fiirla wiOi ttaii bh ; 6t
Valvy aenda Aa boata as far a* leSand. The nlndpal porta for
Ibnign bade an Hane, Sonen, and Dieppa Then na Hi milia
of rallwaj, 870 of naUoaal madi, 6818 trf^other rwds, 08 of Seloa
niTi^on, and the Breale ia canallnd for 3 mllea In popolation
Beine Inftriegm atuda Ibnrth In the Bat of rmuh dapartauDti ;
7B0O0
the court of appeal and the headquartan of Iha enfTn d'
also in that eitr. Places of importanoa are Eibenf ; Fleamp, ■
fithing port, with aM-batbing, diatUliniL fee; Bolbec (10,296
inhahitinla), with weaving aniTapiniiing faotoriea ; and En (1827
inhabitants), with a celebrated cuCle belonging to Looia Fhilippe
and tbe Orleans family.
BEISIN. "hieisin of the freehold taikj be defined to
be the poeaession of snch an eatate in land as waa andently
thonght worthy to be held by a free man " (Williams, Ok
iSniin, p. 2). Seisin is now confined to poeaeadon (rf the
freehold, thoogfa at one time it appeara to have been ns«d
for (imple poeaetoioa, without re^jd to the estate of th«
pOooosBor. (See Bmsemiok.) Its importance is consider-
ably leas tluui it waa at one time owing la the old form of
couToyance bj feoffment with livery of seisin having beeo
anperseded by a deed of grant (see Rkal Ebtatb), and
the old rule of descent from the person last seised having
favour of desMnt from the pnrchaser.
(Bee Imhxbitakck.) At one time tbe right of the wife to
dower and of the bnsband to an estate by eurtady depended
upon the doctrine of seidn. l%e Dower Act, S and 4
WilL rV. 0. lOS, has, however, rendered tbe fact of tba
seisin of the husband of no importance, and the Harried
Women's I^iapertj Act, 1883, appears to have practically
abolisbed the old law of cnitesy. In the eaaaof aconvey'
ance operating under the Statute of Usea, seisin is dsemed
to be given t^ the effect of the statute. This constructive
aeiun may still be of importance where the queatian arise*
how long a person has been in actual pomassion. Him in
Orm^e Com (Iaw Hep., 8 Common Fleas, 381) the right
to a conn^ vote depended npon the form of Uia convey-
ODce of a rent-cbai%e to the voter. If the conveyance had
been nnder the statnte, tbe claimant would have been
seised for a sufficient time ; the conrt, however, iisld that
the conveyance was a common law grants and tliat tho
grantee must have been in actual recent of the rent in
order to entitle him to be rtsistered.
Primer leitCn waa a fondu burden at one time incident
to the king's tenants in agiitt, whether by knight service
or in socage. It was Ae right of tbe crown to receive of
the heir, ^ter the death of a tenant t* a^iite, one year^
Cfits of lands in possession and half a year's profits of
]s in reversion. The right wss abandoned by the Act
abolishing feudal tennrea (13 CHar. IL c 34).
In Scotch law tha oornsponding term is "•asine.'' lAe eidda
in England, eaaine baa become of Iktla legal importance owing to
recent li^iaUtion. By 8 and 9 Vict, c it aeraal ladna on the
landa waa made iiiiiin iimai]' Bj SI auj 23 Vict c 7S the isatni-
ment of aasins waa aupeiaeded by tho reootding of the oouTayance ,
withawarrantDtregi^ration thwaon. For the register of naiMa,
Me Beoibtsitioh.
SEESMOMETEit. His name was ori^nally given far
instruments designed to measore the movsmoit of the
ground during eartbqnokes. Becent obaervationB have
shown that, in addition to the comparatively great and
sudden di^lacemeate which occnr in earthquakes, the
ground is subject to other movements. Some of thee^
which may be called " eartb-tremora." resemble earthqnokea
in the rapidity with which tiie occur, bat differ from
eortliquakes in being impercepiible (owing to the small-
ness of the motion) nntd instrumental means are used
to detect them. Othere, which may be called " earth-tilt-
ingB," show themselves by a slow bending and imbending
of the smrfsce, so that a poet etnck in the grotind, vec^
tical to b^;in with, does not remain vertical, but inclitiea
now to one side and now to onodier, the plane <d the
groond in which it stands shifting relatively to tbe hmiton.
No sharp dittinodon can be di»wn between theae c1uh»
EISMOMETEB
«f mOTemonts. Eortfaijuakcu and earth- tremors grade iato
ona another, and in almost every earthquake there U some
tiltiog of the inrEace. The term " aaLsmometer " may con-
Tenientlj ho extended (and will here bo understood) to
cover all instrumoats which ore designed lo measure move-
menta of the grouii<1.
MeaaniBmonts of earth-moTementi aro of tvo distinct
types. Id one type, which ia applicable to ordinary
earthquakes and earth-tremors, the thing measured is the
displacement of a point in tho earth's crust. In the
second type, which is applicable to slow tiltioga, the thing
measured U any change in the plana ot the earth's surface
relatively to the verlicaJ. Under EABTHqUiKE mention
is made oF inntnimentg designed by Palmieri and othen
to regUter the occurrence of earthquakes, and in some cases
to give a general idea of tbcir severity. While some of
those ioatruinents act well as Eeismoseopei, none of them
serve to determine with precision the character or the
magnitude of the motion. In thi.i article notice will be
taken only of instruments intended for eiacl measurement.
Earthquake displacements are in general vertical as well
OS horizontal. For the purpose of measurement it ia con-
venient to treat the vertical component separately, and in
some cases to resolve the horizontal motion into two com-
ponenta at right angles to each other.
Juirtin ifclhai—ln the firat lypo of mcHuremonli wlist nwy be
«]|*dlhg''inertu"motbodi9foIlDned. A mus iinupended irilb
rnxxlDUi tg movo in tbn dir°ction of thit Fomponenl of the eirtb'a
(riso It nould be nnnumgubli: ; but
miut be much gniter Ibsn that nf tl
62?
period of fm cwilUtlou
artbquilce-motiDns wbich
umple peudulma ci
. pendulum with u
iosth it. The coiomon peudulum
tdulum unmtAble, if the babe ue
le cDmbinitiou cau bo
lever c, carried by
joint ia the gied bruket d, ii
f^esrad also by s ball.u;l.tubo
Jotat to the upper bob. Iti long
nhlcb project! out and touchii
a amokod-glaH plato /, held on
a fiitd shcl£ Any horiiontal ^ „ „ ,
motion of (ho ground acti on ths ^ca S.-Dnpt.! peuduluui
[ant by tbe bracket d, and ihowlag detail",
canae* the index ta (rue a mugnllled mcord on tbs imokeJ-gLua
plate. Fig. 1 ii token fram s photograph of aa uutmnient of
this kind, coostructcd to give a much ma^ifleJ record of ainall
movemeDti, When large firthqualwt an to be recorded ths mul-
tiplying IcTcr ii diipenied with, and the indei ii attacked dir«tly
toonn of tbe bob^ ObKrtitions with inatrumeoU of this ('- -
exhibit nell the very complicated motion which tbe eartb'i but
undergoes duiing aa earthquake. In small earthquakei (aucl
am only Jightly or not at all dotructiic) the areatcit amnlil
.1 if... i. _<>„.. 1.... Ik... . w,.'l1; <~ ....1 _„i .L.
by a du|
a ficiitnile of
nm leiimograph durinj,
bich occur frequently iu the
irth's actiinfmotion.
Initead of liio pcnduluaie, a single invorted pen- _ , n'-™,!
dulum hu been used, with a .priuft atri>tohcd ^"^ ^""T™™™
between it and a fi»d .upport above. By ad- °'„u^'">'^'
justing the spring to Ibit a proper proportion of ■"""'"i-
the Wright ia borne by it and tbe remainder by tbe rigid stem of
the nendulnni, an approach to nmtral eqailibrium can be mads.'
In Forbea'a inverted peodulum Eeiamometer * a lomeiihat timilar
plan was adopted : the foot of the pendulum wu attached la an
clastic wire which teuded to reatoia it to its normal verticti
iwiitlon when displaced. '
Another group of instruments d«lgn*d to fhnilah two degree*
of freedom for the purpoie of recording all motioni in a borizontal
plane, but much less sstisfaotory on w
that in nhich a railing aphen either itac
a Buppart for ■ Kcond inertia.giti^ mi
On 1 marble table, gronnd
pUne and careruUy levellsd,
fotir bsUe of rocV-cryatal
were placed, caTTving a
massive block of hard
vppliet inertis
Probably thi
ck in 1S7S (ae
flg. 1),
wood.
A pencil, hiding ^
OVar-k
O^
imt*n
^effCjj
'hE*^
Ublo and the block
there
motion of
the Uble, foi- Ihls lyettm is kin
etically equivalent to 1
nr npright
ha balls. Thii forma w
a> high as the top of 1
lat majr ba
the etcudy pUng ; it* poa
ck and b*IIs, and ii eaa
tion depends on there!
o( M.
in uiy direction the bl
oppsuta dlrectioD, and
Various forma of roUi
he record i> magnifie.
g-ephers .ei«noTur,
have been
■ J.A-Ewliig, "A DupleirendulnmaglsiDoniete].
i/Uit Srttnulcsieal SoeiHf of Japan, voL v., 1S82. p. 89.
> Ewlng, " A Duplei Pendulom with a Bhigl* Bob," In flOM &£b
Sec Jnp., vol. tL. 1883, p. IB. i
> Itrr«rtqfBr^AiiK.,\Ul,t.tl,otTrmi.S.S.X^Xt.f.JXi^
SEISMOMETER
jmpiMed hf Ur. T. jk;,' Vr. C A. SttnoBou,* and othraa. Prob-
kblj ths bnt fonn would be tb&t of ■ li^ht iphsriciil Kgmnt
nlfiug on a lanl plui« btaa uid curying ■ 1i«t; bob G^«d ' '
To giTs aOBM tUbilitT ths bob ihrjold be pli ~
ccntnefgnrityi little ander On cei
nf percuiiaii, '"■ '■=-'— »
oitliei from it or from tuj other conrenient put of tbe rolling
ulec*^ All rDlliug Mumoioeten— iDclading rollug cjUnden, wliicb
harabMn propoiod by Mr Onj u onglo -freedom instnimeuti, to
ngiftar one eampanent of horiiontil motioD— fail to ict veil,
paitlr banniBol tbe compintirelj grest frictlonil ocquuirric-
tioiul nritUncs vbkh is praHoted to ths motion el th< freo
mtn, Hkd pirtlr bscuue, ovia^ to impeifectiatis in the conatmc-
tion ud want of peHiEt ligidit; in tUa materuli, [bo ball or cylinder
Ukta up ■ pootioa In irhicti tban ii an objectiooibty great stability
ai nnrda Tery am&ll diaplAcamanta. Theao objectioDB tnoka the
IH of ratlins Minnomet«a unadiuable, eica^ perlufa for ths
nent df violant Barthanakca.
a barizontal
I of tbe relation of tbe d' .ilacs-
ment to time, — an element iiliich is required if ire are to form any
aatlniata of the riolanee of an earth(iua.ke fTom the record. With
this Tiaw ■ diflannt method of regiatration is also folloned. Tbs
whola moTsmant is resolved into rectilinear .nrnpODente, and tbeM
n aspantsly recordad (by aingls-freedom aeiimorr
that
the nnmheFj ancceaaion, amplitude, Telocity, and accsleration of tbe
eomponent moTsments can be deduced and tbe reeultant motion
determined. A single ateady mass iritb tiro degnea of fresdoni
ma;f atill be employed to record, aenarateW,
hotjzontal motion ; bnt it is generally prefen
1. nepi
ide two
dofpce of fresdom. The principal
honiontal pendalnm aeiamograph,'
other, eacli supplying a at«>dj point vith respect to horiiontal
motiona tfanarena to its own length. Each pendulum ia pivoted
about two points, on an axis which is nearly Tertioal, bnt in.
eliaed sligbtly forwatds to give a suitable dt^ne of atability. In
•oma (orma of the inatnmient the piloted frame of tbe pendalnm
is light, and the inertia ia praotiiilly all fnrniahed by > eocond
posee or bob pivoted on the fnme about a Tertical ana through
the centre of psrcnssion of tho tnme. This conatraction has Ue
advantage of compactneaa and o( making the poaition of the steady
point at once determinate. But a airnpler construction ia to at-
tacll tbs bob rigidly to the frame. This abifta the steady point
a little way ontwarilB from the poeitiDa it wonld hate it the bob
wire pivoted. In either constnietion a prolongation of the penda-
lnm bayond the bob forma a convenient midtipljing index. Fig.
pncticsble only when the i
ance and vhere earthqnakes
rur ofUn. It has tM diiwUa^ ibmi
, each pointer as the plate raTOlvaB
dly broadens, partly bociiuia of warping and tempera-
channa in the anpporta and partly because o( acloal tilting dl
^nnd. As an earthquake ^nerally begins with eompuatiTatj
^ificant movements, there is not mnc *■ *~ »>>)— i- »" i~ ».-■-;»•
plate at rest to begin with, provida
ing aeiamoacope be iiaed. A auitable }
~' ^^' ^ 'hau tbs aorface of tbe DHiaiiu T.
point, which atanda clear in tta*
cenuBDi [[III aapreiaiDo, out loncnea the ed« whenever a horizontal
movement of the ground takes place, thereby dosing tbe eircnit of
an electro -magnet, which starta the olocic In the moat rscent
form of the boriEontal pendulum aeiamograph the boba are Jixeil
to the pivoted ti-amea, and the fcnnlsn are anuiRed to IncB theii
recorda aide by aide. Records vith inatrumonta oithit claa^ baaidB>
giving mnrh additional informntion, agree with thoae of the daplaz
pendSum ir *"■ —
the atraigbt
the two componenta are con-
tinually changing, and when
the two an compounded the
remit is a path having tho
same characteriatice - ■'
tbe diagram in fig.
To register the rertical
ponent of earthquake
we require to auapend
with vertical freedom,
ways of doing this t
much aUbility, * '
when a weight
jpiral auriug oi
lontal bar that ia Axed to a
by a fleiible apring joint. Thia last ll tb*
Tertical motion aeia- ' '
naed by the British
Asaociation Commit-
tee at Comrie in 1841.
Another form, me-
cbanicall J aqui valent
to this, ia a weighted
horiiontal bar, pivot-
ed on - '-^ ■— ^
mtil fnlcn
and
held up by a spinl
aprinf^ ttretohed
^ma a point near
the fulcrum to
fixed SI
U— O
6 ihawi a comfleta horinmtal pandnlom aetanegtapb (with pivoted
boba). Two rsctugnUr componsnte of earUiqnaka motion are re-
corded radially on a revolving plate of smoked gUi% which reeeiTea
ita motion throng a frictjon- roller tima a oloek iiimiahed with a
flidd-fklotion centrifugal goTemor, Tin clock may either be kept
gdog eontiniioDaly, in si[MitatiMt of an earthquake at any moment,
> Ony. no. Hut; Saptemts UtL
ManMpaji^^ la Fm, Jb^ On., Ho. na> IW.o
lanport abora.
This mode of auapon-
non is still too stably U
though leas ao than _
if tbe spring wer«"
directly loaded. To
make it nearly a-
static Hi T. Otajr* propoeed the tna
of a tnbe containing mercury, connected with the bar in snch a
manner fiat when the bar goes down the mercury, running to-
warda one end of the tube, haa the effect of increasing the wogfat,
and when the bar goes up an opposite effect occur*. Tba plan ia
open to the objection that the mercuir ia diatnrbed by horuontal
moTementa of Uie ground. A eimplar plan ia shown In flg. &*
There the pull of Uie apring is applied at a short distanoe * below
the pUoe of the bar. Msnca when the wdgkt goee doim the spring
• Onr, IVoiu. Ml Jag. /•■., VOL UL p, l(r.
a Mrbia, nna Ma a-. 2v., toL IC f. IA
-o-
SEISMOMETER
which then poUi vith Bun bra, pnib with ■ niudlor loranM,
*Dd it ii au; to xtJnit the diKuiM r u that the nunneDt of the
pall of the igiriDK isnulna HUaibl; eqiul to Iba mooiant of thr
wei^t, — the oondition nnni—rj (o roue the bu WaUc Ttd* ii
leoiiTad Thou «' J, A heing tha hoiiotttil dMuo from the fkil-
M>d I the Inigtb br
HkBMitad. submit;
_„ _„. A Totial-BiotioD
„ , . utmcled DQ the priodpla which flg. B QliMntM
-diagnuanutiisUr, iaarrauged to tnce ila ncoid oa ■ nrolriiig giiii
. T. - ««■ ' 1 '.^^ _ — : — f i.*«i^»fc.i .__^j„i — ^ recoraiiig
-nhlch th< (pnn^
point it which the ipring >d^
ina ii gtreCcheil vhen the mi 1« ni
t^tc. TbiM, along vith ■ inii <k bniiontal pMidalanH n
„ inada of (tuiwiuiaa, bj vhioh a man ia hniig Id
noutral or nearly neutnl eniiilibriiuu. wllb OM iignt of boriiODtal
(reedom, u ihown in ig. i. It la
baaed ou the anpmxiinatc itnislit
iinolinkworkofTchobicholf. wCeu
a bar u hang fram Rial mpporta
\>y croaaail dn, at t dittanci below
tlH Biipporta equal to the diatanot
betvraea the BUpporta, the leiu^h of
the bai being aqoal to halT Uiat
illttance, ili middla point mores In
Torj nearlj a eCiaifht Una. Br fix-
ing a WDliifat at tbe cantiv of the
bar and adiiing a niltabia recording
apparatua, wa h*T« ■ rerj fiictlon-
!•« form of one-Hnnponant hori- __ .
waUl aaiamometOT.' Whan a dia- "°- "'
pUcament of tha gnmnd eccnn in the line of the bar, the bar ii
tilted thtoosfa an ugle which ii froportioaal to the linear dianlace-
RMD^ and the eenCn of the bar Bouaqnantlj iharea, in a noall and
tleflnila proportion, the motion of the ground, — a fact wliich i» to
be borne in mind in eatinaliiv the (b^ee of mnltipliaition giTen
by the teoordiDg appantoa.
The Inatnimenti which baTe be«a dMoclbad aSbrd complete and
aatlsbctoiy meana of detennming the motira which * point of the
gnmnd DOdergoaa daring anj^torbniee which would be recog-
nijEod a* an aaithqaaka. For minute Mrth-tremon, boweTer, a
largar WDltipUostian la neceaaar;, a^ the alaeuce of Motion ii of
oren mon imporlanae than in the mauoiaroent of carthqnakn
|iroper. Optical methoda of magnifying the motion are accordingly
reurtad to. In the " normal tromometer " of Bertalli, naed in Italy
to detect earft-trainon^ the bob of a pendolnm, niapendad by a fine
wire fRim a iixed wi|iport, ia riawed throu^ a raflectli^ priam and
ita ootiou in any aiininth mestnied by a hicroineter microecopo.
The gtnt I Lability of the pandoliun. which ia only I^ matrea long,
prarenti it Ih>m behaving aa a ataady-point aeismemetaT ; and, if
•ueoewiTa oarth-moTementa were by chance to oocnr with a period
cqoal or nearly equal to Ita own bee period, Ita ae^ired awing
■Dold altosathar maik the legitimate IndictkUoDa. Ihla kJnd^
action baa, ID Eut, baan tomad to leoouDt >a a in*int of detecting
eery uinula aarUi'ttemon r-j
by Baari, who ha> darind '-X
I mfcre lelaMoaeope, eonaiBt- ' ^
ing «( a number of pandn-
Inmt of nriou* lengthy one
or other of whichia likely
to be let awinging whan tlie
groQud ihakaa to and fro-n-
pnitadly, through eian the
miaotat range. To miown
tremort, howarer, tha inetni-
meata of Bertelli ani! Boai
ira inappTDprtetc ; for that
pcnpoaa, jnat aa for the pap-
poae at meaanrinx laigar
motioni, the eoapended maw
mail be iu nearly neutral
SnllitHiiuiL To And a mode
■uiptnetOQ which ia at once .
utatlo and extremely frie-
iifflnd^; the cr
nipenibn, which haa bean
alnidjr deaotibad, ia probably
hitherto rngseated. It haa
baan aitopted in the mloio-
famiiliad with a mjernmi
aaparataly anapeuded, in the manner
^ la to each other, one abore the olber,
micToaoope, fiiod to the top of the caaa and
9 Ss 9, at right
" 1. Am: . . .- , - .
miernmeter eye-jriece, ia focnied on a
UoCion at right anglee to thla is shown by the lower bob e (dranu
in aaetion), which carries a eimilar tnuuvarae hair. A fixed lena b
between the bobs giraa an image of the lower hair in ' '
the nppei hair, to that both appear erosHd in tha fieUf of the
micniacope, thereby allowing bothcompoueutiDf horiicntal motion
to be obearred lo«etbar.
.S^iMum i£(A«i.— In obaarring alow earth-tilUngian anlirely
KIT . .. t..1 . mu !.,,„ j(,j„ i^ jjgj ^ m<MUii
-J _ body which landa to pn-
orlglnal poailion, liut to onopare the direction of a line at
plana fixed to the earth with the directjoo of tha verticaL Tbi-
earlisst obserrstions of earth-ttl tinge ware inada by the aid of
apirlt-levela. If a levat be Ht on a table filed to the rock, ibi
bubble, watched through a micnecape, will be eeen to more elowly
The mcrementa ai
that the iDcrtla of the Quid ie nnimportaut. Obaerval
paire of 1*tb1b, eet at right angle* to aicb other, have been carried
on ayatematicilljforaome^ean by U. P. PlantamoDT.' Thiaialhs
sinmlcat method of meaiunng earth-til tings, but it ii liable to ertora
which are not eaaily excluded. Anotber method of inreetl^ttng
changea in the direction of the vertical waa initiated in ISflS by
M. A. d'Abbadie^* who had before that obearred the mavemsnta of
Isrel-bnbblea. Light from a fixed aODrce ia made to fall on a tdlect-
ingbaainormeccury about lOmetreabdawit Above lh« baaln ia a
laixe lena of long baa, which btinga the raya into par^liam dor-
ins their pssstge lo tha marcuir. and canaee them to cmvatKB after
laSexioa, lo that an image of (he aoniee ia dmned at a convenieut
i tbe image is measured (fa k
The inlarvsl
diatance trtna it, and ii
between the Hmree an ^. .„ _„„_„..„„
aiimath) at laaat twice a d»y by a micramelir micnecope. The
accnncv of the method depanda on tbe Sif ^ of tha source of li^t
relarively to the laDa and to tbe BUilkee of tbe ground, sndbi
gecure this U. d'Abhadie bnilt a maadre hollow cone of concrete
for the support of bia apparatna. His obeervationa have ahowo
that tbe aarth'a anrfaca tmdergoea almost inceieaut alow tilting
through angles which, in the coarae of a year, have been found to
range over four eeconda. He baa alao noticed (he occntnocs of
uitstion of the mercury. An improTameiit on hia apuntui mi-
Mted by M. Wolf* la ahown in fig. II. -
The light, instead of being all reflected
bom the free aurface of mercnry (a\ is
putly reflected IVom that and partly (ii>m
a plana mirrDr (t) fixed to the rock. Two
imagee ale therefore formed, whooa nila-
tive poailion meaauns the tilting of the
Burface. The advantage of thia ia that
the position of the Murce (tf light need
no longer be fixed, and tbe accuracy of
the method depaoda ODly on tbs fixity
of tha miiTor b with respect to Qn nek.
Furthar, to avoid bavlDg tbs souroe and
image at a gnat Imgfa t sbaTe tbe BuHaoe^
H. Wolf allowi the Hght to leMsh and '
leave the apparstns barismtally, in tha
manner indicated in the sketch, by asjng - y^^
at W to tha horiion. SHU snotiier made of InTeatintJng alow
changea of tha vertial waa foUoved (at thesuggastion of Sir William
™- — sonlbrMeeanO. H. and H. Darwin, in obeervationa made by
with ue view of meaauring tbe Innir disturbance of giavily.
if tiie Britiah Assodation Ibr 1S81 and 1882 contain a
riJita:
k&d e
the pendulum only
ooe'degtee'of freedom. Below the bob waa a email mirror bong by
two threads, one of which waa attached to the pendulum bob and
the other to a fixed luppott. The peadnlum wis free to awing at
-'-'■' anglea to ttie plajieofthe threads, and any movement of thia
tuaed the minor to rotate throngh an an^a which was
id In tbs uinal way by a telescope and seals. The method
iplible of very gmt delicaoy, bst Hasais Dsrwtal limnd
that when the instrument was a^juiiad to be apedally aaniitiTe its
manipulation bsoame sxtremely dilBcult. TolTs modiAcatioD of
D'Abhadie's method sppasrs to fumiah, on the wlude, the most
lor nwaaniementa of this ^pe. The ap-
in fig. 10 is also applicable. The method
employed in tbe caaa ofalowtiltings may be called
tbe squilibrinoi method in contrsdiatinetion to the inertis method,
whichia used to meaxiDecompantivaly sodden diaplacementa The
4ili June lers, let Dacalw in*, As. ; i»l
oenu Iiapen In inJilKi do Beltmm, Oanm, ISHM.
I D'AbtediaTilHlH nr In rirMco^i (Aenclift^ Fnztgalw pDnr I'AvaBee.
■neat das actaaaeeX UTI, p. IH ; also ^aa. ila Is Sao. Sclwt 4i ft«i«ln IML
630
S E I — S E L
two methods ira amJiisbla to two iriild; <113'>innt clmes of mnirs-
mento. Itisot leant jmiibls that bstwMD thsu cluwa theramBy Ik
otter TDodu of motion, — dupUoemeuta whlcli ire too ilow Tor the
inertia melhod, aud whioh lire riia to too little chuise of ilDpa for
Uu equilibrism method. How to meuore them is, and mUBt eppir-
•ntlr renuin, u ODMlvod proUem '
**riimi.— Tbe Hm ' " "'
HBOBt ll* KlOM of Hfl
(fm llH kuiBOTUCl). „^..
ebi^ iH tin Ttamacanu tf Mi Sidnelivlnl SsiWa tf Jinn IPm ID
PnL SwWb ir<K(r » kofdufufa JhswnH^ psiu^M t« tlia iinL
oTTokkiOfe). BaConooailompeaBBUieEqiiUDilaBiHlfcailaf mi
HBt Inn tiHi nude iathslcAT (J. A. _,
SEISTAN. See SiarxN.
SEJANTTS, ^LiuB (ezecat«d 31 a.d.), the famoua
miniater of Toxeiub (?.>.).
SGLDY, ■ muket town of the West Riding of York-
ahite, England, ia situated on the oaTigable river Ouae
ftnd OD tlie main line of the Qreat Northern Railway, 15
miles south of York and 30 east of Leeds. OF the ancient
abbey for Benedictines, founded by William the Conqueror
in 1069 and raised to the dis;nity of a mitred abbey by
Pope Alexander IL, there still remains the church of St
Hary and 8t Oerman, although it luui been much changed
by altentions and additions, the more ancient and notable
featorei being the Dave, transept, .and west front. The
church was mads parochial in 1618. la the market-place
there is a modem Qothic market cross. Among the public
buildings are the drill hall and the mechanics' institute
and public rooms. Floi-icutching, eeed^crushing, brick
and tile making, boat-bnilding, tanning, and lH«inng are
the pricicipal indostriea. There is a targe trade in potatoes,
flax, and mustard, and a considerable cattle-market. The
town receives its vrater-sopply from artesian wells,
local board of health was established in 18S], coiudi
of nioe members. The population of the urban aanitary
djitrict (6193 in 1871), extended in 18B1 from Sli to
3760 aciee, was in that year 6057.
Henry I. of Engliuid wu bom in the abbey, ■ fact which, prob-
ably tcconntg for the nieclil privilsgea oonfemd db it In the
culy port of the aril Wm it VM held by the Puliunent, snd after
being taken by the Boyaliite vaa recaptnrsd by Furfftx.
BELDEN, JoHH (1G84-16S1), jurist, legal antiquary,
and Oriental scholar, was bom on 16th Becember IS81 at
Salvington, in the parish of Weet Tarring, near Worthing,
SiABsex. His father, also named John Selden, held a small
farm, and seems to have occasionally added to his liveli-
hood by his kbonr as a wheelwright and his skill as a
musician. It is said that his accomplishments as a violio-
pUyet gained him his wife, whose social poeition was
somewhat superior to his own. She was Margaret, the
only child of Thomah Baker of Rostington, a village in
the vicinity of West Tarring, and was more or leas re-
motely descended from a knightly family of the Burn
name in Kent. John Selden commenced his educaHon at
the free grammar-school at Chichester, whence he pro-
ceeded in his sixteenth year with an exhibitioa to Hart
Hall at Oxford. In 1603 he was admitted a member of
Clifford's Inn, London, and in 1604 migrated to the Inner
Tem[4e, and in due course he was called to the bar.
While still a student he appears to have been on terms of
friendship with Bon Jonaon, Drayton, and Camden ; and
among his more intimate companions were Edward Little-
ton, afterwards lord keeper ; Henry Rolle, afterwards
lord chief-ju!ticB ; Edward Herbert, aftetwoids solicitor-
general; and Thomas Gardener, atterworda recorder of
London. His earUest patron was Sir Robert Cotton, the
antiquary, by whom he seems to have been employed in
copying and abridging certain of the parliamentary records
then preserved in the Tower. For some reason which has
not been eipluned, Selden never went bto court as an
advocates save on rare and exceptional occasions. But his
practice in chambers as a conveyancer and consulting
«inn««l i» stated to have been large, and, if we may judge
from the coodderoblo fortune be aocomukted, ii mosl olsa
ha«e been Incrative.
It was, however, as a scholar and writer that Selden woo
his reputation both amongst his contemporaries and with
posterity. His first work, an account of the civil admima-
tration of England before the Norman Conquest, is said to
htfve been completed when he was only two- or thie»*Dd-
tweuty years of age. But if this was the A naledom Anglo-
Britamicon, as is generally supposed, he withheld it from
the world until 1615. In 1610 appeared his EnfflmuTt
Spinomuaod Janitt Atifftomm, Faria Allna, which dealt
with the progress of English law down to Bcnry IL, and
The Dtiello, or Single Combat, in which he traced the his-
tory of trial by battle in England from the Korman Con-
quest. In 1613 he supplied a seriea of note^ enriched by
aji iniTHAnM number of quotations and referenceu, to tho
first eighteen cantos of Drayton's Poiyolbion. In 1611 he
published Tula of Honour, which, in spite of some obvious
defects and omissions, has remained to the present dajr
the most comprebeniuve and trustworthy work of its kind
that we possess ; and in 1616 his notes on Forteecue's Dt
LavdAia Legtan Anglim and Hengham's Svvun^ Magna
ef Porta, Li I61T his Dt Diii iSynu was iistied from
the pres^ and immediately established his fame as an
Oriental scholar among the learned in all parts of Europe.
After two centuries and a half, indeed, it is still not onlr
th« fundamental but also in many respects the best book
which has been written on Semitic mythology. In 1618
his Hidory zf TitAtt, although only published aftw it had
been submitted to the ceosorshtp and duly licensed, nerei^
theless aroused the apprehension ef the bishops and pro-
Toked the intervention of the king. The anthor waa snin-
moned before the privy council and compelled to retract
his opinions, or at any rate what were held to be his opin-
ions. UoreoTer, hie work was suppressed and himself
forbidden to reply to any of the controversialists who hod
come or might coma forward to answer it.
This seems to have introduced Selden to the practical
side of political affairs. The discontents which a few yearn
later broke out into civil war were already forcing Uiem-
selvee on public attention, and il is pretty certain that,
although he waa not in parliament, he was the instigator
and perhaps the draftsman of the memorable proteetation
on the rights and privileges of the House affirmed by the
Commons on the 18th of December 16S1. He was with
several of the membeis committed to priaon, at Gist in the
Tower and subsequently nnder the cha^ of Sir Robert
Dude, sheriff of London. During hie detention, which
only lasted a short time, he occupied himself in preparing
an edition of Eadmer's Hittory from a manuscript lent to
bim by his host or jailor, which he published two jam
afterwards. In 1623 he waa returned to the House of
Commons for the borongh of Lancaster, and sat vrith Coke,
Noy, and Pym on Sergeant Qlanville's election committee.
He waa also nominated reader of Lyon's Inn, on (dBee
which he declined to undertake. For this the benches
of the Inner Temple, by whom he had been appointed,
fined him £20 and disqualified him from being chosen
one of their number. But he waa relieved from this in-
capacity after a few years, and became a master of tlia
bench. In the first parlUment of Charles L (1626), it
appears from the "retoms of members " printed in 1878
that, contrary to the assertion of all his biographws, h«
had no seat In Charles's eecond parliament (1626) he
was elected for Great Bedwin in Wiltahire, , and took a
prominent port in the impeachment of George Villiei^
duke of Buckingham. In the following year, in' the
"benevolence" cose, he was counsel for Sir Ednuiud
Hampden in the Court of King's Bench. In 1638 be was
returned to the third parliament of Chorl^ for Ludgen-
S E L — S EL
031
IwH in WIMiln,uidIiadakin«Dd tmpattant dure in
dmwing up and Mrrjing Om Petitioii j)f Bij^t In the
■lilt nil of 1629 ha ww one of flia luamben nninly reapoD-
■iblo f<^ Hie tomiiltiiotu paaaage in the Honw of Commons
of the resolntion apinat, the illegal lary of tonnage and
pcnuula^ and, along witb Eliott Hollea, liixtg, Talentise,
Strode, ud the rest, be waa lent tmoe nune to the Towtr.
TherQ he nmained for ei^t montiia, deprived for a part
of the time of the nee of books and writing mateml^.
He iraa then ranoved, onder lew rigorona oonditian^ to
the Wamhalm*. tiutil not long aftenranb owing to tlie
good offioes of Arahbiihop Land he wie liberated. Soma
years before he had bean appointed atewud to the «erl of
Kpnt, towhoee wat, Wnat tn Bedfordihire, he now retired.
In 162B at. the suggeetion of Sir Bobert Ootton he bad
compiled, with the auiatanoe of two learned ooa4jnton,
Patrick Tonng and Bicbard Jamca, a catakgoe of the
Aroudel marblea. He emploTed his tetnire at Wreat ih
writing i7« Suceanombut inAma Dtftmelt tmatdum Ltffti
SbriKtrma and De Sveemioiu in PotOifieatmn^ Bbrmorm^
pablished in 1631. Abont thii period he ■eema-to have
inclined towards the conrt rather than the popular pwtj.
And even to have secnred the peraonal favonr of the king.
To bim in 1636 be dedicated his Mart Clauntm, and wider
the Tojal patronage it was pat tenth as a kind of state
epor. It had been written sixteen or wrmiteen jmtn
fore; bnt James L had prohibited its publication for
political leaao
after Grotins'
to be a rqundtf, and the pretenauu advanced in which
■' " ' 'i Ssbenoen to poach in the watora
its pnrpoae to explode. Ilie
fact that Seidell was not retained in the great eaae of ship
money in 1637 1^ John Hampden, the consin of his former
client, may be accepted as additional eridence that his
leal in the popular cense was not so warm and nnsnapected
aa it had onee been. During the progrera of this moment-
ona ocButituUpnal conflict, indee<!C he saema to have been
absorbed in his Oriental reaeaMhee, publishing Dt Jwt
Katttnli et Omlnm juxta DitoiplimaM Sbmonmt in
16(0. He waa not elected to the 6h<»t Parliament of
1610; bat to the Iiong pRriiament, nunmoned in the
autumn, he waa returned witbout opposition fw the nni-
ver«it]r of Oxford. Immediately aft«c the opening of the
susion he was nominated a member Ot the committee of
twGnty-foor appointed to draw np a remonstrance on the
itate of the nation. He was also a member of tiie com-
mittees eDtmtted with the preliminary arrangementa for
the impeachment of Strafford, But be was not one vi the
manageis at the trial, and he voted against tiie Bill for
his attainder. He was, moreover, a member of the orai-
mitteas nominated to search for [ffeoedenta and frame the
articlM of impeaehment against Archbishop Land, altbon^
it do«a not *pp6ax that he was implicated in the later
■tages of the proseontion against him. He opposed tile
nidation agunst Episcopacy which led to the exdoaion
of the biahopa from the Honae of Lords, and printed an
MHwer to the argnments used by Sir Harbottle Grimaton
OQ that oocaaioiL He joined in the proteataldon of the
Oimmoos for tiie maintenance of the Pmteatant religion
acoordiag to the doctrines of Uie Chnnih of Esmond, the
Bothority of the crown, and the liberty of. the snlgect
Ha WHS equally opposed to the conrt on Uke question of
6a commisuons of lieutenancy of array and to the parlia-
meat en the question of the militia ordinance. In 1643,
howerer, he became a member and participated in the dia-
BoanoDi of tb* asaambty of dirines at Westminster, and
wss apponted diorfly afterwards keeper of the tolls and
reoonli in the Tower. In I64S be was named one of the
jtfStmsn^Krj, commisBonera of the admiral^, and waa
elected master o( THnl^ Kill in Oambridge,— an oSce
he declined to MO^' Li 1646 he subscribed the Solemn
Leagne and Ooraaant, and in 1647 was voted £S000 by
the parliaiiient aa compensation for bia sufferings In the
evil days of the monarchy. He had not, however, rehized
his literary exertions during these years. He published
In-1643 PrvnUge* of the Barrmagt of Bngland whm titey
lit M fitrlkimtiU and Duantm amctming the RighU mid
frmUfftt of tie StilifiKt; in 1614 Sftaeriatio de jlaMO
Cimli et Calmdario He^nMiem Judaiem; in 1646 his
treatise on marriage and dtvOTce among the Jews entitled
t?xor Sbmiea; and -in 1617 Uie earliest printed edition
of the old and curious English law-book Fleta. What
oourae he adopted with regard to the trial and execution
of the king is nnknown ; bnt it is aaid that he refused to
answer the Siio» BatUiie, although Onmiwell was anxions
he should do bo, the task whiqti be declined bdng after-
wards performed I7 Milton in his IcutcdaHn. Li 16ttO
Selden passed tiie Srat part lyt D« SfnedrH* a Prtfeeturu
Juridieu Vitemm Bbrtmrwm throng the press, the second
and third parts t>eing severally published in 16I>S and
1655, and m 1663. he wrote ajntdaoe and collated some
of the manoseripta for 8lr Boger Twyaden's SUtoria
A*^iem Ser^itont Dtaam. W9 last publication waa a
vindication of himself from osAain charges advaaced
against him and bis ifors Ckmnm in 1603 by Theodore
Qraswindiel, a Dntdi jurist
After the death of the eorl of Kent in 1639 BeUen
lived permanently under the same roof wi& bis widow.
It is believed tbat ha waa married to her, although their
marriage doat not seem to have ever been pnblicly acknow-
ledged. He died at Friary House m Whitefriare on 30tb
Kovember 16tS4, and was Duried in the Temple Church,
London. Within the last few years a brass tablet haa
been erected to his memory \sj the benchers of the Inner
Temple in the pariah oburcih of West IWiing.
" ' * aelilm'B niiK ' - ' ' "
&BTiml of Sf
n priatad Tor tlis flnt
tiau >ft«r Ui'daath, and > eollMtiTa aditlon of bli wrlUiui
' Ar«hd«<»nWi]kii»ln8ToU.loUoinl72B MiUj
_■ TaiU JbO, by whloh h« is nrti^s best kni
not apnar untU 1«8>. It wh aditMl by bti ainu
Milwud, wluaillnnsthafthsr •--^^--^ -
imLdtd
Blchird
pabllalud by An
talTSS. HisJI
leSB. It ins ediU- .j ,
1 and notiiHi ii wboUy EMdaa V'
his ain. lla gsanuMDMa has
•omatbMa bssa qmsttBusd, alflkaa^ on insoBBirat grannd*. In
HiUsia's cf)fnion It "^vss pariups a men sxsllcd aotioa of S«I-
dsn's Batmil taloils tlMi ao; of Ua lotniod wTitiaa," asd in
Oolaridas'a U r^^tmJi^ " man waidity bullion aann " than h* had
"•Tsrmind intbswBMnanboiaf pasasof anvoDinf^Tsdwritn."
Bh BUil Woed^ Mmm Oaninm OcaSoB, ISIT^ nL h.}} AlUs, Uwa
iUKks. (Lmdiia, innTlbsR', Mb TtBc tf Aki aUn (ftmAim, IBIT) ;
Mdihfchi. jisiiiim Wiiint Dm Owtia, ao. gj^iii. it»x (t. sk.)
SELECTION AXD VABIAnON. Bee Tabutioit
AMP SnJCTIO»,
SELENIUM AHD TELLUBILTU' are two rathw rare
dtemieal elements discovered, the latter "by MOller von
Beiobenatein in 1783, the frnmer by Benelius in 1817.
Both ooonr only in the minerd kingdom aa cemponaata of
very tare minuals, most ol whi^ are comptnmda of (me or
the other or of bodi and sulphur with silver, leoc^ bismnth,
antimony, gold, and other metals.
BUmmiaqi ISdemtmt. — ^lis, like elementary sulphur,
exists in a variety of forms, which are conveniently ocm-
sidered aa modi^eations of the two genera now to be
described. (I) jron-in«((i//Kjg^HHn includes the floccnlent
BMrlet precipitate produced by the reduction of solutdou
0( selenium by snlphuroiis acid in the cold. The acarlet
flocks when dried withont the tud irf beat aasnme the
form of a brown-red, powder of sp. gr. 4'26, which dlaaolvea
in 1000 times its weight of boiling bisnlphide of carbon
(at 46'-6 C). The solution on ooolmg deposits moot of ita
seleninm in the form of minute tnonoclinic crystals of spL
■ OoB^QBansinr, voLv.pp.4>S,4».Ml-fO);60t,Htl
632
S E L — S E L
gr. 4'0ftf(anorplioiu witlimDDooIiiuccnlphiu'), whidretAin
tliair lUiibilitf in bUuIphida of carbon up to 100* C At
110' C or hi^iar temperatureB they paM into the metallje
modification, '.(tea below) with evolution of heat. With
tha amoiphoiu kind a aimilar chiinge «et» in at ot above
80' C. and attaina its maximtun of lapiditj at a point be-
twean IS&'and 160' C. Fused seleninin when cooled down
nddenly hardens into a very dark-coloured, glaas of 4'36
tp. ST., soluble in bisul[^de of carbon ; oa gradual eooi-
ing It become* more or lew completely "mBtallie." (2)
iMaUie idmiiim ii a dark gnj or black lolid of 4-8 sp.
gt. ; it exhibits metallic lustre, Btretcfaes perceptibly nndsr
ths hammer, and its fracture it similar to that cd grej east
iron. It is insoluble in bisnl)]hide of carbon. Its fusing
point is sharply defined and liea at 217* C At the ordi-
nary temperature it condneta electricity, while the non-
metallic modification does not ; at higher temperatures, or
after tempoiary ezpoeore to higher temperatures, the con-
ductJTity on either side becomes an eminently rariable
quantity. According to Draper and Mow, glaMy selenium
begins to conduct electricity at 165* to ITS* C, and the
0Oudu<Aivity increases regularly as the temperature risea
to near the boiling-point. Witii metallic seleninm, which
behave* similarly, the increase of conductirity is propor-
tional to the increase of temperature to near the fusing
point (317* C); but from thu point upwards it decressee
ntpidly and attains its minimom at 250* C. According
to W. Siemens, however, selenium by long exposure to
300* C. becomes wtat one may ail dectrically metallio ;
the oondnctivity then decreases when the temperature
riaea, just as it does with ordinary metals. But this electro-
metallicity is not permanBUt ; on continued exposure to a
lower temperature it vanishes gradually, until the propor-
tion of qnasi-metal has fallen to a limit-valne depending
on that temperature. Very surprising is the observation
(rf Bala that the electric condnotivity of metallic selenium
incnases on exposure to the light ; the red and ultra-red
nyi, as he found, act mo«t powerfully. The efl!ect of
Ijuolatjon is alrboet instaotaaeouig, but on rc-exposure to
darkness the original condition is re-established only very
gradnally. W. Biemens foQnd that his electro -metallic
selenium (as produced at 200' C.) is more sensitive to
light than any other kind. The conductivity of such
selenium starting from darkness is raised twofold by dif-
fuse and tenfold by direct sunlight. The qmcifio heat of
selenium, according to Begnault, is 0'0746 both in the
glany and in the metallic modification. Selenium (of any
kind) boils "at 700' C. (HitscherLich). The vapour has
an intense colour intormadiate between that of chlorine
and that of sulphur. According to Deville and Troost,
at 880* C. it U 707 times, and at 1420* is 968 times, as
heavy as air ; theory, for Bej— 1 molecule, demands G'47.
SlmtaUary Tellurimtt. — This, the compact form, is a
■ilrer-white resplendent metal of markedly crystalline
■tmctnre; the crystals are riiombohedra, and the ingot
CDOsequently is very brittle. Specific gravity 6'2. 'Hie
metal fuses at about GOO* C, and is distiUable at very high
temperaturea. Its vapour is golden yellow and has a very
brilliant absorption-spectrum. The v^oor density, accord-
ing to Deville and Troost, is 908 at 1439' C. (air-1),
corresponding to Te, — 1 molecule. A bar of tellurium be-
aomes feebly electrical when ^bbed witli a woollen cloth.
The electric conductivity, like that of selenium, is largely
infiueoced'by the tempeiatore and previoas exposure to
heat, and it increases after ' exposure to light, though not
to the same extent as selenium doe*. Starting from the
ordinary temperature the conductivity decreases up to some
point between 90' and 14G* C ; it then increases up to
SOO* 0. (the highest temperature tried) ; on cooling it do-
CIOIM steadily, and finally is only ona-flf th or on»4ixth of
what it was at 200'. The numerical value at 200* (silTer -*
100) was found equal to 0-OCt35 to 00031 (F. Exner).
SctRHttot y eA« Slenmiary Stddanen. — If ultnifmHu snlplxu^
ot pfttta is Die't loi the mannfutiitv of oil of vitruil br cha
chamber procBH, mod ot ths •olenJuiD ucuiaii]iiteB ii incli in the
"chsmber mud," from wliifh it mif be flitTME«d bj tbe follaving
rootliod of VDliler'i. Tliis mud, ^fter luTing been tliorongfaly
wuheil ud dried, is fiued irith ilktlioo nltntf and cadxmabi, to
ooBTert the leleiii-"" '"•" —!•''-•• 'fl-fi E' ... v. i _hl..h i. ..
tracted by mama
bydrocblorio acid to convert tbe
-^aHCl-a,-^H/) + BeOAaIld tl
tlon n anlptiuioiu acid Slid boatiiiR, wbon the •elealam comn uim>
Mated piecipiuta[BaO,-t-2SO,i=2SO, + 3e> A richer nutarial tlkui
chamber mud ia eeloniferoua oro-eoioke u produced in Uaasfdd,
which !ikewi» contaioB free BBlcnior". Ite siti«ctJoii| according
toO. Petlsnen asd F. Nilson, ii beat eSected by dlgeiCion with cod-
centnted tolntian of eranide ot doIusIqiii atSO'C, nhich converta
th*w1aiiiumiiiU>aeleDocjaiiiile(3cNC8),gsnlT«itraeUb1abjwater.
The £lls»d aoluiiou li acidi£ed with bjdrocUoric acid and allowed
to rtand, whan ihs salenium (throMh the <i»iit>nMiiu doconipoai-
tlonof Che BeNC.HictoNCH lodSe) comes down a> ■ predpitste.
Telluiimn ia gonerall; pienrcd from TrBnsylTantan gold ora.
The powdered ots 1* oxidiied by muni of hot nitric acid and tha
leut aufficienoy of hydrochloric add, the eiceai of Ditric add being
chaeed away by eTaponlion, and the Tesidua Halted with lulpbiiiic
acid (to convert tha lead into inioluble aolpbata), and wilh mme
tsrUnc acid to ptevent predpitation of tellurioui add (TeO,) in
the anbaequent treatmeat with Vater. From the filtered aiiaeinu
nlution tie gold ii remoied by addition of rerroua nilpbata and
bySltratioii- The SltnU ia treaUd with aulphuroni acid to reduce
the telluriaue add to teUurintn, which uwaUa cut as a black
pisd^Cate. The prscipitated metal ii fu^ down and then sublimed
at a Tory high temperature, in a porcaliin tube, ia a comnt ot
hydrogen, to remai-e noo-Toktile impuritiea and alimiosto the bat
Chtrnieal Stlatvmi, — Selenium and teUurinm art timil)ir in thdr
cbamlcal cbaractar to anlplmr ; tha gradation of propertiH within
tha triad ii in the order of the atomic weights, which an S^SE-OO,
Se'^79^7, Te^l28(0':lS}. In oij-geaDrair thaelemenUiysab-
aUDOM burn taadily into (mlid) dioiidea (SeO„ T«0,), in the cue
of aelenium with production of a chiracterietic etcach of putrid
radith, owing probably to the fonnation of * tnco of hydrida, BaH,.
Nitric add, in the beat, conTerti aulpbur ilirectlj into lulphnno
Intl
ts tbe DXidadou il
the itige corruponding to Bulnhurout acid. The acidt SeO,H, ud
TaO,H,>re not liable to further oiidation bv inj of the wet-way
rea^nta(HNO„ H,0 and Cl„ Br^ I> lie ) which convtrt anlphnr-
oui into aolphnrio acid.
By fuaioo with nitre and alkaline catbDntte the thte* elenvnti^
in their elementary or leu oijgenaled forma, are Ttidilv eoaracted
into ^«ati^ R,20. (anlphitea, 4c., Z = S, Se, or Te). Galenic and
tanuric acids (H.SOJ, unlike eulphuric, when boiled with aqueom
hydrochloric acid, are gradoally rtdnced to the lower add* (3c or
TelO,H„ with Birolntion of chlorine; andtheioweradda are readily
ipecdrely by the action of lulphuroua acid in tbe heaL Chlorine
combinaa readily with olemenUry selenium and tellnrium into
dicbtorides (3a or Te)(Jl- vhich, faDV-eTsr, oc continued cbletina-
tion an it last complately conrerted Into the teCnchloridee (S« or
TojCL. Theao last, nnlike the correaponding aul "
are diatillable without decomp«ition. llelali ca
directly with nlphar u • rule unite iIm with aeleui
into eon«eponding compounda. Hydrogen nnitaawlth elementary
seleniom and tellurium in the heat into gaHoua hydrida [8e at
Te)H, diaely nmilar to Bulpburetted hydrogen. Bnt, as tho*
hydrides ate liable to diaiocution, tbe pure compounds must bo
trepared bv tha decomposition of the nnc corapouads ZnZ with
yitochlorio acid. For the deecrintlon of indiridual compounds
nt^i«uce mtut be made to tha handbook* of chemiitry. {W. D. )
BELEUCIA, or Sujucbia (EtXiinui). Of the nnmei^
ous ancient towns of this name the most famoiu are — (1)
the great city on the Tigris founded by Selencus L Nicator
(see vol. zviii. p. 587), of the greatness and decay of whidi
an account has been given in vol. xviii. p. GOl ; (2) a dty
on the northern frontier of Syria towards Cilicia, ;ome
mUes north of the mouth of the Orontes, also foimded
by Selencus I., and forming with Antioch, Apamea, and
Laodicea the Syrian Tetrapolis. It served as the port ^
Antioch (Ada xiiL 4). Considerable ruins are still visibly
especially a great cutting through solid rock, about two-
thirds of a mile long, which Polybius speaks of as thv rgwl
from Uta city to tli« sea.
S E L — S E L
SELETTCtDS. Baa Haokdohuv Empibij roi xj. p. :
143, and Pc^u, vol. zriiL p. SSO tj.
SELDI or Bimt, the title borne by threo empenm of
the Ottoman Tniks. For BnJK L, emperor from 1S13
to 1530, Me Fxaau, toL xriiL pp. 635-636, and TuBUtY.
Bhjii n., gnmdaoD of tliepi:ecediiig,wuEdtan front 1566
to 15T4. Bee Tuxxky. Belim IIL, «oa of Sultan Hoi-
ta[ju IIX, nicceeded hi* father in 1T89 and ms deposed
in 1807. See Ttjeut.
8ELIMN1A. Bee Blivzn.
BEIiINUS {2<Xivov(), one of tbe moat importftnt of the
Greek coloniee in Sicil;, near the riven Hypeu and Seliona
on the BOntli-weat coast, waa founded, probably aboQt-628
B.a, hj ooloniata from Megara Hybh^ in tha east of Sicily
and outers from the parent city of Uegaia on the Saiouic
Qnlf of Greece (see Thuc., yi. 4, to. 67, and Strabo, vL p.
373). The name of the city and the little river (see H in
%.) on which it stands was derived from the wild parsley
(<riKimv} which grew theca in abuodance (comp. toL zrii.
p. 639). Many autonomooa coins of Selinna exist, dating
from ue 6th and 4th centories b.o. The tetradrachms
hare on the obferse a voutb, representing the river Selinna,
■aorificing at an altar,' and, in the field, a parsley leaf, —
legend, ZEAHTOS ; on tbe reverse, Apollo and Artemis in
a Inga,— legend, ZSAINONTIOH (retrograde). Didrachms
have a ciniilar obverse with the rivsr Hypsaa, — legend,
HTVAZ ; reverse, Heracles slaying a bull, — legend,
SIAIHOIinON. Aa early as 680 b.0. the citizens of
Selinus were at war with tbe adjoining people of Segesta,
a non-HeUenia race who occupied the province north of
Bdinoa ; the encceaa of the Segestans on this occasion waa
mainly owing to aid given them by colonists from Rhodes
and Cnidns. Little U known about the early history of
Seliniis ; bat the city evidently grew rapidly in wealth and
importance; and soon extended its borders 15 miles weat-
wairds to the river Maau'os and eastwards as far as the
HalyoM (Diod., nu. 64 ; Herod., v. 46). Thncydides (vi.
30) menUons its power and wealth and especially the neb
boasQiea in its temples. From its early oligarchi(»l form of
government Selinna passed to a short-lived despotism under
the tyrant Pithagoras, who was deposed soon after GIOb.o.
L) 480 B.a, when the Carthaginian Hamilcar invaded Sicily,
the dty took his ude against their fellow Hellenes. In 4 1 6
B.a a new dispute between Selinus and Segeeta was eventu-
ally the cause of the fatal Athenian expedition against Sicily,
the Athenians acting as alliee of Segesta and tbe Syracusans
as allies of Selinus. The conclusion of this expedition (see
BrSACUBi) left Segeeta at the mercy of the Selinuntinee,
whose rapaciW and cruelty soon brought about their own
deatniction, through the aid which the Segeatans obtained
from Carthage. In 409 B-c. Hannibal, with an overwhelm-
ing force, took and destroyed the city, the walla of which
were rased to the groudd He killed about 16,000 of the
inhabitants, took 6000 prisoners, and only a remnant of
3600 eacaped to Agrigentum (Diod., liii, 54-59). The sur-
vivors were afterwards allowed to return and to rebuild
Selinus as a city subject to the Carthaginians, nnder whose
yoke, in spite of their attempts to regain freedom, the
SalinuntiQea remained till e. 250, tbe cbae of the First
Punic War; after thia the Carthaginians transferred the
inhabitants of Selinus to Lilybfeum, and completely de-
stroyed the city (Diod. Eriv,). It was never rebuilt, and
is mentioned by Strabo (vi p. 272) as being one of the
extinct cities of Sicily.'
' Sradptand ot the mltu li ■ cock, In tJlailon to tba ild glnn bv
•niipja igalut tbe fsm which tiu csoHd by tlis nunhf lita.
'|M1B aHiuHn u>e JOTBT VniCO UVU CBDHd
ft vorki directed hy EiciwdDclM an uld
(It* bMUhy (DIog. Lta„ viiL 2, 11).
' BoDMB mlphnr Uthi eilited ondar iit sun
MlkiMmrxboBt 20 milei eoat of the ilte of I
rendend Iht
'ThartmStUnDntlB,
_ . j_. _. __ ninoandiDg nUin.
itioa* formed thstcropolia; on Uia other tm tlie agon.
The walls of Uis umpDlis can atul be tnced round the whple cir-
cnit ; the only antrance mu on the north-euL Renuina aba aiiat
ot long walli connectiDg the city and its port The chief glory of
<._,! ._ i._ i._Li. — lup (,f p^j lomplea,— three on tha
■con, one of wluch wii tba laiVHt
j_..^ , otlJ. All »rj completfllj ruined, iJot
the matarUli of uch alill nmein almost petfeet, thou^ anttsnd
laa iti double
■eropolis and thre* in '
pariptenl temple
InoonAuedheapaafitonai the exttaordiuary oompbitaaMa Of thasa
ftaynmtateowingto the laet that the rita ate netar bean eccnnUd
einoe the final tnualarenea of the inhsbitauta in 260 &a, and tbna
the icattsred blocks bavo never hetn taken aa materials lor later
Btnctona. Of all the six tamplai' nnna are Utar than the fith
cantory ac, and those on tbe acropolis probably data bom about
828 ac, soon after the fint eettlament. The aculptuied metopea
trtaa three of Che temple* are among the moet important exam^ea
of early Hellenic art (im it-casOLoar, vol, it p. MS, and Baim-
dorf, JJit Melopen ton S^inunl). The buildinga themselves an of
the higheet intereat, being the earDeat known aiampla* ot the
Doric *tyle, and iliffering In many important details tWun all other
aiamplea, even aneh early anas aa the teniplsa at Corinth and
Byracuee.
The three temples on the actopolia (A, C, D in fig.) stand aide hy
aide, urilh theii axes north-weat to south-eaat ) all ar* heiaatyle and
peripteral, with mther thirteen or fonrtna columns on the rid«L
Their Btylobatca have four p
high itep* along th* Bidea,
with an easierap^aach of
more itepe at the nortb-
«*at franta. To the
middle one of the three
belong the veiy aichaic
metopes deaoribcd in vol
ii. p. S4B. All have a
rather namiw celU nich
pronaoa and opiathodo-
mue. Their archaic pecn-
liaritiea are the rapid di-
minution of the colummi.
the absence of ontaeit, the
metopes, and especially a
ing nnder the nsnal h jpo-
tiachelia. No other ex-
ampl* of thia TeatnT* wai _,-,_,
known till 1384, whan itrleUi
Dorpfeld dlacovarea a
eimllar Doric ca;dt*lamongtbaroinsot the dtadaloCTiryns. The
Tinrni capital dale* probably ftom a little before 600 >.o. and appaata
to ba nearly contampotary with that at Selinna Between temples
A and C are remain* of a mall proetyla tetna^la ndtcnla {B) of
the Doric order.' TheaecoDdgroupof tlireeDorictranple8(£,F,G)
betonfB lo a rather later date,— probably EOO to tlO aa The first
two (E and F) here very nanow cclln, >o that they are paeado-
diptetal. They also are heiaatyla, with fourteen FoUunna on the
aidee. Thongh alill early in detail, they are withant the corioua
neckmg of the acropolis temples. The acnlptured metopea ot
They are of the nobleit style, limpls and highly acnl^
tureaqna in treatment, and tull of grace and eipreaeion. One
remarkable peculiarity in their tachuiijne in that the nnde parte (^
the female Sgnrca (heads, feet, and handa) are eiacnlsd in while
marble, whUe tbe reet of the reliefa are In the naUie gr«v tnb,
which Dtiinpally waa covered with marble-dnat stucco and then
painted. The whole of the alonewaii of all the tecipta waa treated
m a similar way, and givqs moet Taluable examples of saily Greek
coloured decontian. Becent eicatatione at Sellnua have shown
that in many eaaes the comicea and other architactnral featnna
were covered with moulded elab* of tarn cotta, all richly coloured
■ Thetlone of which all tbeae templea were built came bom a qnany
a tew tnllee narth-weat of SeUoua (mod. Canipobello). The ancient
working are very viHible, and nnflniahed drunu of columni and other
blocki allll eiirt In the quarrr. tl 1> a brown lula-llke atone.
* etranfia to tay, HICtorffand &Dtb (JrrAfte^im Antique it SaU,
Ptria, 1S70X in tbelr elaborate work on tbii inbject, mtore thia adlcoli
with a Doric enlabUtnre on Ionic columna ; a good many otbv similar
abnrdttles occnr In this richly llluttnled ooik. Hon Jsdgment la
shows la Berradi&lco's Antiat SdinuiUo (Palermo, IS81-4S), thov^
It 1) not always aoount* tn ni*
XXL -
So
634
S E L — S E L
tea D«pfald,-i)li rirwMitm; (nm TtrroMtii, B«r1lD. 1881, ind
TtBKACOTTA). Tba nnt umple of Zsai' (Q in fig.) <m ths
UrgHt psriptsnl tsmple of the whola Hellanlc world, Ming »lmiHt
(ucUj die auns ii» u ths eDonnaiu neoda - periptsnl Qiym-
psBDDi itthsiuiglibaiiring Agrigeotnm. It TuKtutfte, pwnda-
diptaril, with seveutiea columns on the aidea. ind meamni StO
by lfl2 f«t 1 ths column* m 1 0 feat 7\ inchn at the bue uid vera
4S bet 7 inebea high. This gigfintio building wa:. never quite
Obmplatsd, though tfl(l whole ol the main ■tnicton -xia built
Uoit of the coluDina itill nmaiu nafiuted. In Ipite oT the propor-
tionil ntnoinieM af its cells, it had an intemil raom of coIuiqub,
piDbabijr two ordara high, like those mthia the celTa at Pmtum.
Tte uaa of thaaa lut uiiH temples have euctlr the aaine indina-
tbn as thoae oa the scropolie. The great tsmple of Zeiu poaseuea
•ome of the curious archaiama of the acropolis tetuplea, andj though
DaTST complMsd, it ma probably dtaigned and begun at an earlier
date than the tiro adiacent bullJiDgs. Thaae peeuliaritias an the .
nngracelutly rapid diminution of ths riiaft and the caretto uudai
the necking of the capitals. The vhole of these aii maasiia builu-
inga now lie in a eompletB state of min, a work of STidantly wilfal
destmctiou on the part of the CarthagiTiiani, aa ths tempto at
Scgaata, not many miles distant, haa still enry eolomn and its
nhols entsbUtuii quits perfect ; ao It is iDipoaslMe to nppoae that
as eeinhqDakB was the cause of the utter niin at Seliuos. Few or
DO marka of Bn are visible on ths stone blocks. (J. H. K.)
SEWOl^S U the oaine of several Turkish dynasties,
issued from one family, ^hich reigned over large parts of
Asia in the llth, 12th, and 13tb centuries of our era.
The history of the SeljiiVa forma the first part of the liis-
tOTy of the Torkish empire. Proceeding from the deserts
of Turkestan, the Seljliks reached the Hellespont; but this
barrier was crossed and a European power founded by the
Ottomans (Osmanli). The Seljillfs inherited the traditions
and at the same time the poiver of the previous Arabian
empire, of which, when they made their appearance, only
the shadow remained in the person of the 'Abbisid caliph
of Bsghdid. It is tbeir merit from a Mohammedan point
of vieir to have re-established the power of orthodox Islam
and delivered tile Moslem world from the supremacy of
the caliph's ShTite competitors, the Fibtimites of K^pt,
and from the subverwve influence of ultia-Shfite teoets,
which constituted a serious danger to the duration of Islam
itself. Neither had civilization anything to fear from
them, since they represented a strong neuttal power, which
made the intimate union of Fersian and Arabian elements
possible, almost at the expense of (he national Turkish, —
literary monuments in that language being during the
whole period of the SeljiUf rule exceedingly rara, '
The first SeljiH rulers were Toghrul Beg, Chafcir Beg,
and Ibrahim NiyM, the sons of Mikail, the son of Seljiik,
the son of Tu^k (also styled TimiiryiliV, "iron bow").
The; belonged to the Turki^ tribe of the Qbuu (OSfo' of
Const Porphyr. and the Byzantine writers), which traced
its lineage to Oghuz, the famous eponymic hero not only
of this but of all Turkish tribes. There arose, however,
at some undefined epoch a strife on the part of this tribe
and some others with the rest of the Turks, because, aa
the latter allege, Ohuzz, the eon (or grandson) of Yafeth
(Japhet), the son of NUh (Noah), had stolen the genuine
raiit^toTu, which Turk, also a son of Yafeth, had inherited
from his father. By this party, as appears from this
tradition, the Qhuzz were not considered to be genuine
Turks, but to be Turkmans (that is, according to a popukir
etymology, resembling Turks). But the native tradition
of the GhuM was unquestionably right, aa they spoke a
pure Turkish dialect. The fact, however, remains that
there existed a certain animosity between the Qhnzi and
their allies and the rest of the Turks, which increased as
the former became converted to Islam (in tha conrse of
the 1th century of the Flight). The Ohnm were settled
at that time in Transoxiana, especially at Jand, a well-
. ' The dedication of the Bre smsUsr temples Is ul
probably conaacrated to Poacldon, ApoDo, an ' '~'
mctspa lalieb ara pnasTtd in the m- "
known city oo the banks of the JaxartM, not hx twom hm
mouth. Some of them served in the armies of the QIubi»>
vids Sebuktegln and Hahmild (997-1030) ; but the SeUii^
a royal family among them, had various relations wila Um
reigning princes of Transoxiana aod KUriem, which can-
not be narrated here.' But, friends or foes, tha Qhim
became a serious danger to the adjoining Mohammedan
provinces from their predatory habits and continual laid^
and the more so aa they were very numerous. It may
suffice to mention that, under the leadership of larail oe
Plgu AraUn, they crossed the Oius and spread over tbe
eastern provinces of Persia, everywhere plundering and de- I
stroying. The imprisonment of this chieftain by Has*iktl,
the son &ni successor of Mabmi\d, was of no avail : it only i
furnished his nephews with a ready pretext to ctoss tho
Oxus likewise in arms against the Ohaznavids. We pass
over their first conflicts and the unsuccessful agteementa
that were attempted, to mention the decisive battle near
Merv (1040), in which Mas'dd was totally defeated and
driven back to Ohazna ^Ohazni). Persia now lay open
to tha victors, who proclaimed themselves independent at
Merv fwnich became from that time the offidsJ c^iital of
the pnncipal branch of the ScljilkB), and acknowledged
Toghrul Beg as chief of the whole family. After this
victory the three princes Toghrtil Beg, Cha^ Beg and
Ibrahim Niy&l separated in different directions and con-
quered the Mohammedan provi.ices east of the Tigris ; the
laat-named, after conquenng Eamadin and the province
of Jebel, penetrat«d as early as 1048, with fresh Ohns
troops, into Armenia and reached Melazkerd, Erzardm
(Erseronm), and Trebizond. This excited the jealousy of
Toghrtil Beg, who summoned him to give up Hamadin
and the fortresses of Jebel ; but Ibrahim refused, and tba
progress of the SeljA^ian arms was for some time checked
by internal discord, — an ever-recurring event in Hieir
history. Ibiahlm waa, however, compelled to submit.
At this time the power of the 'AbiMlsid caliph of
Bsghdid (Al-K&im bi-amr illfth) was reduced to a mero
shadow, as the Shfite dynasty of tho Bdyids and aftor-
wards his more formidable F&timita rivals had left him
almost wholly destitute of authority. The real ruler at
Baghd&d was a Turk named Bas&sfri, lieutenant of the lant
Bdyid, Al-Malik ar-Bahlm. Nothing could, therefore, bo
more acceptabb to the caliph tlian the protection of tho
orthodox Toghrul Beg, whose name was read in the official
prayer (khotba) aa early as 1050. At the end of the same
year the Seiji'ff entered the city and after a tumult seind
the person of Malik ar-Bahlm. Basislrf had tha good
fortune to be out of his reach ; after acknowledging the
right of the Fatimitea, he gathered fresh troops and in-
cited Ibrahim NiyU to t^bel again, and he succeeded
so far that he re-entered Baghd&d at the close of 10&6.
The next year, however, Toghrul Beg got rid of both his
antagonista, Ibrahim being taken prisoner and strangled
with the bowstring, while Bcwislrl fell in battle. Toghrul
Beg now re-entered Baghdad, re-established the caliph,
and was betrothed to his daughter, but died before tho
consummation of the 'nuptials (September 1063). Alp
Arslau, the son of ChalFir Beg, succeeded his uncle and
extended the rule of his family beyond the former froatiecs.
He made himself master, t.ff., of the important city of
Aleppo ; and during his reign a Turkidi emir, Ataii^
wrested Palestine and Syria from the hands of the F&tim-
ites. Nothing, however, added more to his fame than hb
successful expeditions against the Oreeks, especially that
of lOTl, in which the Greek emperor Romanus Diogenca
was taken prisoner and forced to ransom hunself for a
S E L J 0 K S
63S
brgo >ttnL Us foundation of the BeljAk empire of RAm
{Am Uinor, »ee below) wu the immediate result of this
great victoijr. Alp AreUn afterwards ond^^ook an ex-
pedition against Turkeebui, and met with hia death at the
handa of a captorad chief, Josof Bonami, whom he had
intended to aboot with Mb own hand.
Malik Sh&h, the son and eucoenor of Alp AnUn, had
encounter his uncle Eiwurd, foundet of the Seljii)pan e
pira of Eerm&n (aee below), who claimed to nicceed Alp
ArsUu in accordance with the Turkish laws, and ted his
troops towards TTannuliTi However, he loot the battle
that ensued, and the bowstring pat an end to hia life
(1073). Malik Bhih regulated also the a&in of Aaia Uinor
and Sjria, ooooeding the latter prorince aa aa hereditai?
firf to hia brother Tutosh, who eetablislwd bimaelf at
DamasaoB tod. killed Atsiz. He, bowarer, like his tttitat
Alp AisUn, was indebted for hia greatert fame to (he
wise and salatai; meamres of their viiier, NittUn al-Unlk.
Thia eztnordinarr man, asaodated b^ ttadition with ' OiuK
KhattAk (?.■.), the well-known mathematician and free-
thioldng poet, and with Hasan b. Sabbi^ aftdrwards the
founder of the Ismaelilfle or AjwMsina, wu a renowned
author and stateaman of the first rank, and imntortaliied
his name by the foundation of several nniraraitiea (the
Niz&miyah at Baghdad), obaemtories, moeqnes, hospitals,
and other institations of public utilitj. At nis instigation
the calendar waa rerised and a new era, dating from the
latgn of Ualik Shih and known aa the JeUlian, was in-
trodoced. Hot qoite forty days before the death of his
inaatet this great man was mnrdered by the Ismaelitea.
He had fallen into diafavoor ihortlj before becaose of
hia anwiliingnese to join in the intrigoes of the prinoees
Tnrkin Ehitdn, who wished to secure the snceeSBion to
the throne for her infant son UahmOd at the eiqieiue of
the elder aona of Ualik Shih.
nenmmt ifUu Scm: Smht—lt W I
t tht SeUoki oooddnsd UwdimItn ths
_ loi hith and of tha 'Abbidd csllidwts, whn*
thay on thidr liila npnsantad lit* t«mponI powst which raceind
it* titlsi and nnotioa trom Uu soocessor MT the Pn^tt. All
thi EHiDlMn of the 8a|]iU( hou* hid the an* oUlgatioiu in tbi*
rapcct, bat thsy bid not th* nm* rights, a* on* of tbMn occn-
pieil rsUtiTelT to tbt otlun a plao* umost aailogona to that id
tha frmt UuId of tha MoogDls fa btar tinM*. Tbli position wu
inhsritad trata (Uh*r to Sin, thoogh th* old ^iikiih id** of th*
rixliti oF til* Bld*r biotfaaroAaa eatM nbslUoD* and Tiolmt lunllr
dUimta*. After tha dsith of Uillk Shih tb* h*ad of th* &mUy
Tni not Btnng nioiuh to «iibro« abadi*M<k *nd oonseqnantly tha
central soreniiiHiit broil* Bp IdIo ssTsnl Indapandsnt dynutla,
Within ths limit* of the** ndnor dnutia* tb* HBW mlas wars ob-
KFTsd, lod theMmsmiybaMidof thalwcailUaiTflsftof ^ufciih
~'-s not belongliig to the royal &mi]y, who bON oidiBMfly tb*
litleofnJoitit (praiHHT"Ciai*rb*y''),«.f., thastab^of Fin,or
Adhiib^u (Aw^jui), of Sfri*. "• lb title was Brst jriran -
Siifan il-ICulk ind tuaotsodtha nUtiim in which b* stood to tl
- -nnuadbytba
ir tha pra*id*Di7 of tbe Tiur ; bat ia tlissmplnof Bdm
ila lathorin wu Infarior to that of th* ftrvinA, whnn wa miy
iiiii»*'lonl*huic«Uor." In Kim tha ftndil ^stem was extoidad
to Cbiiatlui pnncei, who wen a<AB0wl*d8*d by tb* soltui OB oon-
diiion of F*y<nK tribut* ind sarring in tba Nmias. Th* eoorf
dignituln sod thaif titlaa mt* mantlbld ; not 1*M minilOld ware
tha royal raenntiTH, in which tha nitons Ibllmred tha anmpls
ft bj tliMT faatetmiia, tha B^ida.
Kotwit^tanding tlie Intr^es of Tnrkin EhAtdu, Ualik
Shih waa succeeded b^ hie elder son Barkiyarol^ (lOQS-
IIM^ iriKse short reign was a series of rebellions and
strange adventnret soch as one may imagine in the story
of a yonth who ia by turns a powerful pnnce and a miser-
ibla fogitire-i Like his brother Mohammed (I104-I118),
Khc succeaafnlly rebelled against him, hia moat dangeroui
saemies ware the lamaelites. who had soeeeeded in taking
the fortreaa of Alamut {north <A Kaivln) and become a
tonnidable political powac hj the organiBtion of banda of
JiJdtri*, who were always ready, even at the sacrifice of
their own lives, to mmder any one whom they wero com-
manded to slay (see Asauaura).
Mohammed had bean sncceastal by tiie ud of hia brother
Snjar, who from the year I09T held the province of
Khor&sao with the capital Uerr. After the death of
Mohammed Binjar became the raal head of the bmily,
thoo^ Irik acknowledged UahmAd, the son of Mo-
hammed. Thns there originated a aepai&te dynasty of
'IraV with its capital at TTgnnrnjtn ■ but Siiyar dnring
his long reign often interfered in the a&iia of the new
dymwty, and every occupant of the throne had to acknow-
ledge lua snpremacy. In HIT haled an expedition against
GtMHta and bestowed the throne npon Behrtm Shah, who
was also obliged to mention Sinjar's nune firat in the
oflbaal [oaycr at the QhainaTid capital, — a pnrogativa
diat neither AJp Ardan nor M^^liV ShAh had attained. In
1 134 Bdirlm SUh Uled in this obligation and bnni^t on
liimaelf a freali iuTauon by BiBJw in tha midst of winter ;
a third one iodk idace in 1162, oanaed by the doiiws of
the Qhnrids (Hoeam JihinsAz, or " world-bnmer "). Other
ezpeditimia were undertaken by t^™ againnt irKAVirw and
Ti^keatan ; the government of the former had been given
l^ Barkiyirok to H<dkammed b. Annaht^fn, who was suc-
ceeded in 1128 by hia son Atui, and against him Kqjai
marched' in 1138. Hon^ vietorions in this war, Biqjar
could not hinder Ataii from afterwards Joining the gnrkUn
at Samarkand in 1141. !^ the invasion of these hordes
SBveial Turkish tribes, the ahnzi and others, were driven
beyond the Oina, where they killed the BeljCtk governor
of Balkh, though they professed to be loyal to Siqjar.
SinJarreBolved to pmuah this crime; bnt his troopa deserted
and he himself was taken prisoner by the Gnuzs, who
kept him in strict confinement during two years (IICS-SS),
thongh treating him with all oatwturd marks of respect.
In the meantime they plundered and destroyed the flourish'
ing cities of Uerv and Nishiptir; and when Sinjar, after
hia eao^w from captivity, revisited the eite of his capital
he fell tifik of •orrow knd grief and died soon afterwards
(1187). His empire fell to the Eanehitai and afterwards
totheihih<tfKh«iiam. Of the ■ncoeasors of Mohammed
in litif we dve on^ the namea with the date (^ the death
of aadit— UabmM (II31); To^uml, aon of Mohammed,
produmedt^SimarniSl); Ua^Ad(115S); UalikShih
and Mohammed (1109), sonsof Ual^Ad; Rnhim^n piiih,
their Imther (1161); AisUn, son of Toghrol (1170); and
Togbrul, aon of Alalia, killed in 1194 by Inin^, son of
hia atabek, Mohammed, who was in confedemtion with the
Ehiriim shih of the epoch, Takash. This chief inherited
hisposaesnons; To^unl waa the last repteeenta^ve of the
Setji^a of Irit
The province of Eermin was one of the fitat eonqneata
of the Be|j1ik^'Bnd became the hereditary fief of ^wurd,
the ion df Cba^ Beg. Mention has been made of his
war with Malik Bhah and of his ensuing death (1073).
Nevertheless his descendant! were left in possession of
their ancestor's dominions; and till 1170 Eerman, to
which belonged also the opposite coast of 'Oiaia, enjoyed
a well-ordered government, except fdr a short ioterruptioi
cansed by the deposition of Irftn ShAh, who had embraced
the tenets of the Ismaelites, and waa put to death (1101)
in aaoordance with a fatwa of the ulama. But after the
death of Toghral Bhih (1170) his three sons disputed with
each other for the possession of the throne, and implored
foreign assistance, till the country becune otterly devas-
tated and fell an easy pray to some bands ot Ohms, who,
nnder tha leadership of Ualik DiwLr (1180), marched into
kDiwLr (1180), marched ii
8 E L J U K S
KemiB after banMing Siqjar'a domiiuoiu. Afterwards
tbe diilu of iTh^fiim took thu ptoviuce.^
The 8e|jAbiu dynastj of Syria came to an eitd afUr
three generation^ and its later histoij is interwoTen with
that M t^ cnuaden. The first prince was Tatosh, men-
titmed above, who perished, after a reign of continuous
fightJng^iBbatUa against BarkijirDlF near itat (109a). Of
his two tona, the elder, Ridhwin, eatabUshed himself at
AI^^ (died 1113); the younger, Du^^, took possession
of DannecuB, and died in 1 103. The sons of the former.
Alp ArsUn and Bnltin ShAh, reigned a short time nomi-
n^y, thoni^ the real power was exercised by LiUd till 1 1 1 T.
We eannot, however, enter here into the very complicated
hiatiwy of these two dtdea, which changed their maetera
ohnoat areiy year till the time of Zengi and NAr ed-dio.
After the fpROt victory of Alp AraUn in which the Greek
ctnpens was takenpriaoner (1071), Asia Uinor lay o[>en to
dte inroada oi the Turks. Hence it was ea^ for SnloimAn,
the aon of Estnhniab,* the aoti c^ AraUn Plgn (laroil), to
pmetrate as far as the HeUtspant, the more ao aa after the
captivil; of Bomtnoa, two rivab, Nicephoma Bryenikiua in
Ana and another Nicephorm named Botoniatea in Europe,
diapated the thnme with one another. The former ap-
peued to Bnlaimin for aariatance, and waa. by hia aid
bron^t to Conatontinople and seated on the imperial
Uirone. But the posaeesion ol Aua Minor was insecure
to the Selj^ka as long as the important city of Antioch
belonged to the €lre«^ ao that we may date the real
foundation of thia SelJAt; empire from the taking of that
d^ by the treason of its commander Hiilaretas in 1084,
irtio afterwards became a TOssal of the SeljOks. The con-
qoeat inrolTed S«ilaimin in war with the neighbouring
HtAammedan princes, and he met his death soon after-
warda (I0S6), near Shuav, in a battle a^inst Tatush.
Owing to theee family discords the decision of Malik
Sh^ waa neceaaaiy to settle the afiaire of Aaia Minor and
Syria) be kept the aona of Sulumin in captivity, and
committed the war a^inat the unbelieving Greeka to hia
genarala Bnnnk (Upoaovx) and Buzin (novfamt). Barki-
yirofe, howDver, on hia acceauon (1092), allowed Kilig
Arslin, the son of Snl^m^ to retom to the dominions of
his father. Acknowledged by the Turkish emirs of Asia
Minor, he tot^ np hia rendencff in Nictea, and defeated the
first banda of emaadera nnder Waltw the Fenulleas and
othera (1096) ; bat, on the arrival of Godfrey of Bouillon
and his e<mipaniona, he waa iMradent enough to leave his
c^tal in War to attack tnem aa they were beeieging
Nioea. He soffered, however, two defeats in the vicinity,
and Nicna surrendered on 23d June 1097. Aa the cru-
aaders marched by way of Dorytnnm and Iconium towards
Antioch, the Greeks aubdned the Turkish emirs resid-
ing at Smyrna, Epheans, Sardis, Philadelphia, Laodiceo,
Lunpes, and Polybotos;* and Eilig Aialin, with hia
l^irlra, retired to the nordt-eastem parte of Asia Minor,
Tbghl
•ran. "' ., - - „ -.
Kmlaoek, Salla^ and otlun to fli wmo chionDl^^pcal d«tuli,
tad it u slmaat mipoanble to hsimoniie the diffarant ■tatsmenta
of thB Aimsniui, SjiiMC, Greek, and 'Weatern ohronlclea witii tbcoa
of tha Antaa, Penun, and Ttirkui}i. The coin* in fgv in nnmber,
vaiy diSgnlt to ibclphsr, and oftan without diCa. Tha Ibnndar
of Elia djnartjr wu > certain Tailii, who in uld to hare been a
•ehoolinaitar (daniihDutndJ, pnAwblj becaoM hs nndentood Anbic
aud FerBUa. Hii dascandanta. thsrafon, took the itjrla of " Ibn
Daninhmand," oftan »ithoiit tiieir own naroa. Thej took poiHs-
■ As ontUii* of tba hiitotr of thti bnnoh at the BeljiUca ii elreii
In Z.T>M.a^ 18SB, pp. B02-101.
■ Hila prtBM nballed agaitut Alp AnUn in 1044, and-vu foasd
aion of ffivia, TokAt, Kica^, Ahlaatin, Ualatiah, protaUy aflar
thg death of Snlaimln, though they may have tatahlidud (haaa-
aalvES in one or more of these dtiea mnoh earlier, Porhim in ]OTI,
after the defeat of Romuiue IMogenes. Dmiiig vm mat cmaada
the reigning priaes ima Kamoahl^En (Ahmad Ohaii), who dafaated
the Fnnka ud took priionet tbe pnnce of Antioch,' BofaanoBd,
aTtenrarde raaaoined. Iledied pnibubl; in llOfi, and waamoeeednl
by Ub eon Uidiammed (d. 114Si, arisr whom nignod Ji^ Baalii ;
bnt it is vary probable that otlier memben of ^e aama dynasty
Rigned at the aame time in the citiea already named, anil in aoma
othera, t.g., Eaatunani.
Afterwards there arose a natural rivalry between tha
Se^ilba and the Danishmand, which ended with the ex-
tinction of the latter about 1173. Kilig AnUn took
possession of Moanl in 1 107, and declared himself mdepend-
ent of the SelJ^ of Iri^; bat in the same year he waa
drowned in the Chaboras through tihe treachery of hia own
emirs, and the dynasty seemed again destined t« decay, aa
hia sons were in the power of his enemies. The saltan
Moluunmed, however, set at liberty his eldest son Malik
Shah, who reigned for some time, until he was tteocher-
oualy mnrdered (it ia not qoite certain t^ whom), bdng
BQceeeded by hia brother MasMd, who established himaelf
at Eonieh (Iconium), from that time "Can residence of tha
Selji^s of Billm. During hia reign — ^he died b 1153 —
the Greek emperors undertook various expeditions in Aaia
Minor and Amenia ; bat the BetjitlF was cunning enongh
to profess himself their ally and to direct them againat his
own enemies. Nevertheless the Seljdpan dominion was
Ety and onimportant and did not rise to aignificance till
aon and successor, Eilig AraUn II., had aubdned the
Danishmands and appropriated their pcssemion^ though
he thereby risked the wrath of the powerful atabek of
Syria, Nur ed-din, and afterwards that of the atill more
powetful Saladin. But aa tlie aultan grew old hia numerona
aona, who held each the command of a city of the empirtv
embittered hia old age by their mutual rivalry, and tha
eldest, JCotb ed-dfn, tyramused over his father in his own
capital, exactly at the time that Frederick L (Barboroesa)
entwed his dominions on his way to the Holy Sepolchrs
(1190). Eonieh itself was taken and the aultan forced to
provide guides and proviaiona for the erusadera. Eilig
Arsl&n lived two years longer, finally under the protection
of bis youngest son, Gaikhoerau, who held the capital
after him (till 1199) until his elder brother, Rokn ed^dln
Sulaim&n, after having vanquished his oUier brothers,
ascended the throne and obliged Kaikhosrau to se^ refuge
at the Greek emperor's court. This valiant prince saved
the empire from destruction and conquered Rnwrii", which
had been ruled during a consideroble time by a separate
dynasty, and was now given in fief to his brotiier, Mngliil
ed-dlu Toghrul ShAh. But, marching thence against the
Qeor^ana, SulaimAn's tioops suffered a territJe defeat ;
after this BulaimAn set out to subdue hia brother Maa'Ad
ShAh, at Angora, who was finally taken priaoner and
treacherously murdered. Thia crime is regarded by Orien-
tal authors as the reason of the premature death kA tha
aultan (in 1301); but it ia more probable that he was
murdered becaoaa he displeased the Mohammedan clergy,
who accused him of atheism. His son, Eilig AialAo TIT..
waa BOon deposed by Eaihhoaiau (who returned), oaaisted
by the Greek Maurozomea, whoae daughter be hod married
in exile. He ascended the throne the some year in which
the Latin empire waa establiahad in Constantinople, a dr-
cumstanco highly favourable to the Turks, who \rere tha
natural allies of the Greeks (Heodore Lascaiia) and the
enemies of the erusoders and their alliea, the Armeniana
Eaikhosran, therefore, took in 1207 from tha Italian
Aldobrandini the important harbour of Attalia (Adalla);
but hia oonquesta in this direction were put an end to by
his attack upon r^scaria, for in the battle that ensoed he
perished in single combat wiUi his royal antagonist (131 1>
S E L J 0 K S
637
His aoo and nieceuor, KiuUvtbi made pecee with Lucari*
and «it«Dded his frontien to the Black Sea b; ths eon-
qneet of Bittope^lZll}. On this cxicasioD he vas fortanate
eooaj^ to ttXe pruoner the Comnenian prince (Alexia)
who.rnlad the independent einpira of Trebizond, and he
compelled him to purchaae hia liberty b; ackncFwlec^iug
the mprenuK; of the Seljiika, by paying tribute, and by
aerriog in tha anniei o( tlie niltan. Elated by this great
euccMi and by bis victoriea over the Armenians, Kaik&vAa
woa indneed to attempt the ca^'ture oF the important city
of AJeppcs at this time governed by the descendants of
Saladin; but the affiur miBcarried, Soon afterwards the
■altan died (1219) and vas Buceeeded by hi* brother, AlA
ed-dln Kaikobid, the moat powerful and illnstrious prince
of this brancli of the Seljdks, renaimed not only for his
■uccMsfnl wars but also for his magniScent structuiM at
Konieh, Alqa, SitIs, and elsewhere, which belong to the
beat ipecimena o{ Baracanio architecture. Hie town of
Al^a waa the creation of thia aultan, aa previoualy there
existed on that site only the fortresa of Candelor, at that
epoch in tha poasession of an Armenian chief, who was
ezpaUad hj Eaikobld, and shared the fate-of the Armenlaa
•nd Prankish knights who possessed the fortresses alons
the coast of the Uoditerraneaa as far as Selefke (Seleucia).
Kaikobid extended his rule as far as this city, aud desisted
from further conqnest only on coadition that the Armenian
princes would enter into the same kind of relation to the
Se^dks as bad been imposed on the Conmemans of Trebi-
lond. Bnt his greatest military fame was won by a war
which, howoTer glorious, was to prove fatal to ths Seljiik
empire in the future : m conjunction with his ally, the
Eyylkbid prince Ai-Ashraf, he defeated the Khirizm shih
JeKU ed-(Qn near Ar»ng4n (1230). ThU victor? removed
the only barrier that checked the pn^reas of the Mongols.
Daring this war KaikobAd put an end to the collateral
dynas^ of the 8eljiik« of Enertm and annexed its pos-
seasions. He also gained the city of KhelAt with depeod-
encies that ia framer times had belonged to the Shah-i-
Armen, bat shortly before bad been taken by Jelil ad-dln ;
this aggression was the cause of the war just mentioned.
The acqnisition of Kbelit led, however, to a new war,
as Kaikobid'a ally, the Eyydbid prioca, envied him thia
conquest. Sixteen Hobanimbdan princes, mostly EyyiUiids,
cf Syria and Mesopotamia, under the ieaderahip of Al-
Malik al-K*mi!, prince of Egypt, marched with considerable
forces into Asia Minor against him. Happily for Kaiko-
bid, the princes mistrusted the power of tie Egyptian,
and it proved a difficult task to penetrate throi'';li the
mountainous well-fortilied accesses to the interior of Asia
Minor, so that the advantage rested with Kaikobid, who
took Kharput, and for some time even held HamLu, Ar-
Roba, and Rakka (1232). The latter conquests wero,
however, soon kwt, and Kaikobad himself died in 1234
of poison administered to him by his son and successor,
GbiyiU ed-d(n Kaikhosrau II, This unworthy son in-
herited from bis father an empire embracing almost tbe
whole of Asia Minor, with the exception of the countries
governed by Vatatzee (Yataces) and the Christian prince*
of Trebizond and Lesser Armenia, who, however, were
boand to pay tribute and to serva in the armies, — an
empire celebrated by contemporary reports for its wealth.'
But the Torkiah soldiers were of little use in a regular
battle, and the sultan relied munfy on his Christian
troi^)*, so much to that an insurrection of dervishes which
DcciuTed at this period coold only be pot down by their
uiistance. It was at this epoch also that there floiiriahed
at Konidi the greotest mystical poet of Islam, and the
(imnder of the order of the Mawlawia, Jelil ed-dfn RUml
(d. 1373; see Bdid)^ and t^ tlw deiriA fiai
spread throughout the whole OMinlij and became power-
ful bodies, often diseonteated with the liberal principles
(^ the Buhau^ who granted pririk^es to the Christian
merchanta and held fraqoant inteiaoDiae with tham. Not-
withstanding all *-ti>", the strength and reputation of the
empire were ao great that the Mongols hesitated to in^da
it, althou^ standing at its frontiers. But, a* thcv cnsaed
the border, Kaikhoeiau marched against tbem, and snfiered
a formidable defeat at Kuzadig (batwaen Anengin and
Sivis) in 1213, which foroed bhn to pureliaae peace by
the promise of a heavy tribateL The iodependesoe of the
SetjUks was now for ever lost The Mongol* retired fof
some years; but, Kalkhoetau dying in 1345, the joint
government of Ma three sons gave oocaaiot to fieah in-
roads, till one ot them died and Eolagn divided the
empire between the other two, 'Iiz ed-dln ruling the dis-
tricts west of the Haly* and Bokn ed-din the eastern
provinces (ISSO). Bat the former intriguing widi the
Mameluke sultana-of ^grpi to en>el his brothu and gain
his independences was defaktad by a Mongol aimj and
obliged to flee to the imperial court Here he was im-
prisoned, but afterwards released by the Tatars of the
Crimea, who took him with them to Santi, where he died.
Rokn ed-dfn was only a nominal ruler, the real power
being in the hands of his pervineh, Muln ed-dln Sulaiman,
who 1a 1267 procured an order of the Mongol Khin
Abaka for his execution. The miniatar r^aad bis infant
son, Ghiy&ta ed-din Kaikhoeran m., to the throne, and
governed the oountiT for tan years longer, till he waa
entangled in a oouspiracy of saiWal emiis, who proposed
to Bxpel the Mongols with the aid of the MametnkB suHan
of Egypt (Beybors or Bibara). Tha latter marched into
Asia Minor and defeated the Mongols m the bloody bottls
of AbUst^n n2T7) ; but, when he advanced farther to
Oibmrea, the pentneh retired, heBita;ting to join blm at
tjia very moment of action. Beybars, therefore^ in hia
turn fell back, Jeaving the perv&neh to the vengeance ot
the khAn, who soon djacorered his treason and ordered a
Ohiyats ed-din continued to nagn
till 1284, though the coontrr waa In reality
by a Mongol viceroy. Mas'Ad, the son of 111
ed-dln, who on the death of his father had fled from the
Crimea to the Mongol khin and had rec^ved from him
the government '^ oivia, Arzengln, and Enamm daring
the lifetime of Ohiyits ed^lln, ascended the SefjAk thronB
on the death of Qhiyits. Bnt hi* anthoritywas aotrcely
respected in his own residence, for several Tarkish emirs
assumed independence and eonid only be sabdoed by
Mongol aid, when they retired to the mountaina, to re-
appear as soon as the Mongoh were gone. MasSid felt,
probably about 1295, a victim to the vengeance of one of
the emirs, whose father he had ordered to be pnt to death.
After him Kaikobid, son of his brother Fatimarz, entered
Konieh as saltan in 1298, bnt his rei^ is so obscure that
nothing can be said of it ; some authors assert Uiat he
govemedonly till 1300, others till 1316. With him ended
thedynaatyoftheSeti^^; but the Turkish empire founded
by them continued to exist under the rising dynasty of the
Ottomans. (See Ttnxxi.)
BiUioarajAj/.—Tlii bert, Ihongh famffidmrt, sccoimt of tht Bil-
jiika i> itill De GuignM, EiHoin 0*it*ruU dtf Bvu, bks. x.-rii,
Train wham Oibboa borrowed hii dstM. AmoDf traulsUoaa ftou
orieinsl hurm (of whkk the msrt traatwarthT sie nit natditwl),
compiMirkhond's O0cMeU< Ar SklitOutirm (•! Tollns), OionD,
1838 ; Tarith-t OutUlA, RtDch traadation }jj DdMnsry la tlia
Jounai Aiiatiau*. IStS, L 417 sf , iL tSt <f. *■* ST 1 ^■
J. H.W. Lagoa], Haliiiu[fai*, 18U (on tb* BtlfUs rf Asia Ulnor
itiuiTsIy, bat of tittle nine). Inforaatlni napMtiag cartua
633
1 E L K I R K
SELKIBK, a lowknd ctmatj of Scotluid, of tortuous
tntliDe, (b boonded bj HidlotldMi on the N., bf Peebles on
the N. &nd W., b; Dmnfriea on the S., and hj Roxburgh
vn the K Its extreme length from south-ivest to north-
«Bat u 28 miles, its greatest breadth from east to vent IT,
Wid its total area 260 square milea or 166,624 acres, of
which 1997 are water. This includes two detached portions,
one to the north-west^ surrounded bj Peebles, and another
on the east, the estate and bai«nj of Sinton, separated from
Koiborgh in the reign of William the Lion on the appoint-
nent of Andrew d« STnton to tbe sheriSahip of S^kirk.
From its lowest altitude (300 feet) at the junction of the
Oala and tbe Tweed th« surface rises to 2133 feet at Dun
Rig, a wild and desolate sninmit an the western bonndary.
Level haugha, beds of ancient lakes, occur in tbe courses
of the riTBiB ; bnt the county is otiierwise wholly mountain-
ous and only a small proportion of it arable. Of its prin-
ripol summits, Ettrick Pen (2269), Capel Fell (2223),
Deer I^w (2064), Herman Law (2014), are in the south,
and Windlestioa Law (2161) in the north, about a mile
from the borders of Midlothian, Broadly speaking, Selkirk
may be said to consist of the two entire valleys of Ettrick
And Yarrow and a section of the valley of Tweed, the first
two sloping from the Bonth until they ;nerge in the last,
which forms the northern portion of the county. Besides
8t Uary's Loch and its adjunct the Loch of the Lowes,
together about 4} miles long, there ore several others of
considerable siis, mostly in the eastern uplands between
Ittiick and Taviotdale — the two lochs of Bhaws, Clearbum
Ijoch, Kingside Loch, Hellmuir Loch, Alemuir Loch, and
Akermnir Loch. These^iWith the Urger rivers and the
mountain "bums," ■tft«et uiglen to Selkirk from all
parts of the kingdom.
Geologically, the Selkirk rocks are a portion of that
great Silurian mass which occupies the south of Scotland
from Wigtown to the north-east coast of Berwick. At no
part are they known to be covered by rocks of later forma-
tion ; but here and there (at Wiodlestrae Law and Priest-
hope, for example) igneous rocks protrude in massive out-
crops, almost granitic, one measuring over 100 feet in
thickness. The hillsides yield inezhanstibla supplies of
blua-grey whinstone, suitable for building; bnt repeated
efibrta to establish slate-qnarriss and lead-mines have ended
in failure. According to records of the 16th centnry, gold
was found at Mount Bengar, Douglas Craig, and Linglie
Bum, — "on ingenious gentleman" named Bevis Bulmer
having been "most succeoaful upon- Eenderland Uoor in
Ettrick Forest, where he got the greatest gold — the like
to it in no other place before of Scotland."
Corresponding with th« high avenge altitude, the pre-
vailing cUmate is cold and wet, and, as the soil is mostly
thin, over a close subsoil of dayey "till," agriculture is
.carried on at a disadvantage. About the middle of the
1 9th ceutuiy large areas <A virgin soil were brought under
tillage ; bnt the prudence of the " improvement * is now
greatly doubted, m regard to a large proportion at least,
— its restoration to permanent pasture being now foond
aim est impracticable.
Ia1884 23,£flSmcr«,arD«srl7aa«TRitb of ttta vliola, n-sra undsr
CDltintiDa ud S228 under inxxL Ths rotation at cron moat
I iMft of (l) tamip«, 12) Utley
. IB). (*). m "miH nr ™.-
1S81 nomborwl ESO,
ry 1^ tbs upper hnni <
With afiMp of ths bl ' ~
thos •till pradamisi
in qoslity, hom pan Cbaviot to half-bred uid tbiw-qnuten-bred
L«lc«)t«r-Chnio£ Dpw»id« of 80,000 serai, mora than « third of
ths eoDD^, bslong to tha duks of Bncclench, wboaa titla ii derirad
fitita an sndsDt poasnion oT his bmilT is ths vtla of Rsnklebum.
Otbsr prioclpsl uudawnsn us Ur Ssxwall-Stnsrt of TnquBir
(BTOS KIM} snd Lord Vsiwr snd Ettrick (SS8S sera).
JfiMMtfbrtwtm— Ja MU-^ v ths twyinnliig of tlw ITth csntnry
1h€ vill.igo of Caluhiek did s «>nddaib1« local tnds in wooIIcb
cloth, ^th«n or ahortlj aftentsras known a* " Galuhislj gray. " lUtU
ia iudnatrj wa* ^[Tvwtly
191h century s fuw no»elti8» in jBltera {nuaily ««iidBiitU) led to
tbo opcnins up of what hu now bwomc a lait indurtry— tha Twewl
trade, which anil baa ita urknonledgEd centrs in Sellurk.
AdminiHraHon and ftpiWicni — Belldrkahirs witb PHblonhiiw
foran one parliamcDtaiy coiiatituancj. Of enii™ civQ tHrislies it
conUina oolj two, with parta of nine otben ; thore an So. taken
from Iboas, three qiwad tacra pariabca and pirt of a fourth. Tba
population, tB37 in 1766 and B609 in 18S1, wa* in 1881 rttanud at
25.681, -«n inoreaaa partly due to the inneiation of a portioii of
Galaahiela fonnorly reckoned in Boibnrgb. Oubride the two town*
ofOalaghieLs [population 9140 in 1 881) and Selkirk populatipti h^
been almoat atationsry for mora tbuiacentuij, that of Uia landward
narishealn 176G and 1381 boiog respectively as rollovi:—AabUifc,
m sad 1S8 : Innerleithen, 80 and 61 ; Ettrick, 897 and iST ; Stow,
i&O and 441 ; Yarrow, .1180 and fill ; Roberton, 250 and 250.
Aaliguitira and Hidory.—'i'hrt ahtre ia Bot lieh b antiqiiitiea,
although ita billaidca here and there reveal eartban encUMiire*
known as "British camps," ti veil as tumuli yielding hnmui
renuina isd tbe usual fragmenta of rude pottery. A mystericxu
diloh, known as " tlie CatruU," beginning at the north end of tha
count;, traveraes iCa cntin titent before entering Boibiwgh on
ita way to tho Engliah bonier. Beaidee amaUer redoabts, then
is on ita line, at Rink in Galaah iels pi ' '
: of formidable at
wall-preserved eirealn'
acee trench," when, according to a
published, tha Scottish patriot dcAo
idward I. Ckae bj ia the hiU-trwl
°&rk
tack from the cr
ireign pnn
Catnil
historical document recentl;
for a while the genersla of
by which Montroae cacap ' '' '
in 1646. Newark Caatl .
preservation, notable enoiieh hiatorically, but more fajnil
recital-hall of the "last minaUal'a" immortal lay. Tbe oou
dot^ O'cr with other towen of amaller size, in Tarious st«
decay. Around them cluatar those traditions wMcIl mi
ballada full of aimple force and tendemeas, have nude Si
the poet'a choaen haunt Yarrow, "garlanded with rhynif^^
witbout hyperbole, been termed "tiieTempe of tbe Wert." fielkirk
was long known offlcislly as the "ebire of tlie Fbrcat," aa sppellatiao
its bmoOB ahcrirr Sir Walter Scott loved to recalL &oept tha
burgh of Selkirk, ita lands, and a lat^ tract in upper Etldck be-
longing to Uelrose Abbey, the county remsined long under tbs
junadiction of a forest court, and its foreat-ateadingi wen held by
■ ' ' " Uaiy. Itwaaafavoarita
d formed tbe down-land
rho became qaesna of Scotland.
DM T. Cnlg-Brsim, BuL iJSIkirkAin.
SELKIRK, the county town of Selkirkshire, is on the
river Ettrick, between its absoiption of tbe Yarrow and
its junction with the Tweed, and is connected by a brsnch
railway with the Wavertey line from Scotland to Eng-
land. Although ahnost entirely a manufacturing town,
having several large mills for woollen cloth aud-yam, it
is not without importance as the centre of on extensive
pastoral area. The county offices and prisoD excepted, the
public buildings of Selkirk are not stiikiug. The popula-
tion of the burgh was 1053 in IT39, 1800 in 1831, and
6090 in 1881.
From the charter by which Divid L, whila prince of IT<3^-
nmbria, esCabliahed in Selkirk the Benedictine abbey afterwsids
removed to Kein, itappesn that eren at that temote perlod-(lll^
S4) it was an old town and the princa'a reaidenca. David'a csrtls
continued to be a frei[u?nt resort of his succeesoTS on the throne,
particnlarly of William the Lion, many of whose chsrtara ware
signed "iu plena curia apudScelchircham." Enlarged and strength'
ened by Edward I., the fortreas nai cafitared by the |«triDttc party
Boon after Wallico'a return from France. Nothing now remains of
it bnt gT«q mounds and the name "Peel HilL" It ii B^ificanl
of the deatruction wrouplit by repeated conqueeta and leconquesta
that Selkbk, BotwithetaBding its antinuilj and early importance,
boaata not oao building a century and a half old. Aa ita early
njune (SeboleKhyrche) ironliea, it waa originally a colleotioD of
foreat " ahiels " bcaide which an earlv church was planted, probably
by the Culdeee of Old Mclroae. Claa light ia thrown upon the
manners and cuatoma of old border towne by the ancient records of
thia burgh, still extant (with gaps) from 160S. A minute of 151S
mentions the atena taken to comply witb tbe kin^a latter ordering
tha levy before Flodden, where, according to tradition, the bnrgo«e»
of Selkirk fought with atubbom valour, Jaroea V. glutei the
community right to encleee 1000 screa from the common and gave
them leave to elect a ^voat, tbe first to fill tbtt office being alain
S E L — S E M
63a
fa UUMM of tba bniA todi. nom la aadr period
»in a nnnivaiK amia BolUifcr uid lu 171B and 174G tbe; vera
forod to ftmiidi nranl thoannd pun of ihoti to the Jicobita
(iniM. ''8aQl«*atS«lkirk"iiBtiUai7iwi?)itfortlieliilulri.taiit«.
SELKIBK, ot SiLORAiO, Aleuxdzb (1676-1733), a
Milorirtip ia rapposed to have been tlie prototTpe of Defoe'a
" B(>biDioft CriHOe,'' waa the wn of a ahoeiiukBi Olid taniieT
mLugo^Fifeahiie^&adwMbomiiil6T6. In Ma Tontb he
ciiBplayed a qaurelaome and nnnilj diaporition, and, hav-
ing been aanunoned on 27th Angnat 1695 before the kiik-
aeenon f or his indeoent behavionr in chorah, "didnotoom-
pear, beiDg gone away to the aeae." At an early period
he was ea^^pA in buccaneer ezpeditiooA to the South
Seaa, and in 1703 joined the "Cinque Forts" galley as
tailing master. The following year he had a dispute with
the oaptun, uid at hia own request was in October put
ashore on 'the island of Jttan Fernandez, where, after a
solitary reudence of four yeeis and foni months, he was
taken off by Captain Woods Rogers, commander ot a
privateer, who made him hia mate and afterwards gave
liini the independent comniiuid of one of Ma prizes. He
retnrned home in 1713; but in 1717 he eloped with a
coonbT g^l and again went to sea. He died in 1723
while' Ueutenant on board the royal ship "Weymouth."
an ^o<nlI, Hf> md Advaitiim tfJUaaida- SeUdrk, 1S29.
'SELUA, a dty of the United States, in Dallas county,
j^l^.hamii., At the head of steamboat navigatioa of tbe
rtlnhnTTia river, oecapiea a platean on the bluff of the right
bank, 96 milea below Montgomery. It has cotton ware-
honaea, nulroad machine- diops, and various factories.
He population was 6484 (3660 coloured) in 1870 and
7529 (4184 coloured) in 1880. Selma, wMch was strongly
fortified during the Civil War and the seat of a C^-
federate arsenal (where 1800 men were employed), was
captured by the Federal mi^or-general J. E. Wilson on
3d April 1865.
SE^UFALATINSE, an extensive province i^Aiaet) of
the Bossian dominions in Central Aaia ; administratively
it forms a port of the general^vemorahip of the Steppes,
although its northern portions le^y beloi^ to the Irtish
pluns of Weet Siberia. It has an area of 188,300 square
miles, and is bounded on the N. by Tobolsk and Tomsk,
on the 8.K by China, on the S. by Semiryetchensk, and
on the W. by Akmolinsk, As regards configuration, it
differs widely in. its northern and southern parts. The
snowclad ric^ (9000 to 10,000 feet) of the great Altai
and Narym enter its sooth eastern portion, stretching
eonthifanis to Lake Zaisan. Another complex of moun-
tains, Eandygatai and E^binsk, rising to 9000 and 6000
feetabovetheBea,continneBthem towards the west; abroad
valley interrenes, through which the Irtish finds its way
from the Zaiaan terrace to tbe lowlands of Siberia. Many
extensions of these mounttuns and subordinate ridges
stretch towards Usa north. The still bwer but wild
Jinghii-tan mountains fill the aonth-weatem part of
Semipalatinsk, sending out their rocky spurs into the
Btepiw r^on. In the aonth, the Tarbagatoi (Marmots')
range (9000 to 10,000 feet) separates Semipalatinsk bvm
Seauiyetchensk and the GldneM province of Jugutchak.
Wide ateppae fill op tbe qncea between the mountains :
such are Oe Zaisan steppe (1200 to 1500 feet), between
the Tarbagat^ and the Altai ranges ; the plains of Lake
Bolkash, some 300 feet lower, to uie south of the Jinghiz-
tau ; and the plains of the Irtish, which hardly rise 600
feet above the sea. All kinds of cryatalline rocks — gran-
ites, syenites, diorites, and porphyries, as also cryst^line
slatea of all deaoriptJona — are met with in the mountain
tract% idiidi contain also rich gold-bearing sands, silver
and bad mine^gi^ihitet coal, and the leea valuable pre-
doos atoiua. The geology of t^ region and even ita
)hy are still but imperfectly known. Nnmerous
widely scattered around uie mountaina testify
to a much wider extension of glaciers in former timea. The
chief river of the province, uie Irtish, which issues from
lAke Zaisan, flows north and north-west and waters Semi-
polaidask for more than 760 miles. Between Bukbtarma
and Ust-Kamenc^rak it crosses the Altai by a wild gorge,
wiUi dangerous rapids, through which, however, boats are
floated. LakeZaiBan,60milesIongandfromlO to20widc,
has depth sufficient for steamboat navigation ; steamen tra-
verse also for some 100 miles the lower comae of the Block
Irtish, which flows from Kuldja to Lake Zaisan. The
Eurtcbum, the Narym, and tbe Bukhtarma are the chief
right-hand tributaries of tbe Irtish, while tbe BukoS, tbe
^zil-so, and many smaller ones join it from tbe left;
none are navigable, neither ore the Kokbekty and Bugai,
which enter Lake Zaisan on the west Lake Balkash,
which borders Semipalatinsk in the south-west, formerly
received several tributaries from the Jinghiz4an. Many
smaller lakes (some of them merely temporary) occur on
the Irtish plain, and yield salt. The whole of the country
is rapidly drying up. The climate is severe. The average
yearly temperature reaches 43° in the south and 34' in tho
north ; the winter is very cold, and f rosls of - 44° Fahr.
are not uncommon, white heats raising the thermometer
to 122' in tbe shade are experienced in the mmmer. The
yearly amount of rain and enow is trifling, olthongh snow-
storms are very common ; strong winds prevail Forests
are plentifnl in the hilly districts and on the Irtish plain,
the flora being Siberian in the north and more Central
Asiatic towards l^kes Balkash and Zaisan.
Ths chi«f inhibituits aro Klighk-kiuakf, who acknowlsdgsd tha
mnnmuY of Bnnia ia 173S and ma; muDber now (1880) Dcirly
bale a mllliou (470,750 in 167S, of whom lO.SSO vera aettleii in
tovoi). Ths Bnailim popnlatioo, vLicb in lb« same year unounted
to nearly B0,000 CoBsacka and petuonts, bos slonly increisBd Biace.
The anir^ata populBtiDn wai in 1SS2 estimated at 638,400, of
whomMiSfiO lii^ in towna. The Roaaiana are cbiefly igricnl-
toriit^ and have wealthy aettleawala ou tbe right baak of tha
Irtish, u wall aa a few patchea In the santh, it tbe foot of tbe
-- '-- >"- "■--— >-^ almort eneluively eattb-breedera
bomed a
aud keep
L The Eirghiiei
targe Socks of al
HuiitiDg and fla]
d cattle, at
cimela. HuntiDg and flahing {in Lake Zaion) an favourite u>d
Citable occnpationi with the Ooesa«ka and tbe Kirghiswi. In-
triea an of couth ioaigluGGaiil^ except that of mmlnK^ — gold
being obtained within the prorince to the amount of fioui 800 to 400
Tb every year ; tbe eitiactioB of niter and lead ia very limited.
Trade u of soma importanee, and ia incrcadoK — Riuaan mum'
factored uticlea beiBgen±SD)ied for tluTawpradaca (hide^ tallow,
cattle) of the legion. The provfnae ia divided into tour diatricta,
the chief towns of which sie Semipalatisak (1T,S20 inhatdtanta
la ISSlX.Favlodar (ESSO), Kokbe% (8690), and Karkaralindc
(20S0). iU theta toims, lost amldit the aoDdy steppea, are mere
adminiatratiTe ceotrea. Bnkhtanna and Cat-EameDceoisk (8400)^
among the mooataioa, an also worth; of mentlDD.
8EMIFALATIKSE, capital of the above province ia
situated on the right b«nk of the Irtiah, on the highway
from Central Aua to northern Europe. At the end of
the 18th century it began to be a centre for trade, reach-
ing its greatest development in 1850-60. Kazan and
Turkestan Tatars formed the bulk of its population. The
town still remains, however, a collection of old wooden
houses Blattered among onfenced spaces of Band. The
Tatar town has a somewhat better aspect than the Russian.
The inhabitants (17,820 m 1881) consist of officials, mer-
chants, and agriculturists.
SEMIBAMia According to the legend wMch the
Qreeka received from Ct^sias, and which is most folly pre-
served by Diodorus (book ii^ in a form that, according to
the researches of C Jacoby (Shein. Muaeum, 1875, p. 656
tqX is not taken direct from C^tesias but comes throoj^
Qitarchua, and has been modified by traits borrowed from
tiie history of Alexander the Great, the Assyrian empire
ovm all Ana as for as the borders of India was created bj
■■-■■■■■■■ o~
640
3 i M — S E M
Nintu, tfaa foander of Nineveli, and h^ ■<".■*' it Bponse
Remiramu, who was first the wife of Vm *^t''«i, OnaeB,
bat won the king's iova by an heroic eij>'at^ ^he capture
of Baci^nu which had defiwl the 'oyal forces. Ninas died,
and Semiraroia, succeoding to his pow^r, traversed all parts
of the empire, erecting great cities (especially Balijlon) and
vtniiendous monuments or opening roads through savage
iQOiuitunt. She was nnsuccessfol only in an attack on
India. At length, aftet a reign of forty-two yean, ahe
delivered np the kingdom to her son Niujai and dia.
appeared, or, according to wliat seems to be the original
form of Uie story, Tas tamed into a dove and was thence-
forth worshipped as a deity. This legend is certainly not
Assyrian or Babylonian ; Ctedas most have bad it from
Peniani or Hedes, and the folueas of detail, the mtJti-
tnde of proper names, favour the conjeetora that Ninna
and Semiiamis irere celebrated in some Median epic tale
which went on to tell of the fall of Assyria before the
Uedee (Duncker, Geieh. d. AH., 6th ed., ii. 18 ■{.). In this
legend all the conqnests of Assyria were crowded together
into one lifetiide, and King Ninus and his son Ninyas are
mere eponyms of Nineveh, personiScattoos of the Assyrian
monarchy. But it is round the Ggare of Semiramis that
alt the real interest of the legend gathen ; nor can she be
the arbitrary cteatioii of a poet, tor it is certain that her
name was popularly connected with many famous places
and monuments. " The works of Semiramis," says Strabo
(svi. 1, 2), "are pointed out throogh almost ^e whole
continent, earthworks bearing her name, walls and strong-
holds, aijueducts, and atair-Uke roads over mountains,
canals, roods, and bridges." Ultimately every stupendous
work of antiquity by the Eupbtates or in Iran seems to
have been ascribed to her, — even the Behistnn ioscriptions
of Darius (Uiod., ii. 13). Of this we already have evi-
dence in Herodotus, who, though he doea not know the
legend aft«Twarda told by Ct^das, ascribes to her the
tianks that confined the Euphrates (L 1S4) and knows her
name as borne by a gate of Babylon t\\L IBSV Various
places in Media bore the name of Senuiomis, but slightly
changed, even in the Middle Ages (Hofihiann, Syritcht
AMea, p. 137), and the old name of Van was Shamirama-
gerd, Armenian tradition regarding her as its founder (St
Martin, J/«)n.rarrjnn^Le,L 138). These facta are to be
e^lained by observing that in her birth as well as in her
disappearance from wth Semiramis clearly appears not
at a mere woman but as a great goddess. In Diodorus's
accoimt she is the daughter of the Derceto of Ascalon
and miraculously brought np by dovea, and again she is
finally transformed into a dove, and therefore the Assyrians
pay divine honours to this bird, Semiramis, therefore, is
a dovfr-goddess associated with Derceto the fish-goddess.
The same association of the fish and dove goddesses appears
at Hierapolis (Bambyoe, Mabbug), the great temple at
which according to one legend was founded by Semi-
ramis {Dt Dert Syria, 14), and where her statue was sbowu
with a golden dove on her head (ibid., 33, camp. 39).'
But the Semitic dove-goddess is Ishtar or Astarte, the
great goddess of Assyria and Babylon, and the irresistible
chanui of Semiramis, her sexual eicesees (see especially
Dinon in ^lian, V.B., viL 1), and other features of the
legend alt bear- out the view Uiat she is primarily a form
«f Astarte, and so fittingly conceived as the great queen of
Assyria. The word Semiramis in Semitic form, aa the
Syrians write it, is ShSmlrlm (Hofiinann, td ntpra]
epithet rather than a proper name, which may be rendered
" the highly celebrated," or perhaps rather " name [mani-
featation] of [the god] Ram."* The historical inference
> II ti noUwoKliT In tUi u
rAnuslNtu uiil PlillDBtmtui
s Op. tl» FfacBiicUia "AiU
in thit Usbbic i* Qit Jfintu »«(■
aDC" lC.l.a., L 1, Ho. >, L 18),
from all this is that Semitic worship ma eanied by tke
Assyrians far iuto Media and Armenia.
Ou M AajTun ioacription tho mtuia liuminmnut aimeua aa
bori«bvthe "Isdy of ths p»l»«" of E»iuui.nniTBr(Bla-7M B-c.) ;
•n3cliiaJ«',f.^.r.,aded.,p.9Be. S. Ueyer(Uwt. da^fttrrM,
p. 4D9I combiuM tLia Kith Ui« atatsment of Herolotus that Scnii-
ramb livsd Bv« gmentiiuu before Mitocris, ithicb would nub ber
data TSS B.a Posoblj Hinidotus idantiAnl tlis two namn, but it
~~ Tory donbtftil whatCer Uu]r ara raally coiiu«ct«L fihaminunotli
Chrruf. TV. Ifl^ Mtrhaiw mfdnia '^ itatuM of Sflmirttnia.*' ami- If
(1 Chroi
ami. If
. . . itStUM of
origiiuillj a jilaca-Dauia (Ewald, a.L).
SEMrBYETCHENSK, a province of Busaian Tnrkertan,
including the steppes south ot Lake Balkash and parts
of the Tian-Shan Mountains around lake Issik-koL It
of 1&S,300 square miles and is bounded I7
Semipalatinsk on ihe N., by China (Jngutchak, Kol^ja,
Aksu, and Kashgaria) on the K and S., and by the Busown
provinces of Fergaoah, Syr-Dario, and Akmolinsk on the
W, It owes its name {Jity-tUy Stmi-ryetiAit, i.t., " Seven
Bivers ") to the rivers whidi flow from the south-east into
Lake Balkash. The Jnngarian Ala-tau, which sepatatas it
from north-vreatem Knk^a, penetrates into its central \tOT-
tions, eitending south-west towards the river Di, with an
average height of 6000 feet above the sea, several laolated
snow-clad peaks reaching about 12,000 feet. In the sooth
Semiryetchensk embraces theintricatesystemaof theTrana-
lli Ala-tau and Uie Tian-Shan (see TtjaKSSTAM). Tiro
ranges of the former, connected about their middle I7 «
-mass, extend east-north-eostwards kloog
the northern shore of Lake Isik-kul, both ranging from
10,000 to about 15,000 feet and both partially snow-clad.
To the south of the lake two immeose ranges of the Tian-
Shan, separated by the valley of the Naryn, stretch in the
same direction, raising their icy peaks to above IS.OOO and
1 6,000 feet ; while westwards from the lake the vast n-alls
of the Aleiondrovskiy ridge, 9000 to 10,000 feet high,
with peaks ri^g some 20O0 feet higher, extend to the
province of Syr-Daria. Another mountain complex of much
lower elevation runs north-westwards from the Trana-Uias
Ala-tan toworda the southern extremity of Lake BalkaA.
In the north, where the province borders SemipolatinA,
it includes the western parts of the Tarbagataa rong^ the
summits of which (10,000 feet) do not reach the limit of
perpetual ano*. The remainder of the province coosista
of a rich steppe in the north-east (Sergluopol), and vast
uninhabitable sand-sleppea on the aouth^east of Lake Bal-
kash. Southwards from the last-named, however, at the
foot of the mountains and at the entrance to the valleys,
there are rich areas of fertile land, which are rapidly bemg
colonized by Russian immigrants, who have-also spread into
theTian-Shan,tothBeaBtDf Lakelsaik-kul. Thedimateis
relatively temperate (average yearly temperature 44' Fahr.
at Vyemyi, 2500 feet above the sea) and the vegetation ridL
Tba chief rivn ii tiia 111, wbich antsn tbs proTince fmm Enldji^
north -w
Ala-tan, flova
1000 yuda in width, and
miln beFors it antan Laks BaJbali
luthi torminjca wida delta. Ila tribuCaiiea fnir
t in a bed varying fr
by Mveral moutha torminjc a wida delta. Ila tribuCaiiea from tba
left an the N>r3m, the Tchilik, and the Rurtni aoTeial Dtlm
become lost is the Hnda The Kuatal, the Akn, and tba Upaa
likewiaa faU Into Lake Balkub. . The Tcbu riw* iu the Tiao.Shu
Monntaina and Sowa nortb-weEtwanla to I«ks Sanmelknl ; and
the Naiyn flowa Hrath-waatwarda along a longltadiual valle; oT du
Tlaii-Shui,uideDtsraFeivuiahtojinutbeSyr-DariB. Thaproma
ooDtaina leversl iiDparloDC lake*. Lake &lkuh, or Daiuhit.bi
the north (B880 aqnaie miles), ia erescent^hsped, <00 milas long
and GB wide in its broader part ; but it* ares is much Ins than it hr-
metW was, and it i> r»pidlT dryinff an, -notably idnce 186a. Latt
AU fcul, which waa lonneoled with Balkash In the FOat-FUoctB*
period, now alanda aome hundred feet hieher, and is coniwctod by
a chain of amaller lakee with Si>Hk-knL take Iwik-kDl (IMI)
Sun miles) k * deep mountun lake, 1!0 inilM long and ST wida
00 feet aban tbs sea. The alpine lakea Son-kiU (MOO h(4 Md
Tchatvr-knl (11,100) lie aonth-west of Isaik-kuL
The papnUtian, which waa esUmsted at 716,600 by H. Eerttok«
in 1B80 (lSfi,«D bsing In the Knl^Ja ngion), baa tfDM IdbmH^
S E M — S E M
641
£■ ktMt oOdd flnM i}d6a)-iMag tU.W) for thg prottoM,
clmin sf tba KnlitJ* ihidr. Of tbcaa Kunvu anmbcred, an-
eotding to KoManko, 1<,KS, HXUO babg CoHuka, itho in rerj
poor u compuwl with th< tne Riunu tmitfrmati. The nutJQrily
ot thi popolitloa u« Kirgliu (!iB5,3)7) ; Dsit cume Tuutrhii
gXSi KiilzDuobi (kbcmt 25,000), UoDgoli iDil Uinchuriu*
000), tnd Dungua [le.eET), Ui» lut tvo motti; in Eal4js j
.wbil* lUsn uid 8vti in uch rspmeiited bj Kins SOOO or
UOO <>11 tba fengoing £gan« induds IhoH for Kiil4ji), Tba
prorlna la labiliTUsd into flra diitriiib ; TTera}-! (ie;4SS faihiblli
uU in 1870, or alioiii SiSt nn miUtuy), the cbiif toirn of tlis
uroviDM, formnly Aleut;, ii ntnitiid at Che foot of the Tnoi-IIiui
iUa-tiiu, uid b«g ■ miiDd popnUtioa gf Ruasiuu, Titara, Sarti,
Kirghiz, Ealmacka, udJan ; iti tnd* witb Kol^ia u ' "- *- —
impWiy »
„ . ^. .. _ __, , for boji uid
giria, ind aerenl othar acbgoia. The othat town) — Koi«I IS4S0
mhaktuit.), - - * - ' -
imi, for boji UK
wiif— KopU IMW
aU), Sarf^Mopol (lOlS], Tokia4k(I7rD), and EinCnl (2780
mlj aillDininntrTa CCTtI"
lEMITIC LANGUAGES
r I iHK name "SenitUclangiugM'' U nsed to dengnate &
I gronp of Asiatic and African languages, some living
and Bome dead, namelj, Hebrew and Hiaeiiidan, Aramaic,
Awjnian, Aislne^ Ethiopic (Oeei and Amhorie). The name,
which was introdaoed bj Sichhorn,' is derived from the
fact that moat nation* which apeak or ipake theae lau-
gnagea are deacended, according to Ganeaia, from Shem,
aon of Noah. But the claaBiScatioo of nationa in Qeoeais
z. is founded neither upon lingniitio nor upon ethno-
gnphical principles: it is determined rnther bj geogntph-
ical and political considerations. For this reason EUm
and Lnd ara also included among the children of Shem ;
but neither the Elamites (in Snsiana) nor the Ljdians
appear to have spoken a langnage connected with Hebrew.
On the other hand, the Phoenicians (Canaanitea), whose
dialect cloeeW reeembled that of laiael, are not counted aa
children of slipm, UixeOTer, the compiler of the list in
Oeneais z. hod no clear oooceptions about the peoplee of
south Arabia and Ethiopia. Nerertheless it would be
undesirable to give up the nnlTerBallj received tenna
"Semites" and "Semitic," There eiiat large groups of
languages and peoples which bear no natural collective
appellationa, because the peoples grew up tmconacioui of
their mntual relationship ; so Baeuee mtist needa give
them artificial designations, and it would be well if all
such tenns were as short and predae as " Semitic''
Hie connezioa of the Semitio languages with one
another is somewhat dose, in airp cose closer than that of
the Indo-European laugoagea. The more ancient Semitic .
tongues differ from one another scarcelv more than do the
various Teatooic dialects. Hence even In the 1 Tth centoiy
st)ch learned Orientalists as Hottinger, ^ochart, Castel^
and Ludolf had a toterablj clear notion of the relationship
between the different Semitic langnagea with which they
vera acquainted ; indeed \im same may be said of some
Jewish scholan who lived many centuries earlier, as, for
instance, Jehnda ben Koruah. It is not difficult to point
out a series of characteristic marks common to these Ian-
gnagee, — the predominance of triconaonantol roots, or of
roots formed after the analog of auch, similarity
formation of nominal and verbal stemi^ a ^«at reaem
in the forma of the personal pronouns and in their use for
the purpose of verbal inflexion, the two principal tenses,
the Importance attached to the change of vowels in the
Interior of words, and lastly conaiderable agreement with
regard to order and the construction of sentencea. Tet
evSn so andent a Semitic language as the Assyrian ap-
to lack some of these features, and in certain modem
New Syriac^ Hahri, and
Ic, manf of the eharocteriatica
mch as New Syriac^ Habri, and more n
id more particularly
Amharic, man^ of the eharocteriatica of older Semitic
speech have disappearecL But the resemhUnce in voca-
buluy generally diminishes In proportion to the modem-
nees of the dialects. Still we can trace the connexion
between the modem and the ancient dialects, and show,
at least ^proiimatelv, how the former were developed
ont ot the latter. Where a development of this kind can
b« proved to have taken place, thtae a relationship must
knUiA.r., H ed., L iS (LdpalE, 1787).
exist, however much the individual features may hvn
been efiooed. The question here is not of logical categoriea
but U organic gionpa.
All these languages are descsndants of a primitire
Semitic stock vriuch bos long been extinct Many of its
most important feature* may be teconstmctad with at
least tolerable certainty, but we must beware of attempt-
ing too much in this raniect. When the various cognate
languages of a groiqi diverge in essential points it is
by no means always possible to determine which of than
has retained the more primitive form. The history of the
development ot these tonguee during the period anterior
to the documents which we possess is often extremely
obecure in its details. Even when sevet^ Bemitio kn-
goages agree in important points of grammar we caimol
always be sure that in these particulars we have what Is
primitivt^ unee in many cases analogous changes hart
taken place independently. To one who should assert the
oomplete reconsbnction of the primitive Semitic language
to be possible, we mi^t pnt the question, Would the man
who is best acquainted with all the Somanee languages
be in a positimi to reeonatiuct their common mother,
Latin, if the knowledge of it were loat 1 And nt tbera
are but few Semitic knguagee which we can Know w
accurately as the Bomance languages are known. As &r
as the vocabulary is concerned we may indeed m»iti«itlii
with certainty that a considerable number of words which
have in various Semitic languages the form proper to each
were a part of primitive Semttic n>eech, Neverthelev
even then we are apt to be misled by independent bat
aualogotis formations and by wchxU borrawM at a vet;
remote period.' Each Semitic language or group of b^
guoges W, howeveE, many words which we cannot pt^t
out in the others. Of such words a great nnmbv no
doubt belonged to primitive Semitio speech, and dther
disappeared m some of these langtiages or else remidned
in use, but not so as to be recogniiabTe by na. Tet many
isolated words and roots may in very early timet have
been borrowed by the Hebrew, the AramaJo, the Ethio^
die, perhaps from wholly different langnagesrof which no
trace is left. ' ■ ■)
The question which of the known Bemitio dUleeti moat
resembles the primhiva Semitic langnage Is lest important
than one mi^t at first suppaee^ alnoe Uie qnettioB la
one not of absolute but only <tf relative prionty. After
scholars had given up the notion (iridch, howevCT, HU
not the fruit of ocientiltc rsMarch) that all Semitie ho-
guages, and indeed all the langouea Id the world, were de-
scendants of Hebrew or o( AnunBli^ it wot long the fashion
to maititoiti that Aiofaie ban a dose reaemuance to the
primitive Semitic tangoBga.* But, jnst aslt is'nowreeog-
nired with ever-increasing clearness that Sanskrit is far
from having retained in such a degree at was even lat^
supposed the characteristics of primitive Indo-EoropeOB
ra *lik« two tmsiugea am tl
■a dUScBH It ai
643
SEMITIC LANGUAGEI
ipnfKili, M in the donuun of th« S«mitic tongues we can
•MJgi) to Arabic only a lel&tiTe antiquity. It ia trae that
in Jb»bic very many features ue preBerred more faithfully
Uiaii in the cognate languages, — for instance, nearly all
the original abundance of consooants, the short vowels in
opmi syllablca, particularly in the interior of words, and
many grammatical digtinctiona which in the other Ian-
guqgea are moie or leu obecored. But, on the other hand,
Aiabic has coined, simply from analogy, a great number
of forms which, owing to their extreme simplicity, seem
tt the fint glance to be primitive, bat which nevertheteas
«n only modifications of the primitive forms ; whilst per-
hafs the other Semitic languages aihibit modifications of
A different kind. In spite of its great wealth, Arabic ia
diaiactarised bf a certain monotony, which can scarcely
have existed from the beginning. Both Hebrew and
Anmaic are in many respects more ancient than Arabic
This would no doubt be &r more apparent if we knew
Helasw more completely and according to the original
pnmonciatioQ of its Towels, and if we oonld diaoover how
Aiamaic wu prononneed about the 13th centnry before
am en. It mnat always be borne in mind that we are
ht mra^ fully and acctuately acquainted with Arabic than
with the other Semitic knguages of aatiqoity. The opin-
ion sometimes maintained by certain oTer-zealous Aseyrio-
logist^ that Assyrian is the "Sanskrit of the Semitic
world, " has not met with the approval even of the Assyrio-
logists themselves, and is nnworthy of a serioos refutation.
A comparative grammar of the Semitic languages must
of eovTM be baaed npon Arabic, but mnst in every matter
ot detail tak4 into consideration all the c<^nate luiguoges,
aa for aa thej are known to ns. In the reconstmcttoQ of
the primitive Semitic tongue Hebrew might perhaps aiTord
mora assiitanee than Ethiopic; but Aramaic, Assyrian,
and even the less known and tiie more modWD dialects
might furnish valuable materials.
It is not a formidable nnderlaking to describe in general
' tenns the character of the Semitic mind, as has been done,
for example, by Lassen (fudiiekd Alterthumtkundt, i. 414
«;.) and by Renan in the introduction to hia ffittoire
da Laiiffue$ SimUiqttei. But still there is a danger of
aasnming that the most important characteristics of particu-
lar Semitic peoplea, especially of the Israelites and of the
Arabs, are common to all Semites, and of ascribing to the
inSnence of race certain striking features which are the
resnlC of the external oenditious of life, and which, under
similar circnmstanoe^ are also developed among non-
Semitic races. And, Uiough it is said, not without reason,
that the Semites poesess but little talent for political and
military organization on a large scale, yet we have in the
Hicenicians, especially the Carthaginians, in Hamilcar and
in Huinibal, a proof that under altered conditions the
Semites are not incapable of distingULshing themselves in
these domains. It is a poor evasion to deny that the Fhoe-
nicians are genuine Semites, since even our scanty sources
of information suffice to show that in the matter of reli-
gion, which among Semites is of such supreme importance,
they bore a close resemblance to the Ancient Hebrews and
Amnueona. In general descriptions of this kind it is easy
to go too far. But to give in general terms a correct idea
of the Semitic languages is a task of very much greater
difficulty. Kenan's brilliant and most interesting sketch is
in many respects open to serious criticism. He cites, for
example, as characteristic of the Semitic tongues, that they
still retain the practice of expressing psydiologicol pro-
cesses by means of distinct imagery. In saving this he is
taking scarcely any longnage but Hebrew into aceonnt
But the feature to which he here alludes is owing to the
particular stage of intellectual development that had been
reached by the Israelite^ is u part peculiar to the poeticftL
style, and is to be found in like manner among wholly
difierent races. That the Semitic languages are far from
possessing the fixity which Renan attributes to them wo
shall see below. But, however this may ht, certain gram-
matical peculiarities of the Semitic languages — above all,
the predominance of trlliteral roots — ore so marked that
it is scarcely possible to doubt whether any language with
which we are tolerably well acquainted is or is not Semitic
Only when a Semitic language has been strongly inflaeiu:ed
not only in vocabulary but also in grammar by soma doq-
Semitio speech, as is the case with Amharic^ can sncli a
doubt be for a moment entertained.
Many attempts have been made, sometimes ia a 'rery
superficial fashion and sometimes by the use of scientific
methods, to establish a relationship between the Semitic
languages and the Indo-European. It was verj oatural
to suppoee that the tongues of the two races which, with
the single exceptions of the Egyptians and th? Chincae,
have formed arid moulded human dvilintioo, who have
been near neigbboura from the earliest times, and who^
the same parent speech. But all t^ese endeavours bava
wholly failed. It is indeed probable that the Ungooge^
not only of the Semites and of the Indo-Enropeana, bat
also those of other races, are derived from the same atock,
but the separation ronst have taken place at so remote »
period that the changes which these louguagea underwent
in prehistoric times have complet«Iy efbced what featoiea
they pceseascd in common; if such features have soma-
times been preserved, they are no longer recognizable. It
must be remembered that it is only in exceptionally bvoUF-
able circuirutances that cognate languages ore so preserved
during long periods aa to render it possible for sdentifie
analysis to prove their relationship with one another.*
On the other hand, the Semitic Ungnagea bear to
striking a resemblance in some respects to certain lan-
guages of northern Africa that we are forced to assume the
existence of a tolerably close relationship between the
two groups. We allude to the family of langnages known
in modern times as the " Hamitic," and composed of the
Egyptian, Berber, Beja (Bish^ri, kc), and a nnmber of
tongues spoken in Abyssinia and the neighbouring conntri«s
(Agaw, Qallo, Dankali, Ac). It is remarkable that some
of the most indispensable words in the Semitic vocabnlarj
(as, for instance, " water," " mouth," and certun numerals)
are found in Hamitic also, and that these words happen
to be such aa cannot well be derived from triliteral Semitic
roots, and are more or less independeut of the ordinaiy
grammatical rules. We notice, too, important resem-
blances in grammar, — for example, the formation of the
ferainine by means of a ( prefixed or affixed, that of the
causative by means of t, similarity in the suffixes and pre-
Gies of the verbal tenses, and, generally, similarity in the
personal pronouns, ilcc. It must be admitted that there is
also much disagreement, — for instance, the widest diver-
gence in the mass of the vocabulary ; and this applies to
the Semitic languages as compared not only wiUi those
Hamitic languages that are gradually becoming known to
us at the present day but with the Egyptian, of which we
possess documents dating from the fourth miUenninm
before the Christian era. The question is here involved
in great difficulties. Some isolated resemblances may,
improbable as it appears, have been produced by the bor-
< Th«fo!l(
n [nAtADce of tli
"Siil"Uiii Hshnw «*«*,»
IT in wbkb ws mtj bi
like the Buukrtt ud moden PenUn AaA, thB UUb «^ ke. Bit
th« iDdD-Emopeu root tt ncAt, cr perkipi ivm taaati, wlunu U*
Semitic root li Aidt^ k ttut ths rcKmblsne*. ii s ponl; swIfUiHI
on«, produced by pbonotk dusfib
SEMITIC LANGUAGES
mring of wmdo. trnriTiHied Mces, u hu been proTed
with certainty, ^mettme* borrov from othen elemenls of
■peeeh in caaea where we should deem auch t, thing im-
poanbl^ — for example, numerala and even personal luffizea.
But the great reeembl«iicBB in grammatinl formation can-
not be TeMonabl^ explained as due to borrowing on the
part of the Eamites, more especially m these points of
agreement are also found in the language of the Berbers,
who are ecattered over aa enormous territory, and whose
speech must hsTe acquired its character long before the;
came into contact with the Semites. We are even now
but imperfectly acquainted with the Hamitie l&ngaageaj
it is not yet certain into what groups they fall ; and the
lelation in which Egyptian stands to Berber on the one
hand and to the south Hamitie laiiguagee on the other re-
quire* farther elucidation. The attempt to write a com-
|>aratiTe grammar of the Semitic and Hamitie language*
would be, to say the least, vary premature.'
The CDunexioQ between the Semitic languagee and the
Hamitie appeara to indicate that the primitive seat of
the Semites is to be songht in Africa ; for it can scarcely
be snppoeed that the Eamites, amongst whom there are
gradnal transitions from an almost purely European type
to that of the Negroes, are the children of any other land
than " the dark continent.' There seemsi moreover, to be
a conBidenble physical resraiblance between the Hamitea
and the Seoiite^ especially in the case of the southern
Arabe ; we need mention only the slight development of
the calf of the leg, and the sporadic appearance amongst
Semites of woolly h^ and prominent jaws.* But both
Semites and Eamites have been mingled to a large ertent
with foreign races, wliich process must have diminished
thair mutual similarity. All this, bowsTer, is offered not
as a definite theory but as a rnodest hypothesis.
It was once the custom to maiutun that the Semites
came origiually from certain districts in Armenia. This
supposition was founded on the book of Qeneais, accord-
ing to which several of the Semitic nations are descended
from Arphachsod, t.<., the epouym of the district of
Arrapachitis, now called Albok, on the borders of Armenia
and Kurdistan. It was also thought that this region woe
inhabited by the primitive race from which both the
Bemites and the Indo; Europeans derived their Migin,
But, as wa saw above, this ancient relationship ii a matter
of some doubt ; in any case, the separation does not date
from a period so recent that the S^nites can be supposed
to have possessed any historic^ tradition concerning it.
There cannot be a greater mistake than to imagine that
nations have been able to preserve during long ages their
recollection of the country whence iheir supposed ancestora
are said to have emigrated. The fantastic notion once in
vDgiie as to the permanence of historical memories among
UDciTilized races most be wholly tbandoned. The period
in which the Hebrews, the Arabs, and the other Semitic
nations together formed a single people is so distant that
none of them can possibly have ratomed any tradition of
iL The opinion that the Hebrews and the tribes most
closely reUted to them were descendants of Arphochead
is apparently due to the l^end that Noah's ark landed
near this district. The notion has therefore a purely
mythical origin. Moreover, in Genesis itself we find a
totally different accotmt of the matter, derived from another
soorce^ which repreeents aD nations, and therefore the
Semites among them, as having come from Babybn.
^ nU of oosm sppliM JAt mor* ■trcm^;' to B«DfBj*i wozk, Utbtr
tat FtrUUiua itr Siyptitcim Sprade wn HiiulucAa ^iraiMamm
(Lriptlc, ISU) ; tnt bb ^xtdk hu th* pennuint merit of hiTbig lor
"--'■■■ ■ • -li rriiticiuhlp in i. tcimtlfis
643
Scarcely any man of science now believes b the northern
origin of the Semites.
Others, as Sprenger and Schrsder,' consider the birth-
place of the Semitic race to have beon in Arabia. There
is mnch that appears to support this theory. History
proves that from a very early period tribes from the
deserts of Arabia settled on the cultivable lands which
border them and adopted a purely agricultural mode of
life. Various traces in the language seem to indicate
that the Hebrews and the Aromieans were originally
nomads, and Arabia with its northern prolon^tion (the
Syrian deeert) is the true home of nomadic peoples. The
Arabs are aUo supposed to display the Semitic eliaraeter
in its purest form, and their language is, on the whole,
nearer the original Semitic than ore the languages of the
cognate races. To this last circumstance we should, how-
ever, attach little importance. It is by no means lilways
the case that a language is most faithfully preserved in
the country where it originated. The Lithuanians epeak
the most ancient of all living Indo-European language*,
and they are certainly not autochthones of Lithuania ; the
Romance dialect spoken in the south of Sardinia is far
more primitive than that spoken at Borne; and of all living
Teutonic languages the most ancient is the Icelandic. It
is even doubtful whether the ordinary assumption be oor-
reM, thot the moet primitive of modem Arabic dialects
are those spoken in Arabia. Besides, we cannot nnre-
servedly admit that the Arabs display the Semitic char-
acter in its purest form ; it would be more correct to say
that, under the inflnence of a country indescribably mono-
tonous and of a life ever changing yet ever the same, the
inhabitants of the Arabian deserts have developed most
exclusively certain of the principal traits of the Semitic
race. All these considerations are indecisive; but we will'
ingly admit that the theory which regards Arabia as the
priroitive seat of all Semites is by no means untenable.
Finally, one of Ae most eminent of contemporary Orien-
talists, Ignasio Ouidi,* has attempted to prove that the
home of the Semites is on the lower Euphrates. He
contends that the gec^raphical, botanical, and loological
conceptions which are expressed in the varioos Semitic
languages by the seme words, preserved from the time of
the dispersion, coTreapond to the natural chaiocteristics of
no conntry but the above-mentioned. Great as are tbe
ingenuity and the caution which be displays, it is difficult
to accept his conclusions. Etoveral terms might be men-
tioned which are part of the common heritage of the
northern and the southern Semites, but which can scarcely
have been formed in the region of the Euphrates. More-
over, the vocabulary of most Semitic languages is but
very imperfectly known, and each dialect has lost many
primitive woida in the coarse of time. It is therefore
very unsafe to draw conclusions from iliB fact that the
various Semitic tongues have no one commoc designation
for many important local conceptions, such as "Tnountoin."
The ordinary words tor "man," " old man,' " boy," " tent,"
are quite different in the various Ekmitic languages, and
yet all these are ideas tor which the primitive Semites
mnst have had names.
We must therefore for the present confess our inability
to make any positive statement with regard to the primitiTe
seat of the original Semitic race.
It is not very easy to settle what is the precise con-
nexion between the various Semitic language*, considered
individually. In this matter one may easily be led to
hasty concluuons by isohited peculiarities in vocabulary or
' Tha fonnar hu nulntilved thU vim In htbsI of hli "orkm, th*
Utter In Z.D.M.O., iiviL 117 (7'
"Delli Bads PiimlUn dd P^wll BwDltkl,'' in thsiVMHMus ^
SEMITIC LANGUAGES
gnnmu. Buh of the older Semitic Uogiugea occamon-
tllj ■greei in gTammfttical points with loma oUier to which
in awat nepecta it bean no vtrj cloee teaembkoce, while
dikleota much mora nearly related to it are fonnd to exhibit
dilEennt foimationi. Each Semi^ tongue abo poneeaes
feature! pecoliar to itaelf. For initance, the Eebrew-
Fhtenietau groap and the Arobio have a prefixed definite
article (the etymological identity of which Ie, however, not
tpata oertaiu) ; the dialect aeareat to Arabic, the Sabtean,
ezprBMOB the article by meana of a niEBxed a ; the Aramaic,
friuch ID general Dwre closely reeembleB Hebrew than doed
the Anbic gronp, expreosea it by means of a auffiied d ■
^lenai the Assyrian m the north aod the Ethiopic in the
Bonth haTe no article at all Of this termination h for
tlie deflnite article there is no trace in dther Arabic or
Hebrew; the Sabcean, the Ethiopic, and tlie Aiamaio
•mploT it to give emphasis to demoitstnitive pronoona;
and the very same nnge has been detected in a single
HwMudan inscrijition.i In this caee, therefore, Hebrew
and Arabic have, independently of one another, loat tome-
thing which the languages most nearly related to them
bave preaerVBd. In like maoner, the strengthening of the
pronoun of the third person by means of t (or IH) is only
found in Ethiopic, Sabnan, and Phceniciaa. Anunaic
alone has no certain trace of the refleiiTe coDJugatioQ
fonned with prefixed n ; Hebrew alone has no certain
traco of the caonitiTe with iha* In seTeral of the Semitic
laugoagea we can aee how the formatioa of the passirB by
means of internal vocal change (aa tullima, "he was ad-
dreesed," aa diitingaiahed from haUania, " he addressed ")
gcadtially dropped out of nse; in Etiuopic thia process
w«a already complete when the language firat became
liteiBi? ; bat in Aram^c it waa not wholly so. In a few
casea phonetio leaemblances have been the result of later
gnnrtb. For exampta, the termination of the plnral
maocnUne of Donna ia in Hebrew bn, in Aramaic U, aa in
Arabic But we know that Aramaic aUo originally had
m, whereaa the ancient Atabie forma have after the m an
a, which appears to have been originally a long 4 (ilna,
tan) ; in tlus latter poeitioa (that is, between two vowels)
the change of m into n ia very improbsible. Theae two
aimilar terminationB were therefore originally distinct.
Wa must indeed be very cantious in drawing condusiona
from pMnts of agreement between the vocabulariee of the
variona Semitic tonguea. The Ethiopians and the Hebrews
have the same mad (or many objects which the other
Semites call by other names, — for instance, "stone,"
"tne^" "anemj," "enter," "go out"; and the aune may
be nid of Hefatew as compared with Rj.Tim.ti, Qq^ to
build thooriea upon snch facts wonld be nnsof^ since the
words dted are either found, though with aomo change of
meaning in at least one of the oi^piate langnagea, or actu-
ally occur, perhape quite exceptional^ and in archaic
writinga, with the same cigniiication. ^Il» aedentarj
habits <rf the Ethiopiana and the Sabaana may poetibly
have rendered it easier for them to retain in their vocabu-
lary certain words which were nsed by the civiliied Semites
of the north, bnt which became obaolste amongst the
Arabian nomada. To the same cause we may attribute
the &ct that in rBligion the Babnont resemble the northern
Bemitaa more cloaelj than do the tribes of central Arabia ;
but theae oonsiderationa prove nothing in taTour of a
nearer linguistic aCBnity.
One thing at least is certain, that Arabic (with Sabnan)
and Ethiopia stand in a compaiativelj cloee relationahip
to ooe another, and compose a gronp by themselves as
contraated with the ither Semitic languages, Hebneo-
HKanician, Aramaic, and Asayrian. which
■ VU, thg «n>t InHrl
InHrlptioa M Bjfalni, C.I^, fuc L No. L
northern group. Only in theae aouthem dialaeta d» irr
find, and that nnder forms aabetantially identical, the im-
portant innovation known as the " broken plurals.* Tbej
agree, moreover, in employing a peculiar dsvelopmeDt of
the verbal root, formed by inserting an A between the first
and second radicals (kdtaia, taidkita), in using the vorwel
a before the third radical in all active perfects — lot
example, (h)aktala, hutala, instead of the hnkiU, tattU of
the northern dialects — -and in many other grammatical
phenomena. This is not at all eontredicted by the bet
that cerloin aspirated dentals of Arabic ((A, M, fi) «ia
rephiced in Ethiopia, as in Hebrew and Assyrian, by pare
sibtlanta — that ia, i ^Hebrew and Assyrian lA), m, f —
whereas in Aramaic they are replaoed by simple dentala
(I; d, f), which seem to come cloaer to the Arabic sonnda.
After the separation of the northern and the southern
groups, tha Semitic languagea poasesaed all theas aoundn,
as the Arabic does, but afterwards simplified them, for
the most part, in one direction or the otlier. Henoa thera
resulted, as it were by elianc«^ occasional similaritiea.
Even in modem Arabic dialects dk, ttt have beoome aom»-
timea t, d, and lometimea *, i. Ethiopic, moreover, hsa
kept d, the most peculiar of Arabic sounds distinct from
c, whereas Anuoaio has confonnded it with the gottunJ
oiH, and Hebrew and Assyrian with f. It is ^arefoi*
evident ttiat all theae language* once posBeased the coit-
BOnant in question sa a distinct oucl One toond, ^n,
appears only in Hebrew, in I^tBuician, and in the <dder
Aramaic It must originally have been ptonounccd Tet7
like ih, since it ii repieauited in writing by the aamo
character; in later times it was changed into an ordinarf
>. Asnriaa does not diatingoiah it from sL* The diviskm
of the Semitic langOBges into Uie northern group and the
sonthem ia theretora justified by facts. Even if we were
to discover really important grammatical phetKanena in
which one of the southern dialects agreed irith the northern,
or vied wraa, and that in cases where such phenomena
could not be regarded- either as remnants of primitive
Semitio nsage or as instanoea of parallel but independent
development, we ought to remember that the division <d
the two groups wai not necessarily a sudden and instan-
taneous occurrences that even after the eeparation inter-
course may have been carried on between the various tribes
who spoke kindred dialects and were therefore still able
to understand one another, and that intermediate dialecta
may once have existed, perhapa snch aa were in use
amongst tribes who came into contact sometimea with the
agrieoltural p<9alation of the north and sometiraea with
the nomada of the south (see bebw). All this is purely
hypothetical, wheiAs the division between the northen
and the soudiBra Semitic languages is a reccgniied fact.
Although we cannot dwiy diat there may formeriy have
Bxistod Semitic languages quite distinct from those with
wiiich we aro acquainted, yet diat such waa actually the
case cannot be proved. Nor is there any reason to think
that the domain of the SemiUc langnagea ever extended
very far beyond its preaent limits. Bome time tgp many
scholars beUeved that they were once spoken in Asia UiDot
and even m Europe, bnt, except in the Phamician oolorue^
this notion rested npon no solid proof. It c&nnot be
argued with any great degree of plausibility that even the
CiUcians, who from a very earlj period held otmstant
interconne with the Byrians and tha Fhcenidan^ apiAt
a Semitic language.
*U tbi atmlUa lu«uca oritfu^
hud lilt hudMt or tha gnttonk «« uil U fa uutly Ihu aua ptooi
thit the; occnp]' In AraUo. In tba oh* of U — wban UUi^ icnH
wUh AnUo— thii ]m it lart pntabl*, iIdc* tbsv hub to b* Uttm
ol it In imjrita. Bat it nould nppHr tlut In Hebnw u4 Anaile
Ik* dlrtlnotiaB brtvHD gk ud 'syiN> UtweoB U and h w«s sllw
dilTswt tna vhat tt 1> la AnMv
SEMITIC LANGUAGES
645
Hihrta. — Hebrew utd Ptianiciui are but dialects of one
&nd the MUie luigoage. It u onl; ai the Ungiuge of the
people of fitniel that Hebrew cut be knawn with uij pre-
cidion. Since in the Old Testament a few of the neigh-
iKmriiig peoples are repreeented aa being descended from
Eber, the epoDjin of the Hqbrewa, that \x, are regarded aa
uearlf related to the latter, it waa natnrat to suppose that
they likewise spoke Hebrew, — a aappoeition which, at least
in Uie case of the Moabitea, has been fullj confinned bj
the discoTery of the Mesha inscription (date, soon after 900
B.C.). The language of thii inscription scarcely itiffers from
that of the Old Testament ; the only important distinction
u the occurrence of a refleziva farm (with t after the first
radical), which appears nowhere else but in Arabic. We
may remark in passing that the style of this inscription is
quite that of the Old Testameat, and enables us to maintain
with certainty that a umilar historical literature existed
amongst the Moabitos. But it must be remembered that
ancient Semitic inscriptiona exhibit, in a sense, nothing
but the skeleton of tlie language, since they do not express
the ToneU at all, or do so only in certain cases ; still less
do they indicate other phonetic modifications, such as the
doubling of consonants, Jtc It is therefore very possible
that (a U< tar the language of Moab seemed to differ
considerably from that of the Judsana.
The Meaha inscription is the only non-Israelite source
from which any knowledge of ancient Hebrew can be
obtained. (See Hbbrkw Laitoitaok uid Lm&ATimi.)
Some fragments in the Old Testament belong to the
second millennium before our era, — particularly the aong of
Deborah (Judges v.), a document which, in spite of its
many obscuritiea in matters of detail, throws much tight
on the condition of the Israelites at the time when the
Canaanites were still contending with them for the posses-
sion of the country. The first rise of an historical litera-
tDre may very probably date from before the establishment
of the monarchy. Various portions of the Old Testament
belong to the time of the earlier kings ; bat it was under
the later kings that a great part of extant Hebrew litera-
ture came into ahape. To this age also belong the Siloam
inAcription and a few seala and gems bearing the names
of I^•raeIitelt. The Hebrew language is thiu known to ua
from a very ancient period. Bat we are far from being
acquainted with its real phonetic condition in the time of
David or Isaiah. For, much as we owe to the laboors of
the later Jewish schools, which with infinite care fixed the
pronunciation of the sacred text by adding vowels and
other signs, it is erident that even at the but they could
only represent the pronunciation of the language in its
latest stage, not that of rery early ages. Besides, their
. objeat was not to exhibit Hebrew simply as it was, but to
show how it should be read in the solemn chant of the
sTnsgogue. Accordingly, the pronunciation of the older
period may have differed considerably from that repre-
sented by the ponetnation. Such differences are now and
than indicated by the customary spelling of the ancient
texts,' and sometimes the orthography is directly at vari-
ance with the punctnation,' In a few rare casea we may
derive help from the somewhat older tradition contained
in the representation of Hebrew words and proper names
by Oreek letters, especially in the ancient Alexandrine
translation of the Bible (the so-called Septnagint). It is
of iiarticular importance to remark that this older tradi-
tion still retains an original a in many cases where the
1 Fu iiunpla, m in»;r coDcluila with lolenbl* urtiJnty, rram the
the i«anl«t 9 imd e wot iiot pronoviud long, tDd thiC, on the other
hud, the lUphthongi au ud ai in>Fa qhiI for the litor 6 uid i.
' Ttu TtTT Hut -ardor thtBlfaleoontdni wa /L]tyb {ipintiii Init),
vhich li reqnlred bj •iTmologT "d iiu duo mdlble, but Bblch tho
JwonimtietLni I ni»i«il*d bf tbe polnt^jitem ignores
punctuation has the later 1 or e. We have examined Aia
point somewhat in detail, in order to contradict the false
but ever recurring notion that the ordinary text of the
Bible represents without any essential modification the
pronunciation of ancient Hebrew, whereas in reality it ex-
presses (in a very instructive and careful manner, it is
true) only its latest development, and that for the pur]iOsd
of solemn public recitation. A clear trace of dialectical
dififerences within Israel is found in Judgeii xii. 6, whicf*
shows that the ancient Ephraimited pronounced « inatead
of lA.
The destruction of the Jndcan kingdom dealt a heavy
blow to the Hebrew language. But it is going too far to
suppose that it was altogether banished from ordinary life
at the time of the exile, and tliat Aramaic came into nie
among all the Jews. In the East even small communities,
especially if they form a religious body, often cling per-
sistently to their mother- tongue, though they may be sur-
rounded by a population of alien speech ; and such wan
probably Uie case with the Jews in Babylonia. See
Hbbbxw Lamodaqe, vol. li. p 697. Even so late ai the
time of Ezra Hebrew was in all probability the ordinary
language of the new community. In Neh. xijL 2i we find
a complaint that the children of Jews by wives from Ashdod
and other places spoke half in the "Jewisli" language
and baU in the language of Ashdod, or whatever elae may
have been the tongue of their motheia. No one can sup-
pose that Nehomiah would have been particularly zealous
that the children of Jews should speak an Aramaic dialect
with correctness. He no doubt refers t« Hebrew as it
was Uien spoken, — a stage in its developmant of which
Nehemiah'a own work gives a very fair idea. And, more-
over, the inhabitants of Ashdod spoke Hebrew. Q. Her-
mann* has deciphered inscriptions (written in Qreek letters,
but, after the Hebrew fashion, from right to left) on two
coins struck about 1 50 years after Nehemiah, which are
in pnre Hebrew*; nor does the language seem to diverge
at all from that of the Old Testament. It is therefore
probable that Nefaeauah alludes only to a slightly different
local dialect. 11 the Philistines of Aahdod still continoad
to speak Hebrew about the year SOO B.C., it cannot be
BUppoaed that the Jews had given up this their own lan-
guage nearly three centuries earlier. We may also con-
clude that the Philistines from the earliest pcoiod spoke
the same language as their eastern neighbours, with whom
they had so often been at war, but had also lived in dose
pacific intercourse.
After the time of Alexander large bodies of the Jewiih
population were settled in Alexandria and other western
cities, and were vary rapidly Hellenized. Meanwhile the
principal language of Syria and the neighbouring countries,
Aramaic, the influence of which may be perceived even in
some pre-exilic writings, began to spread more and more
among the Jews. Hebrew gradually ceased to be the lan-
guage of the people and became that of religion and the
schools. The book of Daniel, written in 167 or 166 B.C.,
begins in Hebrew, then suddenly peases into Aramaic, and
ends again in Hebrew, Similarly the redactor of Exra (or
more correctly of the Chronicles, of which Exra and Nehe.
miah form the conclusion) borrows large portions from an
Aramaic work, in most cases withoat translating them into
Hebrew. No reason can be assigned for the use of Aramain
in Jewish works intended primarily for Jerusalem, unless
it were already the dominant speech, whilst, on the other
hand, it was very natural for a pious Jew to w
■ Bee BillM'e Zdticlmjf fir Jt'iininuJU, ISSl [BarUn}.
• The insciiptiani, ehort m they us, exhibit the cicliidTely Hebnw
wardiVCir), " toirii,"udthe[eniiiilne(iniia(kutfuA), " the (tmig,"
•rith the temiutlon alt (not nl. u in Phcenldu). HhI the Aihdoditn
been eccsitonied to cw ■ den) langnaee on their mIu thtf wmU
cartalal} bti* enploTal the nitlTa fiemilla vrltliig.
646
SEMITIC LANGUAGES
kndenl "holj" Uoguage even after it had ceased to be
ipoken. Either, Eccleaiaates, and a fsw Fsalma, which be-
long to the 3d and 2d centuries before oar era, eie indeed
written in Hebrew, bnt are so strongly tinctured by the
Aramaic influence as to prove that the writers nBuaIl]i
spoke Aramaic. We are not lively to be far wrong in
aajing that iu the UaccabEeon age Hebrew hod died out
among the Jews, and there is nothing to show that it snr-
Tived longer amoDgst any of the neighbouring peoples.
6ot in the last period of the history of Jerusalem, and
■till more after the destructioD of the city by Titus, the
Jewish ecbools played so important a part that the life of
the Hebrew laogoage was in a manner prolonged. The
lectoite and discussions of the learned were carried on in
that tongue. We have very eztensive specimens of this
more modem Hebrew in the Mishnah and other works,
and scattered pieces throughout both Talmuda. But, just
as tba "classical" Sanskrit, which has been spoken and
written b; the Brahman^ during the last twenty-five cen-
turies, difcrs considerably from the language which y/u
once in use among the people, so this " language of the
learned " diverges in many respects from the " holy lan-
guage " ; and this distinction is one of which the rabbis
were perfectly conscious. The " language of the learned "
borrow* a great part of its vocabulary from Aramaic,'
and this exercises a strong infiuence upon the gram-
matical forms. The grammar is perceptibly modified by
the peculiar style of these writings, which for the most
part treat of legal and ritual questions in a strangely
laconic and pointed manner. Bat, large as is the propor-
tion of foreign words and artificial as this language is, it
contains a considerable number of purely Hebrew elements
which do not appear in the Old Testament. Although
we may generally assume, in the case of a word occurring
in the Ujshnah but not found in the Old Testament that
it is borrowed from Aramaic, there are several words of
this class which, by their radical consonants, prove them-
selves to be genuine Hebrew. And even some gram-
matical phenomena of tbia language are to be regarded
as a genuine development of Hebrew, though thej are
unknown to earlier Hebrew speech.
From the beginning of the Middle Ages down to oar
own times the Jews have produced an enormous mass of
vrritings in Hebrew, sometimea closely following the lan-
guage of the Bible, sometimes that of the Hisbnah, some-
times introducing in a perfectiy inorganic manner a great
quantity of Aramaic forms, and occasionally imitating the
Arabic style. The study of these variations bos but little
interest for the linguist, since tbey are nothing but a purely
artificial imitation, dependent upon the greater or less skill
of the individnaL The language of the Hishuah stands in
much closer connexion with real life, and has a definite
rnuon ditrc ; all later Hebrew is to be classed with medi-
eval and modem I^tin. Much Hebrew also was written
in the Uiddle Ages by the hostile bretbren of the Jews, lbs
fKmaritaus ; but for the student of language these produc-
tions have, at the moat, the charm attaching to curiceitiea.
The ancient Hebrew language, eepecially in the matter
of Byntai, has an essentially primitive character. Parv
taxis of sentences prevails over hypotaxis to a greater
extent than in any other literary Semitic language with
which we are well acquainted. The favourite method is
to link sentences together by means of a simple "and."
There is a great Uck of particles to express with clearness
the more subtle connexion of ideas. The nse of the verbal
ten jes is in a great measure determined by the imagination.
vcUriitk faatnn tlwt " dt bther ' ud " nj uDttitp "
■Kd bf inatiy Anmdo lOmu. Ergo tha Ituntd did
which regards things unaccomplished Ba accompliohed luid
the p«st as etiU present There are but few words or
JnfleiioaB to indicate slight modifications of meaning
though in ancient times tiie language may perhaps &&-*«
distinguished certain moods of &e verb somewhat more
plainly than the present panctuation does. But in khj-
case this language was far less onited for the definite ex-
pression of studied thought, and les* suited still for the
treatment of abstract subjecbi, than for poetry. We must
remember, however, that as long as Hebrew was a living
language it never had to be used for the expression of the
abstract. Had it lived somewhat longer it might very
possibly have leamt to adapt itself better to the formulat-
ing of systematic conceptions. The only book in the Old
Testament which attempts to grapple with an absbact
subject in plain proae — namely, Eccleaiaates — dates from
a time when Hebrew was dying out or was already dead.
That the gifted author does not always succeed in giving
clear expression to his ideas is partiy due to the fact thAt
the langaage had never been employed for any scientific
purposes whatsoever. With regard to grammatical forat^
Hebrew has lost much that is still preserved in Arabia ;
but the greater richness of Anbic is in part the result of
later development.
The vocabulary of die Hebrew language is, as we hare
said, known but imperfectly. The Old Testament is tio
very large work ; it contains, moreover, many repetition^
and a great number of pieces which are of Utile use to the
lexicographer. On the other hand, much may be dedvad
from certain poetioal books, such as Job. The numerona
ira( ktyo/Kvii are a sufficient proof that many more words
existed than appear in the Old Testament, the writers
of which never had occasion to nse them. Were we in
possession of the whole Hebrew vocabulary in the time
of Jeremiah, for example, we should be far better able
to determine the reUtion in which Hebrew stands to the
other Semitic languages, the Old Testament would be far
more intelligible to us, and it would be very much easier
to detect the numerous corrupt passages in our text.
Phanidati. — This dialect closely resembles Hebrew, and
is known to as from only one authentic source, namely,
inscriptions, some of which date from about 600 B-C or
earlier ; but the great mass of them be^n with the Uh
centnr; before our en. These inscriptions' we owe to
the Phcenicians of the motlier-country and the nwghbonr-
ing regions (Cyprus, Egypt, and Greece), as well as to the
Phcenicians of Africa, especially Carthage. Inscriptions
are^ however, a very insufficient means for obtaining the
knowledge of a language. The number of subjects treated
in them is not large; many of the moat important gram-
matical forms and many of the words most used in ordi-
nary life do not occur. Moreover, the " lapidary style " is
often very hard to understand. The repetition of obscnis
phrases, in the same connexion, in several inscriptions
does not help to make them moro intelligible. Of what
nse is it to Ds that, for instance, thousands of Carthaginian
inscriptions begin with tha very same incomprehenmble
dedication to two divinities 1 The difficulty of interpreta-
tion is greatly increased by tha fact that single irords are
very seldom separated from one another, and that vowel
letters are used extremely sparingly. We therefore ooms
but too often upon very ambiguous groups of letters. In
spite of this, our knowledge of Fhcenician has made con-
siderable progress of late. Some assistance is alao got
from Qreek and Latin writers, who cite not only many
Fhcenician proper names but single Phmnician woids :
Plautns in particular inserts in the Pcmtilta whole pass-
ages in Funic, some of which are accompanied by a latin
-EMITIC LANGUAGES
647
tranBl&tion. This Bonree of inforrnation mnet, bowerer, '
b« naed with gteat caation. It waa not the object of
PlaatUB to exhibit the ^nic language with precision, a
teak for which the Latin alphabet is but ill adapted, but
0017 to make the populace laugh at the jargon of the hated
Carthaginians. Moreover, ho had to force the Punic words
into lAtin tenarii; and finaUy the text, being tm intelligible
to copyist^ is terribly corrupt. Much ingenuity boa been
-wasted oa tbe Punic of Plautua ; but the poasage yields
valuable reeirita to cautious iavestigatton much does not
try to explain too much.' In its grammar Thcenician
closely resembles Hebrew. In both dialects the consonants
are the same, often in contrast to Aramaic and other
cognate languagee.' As to vowels, Fhcenician aeems to '
diverge rather more from Hebrew. The connecting of
clauses is scarcely carried further in the former langnage
than in the latter, A slight attempt to define the tenses
more sharply appean once at least in the joining of kdn
fftiit) with a pOTfect, to expiees complete accomplishment
(or the plmperfect).' One important difference is that the
ose of adw eonrersive with the imperfect — so common
in Hebrew and in the inscription of Mesha — is wanting
in Phceoician. The vocabulary of the language is very
like that of Hebrew, but words rare in Hebrew are
often common in Phosnicion. For instance, "to do " is in
PhcBnician not 'atd but pa'al (the Arabic fa'aia), which
in Hebrew occurs only in poetry and elevated language.
" Gold " is not nhah (aa in moet Semitic languages) but
hardq (Asayrian hm^), which ii iwed occasionally in
Hebrew poetry. Traces of dialectical distinctions have
been formd in the great inscription of Byblus, the inhabit-
ants of which eeem to be distinguiahed from the rest of the
Phteniciana in Josh. liii. 6 (and 1 Kings v. 321 [A.V. v. 18]).
It is probable that various differences between the Ungnage
of the mother-conn try and that of the African colonies arose
at an early date, but our materiaia do not enable ua to
come to Koj defimte conclusion on this point. In the later
African inscriptions there appear certain phonetic changes,
espedally in consequence of (he softening of the gutturals,
—changes which show themselves yet more plainly in the
BD-called NeivPanic inscriptions (beginning with the let,
it not the 2d, century before onr era). In these the
gutturals, which hod lost their real sound, are frequently
interchanged in writing ; and other modifications may also
be perceived. Unfortunately the Neo-Punic inscriptions
an written in such a debased indistinct character that it
is often impossible to discover with certainty the real form
tA &e worda. Tliis dialect was still spoken about 400,
■nd perhaps long afterwords, in those districts of North
Africa which had once belonged to Carriage. It would
seem that in the motherconntry tbo Fhcenician language
withstood the encroachment of Greek on the one hand and
of Aram^c on the other somewhat longer than Hebrew did.
Ara'niaic. — Aramaic is nearly related to Eebneo-Phceni-
uan ; but there is nevertheless a sharp line of demarcation
between the two groups. Of its original home nothing
certam is known. In die Old Testament "Aram " appears
at on euly period as a dedgnation of certain districts in
Byria ("Aram of Damascus," iic.) and in Uesopotamii
("Aram of the Two Rivera"). The langoage of tbi
' 8« OUdemcWar, in BltMbl'i nmlui [ml. IL lUc. r., Lelpric,
1884).
* At ID Mrl; pariod Uu Ftaimldin piODimcliitiOD may bin diitla-
gililwd * glHter Dumber of Drif^mJ oooiaiuiiU Ihin in dittdogniihsd
In vrtUag. It ii U luit nnurluble that tlis Oneks nndei the onma
oJ lit dtr of Cnr (Hobren C6t), trhich moirt origtaillyhsie bom pro-
unmced Thnrr, vitb ■ t (Titpn), luid tbe Dams of CIddn, where Ihs
(niiatliroiighi]ltbe3enlttiol»ngn«g«,with«ir(2iiJr), DirtlnctloBi
of liii kind, jBrtiBtJ by etjmology, Imve perhipi bMO oh«nrod fn
Bebn* by tbe [mpeifactlaa o[ the ilpbibeL In th< cue it ifi> ud
riiK thli an ba pMltinly proved.
1. E cc/.a,
m., Ko. U)
Aianueans gradually spread far and wide, and occupied
ail Syria, both those regions which were before in the
possession of the Ehelo, probably a non-Semitic people,
ant' ' those which were most likely inhabited by Conaonite
tribes ; last of all, Palestine became Aiomaizad. Towards
tbe east this language vras spoken on tbe Suphratas^ and
throughout the districts of the Tigris south and wat (rf
the Armenian and Kurdish mountains ; the province in
which the capitals of the Aisacides and the ftiminfnni
were situated was called " the country of the Aromnaua."
In Babylonia and Asayria a lAfge, or perhaps the larger,
portion of the population were most probably Aranwans,
even at a very early date, whilst Assyrian was the language
of the Government.
The oldest extant Aramaic docnments conmst of inscrip -
ins on monuments and on seals and gems. Li the Persian
period Aramaic was the official langnage of the provinces
west of the Euphrates ; and this czptiuns the fact that
coins which were struck by governors and vassal princes
in Asia Uinor, and of which die stamp was in some coses
the work of skilled Qreek artists, bear Aramaic inscrip-
tions, whilst those of other coins are Greek. Thi^ of
course, does not prove that Aramaic was ever spoken in
Asia Minor and as for north as Sinope and the Helles-
pont. In Egypt Aramaic inscriptions have been found
of the Persian period, one bearing the date of the foortb
year of Xerxes (ISS b.o.)* ; we have also ofBcial documents
on papyrus, unfortunately in 0 very tattered condition
for the most part, which prove that the Persians prefeired
using this convenient langnage to mastering the difficulties
of the Egyptian systems of writing. It is, further, very
possible that at that time there were considerable numbers
of Aranueans in Egypt, just as there were of FliiBnicianB,
Greeks, and Jews. But probably this preference for
Aramaic originated under the Assyrian empires in which
a very large proportion of the population spoke Aramaic,
and in whiA tiiis language would naturally occupy a
more important position than it did under the Pernans.
Wa therefore understand why it was taken for granted that
a great Assyrian official could speak Aramaic (2 Kin^ xviii
S6; Isa. xxxvi. 11), and for the same reason the digni-
taries of Jndoh appear to have learned the language {QmL\
namely, in order to communicate with the As^rioua.'
The ^ort dominion of the Chaldeans vei; probably
strengthened thia preponderance of Aramaic. A few
ancient Aramaic inscriptions have Utely been discovered
for within the limits of Arabia, in the palm oasis of Teim4
(in the north of the H^ikz) ; the oldeet and by tar the
most important of these was very likely made before the
Persian period. We may presume that Aramaic was in-
troduced into the district by a mercantile colony, whi^
settled in this ancient se&t of commerce, and in conse-
quence of which Aramaic may have remained for some time
tiie literary language of the neixhbonring Arabs. AU theini
older Araioaic monuments exhibit a Language which Li
ELlmost absolutely identical. One peculiarity which distiii'
guiahes it from later Aramaic is tiiat in the relative anj
demonstiative pronoun the sound originally pronaunt«J
dh is changed into i^ as in Hebrew, not into d, aa U
required by a rule universal in the Aramaic dialects." Tho
E^ptian monuments at least bear marks of Hebrew, or
more correctly Fhcenician, infiuence.
The Aramaic portions of the Old Testament diow ns
the form of tiie language which was in use among the
Jews of Palestine, b^tad p • ■" •
' Sh tba Pdwgmpbbil Sc
• W« pOHM owUln ooaL -- —
data from tha AHyrlun pBlod, bnt ot wUoh tha Ibi(nl*t>o ohuMtai ii
BtUl TeiT obwran ; they nntain Anmile, Fhonids^ sad walMbiT
Asyilufonni. 8h JCC.JT.I?., inliL SSI.
* Sod* tnca at thli rhtrnimtiKW an tmnd 1
648
EMITIC L A N G ir A O E S
belong to tlia Peiaiau period, but hare eertunl; been re-
modalled bj a latar writer.' Tet in Ezra vre find a few
tntiqne forma which do not occur in DonisL The Arunaio
ptMW owituned in the Bible have the great advantage of
hwng fnmiihed with voveU and other orthographical
■igni, thoojiji theee were not inaerted until long after the
oompoaitioii of the books, and are eoinetiinea at variance
with tlM text iteelf . Bat, einco Aramaic was itill a living
language whm the ponctiiation came into exiatence, and
ainee the lapae of time was not so ver; great, the tradition
ran less risk of corrqption than in the case of Hebrew.
Its general corrvctneu ii further attested bf the innumer-
able points of reiiemblance between this language and
Sjrriao, with which we are accnratelj acqaainted. The
Aramaic of the Bible exhibits various antique featnres
which afterwards disappeared, — for example, the formation
of the passive b; means of internal vowel-change, and the
causative with Aa instead of with a, — phenomena which
have been fdiafy explained an HebiaLmu. Biblical Aramaic
•grees in all easential points with the langtiage used in
^ nnmwoua inscriptions of Pahn^ (beginning soon
before the Cihiistian era and extending to about Sie end
of the 3d ceutuij) and on the Nabatann coins and atone
monnmenls (conduding abont the year 100). Aramaic
was the language of Palmyra, the ttktocrficj of which
were to a great extent of Arabian extraction. In the
northern portion of the Nabatcan kingdom (not tar from
Damaacna) there was probably a large Aramaic popuh^on,
bnt brther sonth Arabic was spoken. At that ticne, how-
ever, Aramaic was highly esteemed as a coltivated lan-
gnaga, for which reason the Arabs in question made use
of fit as their own language was not reduced to writing,
jnst as in those ages Greek inscriptions were set up in
many diotriets where no one spoke Greek. That the
Nahataana were Arabs ia sufficiently proved by the fact
that, with the exception of a few Greek names, almost all
the nnmsrona names which occur in the Nabatiean inscrip-
tions are Arabic, in many easea with distinctly Arabic
tenninationl A further proof of this is that in the great
inicriptionB over the tombs of Hqjr (not far from Teima)
the native Arabic continoally showi through the foreign
disguise, — tor instance, in the ose of Arabic words when-
ever the writer does not happen to remember the corre-
sponding Aramaic terms, in the use of the Arabic particle
/a, of the Arabic ghair, " other than," and in several
syntactic features. The great inscriptions cease with the
overthrow of theKsbatsan kingdom by Trijan(10S)i but
the AralHao oomadii in those countries, especially in the
Sinaitic peninsula, often scratched their names on the
rocks down to a later period, adding soma benedictory
formula in Aramaic. The fact that several centuries after-
wards the name of "Nabatean" was used by the Araba as
synonymous with " Aram£an''.was probably due to tha
gradual spread of Aramaic over a great part of what had
<mee been the conntry of the Nabatssans. In any ease
Aramaic then exercised an immeDse influence. This is
also proved by the place which it occupies in the strange
Pahlavf writing, various branches of wiuch date from ^e
time of the Parthian empire (see PablatI). Biblical
Aramaic, as also the language ~ef the Falinyrene and
Nabatiean inscriptions, may be deacribed'as an older form
of Western Aramaic The opinion thai the lUeatinian
Jew* bronght their Aramaic dialect direct from Babylon
— whence the iacomct name "Cfaaldee" — is altogetlier
nn tenable.
Ve may now trace somewhat fnrther the development
of Western Araoiaie in Palatine; bat unhappily t^ of
' Tba dBM *hU Is Bid b> b«« b*a SMt by ba ia la Its n
the sonrces from which we derive o
thoroughly trusted. In the t^nagogues it wait n
that the reading of the Bible shonld be followed bj an
oral "targflm" or translation into Aramaic^ tiie langnagu
of the people. The Torgum was at a later period fixed in
writing, bat the ofiScially sanctioned form of the Tmrgnia
to the Pentateuch (the so-called Targom of Onkelos) «jhI
of that to the prophets (the so-called Jonathan) waa not
finally settled till the 4th or Cth century, and not in
Palestine but in Babylonia, ^e redactors nl the Taignm
preserved on the whole the older Palestinian dialect ; yet
that of Babylon, which differed considerably frasn tba
former, exercised a vitiating influence. The punctnatioi^
which was added later, first in Babylonia, is far leas trust-
worthy than that of the Aramaic pieces in the Bibla. TbB
language of Onkelos and Jonatban diCTers but little frotn
Biblical Aramaic The language si>okeu some time aft«F-
wards by the Paleetinian Jews, eaitecially in Qalfle^ is
exhibited in a series of rabbinical works, the ao-alled Jem-
■alem Targnms (of which, however, those on the Hi0O-
grapha are in some cases of later date), a few Uidia&c
works, and the Jerusalem Talmud. Dnfortunately all
these books, of which the Midrashfm and the Talmnd
contain much Hebrew as well as Aramaie, hare not been
banded down with care, and require to be used witb great
caution for linguistic purposes. Moreover, the inflaenc*
of the older language and orthography has in part ob-
scured the characteristics of these popular dialeets i foe
example, various gutturals are stdll written, althou^ they
are no longer pronounced. The adaptation tA tha qielling
to the real pronunciation is carried furthest in tha Jen-
salem Talmud, but not in a consistent manner. Bendo^
all these books are without Towel-pointa ; but the freqnent
use of vowel-letters in the later Jewish works ronden this
defect less sensible.
Kot only the Jens but also the Christians of Palestine
retained tiieir native dialect for some time as an ecclesi-
astical and literary languageL We poesea trauslatioaa of
the Gospels and fragments of other works in this dialect
by the Palestinian Cliristianii dating frtnu aboat tho Sth
century, accompanied by a punctuation which waa not
added till some time later. This dialect clqsely reasmbles
that of the Palentinian Jewis an was to be expected fnm
the fact that thone vho spoke it were of JeiriA origin.
Finally, the Bemaritans, among the bhabitants of
Falsetine, translated their only sacred book, the Pentsteneh,
into tbeir own dialecL The critical study of this trans-
lation proves that the languaije which lies at its Imho was
vary much tha same »* that of the neighbouring JewA
Perhaps, indeed, the Bamaritans may have earned the
softening of the gutturalH a little further than t&e Jews of
Oalilee. Pieir aliHurd attempt to embellish the langnsfs
of the tran^tion by arbitrarily i a trodi icing forma borrowed
from the Hebrew original has given rise to the fabp notion
that Samaritan is a mixtiuv of Hebrew and Aramaic ^m
introduction of Hebrew and even of Arabia words su]
forms was practised in Ramaria on a still larger Male by
copyists who lived after Aramaic had bectane extinct. Hie
later works written in the Samaritan dialect are, from a
linguistic point of -^w, as worthleiis as the compoHiticMs
of Samaritans in Helnrew ; the writers, irho spoke Arabic^
endeavoured to write in languages with whi^ tiiey nsrs
bnt half acquainted.
All these Western Aramaic dialecto, induding that of
the oldest inscription^ have this featora among otiitr*
in common, that they form the thirtf person singnlar
masculihe and tha third perxon plnnl masenltna and
feminine in the imperfect hj prefixing jr, as do the otter
Semitic langoagea. And in theas dialects the tanmna-
tion (f (the ao-colled "statu amphaUens '^ still retained
SEMITIC LANGUAGES
649'
got adaflnita lurticla down to a tolenblj lata
A» Mrij H Uia 7tli centnij the oonqnHti of ^ MMlema
greatly cucnnuigibed Um domain of Aiainaic and a few
(WDturiw latar it ma almoat compLetdj mpplanted in tha
west bj Aiabie. For the Chriatian« of thow coontriea,
who, like eveiy ons eke, spoke Arabic^ the FalMtinian
dialect was no Innget of importauca, and thej adopted
as thw eocleuaEtical language the dialect of the. other
ATHTii»aTi Chrietiatu, the Syiiac (or Edeaaene). The onJ;
locaJitiei where a Wcetnii Aramaic iiaiect •till MtrriTea.
are a few TiUagea in Anti-Libanna. Our information upon
this mbject is but alight and fngmoutarj ; bat it is hoped
that ProfeMors Fryiu and Socio wiU aoon be able to f oiwih
more ample details.
The popniu Aramuc dialect of. Babylonia bom tho
4th to the 6th oeotoiy of our eta fi exhibited in the
Babylonian Talmud, iu which, how«?«r, as in tha Jam-
s^em- ^hJmod, there is a constant m^igHpg of ftianwifi
and Hel»ew paangei. To a aonewbat kOcit period, 'w»d
C'bably not to exactly the Mine diatarkt of Bat^kini^
ong the writings of the ILtXDMAm (g.*.), a etiangs
sect, half Ouistian and haU hostben, who from a Ungnistic
point of Tiew po«eM the pecolJar advantage ot hmng
remained almoet entiiely free fran tlie influence of Bebrew,
which is to petoeptiUa in tha Aiamsie writings of Jews
f Cihristiau. TbB ottbof^phy ct the Hao-
■ neaier thm that of the Tklmiid lo the real
pronmioiation, and in it the aofleainff of the gnttniab is
mt»t clearly aeeo. Inothatteqieata uuieisaeloeereaein-
blance between Mamlwan and the laogoage d the Babylon-
ian Tslmnd. nte fonns of Ote imparfeet whioh we hare
enumerated ahove tU» In tbew dialects a i^ 1.1 In
Babylonia, aa in Syria, the langnage of the Aiabie oon-
qaerors rapidly drove out that of die oonntiy. The latter
haa bng been totally extinct, onleM poeaibly a few snrriv-
ing Mandgani still speak among themselvea a more modem
form of thur dialect.
At Edeeaa, in tha wait of HMopotaniia, the native
dialect had already been nued for some time as a literary
language^ and had been reduced to rale through the infiu-
enc« of the schools (as is proved by the fixity of the grammar
and OTthograpliy) even before Chriatianity acquired power
in the Gonntry in the Sd century. At sn early period the
Old and Now TeetamentB were here translated, with the
help of Jewish traditicoi. This verdoa (the so-called
F«diltta or Peshito) became the Bible of Aramnan Cbria-
tendom, and Ed««Ba became ita capital. Thna the Aramcan
Christians of the neighbouing countries, even those irho
were subjects of the Persian empire, adapted the Edeaaan
dialect aa the language oi the church, of literatar«s and
of cultivated interconrse. Bince the ancient name of the
inliabitaiits, " Aramaans," just like that crf'EAAifHi, had
acquired in the minds of Jews aod Christians the un-
pleamnt signification of " heathens," it was generally
avoided, sad in its place the Oreek terms " Byriana " and
"Sjriao" were used. But "Byriao" was also the name
^vBu by the Jews and Christiana of lUestine to their own
language, and both Oreeks and Pereians designated the
Aianueans of Babylonia as "Syrioiia'' It is therefore,
piopetly gpeakin^ incorrect to employ the word " Byriac "
»s meaning the language of Edessa alone ; but, since it
was the most important of these dialects, it has the beat
claim to this generally received appellation. It has, aa we
have Hiid, a shape very definitely fixed ; and in it the
abave-nentiaiied forms of the imperfect take an w. Aa
in the Babylonian dialects, the termination d has beccmie
■0 eomiilately a part of the substantive to which it is
added uiat it has wholly lost the meaning of the defiuito
article, whereby the clearness of the langnage Is peroeptifaly
impaired. The infiuence exercised hy Greek u very tfp^
rent in Byriac. Fromthe 3d to the 7 th century an exten-
sive Uteratnre was produced iu tliis language, ctmaMng
chiefly, but not entirely, of eccleaiastical work^ .In the
development of this literature the Syrians of the Peisan
empire took an eager paft. In the Eastern Roman empire
Byriao was, after Oreek, by for the meet important W-
guage ; and under the Persian kings it virtually oecnpiod
a more prominent position aa an organ of culture than tha
Persian language ilaelf. The conqnesla of the Arabs totally
changed this state of things. But meanwhile, even in
Edeeaa, a oonsiderable difierenee had arisen betvreen the
written language and the popular speech, in which the [so-
eeea of modification waa still going on. About the year
700 it bectune a matter of aheolute necesaity to systematice
tiie grammar of tbe language and to intrbdnce some means
of ciaarly expiearing tiie vowda. Tha principal object
aimed at waa tbat the text of the byriac Bible should be
radted in a oonwt manner. But, as it happened, the
eaatem pnxrandation differed m many respects from Hi«t
of the west. The local dialecta bad to some extent exer-
cised an influence over the pronunciation <rf the Uterary
tongne ; and, on the other hand, the political eeparatioo
between Home and Peiaia, and yet more the eccleaiastiMi
Bohiam— csDM the Syrians of the east were mostly Neato-
lian^ those of dte weet Mouophymtes and Catholica— 3iBd
[nodnoed dinageociea between the tiaditiona ot the various
sduKds. StM^ig, theiefons from a eommon souice^ two
distinct patens erf punctuation were formed, at which the
weatecn ia the more oonrenien^ but the eastern' the moie
exaet and g«Mially the more in accordance with the
ancieat pioaanaiatioD ; it has, for examjJ^ A in place
of the western 6, and 6 in many cases where the western
Syrians prononnoe 4. In later times the two ^sterns
have been intermingled in various ways.
Aiabie everywhere put a speedy end to the predomi-
nance ot Aiamaio — a uredinninance which had lasted for
more than a thousand vears — and soon bc^^ to drive
Byriao oat of ose. At tha bc^ning of the Ilth century
the learned meto^tolilan of Nieibis, Eliaa bar Bhinnty^
wrote his bocdu intended for Christians either entirely in
Aratao or in Arabic and Byriac arranged in parallel colnm us,
that is, in the spoken and in the learned langnsga. Thu^
too, it became necesaaiy to have Syriac-Arabic gloeiariea
Up to the present day Syriac has remained in use for
literary and ecclesiastical purposes, and may perhaps be
even spoken in some monaateriee and schools ; but it haa
long been a dead language. Whan Syriac became ex-
tinct iu Edeeaa and its neighbourhood is not known with
certain^.
This langnagts called Syriac par rrreUatrr, is not thg
immediate sooice wheoee are derived the Aramaic dialecta
■till surviving in tha northern districts. In the mountaina
known as the Ti^ 'Abdln in Mceopotamia, in certain
districts east and north of Mosul, in the neighbouring;
mountains of Kurdistan, and again beyond them on the
weatem coast of Lake Urmia, Aramaic dialects are spoken
by Chriatiane and occasionally by Jews, and sotoe of thess
dialects we know with tolerable precision. The dialect of
TAt 'Abdin seems to differ eonsidenibly from all the test ;
the country beyond the Tigris is, however, divided, as
regards language, amongst a multitude of local diatocta.
Among these, that of Urmia boa become the most import-
ant, since American missioaaries have formed a now litorary
language out of it. Moreover, the Boman Propagajida has
printed books IQ two of the Neo-S}Tiae dialectic Alt thosB
dialects exhibit a complete tranafomMtion of the aiicieot
type, to a degree incomparably gruatcr than is tho cose,
for examph^ with Uamheau. In imrticalar, the ancient
XXL — ia
650
SEMITIC LANGUAGES
varlwl tsniH hare almost entirely disappeared, bat liaTs
Iwen aaecetttnlly replaced by new forma derived from parti'
ciplea. There are also other pisiseirorthj innovationa.
Hie dialect of fii 'Abdln has, for initance, again coined
a dbfiaite article. By meana of violent contrectioni and
phonetic changes aome of these dialects, particularly that
of Urmia, have acqoired a euphony scarcely known m any
Other of the Semitic langnages, with their "stridentia
anhelantiaque verba" (Jerome). These Aramfeans have
all'adopCed a motley crowd of foreign words, from the
Arah«, Eordg, and Turks, on whoae borders they lire and
of whose laugLtagea they can often apeak at least one.
Aramaic is traqaently described aa a poor langn^a. This
is an opinion which we are nnable to share. It is quite
poBsiblfl, even now, to extract a very large vocabulary from
the more ancient Aramaic writings, and yet in this pra-
dominontly theological literatore a part only of the words
that exist«d io the htnguage have be«n preserved. It is
true that Aramaic, having from the earliest times come into
dose contact with foreign languages, has borrowed many
words from them, in particular from Persian and Qreek ;
bat, if ' we leave out of consideration the fact that many
Syrian authors are in the habit of naing, as ornaments or
for convenience (especially in translations), a great number
of Qreek wDidB,.some of which were anintelligible to their
readers, we shall find that the proportion of really foreign
WOTds in older Aramuc books is not larger, perhaps even
smidler, than the proportion of Bomance wbnb in German
or Dutch, The inflaeace of Oreek upon the syntax and
phraseology of Syriac is not to great as that wluch it has
exercised,' through the medium of I^tin, upon the literary
languages of modem Europe, With regard to sounds,
the most . characteristic feature of Aramaic (besides its
peculiar treatment of the dentab) is that it is poorer in
Towels than Hebrew, not to speak of Arabic, since nearly
nil short vowels in open syllables either wholly disappear or
leave bnt a slight trace behind them (the so-called shEwi).
In this respect the pnnctnation of Biblical Aramaic agrees
with Syriac, in wli^ih we are able to observe from very
early times the number of vowels by examituDg the metri-
cal pieces constructed according to the number of syllables,
and with the Mondoan, which eipresMS every vowel by
means of a vowel-letter. When seveial distinct dialects
so agree, the phenomenon in .question must be of great
antiquity. There are nevertheless traces which prove that
the language once possessed more vowels, and the Ara-
mnans, for Instance^ with whom David fought may have
prononnced many vowels which afterwards disappeared.
Another peculiarity of Aramaic is that it lends itself far
more readily to the linking together of sentences than
Hebrew and Arabic. It possesses many conjunctions and
adverbs to express slight modifications of meoaing. It is
also very free as regards the order of words, lliat this '
quality, nbieli renders it suitable for a clear and limpid
prose styles is not the result of Oraek influence may be
seen by the Mandtean, on which Oreek has left no mark.
In its attempts to express everything dearly Aramaic
often becomes prolix, — for example, by using additional
personal and demonstrative pronouns. The contrast be-
tween Aramaic as the language of prose and Hebrew as
the language of poetry is one which naturally strikes us,
but we must beware of carrying it too far. Even the
Aramteons were not wholly destitute of*poetical talent
Although the religious poetry of the Syrians has but Uttle
charm for us, yet real poetry occure in the few extant frag-
ments of Onoatic hymnK Moreover, in the modem dialects
popular songs have been discovered which, though very
umple, are fresh and fuU of feeling.^ It is therefore by no
means improbable that in ancient times Aramaic waa naeJ
in poenis which,- being cootiary to the theological tendency
of Syrian civilization, were doomed to total oblivion.
Aai/rian. — Long before Aramaic another Semitic Ian<
gnoge flourished in the regions of the Tigris and on tlie lower
Euphrates which has been preserved to us in the cuneifonn
inscriptions. It is usually called the Assyrian, after the
name of the country where the fint and moet important
excavations were made; but the term "Babylonian" would
be more correct^ as Babylon was the birthplace of this lan-
guage and of the civilisation to which it belonged. Certain
Babylonian inscriptions appear to go back to the foiirt]i
millenninm before our era ; but the great mass of theaa
cuneiform inscriptions date from between 1000 and 600
B.a. Assyrian seems to be more nearly related to Hebrew
than to Aramaic ; we may cite, for example, the telatiTe
particle tha, which is also used as a sign of tlie genitive
and is identical with the Phcenician aih and the Hebrew
aiher (ihe, iha), also the similarity between Assyrian and
Hebrew in the treatment of the aspirated dentals. On ths
other hand, Assyrian differs in many respects from all the
cognqte languages. The ancient perfect has wholly dis-
appeared, or left bnt few traces, and tho gutturals, with
the exception of the bard ik, have been smoothed down to
a degree which is only paralleled in the modem Aramaic
dialects. So at least it would appear from the writing, or
rather from the manner in which Assyriologists tianficribe
it. The Babylonian form bS (occurring^ in -Isa. xlvi. I ;
Jer. L 2 and IL 41,-'passages all belonging to the 6th
century b.c.i the name of the god who was originally
called ba'l, is a conGrmation of this; bnl^ on the other
hand, the name of the country where Babylon was sitoated,
viz., Shin'or, and that of a Babylonian goi, 'Anommelekb
(2 Kings xvii 31), as well as those of .the tribes Shb'a
and Ed'a (Eiek. zziii. 23) who inhabited thfr Awyrio-
Babylonian territory, seem to militate against this theory,
as tLey are spelt in the Old Testament with 'out. The
Aasyrian system of writing is so complicated, and, in spite
of its vast apparatus, is so imperfect an instmment for the
accurate representation of sounds, that we are hardly yet
bound to re^rd the transcriptions of contemporary Asi^o-
logisti as being in all points of detail the final dictum of
science. It is, for example, very doubtful whether the
vowels at the end of words and the appended m were
really pronounced in all cases, as this would presuppose
a complete confusion in the grammar of the language.
However this may be, the present writer does not feel
aUe to speak at greater length upon Assyrian, not being
an Aasyriologist himself nor yet capable of satisfactorily
distinguishing Ibe certaip from the uncertain results tit
Assyriological inquiry.
The native cuneiform writing was used in Babylonia
not only under the Persian empire but also in the Qreek
period, as Ihe discovery of isolated specimens proves. It
does pot of course necessarily follow from this that Assyrian
was still spoken at that time. Indeed, this language may
possibly have been banished from ordinary life long before
the destruction of Nineveh, surviving only as the ofiScial
and sacerdotal tongue. These inscriptions, in any case,
none but a narrow cirde of learned
Art^iie. — The southern group of Semitic languages con-
sists of Arabic and Etbiopic Arabic, again, is subdivided
into the dialects of the larger portion of Arabia and those
of the extreme south (the Sabtean, be.). At a rery mtich
earlier time than we were but lately justified in auppceing,
some of the northern Arabs reduced their language to
writing. For travellera have quite recently discovered in
the northern ports of the Hij&i inscriptions in a strange
chaiact«r, irtiidi seem to have been written long before our
SEMITIC LANGUA" GTES
651
tn. The ehltnctv iMembiM tlie Sabeean, bnt perhApa re-
pmsntB Ml Miliar Btaga of gnpMckl derelopinwit, TIum
mMxiptioii* bava baan called "Thamndie," becanw they
wan lotwd in the ooontiy of the ThuuAd ; but this deaig-
nktioii w Mweelf % niitable one, becanae dnrkig tha period
-when the poirer of the ^MinAd was at it* height, and
when the buildiiiga mentioDed in the Eorao were hewn in
the rocke, the laiigiiaea of tiua country waa Nabatnan (aee
abore). UofoTtnaatujr the inacriptiona hitherto diacoTtued
are all abort ' and (or the moet part fragmenUiy, and con-
seqaentlj fniniah but little material to Uie student of lan-
goagM. But there can be no donbt that they are written
in an Aialna dialect. The traatment of the deDtala,
among other things, ia a eofficient proof of this. At least
in one p<unt th^ bear a striking reaemblaace to Hebrew :
they have the article ht (not M, aa we mi^t expect). It
ii poaaible tiiat the tribe* living on Arabian soil which are
r^arded in the OM Teatament as nearly related to Israel,
that ia, the lahmaelitea, the Hidianites, and even the
Edomitee, may have apokeo dialects ooenpying a middle
poaitioa between Arabic and Hebrew. They are perhape
tiacee of some anch intermediate link that have been pre-
served to OS in theae inacriptiona.
The nomerona inacriptioaa acatteied over the north-west
of Arabia, eepecially over the wild and rocky district of
Bafi, near Damaacns, probably date from a later period.
They are written in peculiar diaracters, which, it would
aeem, are likewise related to those lued by the Sabeeans.
They are all of them abort and indistinct, scratched hnrriedly
and irregularly npon ouh^wu atone. What we at present
understand of them — they constat almost entirely of proper
names — is owing in nearly every case to the ingenuity of
Haldvy.' In mattera of detail, however, much stUl remains
UDoertain. To decipher them with absolute certainty will
no doubt always be impossible on account of their careless
execution. These inscription* are probably tho work oi
Arab emigranta from the south
The Arabs who inhabited the NshatieBn kingdom wrote
in Aramaic, bat, as has been remarked above, their native
language, Arabic, often shows through the foreign disguise.
We are thus able to aatisfy ouiaelTee that these Arabe, who
lived a little before and a little after Christ, spoke a dialect
cloaely>reaembling the later clsasical Arabic. The nomi-
native df the ao-ealled " triptote " nouns has, a* in classical
Arabic, the termination u ; the genitive has t (the accusa-
tive therefore probably end«d in a), but without the addi-
tion of H. Qwierally speaking, those proper names which
in rlasaifal Arabic are "d^totes" are here devoid of any
infiexional termination. The « of the nominative appears
also in Arabic proper names belonging to more northern
districts, as, for example, lUmyra and Edeaaa. All these
Arabs were probably of Uie same race. It ia possible tliat
the two oldest known apecimena of diatinctively Arabic
writing — namely, the Arabic portion of the trilingual iu-
Bcruition of Zabad, aouth-eaat of Haleb (Aleppo), written
in Syriac, Qreek, and Arabic, and dating from 512 or 513
A.D., * and that of the bilingual inscription of Harran,
BOUth of Damascns,* written in Greek and Arabic, of C6S
— represent nothing but a somewhat more modem form
of this dialect In both these inscriptions proper names
take in the genitive the termination «, which shows that
the meaning of such infleziDna woa no boger felt. These
two inacriptiona especially that of Zabod, which is badly
U WM btgim by H*]<T7, who
tollovsl Iht dnwius d Doigbtr. Tb* nbjact li aow balag fiuthcr
Invatlntad b; D. O, HaUar of Vlnui tma InUag'i coplt*.
' " jfani for ]m Iiiwrlptlou da Ssb," mm ths Joaniai Atiatipu
(Pud^lSaS).
■ BiiAta.MimaUbinMiirBtrliiurAhadatiidirWutiiuiAii/'fih
10th fttnurj 1S81, ud Z.D.M.G.. TXxA 8IE «.
« La Ba> aad WuUlBclan, Mo. SM4, ud £iUr.ff., inrUL GSO.
written, have not yet been satisfactorily interpreted In all
their detuls.
During the whole period of the prepondcronce of Aramaic
this language exercised a great infiuence upon the vocabu-
lary of the Arabs. The more carefully we investigate the
more clearly does it appear that numerous Arabic words,
used for ideas or objects which presuppose a certain degree
of civilization, are borrowed from the Aramieaos. Hence
the civilizing influence of their northern neighbours must
have been very strongly felt by the Arabs, aed contributed
in no small measure to prepare them for playing so import-
ant a part in the history of the world.
In the 6th century the inhabitanta of the greater jtert-
of Arabia proper apoke everywhere essentially the auae
language, whidi, aa being by far the most imirartant of all
Arabic dialecta, is known aimply aa the Arabic language.
Arabic poetry, at that time cultivated throughout the
whole of central and northern Arabia as far as the lower
Euphrates and even beyond it, employed one languag*
only. The extant Arabic poems belonging to the heatbe.
period were not indeed written down till much later, and
meanwhile underwent conaiderable alterations '* ; but the
absolute regularity of the metre and rhyme ia a sufficient
proof that on the whole these poema all obeyed the t«me
lavs of language. It is indeed highly probable tlist the
rhapaodiats and the grammarians have eOaccd many slight
dialectical peculiarities ; in a great number of passages, for
example, the poets may have used, in accordance with the
fashion of th^ respective tribes, some other case than that
prescribed by the grammarians, and a thing of {bis kind
may afterwards have been altered, unless it happened to
occur in rhyme ; but such alterations cannot have extended
very far. A dialect that diverged in any great measure
from the Arabic of the grammarians coidd not possibly
have been made to fit into' tlie metres. Moreover, the
Arabic philologiats recognize the existence of variona Bmall
diatinctiona betireen the dialects of individual tribes and of
their poets, and the traditions of the more ancient schools
of Koran readers exhibit very many dialectical nwmea.
It might indeed be conjectured that for the m^ority of
the J^bs the language of poetiy was an artificial one, —
the speech of certain tribea having been adopted by all the
rest aa a diaUctta poetiea. And this might be possible in
the case of wandering, minatrela whose art gained them
their livelihood, auch as Nibigha and A'shA. But, when
we find that the Bedouin goat-herds, for instance, in tho
monntainons district near Mecca compoeed poems in this
very same language upon their insignilicaot feuds and per-
sonal' quarrels, that in it the proud chiefs of the Taghli-
bites and the Bekriles addressed defiant verses to the king
of Hlra (on the Euphrates), that a Christian inhabitant of
Hlia, Adl b. Zaid, used this language in his serious poems,
— when we reflect that, as far as the Arabic poetry of the
heatlien period extends, there ia nowhere a trace of any
important linguistic difference, it would surely be a para-
dox to assume that all theae Arabe, who for the moet part
were if uite illiterate and yet extremely jealous of the honour
of their tribes, could have taken the trouble to clotha their
ideas and feelings in a foreign, or even a perfectly arti-
ficial, language. The Arabic philologists alsa invariably
regarded the language of the poeta as being that of 'the
Arabs in general Even at the end of the Sd century
after Mohammed the Bedouins of Arabia proper, with the
exception of a few outlying districts, were considered as
being in possession of this pure Arabic. The most teamed
grammarians were in the habit of appealing to any unedu-
cated man who happened to have just arrived witb his
camela from the desert, though he did. not know by heart
twenty versee of the Koran, and had no conception of theo-
' Coop, th* artld* Udtu^ij.
ess
SEMITIC LANGUAGES
retical gninmAr, m order that be mig^t decide wliether in
Arabia it were allowable or Deceasar; to expresa oneself in
this or Uut maimer. It is evident that theoe profonnd
■cholara knew of onljr one ela«aical longoa^ whicli was itill
)ipoken by the Bedouins. The tribes which prodaced the
principal poete of the earlier period belonged for the most
part to portiona of the Hij&i, to Ncgd and ita neighbonr-
hood, and to the r^ion which atntchea thence toi^di the
En]ihratea. A great part of the H^'&z, on the other hand,
jJaifs a -very imimportaDt part in this poetry, and the
Arabii of the north-west, who were under the Soman
dominion, have no share whatever in it. The dialects of
these latter tribes probably diverged farther from the
ordinary laagooge. The fact that they were Christians
does not ezpkia this, since tiie Taghlibitee and other tribea
who [woduced emiaeot poeta also professed Christianity,
Moreover, poeta from the interior were gUdly welcomed
at the conrt of the Ohassanian princes, who were Christian
vavsalt of the emperor residing near Damascus ; in this
district, therefore, their langoage was at least ttnderttood.
It may be added that moet of the tribes which cultivated
poetry appear to have been near neighbours at an epoch
not very for removed from that in qnestioo, and afterwards
to have been scattered in Urge bands over a much wider
extent of country. And nearly oU those who were not
Christians paid respect to the sonctoary of.Hecco. It is
a total mistake, but one frequently made by Eaiopeans,
to desigimte the Arabic language as " the Kocaishite dia-
lect" This expression never occurs in any Arabic author.
Trna, in a few tore cases we do read of the dialect of the
Kora^di, by which is meant the pecniiar local tinge that
distinguished the speech of Mecca; but to describe the
Arabia language as " Kor&ishite " is as absord as it would
be to speak of English as the dialect of London or of
Oxford. This onfortnnate designation has been made the
basis of a theory very often repeated in modem times, —
namely, that closMcal Arabic is nothing else but the dialect
of Mecca, which the Koran fint Inonght into fashion. So
far from this being the case, it is certain that the speech
of the toimt in the mj&s did not agree in every point with
the language of the poets, and, as it happens, the Koran
itself contains some reniarkable deviations from the rules
of the classical language. This would be still more evident
if the punctuation, which was introduced at a lat«r time^
did not obscure many details. The traditions which re-
present the Koraish as speaking the purest of all Arabic
dialects are partly the work of the imagination and partly
compliments paid to the rulers descended from the Koraish,
bat are no doubt at variance with the ordinary opinioii of
the Arabs themselves in earlier days. In the Koran Uo-
lionimedhos imitated the poets, though, generaUy speaking,
with little success; the poets, on the other hand, never
imitated him. Thus the Koran and ita language exercised
but very little infinence njxm the poetry of the following
century and upon that of later times, whereas this poetiy
clowly and slavishly copied the productioos of the old
heathen period. The fact that the poetical literature of
the early Moslems has been preserved in a much more
authentic form than the works of the heathen poets
proves that our idea of the ancient poetry is on the
whole just.
The Koran and lilam rsisod Arabic to the position of
one of the princi]wi languages of the world. Under the
luaderxhip of the Koraish the Bedouins subjected half the
world to both their dominion and their faith. Thus
Arabic acquired the additional character of a sacred lan-
iruat'O. But soon it became evident that not nearly all
the Aral u spoke a languor precisely identic with the
rloMgirol Ambic of the poets. The Dorth-westem Arabs
j^layed a jxirticularly important part during the period of
the Omayyoda. The ordinary apeedi of Ueeca (UmI
Medina was, as we have seen, no louger quite so primitive
as that of the desert. To this may be added that tJia
military expeditions brought those Arabs who spoke th»
classioLl language into contact with bibes from out-of-tbe-
way districts, such as 'Onuln, Bahrain (Bahrein), *nd
porticukrly the north of Temen. lie fact that numben
of foreigners, on passing over to Islam, became rapidly
Arabiied was also little calculated to preserve the unity of
the language. Finally, the violent internal and external
commotions which were prodnced by the great eventa of
that time, and stirred the whole nation, probably acceler-
ated linguistic change. In any cases ^e know from good
tradition that even in the lat century of the Flight tLo
distinction between correct and inoorrect speech was qnita
perceptible. About ^e end of the 2d century the syatcan
of Arabic grammar was constructed, and never nnderweot
any essential modification in later times. The theory as
to how one should ezpreas oneself was now definitely
fixed. The majority of those Arabs who lived beyond the
limits of Arabia already diverged far from this standard ;
and in particular the final vowels which serve to indicate
cases and mooda were no longer pronounced. This change,
by which Arabic lost one of its principal advantages, was
no doubt hastened by tlie fact that even in the <-l»i««i<^l
style Buch termiDations were omitted whenever the wind
stood at the end of a sentence (in pause) ; and in the living
[angnage of the Arabs this dividing of sentences is very
frequent Hence people were already qnite accustomed
to forms without grammatical terminations.
Ilirough the industry of Arabic philologists we ai« able
to make ourselves intimately acquainted with the syateiii,
and still more with the vocabulary of the language,
although they have not always performed their task in a
critical manner. We should be all the more disposed to
^mire the richness of the ancient Arabic vocabnlory when
we remember how simple ore the conditions of life amongst
the Aiaba, how painfully monotonous their eoontry, and
consequently how limited the range of their ideas must
be. Within this range, however, the sli^test modification
is expressed by a particular word. It must be confessed
that the Arabic lexicon has been greatly augmented by
the habit of citing as words by themselves such rhetorical
phrase* as an individual poet has used to describe on ob-
ject; for example, if one poet colls the lion tlie "tearer'
and another. colls him the "mangier," each of these terms
is explained by the lexicographers as equivalent to "lion.*
One branch <^ literature in particular, namely, lampoons
~ ~ '. satirical poems, which for the most port have peruhed,
doubt introduced into the lexicon many expressions
coined in an arbitrary and sometimes in a very sbonge
ler. Moreover, Arabic philologists have greatly nnder-
roted the number of words which, though they occur now
and then in poems, were never in general use except among
particular tribes. But in spite of these qualifications it
must be admitted that the vocabulary is surprisingly rich,
and the Arabic dictionary will alwoys remain the principal
resource for the elucidation of obscure expressions in all
the other Semitic tongues. This method, if pursued with
' e necessary caution, is a perfectly legitimate one.
Poems seldom enable us to form a cleor idea of the Ian.
guage of ordinary life, and Arabic poetry happens to have
been distinguished from the very beginning by a certain
tendency to artificiality and mannerism. StiU less does
the Koran exhibit the loognoge in its spoken form. This
office is performed by the jiroee of the ancient traditimis
(Hadith). The genuine occounts of the deeds of the
Prophet and of his companions, and not leas the stories
conceminfc the battles and adventures of the Bedouins in
the heathen period and in the earlier days of Islam, are
SEMITIC LANGUAGES
•zeallent modeU of a proM itjle, imiioiigh in mum esses
tlt<ir ndactiOD daUa from k btUr timet
Cluneal Anbie ii rich not only in vokU but in gmm-
mstical fomu. The wonderful derelc^tmeiit of the broken
plunla, uid Mmetitnes of ths Terbal nouna mtut be re-
garded as an excess of wealth. The q>aring ose of the
aacient lenninations which mark the plural baa aomewhat
obicured the dUtLaction between plurals, coUectivea, ab-
stract nouns, and feminines in generaL In its manner of
employing the verbai tenses genuine Arabic still exhibits
traces of that poetical freedom which we see in Hebrew ;
this characteristic disappeara in the later litenuy language.
In connecting sentences Arabic can go mach further than
Hebrew, but the simple paratazit ia by far the mo«t usual
construction. Arabic haa, however, tliii great advantage,
that it Kucelj ever leaven oa in doubt as to where the
apodosia liegins. Tbe attempta to define the tenses more
clearly by the addition of adverb* and auxiliary verbs lead
to no very positive result (as ia the case in other Semitic
languagea tSao), aince they an not carried out in a ayatem-
atic maoner. Tbe arrangement of words in a sentence ia
governed by very strict rules. As th« subject and object,
at least in wdinuj cases, occupy fixed positions, and as the
genitive is invariably placed after the noun that governs
it, the use of case-endings loses mach of its aignificanca.
^lIs tangoage of the Bedouins had now, aa we have
seen, become that of religion, oourts, and polished soristy.
In the streets of the towns Uie language already diverged
considerably from this, but the upper "laitm took pains to
speak "Arabic" Hie poeti tod the bntti etpnti never
ventured to employ any bat the chwsica] langnage^ and
the "Atticiats," with pedantic seriousneai^ convicted the
most celebrated among the later poeta (tor instance Hotan-
abbl) of occasional deviations from the standard of correct
epeech. At ths same time, however, classical Arabic was
tbe language of business and of science, and at the present
day still holds this position. There are, of course, many
gradations between the pedantry of purist* and the use c^
what is simply a vulgar dialect. Buiaibte writers employ
a kind of irai)^, which does not aim at being atrictly cor-
rect and calls modem things by modem names, but which,
nevertheless, avoids cocuae vulgarisms, aiming principally
at making itself intelligible to all edticated men. The
reader may pronounce or omit the ancient terminations as
he ehooeea. This language lived on, in a seose, through
the whole of the Middle Ages, owing chiefly to the fact
that it was intended for educated persons in general and
not only for the learned, whereas the poetical schools
strove to make use of the long extinct language of the
Bedouins. As might be expected, this Katrq, like the iioik^
of the Qresks, has a comparatively limited vocabuUiy,
lunce its principle is to retaiu only Uioee expressions &am
the auclent language which were generally understood, and
it does not borrow much new material from the vnlgar
dialects.
It is entirely a mistake to atppose that Arabic u un-
snited for the treatment of abstract anbjecti. On the
contrary, scarcely any language ia so well adapted to be
the organ of scholasticism in all its branches. Even the
tongue of the ancient Bedouins had a strong preference for
the use of abstract verbal nouna (in striking contrast to
the Latin, for example) ; thus they oftener said " Keedful
ia Uiy sitting " than " It is needfnl that thou ahouldeet ut."
This tendency was very advantageous to philoaophicai
phraseology. The strict rules as to the order of words,
though very unfavourable to the development of a truly
eloquent style, render it all the earier to eipresa ideas in
a rigidly BcientiEc form.
In (1i« DMsntinc AmUc, lil» cvf tt other vidaly ipttsd Uagti^^
mimsrily b^n to aa^^Tga modUcatlaa and to ^t np ialo
dislteta Tha Araha an miatakcn in sttriboting tfab davelopmoit
kuDwladgs at elainca] Aral
from tha north who ondeai
Italian wiitars throo^h t
medium of a kind of Litin. Th*
•ilni aavaral Omm a day in hu pravera, beddea being misntaly
tcqaaiutad with ths aacred book ; and this muat have had a ponsr- '
tut inflnence upon the ipesch of the peapl« at large- Bnt n«vsr-
theleaa dialecta hare fomiMl theruMlTai and hav* divaind con-
aiderahljr fnim one another. Of the** than an indeed bat tew
with which «« an tolerably well tcqualDtad ; that of Egypt alona
ii known with real accuiac;.' Although the Frendi hare occupied
Algeria Tor about fifty nan, we itill poaaesa but imperfect iafofma-
tion with mpect to the language of that coontiy. It ia closely
cnnnactod vHh that of UoroccO on tha one baud and with that of
Ttmia on the other. Arabic haa long betm baniahed from Spain ;
hut we poaatM a tew litem? woika iritten in Spaniah Anhic, and
joat belon it became too lata Pedro da AJcala composed a grammar
and a lexicon of that dialect* Ws have also a few andant apeci-
Caatam nrorincM, in apits of niany vain
sfficiBnlly well known to admit of being i
ibla w
)t yet
„ definilclj cliieified.
There can be no doubt that ths devslojiment ot these dialects fa
In part the result of older dialectical ranationa which ^en alnsdj
ia axiit«Bca in the tims of the Ptophet. Tta hlatoriia of dialects
which differ complelaly from oos another often jpnisoe an ana-
logons coarse. In genoal, ths Arabic dialects atill nsaaible one
another mors than ws mi^t expect when we take into conaiden-.
tion the great extent of eonnliy over which they an epoken and
ths very canddsiabls jBographinl obstacles that etand in the waj
of eomniDnieation. But ne most not suppose that pecple. tor
initanca, turn Uosol, Uorocco, San'i, and the iutsrioi of Arabia
would be able to nndenCand on* aoother irithont difflcnlty. It is
a total anar tO regard ths diOeRnrs bstwsen ths Aiabio dialects
and the andant langnue as s trifling ons, or to npreaent the
development of these Juleds sa something wholly unlike the
develi^iment of the Bomauea Isngneges. No living Aralrio dialect
divergee from claaieal Aialnc so much as French or Bonman ftora
Latin ; bnt, on the other band, no Arabic dialect resembles the
daaaical language eo doiety aa the Lugodoric dialect, irhicb is still
epoken in Saidinia, reaemblce ite parent ipesch, and yst ths lapae
or time is very mnch srealsr in the caae of^Uis htttor.
SaiKan, — Long before Mohammed, a peculiar and highly
developed form of civilization had flourished in the table,
land to the south-west of Arabia, The more we become
acquainted with the country of the ancient Sabieans and
with its colossal edifices, and the better we are able to
decipher it* inscriptions, which are being discovered in
ever-increasiog nnmbers, the easier it is for as to account
for the base of mythical glory wherewith the Satueana
wero once invested. The Sabcean inscriptions (which till
lately were more often called by the lesa correct name of
" Himyaritic ") begin lonsbefora our era and continne till
about the 4th century. The somewhat stiff daracter is
always very distinct ; and the habit of regularly dividing
the words from one another renders decipherment easier,
which, however, has not yet been performed in a very
sattBfactory manner, owing in part to the fact that the
vast nuyority of the doctunenta in question conrist of re-
ligious votive tablets with peculiar sacerdotal expressions,
or of architectural notices abounding in technical terms.
These inscriptions fall into two classes, diatingnished partly
by grammatical peculiarities and partly by peculiarities
of phraseology. One dialect, which forms the catuetive
widi kg, like Hebrew and others, and employe, like nearly
AiffriHn (Leipilc 1S80).
' l-her were publlxhsd In 1S06, nprintsd hj Lagaide (PilTi BupKtl
(fa Untm AntiM IMH dm, OmlageB, IBM).
654
SEMITIC LANGUAGES
all the Semitie Unguges, the tennination h (k£) u the
■nffii of the third penon singoUr, U the Sabnan properly
Epeakiiig. 'The other, which eipreues the MiiMtiTe bj
M (correapondiiig to the Shaphel of the AnuiuBani ood
Others), and for the suffix oaee i (like the AaKyriaa th), ie
the Uuiaic To this latter branch belong the nomsrona
.South Arabic uucriptione recently fonnd in the north of
Ae Ejjiz, near Hejr, where the Uuueans most have had'
ft commercial settlemetit. Tbe difference between the two
classes of inscriptions is no doabt ultimately boaed upon
a real diTergunce of dialect. But the mogulaT manner in
which districts eoQtaiuing Sabeeon inacriptiana and those
containing Hinaic alternate with one another eeema to
point in part to a mere hieratic practice of clinging to
ancient mode« of expresaion. Indeed it is very prokebly
due to conscious literary coneervatiam that the language
of the inscriptioni remains almost entirely unchanged
through many centnriee. A few inscriptions from districts
rather more to the east exhibit certain lingnietic peculiar-
ities, which, however, may perhapa be explained by the
euppoaitioQ that the writerii did not, as a nile, speak this
dialect, and therefore were but imperfectly acquainted
with it.
Aa the Sabtean writing seldom indicates the vowels, our
knowledge of the language is neceeaorily Tery incomplete ;
and the miTarymg style of the inscriptions excludes a great
number of the conunoneet grammatical forma. Not a
single occurrence of the first or second person has ^et been
detected, with the possible exception of one proper name,
in which "our god" apparently occurs. But the know-
ledge which we already poseese amply sufflcea to prove that
Babieaa ia closely related to Arabic as we are acquainted
with it. The former language posseseee the same phonetic
elements as the latter, except that it has at least one addi-
tional sibilant, which appears to have been lost in Arabic
It poeseesea the broken plural, a dual form resembling
that used in Arabic, Ac It is especially important to
notice that Sabeean expresses the idea of indefiniteuesa by
means of an appended m, just as Arabic expremes it by
means of an », which in fUl probability is a modification
of the former sound. Both in this point and in some
Others Sabtean appears more primitive than Arabic, as
might be expected from the earlier date of its monnmeota.
The article is formed by appending an k. In its vocabulary
also Sabiean bears a great resemblance to Arabic, although,
on the other hand, it often approaches more nearly to U>e
northern Semitic languages in this respect ; and it possesses
much that is peculiar to itself.'
Boon after the Christian era Sabtean dvilization began
to decline^ and completely perished in the wars with tbe
Abyssinians, who several times occupied the country, and
in the 6th century remained in possession of it for a con-
mderable period. In that age the language of cectr^
Arabia waa already penetrating into the Sabcean domain.
It ia further possible that many tribes which dwelt not far
to the north of the oivilized districts had always spoken
dialects resembling central Arabic rather than Sabnan.
About the year 600 "Arabic " was the language of all
Temen, with the exception perhaps of a few isolated dis-
tricts, and this process of asBiioilation continued in later
times. Several centuries after Hohammed learned Teman-
ites were acquainted with the cfaaractors of the inscriptions
which abounded in their country ; they were also able to
decipher the proper names and a small number of Sabaaan
words the meaning of which was still known to them, but
tliey could no longer nndeistand tbe inscriptions aa a
' Tlw lltantnr* labtbv to tbtM iDSeHpUimt li wldalr Hittand.
fisTon tbs PuWh Oorr<u nplilin u «Ub tfas ooUkM nuUrUli,
v> nay tops to an tb* Bibimi gnnuur of D. H. MaUH, who, wUli
HsUvj, hu Istslj rNtilnd 111* (THtWt HCTioM li
whole. Being sealouj local pafrioti, tbej i
those inscriptions which they imagined themaalna to ba
capable of deciphering many fabnloua shwiea respocting
the glory of the ancient Yemenites
Fuibar (o tbs cut. in the iH-cout dirtricta of Shihr sad Uthn,
in told, ia tbs itlind of BocoCn, dlilieti tot nnlike Arabic ar<
■tiU Bpoken. AlliuioBi to this fact tn fsund la Aiafaie writnm at
tht lOih csDtnr;. TbsH dialscu deput vidaljr bom tbs aaneat
Bsmitic typs, but beu taiae nHmbliacs to tbs Bstmn, atthm^
thiy annot be reguded u aFtmllf dsKsnded bimi ths lattrr.
Ons fsitun which thsy faire id common with BabiMn is the h»bit
oTtppendingun to tbs imperfect Like tbs Etblopic, and ^ob-
ably ilu the Babtesn. thej uae k (iiut«ad of 0 in th* tenniDatiiiiia
or tbs £nt psrson liugulu and tba sscond pcnon BOgilMt and
plDial of tha perfect tetiH. In the suHliea of tba third panoi
then tppBan, it l«ut in ths feminint, an i^ u in th* Uiniie.
Unfortunately the infarmation rhich ve have bitbarto poaaaed
raqnctisg those dialscta is mtagre and inexact, in part very is-
eiacL' It ia mnch to be wiibed that soon Ihry maj all ba inraa-
tinted a> carBtnllf as poKbts, the more ao aa there ia dangar ia
delaj, for Arabic la sradnill]^ anppluitinj tbem.
£lAiopie. — In AbysainiB, too, and in the neighbouring
countries we find languages which bear a certain resem-
blance to Arabic. The Qeei or Ethiopic * proper, tfa« lan-
guage of the ancient kingdom of Akdtlm, was reduced to
vniting at an early date. To jndge by Uie few paaa«ge«
communicated by Salt, the bock of the inscriptioD erf
Aeiianas, king of Akadm abont 3S0, exhibits writing in
the Sabnon language, which appears to prove that tbe
development of ue Qees character ont of the Babsean, and
the elevation of Oeei to the rank of a literary language^
most have taken place after the year 350. The oldest
monuments of this language which are known with cer-
tainty are the two great inscriptionii of T&iini, a heathen
king of Aksltm, dating from about 600. Hitherto om
acquaintance with theee inscription* has been derived ttvm
very imperfect drawings* ; but they amply suffice to show
that we have here the same language as that in which
the Ethiopic Bible is written, with the very nma exact
indication of the vowels, — a point in which Ethiopic has
an advantage over all other Semitic character*. Who in-
troduced this vocalization is unknown. When the above-
mentioned inscriptitins were ni«de the Bible had prohab^
been already traiiaUted into Oees from the Qreek, perhaps
in part by Jews ; for Jews and Christians were at that
time actively competing with one another, both in Arabia
and in Abyssinia; nor were tbe former unsuccessful in
making proselytes. The missionaries who gave the Bible
to the Abyssinians must, at least in some case^ have
spoken Arunaic aa their mother-tongua, for this altme caa
explain the fact that in the Ethiopic Bible certain religion)
conceptions are expressed by Aramaic worda. Daring the
following centuries Tariouii works were produced by the
Abyssinians in this language ; they were all, so far as we
are able to judge, of a more or lees theological character,
almost invariably translations from the Qreek. We cannot
say with certainty when Oeei ceased to be the language
of the people, but it was probably abont a thonaand yMis
ago. From the time when the Abyasinian kingdom waa
reconstituted, towards the end of the 13th century, by
the so-called Bolomonian dynasty (which was of southttn
origin), the language of the court and of the GoTwnment
was Amharic j but Oeei remained the ecclesiastical and
literary language, and Oeei literature even showed a certain
> See ispsciallj Haitian, In t.D.M.O., nli. iir. and IxrO.
■ TUi name la due to the &ct that th* Ab;iBiidanii, ondH tb* In.
IhiaDM of &Us mdmon, applisd lb* nanu AOiorlu to thalr on
UnploiiL
* Ths atltbotltiaa at ths litnry of Frankfgtt han hlndlT (aaUsd
the prtasDE vrftsc to conralt Bsppsll't soids^ lAldi an mora aBcsnls
than tba lithcgrtpba tn hla book. The Engliih tn ISAS did not aala
the opportcnitj to aiamins tberon^j Qm antlqnltlss o( Aka&m, ni
ibiDe thiB m> ltaTsl]*r baa taken Uh ttoabi* to proonn socvnU tejtai
of thaae aitranulj impctttBt m
O"
SEMITIC LANGUAGES
6S5
actlTit7 In nnintTOQB tranalatioiii from thoM Anbic and
Coptio wnrks which were in use amongst the Christiana of
E^rpt; beoidei then a te\f original writings were com-
posed, namelj-, lives of saiota, hTmni. io. This literary
condition lasted till modem times. Tba lanpiage, which
had lon^ become extinct, was hj no means invariablj
icritten in a pnre form : indeed even in mannscripta of
more ancient works we find manj linguittio corraptions,
which have crept in partly through mere careleesness and
i;:niora;ice, partly through the infloence of the Liter dialects.
On pobta of detail we are still sometimes left in donbt,
R3 we possess no manusoripta belonging to the older period.
This renders it all the more important that the ancient
and authentic inscriptions npon Uie monuments of A^dm
should be acCTirately published.
OMi is more nearly relaled to Saboan than to Arabit^
though scarcely to such a degree as we might expect.
The historical intercourse between the Sabaans and the
people of Alrartm does not, however, prove that those who
spoke Qeez were simply a colony from Saboia ; the lan-
guage may be descended from an extinct cogitate dialect
of south Arabia, or may have arisen from a mingling of
Bsveral such dialects. And this colonization in Africa
probably began much sooner than is usually supposed.
In certain reapeota Qeez represents a more modern stage
of development than Arabic ; we may cite as instances the
loss of some inflexional terminations and of the ancient
pastice, the change of the aspirated dentals into sibilants,
&c. In the manUBcripta, especially those of later date,
many letters are confounded, namely. A, A, and ih, i and
th, f and tf ; this, however. Is no doubt due only to the
influence of the modem dialects. To this some influence,
and indirectly perhaps to that of the Hamitic langusgea,
we may ascribe the very hard sound now given to certain
letters,^ I, f, and d, in the reading of Oeei. The last
two are at present pronounced something like U and li
(the Qerman i), A peculiar advantage po«se«sed by Gees
and by all Ethiopic languages is ^e sharp distinction
between the imperfect and the subjunctive : in the former
a Towel is inserted after the first radical, — a formation of
which there seem to be tracM in the dialect of Mahra, and
which is also believed to have existed in Assyrian. Oeez '
has no definite article, bat m very rich in particles. In
the ease with which it joins sentences together and in its
freedom as to the order of words it resemblee Anuoaic.
The vocabulary is but imperfectly known, aa the theologi-
cal literature, which is for the most port very arid, supplies
us with comparatively few expressions that do not occur
in the Bible, whereas the mora modem wnrks borrow their
phraseology in part from the apoken dialects, particularly
Amharic. With regard to the vocabulary, Qeez has mndi
in common with the other Semitic tongues, but at the same
time possesses many ^rords peculiar to itself j of these a
considerable proportion may be of Hamitic origin. Even
some grammatioil phenomena seem to indicate Hamitic
iufluanee ; for instance, the very frequent use of the gerun-
dive, a feature which has become still more promi
the modem dialects, placed as they are in yet closer
n-ith the Hamitic. We most not suppose that the ancient
inhabitants of Aksiim were of piue Semitic btood. The
immigration of the Semites from Arabia vas in all prob-
ability a slow process, and under such eircnmstances there
is every reason to assume that they largely intermingled
vith the aborigines. This opinion seems to be conSnoed
by anthropological facts.
Hot only Is nhst ia propwlj ths tsrritaiy of Akidm (nansly,
TigT^t north-ciatdm Abji inis), bnt iliD in th« coDutrifli bardBriug
Djwn it to the north, inclnding th* iaUndi of Dahlafc, diidecti in
■tiU apokan irliicli an but mon modem fonai of ths lingjdstie
lypa clurlj axhibited in Omz. Tb* two piiudpil at tbias an
wst ipoksn ia Ti(T4 [irQeer lad that of the neighbooriie soDstriss.
In nslicy, tbs bum of Tigti belong* to both, sod it wonld ba
d«8tnbl« to diBtin;?iiib them from on* another sa KortluEn end
Boathern Tigr^. Bnt it i* the cnatom to nil the northern dUlect
Tigri nmply, vhilit thit ipokoa in Tipi itielf beve th* nuus of
Tigribi, nitb an Amliuin termination. It ii nnenUj iBomed
that Timi bean a closer meiublanoe to Otsi tban does TlgriBa,
sltbongh the latter ia apoken in the coontrr vhere Oeei iraa taniMd t
and tUa may Tsry pwibly be the case, for TixriBa has dnriu
aeraral nncuriea been very etrongly iuAueuced by Amharic, which
ba* not been the caae niib Tigri, Trhich ia apoken partly by nomada.
Of Tigr^ which appoan to ba diridiHl into nmneroiii dialects, w*
hare lereTal gloBuiea ; bat of lu gnmmar wo s* yet know bnt
little. Written apocimena of thia language ate atmot entlnly
wanting. With T:griti& we are lomewbAt Miter scqnainlad,' bnt
only a4 it ia apoken in the centre of the country, near the sts of
the ancient Akiiim, where Amkeilo bsppeni to be particnlarly
BtTone,— above all, amongat tba mon edncatwl eUaec In TiKrihs
the older gnmniatiol form* sr* oltea snbjected to violent altaia-
tiona ; foreign elementi creep in ; bnt the kernel reinaini Semitic.
Very di^erent ia the case with Amharic, a language of
which the domain extends from the left bank of the
Takkazf into regions far to the south. Although by ito
means the only language spoken in these countries it
always tends to displace those foreign tongaei which sur-
round it and with which it is iDterapersed. We here refer
Especially to the Agaw dialeclt. Although Amhario haa
been driven back by the invasions of the Oalla tribe*, it
has already compensated itself to some extent for this los^
as the Te(i|ju and Wollo Gallas, who penetrated into eastern
Abyssinia, have adopted it as theii language. With the
exception, of course, of Arabic, no Semitic tongue is spoken
by so large a number of human beings as Amharie, The
very fact that the Agaw languages are being gradually,
and, as it were, before our own eyes, absorbed by Amharic *
makes it appear probable that this language must ba
spoken chiefly by people who are not of Semitic ibm.
This supposition is confirmed by a study of the language
itself. Amharic has diverged from the ancient Sonitio
type to a for greater extent than any of the dialects which
we have hitherto eoiunerated. Uany of the old fonna-
tions preserved in Oees are completely modified in Amharic.
Of the feminine forms there remain but a few traces ; and
that is the case also with tlie ancient plnial of the Dona.
The strangest innovations occnt in the penonal ptononiu.
And certainly not more thou half the vocabulary can with-
out improbability be mode to correspond with that of the
other Semitic languages. In this, as also in the grammar,
we must leave oub of account all that is borrowed from
Oeez, which, as being the ecclesiastical tongue, exercises
a great influence everywhere in Abysninia. On the other
hand, we must moke allowance for the fact that in this
language the very considerable phonetic modifications often
prepuce a total change of form, so tiiat many words which
at first have a thoroughly foreign appearance prove on
further examination to be bat the regular development of
words with which we are aheady acquainted.* But the
most striking deviations occur in the syntax. Things
which we are accustomed to regard as usoal or even uni-
versal in the Semitic languages, such as the placing of the
verb before the subject, of the governing noun before the
genitive, and of the attributive relative clause after its
substantives are here totally reversed. Words which are
marked as genitives by the prefixing of the relative particle^
and even whole relative clauses, are treated as one word,
and are capable of having the objective suffix added to
them. It is scarcely going too far to say that a person
^ Ttbju PraetoriuB, 0
TliB present writer tru al'
of a Belgiim mlirionaTj, n
' Only an advanced gnizd of the Agiir luguagei, t__
dUl«t of the Boeot, la hieing ilmilirly abaorbed by tb* Tlgli.
■ Praetorint, hornier, in bia very valuable grammar, Dit oadoriadl*
^raclu [Halle, Ifi7B), baa gone much too Ikr in bla attempts to eanaaet
Amharlo vards and gtaminaticid ptaeaomsBi with thoM thst OMur )■
0««s.
csa
8 E M — 8 E M
iriw liH banit no Somitie Ungiuge voald have leoa diffi-
eoltif in IDMteruig th« Amhaiio constrnetion than one to
nhaca the Samilio qmUx ia tuniliar. Wliat hsro appMUS
eontmiT to SemitM tatlogj ia KMnetiiUM the nile in AgKW,
Henoa it ii prolwUe tbftt iQ thU case thbn ongitiftU;
HamitientBiaed their tonam nwdee oE tbou^t and ezprM-
don efter Ibey had ad<^ted a Semitia ipoBch, and that
thcrr modified th«r new hngiuge •ccordin^y. Jkai ft la
not oertaJD that the partial Semitization of the aontbem dia-
tricta at AbfBunia (which had acareelj anj connazioi) with
the clnliHtlion ot A^"^*" during ita beat period) waa en-
tiielj or even principellj due to infiusncee from the north.
In spite of iU domiiiaiit poeitioD, Amharic did not for
HTeral centnriei show an; aigna of becoming a literair
htngnage. Tha oldeet doonmenta which we poaacaa are a
few Bonga cd the IGth and 16th centariea, which were not,
bowBver, written down till a later tim«^ and ire ^erj diffl-
eolt to interpret. .There are also a few Geez-Amharic gloes'
ariee, which maj be tolerably oM. Since the 1 7th centnrj
variona attampta have been made, Bometimea by Eoropean
miaaionariea, to write in Amharic, and in modem timem
this language hM to a eonmderable extent been emplojed
for literary pnrpoaea; nor ia this to be aacribed axclu-
rivel; to foreign infltusiice. A literary langnan flzed in a
sufficient measure^ haa thna been formed. Boon belonging
to a somewhat earlier period contain tolerably clear proofs ct
dialectical di^erencea. Scattered notices by tiaTellera Mem
to indicate that In aome diatrieta the kngnase diverge* ia
a rer; much greater d^[ree trom the reoogniied type.
The Abyssinian chnMiiclea have for centnriea been written
in Oees, largely intermingled with Amhario elemmta.
Thia " laugnage of the chronielee,* in itaelf a dreary chaoa,
often euablee tie to diaoover what were the older forma of
Amharic worda. A eimilar mixture of Qees sod Ajnharic
is axeoqtlified in TaHoua other boc^ especially aoch as
refer to the afbirs of the QoTemment and of the court.
Tba Isnnugn spoken itill Eiirttiar to tlH loath, thit of aarieni
(■onth of fOras) uj tbit of Smi, in perhau mon Stlj doKriW
ss Isngnagas sldn to Amhuio thu a* Amhsric diilecti. Until
m poiBBai mcce ptvcin iufonnstion nspacting tbAm^ snd In sids^
TKftatiBg tin lingnhtic and sthaognphlcsl condition el litim
oDnatries, it voeld not b« isfa to hsard stou ■ ocii^jsetiire as to
tlu CFiigin at tbasa Isngnagta, which, eorrapt •■ the; ma; be, ind
snmnndcd by tongnis of s vhol>r dilfennt elua, most atul be
arthsSgniit«lntothsiaiisrtii/AM«in„, .^ „._
set, thst It nw; bsTS t$k*u plsce at dilTnnt tlmt^ t^ the immi-
gnnts fieriiipi bslongad to dlflinent tribas ud to diBbrsnt districts
al Aisbii, and that Tsry heteragansnis pao^M and Isngnagaa spptar
to bars been.mtotul} mingled li^athtr fii thias ngwns.
(!(■• (M (d., ni<4 um «nld wiSUta pndiui BMk •■««■( A* Unr,
li ^t* el IU OHJM eSmita uS tk* •ttaal mtahika thut % uata^
■rn It Ut Dnaol du a nlHUr mir nsd II with amt htmrt tat rntt :
»nt Hswkoit It taabMiap«niMW Ite dueorfilH of Uw IsW Antj
H thH* imim. tba nisiriu of Snld, k tta tetndsattn to kfa Bttmww
(nmasr, am Dm ■Mail nlMluMB « tl» SnriOe lufgaaH sn fbl
w-wXbj of pvHHtJ, mnea is tatr mvrokt eoatndhjtkpu, 4 *vik itptm tkf
ullM vMab iKlliH fer lb* not Miu ■< Hlnsa vbst Boss *ndi£imd
lonsUBKrbhinnlliiMmfitimMj'dasiaotaM. (TH. ■.>
BEILLEK, loBAxm au^MO (irSS-lTQl), eCfcleidaatioal
Liitorian and critic, sometimes called "the father of
Oerman rationalism" (see Ratiohauhii), was born at
Saalfeld in Thnringia on ISth December 1TS9. He was
the son of a clergyman in poor drcnmstancee, and had
to fight hia way in the world solely by his own talents.
He grew np amidst Fietistic snrroimdings, which power-
fully influenced him hia life throof^ thou^ he waa never
apiritnally or intellectually a Ketiat Aa a ben he showed
the omnivorona appetite for booka which waa (^taracteriatio
of hia later life. In hia seventeenth year he entered the
tmiveraity of HaQe, where he became the diaciple, after-
wards the aaaiatant, and at last the literary executor <rf the
orthodox rationaliatic Profeaaor Baumgarten. In 1T49 he
accepted the position of editor, with the title of profeaaor,
<rf uie Coburg official Gatttle, with leisure to pursue his-
torical and acientifio atudiea, But the next year he was
mvited to Altdorf as profeaaor of philology and history,
and aix months later became a professor of theology in
UallcL After the death of Baumgarten (1757) Semler be-
came the head <rf the theological faculty of hia nnivoaity,
and &» fierce oppoaition which hia writings and leeturea
provoked only helped to increase hia fame as a professor.
Hia popularity continued undiminished for more than
twenty yeara, until 1779. In that year he came forward
with a reply to the WUfntbiHiH FraginenU (see Bmuana)
and to Bahrdf a confession of faith, a step which was inter-
preted by the extreme rationalists aa a revocation of bis
own tationalistic position. Even the Fiussian Oovemmant,
which favoured Bahrdt, made Semler pMsfully feel its dis-
pleasure at thia new but really not ioconsiatent aspect of
his position. But, thongh Semler was really not incon-
Nstent with himself in attacking the views of Beimaros
and Bahrdt, as a comparison of his works prior and subee'
qnent to 1779 with those in qaeetion shows, his popularity
b^^ frmn that year to decline, and towards the end (rf
Us life he ttii painfolly the neoesaity of emphaaiiing the
apokigetio and eooaervatlTe valoe of true historical inquiry.
With more hatifiaatiot^ perh^ia, might hia defence of the
ftototiotu edict of Wlillner (17SS), the enltns minister, be
cited aa a ugn of the decline of his powers and of an on-
faithfnlneia to hia principlea. He died at Halle on 14th
March 1791, worn out by his prodigious labonr^ embittend
by his deseitioi^ and di«4>pointed at the igene of hia work.
Sander's fannvtaiios in the history of theolop and the hmnin
mind la that el a critto <d Biblical and eccleaiaaticil docamants aad
of tha Uatonr of doonus, Ua was not a philoserhical tUnktr ar
theolo^as, thoo^ be inristed, men er tsas eonfusadly, and yat
with an enargy ud ptnfstanoy b(£irs nnkmnrn. on icftun diatiac-
tjons of ptat importanoa wbaa ptopeil; mikad set and applied,
i.g., the distioctbHi bstwaan nt&[iaD and theole^, that bttimn
jviTBlB neraaiuJ balle& and pnbUe EiatniosI cned^ and that between
the tool] and tamperal and the panaaaoit alanMota of historical nU-
gloii. His mat mntna that of tha critic Be vis tha fint to r^ieet
with sofMsot proof the aqnil valoa ef the Old and th* Saw Tsste-
mant^ Iba uniJbm asthorit; of all parte of the Blbla, tha divlM
anthori^ of the tradltimial canoe oT Scriptnn^ tha InsiaratioD ind
iJIpOBaa 'OuniiLituSM of tha text of the Old and Faw Tratamrnti.
ind, nnerally, the idaatifiaatioa of rerelatiao with Bt^iptnn.
Thim^ to eonw extent aoticipatea by the Eiu^ deist Thcouae
Uoipin, Semler ftaa the drat to take due note ofiod oas (br oitiol
pnrpoaea the apporitioD between the Judaic and inU-Jodaic peitia
of tne earir dinnh. He led tha war in the talk of diecororiug the
origin of the Oosf-'- •«-"—-"— .v-..i_ j»l-. l._"„i
the Apoealjpsa
Panllns origbi of . _. _
Peter'i intl^rehip of the Drtt ^jistla, and leftmd the aaoond apietle
to the end of the Sd oentinv. Be wtahed to remore the Apoaslvpae
iltogether fr~ " •- — ^-' -"-■— -.— .-'^^^'r;
ftu&ertbai
uiy periods and in aeretal departmanla of eccleilastEcal historj.
molnck proDonaoes him " the fsther of the biatory of doctrines'
indBanr "thafiiat to deal with that hiitery tkom tlte tme oiticil
ituidpcdnt.' At tha hiiis tine, it b admitted by aU that la >aa
nowhere Dora than a pioaeer. Bear's deecrlpUon of bin work in
one iofarlinnnr nf imiileeiaillial hietory Ii tme oF hie work oenenll}.
" His writiM on tha Uilory of dooma itasmble a hllov-Setd wiit-
iog to be oolUvated or a baUdinMts on which, nndemeetk rafaaa
ind ndni, lie the materials in chaotio oonhuion Ibr a new edifice.
Tlie cmaaqnenoe wsa thst ae be ires ilwaye oconpied In pnlimins'y
isbonTi,he bnn^ht aotblng toenn partial oetnpletloni and, ^ongh
hie oanenl oritusl standpoint wii rorrect, in its ^^nlicatiaa to
detail! bla oriticlnn oonld only be teBarded aa extnmily bold and
atbitnry."
Tholnok gives IM ss Iha nnmber of SenJar'a yntkM, <t whi(&
only two raesbed s snand edition, and none it now read lor its
own Mk^ Aioon^ tha chlaf sre~Z>i 4nHii<ae<t (HaBet ITCO,
4th ed. \jn\ gOKla mlla kiHaim tiOmiiuticm (3 vola, Bilte,
irtltV), res iVviw VitmiulMmff dm fiauB (Hdlat im-711b
Jfponhu ail lauvltm If. T. imitirntatltmtm aW; ai T. T.,
177IX iMttUiOie ad dMtriiiaM (OrUt. MmiHUr dlvasAM (BaSik
S £ M — S EN
asj
Chritm (17U), ud hk utobiognaliT, AMbr-i UtKHt^JtrtHiMg,
van am hOW oiMStiM (H^ lTn-B3>
Pot HtbKiM ol aiidif'i libaui, iH Dm SniA. te arvL Ai«mM (BirtI*.
;Hd Bllvkl,
SEMLIN (HoDK- Zimotty; ServUn, iSVimm), > town, of
Austria-Hon^rj, uie eaatemiiuMt in the Uilituy Pmatier
dietrict, itaods oq the south bank of the Dannb^ oil a
tongue o{ land between that river and the Bave. It ia
the see (rf » Oreek archbishop, haa a real ecbool of lowar
grade, Gre Boman Catholic and two Ot««k chnichea, a
■ynagOjguet a theatre, and a ctuton-houM. The popnlation
(10,046) consiits moeUy of Serviam, nith a few QmoaD^
Greeks, nijrians, Croats, Qipeies^ and Jewt. Semlin has
recentlj undergone improvement; in ila itieett and build-
ings ; but ita subncb Franzenthal near the Danube oondists
moBtlf of mud huU thatched with reeds. The 'town is
Butrotmded l^ a stockade. On the top of Zigennerberg
are the remains of the castle of John Eonyadi, who died
here in 1456. Bemlin haa a eoasidenhle bade, Moding
woollen cloth, poiodoin, and glaaa to Torkej, and obtain-
ing in return yam, teaUier, ikini, hone;, and meetschaam
pipes. It is a principal quarantine station for travellers
from Tnrkejr. Steam ferr; boats cross to Belgrade Mveral
times a day, and larger vessels ran Up the Save as far as
toSissek.
BEUPEK, GormuXD (1803-1879), Oerman archilwit
and writer on art, was bom at Altona on 29th November
1803. His father intended him for the Uw, bnt irreust-
ible impnlaa earned him over to art His earlj mastery
of cloineal litwatnie led him to the study of classic monn-
menta in elaasio laiid^ while his equallj conspicuous talent
for mathematies save him tiie laws of fonn uid proportion
in architectnial design. While a atodent of law iS, Uie
nniversitj of Qottingen he fell ondor the influence of E.
O. Hiiller, and in after years followed closely in his foot,
steps. Semper's architectural education was carried out
suoceasively in Hamburg, Berlin, Dresden, in Paris under
Oao, and in Munich under Qartner ; afterwards he fiaited
Italy and Qreece. In 1834 he was appointed professor of
aichitacture in Dresden, and during fifteen yeara received
many important commissions from the Saxon court. He
built the opere-housB, which, made hit fame, the new
museum and picture gallery, likewise a synagogue. In
1848 his turbulent spirit led him to aide with the revolu-
tion against hia royal patron ; he fumiahed the rebels
with military plans, and was eventually driven into exile.
Semper came to London at the time of the-Great Exhibition
of 1861, and the piinca eonnxt found him an able ally in
carrying out his jdans. He was ^)pointed teacher of the
princi][d«B irf decoration ; and his lectnns in manuacript,
preserved in the art lil»^. South Eenaington, deserve to
be betto' known. He was also emplojed by the prince
consort to piepan a design for the Keadngton Mnseum ;
he likewise made the drawings tvt tbe Wellington funeral
car. In 18S3 Semper left London for Zurich ma hia appoint-
ment as profesBM' of architectoR^ and with a comjnisaion
to build in that town tha polytechnic scbocd, the hoqiital,
Ac. In 1S70 he was called to Vienna to assist in tbe great
architectural prcjects since camsd out round the Ring.
A year later, after an exile lA over twenty years, he received
a summons to Dresden, on the rebnildiog of the first opera-
honse, which had been destroyed by fiiein 18S9; his second
design was a modification of the first. The dosing years
of hu life were paaaed'4n compaiative tranquillity between
Venice and Bome, and in the latter dty hs died on 15th
May 1879.
Samper's itjl* WIS a growth from Qi» dsHia ordnt tliroii^ tba
iMlisn dmnw CeDta Ha fbiaook tha baaa and mnoo liiniu ha
hvai iwlM in Qernaay, sad, rererttng to tht test hlrtods o-
sadaxam^df _.
tsctin, Kolpton, *Bd paiqting. Amoog his nununm lilsniy
works SIS Utbr AMAmti ti. ibn tfrantns (ISSl), Dii Jm-
■HwiiMr ^ Artm & (br .^niUttbwr H. i%u(ft faf <JM ^{((B, £hr
~" in ((m UdniKAm h. KHMHSla fnutat (18S0-SS). "'
M y ZatAm* «t fntHml AH M JM*it ami Eard MiliHalM!
Ttdmalnn.-Bid^rf.a'd 8ttlt,i*u^iiMia1iB. Hii UMhiius
«^r*
iDamt nr -
SENEAR (SkhitjUB, pnmerly Suraia), a country of
east Central Africa, ctnnmonfy identified with the "Island -
ol Meroe" of the andents, .and included in th6 central
division of Egyptian (EaatflmJ Sildbi, as reoi^janiied in the
y«ar 1863. By Enropeau writers the term is often applioj
to the whole region tying between the Atbira (Takane)
and the White Nile, bnt by native usage ia restricted to
the district confined between the latter river and the Bahr-
el~Ana^ (Blue Nile^, and its eaatem tribut&ries, the Rahad
aqd the Dender.- It is bordered north and nortb-eaat by
Uppet Nubia, east by Ab3'saiQia, wrat by the White Kile
(B^-el-Abiad), separating it from Kordofin, and stretches
from the confluence of the two Nilee at KhartAm south-
wards, in tbe direction of the Berta highlands in tha east
and the BilrAn and Dinka plains in the west As thoa de-
fined, Sennir extends across five degrees of latitude (16*
to 11* N.), with a total lengih of about 350 miles, a mean
breadth of 120 milea, an area of 40,000 Muare miles, and
an approximate popnlation of 300,000. It oompriaaa two
phyaically distinct tracts, the densely wooded and well-
watered Jedrat el-JealrU ("Isle <^ Isles") between the
Bahad and the Bhie Nile,and the "island" of SennAr proper,
a nearly level st^pe land confined between die two main
streams. This wwtein and much larger diviaiou,,«tich
has a mean elevation of under 3000 feet above sea-level,
consiats mainly of alluvial and sandy matter, resting on a
bed of granite and porphyritic granite, which first crops ont
some tia days' journey south of Ehartilm, in the Jebel ea-
Sc^ti and uie Jebel d-Moya, near the town of Benutlr on
the Bshr^I'^^a^- Between these two groups the plain is
dotted over with isolated alata hilla containing iron and
ulver ores. But b^ond Seonlz tho bonndleaa steppe, cither
under a tall ooane giBO, or overgrown with mimnm aeral^
or else absolutely waata, again stretches nnintenniptedly tta
another ten or eleven days'jonmey to the BoaSres (Bowies)
district, wher^ the isolated Okelmi and Keduas ^la, con-
taining quarts with copper ore, rise 1000 feet above the
right bank of the Bln« Nile and 3000 above the sea.
Hera tha plain ia furrowed by deep golUea flushed during
tha rainy season ; and farther sou& the land, hitherto
gently slopii^ towards the north-weet, begins to rise
rapidly, breaking into bills and ridges 4000 feet high in the
Fau^ district, and farther on merging in tbe Becta hi^
lands with an extreme altitude of 9000 to 10,000 feet
In these metalliferous uplands, recently explored by Haroo
and Schuver, rises the Tnmat, which is washed for gold,
and which liter a northerly course'of nearly 100 miles
joins the left bank of the Blue Nile near Faiogl and
Famaka. Sonth of and parallel with tl|e Tnmaf flows the
still unexplored Jabus (Tabus), on which stands Fadoai,
Bouthemmoat of the now abahdoned Egyptian stations in
the Bahr-el-Azrai: baain. This pcunt also marks the present
limit at geographical exploration in the direction of the
conterminona Oalla conntiy, Schnver being the only
Eoropean tranfler who has hitherto succeeded in pene-
baling to any distance aonth of the Jabna.
8*nii4r lit* within ^ northoB limit* of tb* tropiiMl nhu, which
Mchtor' -'- . . - ... . -I- .- .1.-
partnf It
tha northnu and wi
cool and health; H j ,
torn tba aoath ar tha MBi^ (dsMoi) frmn th* Docth-weat chatstd
to KliartAsikMid fiill betwaaii Jane and 8apt*mb«T.
• tha Blnslllla lins bna Ms; toADgiui,
m winds pnniLlaarly coinciding wi — .
. Bott&ywefUlowwlbjtliebotkbamA^
658^ .
viabiWBdflMitiMUbjuiDMri. B
Dtlit ntan mftw tUs loodi ind giring ru
Whloh dcin* th» DKttTM tlUDlHlTsi from I
upluidL The toDivntiin, whloh Am at
1» »1« TMT -■■ '■'■ *" •->-—- ■--
<Ut toDnJi
Th* KiU, BMlnl; alluTul, ia i»tq»Dy Artlt^ ud . .
' ' ' " Ug jisld^ bcnuMoiu oropi of nuia, pnlM,
a, and oapaciallj dam, <u ndiiah aa many aa
m IM aald M ba ailllvatnL Tbs fonit Ttpitatuia,
nainW aonfluad to tha " lale of [alaa " and tho aouthem nplanda,
inclD^ tlia JdaiufKia (Uobtb), wblob in tha Fuc^ diatriot atuina
' nfiutio ptoportloiii^ tfca taBUuitad, of which braad ia mada, tha
ddab pilm, oaranl nlnabla gum triaa (wham tha tam Sanniii
uftu ippliad 1b IgTpt to gun anbio), Mm* djowooda, abiaj, iion-
wood, and main raitatiM of acBDU. Thaaabiaataan hiiutal bf
th* two-lionwd riilBooanak tha alt^aal, lion, putlur, Dnmerooa
■paa and aslalopta, *hil< the crocodile and Uppopotuaiu ftwiavat
all th* liTsra. Tha shiaf domMtto antmala an tb* eamaL bans,
BiB, OS, baflik> (naed both u a beaat of buidun ami lot ridliwjb ahaap
with • ahort ailkj fleeoa. tha poat, oat, do^ and pl^ whuh laat
h<n naobea its (aathsnitn«t limit. The taeta* tij appaan to ba
a.b*ant, bat ia replaced in »me diitricts bj a ipecul at waap,
vliciHi ating ia laiQ to b« Eatal to the omal In tha riUnj aaaaon.
Tha " ACriean Utaopotamii ' ii occajded bj 1 paitU aottlad
mtly itlU Domid populitian of la eitnmelT miiad ehuactar.
nclading repreaentatiTea of nearLj oil the
S E N — S E N
f ethnical diTisont
of (h* contbont. Bat tba greit pliiaof SmniriiTiuiiil]
br Haaaulah Araba ia the north, by Abu-Bof (Rnliya) Hamita
of Beta (tock (Bobort tUrtnuum) in tha nut M hi aa Faaogl, and
by Haaaanieh Araba
of Beta (tock (Bobort tUrtnuum)
alaewbare by the Fni^ (Fnng, Fun
the WUCe Nile, and affiliate by aoina to tba Kordoam Nabaa, br
othen more probably to the ITilotio Kcgro Bhilldka. Thaaa ToDj,
aa Fuitl, m
ly the Fnm (Fnng, FungfaehX traditimally from beya:
i.„ ._. ....TT-l ,._. -J Uu, Kordottn Nabaa,
ro Bhilldka. Thaaa Jul,
a tha llitJh century, har
boconia almiiat (Tvywhan aaaimllatad In
•P^^ ■
gligloo, Mid
Uw Cmrollar Piuyaaaiuura fbnod thorn ttill performbg pa«an ritaa,
whila Boxwding to Uanio the BirioL tha ■snthammoat branch of
tb* nee betwaan tha Barta bi^kndn* ud tha Kilotlo Dinkaa,
arv a'Hifttil to **i»*n^HTrt Th* Barta hlgfalandoi thamaelTea
(Jabalain, aa tha Anha odlacttraU call tbam) an of man or ]*m
pan Kegio Mock tod nnmbet anat (0,400, grouped ja aereral
jaml-indepandaDtprineipalitin. Tb* " BO-man a-IaDd ' atrirtching
north of bai^Barta and out of tht TnnuLt Tilln it abo ouuplad
br dicUnct nitloDBlltle*, toeh aa tha Kadaloa In the aztnma north,
the ffianatjoa and Gnmoa in tha eut, bare banlaring on tha Abya-
rioian Agair^ tha Jabna and ClnU in tha aouth. Uort of tbeae
appear to ba of Kegro or Kesioid atock ; but tba Biflnatjoa, laiJ
to In a nmiving nmnant of ttia primitira ponilatlon ot the whole
country, andonbtlaaaakin to the Sianetjoa of Damot
r£
id GoUm in
Tha ^nniri people coltlia
work (camel mddloa, aandala, fcc ], noted Ihrcnsl
tiiati ohief ptmnita an atock-hreedinK asriimUan, and trada, —
exporting to Egypt aod Abniiiiia goliChlUea, dona, aeaame, mioM,
troiT. hatasa, and alarea. The aluet csntrea of popuklian, 2t on
tha Bahr'^l-Amk, an I^xofd (FaickloX now rejdaced by Famaka,
at tha Tmnat cimllnaDoa [ Boajna, formerly capital of an iiido-
Mndant itata ; Soonir, alao an old eairil^ which glrea Ita name to
Um whole r^on ; Wod-Uedlaah at tlia Balud conBucncfl ; and
Ehartiini, jnit iboto the jonction or the two Nilea. A few milaa
al>on Kharfilm an the eiteaelTt roina of Boba, foruer eaj^tnl of
tha Fail! empire, *Ut:1i at one ttm* ttret<ib«l from Wady Haifa
to Dar'Darla and from Suakin to beyond Kordofin, bnt which wu
DTerthiown by bouil Paaba ia tb* Jrmi ISXi. (A. H. E.)
SfiNANCOUK, fiiiMora Ptvirt di (1770-1846),
French tnan-of-lsttera, waa born at Paria in NoTember
ITTO. HU familj was noble and not poor, bnt ita fca-tnnaa
were mined hj Uie Beyolutioo. Before that erent, how-
STBT, S^Dancoor had met with miahap. Ha was a licklj
juuth and wu deatined for the chnrch, bnt ran away from
home and eatabliahed himaelf in SwitzerlaDd. Here be
married and rpent aome jeara ; hia wife died, and he r»-
turned to Farii about tha end of the centory. In 1801
bo publiahed the aingolai book entitled Otemann, which
ha* continued to ba in a foihion popnlar to the {jreaent
Amj, and the next yen a tnatiaa £>» FAbiow, which bad
even more mgne at fint, bat i* now IHtle read. ObtrvtoHn,
wbkh ii to a great extent inapired bj Botnaean, which
attracted the admintioii of Qeorge Sand, and which had
a Mmudetshle inflnenoe orer the laat generation in Faaiiea
and England, id a netiea of letten auppoaed to bo wtittea
hj a eoUtariP and meUnobolj penon, whoae heacU]ti*rta>i
were in a vallsy of the Jura, but who writea slvo ftoa
divert other placaa. The rtjle ia moritoriona, th« iliii ii|i
tira power tot; conaidarabl^ the tboo^t aometimea ori-
ginal, and the ezproaaion of a certain form erf the mat-idit
dn tiicU effective and atriking. But, viewed frt>ni tha
Btrictly critical point of view, there ia perhapa & oertain
nnrealitj abont ths book. Ita idiceyneraa; in the l>rga
cUia of Wettherian-BjTonio Ltcraturs hiu jnatlj econ^
been aud to be that the bsro, inatead o( feeling tha vamitj
of tbinge, recognixaa hia own inability to be and do wbat
be wiohee. Binaacoor is tinged to aome extent with the
older philmop^ form of treethinking, and eiprc—ea 1^
revolt from the 18th eentorj than Chateanbriand. Having
no resonrces but bjs pen, S^iancoui during the half-centtuy
which elapsed between his return to Fra^ and Ua death
at St Cloud in Febraaiy 1848 was driven to literary hack
work, and even his more independent prodnctiona have
none of the attraction of Obermanti. Wken Oeorga Sand
and Bainte-Beure revived interest in this latter, Tluera and
Villemain aucceeuvelj obtained for the nathor from Louis
Philippe penaiona which enabled him to pass bU laat daja
in comfort. He oommittad the usual nuatake ot wri^ng
late in life a continuation to OkermauL, entitled JtadtlU
(1833), but it hat been wiaely forgotten.
SENGBIZR, JuK (1713-1809), a Swin paattv and
Tolnminou* writer on vegetable pbysiology, waa bom «!
Geneva on 6th May 1713. He ia remembered on afcoont
of his contributiont to our knowledge of the influence of
light on vegetation. Though Ualpi^ and Halea had
sbown that a great part of the aafaetanee irf planta mutt
be obtained from the atmoephere, no progreaa was made
until more than a century later, when Bonnet obaerved on
leavea plunged in aeiated water bobblea <rf gaa, whidi
Prieatley recognised aa oxygen. Ingenbonai proved tbi
contemporaneous diaappearauce of carbonic add ; but it
was Senebier who clearly thowed that this activity ««>
confined to the green parts, and to tbeae only in atuilight,
and first gave a connected view of the whole procea of
vegetable nutrition in strictly chemical teniu, so prepar-
ing the way for the quantitative researches of N. T. da
Bauwnre. Benebier died at Oeneva on 22d July 1809.
9e* SaoH OuatfaUi d. Bdanii, and ArieOm, veL iL
SENECA, Lucius Ahkscb (e. 3 B.a-SS a.s.), the mot
brilliant figure of bis time, wiu the second son ot the rhe-
torician Marcna Amueoa Seneca, and, like him, a native of
Corduba in Hispania. From bis infancy d a ddicate con-
stitution, he devoted himself with intense ardour to ihetor-
icsJ and philoeophical studies and early wtm a t^ntatian
at the bar. Caligula threatened hia life, and nader Clandint
hia political career received a tudden check, for the info-
encB of Meeaalina having effected the rain of JnEa, the
yonngeat daughter of Germanicna, Beneca, who was com-
promised by her downfall, waa banished to Corsica, 41 A.D.
There eight weary yeara of waiting irere relieved hj study
and anthorahip, with occaaional attempts to procnre fait
retnm by such groas flattery of Claudius aa is found in the
work Ad Patybimn dt Ctmtolatiotu or the panegyrio on
Ueasalina which he afterwards suppressed. At length the
tide tnmed ; the next empress, Agrippina, had bini recaUe^
appointed pnt^or, and entrusted with the ednoatioii <rf her
•on Nero, then (48) eleven yeara old. Beneca became in
fact Agrippioa's confidential adviaar ■ and itis pnpU's aocaa-
tion inccsaaed hit power. He waa consid in S7, and dniing
the firat bright years of the new reign, the inoompanbls
THMfWMKwM NerouiM, he shared tha actual adminirttatiaD
of a&irs with the worthy Burma, the piMtorian pmfect
The govenuneat in the hand* <rf thew nun of rtmiarkable
S E N — S E N
659
ina^ and mergj m* aim and hnnuuie ; their
over NefO) «hile it hated, wu aalutaiy, though wm«tmus
nuintjjiiail )>y donbtfnl meuu. When there cbnw ue
ineritkble raptnn between mother and son ihej lided with
the latter; and Senecft, who drew up all Nero's itate
papen, was called npon to write a defence of nutfieide.
We miut, however, regard the general tendency of hla
meaimrea ; to judge *■'"* aa a Stoic philoBophor b; the
oonnaela of perfection laid down in hii writinga would be
much the same thing as to apply the atandard of Nhw
Teatamant morality to the career of a Wobe;^ of Matarin.
He is the t;pe of the nan of letters who aa coortier and
minister risee into favour by talent and anpplentM {mmita*
konttia), and ia entitled as nich to the rare credit of a
beneficent mle. In conrae of time Nero got to dislike
him more and more ; the death of Bomu in 63 gave a
■hock to hia podtiou. In vain did he petition for permis-
don to retin^ offering to Nero at the same time his enor-
mona fortune. Even when he had aonght pritacy on the
plea of ill health he oould not avert his doom ; on a charge
of being concerned in Fiao's conspiracy be was forced to
commit anicide. His manly end mi^t be held in lome
roeaanre to redeem the weaknees of hia life but for the
testimony it bears to hia constant study of effect and
ostentatious eelf-complacency {" conversua ad amicoa. ima-
ginem vitfe due relinquere teatator").
Stoeca li at Duca the moat an
tha Silvsr A^ and in ■ iiikwI ■suh thslr npnaBatadr^ not laiit
bacinB ha ma tlu origioitor of ■ bim atjla. Tha amcted and
■antiiiiMital hmoimi wtajcli j^nduallj graw ap in tlu Biat eantuy
A.D. bscama infiidned in him, and sppMi* eqiull; in arcryttilog
which b* wrott^ wbatbar pMtiT or pnaa^ ■> tlw most flniahad pro-
daet of It^annitv ooncanVslM npon dwilamatory ei«ci*a% aub-
(tinea bdns maaoai to fbim and thon^t to point Ztstt vaiis^
of rhatorial taomU in torn eoottibalis to tha danlii^ aftot^ now
tiuul and nsainant, now uovaltr and ToraalilltT oT tcasbnent or
affiwtad dmplidtv and atodied ibaenoa of plan. Bat tha ohiaf
waapoB ii tba nngram {miiiHiHa\ anmming np in tana inclnra
uitithaai tiia mt of a wbola period. "Sanaoa ia a man at tmJ
ga[ilaa,"wiit<afii(b«hr, "which iaaftat all tha main thing; not
to ba nqjDtt to him, ona mast know tin wbola noga of that litera-
to which ba bdoogad and nallis how wall ha andantood the
^"'"tt'fag avan of what «ia moat slwonL " Hia
1 n__^ jjj jjj, Of„tig^ ptobabl; tha ■
'""' " ' — biognpbf « hia.
g tha tAtin vritan of
■rt of making
Z^hXl)
naecbsa which Naro dalivorM, an lost, a* also a t
fithar, aiiil(» Mi earliar sdantlfie warka. anch aa
describing India and Sgypt and one apon carthqii
PBuuuijnij ; tha woi^ has litua aoanlific nwri^ jat hniD uni vtioj
Senses, or his snthoritr, has a shnwd gnaaa, t,f., tlut theta is
Gonaexion between corthi^iiakea and vokaaoea, am that cometa a]
India* like tha planets raTolriDg in Hied orUta. (i|) The Satin tm
tW AoCi (and daiGcaL.n) ^ Cbmii— ia ■ apadmen of the " Mtlra
Uenjppea or medlev of proaa and vena. Tha vtiter'a apite against
the dead empeiOT bafin* whom hf had erisged aerrilatj shows is a
Bonr bahioB whsn hs bstans im ths wise snd liberal mesanra of
conraiing tha ftuchlse npon Osnl sa s thema fiir abnae. (4) Ilia
rApainu^ pnss works sr« of ths oatan of nwfsl aaaar>> btaiing
nuions titlaa, — twalTs ao-called Btahgtui, thraa books tM CUmtiuif
dedicated to Hem, aavan On Sn^fiU, twenty hodu of Zettan to
Laciliui. They are all alika in diaonaaiDg practieal i^oeatiosa and
in addnadug a iln^ raadar in a tons ofbrniliar coDTsraaUon, tba
objections he ia sapposed to make being oceasionslly died and
aniwenid. Seneca had tha wit to dlseovar that eondnct, which la
aftiratl ' thne-fonrtli* of li&" ooold Aimlsh inaxhsoatlbls to|ries
of abiding nnirenaj inCereat ur anparior to tba imaginary tbemss
tet in the echools and abaadantlT analysed in hia fiktho's CbiiCro.
vtriim snd SvatoriM, snch aa poisoning oaaeaL er tjiannieidst
even hiilorical peisagii like Hannibal ud Bulla. The Iniwatl--
look tha pablio tatia,— plain matters of ornnt paiaonsl eoaesn
aometiiiies treated oaaoistieally, sometimea u a Cbanl vain with
serioni di*ergeaoa from tha OTthodai standards, bat always with
•n eamntBOM which aimed dincll j at the taadar'a education, pro.
greas towards rirtast snd genera] moral improvsmsnt Ths smsys
are in but Stoic aermoni ; for the cned of the later BtoJOa had he-
eonu lesa of a phUoaophical sjitem and mora of a raliglon,
at Boms, whan moial and theological doctrine^ id<nu
lively interest The echool ia remarkable for ita antidpstioi.
inodem sthlcal eonoaptiana, for ths lot^ nMialitj of iti axhorta-
tfonatoforriTsinJnrtesandovsiMaaaTllwIthgood 1 Iheobligalion
to ajdnrsal baoerolence hsil bean dadooed bom tha cosmotioUtan
pnodon In phnaea corionsly niggeaUTe of the spiritnal doetrinea
of Cbiiitianity. Tet the TerbafcoincideBce is aomBtimea a inata
iomatiniea advocates what ii wholly repoliiva to Chriatiaa ftat
tnA aa tbe duty and privHi^ ofeuiride.
Ei^ht of the tngefTisa vbiub bear Seneca'i name are tukdoabCsdly
gcnoioak In thein the defects of hie prose ttyle are eiugented i
aa ipecimens of poinpoua rant they are probably nneqiufled ; and
(be rhythm i* nnpleaaant owinK to the monotanaui atmctore of
the iambics and tha neglect of lynaphaia in tha anapKitie aya-
Icmi. Tba raasteita (kta'cia, alu iicribed to him, contains plain
alluaiona to Heia'i end, and must therefore be the prodoct of a
later hand.
S'a.iis.
1SL5
OelUani tlxnnnimlDracheliitalOTeilloiaet , .
II). ■a* dau 1^ Seim'i blrtli nut be awenilaiatalT blltna boa
.Vol. Oh., l 1, I; Bf., 108. II. Hti mother'a iiaM was BJila; kir elirter
Atolu, e BUilc^ >M gotum, b pniili ot tha Seiwl la Us nilk he «aa a
narb^ and ■ wiliHlrliilier. but £la Cilber ebecked Ue mdajpaeeta aieetl.
ehmnD Iwra. CBl%ulsaU Uiitirle watneit iiMiKlE(inuil^w«iavai)n'
"■md wtikcait Uaa,' sad wvaU han nit Mm to dtaOi, bed be ael beta
eiaatad tbetseaoaasmptlTeaialiieateoiilil aol teat leaf (Beat, (Wlf.,**: Dta
Caaalii^ Ha. IS, T> UpoaaPoiniwlanfraaeealnitlariiraupdraBa'^"''^
a JiMaa,-aiana ari Jtwn. Hla ■awai irih wn pa '- "— '
fc^jibiaWiMptadtodle
(Ua, llL Ut 1x11. n 11i*]adgBiaIiti>tT>onaaWam.,ItlL
M-M,rT.ni(.)iaun>m>aT*ble lk« UMet Uo. Ao na, r— -!■■"•-•
haa toaad Bear ehaanitsoe—Llualiii (t&alBCnilBttioa to Ua eiL)i IMdarot,
^nl nr la JUfui it S-tA t fJWrsa (UL I-WT, Faria, ini); Voltiaidata,
flUnnOsiwCHaderslebea, isnl; »UMfiii,lmltlwmllMmm^ftliiilnaammln
{ided.,FH^lsee> Piiriheilataao(blaw<niie,neH.LaliMM,tnPnlolofai.
tm.-a.tMif.Jiiati,Dn>T-ll*il»nnu3i'.(BiMm,l»n>: A. Msnaa. ^ &•.
>Uii?AlloBi,UiTl)*,tfeoR. VanaaiiBita itanr'a PUaioi. Sim, itUL pp.
tw-in (ISS'V .at laaat al(htaea |Mae WKka^ia baifl kdirt, amow thne As
mptr^UioMt, ao attack ■»» thm poBolar cooeeptlDH oC tbe |0(Ul asd 2)s
MS<riaH(H whleh, tajadi* bT ttie anent CncMls, Bsat ken besa laUisst
tunwUiis. aiiieeO<lllasMltI)dlHal»kiilLi(tbslMnlsLwtlM^
aoms erOw ban bim lo£^aia atjia h alabetalalj etluelBd tni QBlBlllka
(rai(.,i.l,lU.ltl\also brrmtoO. lWi(,:OeUIas, iUl,U Aa dHl*
aa M hla aatfeonhft ot tbe irBMUaa BdiH to a Mnadar o( Woalia AseUhiaria
Or. t».m)i aptaat tt nnstltt aat QuMUaBa laatfaMiar<»Bt Ha&aa apM
Sgaesa^-li.^SX SoBHoTtbt nilMra,Dnhabl7taBdiidialiBniilhlaitUa^
leAcosd Senega aBnnf tba ChrtiUaasilCta assBDiMga la U* tan Isd to tb*
IHniy etaaarnapoaleinstatntli tt Fanl and laaiaa, whteb was kaowa
(psstoiBB fscoBtar^nElataiW ¥hbbasalTsarta*tOHfaitsiMlhicbMgTlIsl
HvUtD, meet tboRii^lji dlseual la vi» aoBBeatair en tba A ts As
HUbplus br Dr L^ufie^ badiov D( Dnitiaai aadaa, new ed,1BTIl_Bp.
namt, who an«* (p. ns oot*) eiiaia.<uUer HdborWaa A. FleaiT, « (M
il MjOm ([Mb, ISQ} i C. Aabsr^TslMi nstq, also new cd. MaJfn at »
ftal (Ma, l*n&L '■•C- bsifisu), isDaMbbad^ Drtl JUaadl«i#n{Lelp-
ale, ini)rr.W.n^inr, Si^hra g/ttr ftdfLaatao. La.)iaad O. BoMer, b
Or arm dm Dm MMllm. itU,, iwn, vf- »n. add ^ aitlela* br r. X.
Kraaa la nsebf, fivtatatru, *<)<' >!>■' pil eOMM mHi«H, laaT) and br
■ " ek^lUDr,UL.2<Uiwlsai,ra^Mt-HlhtbeM«M^an>lsw
■ „.'(partfc.
ifcRH.)'
SENECA FALLS,' a post village and township of the
tTnited States, in Seneca county, New York, 11 miles
south-west of Syracuse by the Anbum dindon of the
New York Central Bailroad, occnpiee a beautiful sitoation
on Seneca river, the outlet of Seneca lake. It turns the
water-power of the folia to account in the manufacture of
■team fire-enginesj fire-eztingnishing apparatus, pum^
machinery, knit goods, flour, yeast, Ac The population
of Um village was S880 in 1880 and of tho township
68N(.
SENEFKLDSB, Alok. gee Utbooufhi^ toI. xiv,
pp. 697-698.
...co.Coot^lc
660
SENEGAL
BENEOAL, » rivar of werteni Africa, wUeh fkUa into
tba Atkutto kbont 16' N. Ut., 9 or 10 ntUo balow S(
Looim. It is formed at Bafulabii (13' SCr N. lat. and
10* 50^ W. long.) by the jnootion of tha Ba-fing or Black
Birer and the Bt^khoy or White River. The Ba-fio^
which ha! a width at (lie conflQeacB of IITS feet, deacendt
bttn the highhuidg (rf Fnto-Jallon bj • northwaid oonne trf
about 350 milea, during irhich it paasaa bj a aarie* of
f^iida from Ae altitude of 3160 fee^ at which it takea its
rise, to that of 360 feet, and receivM from tha right the
Nnukolo and die Fnnknmah (with it« tribatajy tha Boki).
The Ba^khoy, 800 feat wide at the oonflaenoe, hai been
pTeTionaly flowing from eait to weat and givea that genenJ
dinction to the SeneggJ, bat ita aooroe i« away ia the
■onth-eaat behind tha ooontry <d Buri. That of it« prin-
cipal tributary, the Ba-nle (Bed River), ia more to the eart
•ad lies withm a few milea of the oonree of the Niger in
the MandiDgo platean. Bebw Bafnlabi the Seoagal, flow-
ing Borth-weat, pane* a Bneccaaion <rf faili — thcoe of Qnina
(160 feat) and of Felu (SO w 60) — and amvcB at Uidinc^
after having accomplished ^^0 of Ita total oouim <d 1000
milM. It receiTes only two important afflnenta, — frmn the
li^t the "nwrigot" of Kola, wUch cornea from Knaiakhaiy,
disining llie alopea of the Eaarta plateau, and from tiie
left the Falem^ which riaea in the Futa-Jallon between
ImM and Timbo and flowa north-weat in a permanent
ntieam. Below UMiiie the Senegal preaeDta a eeriea of
great reachea, which become more ana more nangable aa
thef approacli the aaa.
fttm tha lit of Aonut la tha lit of Octobarit !• opan Mhr u
HUbM t» Twali Bot^wing m. ' "* ■ -
and Bakal (86 mil*« thai* an t
ID S fHt BstwHn Uidiai
a>**a " nurawi, * of which
_. .. , ■ flkit It Kaja^ an dlBoalt j it ii as thli uconnt
that a lailwaj haa ban pn^mtad tiitatau Kajrai (iid tha Higai.
At Bakal Mow tha oonflnaDoa of tb* Falaai th* rlTur b uvigabta
till tbt lit of Deoambar, Ihim Bakal Id SiIiU botwun tba ISth of
Job and tha lEth of DwiaBbar, and lart!; bom Hafa to lh> aca
In a diiUaca at ilS atiki It ia MriMbla all tha yaar nniDiL
Onfadda tba Brail* hidkatad aaviffittaa Mwaaa Itaftt and HMloa
k oftaa praoaHoqi avail Die bargaa dnwlug Uttlt arar ■ fooE, ud
abova UUin^ thongb asma naohaa aia daap aoouf^ troublonma
tnnahipflMBta an naoaaaary batwaaa >aaoh and naeh. Batwnn
HatBaadBald^ thaSaBapIsbaiina Ita diraclioB fton aMth-nrt
Id waat, and durtly baMa nachlag tha aaa to loath-vaat Tha
bu at tha aumth aaa imimHj !>•««''
raoca th«i 10 fcit, •* at Ugh tids
On tlvtr baeomaa tortnoaa aai anelawa tbajpaat iilaad tt HarEl,
im milaa loD^ indaaariaaaf atharialuid^ orwhkh mm ti ooonplad
In 8t Lonla At thii pidiit tba- li^ Inaoh of tha linr k oaly
f M hot ham tha aaa, tnit flia dmiM along tha ooait turn it anith
for othsT 9 nllBL Ilia aaanttiwaa et lla aonna^ tha ateapaiaa* of
ita oppir oooiaai and tha lapid avqiocBtiim whiok lakia plaoa altv
tba Moit niaj anann would Boon diy sp tba rivw«ntam of tha
SanaMl, aapadally la tin nppar lagMua ; bat natmal dami oih
tha waonal at Intarvala and tha watar aMDinalataa bahiad tham in
daap leashaa, whloh thna act at laaarroin. Ia tha lainy aaaaon tha
baiHan an nbmarssd In lumarioB, baglnning wltli tha biOittt
m, Iha laanbaa an flilad, and tha pbiai of tha lowar Banrnt an
cbangad into ImimHiia manbaa. Like I«ka Hosria in anEqnity
OB tba Kilf and tha laka of Cambodia at Oa pcaaant ttoM oa tba
Ua-koBK I'ka Ckyor on tba rigfat alda of tba lomr Samnl uul
Laka FaniaTDl on Aa latt aoniHtala raaana luioi, ncdvUig tba
aoiplaa watan d Qu rivar daring flood and taatorlnK tham in tba
dr; imiiL ror mootha lagatba tha littar totnu tha only driufc-
Ing BOBd hr Uia wild baaata of tha nmnnding oonntrr,— liana,
■lapunt^ * '" — """" . 1 » 1
I, laopanla, panthan, o
I, fhnataba, hTBiiaa, lytma,
it apriag^ j bnt tbqr an partially pntaolad bj cwtaina
a ban tha «>iBti of Om avawiatiaa whish aakaa Itolf
ae aavanly Ml <n tba tnalaaa aaaboa^ Owing to tkaaa aatonl
"looka," rimDai to thoaa of an nrltllnlnl rtMl. Thi Hiii^l ili ir
Davtrdiaohanaalaa than ITOOwlSOOoaUa bat par Nooad. Tba
loww Sanagal Ibnaa tba bonodaiy batwaaa Iha dry and bamn
BaJura aod tha ilob and prodnotiva ragion of tba wiatwa godaa i
tha Una of ita InnndatloBa ia aa athBOHtapUo nurdi batwaaa tba
iKuudla If oar and tba aattled Hagro.
BBNEaAIs* a French colony of weateni Africa, aim
poaad (t lioee of fortified po«ta and a loow ag^omom tim
ofatatea and tenitoriea in variotu d^;reea of aabj'igBitioii.
The forta extend (>() from f>t Louit at the man^ of tha
Senegal to Bafflmako on the Niger,' (b) along the ooa^ al
the AtUntia betwaao Hi Looia and th> month of the (Warn
bia and Bubka Lboite (j.v.). French inflDenoe ia fully
dominant along thoee linea either in the fomi of actual
territorial poaiieei>ion or of a reoigiiized protectoraite.*
Tba calonj tl ruled bjr a gDverDor. aen^la a J'patj to Clu Pmi.-li
Irgialitnn, and alsota I gatiarml UHgudlaC idi[«ii Bimabst^ tEB fcr
Iha alaotoial lUMriut of St Loula, folii for thai of Oorte-Dakv, aii4
tvo lor Uut et SaAMqaB. Tb* tluw somniniMa fnat named baii
aach ha mnniciij*! eeanciL Th> popolatim of tboaa Ffanch ftr
■a^ona wai In ISSi Itir.MI,— 4M<t urbui, l»,»)(l mial, SOM
"floating.' In tlie wbola uomlin' thna war* only 1171 Sorepanv
<f wham IMl inn Fnueli. Tha popnlatiia of tka jwoteelvj
ooontrlaa oannot ha aaoartaiaad. Tbr moat important irfam* fa thj
Mlony an Bt Loida (IS.SSt bduUtanta ia iSBSk Daona (S37S].
BallBiiiaJlM4), Uidlna (tOM). Joal (UTl), Gorfa and Dakar (~c£
KMM). Tba odooj haa a«^ ■ dodc tma port, that at Dakar t>
tba <aat of tba panlnaoU of Can* Yard, rinca ISBI aoBneetad vitk
Bt loola l>y a nflnad, lU ■ulca long, and vWtad hj AtUntir
rtoaaun on thair way ma Fianc* to oootb Amnica. Ba&aqu
and Oaria bava opan roadateada, whan vaaaala aaolioT il aDitic dW
tanoa from the aaai*. Tb* port of St Lonii in tba 9anenl k diC-
enlt of atom oaiag ta tha bar, bnt It la tba anly plaea wlicn
vaaaala aaa nftli aarion* daaJ^aa. Tha priixipBl iii mi iambi
■n St Latdi (impcata and axnortai Qorfa (eiport*), Mud
- ' '-> ■«- " 1 — i id-BQia [k»n
Rullaqii* (aiporta). Tla appv Sanagd aaodi
aa OalaiB nata), nm, niillat, laathvr, and ~
UDa<:alioa(golD«a)rramIn" - • ' •
DOttoo atn^ cotton yarn,
Ttoe, Bonr (nw and nAn
he. fta colony alao bnport* owwhb dbu,
faotDrad by tha naliva Uaekaad^ into agrienll
nm, niiUat, Nalhor, and ne^vt
a) rram India, England and B^nn
h, cotton yarn, jpina aod anmnnitimi, lobacco^ on
(raw and nAnad), mnlaaana, biieait% tinaatthe' «
• Swadidi Iroa, wbidi I
alenltinl tmfdan*
a Ha gronnd-nnti
biivaa, dicgara, and naarbaada Cayor
flr* riven of tba aoi " " - ' -
. Indla-nbbar, laathar, _
giin bill* oallco, Hamburg brandy, ""g"-'' gnauwdsr, EnglU
and Balgiaa nun, and Amaikan tobaoea^ £i EugUah firm l»i
IwaDly-thraa kotoria* on tba Bio Bnflai, and otbar* «a tin Big
Fougo and tba llaUacorte Tha total valaa of Um anxirti uil
Importa of the colony waajei,S2E,7Il in 1871^X1,774 MS in 1B80,
id £1,SS8,8S7 in laSS, the impc^l* aligfallypi
' Par tha phfidca! (eognfiAj, Ao., m
• Along thii Ih» n* Kichaid Toll, Dana* (iDiaidad In IBTl), Pods
(17IS aod IBM), ealiU (!»•), U*I«b (ISET), Bakal (ISSO), Kara.
HMIna (IBM), lad BaAilaM (1879) on tin fisn^, and balwoK tW
rivar ud tha tUgti tha fbrti of Badnnbi and Tskota oa tba Ba-Un;
KlU (1H1), KondB (1881), KbgauU (1884-88), and laatlr Ban.
miko (1883) or Bammaha, on th. Nlgn.
• AanoMDiiBaiiDiT L— Oa tba drd* o( llabf d^Mid Uia |al tt
■■tarn, tha i<nlaiit*d eooBtrlaa of Daiuaa (ISW]^ Ouy, Sum,
Onidlii^iliha, Bonda, ud Bun1>iik ; on tha olnl* of UUnt, Ehua,
Logs, aod Hating; on tha droit «f Bnftlali, Bailnia, Uakadi^*,
Balaadaga, Patlmln)*, Baflag ; tm tha drcla of Kiia, tb* jsoTiua tX
Xlta and Ptiladiigii ; an th* clmla of BMmmaiit, Blrgo ami littb
onuar raatdant at Kajra*. Aai
hnnad bf Lao and Tera (1808),
dnla of aaUt; the dnla of Pudor, which
d>i«d the olhar yartim at Dlmat and a poctioa oT Walo'; Um anh.
nbaa dktrlst of Bt Lmla, Inaladli^ tha oUur portton of ~
Harina^an, tha oaolcni* <f Oaodlala, K'pal, tbettat, Ooaita, CUa-
dnla of CttjaiM, aa *Uil
khar, M'dlago, ud TaU i H'dluibc: and llaiBa tTgntA, i^>atit*4
from Cayor and jilaead mdw Fnnch ptvtaoUoa, aa waO a* llw Ua(.
dooa <a Oayor and Baid ; tka (ahnrb of Dollar with tte Uaad <r
" ' " ot BadtqiH and the dnia «f Ar(^a^ nia,
. — . — .™ _ "■- - rf Ik, aoMh
Xia XtHtm
Halna and laaduBaa Mba* ; Iha did* of Iba Itia
Ptrngt wtth th* oonnteT af lb* »»■ ; Iha d '
Kaaaa^ Oanwa, nd tba iilaad ot Tombe.
S E N — 8 E N
«6I
9di £M0,O9(L nada wring M WtHi £900,00(K brrifin nmb
40,000, of «&!% £340,000 nprtnot Buliab, <e200,000l)«lf(itD,
30,000 Omnui, £80,000 Amuicuku^K In 18«a OM tbhIi
JTutar*. — liu niriaton ot Diajipe an M
Ben^abcntisao. Tha PortuKocH Ud h
bank* in tha 16th omtoi; ; uid tha flnt .
nn^ably lb
\7th »attu
£440,
<1S0,
•utend utd MO dsuvd. TIm bodgat for tha ooIodj In ISSJ wu
£IOO,SS0i lbrth«e(aiimiinil.axpauM£14,E>00,aitdliutli*«tpeiiM>
of tlM ajSUl £U0,00a
pe an Mid to hiT* diaeaTarail tha
a 1u4 ioma attAbliahmanU on itM
, . la flnt fnnch nttlamanta wira
17 IbcnMd In tha Uttar put of tha ISth or begbning ot tha
I7th oaator;. BatwMn ISfll, when Ituaa Franeh nttlamauta wjtn
anigDml to CUbnft Vot InlU Caapuij. and 17(8, whan th*
ooUn; wu aaiied bj tha EngUih, Saninl had [laiil Osila tha
ndminiatntion of no ftwgr than nran dmamt omnpnoiaa, noua ot
which ■tluiiad anjF gmt »iii iiina. thoo^ Irom lOM to 1784 aRiun
Tnn eondocted I7 a nallj afal* gorarnor, Andrt Brm. In 11177
tha Tnnch optund trau tha Dotah Kobqna, Fartudal, Joal, ami
Qot^ and tb*r wari Mmflrmad in poavMion of tbiaa ijacaa t^ (ha
tiaah- of HuHgaBB (1078). In 1717 titty aoqniiad »>rteDdlo and
In 1714 Aignln on tb* ooart at tha 8ab^ which aUll baloug to
tha ooloay. Ooria and tha district af Chp* Vanl van nnanderad
bv tha Ea^ih to tha rnnch in 178^ and by tha traatf tt paaca
inl78>thairiulBattbaSaDagal<naa]aO>atMad; butthaEugUih
■inin saptund tha aioQj in ttta wan of -tha Aiat ampiia (Qoria
1800, StLonia ISO*), and, thongfa tha tna^ af Facia antbotiMd a
eomplata wnUtntfon, tlia Fianoh anthorltiaa did not antar into noa-
aaaoon tilt 1817. Batwian that data and ISM littU waa aSaetnl bjr
thatliirtj-a«vaagov<rnaciwbo>iM«adadaachoUMrat8tLoaii;bat
In Uiii jaar tha apptrintmant at Oanaral Faidharba prorad tha torn-
ing-paint in tha hMory of SaaagaL Ha at onoa aet al>aat nbdiiug
tha koortdi (Babar) Iribaa of tha Tnin% Brdraa^ and Dnaiah,
wlioaa<'kin0^"«apaciaUj tlia Idi^ ti thaT^am^ had aabjntn]
tlM Franeh latllaiB and tndeia to t^ moat griaraia and arutiarr
aiaetlonai and ha boond th«m b^ tnaty to aooflna th^ aathoritj
toOtatiorthbaultorthaSan^aL In 1BS8 ha annaiad tha eonntrr
of Valo and eiaetad the tort of lUdiaa in tba soantiT of Eba«a.
Thia laat waa a bold atr^u for tha porpoaa of atauming On ad-
Tuioing tida at Moalaim inraaion. which nndar Omar al-BailJi
(jUagm) thnatenad tha aafa^ of tba oolonr. In 1817 IKdina waa
biill&ntlf dafandad bj tba mulatta Tan! Holla againat Omar, who
with bii amT of X^OOO smb had to nUra balbra the adnsca of
natiTe atilaa of tha Sodaa. ^ traatr itf 1800 Omar neognUad tha
FiBoekdaia tobalf of Banbiik, half oTEhaM, Dondn. KaMna,
" " " - - ~ jjj.^ |j^ Wnoa than
1 in rapid aoo
Goor, Onldiai^ha, Dan^a, Fnta-Tat& Dimi
anoautiona and protactontaa hara followad
nndar tha ODTaRionhipi tf Janrignibsrry, TaldliaTba, and Biiin
de riala. It ia aoBcimt to aientian tha faaatiea of 1881 and 188l>
A rj>^ jM aaa tHTM <ta iiaSa « <i bCM& »I»U-iaw J TuiUhi,
Sfif^ndb •! (Miii^ ia<7 : hldh^a on - Pspslatkn Bolna «■ baiil» da
SM^*t dn innr,* IB Ml. dgg. dt (Marw nria, MM i MaM M Vtcitr, la
•— gi daai r^UH^H OnUuUU, !*»-■>, MbllAid W t£t XUrfn at
Ilntaa,UM: n
BENEQAHBIA, a countiy in tho went of «qnatorul
Africa, compming, u the wuno indicate*, tha region*
aratered hj the Senegd and the Oambia. It Ilea between
9* and 17" N. kt. and 6* and 17" 30" W. kmg., bwng
bonnded on the N. by the Bahara, W. bj the Atlantic,
S. b; Kerra Leone, and E. by tbe Joliba or upper Niger.
The area is estimated at about 400,000 square miles.
Accapting tbe coarse of the Sen^jal and its rigbt hand
affluent Uie Ba*iUe Ba the bonnduy towards the Sahara,
the Jtdiba aa the frontier towards Segti and Upper Oninea,
and the watenbed between the Hellacor^ (Meliicoor;)
and the Qreat Scnrcies as that betwera Senegambia and
Sierra I<eone, wo hare oalf for abort diatancee to fall
back on a mere conventioiud delinitadon, — in the north
between Sidian on the Ba-nle and Sanaanding on tha
Niger tu Hurdia ; in the sontlMast, from Sannnding to
a point abore Nramina ; and finally between the Joliba
and the Bonreea of the Great Scaidea. Tbe Senegambian
coaat eztenda *oa&.eoath-iireet almost in a stiaigbt line
bosa the N'diadier or Hoeqnito lagoon (Harigot dea Ua-
riagoaina)^ tormertj the mrthem mouth o( the Senegal, '
Cape Terd, the moot irestera point of tlM Atnma en
tinent; thaa it bend* aoath as far m 0^ Boso; and
afterwards sonth-eaat aa f ar as the llellacorio. With the
ezceptionof the two great capes just mentioned, the only
headlands of any importance aia Cape St Mary, forming
the lonth aide of the estuary of the Gambia ; Cape Terga,
between Bio Nnilez and Itio Pongo ; and Eonaliiy Poin^
t^poeite the Loe (or Idoloa) lalanda. The only gulf on tbe
whole coast is that wliich lies to the south i^ Cape Teid
and contains the island ot Gob^b (7.0.); the other inlets,
such ae the bay of Bangareah, are mere estuaries or river
mouths. Apart from the island in the Senegal on which
St Loois is built and thoee formed by the deltas of the
riven, the only islands along the coast are Qorte, the
"' (or Biiug) Archipelago, the Loe Islands, and the
Kap ot Senagimbla.
little island of Hatakong. The coast in tbe northeni port'
has the same appearance as that of the Sahara,^low, arid,
desolate, and dune-skirted, its monotony relieved only here
and there by cli& and plateons. Farther south it be-
comes low, marshy, and clothed with luxuriant vegetation.
Behind the low flat seaboard the oountiy rifles into a va.it
plateau terminating eastwards in a mountainous region.-
Hough of no great baight, theee mountains cover a largu
area and have numetous ramifications. Farther to ttie
east ^ey sink abruptly towards the Niger valley, while
Boathwards they are prolonged towards Sierra Leone and
the interiOT of Upper Guinea, perhaps forming those Kong
Uountains which are said to exist between tbe ocean and
the Niger basin. Under tha name of Mounts Badet,
Tandi, Matd, Kisai (of which the first form the " Alps "
of Pnta-Jallon) they deecand on the west by a series of
traraces to the plains ot Benegombia, and on the north
they extend to the left bank of the Senegal and even
throw out some spurs into the deeert beyond. The moun-
tain ngion is cat by numerous erosion voUeya. As to the
ganetal altitude nothing is accuraiely known, but the fol-
lowing points have been determined — Mount Daro, 406R
feet J Kniuworo, 3868; Womani, 5799; Yenkina, 3.160;
Dogoma, 3S34 ; Pampaya, 3290. Tbe princijial riven are
the Senegal, the Salam, the Yomfaea, the Gambia, the
. Caatmance, tha Cacheo, tha Geba, tbe "BJo Grande, tbe
SENEGAMBIA
Ounni, the Oompoiqr, the Bio Nnllec, tlis Bio Fongo, the
Dotnka or Eaoakrj, the Forecanfth, uicl tlie HellMoAe.
Tliej all rise in the monDbuna ot the intonor cv et the
foot of the hi^^lende and fell into the Atluili& Ilwir
geneial direction ie £Nan ee*t to mat widi a (onth-met
oedezion, vhieh beeontee •Imye more praioniMed ee wt
advance wnthweideL Unlike theee liTen, the Joliba or
Niont <;.•.), flowing' north and matiMee^ loca peMM
tx^ond SeDi^embie. Legoon* and beekwateia -aie oon-
mon ; but there ere no troe lakee of any importanoeh
Th» gMdogieal oonititntian of thxtoantniiufatTnyfaBw-
taeOr kDon, (iptdallr in tht inlaiiar. 11m low ngini of On
■MtaeidfauiTai7imUi)rm(AuMt<T. It eoiuiitiorModrtoBMor
11U7 iMki uid looia badi of nddiih acU oonlabuiw mu^ ihellf.
At ««rtdn poinb, ineh ■■ Oipa Vord ud Ci» fian,'flw ■»£
MoatiempaBt; it i> llu ted odoor of tin ModitoiM In fhct iriilch
hM ghee Ou* Boio or C^ Boofi ita smdo. CUt iktM ebo
oceor, 4od itlnhmli tbmtwtiimmttri tlimUmbAmimttiln
btmhle tnnglMbM ud volonie main. For JutuMtL Ow Uend
etOarfoIibMllia;tlMBlMn(BiMla)I*luid*m eomnaBdor
notiN asdothu rdouiis pndncti ; ud a gnat put ^ tt* oowt
to tba north of Bio NoBm «aiuUt> of buiHloaBd uindkloid reebL
n* b«M of tbo moontilno ii Sinned In Botiln pkM* «f div ilatc^
Irat mm gannlljr of nenito, pocphjiir, ^eaila, or taehrtb la
thaMdbtriotominKhbtiudinBOnioooai:. Inn end gold in
fimndinthamaiuitMUiindtboallmTkldaiMiti. nioibtMualaa
(U17 down gold dntt. Hmf of lb nU^i an oorand tiA krtllo
•oataDdtbmlignunllTafatllabdt (low thoiirw (idee; bat
tba nat of th* aoonlrx.b lathar arid and itanla.
Tho dimita i> &r from iMing to onlieilthr ai It ftvqnantlj
>Miirt»rl. Xxoopt «hen r«llow ftm ia n^ft Joiopaaaa ma; Ura
than aa ntiibetoillf ai at huia. Ua* an two aaa«on% lb diy
Muon ud th* ninr leann or wintar, tha kttar aonlamponiMOW
with ODT aoMmer. Along th« Maboaid tlw dij ateaon ii cod and
wraaabla; in tiia Intarior it la mild oolf fbr tlw thna nootiha
whkh eomapood to on wtuttr, and tbao it baeonaa e tfano^ in-
tdat^la baft. Hw annoal lampantnn Iiiriiwii« aa wa eltenoo
nnth and mono^idl; aa wa adnuut nat into tba iotarinvaxoapt,
of ootttm, whan u aaoant ia mada to bi^ar altitadM To an
Cth of 0^ Tafd tba obangn of tamparatma baooma kaa and
naAod; BiMCohaaamonaAiablediaiatalhuOoriat laat-
wardt th« montblf raaga of tha tbannooMtar baeoan mora azlsn-
ilirs. Tha Biaritniim mdiuM vhioh an amptiotuX at 8t Lmda,
bw»ma alnnat tha inla at Bakal — "■-* ■• • —' -'
ftar, tha dailf land and aM bnaan wUcb oeol tba atma^ban
along tha naboard not baing Mt tut inland. Dnrl^ tba othar
four botlthi than pcardk a gantia aoatb-waat monaooo accom-
paniad with baqntut «abaa, at^nu, toroadoaa, and nina. Scntb-
. waida alMig tha ooaat tha tnde-winda mdoallr dacnaaa in both
(tnogth and dmation, wbUa tba Knth-waat nwnaoon beoomea
non powarfU and parriatant. Tba niur aHaon btgina at Oorta
betwaen 17^ Jwm a»d ISth July, on tha Gambia ahnit BOth Jnna,
on tha Caaamanoa abon t tha and of ICar, at tha Knago* Aiohipalago
iboBt tba Biddla of Kaf, and on tha Bfa> FoBai at tba and of
April I^xlnc thia aaaara Banagambb, dnaobad b]r haa*; nina
km^t from tba oonn, haa araiTwlMn oaa nolform aniatnM*.
Tba nuan tBmpoiatnn la tbno^ioBt Tair doaa on SI* Yabi. and
tho nnga of taa thaRKNnatar fi aitnmaly "-itt-l The liTcn
onrflow and flood tha lowUndi. Stonna an ftaqnant VBgatadm
t latlwr Barfoen
^ popdbitiai a
appnaA to aconna]
twain mlBiona. I , _
tba ITagN, and the Enr^aan. Tba Moon, a.
(Tnnaa, finknai, and DiuU), baloog atrieti; to tin r
of the Bwiigil ud appaar in Benigambta onlr aice|
Tha Kaoaea ftam flu bblk of tba popolatiaii. The; ai
into FMda (Peak, Fnlba, F^ah. or AllatabL Tonenilnm, Haa-
dlngoa^ flankoUi. Tok^ aaraaa, Dioli% Banbana^ Baknt^
Bldhna, Aipala, Hahw, Laadnmna, Bagaa, and Bmu. Tha
Poda inhabit Tnla, Damga, Hondo, and Fut»Jallon 1 tba* kn a
nddiak comploxioB and ab>oat atni^ h^, Ibdr bo^ Mrlr
atoot,batauirHmbadim. Tb^ an gentle and boepitabla, bat
a Sananl than
paiant u tba at
than an tS daya of nia.
, Dacana, ani:
a dMit Iner
At St Haiy'i
inereaie being
.. - .,. - iiy'tiBathon^
_ n an tSdaya, at Badbto H at Biiiio m, at BoU 117,— B iteady
iuenaaaaaweannadi theeqiutor, ThennmbvofatoniHlblJowa
daoat tba aama ntio of loereaea, and ihoinn which lait two or
tbna boon at St Loole give plasa to whole dayi of nin on tba
Cbaamance and the Uo Hn&ei.
The Uns of tha SanegunUu tnee ia the baobab IJdaiueitta
iigaaU}, wUA eoBetiBaa at tba iMifA of 14 bat hae a diamelar
orMfntaBdadnnrnfMeaoeoflOt. AoadHanTat7niinann%
ma ndaa, .4. jfilMMiiia, bdng indeed tba commMxat of all Seoo-
^uabian tteaa and Tduabla Ibr ita (hip-timber. Among the pahn-
trMO tha raaur dnertea to be nuntionad, aa tiw irood rwiiti
molatBM and tba attaJn of uweta , in aome plaaa^ aa in O^or,
it IbnD* magniAcut Ibnata. The wood of dta cdloadn (Kiugn
taugattMlt), a toll tiw^ ia nnl la Mnat'a wcrt aad inUjii^ and
ill bark fnniiabaa a bittar tmiie. Tho niempatie orowi eomethDaa
100 IMI high, Ita braacbaa Iwlnning only at a baight of aboatlS
feat Tbe &e« prodaettig tha iiaionel 'la-nnt ' growi on the banfci
■ A Tei7 cotniilrta acooutt of thle Mt will l« toud in Mlddl^
or the Bonaem atraama. It h almwt neadbai to manllon Cba
■nltilar, the gmiat, tbe mtmoaa, llg-tnaa, ocange-tran, eacoa-palm^
maage-lna^ pomagnnatea, ^eamoMai and eo 00. Tba dintv
the neta^ tba tiamud, the dImlgntoB, tbe gdogue, tba n'taba
Tlebl adUda tmlta. The oolliTatad ^ta an millet, liee^
tolvoco, baiicoti, gnnod -nnta, indigo (wHd iadigo la elao aboB-
dant), eotton (alao finmd vUd), niaii^ anninjane, uul tba battap-
tneorkaiitl
no SaoagamUaa Bod ia qnila diflbraot frvaa the Baibary Uob :
Ita ooloor ia a deeper and brlghtar nllow, and tt^ m>» ii neitbar
ao thick nor ao long. Other baaato of jr^ an tbe beard, Uia
wQd oat, the aheetah, tha d*«^ and tlM ijma*. Hie wild boar to
duariertbu tba Innpaan vaiia^. Anialopaa and aaadba ooeor
Inlargnbnriiaali thinilgli mijia IT aanibli. thegbiukiaaommaa
b the ngioi of Oa nnar SaeegaT; die elephant ia nn ; tho
hippopotamaa ia gtadoal^ dlaq^aering; Oiooodilee ewarm boiUi
in Uta amer Sanaol and the appwT^^. Heakcyiand M>ea«f
dlAiaait apadaa (tba flhlmpaaiaat dw eoloboa, tba eyaoeapialaa,
4c),tha(mdml,nt,aBdmooaaaboand. Tbe badgeb(«, menttot,
pormi^na,haraLiabUt,Ae., ereabomatwith. Among tha mora
notamr^ hM* are the oetrieh, «bidi mkrataa to theUmn;
tba boatvd, ooconing in daant and nnenltiTatad diatrida : tba
nanbon^ • Und of OoA, wlA Ita beak black ia the middk and
red at tha point, whieb fteaotata the motot maadow-landa and tha
Mma ; the btown partridgai tha 10^ partridge, and flw onaO in
pbine and ^ tha moontaln ddaa; and the gninoa-fowl In tbi
ikata and tmuhwood. Aku tho o — ' "- "~ -
do, tha manataiL and the eod-tah.
theh«na,aa
ha manataiL and the eod-tah. Hw do
ataae, ax,*eail, goa^ do^andaameL
Mpolatiai .of Siainmbia cannot bo aa
^ to aoosnOT, bnt it may be nmghly >t
an cao^ht tha aperm
i,I%id b
addicted to theft Tho Toneadann, Poil balf-la«ed^ bdonginf;
originally to fnto-Jallon, an almilar to tite Negro noper; tbcy an
traaobano^ warlike, (bad of plnader, aad Iknaocd in their Uiwaai-
meduiam. Tha Maodiagoaa or HaliBUa faUtalnt tba badna of tba
nppcr Kigar and the nppar BeaMgal and the woatara alope cf tio
mtaiaa of fnta-Jallon. nwycomnrbe the Handingo prcner,
ipying Handing, and the MaUnkia and Stmb^ acattmd.
about Banbok, Burt, aad Fnladoga. Under tbe name of Wakon
or Waagam thij an deo (bond m bQ the imaunaa tract which
■extendi to tbe north of tha Kcog Honnteina Thtn an tall of
alaton and of great maecnlar (trugth. Tha SarakoUa ere raw of
the bniKhaa •* tho Bambara laoa srodnccd by ocadag wllh ib»
Pftnla, Their t^mrtt*Kr |a mild ana paciflft. Scatteraa d
Qooy.Kama "■— ■" — >-•- ■>- '— ' -••—'-
in it with ai
1 aboatia
end glceey akin.
t uoeea, thick lii
neat bdly: the body ia tattooed. 11a Bamban^ who hare innded
Kaartt and Khaaao, have a eowan tdaek eomploxioa and tHidy
hair; their ohod:a an aaAad with deep acan. Tha Babata
inhabit tba left baak of the Caaamaaoa ; they an aa craal and aa
fond of pillage aa the Ibndiagoea, hot an men geaerooe'towanh
the Tanqdabed. Tba Bialiuae liT« on tha banka M tha Rio Qni^
and the^nela in &e valley of tha Caebeo and tbe Qeba. Hu
Saloa and the I«adumane an tribotoi^ to tha Froioh porta of tha
Sio KoKei aad the Bio Pongo. lalam la gradoall* diilacluiig ibeai
ftom fhdahiinu The Begu oocapy the coact between t£a Bio
Noltei aad tbe Bio Poago. Tha Soma formerly dwolt od the
upper Niger, bat they wan (opalled by the iandoB of tha Mduon-
madaaa and an It tha pnaant time aattla' '
Fongok The prindpd ungnagea ot Sana
Sareraet ICandWud AnUo. WoloT L ., ..
ofSananmbla, la Wolot; Walo, Cayor, Ikkai, Baol, SnciBi ,
andlnthatownaof St LranaandOoia. ^m rim BMtegal ineika
the Una of aeperetioabutaeeiiVolof and AieMc. Pool £ tba lan-
goage of the Ponb and tha Tonconlaora ; Handingo caanjaiaea
aaiMialdldactv—l(alinki,8anbiki, Bambara. Tha lew Xoii^aaaa
an BMinly dvu and mOlts^ ottdab or tradan. Vhlta planten
an rare. Tha nativta of Sanepmbia an gcnoal]* dimad Into
two qiiita diitinct daiae^ — fteonaB and abTca. na giiota an a
kind ot barda or tronTbrta who lire at tbe aipenn 01 thoee whoae
pniiea that dag. Polygamy ii genanlly pnotieed. Qrcnmtiaioa
af the adniti ofbotii aaiaa ia a rtto aocompaniad with K^antitioaa
, tfolot Poal,
Wolof £1 qiokan in a large part
" '^■— «>--■ KaaiBalaiD,
O"
S E N — S E N
663
oWmnm. 'Enrj eaaton, unrjr nUkga in tndcpendwit S«u-
({unbUiigorpmodBither hjicliiercking")™ by m " ilmuny "
clnttd bjr a grniii of Tillugn.
Senanmbia a diTidwl into Fnooh Ssaaaubs (vitk the tarri-
toiii* ^ued uudei Fnnch pTaUi.-doii}, En^uh Saa^punbU, Porta.
gatt 8tatpm\>it, uid ludtpgudeut SiiMgimbu, coupniiiig tha
mUra ititai oot audsr the protecdon of a imttptux potnt.
FtmA Sonogambia it called tba eolanj ct SiHiaii. (f.s.). KDgliah '
SeneauibJacoinpriiH theeatablUbmentaot OMOtUButo-n) and
th* ulandi of Loat PortnEnaae Sanagambia oouiiatod ml qulta
rKODlly of BlaaagM AnhlpgUco and iIm " (Jkctoriei " at Zigfaiwdur
on At CHamaiK*, Oavhto and Farim oatha Rio Oaobao, uid Oaba
on tba Oaba. Bj an ansnaemHit aflteted In IS94 Portnpl oadad
Zlghinchor to Fnooa in airhanga lor Uaisbt on tha Loango ooait.
Oermauj, which Moinad at ona tiin« diipoaad to plaoa Tariooa
tairitoriea ot Dubralu, Koba, and Eabitai Dndar it* proMctioa, baa
Ibnaallj abandoDod the plan. Tlio indapondantatataiaranot Tarj
namarou^ but for tbe moat part thay an lacva aitaniiT* than th<
pratMtad DonntriM. They wen quita racuidj — Jolof, Ijing be-
twaao tba Beosgal lod tlia Oambii b one dinction and batwaan
tba Palomj and tha ocsan in the other ; Biu4 in tha Handings
ngioa, a temtorr abaandiog in gold : Ouidioukha in Qangara, on
tba itabt bank ot th* Hau<«al Than atiU nnuin among tba man
impoctaot KiarU, tha 011111(17 of Sagn, uul Fata-Jallon.
SaTaral linei of Eogliili, French, and Oennan puiteta call at the
Sanagiuibian porta, and imall iteanien saocnd the luri^hla por-
tlou of the riyen. A railnaj onttaa 8t Louie and Dakar, and
■BotlMr liiM ii being ronatniotod from Eayea to Bafulabj (on tba
appar Sana^), with a projected eitanuon to Bamnuko. Than
U talwraphio commnuicatlon betnsen Dikii and 8t Louii, and a
noood line pnta all tba porta of tha apper Niger and the left bank
oT tha Sanegal into connexion with 6t S,miM, which ha* tonoh of
|>a by meant of a tubmarins cabU paaring bf mj at th*
[7 lalaadi to Cadiz. Tha foraigu tnda of Sanijninbja oooaialn
its, Maama, luL iudia-rebbor,
ooffaa ftinn tha Bio KdAbi,
. importatim otiron, aloohoUo
liqDera,fireanna,an]inDuttian, roral,beadj,tobacoD, pnaerrad fooda,
and blae calioo (guinie). (U K'.J
SENIOR, tliaat-v Wiluuc (irM-1861), Eoglidi
political economist wm bom at Compton, Berki, on S6th
8«ptembar 1790, th« eldest son of tha Rev. J. B. Setiior,
vieu of Dnrafonl, Wilte. He was edncatad at Eton and
Uagdalen CoUt^e, Oxford; at the nniTanity he wm a
private pnpil of Kichard Whatelj, afterwards archbuhop
of Dublin, with whom he reoiaioed connected bj tiea of
lifelong friendship. He took the decree of B.A. in 1811,
was called to the bar in 1819, wid in 1836, during the
chancellorship of Lord Cottenhom, ww appointed a niaatei
in chaDceiy. On the foundation of the profeaaonhip of
political economj at Oxford in 182C, Benior wu ebcted
to fill the chair, which he oecapied till 1830, and again
from 1817 to 18S2. In 1830 he waa requested bj Lord
Helboume to inquire into the state of combinations and
atrikeo, to report on the slate of the law, and to auggeat
unprOTements in it. He was a member of the Poor Iaw
Inquiry Commisaion of 1832, and of the Hondloom
Weaveri Comnuaaion of 1837; the report of the latter,
published in 1841, was drawn npbj him, and he embodied
m it the enbatance of the report he had prepared some
jeaiB before 00 combinationa and strikes. He woe also
one of the commissionera appointed in 1861 to inquire
into popular education in England. In the later years
ot his life, during his visiti) to foreign countries, be studied
with much care the political and social phenomena they
exhibited. Several Tolumea of his journals have been pub-
lished, which contain much intereiiting matter on thexe
topics, though the author probably rated too high]; the
value of this sort of social study. Senior waa for wany
years a frequent contributor to the Edinlnirsh, Qvaiia-lg,
London, and NbiiA BritUh BevieiBt, dealing in their jtageB
with literary as well as with economic and politiod sub-
jecta. He died at. Eensinj(toD on 4th June 1864.
Bu wiitihgii on economic thenrj conaiatad of an article in the
AncbpWia JMnfw:ilana. aftarnrd* aeparatalr pablnbed aa A*
OmMm qfllit SdeMi 1^ PoiUimi SaonoiRy (lata, Sd ad. 166*1 ud
bis lectnraa delivered at Oilbrd. Of the latter tha foUowliig wen
printed— .^n Inlnduclmy Lietitrt (1BS7, Id ad. 1S81] ; Two Lt-
(HPB OH PeptUatloit. with a comqioiidann hatWND the aatbor auil
HalthQi[1881)i ThTmLielurtt<MtKtTnHm,tiinimi^lhtPivioM
JlHaU fivm OtiHitrt la CBuntry, sad On MmmtiU Hua-^ qf
WtaUk (lasg) ; Thrm LKtam m Ua CM ^ obbaninj Mmty a«<
OK Bine Sffiif V Priratt and (httrmiiM Fium- Mon^ (1880) ;
nrtt Litur- im Waga ami <m IJu ^itM qf AimUiinM, MaMn-
fry, oKt tfar, iMtt a f^aa m tte Onmi and Stnufia </ (t*
Promt JXMurtiHWit (1830, Sd ed. IStl) ; A LMkf* m Ou Prwbu-
Hen qf tfallk (1847) 1 and Aur tntrtdudorf LKtam Bu pBHtiad
Aoiwaiy (lafia). Seraral of hi* iMtolt* wan tnsilated into
Fnuch V U. ArtiTabine under th* title of JV^k^ FbndamtKiaia
fSeaumii FoiOifiu llStb). Senior also wrote ' '
and aocial qnattiosa — A LJlUr to Lord BtiBidc n
fir a* JriA Poor. Comm
MA Soman CoiluUa C
containing mggwBoaa i
"■ ~ ■ ■ ■ ■ - ■ ■ /„Cul
a lajpol Aoeiriint
miOatioii if TiOm, and a Prmitim fir lAt
CUrn (ISSl, 3d ad. 18SS, with a i>nr*ce
aa to tha maaann* to be adopted m tha
CBlfoMfnUla
'^ffuPr
i/*r«t«<a«mJrMi/«(itn(l8S7)i Stifgatioiu M Popular Bda-
aUim (1891) j Avitrim Slam (in part a npiint fram tha Edin-
htr^ Stitv; lt«t) ; A* Addrim on Edaeation gtUwrtd to Of
Social Seinet Amociatin (\M»). BiacDntribntioD* totbc nrlawn
wen collected in Tolnnwa *ntiU*d Asm* m FkUm (1884) ; Bio-
gna/tiatl akMm (18BB, chlaA; of noted Uwjera) ; and irirtorvad
atid PkUemMml Etayt (IBW). Id 18ES appeared hie Jeunat
lapttn Tvrktfmd Ontei in At Autttmniif lig} a*A Hit Bigitnina
Lisea ; and tha Ibllowing w«r* edited after hie death bj hi*
:glit*I — Jemab, CJntsmaihoM, and S—ayi rtlatins to JrilaHd
(ISW) ; /annuls tgrf it, Jfivnoi and Italy fiim 18iS ia IgSI, vHk
aBttldk<fauBi!6l»ttlon<flSiS{iejl)i OmnrwatioHM wilA Thitn,
Atiaal, and oOtr DidiniuiAtd Arani ivnuf Os Socond Xoipirt
(187*); CeitvernUfoiuirilXDititiguMtiFtrmadKriiitlHoStamd
Bmpin, from ISSO to ISeS (ISBO) ; OantortaUeiu and Jaumali ia
Egypt md MaUa (1889) ; aim in 187S OmvipinHbrKi aw( Ctmmr-
*Kvmr wiM Aitat do ToequtrlUiJrom 1834 >» 18f».
Senior's Ittaraiy critldaniB do not *Mm to ban o«r wco tha
fav.uT of the pDblic; thaj an, Indeail aomawbat formal aud
acadsmlo in spirit The author, while Is bad both g»d aanas
and ri^t feeling, appaan to baT* waot*d th* d*e|i*r Inaigbt, tta*
genialiM, and tea catbolio tastes which are neoaaBrj to make a
critlo oFa high order, tapscially in the field ha ehoaa, — uat, namab,
of imaginatiT* litentnn. His tncta an practical politic^ tlungh
Iha theses they sapported ware ionutliii** questionable, wen ahlj
wiittan and an atUl worth nadh^ bat oannot be aid to bs of
moob psimaiient Cnlenat ' Bnt hM aanw will cootlnaa to liold
au hononrabK though isoondaiT, plaoe in the liistorr of political
econom]'. Senior n^tda politinf aoonom; •* a pnnly d*dnctiTa
scianca, all tha tratba of which an inftoenoea fn>m four alementarr
pronaitians. It k, in his oninioa, wrmu^ saiinsd t^ J. 8. Hill
and othan to be a hjpoth*no sciaiico, — toauiea, that to to aay, on
postnUtMnotcorrespmidinswithKidalnslitiM. Tb«pnaiiaM&oai
which it sets oat an, aoootding to Um, not aaBnm|itiona bat beta
It ooncanu itself, howevsr, irtth wealth onlj, and can tharafbn
give no practical coooael m to political actton : it can only auggeat
conaldentiana which tha politician ahonld keep in riew aa alamenta
in the atudj of the qoeatiana with which be ha* to deaL The con-
ception of eeonoinica aa altogether dednctire is csitajnly cmneoD^
and pota tha aciance fmin the ontset on a &!>■ path. Ent da-
dnctfou has a Ml.thoa^llmitsd,st)hsra within IL UsDc^thon^
tha chief dUficoltle* of the nl««:t an sot of a logical kind, jat
accunte nomsnclatu?*, strict dtfinlttoD, and rigraon* raasiniiag
an of gnat importance. To tkeae Benior has giren apaolal attsn-
tion. and, notwithstandins occasional padaobw With tnj nsefnl
nsnlta. He baa in •evcnl instaooea improved the tbma in whtoh
aoceptad doctrinea wan babitoally stated. He haa alao dona ax-
eellant eervjos bf pointlpg out the arbitran noTaltiea and tr*q«*nt
JDconaistencies of tsnniaology which dslue Rioardo'a principal
of prodootion, " and of "hi^" and "low" wage* in tb*
eartain projiortiDa of the praduct as dlstingaished from ■-
smoont, sod hi* pecoliai amploymant (^ &e epithets "I
„_, — ._^.__.. ,,j^ ^ oaidtaL Ha ahowo, tot
' — - ' ' ' Ricardo an laue.
jn the differanc* of
firtiliiy of tha diSennt portions of land in cnllivatioii ; that tha
labourar always natives pncisely th* naosasarie^ or what coaton
leada Iiin lb conaider tha aacaaaaiiet, of Uh ; that, aa inalth and
|>opaIstion advaocs, agrionltunl labonr bacinnes tees snd ksa pro-
pwiionstaly prodnotiva J and that tharabn tba shsr* of the pro-
dues taken t^ tlw landlotd and tha labonnr mutt constantly Is-
■- I... >.L.. v^ .L :^t,^ L — itantU diminish!
ihed from an abaolnte
lUad " and
too, that in
ndki
wbilat that taken by the o
■ ■ -- -ntbofsUtl
> that of "
S E N — S E N
iDtndaced tlia word "■Mliinin'' — wliicli, Ihimgh obvioiulf not
[na from objectiun, la for »m< purpCHS iwrul— to gipmi ths
jaBning "e«t of pr°di'<^''°'< " ■* ^^' ■un of libour (ad ftbutioaan
ot tibinir iDd an amannC or abtCiiiBiicA an diipante, and do not
admit of redoctioii to a comiaon niuutilatiTa itandard. He baa
ulded aome importAnC caDiulantioui to *bat had bem aaid by
Bmitb QU tha diviaion of labour. Ha diatlDriiithaa uufulJj betwaea
tba rata of wagea aod tbe price of labooi'. But in lacking to detai'-
mine the k« of nagoa ha falli into tba arror of anuming a delar-
ta of the aerricaa of Ualthui
dm "aa a baaofactoc of manliind on a lerel
le yet ahowa that ha modiGad hie opiQiooe
'ably in the oouraa of hia carver, ragajda hia
trlue with wbidi hii ouna ia aiKKiatsd M
and aaaarta tha^ "in theabaenaeordiatiitb-
an eiacganted aatii
Taganuy pronounca
with Adam Smith.'
on poinlation cocaic
alatemenls oT tha d
ngae and ambiguou
ing caoaee, aubsiateUi
than population." It ia urged bj
■dmittad. that b; hia iuUtioD of
a»iunption of tha dedn of wealth la the Kle niotive.rorca in the
aoonomic donuda, Senior baa, in onnmon with moat of the other-
foUowera of Smith, tasdsd to aat ap egoiam u ths legitimata rnlar
uid coida of practical Ufa. It ia no aafficient anawer to thia chargo
tbait he makea formal reaerve in faTOnr at higher cndi. From the
acieatlAc aids, Cljife Laaliahaa abundantly proTed the ananbatantial
oatnni al the ahatractiDD implied in the phtue " deairs of wealth,"
and tha inadaqnacy of Boon a principle for tha aiplanati
(J. K
SENLIS, k town of France, in the department of Oiw,
lias on the light side of the Nonette, a left-hand affluent
of the Oise, 34 milea north-north-eut of Paris by the
Nortfasm Railway on the branch line (Chan till j-C^py)
connecting the Fari»CreiI and Paria-Boiasona lineo. In
1681 it bad only 6870 inhabitants ; but its antiqnity, its
biatorical monuments, and its situation in a beautiful rallej,
in the midst of the three great forests of HaJlatte, Chantilly,
and ErmenouTille, render it intereeting. Its Qallo-Roman
walli, 23 feet high and 1 3 feet thick, are, with those of Bt
liider (Ariige) and Boorgea, the most perfect in France.
Th^ enclose an oval area 1034 feet long from east to
west and T91 feet wide from north to south. At each of
the angles formed by the broken lines of which the circuit
of 3T66 feet is composed stands or stood a tower ; namber-
ing originally twenty-eight, and now only sixteen, they are
semicircular in plan, and up to the height of the wall are
nnpierced. The Roman city had only two gates; the
present number is five. The site of tiio pnetoiium was
afterwards occupied by a castle occasionaUy inhabited by
the kings of Franca from dovis to Henry IV. and still
repreaented by ruins dating from the 11th, 13th, and ISth
centuries. In the neighbourhood of Senlis the foundations
of a Roman amphitheatre, 138 feet by 105, have also been
discovered. The old Cathedral of Notre Dame (12th, 13th,
and I6th centuries) was begun in 1155 on a vast scale ;
but owing to the limited resources of the diocese pK^fress
was slow and the transept was finished only under Francis I.
The total length is 369 feet, but the nave (S8 feet high)
ii shcnter than the choir. At the weat front there are three
doora and two bell tower*. The right^hand tower (25S
feet high) is very striking ; it consist^ above the belfry
stage, of a Teiy slender octagonal drum with open-work
turrets and a spire with ei^t dormer windows. ' The left-
hand tower, altered in the ISth century, is crowned by a
balustrade and a sharp roof. In ths ude portals, especi-
ally in the southern, the flambc^ant Qothie is displayed
in all its delicacy. Externally the choir is eztremdy simple.
In the interior the sacristy pillars with capitals of the 10th
century are noteworthy. The episcopal palac«^ now an
ardueological mnsenm, dates from the ISik eentnry; the
old collegiate church of St Frambonrg ma rabnilt in the
19th century in the style which became chaiaoteriatis of
tha "sMnteachapeIlea"of the 13Ui and 14th Mntoriw; St
fien^ though endoaed by Mvaliy hamcks, haipraM^'Vd
its two towers. He eccleaiaatical college of St Tineent,
occupying the old abbey of this name, has a vety elegant
chnrch, the date of wluch hss been greatly dispnted by
arclueologistB, who sometimes wrongly refer it to CJueen
Anne of Rnasia. The town-houae and several private
booses are also of architectural IntereeL
Sanlia can ba traced back -to the QaUo-Boouin townablp of tbs
Silvanectaa which aftarwarda bacama Alnatomagoa. ChnatiaBity
was introdnoed by St Riaul at tha doaa <3 tbs Id cantory. Dming
tha fiiit two dynaativ of ynooa Banlia was a royal rwdaaice.
Altar tha diamambemient of the Carlovio^n empua it belonged
to tha ooBnts of Venoaadoia and then to Che royal domain, and
r in lira. lU biahop, Gaiiia, eleetaid
the battle of Doufinoi. The boiveaae*
Jscqnane of the 11th centory, then aided wiUi tba
"* "" ~ Engliah, whom, Jtowaver, tbej efterwaids
in 1214, alsnaliie
took part fai the
eipeUed. Tha Imgata wvn there baatan by I
Tille and la Hone. In tha tima of Hann IT. the local mann&e-
tant employed 200 maatsn and 1000 man, bat all indoatrial aetivl^
baa now diaappaarad. The bidioprio WM tnppraased at the Revela-
tion, and this tappnaaion wia ccnGrmed by lbs ConconlaL
SENNA (Arab, tomf), a popular purgative, consisting
of die leaves of two spedea of Cattia, viz., C. aaOifolia,
Del, and C. anytuU/oiia, VahL C. aaO^olia is a natiTa
of many districts ot Nubia, e.tf., Dongola, Berber, E(»dofan,
and Senaar, but is grown ahu in ^mbnctoo and Sokoto.
Tba leafiets are collected twice a year by the natives, tha
principal crop being gathered in SeptemlMr after the ntiny
season and a smaller quantity in ApriL The leaTsa ara
dried in the simplest manner by cutting down the shniba
and ezpoeiog them on the rocks to the burning eon onti]
quite dij. The leaflets then readily falloff and are packed
in large baga made ot palm leaves, and holding ^wnt a
quintal eadt. These packages are conveyed by i*"""!* to
Asaonan and Darao and thence to Cairo and Alezaodria,
or by ship hy way of Hassowah and Suakim. He leaflets
form the Alexandrian senna of commerce. Formerly thia
variety of aenna was much adnlterated with the leaves of
SoletMdanMa Argtt, Hayne, which, however, are readily
distingnishaUe by thur minutely wrinkled surface. Of
late yean Alexandrian senna has been shipped of moeh
bettcc quality. Occasionally a few leaves of C. obomala.
Coll., may be found mixed with it. C. anfftuli/olia aflmds
the Bombay, East Indian, Arabian, or Mecca aenna ai
commerce. Thia plant grows wild in the n^ghlxHirhoad
of Yemen and Hadramant in the south of Arabia, in Somali
Land, and in Bind and the Pni^ab in India. Tie leaTot
are chiefly shipped from Uocha, Aden, Jeddah, and otlm
Bad Sea ports to Bombay and thence to Eniope, the
sTerage imports into Bombay amonn^g to about 350 tons
annually, of which onfr-haU is re-exported. Bombay senna
is very inferior in appe«ranae to the Alexandrian, h it
frequently contains many brown and decayed leaflets and
is mixed with leaf-stidks, dw, C. angiutSfiiia ia also
cultivated in the extreme south trf India, aod there alfbids
larger Icavae, which are knoim in commerce as Tinnevelly
senna. This variety is carefully oollectad, and consists
almost exclnaiTely of leaves of a fine green colour, witlioat
any admixture of stalks: It ia exported from Tntiowiu.
Banna appesn to have been introdnesd Into Earep* abont lbs
0th oeatiU7 by Aiabian phyaiciaii^ by whom, howavar, tt* seda
seem to have »en prebrred to the leaves. Tha msdidnsl' aotnity
of Hnna Ie>Tea aBceaiB to be daa to a vary nnataUe aidlnid ^scodda
of cathartic add bas been rivan. It finadilT
" loo* F-*^- '" —
imposed br a lamperal
B much balow T
•Fahr. t«
it is Bolobla in dilate alcohel
it l^s an aettve porgativa. Two Utter priae^lM
el and asua-idcrin hsve been esbfanted Inm aanna
by Ladwlg : ttae ftemv is solabk and the lattar ipsglsUs in atbai.
A yellDW ootaotinf matter baa alao basa obtained ftom semm, bat
it appeals probabU that tt is only a deeompeiMw predoM gf taOnr-
tlo aoid. Benna most be iaolndsd aamg the IrAtant puigaUiast
dno* cathsrtia add hs( no ^silsnt dtet wbsa ti^actsd Into tba
S E N — S E O
BENHAB. See Benaab.
SENS, a town of France, chef-lien of an arroodiBsemsiit
ia the daportment of Tonne, lies on the right sidi of the
fonna near its cooflaence with the Tanne. and on the
railway from Paris to Ljons, TO miles soath'tast of the
former city at the intersection of the line from Orleans to
TroysB. It deriTea 'ta importance from it* antiquity and
its archieplBCOpal Bee. The cathedml of St £tienne occtt-
pie« the lite of an ancient temple on which St BaTinian ia
Mid to have built, at the cloae of the 3d century, a little
chnnh conaeciated to the Virgin. The preeent Qothic
cathedral, erected between 1122 and 1168, suhaeqnenti;
underwent alteration in the 13th centniy and again nndor
Lom« XH The west front measona 1S4 feet in brtadtji ;
the middle portal hat good icnlptDrea, representing the
parable of the rirgini and the ator; of St Stephen. The
right-hand portal containa twenty-two remarkable statnettea
of the prophets, which have aoffered considerable injuries.
AboTe this portal riseid the stone tower, decorated with
armorial baaxinga and with statnee representing the prin-
dp^ benafactora of the chorch. The bells in the cam-
panile, by which the tower is surmonnted, enjoyed immenae
t^Mitation in the Middle Ages ; the two which still remain,
Ia Bavinienne and La Poteotienne, weigh respectively
16 tons 7 cwts and 13 tons 13 cwts. The left portal is
adorned with two bad-reliefs, liberality and ATarice, as
well aa with the ato^ of John the ^ptist. The portal
on the north side of the cathedral is one lA the finest
examples of French 1 6th-centiu7 scolptnre. Glass windowB
of the 12th to the 16th oentory are preserved, some of
them representing the legend of St Thomas of Cwiterbiiry.
Among the interior adornments are an alburpiece finely
carved in stone, the tomb of the danphin (son of Lotus
XV.) and his consort, Uarie Joaiphe of Saxony, one of the
masteimeces of ConstoiL and bas-reliefs from the manwlenm
of Cardinal Duprat The treamry contains a fragment of
the true cross preeentad by Charlemagne, and the vestments
of St Thomas of Canterbury. It was in the cathedral of
Bens that St Lonis, in 1334, married Margnerite of Pro-
vence, and five years later deposited the crown of thorns.
The official building of the cathedral, dating from the 13tii
centiuy, have been restored by Viollet-lo-Duc The old
judgment-hall and the dnngeons had remained intact ; in
the first story ia the synod hall, vaolted with stone and
lighted by beautifnl gridoille windows. A Benaissance
structure connects the bnildinga with the archiepisoopal
palace, which also dates from that period. The oldest of
the other chardies of Sens ia St Savinian, the foundation
of which dates from the 3d century, while the crypt is of
the early part of the Ilth, and the nifper portioos of the
Uell-tocrer of the &at years of the 13th. The contents of
the museum of scnlptDied stones have been mainly derived
from the old forti£cationis which were themselves con-
structed during barbacUn invasion from the ruins of public
nionumaiitd. The only town ga& still preserved is that
known as the dauphin's (1777). In the public libary are
a number at UScJ. and a famous missal with ivory covers.
The chomist ThenarJ has his statue in the town. The
population iu 1881 numbered 13,440.
Si'im, vLcii thr oipllal of tha StnoiMt, on* of tfaa moat powerhl
|>o[il« of Gnul, Iwro th« nung of ApntiDuio. It nu not flnallj-
■uWuwl bj tlio fioniiiia (ill sftar tha dafeit of TercingBlorii. On
lb* illi-idton or Ginl into HTaDtni iirDrincai under th» amperar
Viiinw, AfloDlifnm bframa tha mdropdlti of the 4th Lngdnnanrria.
Thcntn'^ circtuw^ siiiiiliilhnln:^ tiiuniplu] urhaa, ud iqaedncU
vnv *1I built in tin town 1>J Iha Ronuui. It vu tho meating
|wut oT <tt ipsst hij{Liruji. Tha iahabiUBli, coatartad to Chris-
tisnlty by the martyrs Bavii
Alamuni ud tha fruikt
TtS, snd finally sgsliut the Honnnns in Sfil
dmi the ton far all ntontba. At tha
ftudsl paiiod Sgu *si RDnmed by
id Fotgntinn, hald oat sf^insl: tha
1, aBaiiiat tha Sanceol u 731 oc
of tha
lohklbt
dituy tomnU tha midJla of tlio lOth centuri ; und tha contasti
oT tbeae counti with thn urchbiehopa or with Itunr teadtl niperion
oftan led to much bloodshed and disaflter. BavarAl conncili were
b>kt St Seiu, notablj that >t Vhich St Bernard and Ahelud met
The boi^eaaee in the middle of tho 12th caatnry rorraod a defanfdn
■OMciBJion wbich csiriad on wu- agiinat the cler^, and Philip
AagastoM reiiored tlie comnime. In the ardoar oT ita Cathalicdim
Seni maatutcd tho ProEffitantB in 1S62, and it wu one of tho first
town* to ]i^ tha Leume. Henry 1'^' •^^ >">t effect hia entruioe
till IStt, and he then deprived the town of iU privileoo. In ItH
Pljii, hitherto niUn^^ to SsDi,- wu rnada m uihMlfaopiiii, and
the biiboplia of Chartrea, Orleani, ud Uarnx wore tniufeiT«d to
tho new juriadietion. In 17S1 the eiEhblsliaprJe was i«daced to •
bishoprio of the depsttmaot of Tonne. Bnppreaaed In 1801, tha
M« wunstond in 1807 with the rank of ■rchbuhoprio. The town
waa occnpied by the ilivwlen in 1811 and 1370-71.
SENSITIVE PLANT. See MntosA; comp. Petoo-
hoar, vol. xiz. p. 62.
SEONI, or Sboku, a British district of India, in the
Central Provinces, lying between SJl' 36' and 93* 68' N.
Ut. and 79* 14' and 60' 19' E. long., with an area of 3347
square miles, is bounded on the N. by Jabolpur, on the £.
by Mandla and B&Ughit, on the S. by NSgpur and Bhan-
dira, and on the W. by Narainhpur and Cbhindwlra.
Seoni is a portion of Uie upland tract formed by the
Sitpora ELUs which extend along the south bank of tha
NarbadA (Nerbudda) from the plains (rf Brooch on the
west to the Haikol range in the east ; and it ia remarkable
for the beauty of its scenery and the fertility of its volleys.
The northern and vrestem portions of the district include
the plateaus of LaklmAdon and Seoni ; the eastern section
consists of the watershed and ekvoted basin of the Woin-
gongo ; ond in the south- wEst ia a narrow strip of rocky
laud known as Dongart&l. Tha. plateaus of Seoni and
I«khnidon vary in height from 1800 to 2000 feat ; they
are well cultivated, clear of jungle, ond their temperoture
ia always moderate and healthy. Geologically the north
part of Seoni consists of trap hiUa and the sonti of crystal-
line rock. The soil of the plateatis is the rich black cotton
soil formed by disintegrated trap, of which about two-thirds
of the district are said to consist, but towards tha south,
where cliffii of ^eias and other primitive formotioua occur,
the Boil is silicions and contains a krge proportion of day.
Seoni ia hilly throughout, the hills for the most part being
clothed with small stbnted trees ; but in the valleys and
on the plateaus forest trees are very thinly scattered and
are seldom of targe size. The chief river of the district
is the Wainganga, with ita affluents the Hirf, Blgar, Thell,
B\jni, ond ThAnwar ; other streams are the Tlmar and the
Sher, affluents of the NarbadA. The average annual nin-
fall is about CO inches.
The cenma of 1881 ntnnud the popuUtiDn of Sacnl diatrkt st
S34,73S (mslea )«7,>£G, ftnialoe 1SB,B08) ; at then I7«,70B were
HIndos, 18,112 Uohanunedui*, BS Chri/itianB, sud 189,411 ibori-
ginsla. SioNi ({.«.) [> the oiUy town ndth i population aiceeding
10,000. or tha total dialrict ans of 3217 K]iuira mils only 10^8
an cnltivstad, and of the portion lying mute f 13 sr« ntamed sa
colEiTable. Wheat forma the utaple crop ; rice and other food.gruua
an alio axtenuvely groATD ; and among IniecelUneoue products sn
cotton, fibrei, and BDgar-cino, In 1838-81 the gnua rarenna of
Ssoni imonnted to £SG,118, of irhich the laad-lu yiolded £1S,S79.
Trada ia ehiofly omiod on by meuiii of mirlteta in the town*.
Hanufacturea consiit of coane doth and same pottery of aapsriac
nnility made at Kilnhin'dr«. At Elianila, in the midst of the
breat, leather ia beaatifully Unned. I'ho only meuia of eommmii-
cation ia by road, the ajEgTenta length of which la catimated it 90
milea. Seoni canio nndor ^tiaii i^a euly in the IVlh cautury,
on tha downfall of the Nagpur power, and it was formed into a
■apirate diattict in 13(11.
BEONI, principol town and adminiiitrative headquarters
of the above district, is ntuated in 33* 6' 30" K. lot. and
79* 35' E. hjng., tnidway between NAgpui and Jabalpur.
na.— Sf,.-
666
E P — S E P
Hifu founded in 1774 hj Hohammed *tn(n Eliia tnd
Gonteiiu large pablio gardeiu, a fine marfcet-place. and ft
Iwndsome tank. In 1881 the popnlation was 10,303.
SEPIA ia a valnable and mach nsed deep brown pig-
ment obtained from tlie ink-aaca of Turiooi apeciea of
Comji-nsH (q.v.) ; that from wbicli it ia principally ob-
tained i> Sepia o^cinalu, a native of tbe Ueditarraoean,
and especially abnndont in the upper parta of the Adriatic,
where it is a prized article of food. To obtain aepia the
iok-sac ia, immediatel; on the captnre of the aniioal, ex-
tracted from the bodj anil apeedilj dried to prevent putre-
faction. The contents are gtuiseqnently powd«ed, dinolved
in caottic alkali, and precipitated from the aolntiou hj
neutralizing with acid. The precipitate after trashing with
water ia ready to make up into anj form required foe uae.
S^ia-toae or mt/le-bom comiiti of tha Intntul "■hsU" or
■ksleton atSijiia oMeiHolii tni othtr sUivd ipeoin. It ia an oblong
eoutei Btmctare from 1 to 10 incha in laogth and 1 to E Incha
in great«t irlJth, cxnudstiug inCamally of * highly poTOOi oellalu'
muu or carboiuita of lime iiith i»ms uumol laattin covered b;
a hutl thin gliu}' layar. It ia used priudpallr aa a poUihing
mataiiul and loi tooth pomler, and alao aa a moulding "■■J—^*' for
fine cutiugB in i>nciaue nietala.
SEPOY, the luual Engliah apelliog of tipdhi, the Persian
and Urdd term for a soldier of an; Und. The word npcfA,
"army," from which lipihi, "aoldier," ia derived, corre-
sponds to the Zend fpddAa, Old Peraiau fpdda, and has
ajso found a home in the Turkiah, Eordiah, and Paahto
(Pushtu) languages (see Juati, Kandbtieh der ZtTvlipracke,
p. 303, 6), while ibi derivative ia used in all Indian vema-
culara, induding Tamil mi Burmeae, to denote a native
soldier, in controdiatinction to fforei, " a fair-complexioned
(Emxipean) aoldier." Towards the middle of the 18th
century eflorta were made by tha East India Company to
train natives of good caste, both Hindus and^ohammedana,
for military service under tha company. Though they
were made to use the musket, they remained for some time
chiefly armed in the fashion of the country, with sword and
t&igec ; they wore the Indian dress — the turban, vest, and
long drawBia — and were provided with luttlTe of&cera under
TJnglijh superior command. Under their European leaders
they were found to do good aervice and to face danger
wiUi constancy and finnnesa. In the progrssa of time a
conaideiable chance took place, and natives of every de-
scription were enrolled in the service. Though aome corpe
tliat were almost entirely formed of the loweat classes
achieved conaiderable reputation for valour in the field, it
waa not considered aafe to eacoorage the system ; and the
Manpany reverted to their practice of recruiting ham none
Int the moat respectable ciassea of native society. It ia
on record that a coqw of 100 aepoya from Bombay and
400 from Tellicherry joined the army at Madras in 1747,
that the regular aepoya at Madras vrere employed in the
defence of Ircot (ITSl), and that a company of Bombay
•epoya were present at the victory of Plasaey.
For instUGta of tha aarly occnnrnca of tha vord lae Bomell and
Tnla'a Olduiry ef Anahi-Jndiait Terms, a. T. On the hietorj of the
aopojsoompaiaCipt^ V'"" --" "-■-■----' ' - - ■■- "--
and I'mgroM if i
Broonw'a Biilory
(CalcDtta, 1850] ; Colonel IVilaon'i JTutitnr if 0>* Iladnu Arrn^
OAndaD, 1SS2-S5, in S volamai] ; Vo. ixitL of the Qnaria-^
Bteim; and the military hietoiiea of India genarallj.
SEPTEMBER, the seventU month' of the old Roman
year, had thirty days assigned to it. By the Julian
arrangemeut, whilo retaining its former name and number
of days, it became the ninth month. The Ludi Mogni
^ndi Bomani) in honour of Japiter, Juno, and Minerva
began on the 4th of September. The principal eccleaiae-
tical feasts falling witbin the month are — the Nativity of
the Blessed Virgin on the 8th, the Exaltation of the Holy
Cromon the 14th, Bt Matthew the Apostle on the Slai
and St Michael the Aicbangel on the 29th, September
t At Bei-atl InfmlTTf (LoDdon, 1817) ; Captain
y ^ lAt Riu and Prog}-em if On Bengal Amy
; Colonel IVilaon'i Biik/ni i>f 0>* Uadnt Amy
was called " harvest numth " in Charlemagne's calendar,
and it corresponds pt^y to the Fnictidor and partly 10
the Tend&uiairo of the fiiat French repnblio.
SEFTIOiEMIA. After a wound, whether the i«sult of
accident or of operation by the surgeon, blood-poisoniag
may occur. Sepsif or putrefaction in the wound is the
moat evident local condition which ha« been asaociated by
clinical obaerrers with blood-poisoning, and hence the term
" septicemia." Within recent years the relation (rf micro-
organiama to the different forms of blood-poisoning has
come prominently into notice ; putrefaction la now known
to be only one of the fermentoitive changes due to the
presence of certain micro-organisms in a wound, and it ia
admitted that there are many organisms which, when they
enter a wound, may give rise there to fermentative changes
that are non-putrefactive. (See Bchizokycztes.)
Oifjaniama have recently been divided into two great
groups, — those which can only grow in dead or decaying
matter and those wluch can grow in the living tissues
and in the blood, which in this relation must be looked
upon as a tdasue. Tha firat group has been termed " Kpn}-
phytic." The second group may be termed "pathogenic'' to
distinguish them fnmi the saprophytic variety. But do
distinct line of demarcation can yet be drawn between
these two groups, and as a matter of fact some patho-
genic organiama may equally irith the saprophytic find a
pabnlnm in dead and decaying matter. Tet there can \ik na
doubt that the more common varieties of septic organisms
or aaprophytea can onl^ grow in dead or decaying matter,
and that uie Uving tisenee, more especially when their
power of vitality isgreat, ore able to resist and destrc^
the saprophytes. There are also some organisms which,
aa far as is known at present, may be innocuous and
give rise to no symptoms, local or general, when they are
implanted in the hiunan body. When an organism finds
in the tiaaues a fit pabulnm for its gi«wth and devel-
opment, the elements in the tissue are broken up^ and
the products are termed a "ptomaine" (rruua). Tlus
ptomaine may irritate the wound and pravent healing ; it
may also be absorbed into the blood and poison it, benee
the term "ptomaioe poisoning." Both Uie saprophytic
and the pathogenic organism may form a ptonuune in the
wound. When the wound is due to a saprophyte the
absorption of the ptomaine has been termed "sapnEania";
the pWkaine of the saprophyte -has been called " sepsin."
No apecial name has yet ,been given to the ptomaine
formed in the wound by the pathogenic organism ; dot
haa any name been given to the condition due to the
abaorption of the ptomaine formed by the path<^emo
organism. Onr knowledge is not yet sufficient to enable
us to separate these two varietiee of ptomaine poisoning.
There can, howsver, be little doubt Uiat tiiey do exist as
separate conditions, and also there can be little doubt ibat
in some instances both forms of poisoning may he present
at one and the same timeL
Tile pathogenic organism, however, has another poww
which gives rise to an entirely aeporate condition. Not
only may it form its ptomaine in the wound, but the
organism itself can entOT into and be carried by the blood-
stream and lymph-atream to distant parts. It can live in
the blood or lymph-atreom and can grow there : it may he
arreated in the capiUariee of the blood-vessels, or in the
lymphatic glands of the lymph-veaseU, and in these mtna-
tions may form, so to speak, a colony of organiams whicli
develop and form ptomaines ; and the ptomaines, passing
into the blood, may still further jxuson the patient. This
power of ths pathogenic ot;ganism is infective, and the
term " infection " has been applied to the prooess. These
colonies or secondary foci of infection oft^ go on to sup-
puration; bonce the t«rm "tfiFXia^^'' applied^to tbe
. E P — S E P
6«7
aluKOMM wUch Iiare long been obHrvtd In aoae lonat
of blood-|)<»BomiiK. It wM at odd tiniB thon^t th&t the
pnxnlli in the ongiml wonnd paoed into the blood, and,
being ranght in the mpillariea, yen the eaoae of the
»becea»-foni»tion in the parte diitant fnm the (round ;
lience the term " pyemia " or pns in the blood, ^le piu-
cells may eater ^e blood-atream ; it is not, bowerer, the
cellular element that ia the ewence of tbe condition, bat
the organism which the eelltilar element may carry along
with it ^le hectic condition obaerred in a oaae of long-
oontinuod eapparation is in all probability a chronic form
of blood-poisoning. In very 'acnte easei, in irhich the
poison is wther concentrated, vimlent, or in laiga quantity,
death may occor within a very few hours. In other cases
the condition may become duonic^ and if the strength of
Hie patient can be kept np by stimnlaDts recovery oft«n
takes place. The chajiees of reeorery are much greater
when the condition ia not truly on infectire one. When
the mannfactory of the ptomaine ia only in the irooad,
tlie onanism may be there destroyed by the use of power-
ful antiseptics or antifermeDtatirei. The primary canse
being ramored, the patient may then be nved. W
howcTer, the pathogenic organism gets into the h,
stream and dietant fod of infection are formed, the chances
ctf ultimata recovery are greatly diminiBhed. Yarioua un-
ancceasfnl attempts have been made by the internal admi-
nistoation of antifermentativee so to alter the blood that
the micro-organiua cannot find in it or the tiasaes a fit
nidns. The point to attend to is to prevent organism&i
fermentation in wounds by careful antiseptic or rather
antifermentativa precantions. Just as the word "septic-
mmia" has a more general application than can new be
strictly allowed if we look to the derivation of the word
and the preeent state of onr kno:wledge, so the word
"antiseptic" is applied to all substances which prevent
organismal fermentation, although many of these organisms
are undoubtedly non-septic in their character.
SEFrUAGINT. The Septuagint (dI i, IXX.) or Alex-
andrian version of the Old Testament seems to M named
from the legend of its oompoaition hy seventy, or more
exactly aeventy-two, translators. In the Letttr of Arittta*
(Aristnua)' this l^end is recounted as followa. Demetrius
Phalereus, keeper of the AlszandrJaa library, proposed to
King Ptolemy U. Philadeipbos to have a Oreek tronslatioa
of the Jewish law made for the library. The king con-
eeuted and sent an embassy, of which the author of the
letter was a member, to the high priest Eleasar at Jem-
■aJem asking him to send six ancient, worthy, and learned
men from each of the twelve tribes to translate the law
for him at Alexandria. Eleasar readily consented and seat
the seventy-two men with a precious roll of the law. They
were moat honourably received at .the court of Alexandria
and conducted to the Ulaud (Pharus), that they might work
undisturbed and isolated. When they had come to an agree-
ment upon a section Demetrius wrote down their version ;
thewholBtranslatioQwasfinishedinseventy-twodays. The
Jewudi community of Alexandria was allowed to have a
copy, and accepted the version officially, — indeed a onrse
was laid upon the introduction of any changes in it.
There is no question that this Letter is spurious.'
Aristaas is represented as a heathen, but the. real writer
must have been a Jew and no heathen. Ariateaa is repre-
sented aa himself a member of the embassy to Eleasar ;
bat the anthor of the Lttttr eannnt have been a contem-
perwy of the events be records, else he wotild have known
1 EiIHmI hj a Sclitrd (Prwikfort, tfllDJ, bj BiToeuap (b U«
/aiptiu), titi-byU. Bchmidt (in Ktni JtrMr, 1808). Ccof. Lnm-
tnio, Is tlis TVimm^tnuarthg Turin Ai!B<1«n]r, 1889.
■ Sallgir, /HXw.Clin.iiiHnadn,Sa.l78t: B. Boij, Di BMi-
«nm TtcUiM Origbulitift.
that Demetrius fell ont of favonr at the vei? beginning
of the reign of FMladelphus, being said to have intrigued
against his succession to the throne.^ Nor could a genuine
honest witnees have fallen into the absurd mistake of
making delegates from Jerusalem tlie authors of tiie Alex-
andrian version. The forgery, however, is a very eariy oiMb-
" There is not a court-title, an institution, a law, a magis-
bacy, an office, a tochnical term, a formula, a pecuBar
phrase in this tetter which is not found on papyri or in-
ecriptiona and confinned by them." * That in itself would
not necessarily imply a very early date for the piece ; bat
what is decisive is that the anthor limits canonkity to the
law and knows td no other holy book already translated
into Greek. Further, what he tells about Judea and Jerti-
salem >a thronghout applicable to the period when the
Ptolemies bore sway there and gives not the slightest sug-
gestion of the immense changes that followed the conquest
of FaleetiiiebytheSelencids. Thns, too, it ia probaUe lha(
the Jewish philoeopher Aristobnlus, who lived under Pto-
lemy Philometor(l 60-1 46), derived his account of the ori{pn.
of the LZZ. from this Letter, with which it oorrespcnidB.*
If now the Letter is so old, it is tocredible that it shoold
contain no elements derived from actual badition as to tha
origin of the LXX., and we must try to separate theee
from the tnerely fabulous. To this end we must consider
what is the main aim and object of the foigery. The chief
thing in the I,etter is the description <rf a seven day^
symposium of the seventy translators at the Alexandrian
court, during which each of them has a qneetion to answer,
and raises the admiration of the king for the wisdom
produced among the Jews by their knowledge of the
law. Further, \erj great wei^^t is laid on the point that
the LXX. is the official and authoritative Bible of the
Hellenistic Jews, having been not only formally acoepfed
by the synagogue at Alexandria hut authoriied by the
high priest at Jerusalem and the seventy elders who' ai»
in fact its authors. Other matters receive no special
emphana, and the presumption is that what is said about
them is not delibente fiction and in part at least is true.
Thus it haa alwaya been taken as a fact that the Tersioti
originated at Alexandria, that the law wag translated finfe
and that this took place in the time of Ptolemy HL On t£e
other hand, it has been thought difficult to bdieve that the
scholarly tastes of the Alexandrians, personified in Deme-
trius Phalerens as the presiding genius of the Alexandrian
library, could have furniahed the stimulos to rodnce the
translation to writing. One can hardly call this intrinsio-
ally improbable in view of the miscellaneous literaty tastea
of the court of the Ptolemies. But it has been thought
much more likely that the Septuagint woe written down
to satisfy the religious needs of the Jews by a translated
Torah, since in fact the version is fitted for Jews and could
have been intelligible only to them, and indeed never cama
to be circulated and known outside of their circles. Here,
however, we must distinguish between written and oral
interpretation. If interpretation was needed in the syna-
gogoe service, it was an onl interpretation that was given.
It was not a natural thing for the Jews to write the trans-
lation,— indeed they had religions scruples against such a
course. Only " Scripture " was to be written, and to put
the contents of Scripture in writing in any other than the
old holy form was deemed almost a profanation, — a feeling
ot which there is evidence in the Letffr it«lf.* It is Well
■ Haniilppiu C«lllln■chiIu^ op. Diog. UhtU, v. 7S.
* O. Lnsibm), SeiAerelut lur fAo*. Pol. di FEgnpU But Ih
Lagidm (Turin, IBTO), p. xUI.
* Clam. Aiu., armL, L J), to, i± Bjlb.: Guib, iV>|i. Au, li. ^
p. 410 •(. r oomp. Valckuur, JMmrO- Hm AriMmio, Ujdu, IWt,
668
SEPTUAGINT
known hoir in pBlesdna tka Torgum waa handed down
oimUrfoc centories before itwaa at last reduced to writing;
uid, if, on the contrary, at Alexandria a written Tenion
came into exisleuoe bo early, it is far from improbable that
thia was due to some infln«ice from without. That the
work is purely Jewish in character is only what was in-
eTit»b]e in any cue. The translators were neceBsorily
Jewi tad were naceeaarily and entirely guided by the living
tradition which had ita focus in the aynogogal leaaons.
And hence it is easily understood that the version was
igncred by the Qreeka, who must have fonnd it barbarona
and nnintelligible, bat obtained speedy acceptance with
the Jews, first in private use and at length also in the
cynagogoe service.
lite next direct evidence which we have aa to the origin
of the TiXX. ia the prologue to Eccleaiaaticua, from which
it appears that abont 130 b.o. not only the law but "the
prophets and the other books " were extant in Greek.
With this it agrees that the meet ancient relics of Jewish-
Oreek literature, prceerved in the extracts made by Alex-
ander Polyhiator ^ns., Pricp. Ev., ix.), alt ahow acquaint-
ance with the LSX. These later tranalations too were
not made to meet Iha needs of the aynagogoe, but eipreaa
a literarj movement among the Eellenietic Jews, stimulated
by the farourable reception given to the Greek Pentateuch,
which enabled the truislatora to count on finding an inter-
ested public. If a tratiaUtion was well received by reading
dicles amongst the Jews, it gradually acquired public ao-
knowledgment and was finally used alao in the synagogue,
ao fai as lessons from other books than the Pentateuch
were need at olL But originally the tranalations were
mere private enterprises, as appears from tiie [aok^ne to
Eedenasticns and the colophon to Esther. It appears
also that it was long before the whole Beptnagint was
foiahed and treated as a complete work.
As lie work of translation went' on to gradually f.ud
new books were always added to the collection the compass
of the Greek Bible come to be somewhat indefinite. The
. law always maintained its pre-emiuence as the basis of
the canon ; but the prophetic eolleotion changed its as-
[wct by baring various Hogiographa incorporated with it
•coording to an arbitrary arrangement by subjects. The
diatdnctton made in Palestine between Hogiographa and
AtMcrypha was never properly established among the Hel-
lenists. In Boms books the translatora took the liberty
to make conaiderable additions to the original, and theee
additions — t^., those to Daniel — became a part of the
Septnagint. Nevertheless learned Hellenists were quite
ml awan of the limits of the canon and respected them.
Fhilo can be shown to have known the Apocrypha, but he
never tiixa them, much less allegorizes them or uses ('
in proof of his tenets. And in some measnre the widening
of the Old Testament canon in the Septnagint must be laid
to the aocount of Chriatians. Aa regards the character of
the version, it is a first attempt, and so is memorable and
worthy of respect, but at the same time displays all the
weaknesses of a first attempt Though the influence of
contemporary ideas is sometimes perceptible, the Septuagiot
b no poraphrane, but in general closely follows the Hebrew,
— BO closely indeed that we can hardly understand it with-
out a process of ratroveraion, and that a true Greek could
not have found any satisfaction in it^ The same Greek word
ia forced to assume the whole range of senses which belongs
in Semitic speech to the derivatives of a single root; a
Hebrew expreasion which baa various Greek equivalents
ocoording to the context is constantly rendered in one way ;
the aorist, like the Hebrew perfect, is employed aa an in-
choative with a much wider range of application than
ia tolerated in classical Greek. At the same tim^ many
passages are freely rendered and turned whei« there is no
particular need to do so, and that even in books like tk
Prophtlm Priom, in which the lenderiag is geneiaJly quits
Bti£ The Utnolness of the version ta therefore due no* ta
Bcrupulousnees but to want of skill, and (irobaUy in pan
also to accommodation to a kind of Jenioh Or<^ j"^^
which had already developed in the mouths of th« people
and was really Hebrew or Aramaic in disguise. ThU Jewuk
dialect in turn fonnd it« standard in the Septoagiot.
As the version is the work of many hands, it is DMtarally
not of uniform character throughout all its portd, — indeed
considerable varietice of character sometimoa appear in od<
and the same book. The older constitnenta of tlie canOB
have an nnmistokaUe family likenem as coetrksted with
the later books ; this one may see by comparing KJn^ with
Chronicles or Isaiah and Jea^mioh with CnnieL Tbe
Pentateuch is considered to be particularly well done and
Isaiah to be particularly unbap|)y. Some of tlie Ho^o-
grapha (Ecclesiastes, Canticles, Chronicles) are repTodneed
witn verbal closeness; others, on the contrary (Jol^ Eadraa,
Esther, Daniel), are marked by a very free treatmMit of
the text, or even by conuderable additions. It ia not, how-
ever, always easy to tell whether a Septnagint Addition ia
entirely due to the translator or belongs to the original
text, wliich lay before him in a recension divergent from
the Massoretic The chief impulse in recent times to
thorough investigation of the character of the several puts
of the Septuagiat was given by Lsgorde in his Anmai-
Hn^m >w jTriccAtacAnt Uebertetiunff der FroKTbien, Leipeic,
1863.
The Baptoagint c^me into general use with the Grenan
Jews even in the synagogue. Fbjlo and Jceephns tue it, and
so do the Kew Testunent writets. But very eaHy small
conectioiis seem to have been iatroduoed, especially by such
lUestiniaDa-aa had occasion to use the LXX., in consequence
partly of divergent interpretation, partly of differences of
text or of pronunciation (particularly of proper names):
The Old Testament psssages cited by authtos erf the fird
century of the Christian era, especially those in the Apo-
calypse, show many such variations from the Septuaginl,
and, curiously enough, these often correspond with the Islet
versions (particnlarly with Theodotion), so that the tattct
seem to rest on a fixed tradition. Corrections ia the pro-
nunciation of proper names bo as to come closer to the
Hassoretie pronnncistion are especially frequent in Jose-
phus. Finally a reaction against the use of the Septuagint
set in among the Jews after the destruction of the temple
— a movement which was connected with the strict defini-
tion of the canon and the fixing of an anthnitative text
by the nbbina of Palestine. But long usage bad made
it impossible for the Jews to do without a Greek BiU^
and to meet this want a new version was prepared cons-
sponding accurately with the canon and text of the FhKt-
sees. Iliis was ^e version of Aquila, whidi took the
place of the Septnagint in the synsgogues, and long con-
tinued in use there.' A Uttle later other tianslatioas
were made by Jews or Jewish Christians, which also
folloired the official Jewish canon snd text, but were not
anoh slavish reproductions as -Aquila's veraion ; two of
these were Greek (Theodotion, Symmachua) and one Syriac
(Peahito).
Meantime the Greek and Latin Chrialiaod kept to the
old version, which now became the official Bible of the
catholic church. Tet here also, in process of tim^ a
certain distmst of the Septuagint began to be felt, aa its
divergsnce from the Jewish text was observed through
comparison of the jumnger versions hosed on that text,
or came into notice through tiie frequent discuaaiona be-
tween Jews and Christians as to the Uesusnic propbeciea.
or, cdrt.
SEPTUAGINT
On the nhole the Chrutiana irere dispoeed to cliwgo
the Jews mth faUiffing their Scriptnna out of hab«d to
ChrutiELnitj, — n chtu-ge which hoe left its echoes even in
the Koran. But some lea« pr^ndiced Bcholsn did not
sbaro this cnnent view, twd went so far in the other
direction as simplf to identify the Jewish text with t^e
ftathentic original. Thui they fell into the mietake of
holding that the Ister Jewish text wm t^t from which
the S^tuagiDt traoBlatoiB worked, «nd b; which their
work wai to be tested and measured. On these critical
principles Origen prepared his fsnunu Hveaj^n, in which
he placed alongside of the Septosgint, in six pAnllel
columns, the tiree younger vendona and the Hebrew
text in Hebrew and in Greek characterH. The Beptoagint
text be corrected after the younger vcinoni, marking ^le
additions of the LXX. with a prefixed obelus (—, -i-), as
a «iga that they ehonld be deleted, and supplfing omis-
sions, generally from Theodotion, with a prefixed asterisk
(*). The end of the passage to whidk the obeloa ot
asterisk applied was marked with a metobelns (•<).
The some ngns were used for Tarions readings, tiie read-
ing of the LXX being obellted, and the variant, from
another version corresponding to the Hebrew text, follow-
ing it with an asterisk. It was only in simpler cases,
however, that this plan could be carried through without
making the text quite unreadable ; the more complicated
variations were either tacitly oonected or left nntonched,
the reader being left to Judge of them by comparing the
parallel columns. Origen made most change in the proper
names, which he emended in coniormity with the Jewish
pronunciation of the period, and in the order of the text,
nhieb, to preserve the paiallelism in the columns, he made
to follow the Hebrew.'
Origan's critical labonrB had a very great influence in
shainng the text of the Septnagint, though in qnite another
direction than he designed. Even before his time the
Septusgint was largely contaminated by admixture from
the other versions, but inch alterations now began to be
made systematically. . ^ua he intensified a miachief which
to be sure had b^pin before him, and even before the
labours of Aqulla, ^eodotion, and Symmachus. llie most
uguiflcaat evidence of this contamination of the text lies
in the conSate readings, where the same Hebrew words
are translated twic«^ or sometimea even thricei or where
two Hebrew reading of the same passage are represented,
sometimes by simple jnxtapoeitbn of rendering that
differ bnt slightly, at oUier times by a complicating Inter-
lacing of very different forms of the Greek. These con-
flate readings, however, in which tiie trueTeading survives
along with the false, are the least btol aorruptions ; in
many cases the genuine text has disappeared altogether
before the correction, ss can be seen by comparing different
MSS. A faithful picture of the corruption ot the text of
the Septnagint as it has come down to us is given in
the apparatus to the greet Oxford edition tA Holmes and
Parsons (5 vols., Oxford, 17M-1827).
Not long after Origen there arose almost contemporane-
oosly three recensions of the Septnagint, which became
established in three regions of the Grec^ QinrcL " Alex-
andria et ^gyptuB in Septuaginta snis Heeychium landat
auctorem, Constantinopolis usque Antiochiam Lodani
martyris eiemplaria probat, medira inter has provincia
Palestinn codices legnnt, quos ab Origene elaboratos
GuaebiuB et Pomphilus vnlgaveront : totusgue orbis bac
inter se trifaria varietate compngnat," says Jerome in the
Pri^. M Paralip. ad Ck-omaiiwn. Aooording to this the
text of EniebiuB is that of Origen, i,t,, a separate edition
of the fifth column of the Heiapla, which tonttdned the
Septua^t with asterisks and obeli. The text of Hesychina
has not yet been identified with certainty*; that of Lnciod
is, according to Field and Lagarde, most probably given in
Codd. Bolma., 19, 83, 93, lOS, and another serisa of MSS.
for the prophets. It is by no means the case, however,
that all our MSS. can be arranged in three families; many
belong to none of the three recensions, and among these
are such imporiant codices as the Alexandrian (A) wd
the Vatican (B).
The divergences of the LXX. from the Hebrew are
particularly great in the books of Samuel and Ein^
also in the prophets, especially in Scekiel, and still more
in Jeremiah, and flnsily also in Job and Proverta. In
Jeremiah the differencea extend to the order of the
chapters in the second half of the book, and therefore
have always attracted spedal attention. In Froverba
too the individnal proverbs are differently arranged in
the I.XX, and similar differencea can be traced in the
versions of Eccleeiasticus. In the Pentateuch theie are
considerable variations only in the last fart of Exodus.
Hie text of the genuine Septuagint is generally shorter
than the Msssoretic text.
Oxford •dlttoubjOislK 1707-301 (Bl tiis Hoond Oxford sdltioD by
HolnMi and Puhds, 17S3-1S27 ; (t{ Lagank'* (ditiDU of Lndao,
vol. 1., Oilttin^ii, 1883.
The LXX. ia of great importance in mote than one
respect : it is probably the oldest translation of consido^
able extent that ever was written, and at any rate it is
the starting-point for the history of Jewish interpretation
and the Jewish view of Scripture. And from thia its im-
portance as a document of exegetical tradition, especially,
in lexical matters, may be easily understood. It was in
gr«st part composed before the dose of the canon — nay,
before some of the Hagiographa were written — and in it
alone are preserved a number of important andent Jewish,
books that were not admitted i£to the canon. As the
hook which created or at least codified the dialect of Bib-
lical Greek, it is also the key to the New Testament and all
the literature connected with it But its chief ralne lies
in the fact that it is the only independent witnese for
the text of the Old Testament which we have to compare
with the Hossoretio text Now it may seem that the
critical value of the LXX. is greatly impaired, if not
entirely cancelled, by the corrupt state of the text If we
have not the verdon itself in authentic form we cannot
reconstruct with certainty the Hebrew text from which it
was made, and so cannot get at variona readings which
con be confidently confronted with the Massoretic text ;
and it may be a long time before we poesess a satisfactory
edition of the genuine Beptuagint But fortunately in
thia case sound Tesnlts in detail must precede'and not
follow the eetabliahment of a text sound throughout. The
value of a Septnagint reading must be separately deter:
mined in each particular case, and the proof that a read-
ing is good is simply that it necessarily carries nsback to
a Hebrew variant and cannot be explained by looeeneea
of faanslation. It is therefore our business to ooUect as
many Greek passages as poesible which point to a various
' Sm, howBTBP, CeiiHii't b<*» on tlw wranriom of LXX. In tba
JifltAamM irf tb* K InAitDto Lombvdo for ISth Tabmirr ISM,
«hara It li ■hors Hut Uii Coda mcrhtln SvUiwiuu, Halm«, tUU
■dltad St IhibUD, IB80}, ud otlitr MSS. iRittm In E(TpC wUch
Csriial bid iliHdj eit*d Is Ua llanamUM (loL Hi p. n^ pnHBt
muT fMtniw of oorrHpoodnc* vttb tb* Coptlo nr^oni sod with
th« mdlngi of CtiII ot Alenudrk. "All tb«M doamsnta st ur
rat* IMwnit tha dMrMln of tlia Hiirdiiu noaufcm, b^ng an EgTi>-
tlu tvtli»aalai«D«iiMnir«ltbgrlltaalibrttaaDjHinDB." Hurt
of tbalr ehanctvlatlo nadlngi ippaar alas to Ha HnlniM, 108, to
wbkh KSS. SO, SS, S6, S7, lOB, 20« an ilB aUa. Tor as sttampt
to drtarmlna tha USB. cmUiDiiif v akls to Ha HaajcUiiB reoo^oB
In b^UI, aw CoaUl, Dot Bad, ErdiM, Lripda, ISH, p. M a}.
670
S E P — S E P
nading in tbe Hebraw text of tlie tr&oaklon u* compared
wich the Mamoretic text. And for this ire miut not con-
fine ounelTM to one recenaion bnt nse all recenaiona
that OQT USS. offer. For, though one reoenuon may be
better than another, none of them haa been exempt from
tbe inflnencw under vhich the genoine Septuagint wai
brought into confonni^ with the raceived Hebraw text,
and those influenced hare affected each recension in a
different waj, and even differentlj in the different books.
ia this proceaa, as indeed in all taxtool criticism, roach o(
ooune muat be dependent Ob indiridua] judgment. But
that it eJionld be to appeon to have been the design of pro-
vidence^ irhich has permitted the Old Testament text to
reach ns in a form that ia often «o corrapt as to ein against
both the lawB of logic and of grommoi^— of dietorical and
poetical form. (j. ws.)
SEPULCHRE, Camokb Heqiiub of thb Holt, an
order fonnded in 1111 bj Arnold, patriarch of Jerusalem
(or according to another occonnrt to 1099 by Godfrey of
Bonillon), on the mle of St Augustine. It admitted
women as well u men and soon spread rapidly ovei Eiuope.
In tbe 17th oentory it received a new mle from Urban
VtU. Shortly after this the canons became extinct ; but
the canoneiUes ue still to be found in France, Baden, and
the Netherlands. They live a strictly monastic life and.
devote tbemselveB moinl}' to tbe work of e<{ucation.
BEFULCHEE, Khiobts or lax Holt, Ul English
military order which was said to dAte fnnn the 12th
century and which became extinct st the Reformation. A
iiiTi>iUT order, founded in France, lasted from the end of
the IGth century till the time of the Bevolution ; it was
resasdtated by Louis JLViiL in ISll, bnt igaiii became
ertinct in 1830.
BEPULCEBE, Thk Holt, the rock-cut tomb in which,
after His crudfixioil, tbe body of otir IiOrd was placed.
Few questions of topography have been debated with
graater persistence or, in manj cues, with greater bitter-
neaa than that of the site of this tomb. Onlf A biief
■ketch of the leading featnrea of the controversy can be
given here.
The only Information on the iQbJect to be gained from
the New Testament is that the tomb was in a garden " in
the place where Christ was crucified " (John xix. 41),
whu± aealn was "near the city" (John xix. 20) and
"withooE the gate" (Eeb. ziiL 13), and that the watch,
OToceeding from the sepulchre til the chief priesfs, "came
tnto the cin" (Uatt. xxviii. 11). The first requisite,
therefore, of any locality profeesiog to be that of the
Sepulchre is that it should, at the date of the cmcifizion,
have been uitAimt the walls of Jerusalem.'
The ■vigt.ing church of the Eoly Sepulchre, which is
admitted on oil hands to have occupied the same site for
Uie lost 600 years, is in the heart of the praent town,
300 yards from the nearest point dt the existing wall and
in Uie immediate vicinity of the bazaars. Soewulf,* writ^
ing in 1103, Eildebr&nd of Oldenburg* in 1311, and
Jooobus de Titriaoo* in 1220, assert that up to the time
of Hadrian the site was still without the circuit of the
walls. Brocardna' in 1330 states that the modem walls
included more in breadth than they did at the time of
' Ha mlud t<it sf John xlz. 30 ludi in tyr^ 1)r rfi tUmh i
riwm twtii UrtvpMn i Iqntt ; but Uh bait laradUad latdkg la In
iyyit^riTiwn rft wtXtit. Mr Bockton, in Aate ud QKnai (2d
anlai, 11. VT], Bisoaa that aeoordlnc to tba lattir itailsg CalTarr sinat
h*T« baa wiliun tka dtj. Ha noolA aipUis Etb. tUl. 13 aa apokn
" br tba allagurical pBrpeaa of Iba vritoa " cf tba tampla, bM oBm
DO axpUaittoii at lUtt. iitUL II.
* Lao ABatina, Zffvurr*, p. I4S, ODlagna, 16R.
' Oitit IMi ptr mmiat, p. 107B, RasoTar, IfllL
' {^Dialia, ntmtum, li. 17, SI, Aaimtp, 1T35.
ChriE L and that there were even some who refoaed to Iw-
Ueve that the present ute was the true one. Ordericns *
in 1320 and William de BaldeuDel^ in 1336 corroborated
Soewnlf - bnt Baldensel adds that the sepulchre then ithow
was no longer the one in which the body of Christ baJ
been laid, for that had been cut out of the solid toclc,
while the other was formed out of stones cemented to-
gether. Qretser* in 1598 and Qnierwimns* in 16](>-3^
refer to the objections started in their time by some whocs
the Utter calls "miflty'WeBteTTi heretics," and the diScEJtj
was broadly enunciated by Monconys'* in 1647, It trij
not, however, until 1741 that the site was openlj declaj-eil
to be false by Eorte." Xhe attack of the Uttar writer
was followed up In greater detail by Plmsing " in 1739,
and In England by Dr Edward Clarke" in 1810 ; but
until the appearance of the BihliaU Seteardua of r>T
Robinson of New York in 1841 " the attention of inquiren
in England and America can liardly be mid to have hceu
seriously drawn to the subject This elaboiate work called
forth enereetic Kniliea from Cardinal Newman*' and
■Williams, "the latfcr of whom subsequently repnbli&hed
his work in two larce volumea in 18'19, which, to the up-
holdeie of traditioiL may be eaid to occnpy tbe tame
posilion as Uiose of the American author to ita oppo-
nents. Since that date the writers od both sides have beoi
numerous ; fejoong them may be specially noted, aa im-
pngning-^ accuracy of tradition, Tei^oison, Tobler, tbe
author of an elaborate essay in the Mvieuia of Clatnml
Antiquitia for 1&53, Barclay, Bonar, ^bwartz^ Sandle,
and Couder; 4nd on the other side Lord Kugent, Schnti,
Krafft, Schaffter, De Saulcy, AIM ilichon, JTmipp, De
Vogue^ Lewin, Pierotti, Ca^ari, and Sir Charles Wairen.
Thft main question on which the dispute ha9~tarDcd ii
the circuit of the walls at the time of ^lirist. Hie rity
at that data was eoiTOUnded by two walls, Tba first ra
oldest began, accordiqg to Joaeiihus, " in thfr north, at lbs
tower called Hippicna and extended to what i^t^ termed
the Zystus ; it then formed a junction with-the council
house, and terminated at the wastern colonnade -of tls
temple."'^ By almost all the writers -on either' side this
northern portion of the first wall is (raced along the
southern side of the depression, whicti extends from the
cential valley eastwards to the Jafia gaie.^ From some
point in that northern line of icall the Second nnll took
its departure, and of it all we are tohl W JosCTihus is that
"it hod its beginning at tbe gate called Qennath, belonging
to the first irall, and reached to the Antoi^a, ^circling
only ^le western quarter of the-city." If this Gennai£
gate was near HippicDs, the line of tiie second wall, ia
order tQ exclude the pieaent site, must be drawn abuig a
route curiously unsuitei^ from the slope of the hill, for
defensive purposes ; and (hat it tras near Sippicua seema
* Pntgrinatera Hidit ^ri jvaluor, h1 U11KI1I.P. IIS, Idpnc,
Mi. '' CulaiTU. naifHfi, It. Ua-SU.
' Da Cfvct Chruti. ht. L chsp. IT, InBolrtaJt, ISBS.
' TiTTmSa<tctM ^kwiittj, IL 615, AilitHp, IMfc
" Voyaga, Firia, ISfiS-eS, Ito, L SD7.
" lUite luM dm jriMm Landt, lltma, 174].
" UtbtT Odaol/ia und Ckriili Orab, Hillf, 178(1.
" Travel, dunhridga, 1810-E3.
i< LaBdaa, UJI, aftennida i*-laniad vltii 1 ispptaiiisiital.j<niRHT
■Eaiar on Oh II
ctIbk HLttorj^ pT«fiud ta
— - j,aaaj on ua lainuiaa Taooroea u r,cuB& aausrj, prvnin
truulition of FlanrT'a £«^ei. ffiif. la flid ^.fJA Cn tiiry, Qztivd, If
" r** Buff Citf, London, IWS. ■ " Be«. /lut, t. 1, 2.
" Fargnaaon and fiondie plus Blpptna at tlig north-VHtan u^i
of tha modani nil, and tbu loclnda tba <ilitlng ehurcb sf tin aapnl.
cbra -within tha fltit mil ItHlf, bol tlivr b»a onrlookad tba aasaitioa
of tba Jewlat) hiilorlan, that from tba rcviin irbicb (ntTmoidBd tin
lattar It waa almoai impirgiiali^ Banu^ nrhila placing HLppleoa aoma'
wbcn naar tba aama tpot, data lot dttna the localilr, ud ScbwaiO
aaaka to Ideutifr it vitb " a Wh rocky bill onrth of t^ lo-cjaitd Gn(u
ot J«nmlab,''uid.&r baTond tb* aortbem llmlli of tba nademxitf.
SEPULCHRE, HOLY
671
demoBStnible from tbs dechntion of Jodepliuii that tlie
city in Mn time was " fortified bj three walld azcG^t where
it wtis eDcompauiMid bj impouable i&vinea ' ; from the
abeence of any record of an attack oa the &nt wall till
the second had been taken ; from a variet; of incidental
referencea in the siege hj Tilvu ; from the apparent ne<:«B-
eit7 of including mthia ita circuit the pool Amygdalon,
now known aii Hexekiah's Pool or Birket Hmnman el-
Batntk*; and from the lemaikablj moall Girea which would
otiierwine bo incladed hj it.
Writen oa both ndes have preued into their service
the renuund of ancient btuldin^ toond in the districts
tnveteed by the Mcond wall accoiding to their respects
tve theories. It seemed donbtful, till quite receoti;, if
aay sound argniaeDt could be baaed on these, the ruins
being too fragmentarjr and occarring in too man; diffsrent
qnartem to warrant anj poaitiva identi£catioii with a line
of fortification as didtinguiiihed from other edifices.' But
in the aummer of 1&85 a stretch of ancioot wall 40 or 00
yards in length wad disinterred, running northwards from
the open space within the Ja& gale to the wcat of Eeze-
kiah's pool, which certainlj, as figured in the January
Dumber of the Qvariaig Eeporfi of the Faleatine £xplora-
tion Fund, seuos to go a loi^ way to settle the question
against the genninenen of the existing ute.
Considerable streas has been laid by some writen on the
eziitence of ancient Jewish sepolchrea, of a date apparently
anterior to the Christian era, in the rock on which the
preaent church is built, as proving that that locb could
not have been within the circuit of the walla, inasmoch as
it ill alleged " the Jews never baried within their towns," *
There it^ however, no trace in the historical books of the
Bible of any aversion on the part of tha Jews to intra-
mural interment. Whatever width of interpretation may
be given to the recorded burial of ^even of the kings of
Jjidah " in the city of Band," the phrase can hardly be
held to prove that such buiial-place iras vitheut the it&lla ;
while 2 Chron. xxviiL 27 and nxiii. 20 seem to point
very strongly in the opposite direction. Joab also, we are
told, wa:! buried "in his own house in the wilderness,'''
and Samuel "in his house at BamaL"' But the most
striking case of all is Hebron, where in the midxt of the
mty are found the jealously guarded walls which enclose
the cava of U^hpelah. If, then, these tombs are older
than the time of Christ, there seems little difficulty in
credittog that they might have been incladed within the
second wall. We know for a certainty that they were
within the third. The curious point rather is that tbeir
ezLiteAce in the rock may be used as a strong argument
againut the site, for, speaking of the disinterment of the
rock of ika sepulchre from the accumulated soil heaped
over it by the Romand, Eusebius^ impresses on us the fact
' BtU. Jud^ r. 4, 1.
^ It b of coune quibo ponlbta to dnw t. Ibu, u Lavbi Aom, whicb*
■hlla it inclodH thli pool, wUl fit udnila tht aibtiiig ctaircli, bat
■11 probability Bemn eppoud to tuch ■ lont*.
■ Plenittl gitat m dntACiid plrnn ol Ou wbdia dLitrlct In which tht
Taiuiu whlcb ha naki to idmtiCr irith Iba aacond will nocmr (Jim-
mltm Kjyiortd, pL in.]. Bat from thii It would aeam utmnilT
ilonUral whather aaj of tboaa nlua su ba IdasCiaad with t, cltj wiU,
DT ahoald not maraly be Tv^^^rdod ■■ portLona of daUchad bnlldlngi,
Il» wiilli d[ nhicli prq)«t, now to ttaa out, now to tha wait, ot tb*
hnigiiieiJ lijio.
* Lonl Nngant, LiBtdi CIoMioiU a*d SutwE, London, 1816, iL 17.
Tlnn toDit> hava baao danribad b^ Hapirorth Dlion, In GitUltnan'i
Uiigioiru, Uucb 1377, and mora fnllj bj C1snnont.Ouuuwi io^iiar-
My RtpoH dT the Pml«tina EiplonHon Fnnd. 1S77, p. 78. In 1885
two addltloiuil aepnicbnl diunticn oare diinavered in tha lama rooh ■
iiltla to tha Boutb-eaat of tha prfweot chnroh, of which a plan aijd
natloea ata givin b/ Bcblok in Zaiic/i^ft da dantMlna PiOatitiiia-
Itni/,. 1B84, vol »1U. p. 171.
■ 1 Slaea iJ- 84. * I Stmad m. L
' litcjiiiuua, Laa'a tnuuUtiOQ, p. IW.
that there was "only one cave within it, lust, had there
been many, the miracle of Him who overthrew death
should have been obscnred."
One argument remained which, at least up to 1647, it
seemed difficult for the impugners of the orUiodoz rite to
meet, namely,~Wa» it at all probable that Conatantine
should have been deceived, either by erroueoua inference
or by wilful miarepreiieiitatiou, when in 32S he erected
a monumental church over what wa<i then believed to be
tha holy tombt Apart from the condidoration that of all
localities this seemed to be the leact likely to pasd from
the memory of the Chridtiao church,' ita exact position
had been in a manner identified by the exiatence on the
rock of Oolgotha of a temple or statue of Venus, and on
the site of the ro*uiToction ot a statue of Jupiter erected
by Hadrian in the 2d centuiy ; and the fact remaiiu that
on the superincumbent rubbiiih beiug cleared anay by the
orders of Constantine a cave wa<i discovered, which it seems
difficult, even were we willing with Taylor* to impute
deliberate fraud to the existing biiihop of Jerusalem, to
believe could have been previously prepared beueaUi a
heathen shrine, and in the midst of a population of pagans
and ot Jews."
In 1817 Fergusson, in hiu £uap on tit AnritiU Tiq»-
grajAt/ of Jertitaltm, attempted to show that Constantine
had built bis memorial church on another site altogether,
and that it was still existing onder another name. On
the eastern hill of the dty, in the sacred Mohammedan
enclosure of the Har&m-es-^erff, and on a spot genenlly
considered to have formed part of the temple area, stands
the magnidcent octagonal building called the Dome of
the Ro^ usually but erroneously believed to have been
erected l^ the cidipb "Omar, and so popularly known as
the mosque of 'Omar. The jealousy (^ the Hoilema had,
with rare exceptions, prevented up to quite recent timen
the intrurion of Christians within its sacred precincts, bat
it was known to have been erected over a large mass ot
native rock rising above the surface of the ground and
having a cave within it A section of the building very
roughly executed, was given in the Trattli of Alt Bey,
published in I816(toL iL p. 74); but in 1833 Mr. Cother-
wood, under the pretext of being a civil engineer in the
employment of Uebemet Ali, and of examining into tiie
structural condition of the building with a view to its
repair, spent three weeks in examining it and its snr-
roundin^ of which he made elaborate drawmgs and
sections. A general account of his investigations and
their results, published in W. E. Bartlett's Waiit aiout CAa
City and Eavirom ofJtmicdim (p. 148), led to Fergusson's
getting access to those drawings, whidi confirmed liim in
the belief he hod already begun to entertain from other
sources, that the Dome of the Bock waa originally a Chris-
tian edifice; and in the easay referred. to ha Argued at
great length and with much vigour on both architectural
and historical grounds that it and the Golden Gateway —
a walled-up entrance to the Harim from the east — were
built in the time of Constantine ; that the former was tho
church of the Anastasis, erected by that emperor over the
tomb ot our Lord, and the latter the entrance to the
atrium ot the great basilica described by Eusebius " as
• Origan {CaiU. Oli^ L El) apoikl id Calnrr aa of a apot mU
kooWQ in bia daT (18S-2M).
' Aneititl ChriHianiln, 4th ad., London, 1844, iL S77.
" FInlay (Orart tadtr At Itimaiu, p. Ml) haa argnad that anct
idaDtlfloation wotdd ha eaay frDro tha ninnte ngiitnrfiov ei propartf
which pnrailad in tha Ronian ampin and aztaDdad to tha pi'ovinoaik
by vUah tha pohltton of Oolgotha and t^ praparty of Joaaph f4
Ailmathea ml^ht aaailj hava bsSn tnnd. Bnt ha aaama to prtaa his
pc^l too tar (aea FaUmanyir, OalooOut tout dot MUft OnA, tt),
kimleh, IWa. p. gV
" Vim Omtt,, m. i».
672
SEPULCHRE, HOLY
uumediatelj a4io''i'°6 i ^'"^ that' the transfereDce of tlw
rite from the eaitem to the veitem Tiill took pUce soma-
where about the commencomcot of the 11^ century,
when, in coQieqaencD of the mvasioa of the Turks, the
Otrutiaiu were driTca from the former hill for a time.
Thii work wu followed up by his article " Jerusalem " in
Smith's Diirlionary of Xht BUjU and bj aerenJ minor pub-
lication! ' ; and the whole question wae, with aome modiS'
cations, reargued by him at great length in The Ttm[dea
(/ Ok Jaet and the otktr SvUdioffi in tit llaram Ana at
Jenualem in 18TB.
Though at irat Fergossou'a ciaay seemed to fall dead,
it inaugurated a dlM^iuaion which has within the last
tn^vutf yean been <:&iTied on with much kocnDess. His
TiewB have been supported ou Bjchitcctunl grouads by
Unger,* and on general grounds by Sandie,' Smith,* and
Langtois,' while among the multitnda of his opponents may
be specially noted WiUiome,' Lewiji,^ the Abbi Uichon,*
De Vogui,* Fierotti," Sir Charles Warren," and Captain
The architectural arguments in favour of Fergusson's
theory have forced Lewin, one of his moat strenuous
opponents, to argue that the Dome of the Rock may have
been a temple to Jupiter erected by Hadrian, which ha
images may have been restored or rebuilt by Maiimin
Daza, the succesaot of Diocletian, i* But they must be
studied in Fergusson's owa works or in that of Unger
above referred to. The topographical objections are inainl;
founded on the necessity of restricting the Jewish temple
to the south-eastern comer of the I^rim, tho site^ how-
ever. asu(ped to it by Lewin himself and Thrupp,'* aod
OD the difficulty of supposiog a place of interment so near
the sacred building. But Josephos, at the time of the
uege, speaks of "the monuments of King Alexander"
wl^(«Ter that may mean, existing just over against or m
front of the north colonnade of the temple."
As regards the historical argu'iiB"^ it would certainly
appear that up to the close of the 6th century the balance
of evidence is in favour of the eastern site. The narrative
of the Pilgrim of Bordeaux '* may perhaps be read as sup-
portbg either view. But Antoninus Martyr " and Tbeo-
doaios"canhsjdly be reconciled with the eidstuig tocattoo;
b two manuscripts of the latter " the writer believed that
the tame hill witnessed in succession the offering of Isaac,
the vision of the angel at Araunah's thrtehing-fioor, the
building of the temple, and the death and resurrection of
IMEL
' DU SaniM C^vtantin'i am luiliffn Orait, Guttlugin, ISS3.
' Bonb and JeriuaimiL, FAhihm^ii^ 16H.
' n* TnnpU and Uu Srp'ilclirt, Loudon, IME.
■ V» ChapUrt inMii it la Qualiim da Limix SaiiUi, Pnrli, 1B61.
* Hit SUf City, 9d Ml., 2 •oil., Landcn, lS4e.
' ni aicgt af Jfnuaiai bf Tilut. &c., IdDdon, 1SS3.'
' Vnyagt Ttliauwx m Oriail, 2 nW, Firli, 1S04.
■ £* Tmpll Je JtnaaUm, tOL, Full, I6«4-S5.
■* fyrrtaUtt Xiplartl, 2 toIi. fol., Loodoii, ISBl.
■' Til TimpU and tin Ftrnt, Loudon, 1630.
" Vuiww pipen In tb> liiarUrlf aialtnual of Polectlns Eiplors-
tlODFuud.
^ A rrhttolajia^ ilL jx 157. Bapp liu UtUrlj trisd to vhoir tlut it
wu built bj Joitlnlu— Ma Fiiarnln-ppH, tint /•MiniaiiUelu atjMeii-
kinlH, md dit libriijtn TmpH Jerataltmt, Uuikh, 1SS2.
'* Jriciflif Jen^tajem, Cunbrlil^ 13£fi.
u Hd. JuiL, >. E I 3. Siudii'i DtUmpt (Honi and JimtnlBn, p.
25S] to Di[iiini[sa thii dlfflcultf bj mppoiliig > nek)' nller to bin
ran up from Ibi Til]«j of Jebovtiiipbst vtatwvdi at thii point, ud
BO to bni itlvidud tbs tiDipl* [rom tha tamb, Hcnil tnidmlHibli.
lloilam ImiutigntloD ibovt tbnC nch i nllsr, or nlbar dapnalon,
did tiiat, hut nortb, not Muth. of lh« Domt of thi Rock.
" Ilimm LatiM (Soc d* I'Or. Ut.}. Oinivt, 1879. L pp. Ifl-ia.
" ii., pik lOO-loe. " /»,, pp. «30«.
" Tb* LomalD ud Britlli tlsinim MSB., tn .Jtta mi QviHa,
S7tb Juinvj 1S77.
r Lord. ^lany more passages miglit t>0 quoted ire
■ -■ ■ to the belief Hm* th*i- ,
Isaac witneaaed alu U
of Christ, an^ many other* iriwitifjing '-
scene of tha-ofiering of Isaac with the hill on vhkk '--
templs was built. Perhaps the strongest point in ii-
connezion against Fergnnon is that so Btriting a IiA ^
the identity of the hiB of the Passion with tli&t on polt .
which the temple stood should only be dlractlj epokfa :
by a single writer. After the &th century tba bnOor^
evidence becomea more difficult to interpret. FergtL^ ■
would date the transference of the site about lOOO ; boi :
Bsems clear from Istakbri (978)" and Uoka^ddMi (9^: -
both of whom were unknown to him, that before tbcir dan
the Dome of the Rock was a Uohammedan place of wor^. .
and the Utter expressly states that it wsia auggested by i
great Christian church.'* The natuni date to AsaigB i-r
such a tiansferenee would be about 611, when the tin
was enured by the Peniana, and, to quote tli« careful-
guarded narrative of Gibbon, " the sepulchre of Cfari>t ar-
the stately churches of Helena and Constantine -were c^'-
siuned, or at least damaged, by the fUmea." The baildi: .:
were repaired or rebuilt by hodestos a few yeatv later, uii
their praises are sung by Sophronius, his Hoooesaor in lie
patriarchate, but in terms which give little topo^rajihii-il
information. Sophronius lived to see the captuni <rf tc<
city by "Omar in 636, the earliest records of whone dau.ff
as yet available are the brief one of Theophaues (SIS) asi
the more leogthened one of Eutychins (937). From bciL
of these it seems clear that the caUph confirrued the Chn<-
tions in the poesesuon of the sitea (whatever these mif^t
be) which he found in their hands. In or about 670 ili?
Flench bishop Arculph visited Jerusalem, and nnder the
hand of Adamnanus we have a detailed account taken dovn
from his lips,'' and a plan of the church of the Reenn^^
tioD as he saw it, which strikingly corrcsponda to the Doot
of the Bock,— as, however, it necesHarily would cotrespond
with any church which had been erected in close inutaiicn
of that building." There are passages, however, in ArmJ^
descriptive of the city very difficult to understand nnlc»
on the assumption that the transference of Sion, which luJ
hitherto (see Jebi7S*i.bh) been identified with the casters
hill, had already in his time taken place. The next pil-
grim who has left ua a record is Willibald,** who Tiaite<I tlis
city early in the Bth century, and whose descHiition appli«
on the whole better to the western than the eastern site ;
■■ BOL Oag. Ami., tii. D( Co^«, L*yd« lSTO-71, I. pL M if.
' n.,m.p.iestj. >• n.,iii. p. ua.
" llin. LaL {Soc. ds I'Or. Lit), ISTV, L pp. 1(1-202.
■* Tha Tin tbit it tbt Unii uLn ArculiJi vniU tb* Dona it tb(
RcKk *u In tba budi of tbi HobmniuHlAiii (Mid* stKiictbniod 1}
tbi wall-knoirn Cufic iiucrlptLou wblch (1111 iniui lonnd tbs cokuuda
of tbit building, End n miuplita tmulaliou at wbicli b; Ibi Ul'
Flofiwr Palmar will ta lonnd lit Iha QvartoVy litparl of Iha Pi1»tiK
Exploration Fund (lB7t, p. 1«4) u.l FtrgOHou'i Tmjiln of Ou Jm
(p. Kt). Iiril Iba ooniUuction el tbi doma ol tbt bDildlDg b dittd
71 i-n. (S81), but tbt uaua ot Iha buildar, vbicb cIbtIt **■ Abd-d-
Ualak la Iha original, hu baeu onnl and tUal of AUiiillah cI-UamiB
<lBSi.li.; 813) fnudnlaDtljr aubititutfd, " tba 4iort-iigbtcd fotga-.'
u Falnier calla him, hi.Tiiig omittBl lo clunga tha Uitt an nit ai iLa
DUDb In tbia inicriptioB than ia Tcry >p«i.-lnl mculion mada of our
SariouT, and in a wij whicb aeaina Inttplicnbla nnlb'j Uit building u
•rhlcb il KM inicribail bul boen, in lb* lutud of tha wiitar, aAsiite-l
In aouit tmpoTtant raapacU with tha hiatorj- of Jtjna. And tbt tndi.
tioD that It wai to coDtinutd long alt^ ; for Ka fliHi Tbaudaric ao Ula
11 11TB vHtbiG sf it, " Hod un>|dum, quod nuno fidatni, ad hoDOtai
Domini BoatK Joan Cbrittl cjuaiina pla KanatrirLi ab Uel.aa n^ja rt
cju Blla, Impcntora ConaUntina, conatraetDiu «t " (ad. Tablir, SI
Oall. 18SS, p. 48). Ftrpiiun UllaTaa Ihii luacriplkn to hara b«
Vrtltan In tha 13th ciutnrj, but 1> obllB^ to admit tbat tba al[^M
amployed tt iilastical vltb tbat fonnd on tha eoioa of Abd-al-Htlrk
{ Tnnplit nf IMi Jittt, p. U). A fkcilmllt of tha paulanca ccntainiM
tba data asd Iha forgtrr will bt found in tha Rer. lauu Taalo'i Hi
AtpA^ft tX-""^'^ IBB* t ta 4oq\ '
S E Q — S E Q
673
1>iit, on the oAer hand, thftt of Bernftrd,! who trarelled
ftboat f 70, RppUea better to the ewtern thaJi to the wMtern.
If the traDiferc jce can ba suppoted to have taken pUce at
the time of the Persian invoaion, one of the niain difficol-
tiee in the adoption of Ferguaaon'a theory will be greatly
lessened, tor the intervening period of more thaa ISO jean
wonid go far to explain how the cnisaden, on gaming
poesMmon of the citj in 1099, failed to make it their fint
bosineia to rerett to the orig..ial site. On the whole, the
question ii one which can hardlj be aaCufactorily deter-
mined nntil the Arobic anthoritjea on the lubject have
been dolj scmtinLced, and as ;et we have practically acceaa
to none earlier than the two above referred to.'
Within the last few yean a third locality has been sng-
gMtad. In 1873 Captain Conder, in bin Ttni Wort U
Faletti^ (i. pp.372-3T6), eipreiaed a etroag conviction that
the real »>« waa to be foond on a rocky knoU ontaide the
northern wall, and close to the aava koown as " Jeremiah's
Qrotto." He argued that not only did thia locality meet
the reqoirements of the' Oosoel sarrativea, being outside
tba city and near one of the great roadi leading from the
eonntry, but that in this direction lay "the great ceme-
tery «rf Jewish times" as tMtified by "the aepnlchre of
Bimon the Just preserved by Jewish tradition," and the
monnraent of Helena "fitted with a rolling stone mch
as closed the mouth of the Holy Bepolchn." Here also
by early Christian tradition had been the scene of the
martyrdom of Stephen, which donbtleaa occurred at the
place of public eiecntiou, and to thia day, according to Dr
CHuplin, tha Jews deaiguate the knolf " by the name Beth
has-Sekilah, 'tlie place of stoning' (domns lapidationis),
and state it to be the ancient place of pnblic ezeeation
mentioned in the Hishnah." The hill itself appean to
prtoent a striking resemblance to a human aknil, and so to
associat« itaelf with the word "Golgotha." The adoption
of thia site by Dr Chaplin, the Bev. S, Merrill, Schick, and
perhapa especially the 1^ Qeneral Gordon,' has Mded
in giving it a conaiderable popularity. It ia, however, a
purely conjectural location, and involvea the assnraption
that all the Chriatiao writers from the 4th coitnry down-
wards, aa well as the mother of Constantino were in error
as to the real site. (^ b. h'o.)
6BQUSSTRATI0N. Bee Baitkbuttct.
SEQUOIA, a genua of conifers, aljied to Taxodivm and
Crj/ptotntria, forming one of several surviving links between
the firs and the cypresses. The two apeciea usually placed
in this group are evergreen treca of large size, indigenous
to the west coast of North America. Both bear their round
or ovoid male catkina at the ends of the slender terminal
branchleta ; the ovoid cones, either terminal or on short
Uteral twigs, have thick woody scales dilated at the extrem-
ity, with a broad disk depressed in the centre and usually
fumiahed with a abort spine ; at the base of the scales are
frran three to seven ovules, which become reversed or
partially so by compression, ripening into small angular
seeds with a narrow wing-like expansion.
The redwood of the Califomian woodsmen, S. lemper-
fimu^ which may be regarded as the typical form, abounds
on the Coast Range from the southern borders of the State
northwards into Oregon, and, according to De CandoUe, aa
far as Kootka Sound. It grows to a gigantic size : a trunk
■ //in. Lot. (Soc de I'Or. LaL), ISli, L pp. 308-320.
' Piimgr, In tba chipttr mntrtbDisd b; him (malnlj from Anblo
wnrodt) to Jirtuaie^ Uu atf of Herod and Salndm (bjr W. Bout
ind K H. Ptlmer, LtmdoD, 1S7I), bu failed to giTe, with nn actp-
tiou, ur nine te tfa* dita dT Ihg <*rlt«n whOH ititemtiit* h« (mlxidlcd.
> S^/teduniMn Palaft'UiLoDdon, 1BB4, pp. 1-3. Sea ilao Quarterly
Kipixi of Paldrtine Kiplonlion Fund for 1 883, p. Sa ; »nd81rJ.W.
Damon'i J^jrpf and S^ria, thtir Pkysiral Fralurti in AWdfim to
Bail Biitart. Londan, 1885, pp. S£-B5, when two mutntioiu of
Um Ull sn flTan.
a been recorded STO feet in length, and a greater height
said to be occaaionally reached, while a diameter of from
\ to 15 feet is sometimes attained at the baM. In old
h, (Mttm of Hoa;
age the hoge columnar trunk riaea to a great height bare
of bongha, while on the upper part the brancbea are ahort
and irregolar. The bark is red,- like that of the Scotch
Gr, deeply furrowed, with the ridges often much curved
and twisted. When young the tree is one of the moat
graceful of the conifers : the stem rises straight and taper-
ing, with somewhat itregolar whorls of drooping branchee,
the lower ones sweeping the ground,— giving an elegant
conical outline. The twigs are densely clothed with flat
spreading linear leaves of a fine glossy green above and
glaucous beneath ; in the old treea they become shorter
and more rigid and partly loss their distichous habit
The globular brown catkins appear early in June; the
cones, from 1 to 3 inchea long, are at inX of a bluiah
green colour, bat when mature change to a reddish brown ;
the scales are very small at the base, dilating into a broad
thick head, with a abort curved spine below the deep trans-
verse depresaion. The redwood forms woods of large
extent on tiie seaward slope of the Coast Bangs and oocnia
in isolated groups farther inland. From the great aiie of
the trunk and Uie even grain of the red cedar-like wood
it is a valoable tree to the farmer and carpenter ; it ^ilita
readily and evenly, and planea and polishes well; cut
radially, the medullary platea give the wood a fine satiny
lustre ; it is strong and durable, but not so elastic aa many
of the western pinea and firs. In England the tree grows-
well in warm sitnatlone, but suffers much in severe vrintars,
— its graceful form rendering it ornamental in the park w
garden, where it sometimes grows 30 or 40 feet in height ;
ita succeaa as a timber tree would be doubtful. In the
eastern parts of the United States it does not flourish.
Discovered by Uenxiea in the end. of the I6th century, it
has long been known in British nurseries under flie name
of Taxodium tempervirem.
The only other member of the genus is the giant tree
of the Bierra Nevada, S. gigantea, the largest of known
conifers ; it is confined to the western portion of the great
Califomian range, occurring chiefly in detached groopa
.XXL— 8S
€74
R — S E R
hetOj etUei " groveji,' at an altitude of from JOOO to BOOO
fMt 4boTa tlis lea. The leaved of this i^ieciea are a»]-
Thftf— ^. ihoit and rigid, witli pointod apex ; cloeely ad-
pftMad, they Mmpletely oovar the braaohleta. The inala
eatkini an ■mall, aolitarj, and are born pJt the ends of
the twiga; the oooea are from 1} to 3 inabes loag, ovoid,
with ao^N thicker at the base thau thc^a of the redwood,
and bearing belov the depreaaioD a slender prickle. The
TDong tree is more formal and rigid in growth than S.
umptrvirviu, but when old the outlina of the head becomes
eyiindrioal, irith short branahes spame!; clad with foUage
■pcaTi. llie bark, of nearly the tame tint aa that of the
redwood, ii extremelj thick and ia channelled towards the
base with vertical furrows ; at the root the ridgps often
Htand ont in buttre&t-like projectiond. Bome of these vast
vegetable columns are npwaids of 30 feet in diameter and
a few have attained a height of 400 feet or more.
The bmoiu groap ksowB M tbg lUmmoth arara of Culivans
la CAlifonuA, untuning sbove^ nine^ Wga tfeos, Ktsqda In S&' IT.
lat, iboDt JSTQ fMt aboTc tha au, batwHa tlu &sn Antonio ind
Stsnlilani livsn. Aocording to Vimliar, it vu dlKoruod lij ■
hnntsr in punolt of ■ bear in 1SS2, but had ippuiDtlT been
vUted before, u the date IBSO ii <mt an ana of tbo tnw. Thti
bark of OP* of the fined tnioki n-u foaliihlj itrlimed off to the
height of lis feet; ud »liiblted la Kev York ud London ; It
now itandi b die Cr^atal Pilsce, Sydenham. The tree, knom aa
tha "mother al tbg Ibnat," loiia (Ued ; nt the bnae It meanmd
M l«t In girth, and the dwi tree vu 131 feet Ugh ; a ptoatnte
tnmk in tie naighbourbood ia IS bet In dlamcUr 300 feet from
the base, Some t»ea in tha Usripoaa grove rival th«a in aiu ;
on* BManues 101 bet Krand th* nit, *nd a cat ilump ia II feet in
diameter. GlgaaUa aa theae beee are and irapoaing from their
vast «olanin*r tnoka, thsjr have little beantf, owing to the acantj
Ibliage of tha ihort ronnded bougha ; aome of the baei at^nd very
dow lagMhet ; ths; art lajd to be about 100 In nnmber. Borne
ara of vast age, perba^ 3000 vears or more ; they appear to be
tb* nm^n* of Bxtaamre woo^ belonging to a past epoch, and
CTobaUj have bean in distant time much Itgurad bj faiwt firea.
The gnnrth of the " mammoth bee " ia bat when jronn^ bnt old
trws inoresae with aitiamo ilowneai. The timber <b not of great
t*1d^ hot tha heartwood la danas and of deeper colour than that
-^ S. tUKfirvirmt, varying from browniah red to very deep broirn
id and vsmlalied, ft haa been need in cabinet work.
England by Lobb in 1S63, and noatred from Dr
of WiUisglBiiia, by which it la etlll ponolarty
id vsmlalied, ft haa been need in cabinet
lipdlaj the l . . - . -.,
k&cnn, though lie affinity to tJie rodwood is too marked
«o«rie dlstinstdou. Ia America it li aamotLmea nailed Wailitog-
iniia. In the Atlantic fitatea It doea not toooved ; and, though
iMtrly hardy In Oreat Britain, it le planted <nilj aa an onunwnt of
the lawn or paddook. It la never llksly to aoquiie any eeonomla
Impoitanoe in Kuntpe. (0. P. J.)
SERAIEYO. See BoaitA Sbaai.
SEBAIKO, a town of Belgiiun, stretching newly a mile
along the right bank (tf the ileuse, across which a sua-
IMiiaton bridge connecta it with Jemeppe, 3 miles eoutli-
wast of Li6gs. It has one of the largest manufactories of
Bufhinerj on tha Continent, founded \>j John CockeriU,
an Englishman, in 1S1T, on tlie ute ot the former palaoe
o( ths prinoe-biihopa of JM^e. Including olQces, the works
extend over 9T0 acres, employ 11,000 hands, and the annoal
valne of Iheii products is more than 40,000,000 francs.
Down to 1882 they had turned out C2,6O0 engine or
pieoea of machinery, including' the first locomotive engine
built on the Continent (1&3S). After CockeriU's death io
1640, the works wet* purchased by " La John Cookerill
Hoci<t4.° A monoment waa erected to his memory in
1671. The popntalioD, which nombered but 2S26 ia laST,
anionnl«d to 24,319 in I67T, and ia now (1886) estimated
M about 2T,I»0.
SEBAIIPUB, a town of Britiuh India, in Hugli
(Hooghty) district, Itongal, situated on the right bank of
the Hn^ river, IS uilea by rail north of CahiattA, in 3:1°
4!r 26" N. lat and 86' 23' 10" E. long. It waa formerly
« DanLA settlement, and ronuined so until 1645, when
all the Danish poaaeaaionB in India were ceded by treaty
to the Eaat India Company. Serampur is famed as the
reudence of a body of Froteataat Eaptjst in
made it the centre of their Chriatianiztng efforts. At the
cenaus of 1881 ths population of the town waa 25,509
(13,137 males and 13,4:i3 females).
BERAFHUL In the vision of Isaiah vL tiM throu
of Ood is suiTOUDded by Beraphim, — figurei apparently
human (ver. 6), bat with sz wings, which condtantlj pn>.
claim the tritai/ion. The seraphim are not again mentiooed
in the Bible ; but in later Jewish theology they ar« taken
to be a class of angels. As the whole vision of T«»iali U
symbolical, the Beraphim also are in this connexion symbol-
ical figures, aiding the delineation of Jehovah'a awful
holiness. But the imagery ia probably borrowed from bodm
popular conception analogous to that of the CBEttimM
{q.v.). The nams is sometimes exjiUined to mean '^kifty
ones,* after the Arabic lAoni/a (Gesenia/) ; but if it ha<
a Hebrew etymology it must signify " burning ones *
{" oonHnming," not "iiery*), so that in Isaiah j vLdon the
seraphim wiJl mean the same thing aa the " devouring
fire ' of God's holineas (lea. ^^-j'" 14). But this, again,
is a ipiritual interpretation of the old Hebrew eonceptioo
that Jehovah appears in tha thunderstorm (Judges *- 4 ;
Pt. xviii., T-iJT ) escorted by thunderboltii {rnKtjJi, HaK
iii. E). Among the Fhcsnieiaua Beaheph U s god (C.1.3^
L 36), probably identical with the Arabian divina archer
Koiah, wb* shoots lightoinga. In prophetic monotheism
-mch mythological conceptions could only survive tA pervoni-
leatiooi of the natural phenomena attending a theophanj.
InSum.(it.S^.tIieword"Beraphiin''lauaedafakln<IorBeri«it^
not "fiery eiirpiitite " (k-f.) bnl bnniing, (.•..polaoBouaones (ecnm.
UmaA, "glowing heat, ""Tanom'l. In Ih. liv. I« and ux. S t£r
■iagulH mtraph ocean vith llie epithet "flying," iBcI from the secDiid
nasiHjp] m atp that sach flyiag eerpentt were aoppoaed Io inhabit th*
d«crt lielneen PalMtSne and Zgypt i oomp. Herod, u. 7t and, th'
white flyltiE aerpenU in an Arabian legend [Jjli., a. IS^ SD).
BERAPI5, or Saxaiib, in the Leyden papynu 'Ocrapvw
i.e., Osiris-Apis, apparently mcAning the dead Apia war-
■hipped as Osiris (see A?ir), and so as lord of tha tmder-
the Oreek worship of Hadea. The statue with tha
attributes of Hadea which tiiej piofenad to identify a*
Berapis (a name which had till then idayed no imunineitt
part in Egyptian religion) was brought by th» king froM
Sinope to Alexandria in consequence, it waa given oxt, «f
a revelation granted to him in a dream (Plut., It. it 0*.,
28). The real object of Ptolemy was to provide a tnixed
Qreek and Egyptian religion for his mixed aubjects, aiipea-
ally in Alexandria ; the true Egyptians disliked tba inno-
vation, and no Seiapeum or Sen^is temple was admitted
within the walls of Egyptian dcied (ilacrob., L 7, 14^
Thus the great Serapeum at Hempbia lay out^da the town
(Strabo, ivii. 1, 32), where its rains were kid ba» by
Marietta in 1600. From papyri found on the apot it ia
known that a sort of monastery waa ooiinecled with this
and other Serapea. The so-called Egyptian Berapeam or
series of Apia graves excavated in the lock near ths Greek
Serapemn is distinct and belongs to the old religion, though
the old Osiria wotiehip was gradually tiaiuferTod to Seiapia.
The cult of Serapia also spread largely in the GrBco-Roman
world. Egyptian monaaticiam aeeuu to have biamwed
something from the monka of Berapis, and the Egyjitian
Christiana were accused of worshipping Berapis as wall aa
Christ ( Vita SatttrnitU, 6), perhaps becaoas they identified
the god who )s represented bearing a -oom-measure on hia
head with the Bibhcal Joseph; see Firmicua ^latertiua,
c 13, and Suidaa, aK ISc^s-w,
BERENA, a city of CMIi, e^dtal of the ptovinoe of
Coquimbo, is Htuatad on an elevated plain aa. tha Kinth
aide of the rivei Qoqiuinb(\ about B nules from the ae^^
in 29' £4' S. lat. and 71* 13* W. long. Tba oii^u] town
S E R — S E R
e7«
xva» toniided b; Jntut Ddhon In 154J, on the oppoute side
of the riTor, and ciUed by him Seteiu, after the town of
that name in Spaniah EatremadoRs, the birthplace of his
cliief, Pedro da Valdivia. Being shortly after dwtroyed
l>y tha lodiaiu, it was rebuilt on its preaeot ut« by Fnn-
cLsco de Aguirre in 1519. Serena is tbe teat of a buhoprio
embracing the whole of Chili to the north, and of a conrt
of appeal the jnriadiction of which extends t»the provinee
of Atacama. The town is well supplied with vater. He
l>rincipal edifice ia the cathednl (1844-fiO), built-of a Ught
porona atona, 216 feet long and 66 broad. The town oon-
tains eight other ehnrchea, an excellent lyeenm, a theatre,
an epiocopal palace, and levaral convanla and charitable
institntiona. It ia connected by rail with ita port 9 milea
to the sonth-west, and with the Tamaya oopper-mioea. A
narrow-gtoge line np the Elqui vaJley was opened in
1883. Brewing haa recently become ea important induatry.
Thepopulationof Serena was 12,393 in 1876, or, including
the Bubm'ba of the Pampa (Alu and B^a), U,403.
SEREN^tJS or Asnaajk, an ancient Greek geometer,
the author of two treatiseB — Dt S/ctiont Cylindri tt Coni,
tibri cJHo^wbich Halley haa pabliahed in Greek and I^tin
along with bis editbn of the Coniet of ApoUonitu of Pe^a.
Great difference of opinion haa eitatad aa to hia date :
Halley nya in hia preface to the Cotuet, !'We know
nothing of Serenua except that he was bora at Antiasa, a
town in the ialand of Leaboa ; and that, beiides hia book
On ti» SectUm of tht Cj/litider, and another Oit the Stelvm
of rA< C'ma, he wrote commentariea on Apolloniua ; and
that he Uved before Harinna — the pupil of Froclns— aa
appears from the preface of Uarinna to the Data of Euclid."
Hontncia says Tagnely that Berenua lived within the first
tool centuries of tha Christian era. Chaslea placea him
abont the game time as Pappus. Bretsehneider pointed
ont that Antiasa waa completely destroyed by the Romans
in 137 8.0;, and inferred thence that Serenus lived e. 320-
180 B.a To thip inference it haa been fairly objected by
Cantor, after F. Blass, that the name Serenua is lAtin and
that Antisaa had been rebuilt at the time of Strabo. Tha
atatomant of Halley that " he lived before Uarinus " has
bean since repeated l^ many writers ; but Eeiberg has
pointed out {Rn. Cnt. afful. et de HU., ISai, p. 381)
that the passage inferred to in support of thti statement
ia fanlty, and that the name of Serenua ia certainly not to
be fonnd in it. Th. H. Uartin, in hia edition of the
^Atlro%oms of llieon of Smyrna (Paris, 1849), has pub-
lished a fragment whith in the MS. follows the text of
Theon and is headed From tht Ltmnuu of iht Philotopher
Sertniu. This ia unqueationably the same as Serenns of
Antiasa, to whom thia appellatiou "philosopher" ia given in
the titles of the two tieatiaea edited by Halley. No oon-
duaion, however, can be drawn from this aa to tha date
of Serenas, for the extract is not given by Theon bnt by an
anonymons scholiast. U. Paul l^nery in an elaborate
paper {Bvll. da Sc. Math, tt AlrtM., 2d serie^ viL, 1S83)
has shown from the character of Serentia's writings that he
lived long attar the brilliant period of Greek mathematics,
and that he must be placed chronologically between Pappus
and Eypatio, consequently in tha 1th century. Thia
determination of the date of Serenns is accepted by Cantor
(ZtOxAri/t fitr Math, uitd Phsri., Anguat 1885, p. 131).
Id tha trulin On 1A> Sttlim iif tht Cane, which is tha l«v im-
partial of tho two books. Bannit^ ss ha tdTIs as in tha prefsca, wu
Iho Snl to taka op tha psititjnjir branch ot tliat aubjact vith
■hiah ha daili. In it ha tmti oF tha sras of ■ triinola formad
:iDg 1 eon*, light or scalana, on a circular bus bv i ntsna
h tba Tartex. Ha ihowi how "to cat a right
Sron^ ti
thresgh tb
, pUn.
>o thst the triuiglB thni formtd ih«11 ba aqnil
il nght
■■ (Prop. 1
0 ,^h^■
uo of thf coin ; o^tharaat. howevor, thfitir
Dcirer tha graatHt li graitar thin ooa
Tha gaaenl quaatioai for ■ icalaDa oone, cornapoiid
nrobtenis for tha right cos* [Prop*. 8 ind IS), and wh
on tolid loci tor their hHuUdii, ua not ittampted. Theso b
baea ulrad bv Hallej in hii edition of Serenua, p. 88 •{.
In hii Tirabcs to the tnfttlM On l/u Stction qf Ou Oylivdir,
Sainniu telle ua thst nianj goometora of hb time euppoeed that tho
tranivene aactloDS ol > cylinder wara aiSeiant rmm tbe elliptic
■ectlona of a cone, that he thought it rinht to re(\ite thli error and
to pta>ethit then aKtione vera of the uma kind. Uaving eiUb-
Uihed thii in a eeriea of theorema ending with Fiop. 18, ba ibowe
in Prop. ID thst "it ia pcoiible to exhibit ■ cone and a cylinder
cntliag one another in one sod the iima ellipHL" Ha then solTea
probleua each aa — "givaD a cosa (cylinder] and sn atlipia on it,
to find tha ejllnder (cone) which la cut in the eame allipae at tbe
cone [ojlinder)" (Prom. 20, 21); "girenacODa (cylinder], to find
a cyliadar (eona), and to cat both ^ one and tha asma pluie eo
that the uetiona thai ibnned ehall ha timilsi ellipMa" (Propa. 22,
28): "glren a cylindai cat in an allipae, to construct ■ cone
haling tha aime bsae snd tltitude as the cylinder, ao tlist the
aactlan of it by the eame plane ia an ellipM timilar to the allipae ot
tba cylinder" (Prop. 25). In Propi. 26-29 ho ahowli how Co cui- a
Bcslaaa sylindei or cone In an infinite namber ot vevi bv tvo
Sleaet — ahioh am Dot piinkllDl_io aa to form aimiur ollipesi
mbeontnry eectloni). Be then gl*e» eoma theonmi ; "all tha
atnight linea diawn from the aame point to tonch a cylindrical
enrtlce, on bolh sides, have their poinla of contact on tha tidee of
aaingle [arallelopam" [Prop. 51); "all tbe etixight lines drawn
rmm the eamo point to touch a corneal eurfaco, on both eidea, hare
their points of coni "
'*)■ ■
Indiiwrtlv atated, the property of an hannanio nencil.
SERES, Sutus, or Sntos, a town of Turkey in Europe,
no* at the head of a aanjak in the vilayet of Saloniki, ia
situated in the valley of the Strymon ^Karasu), in a district
so fertile as to bear among the Tnrks the name of AJtin
OvoBsi or Golden Plain, and so thickly studded with vill-
ages aa to have, when seen from the beighta of Khodope,
the appearance of a great city with extensive gardens.
The principal buildings are the Greek archiepiscopal palace,
the Greek cathedral, restored since the great fire of 1S79,
by which it was robbed of its magnificent mosaics and
woodwork, the Greek gymnasium and hospital (the former
bnilt of marble), tbs richly endowed Eski Jami, and the
mina of tbe once no less fionrishing Ahmed Pasha or
Aghia Sophia mosque, whose revenues used to be derived
from the Crimea. On a hill above tha town are the ruins
of a fortreas described in a Greek inscription aa a " tower
bnilt by Helen in the mountainous region." Cloth-factoriex
and tanneries are the chief industrial establishments and
lignite mines are w^ked in the neighbourhood with some
success. The population is 30,000.
Serai Ic the indent SerK Sim, or Sirrhie, mentioned by Herod-
otus is oonnaxion with Xerxet'e retreat, and by Livy as the piece
vbera .Amilina Fsnina ttceiied s depatslioa from Fcnana. In the
llth cantnry, when Stsplion Duihin ot Servia aaaumed the titlu
emperor of Bervis, fce., ha choaa Binhn as hia capital ; snd it
nmilUMl la the hands ot tbe Serviana till its captara by Snttsn
Unnd. In I3SS Bayxiid sanmumed his Christian vsissU to his
camp et Stirhe.
SERFDOM. Bee BL*vttT.
SBRGEIETSKIY POSAD, or TttonrzK-SEROEiEvu, a
town of Russia, in the government ot Moscow, which has
grown np round Uie monastery of Troitze-Serghievskays
Lavro, 11 miles by roil to the north-east of Moscow. It
is situated in a bMUtiful country, intersected by pleasant
little valleys and varied with woods, the buildings extend-
ing partly over the hill occupied by tha monaatery and
p^y over the valley below. Including the extensive
Kukuevsk suburbs, it had in 1681 31,100 inhabitants.
There are several lower-grade schools, an infirmary lur old
women, and a school for girls. Nnmerous inns and hotela,
soma maintained by the monastery and others a rich
■oufte Bf revenue to if, accoitunodate the nnmerous pilgijps.
676
S E R -^ 8 E R
SergbievBlc has long been renowned for tta mumfactureB
of holj pictQrea {painted and carved), Bpoooa, and a Tarietj
of other articles carfed in vood, especiallj toys, sold to
pilgrima. Within the last twenty years this industry has
greatly developed ; separate parts of certain toys are made
elsewhere and brought to Serghievsk, where no fewer than
330 workshops, employing 1055 hands, with an annual
production valued at more than £30,000, supply the
finished article. Several other petty industries are carried
on both in the toimAnd in the neighbouring villages.
The Troitak monutery i> tbs miMC acred place is middle Bnuli,
tha cathcdralt ud relio of the Enmlin of Movov. It occupiei ■
pictnmque ata on tbe top of s hill, protected on t70 iidea by d«ep
nviosa lud steep tlopos. Tb< iralli, 25 U SO feet in helgUt, ere
fortified by iiina toven, ooe oF nhicb, the PyitniUk, bu been
for nme time a prison for botb civil ind eeclenuticHl oOenden.
Elsveu oburclici, including the Troilskij (Trinilv) »iid Caiwuskiv
I lol'ty b«ll-Mwer, a thoologicsl
11 th(
, ,. ni.of_ _
:hnrch, erected by Ois luouk Sergiiu, end •rtermrdi bnmed
by tbe TaUn, itood on the eite uow occunieil by tbe CBlliedral of
[be Trinity, ttliich b« built in 1422, and coutaiiii tlic roliia of
Sergiiu, as v^i oa m boly picture which bu fteqiienlly been bmnelit
into lequisition in Rnuiw cunpaigne. The Uapenekiy cBthednl
ns encMd in 1G8S ;' cloae beaide it ara tba gnree of Borie Ooiliinoir
~ ' ' ily. In the southern part ot tha nionaatety ia the
—11. beneath nhiob an apacioui reome nhera ZOO. 000
lo tlie pilgrinu.
churih oC Sereiiie. beneath nhji
dinuera are diatribuled gntis
bell-tower, 290 feet high, has ■
beU weighing
iml
nrhood. The
tn tbe Klh
with'impenatrabta forHla. In 13B7 tvo brothera,
Barthelemy and Stefan, eon) of a Beetoff boiar, encted a church
<in tbe spot. The elder (bora in 1K14] took nionaatic order* under
Ibe nameof Sergint, erected cella by tliecharcb, and bacam a widely
iamons among the peaaanta around. Tha Uoacow priocn alao
ahoved ([reat regpoct for the chief of the new moTiuttxj, Dmitri
JoannoTicb Donakoi received tbe benediction of Sergio* before
nonk in
lifeol
netropolitan of Moscow. Hia nionaatery acquired great fa
became the wulthisst in middle Ruaaia. Iran the I^ble in 15SI
made it the centre of the eccletiaitical pro'ineo of iloacow.
During the Poliib iDTaaian at the beginning of tha 17th century
it organized tba national reiistance. and aupplied tbe combatants
with money and food. In leOSt It witliit<»d a eiiteen moutha'
siege by the Polei ; at a later date the monka took a lively part
in the organiiition of the army vhich cniihed the outbreak of the
peaaaots. In 1681 and leBB Peter I. took refuge here from tbe
revolts MriUri. The theological seminary, founded in 1741 and
transformed in 1814 into an ai»damy, reckoua Platon and riiilsreCe
SEROIUS L, pope from 687 to 701, came of an An-
tiochene family which had settled at Palermo, and owed
his election as Conon's successor to skilful intrigues against
l^schalis and Theadonis, the other candidates. In the
second year of his pontificate he baptized King Ceadwatla
of Wascex at Borne. For rejecting certain canons of the
Tmltan (Quinisezt) conncil of 693, Justinian II. com-
manded his arrest and transportation to Constantinople,
hut the militia of Barenna and the Pentapolis forced the
imperial protospathariua to abandon the attempt to carry
out his onlers. Sergius naa followed by John VI. as popa.
SEROIUS II., pope from 814 to 847, a Roman of
noble birth, elected by the clergy and people to succeed
Gregory IV., was for^with cousecmted without waiting
for uie sanction ot the emperor Lothair, who accordingly
seat his son Louis with an army to punish the breach of
faith. A pacific arrangement was ultimately made, and
Louis was crowned king of Lombardy by Sergius. In this
pontificate Rome was ravaged, and the churches of St
Peter and Bt Paul robbed, by Saracens (August 84S).
Sergius was sueceeded by lieo IV.
SEROIUS III. succeeded Pope Oiristopher in 904, and
reigned till 911. His pontificate, eo far as is kaown, was
remarkable for nothing but the rise of the '' pomocTAcy "
of Theodora and her daughters. Sergius restored th«
lAteran palace, which had been shattered by an earthquake.
After him Anastasius III. sat on the pontifical throne.
SERGIUS IV., pope from 1009 to 1012, originally bor«
the name of Peter, and Li said to have been the first to
change his name on accession to the pontificate. Ha was
a mere tool in the haads of the feudal nobility of the city
(see Roue); he was succeeded by Benedict VIII
SERGIUS, St. The Eastern and Western Churches
celebrate tbe martyrs Sergius and Boccbu;', Roman officers
who suffered under Maximian, on Tth October. Both wero
martyred in Syria, Sergius at HoFuifa (Raslftd, Ros^fat
Uishilm) near Kakka. Sergius -Kan a very famous saint
in Syria and Cbridlian Arabia (comp. what is related of
ChosroealL in vol xvili. p.6I4); and llcofn, which became
a bishop's see {Le Quicn, Oi: Chr., \L 951), took the name
of Sergiopolis, and preserved his relics in a fortified basilica.
The church nas adoi-ned and the ptaco further strengthened
by Justinian (Procopius, ^<1,, ii. 9),
SERIEMA, or Caiiiaiia,' a South-American bird, suffi-
ciently well described and fi(,aired iu Marcgrave's work
{Hitt. Ber. Xat. BrntiHs, p. 203), postliumouJy publiahod
by De Laet in 1648, to he recogoized by succeeding orni-
thologists, among whom Brisson in 1760 acknowledged it as
forming a distinct genua Cariamn, nhile Linnnus re^rded
it as a second species of Falartieilta (see Scbeamsb, toL
ui. p. 552), under the name ot P. ci-ialalu, Englished by
Latham in 1785 (SimoptU, v. p. 20) the "Crested
Screamer," — an appellation, as already observed, sinca
transferred to a wholly different bird. Nothing more
seems to have been known ot it in Europe till 1803, when
Amra published at Madrid his observations on the birda
of l^raguay (Apunlamienlot, No. 340), wherein he gave
an account of it under the name of " Saria," which it bore
among the Onaranis, — that ot "Cariama" being applied to
it by the Fortogueee settlers, and both expressive of it^
ordinary cry,' It was not, however, until 1809 that this
very remarkable form came to be antoptically described
Bcientifically. This was done by the dde'r Geofihiy St-
' In thiiword (be initial C, til* Banal In PortngooM, li larenoiuiceil
nit, and the accent laid upon tba laet lyllabla.
■ Yet Forbea itatea (/Ui, IB81, p. 3GB) that Stnita MBWa from
Siri, "a iliminutjra of Indian aitracUcD," and Ema, tha PortngHae
name for the Rhea (oomp. Eheu, toL vilL p. 171), tba whole Om
meaning " Little Bbea."
S E R — S E R
677
Hitaire (Am. (fa MvtHn, xiii. pp, 363-370, pi. 26), who
liad se«n \ Bpecimen id tlie Lisbon museum; and, tliaugh
knowing it had ^raady been receivBd into Ktentific aomeQ-
clatun^ he called it aoew Mierodadyltu mareffravii. Id
1811 Illiger, without having seen an example, reoaniDd
the genm DicAolophui—A tenn nhich, aa before stated
(OBxiraoLOdY, voL xviiL p. 46, note 1), haa since been
frequently applied to it — pUcing it in the curious con-
geries of forms having little affinity which he called AIk-
toridei. In the course of his travels in Brazil (1815-17),
Prince Mai of Wied met with this bird, and in 1823
ther« appeared from his pen (JT. Aa. Acad. L.-C. i'al.
Cui-iotoniwt, xL pt. 2, pp. 3JI-350, tab. xlv.) a very good
contribution to its history, embellished by a faithful
iife-sixed figure of its bead. The same year Temminck
figured it in the Plaiuha Coloriiei {No. 237). It is not
easj to say when any example of the bird first came under
the eyee of British ornithologists j but in the Zoological
Pnxndingt for 1836 (pp. 29-32) Uartin described the
visceral and oatoological anatomy of one which hod been
received olive the preceding year,'
Tha Satigma. owing to it* long Jigs sod neck, itindi hriu two
fcot or more in haiabt, tnd in meugaria beui itnllirith a )tsCcl7
dcpoitmont Iti bright red beak, tlio ban gnanuh blus ikia
sum Dudi ng ila large yotloircye*, and tlia tufta of (dongited tcatban
fpringinj! Torticall^ fmco it» loKa, givp Et a pleasing audsniToated
eipmaioii ; bat ila plamige EBnenilj it of an iueoniiiicuoni
ocarina grty abova and dnl] Tt'oita beneath, — the foatlien of tlie
barred by fine ligzag markinga of darkl^rown, i^'hile those of the
lorer part* are mora or leai atriued. The n-ijig-quilia are broimiih
b'!"!!. landed nith mottled nhiti, sad Choee of tlie tail, except the
m'd.tle fair, irbich are irhoUf gnyish broirn, ara banded vitb
mottled vhite at the bus and the tip, bat ilark bronm for tlie rest
of (heir length. Tha legs ara red! The Seriema inhabita the
tamfa oi alerated open parts of Bruil, rroni tlie ncigbbDurhood of
Pemunbnco to the Rio da la Plata, eilcnding iufand aa far aa
Jlatto Groan (long, DO'), and occutring alia, ihoagh ipsnely, '
It liies in the high ...
poatora to avtud dijcorer; ol
pass,
ass, ninniiig amy m a atoojiiiif
a •pprHchti!, and taking alalil
luilda its n«t in thick bu>hea oi
'• lioight fram the ground, thew
inneiatar likens to those of tlie i^na-iuii i
[ ara hatthed fully covered nith grey dom
1) to be known lu ita
m tha Scriema by Tre-
II ia ilw darker In
. a longer Uil, and
■nlhcr than utripee.
0 liirda Heme lo be
only at the u
tin) at abotii ■
cSfour:* Tha y.
lelieved by brovji, auu muaiu lur win
of the adult ii almoit aicluaively anic , , , . „
ants, anaila, ll^jda, and anskes \ but it also oats certain large red
Until ISaa tlie Seriema m belEeveil to be wilhoat any near
relatira In the living vorld of bitilA ' ; but in the Zoological Fro-
tiidiaftiitX\\t,tj9tx (pp. 331-390) Dr Hattlanb described an allied
species diecorend hy Pro£ Bumteister in tha territory of the
Ar^tina Beimblic.* Thia bird, which has since twen rsgarded as
entitled to generic dirijion under tha name of Chitiion buniicitUti
{P.Z.S., 1970, p. iU, pL iTivi.], and >i
Mtivs country aa tbt "Chunnia." differs
(]nenting forest or at least bnahy diatric
cubnr, has le» ottbs fVontal crest, sborti
the markings beneath take the form of bet
In other respects ths difTcreacs betveeu the
There are few birds vhich have more exercised the taz-
onomer than this, and the reason seems to be ptun. The
Seriema most be regarded as the not greatly modified heir
of some very old type, such as one may fairly imagine to
hare lived before mauy of the existing groups of birds had
' n* •kelitun has bwa brlaHy deaerlbed and Bgond b; Eyton
((WaJ, Am}m, p. IM, pla. !, K, and 28 bii, flg. 1).
' This dlitlngulibad intliar twice citea the Agure girea by Thiene-
maDn {FoTtE/li'otiiHgtguA. peiaiiuii/. VEf/tl, pL liiii. Bg. It] aa
tlioish taken from a K"<°'ae specimen ; but little that can ba enlled
HalliiH in character is obaerrable therein. Ilia tame Se to be said of
IB tn laid in captivity at Paiii ; but a ipei^men In Mr Walter'! poa-
Kuion undeniably ibowi It (cf. Pnc. ZooL aaciely, 1881, p. !).'
* A luppoaed loutl Oiriiiiiio ftom the cavei of BtkiI, mentioned by
Bonifute ((7.A., iliil. p. 770) and athoi, haa dnca been ahown by
Reinluidt (Aij, 1882, pp. 3SI-33Z) U rest upon the mMnterprstatlon
or cuitalB bonet, whloh tha latter conaidets to have been thoee of a AA«,
• Near Tscnnan and Catamaica (BurmeL-teT, BrmdurA dii la
PMt a-utn, a. f. 603).
become differentiated. Looking at it En this light, we may
be prepared to deal geutly ivith tha nystematists who,
haviog only the present before their eyes, have relegated
it positively to this, that, or the other Order, Family, or
other group of birds. There can be no doubt that some of
its habits point to an alliance with the Bustard (voL iv.
p. 076} or perhaps certain Flovera (see Ploteb, vol. xix.
p, 227), while its digestive organs are easentially, if not
abaolutel;, those of the Heron (vol. xi. p. 760). Its general
appearance recalls that of the Secbetaey-Bird (rupi-a,
p. 61T) ; but this, it must be admitted, may be merely an
analogy and may indicate no affinity n-hatever. On the
one band we have authorities, starting from bases so oji-
posedas Ftof. Parker (P.Z.S., 1863, p. S16) and Sundcvall,
placing it among the Aaiptlra,^ nhile on the other we
have Nitzsch, Prof. Burmeister,* Martin (uf ivpra), and
Dr Oadow (Journ. /. OrnUAolo^U, 1876, pp. *45, 4*6)
declaring in effect that this view of its affinities cannot be
taken. Prof. Euiley has expressed himself more cautiously,
and, while remarking {P.Z.8., 1867, p. 435) that in ita
skull "the intemasal septum is ossified to a verj slight
extent, and the maxillo-palatine processes may meet in the
middle line, in both of which respects it approaches tha
birds of prey," adds ttiat " the ossified ^lart of the nasal
septum does not unite below with the maxillo-paEatines,"
and that in this res]>ect it is unlike the Atxipitm ; finally
hedeclBres(p. 457) (hat, as Ofi« connects the G'eraitoiiioi^iAjK
irith the Charadriomorjilue, so Carvtnut connects the foi-mer
witi the Aelomor/ihx, "but it is a question whether these
two genera may be better included itt " the Geranaiiior/i/ue,
"or made types of sejiarate groups." (a. k.)
SERIES. A series is a set of terms considered aa
arranged in order. Usually the terms are or represent
numerical magnitudes, and we are concerned with tlic sum
of the series. The number of terms may be limited oi-
without limit; and we have thus the two theories, finite
series and infinite series. The notions of convergency and
divergency present themselves oa\y in the latter theoiy.
Finite Sma.
I. Taking the terms to be numerical magnitudes, or say
ntanbers, if there be a definite number of terms, then the
sum of the series is nothing else than the number ob-
tained by the addition of the terms ; f.y., 4-1-9 + 10-23,
1 -f 2-(-4-f-8 — 15, In the first eiample there b no
apparent law for the successive terms j in the second
example there 13 an appajcnt Uw, But it is important to
notice that in neither ease is there a detenuinate law :
we can in an infinity of ways form series beginning with
the apparently irregular succession of tennii 4, 9, 10, or
with the apparently regular succession of terms 1, 2, 4, 8.
For instance, in the latter case we may have a series with
the general term 2'' , when for n - 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 . . the seriea
will be 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, . . ; or a sei'les with the general
n CabdajHi of BirdM
l>-Family FUj^inriHm,
aa the type of a dla-
™l. L ol
tven rahra It to the Family FatceitMm ai
Ibongh ha reganla tbe OtrttEY (loL xviii. ]
tinct aub-Ordar, thereby ahowing a want oi iieimraLioa wnica ib la
difflcalt to elcuae. Here it utadi only be lald that, whenu in a few
points Pa-ndiot diffcn from the norrual Falconidm, Cariaaa iliveije*
in charactm too nunierou!. to nieutiou. Tlie sugjirrtiaB that the Order
Accipilru mi^t be JmUhoUy culai^ an ds to include the Seiietu
hu beTon fOnicirnouiOT, voL ivllL pi<. 45, 4B) met with cenditioDal
approval ; but that tliii rimnrkable and peoulinr fonn should be treated
in the way Jn^t deKribed indicate) au amount of neglect of oidenca
hardly to be akpcoted at the present day.
* NitBch, aa Prof, BiimielKteratatn in his masterly contribution to
tha natnral hittory of this bird [ANumO. naiur/. OoMkA. UeUt, L pp.
1-98, pU 1, a),liiIS34Hwadereetite>ktletcnseottoUqiilchbyUK
Biaiilian tnrellera Bpii and Uartlus. Hit dacrlptlon of It was not,
however, pabllsbed until ISSS. To it la appended a descripUcn by
Dr Craplin of tome RTUmoa tDuid la tHs Serioma, bnt thla nnTortv-
nalaly sesnu lo five bo help as to the eyitamatle pesilitoi of th< Uid,
678
SERIES
term ^»* + S* + 6), when for th« nine TBlusa <rf » tlie teriu
wiU be 1, 2, 4, 8, 15, 2S, . . The leriae muj contain negsr
tive temu, knd in farmiEig the RUia each tenn is of ooucm
to be taken irith the proper sign.
2. But we may have a given law, mch as either of thoM
jiut mentioned, and the qoestioa tht9i)>ari*et, to find the
Biun. of an indefinite number of terms, or say of * tenni
(n Btanding for any poaitive integer anmbei at pleaaare)
of the aeries. The expression for the sum otnnot in this
case be obtained bj actual addition; the formatioa hj
ttddition of the snro -of two terras, of three terms, ic.,
will, it may be, mggest (but it caunot do more than suggest)
the expression for the sum of n'tenns of the series. For
instance^ tor the series of odd nnmbern 1 + 3 + 0 + 7 + ...,
we have 1-1, 1+3-4, 1 + 3 + 6-9, Ac These remits
at once suggeet the law, l + 3 + 6... + (2i>-l)—n*, which
ia in fact the tme expression tor the sum of » terms of
the series ; and this geneMl expression, odm obtained, can
afterwards be verified.
3. We have here the theory of finite series : Uie general
problem is, «. being a given function of the positive
integer n, to determine as a fnnctioa of n the *am
v^+Wj + w,. . . + 1(1, or, in order to hare <• instead of n + 1
terms, say the sum iig+«j + iij..+w,.|.
Simple eases are tliB three vhich follow.
(L) The arithmetic aeries,
«+(ii+»)*(o + M).. + (i.+Tri)j;
writing here the terms in the reverse order, it at ODoe
appears that twice the sum is— 2a+»- li taken a timet:
that is, the sum — na + ^it'l)i. Id particular vtb have
an expression for the enm of the natural nombera
i+a+s...+.-|»(«+i).
B&d an szpreeuon for the sum of tbe odd nnmbers
1 + S + S..+ (3«-1)kiI<.
(il) The geometric series,
a+of-+a,*...+w— »:
here the diSerenca between the sum and r times the
sum i* at (mce seen tobe— a-af, and the iiunistlins
~frZ7 ' *" P*riienlar the sura of the seriea
l+r+f«. .+r"-* = j^p.
(ill) Bat the harmonic series,
and hence ! + > + •. . + iii(ii+^) = J»(» + lX«+^
may be at once verified tor any particular nine of »,
Bimilarly, when the general term in a factorial nf the
orde* r, we have
1+^' ^.■(■±lU-("±Izi) «(«+i).--. ('+'•)
1 ■■• l.a .. r ' 1.! .. (r+I)'
6. If the general term >, be any rational and integral
fimction of it, we have
B the series is continued only up to the term depend-
ing on ^ the degree of the function v„ for all ths sabee-
queot terms vanish. The aeries is thus decomposed lata
a set of aeries which have each a factorial for the gnuenl
term, and which can be summed by the lost tormnln ; thus
we obtain
(»+i).(--l)..(.-f+i) f
* l.!.S..(?+I) ""■■
which is a function of the degree p + l.
Thas for tiie before-mentioned series 1 + 3 + 4+8+ ..,
if it be assumed that the general term >. in a cubic function
of K, and writing down the givAi teraiH ami forming the
diffeiencee, 1, 2, 4, 8 ; 1, 2, 1 ; ), 3 ; I, we have
thesum^+w,.. +«,
„, , , , (»+!)» . («+lW«-l) . (■+l)«('»-lX--g)
"■ "■ l.a "^ 1.2.8 "^ l.S.S.*
1^
does not admit of
or say i + j+j
there is no algebraical function of » which is equAl
nun of the aeries.
4. If the genenl term be a given function «,, and we
can find *■ a function of » such that *s+i-«i — v., then
we have a^ -»,-»„
and hence u^ + Ui .
for the required sum. This is in fact an application of
tlie Cslcnius of Finite Difierences. In the notation of
this calculus *.+]-«■ is written i^; and the general
inverse problem, or problem of integration, is from the
equation of differences ^a — u. (where «. is a given func-
tion of n) to fiod pf. The general solntion contains an
arbitrary constant, <•■ — F. + C ; but this disappears in the
difierence v.+t - 1>^ As an example consider the series
«,+iii... + ii»=0+l + ll.. + ^» + lJi
here, observing that
■[»-f]X«+a)-(«-iW«»+i)-i«(i.+iK>rH5-"-i).->«{«+iV
- jj(ii'+ a«' + ii*>+ 84». + a<x
Aa particular cases we have expreeuons tot the sum*
of the powen of the natar»l nombera —
I»+af...+:^=j»(« + l)(2«+l); l' + a»..+«"»j»Si< + ')'
(observe that this -(1 + 3... +«)')i and so on.
6. We may, from the expression tor the sum of (ho
geometric series, obtain by differentiation other resntt':
thus l + r + f«...+r»-' = i^ gives
1 + ar+Br*.. +Cii-l)r»-'
(1-
+ {»-.l)^ .
and we might in this way find the sum «, + N,r . . . + w.r',
where •>» is any rational and integral function of a.
7. The expression tor the snni Ug + u,. ..+■, of su in-
definite number of terms will in many cases lead to thr
sum of the infinite series <>) + »,...; but the theory of
infinite series requires to be considered separately. Often
in dealing apparently with an infinite series », + «, + ...
we consider rather an indefinite than an infinite scric^
and are not in any wise really concerned with the sora nf
the aeries or the question of its convergency : tfaos the
equatioq
(it^^sa^li^, . .) (, t»t^V . . .) .
-■ti.t.).« '■"«-,*— 'ii-t..
really means the series of identities
{iii+ii)»m+m
jm+^(™ + »-n_«(«-l) » • «(■ -J) .
l.a - l.a ^"i 1^ l.a •"^-
obtained I7 multiplying together the two eeriw ot tlio
left-hand uda. Again, in the method of generating fnnc-
tionswe are concerned with an equation ^() — Jg + J,(. ..
+ Atr-i- ■■, where the function ^l) is Daed cmly to ex-
press the law of formation ot the successive coeffioients.
It is an obvious remark that, althongh according to the
original definition of a series the terms are eonsidcied ai
I an»n^ in a determinate order, jet in a fiml« series
S E B I E S
679
(vlietlier the number of Urms be definite or indefiitite) the
turn IB independent of the order of arrangement
InJlltUe Srriet.
8. Wo conaider w infinite seriaa »i, + «, + ih+ ._ , , of
tann» proceeding Mcording to a. giten law, tS»t ia, the
genenl term «e is given u k function ot «. To fix the
ideu the temu waj be taken to be poaitiTe uuinerical
magnitodce, or tay nnmben continnaUy diminidung to
xero; t-h't i«, «tn><'nt ii "'dw.ia, moreorer, nch a function
of » that b; taking n nifficieutly large «. can be made
Forming the mooeaiiiTe enma jS,-*,,, iS.-«|, + ii„ S,
_K^ + t^ + K^..theBeauina5^ S^, 5,.,, willbe a Bcriea
of continual^ increaang teima, and if thej increoae up
to a determinate finite limit S (that ia, if there exista a
iteterminate numerical magnitude S auch that bj taking
K mSeientlj large we can make S-S, m amall aa we
pleaae) 8 ia aaid to be the aam of the infinite aeriea. To
■hov that we can aetnallj have ao infinite teries witli a
given mm S, take «^ any nnmber leaa than 8, then S-v,,
is pcsitivej and takmg «, anj nmoerical magnitude leaa
than S-i^ then S-«,-i<i ia poaitiTa. And going on
uontinnally in this manner we obtain a aeries «n + W|
+ u, + ... anch that for any valae of it however large
,?-«g-Hj... ~Haia poaitiTB; and if ae« incroaaaa Uub
difference diminiahea to tero, m have •ig + «j + ii.+ ....
—an infinite leriee having S for its anra. Thna, tt S —2,
andvretake«,<2,Baj»,-I; •«,<a- 1, aay «,-!; i»,<3
- 1 -LaV"i— 7! *od soon, we have l+j+j+...— 2;
or, nxxe general^, if r be any poaitite number len than
I, then l+r+r*+ ... "r^j that ia, the infinite geo-
metrio aeriea with the first term —1, and with a ratio
r<l, haa the finite mm r-^-' . Tlua in fact follows from
theezpieanon l+r-+r*... +r"-'— j-^-for the ram of
the finite aeriee; taking r<l, then a* n inereaaea r* de-
L-reaaee to aero^ and the anm becomes more aod more
9. An infinite larieB of poutive nnmben can, it ia clear,
have a anm only if the tenna eontiuoaUy Him in! .1] to zero j
bnt it ia not conveieely true that, if this condition be satis-
fied, there will be a sum. For instance, in the case of the
harmoaicMriul + E+i+ . . . it cwk be shown that by tak-
ing ft lofficientnomber of terms the anm of the finite aeries
may be made aa large aa we please. For, writing the series
in the form l + l + Q+I) + (i + l + J-+ J)+ ... the
nmnber of terms in the biacketa being donhled at each
BUcoDeaive step, it ia clear that the snm of the terms in
any bracket is always > ^ ; hence by sufficiently increas-
ing the nmnber of brackets the som may be made sa large
aa we please. IntheforegoingBeriea,bygroaping the terms
in a different manner l + Q + l) + Q + l + l+^)+ ,.,
the tmn of the terms in any bracket is always < 1 ; we thns
arrive at the resolt that (n ~ 3 at least) the sum of 2* tams
of the series ia > 1 +iit and <«.
10. An infinite series may contain negative terms ; mp-
pose in the first instance that the terms are alternately
positive and negative. Here the absolute magnitodes of
the terms most deoream down to nro, bnt this is a snffl-
rient condition in order tiuit the seriee may have a sun.
The case in question is that of a series «o - *i + '^ - ■ ■ ,
where Vp Vi, v^ . , uv iH positive and decreaaa down to
zero. Here, forming the Enccesatve sums S^ — «„ 5, — Vg ~ ■„
ifj-iTj-Pl + D-.. 5^ if,, ;^ . . . are aU positive, and we
have 5,>Si, S,<5p 5,>55, . . and S»+i-5, tends con-
tinnally to zera Hence the snnis Sg, S^, S^ . . tend con-
tinually to a positive limit 8 in such wise that 8^ t^^
S„. . . are each of them greater and 8^, S~ 8„. . are
each ot them leaa than S; and we thus have i8aa the sum
of the series. The series 1 ~|+~-^+ ■ ■ will serve as
an example. The case jnat considered inclndee the appar-
ently more general one where the series conaiata of alternate
groups of positive and negative terms respectively ; the
terms of the same group may be tmited into a single term
± v„ and the original series will have a nun only if the
resulting series Vg - Vi + Vg . . . haa a snm, that is, if the
positive partial some v^ v^, *, . . decrease down to zero.
The terms at the beginning of a series raa,y be irregular
as regards their signs ; but, when this ia so, aU the terms in
qnestion (assumed to be finite in nnmber) may be united
into a single term, which is of course finite, and instead of
UiQ original seriee only the remaining terms of the series
need be considered. Every infinite series whatever is thus
substantially included nnder the two forms, — terms&ll posi-
tive and tenns alternately positive and negative.
11. In brief, the snm (if any) of the infinite seriea
■^•|-Kj-t-«j+ . . ia the finite limit (if any) of the s
sive BumsK^ «i,-H(i, <^+«i + i(_., " '
limit, then there is no sum, Obai
Older ly H^, «! . . . of the terms is part of and essential
U) the defimtion ; the tenna in any other order may have
a different sum, or may have no sum. A series having a
sum is said to be " convergent " ; a series which has no
sum is "divergent."
If a series of positive terms be convergent, the terms
caimot, it is clear, continually increase, nor can they twid
to a fixed limit : tiie series 1 + 1 + 1 + . . is divergent. For
the convergency of the series it is necessary (but, as has
been shown, not sufficient) that the terms shall decrease
to nro. So^ if a series with alternately positive and n^a-
tive terns be convergent, the absolute magnitudes canuo^
it ia clear, continnolly increase. In reference to such a series
Abel remarka, " Peut-on Imoginer rien de ' plus horrible
que de d^biter 0-l*-2* + 3*-4»-1-, kc, ob » eat on
nombra eatier poeitif 1" Neither is it allowable that tlis
abeolute msgnitodee shall tend to a fixed limit. The so-
called "neutral" series l-I+l-l.. is divergent: the
do not tend to a determinate limit, but
ent) that the absolute magnitudes i
In the so^»llad semi-convergent seriee we have an equft-
tion of the formes'™ U^-U^ + Pj-. . ., where the positive
values U^ U„ I7„ . .. decrease to a minimum value, mppoaa
Up, and afterwards increase ; the series is divergent and
has no sum, and thus 3 is not the simi of the series. S
is only a number m function calcolable approximately by
means of the series regarded as a finite series terminating
with the term ± Uj,. The successive sums tJ^, tJg - V^
P|, - Fi + Pji . . up to that containing ± Vf, give alter-
nately superior and inferior limits of the number ot
function i^.
' 12. The condition of oonverg^cy may be presented
under a different form: let the series tL,-fu, + ii,-i-.: be
convergent, then, taking m snfBcientiy large, the snm Is
thelimit not onlyof Nf-t-«i + . .■!'•(_ but also of «,-<-«].. ,
-l-«a4.r, whererisany number as largeaawe pleaae. Tha
difbrnice «f these tvro exprsMdoiH ottut therefor^ b«_iii-.
680
S £ BI E S
definitely imill ; hy taking m inffioiaatly large the mm
■_4.i + >>+i . . . . + «iM-r (iiheM r ia anj aninber how-
arer large) can be made aa imaU aa we pleaw; or, aa
thi. mny tli-o be stated, the som of the infinite leries
■.^.1 + •<■+■ + ... can be made u tmall aa we pleaaa
If the taruu are all pcuitive (bat not otherwiae), we may
take, hutead of the ontite eorieB «»+i + «»4-t+ • ■■ «>?
«et of term* (cot of iieccaxity oomwclttiTe tenbi) nibee-
qnent to «»; that ia, for a conTergent lerieB of poeiti^B
terms the sum of any est of terms mbeeqasnt to «_ can,
tn- taking m Mifficientlj large, be made as small aa we
13. It follows that in a convergent eeries of poaitiva
tenu the terms ma; be grouped heather in any manner
K> as to form a finite niunber of pwtial series which will
be each of them eonreigent, and snob that the sum of their
■omi will be the som of the given eeiiea. For instance,
if the given aeries be •^'l'i(i + «t + . .., then the two aeries
^-t-«i + H4 + . • • and «, + ■(, + . , will each be convergent
and the torn of their rami will be the anm of the ori^nal
14. Obrionsljr the eoDcliuion does not hold good in
general for series of pmitive and negative terms : for in-
atanee, the seriea l~g + i~:'''-- '' convergent, but the
two aeriea 1 + j + j + .- and -j-j-- • «" "^ iiwr-
gent, and thus without a mm. Inorder that Hie coDcInuon
maj be applicable to a seriea of positive and negative
temu the series most be " abaolatelj coovergent,' that ia,
it most be convergent when all the terms are made poei-
tive. Thii implies that the poeitive terms taken by them-
•elvM are a convergent series, and also that the negative
terma taken by themselvea are a convergent seriea. It is
hardly necedaary to remark that a convergent aerie* of
poeitive terms ia abaolately oonvergent. The question of
the eonvergency <v divergency of a seriea of positive and
negative terms i^ of lees importance than the qneetion
whether it is or is not abaolntely convergent. . Bat in this
latter qneation we regard the term* as all podtive^ and
the qnaetion in iflect relates to aerie* eontMning poaitive
terms only.
15. Consider, than, a series of positive terma «g + iij
+ «! + ..; if they ere increaaing— tlut ia, if in the limit
Ma+i/«B be greater than 1 — the series *is divergent, bat if
la«t than 1 the series i^ convergent. This may be called
« Brat mtterion ; but there ia the donbtful case where the
Hmit ■— 1. A seoc^d eriteri<m was given by Cauohy and
Raabe ; bnt there ia here again a doubtfnl case nheu tbe
limit oonaidered — 1. A aaceession of criteria was estab-
lished by De Uorgan, which it seems proper to give in
the caiginal form ; bnt the equivalent criteria eetablidied by
Bertrand are mmewtiat mnre ooavenient. In wliat follows
/Jt is for ahortneei written to denote the logarithm of x, no
matter to what base. De Uorgan'a form ia as follows : —
Writiug «,
M-
put j>,
< the limit u
<^ Pf lie greater than 1 the Beriei> ii convergent, bnt if less
than 1 it id divergent. If the lituit ig— I, seek for the
limit of fij, — (pg - 1)1^; if this limit o^ b» greater than 1
the rerieri Li eonvergent, biit if lea than 1 it is divergent.
If the limit itj — 1, SBok for the limit p^ — (j>^ - l)llx ; if
thill limit i/j be greater than 1 tlie aeries u convergent, bat
if lefw than 1 it is divergent. And so on indefinitely.
' 16. Ilorltaud'sformit: — It, in the limit for a — <o, I — jh,
be nogaUve or less than I the series ia divergent, but if
greater than Irit it convergent. It it — 1, then if 1 — Jllii
h» negative or Um than 1 the »fri>>d is divergent, but if
greaterthaa lit is convergent Hit -1, thenif (^^^^^'/Hn
be negative or leas than 1 the eerie* i* divergent, bnt if
greater than 1 it is convergentL And so on indetinitalj.
The last- mentioned criteria follow at onc« Irom the
theorem that the aeveial seriee having the geawal temu
of them convergent if a be greater than 1, but divergent
if a be ne^tive or less than 1 or •■ 1. In the aitcplest
cose, aeriee with the general term — , the theorom mmj he
proved nearly in the manner in which it ia shown aboTo (cf.
I 9) that the harmonic series is divergent.
17. Two or more absolutely convergent aeriea may be
added together, {«,-ft(i-K<,..}+ (•'i) + «i + 'i---}(N + '^t)
+ (u, -f- V,) . . ; that is, the reenlting seriee b absolately con-
vergent and has for its snm the sum of the two amor.
And similarly two or more absolutely convergent aeiiea xacj
be multiplied together {«g-t-«]-l->i,. .) x {*« + ^H- v, . .f
-i*o'', + C«o<^ + "i''o) + (*o«« + »i»i + «!''•)+ ■•; tl»atia,the
resoltmg aenee is abbolntelT convergent and bo* for iU
stun the product of the two soma. But more properly the
moltiplioation give* rise to a doaUy infinite aerie* —
")•» "I'm "i"^
— which is a kind of series whiiA will be presentlf eoa-
sidered.
IS. But it is in the first instance proper to conmder a
single aeriea extending backwards and forwards to infinity,
or aay a back -and -forwards infinite series ...«_, -t-n.i
.-r-Hg + Vi-t-ii]...; such a seriee may be ahaolntely coa-
vergettt, and the snm is then independent of the order ct
the terms, and in fact e^ual to the sum of the enma at
the two aeriea tig+iii+K, . . and «-i-f n-i-f-ii-* . .
respectively. But, if not absolutely convergent, the ex-
pression has no definite meaning until it is explained in
what manner the terms axe intended to be grouped
together ; for inatonce, the expreasion may be naed to
denote the foregoing anm of two series, or to denote the
1 l(n + (l(l-Hl-l)■l-(«,-m-l)■^ .. and the snnl may
different values, or there may be
e may be no aom, accordingly.
h^ve different values, oi
Thos, if the seriea be . . -
former meaning the two serieaO-l- j-fs-h..and — j — = -..
are each divergent, and there is not any sum. But in tits
latter meaning the aariea is 0 + 0 + 0-1-.., which ha* a
■am — 0. So, if the series be taken to denote the limit of
(1l,■^»,■H^.. +«b) + («-i+i«.9.. . -H"— ■), where n,
m are each of them nitiniately infinite, there may be a
sum depending on the ratio n : m', which ram conse-
qaently aoqnires a determinate volne only when thi/ ratio
19. In a ungly infinite uetie* we have a general t«nn
Uk where n ia an integer positiv in the cose of an or<Unar}'
series, and positive or negative in the caM of a back-and-
forwards aeriea. Similaily fcr a douUy inBnila eeriee wt
have a general term ««,., n-here ui, ■ are integers which
may be aadi of them i>oiulive, and the form of the aeriee
or th^ may be each of them poeitive or negatiTe. Th«
latter is tbe more general nuppoaition, and inclodn th*
former, sinee «.,< may — 0 for m or » each or utlier ot
them negative. To put a definite meaning on the notion
of a atun, we may regard (», a a* th* rectangular coradi-
natcf of a point in a plane ; that u,it m, n an each of
SERIES
081
tbem pMitive tts ttX^d only to the po«itiTB qiudnmt of
tbo p!>l>«t bni cthennM to the whole plane : tnd we hare
thus A donUj infinite tyWxa or httioa-work of points.
We may imagine a boundary dependiDg on a paramBtor T
which for F — oo ia at emy point thweot at an ioflaite
distance from ths origin ; for mitaue^ the bonndMy nay
be tlie circle jt* + y*— 7*, or tbs toor (idea of anetangK
X — ±'T, y •• ±fiT. Suppose the fonn ia given and the
Talne of T, and 1st the anin Zh., ■ be imderatood to denote
the """I of those teima «■_,« which correspond to poiata
within the bonndaiy, liien, if as f increases without limit
the sum in qusstion continually approaches a detenninate
limit (dependent, it may be, on the form of the bonndaiy),
for ndt forat (/ bawutarg the series ia Mid to be oonreT'
gant, and the sum of the donbly inSaite aeries is the afore-
said limit nf thn mm Sm- .. Tlie coodition of convergency
may be otherwise stAtad : it mast be poaaible to take T
so IsTge that the anm Zk^ . for all terms «>, , which
eorrapond to points oataide the boundary shall be as
small as we please.
It is easy to see that, If the twms n,.. . be all of them
positiTe^ and ths seriss be convergent for any particular
form of boundary, il will be ooavergent lor any other focm
of boundary, and the lum will be the aama in each owe.
Thus, 1st the boundary be in the first instance the circle
^ + ^~T; by taking f snffieiantty large the. sum £««,■
for points outside the circle may be made as small as we
please. Consider any other form of bouudacy — tor in-
•tsnoc^ an ellipse of given eioeatricity, — and let such an
ellipse be drawn including within it the circle s* + ji* — 1*.
Then the sum ^h.* for tnruia 11.,^ corresponding to
potote outnide the eUipae will be smaller than the sum for
points outaide the circle^ and the diSsrenoe oE the two vuma
— that ia, the autn for points outaide the circle and inside
the eilipM — will also be loss than that for points outside
the circle, aud can thus be made aa small as we pleaae.
Hence finally the sum 2uii,k, whether restricted to terms
Ma, ■ corresponding to ptnnts inside thd circle or to terras
cortespouduig to points inside the ellipee, will hsve the
same value, or the sum of llie •eries is independent of
the form ci the baundaiy. Such a series, vii., a doubly
infinite convergent aeries of positive terms, is said to be
absolutely convergent ; and umilarly a doubly infinite
seriaa ol positive and negative terms which ia convergent
when the terms are all token as positive ia absohitdy
oanvergent.
30. We have in the preceding theory the foundation of
the theorem ^ 17) as to the product of two absolutely
convergent Berie& The product ia in the first inatance
expressed as a donbly infinite seriee ; and, if we sum this
for the boDudaiy a + fmT, this ia in effect a summation
of the series v^v^ + (HfD, + ii,*^) + .., which is the product
of the two serica. It may be further remarked that,
staitiog with the doubly infinite series and summing for
the rectangular boundaij s^aT, f — fiT, ws obtain the
sum aa the product of the soma of the two single series.
For series not sbsolntely ooDvergent the theorem is not
tree. A striking instanoe ia given by Caochy : the series
1-^-1-^-;',^ + .. is oonvergont and has a calcul-
able sum, but it can be shown without difficulty that
ita square, vi*., the Mriaa 1 " A + (3 + a) ~
u divei^ent.
31. The cswe whore the terms td a series are imagiiiary
oomea under that where they are r«aL Suppose the geneial
lenn is p, + gnh then the kories will have a sum, or will
fa* convergent, if and only if the series having fix its general
term p, and the series having ttx its general tern q^ be
etch EOuvcrgeot ; then the anm — sum of Bn* seril
into son <d seeond aorise. The notiiw (rf ahscdote eo
will of oonrM apply to each of the series tsparateiy ;
further, if the series having for its generai term toe moJnlna
*/?*• + J** ^ convergent (that is, absolutely conve^nt,
unoe the tenn* are ait positive), each of the component
leriea will be absolutely convergent; but the condition ianot
necessary for ths convergence, or the abeolnte convergence,
' the two component series respectively.
22. In the series thus far considered the terms ara
actual numbers, or are at least regarded as constant ; but
we may have a series v^ f «, |-«,-h. . wbeie the successive
terms are functious of a parameter i ; in particnkr we may
have a series 0^ + 0,1+ a^ , , arranged in powers of t It
of a complete theory asLttULiry to oonsider ■
having the imsginary valuejE-)-ty — r(cos^'t-tsiu ^).
will then have the general I
The
two component 9
a^ cos n^ and OtJ* sin n^ respectively ; accordingly each
of these series will be absolutely conve^[eut for any valuu
whatever of ^ provided the series with the general term
OaT^beabeolntely convergent. Hoieover, the series, if thiu
absolutely convergent tor any particular valne Ji of r, will
be absolutely oonvorgent for any aniailer value of r, that la,
for any vahie of x + iy having a modulus not exceeding B ;
or, reprearating aa usual x -<- iy by the point whose rect-
angular coordinates are v, y, the series will be aheolutely con-
vergent for any point whatever inside or on the circotofer-
enos of the dicle having the origin for ceutm and ita radiua
— ii. nie origin i* of course an arbibary point. Or, what
is the tame thing, initrxt of a seriea in powers of m, we
may oonsider a wriea in powers of 1 - c (where e ia a given
imaginary valne • a -H fii). Starting from the aeries, we
may within the aforesaid Umit of absolute conrergenoy con-
sider the series as Uie deGnitiou of a function of the van-
able J ; in particular the series may be absolutely KHtver-
gent tor every finite value of the modolas, aud we have then
a function defined iar every finite value whatever « -<- if of
the variable. Gonvarsely, starting from a given function
of the variable, we may inquire under what conditions it
admits of sipansiou in a series of powen of 1 ^or i - c\
and seek to determine the expansion of the function in a
aeriaa of this form. But in all this, however, we are tra-
velling out of the Uieory of series into the general theory
of fonctioDS.
S3. ConsideringthemodnlnarasagivenqnaotityandthB
aevaral powera of r as included in the coefficients, the com-
ponent aeries are of the forms a^ + a^ot ^ + afiO» 3^-!-. .
and (ijBin^-t-o,sin2^-)-. . respectively. The tbewy of
tbMe trigoBometrical or multiple tine and cosine series,
and of the development, under proper conditions, of an
arbitrary function in aeries of these forms, ocmstitutes an
important and interesting branch of anaJytus.
24. In the case of a rud variable m, we may have a series
a^ + aji + a^. ., where the seriee a, -f o, -H o, . , ia a diver-
gent series of decreasing positive twms (or aa a limiting case
whore this series isl-Hl-l-1..). For a valne of 1 inferior
but indefinitely near to ±1, say j-±(1-«), where • is
indefinitely small and positive, the seriea will be coavergent
and have a determinate sun 4(')i "'^ '^ ""^J *"te ^ ± I)
to dsDote the limit of ^ ;t (1 - •) ) as i dlmini^as to zero ;
but onleas the series be convergent for the value f — ± 1
it cannot for this value have a sum, nor consequently a
let these
.•*.''
tam-^±l). Tor in
which (or values of t between the limltd ± 1 (both
limits excluded) iog(l - .). For ■ - -H I the Beri»i is
divergent and has no sum ; but for : — 1 - < »* < dlmi-
niahea to lero we have - log « and (1 - 1) -f j(l - «)". . . ,
each positive and increasing without limit; for 1— -1
the antes 1~e + i~;--'* convergent, and we have at
XXI — 86 _
I £ R— S £ R
Ua UmU ]og 2 — 1-1+1-1,.. As a lecosd example,
consider the serieE 1 •i-(+^.,, wliich for valaea of i be-
tveeo tlta limitg ± 1 (botli limits exdnded) •• ^ For
1^ + 1, the seiiee ia divergent And luu do sum ; but for
I— l-cfts tdimiaiahea'to zero we hare -and 1 +(I -c)
+ (!-<)'.., each poai^ve and increMing without limit ;
for > — — 1 the aeries is divergent and hss no aym ;
the equation ^3^ = 1 -(1 -£) + (!-£)",. , is true for any
positive valoe of ( however ■moll, imt iwt for the value
.-0.
The following menioini uid irofki m»f bo coninlUJ ; — CaucliJ,
Cawi d'Atlatj/lt dl f&aii Polytahnique — psrt L, AnuUyK
jtlgtbriqut, 8vo, Pui*. 1821; Abel, "llDter- '
a Cnlla'a Aunt, ia llaO., voL L
(1896) pp. Sn-2E», and (Euvre) (Fnnch tniu.). voL L ; De ITornn,
Treatin on tie Difer.niial and Inttgral Calailia, 8vo, London,
latS; Id., "OuDiTergctit Serii* ind vsriani Points ctAntlyaa
connectsd witl thnn '"^ (1841), in Oioii, Pkil. TnK4., voL »iiL
(ISIS), and othu momoin in Cami. Fhik Traiit, ; Berlrand,
" fiSglea lur Is ConvoKionce dei 8*ries, " in Ziouv. Jours, de Math. ,
TOl. Tit (1812) pp. 35-El; Cajloy, "On Ibe Inveiw Elliptic
Fnnrtioni,y Chvib. JfniA. Jnun., vol iv. (1845) pp. "
"Uinu
oublsir
S £{OHI
for
k d» ifoA, ToL X. (1815) pp.
donbljr inSnito «oriM) ; Hinminn, " Uober die Djiratellburk.
Function durch eins triRonometriiche Reihe," in 0611. Abh.,
xiii. (1851), and Wirie.helftic, 1874, pp. 2IS-2G3 (containi
6ERIK0AFATAM, formerly the capital of Mysore,
lodis, is situated on an island of the same name in the
KSveri (Cauveiy) river in 12' 35' 33" N. Ut. and 76" 43'
8' E. long. It is chieflj noted for iu fortress, which
:figured eo prominently in Indian history at the doss of the
ISth Muturj. This fortnidable stronghold of Tipu Saltan
thrice sustained a siege from the British, but it was finally
stormed in 1799; and after its capture the island was
ceded to the British. The island of Seringapatam is abont
3 miles in length from east to west and I in breadth,
and yields valuable crops of rice and sugsr-coQe. The
fort occDjpies the western side of the island, immediately
overhanging the river. Seringapatam is said to have been
founded in 1451 by a descendant of one of the local
officers appointed by IUmin^ja, the Vlsbnuite apostle,
who named it the city of Sri Ronga or Vishnu. At the
eastern or lower end of the island is the Lai Bagh or " red
garden," containing the mausoleum built by Tipa Snltan
for his father Hyder Ali, in which Tipu himfeelf also lies.
In 1861 the population of the tovm of Seringapatam was
11,734 (males 5579, females 6155).
SERJEAMT-AT-LAW ia the name given to one who
holds an ancient and honourable rank at the English or
Irish bar. The word is a corruption of lervient ad legtm,
as distinguished from appitiUidta ad legtm, or utter
barrister, who probably originally obtained his knowledge
of law by serving a kind of apprenticeship to a serjeant.
When the order of eegeants was instituted is unknown,
but it certainly dates from a very remote period. The
authority of setjeant counters or countors (i.e., jileaders,
those who frame counts in pleading) is treated in the
Mirror of.Jv^tu^ and they are named in 3 Edw. I. c. 29.
They may powibly have been the reprtoentattves of the
etsnietin mentioned in the great customary of Normandy.
The position of the segeant had become assured when
Chancer wrote. One of the chonctera in the CiMeibiiry
Taiau
" A ■agssnt oT tlia Iwr, wsty end wi«^
That ofton liad y-basn at th* pwii." '
Se^eants (except king's se^eants) were created by writ of
summons under the great seal, and wore a ^»eeial and dis-
tinctive dress, the chief feature of which was the ooi^ a
white lawn or silk skoll-cap, now repreeented by a, rooud
piece of black silk at the top of the wig. They fenjoyed
a social precedence after knights bachelors and before
companions of the Bath and other orders. In this they
differed from gaeen's' counsel, who have simply professional
as distinguished from social rank. Socially Uia seijeant
hod precedence, professionally the queen's coonsBl, mdeoi
indeed, as was often the case, a patent of precedenoe was
granted to the former. Till past the middle of the 19th
century, a limited number of the seijeants wtn called
"icing's (queen's) Serjeants.,'' They were appointed by-
patent and Bommoned to parliament. Until 1814 the two
senior king's serjeants had precedence of even the atbxney-
general and solicitor- general It was the custom for
seiieants on their appointment to give gold rings with
mottoes to their colleagues. Down to 1 846 the order en*
joyed a very valuable monopoly of practice. The seijeants
had the right of exclusive audience as leading counsel in
the Court of Common Pleas. In 1834 a loyal mandate
of William IV. attempted to abolish this privilege, but in
1840 the judicial committee of the privy council dedand
the mandate informal and invalid. I^e monopoly was
lioally abolished in 1845 by Act of Parliament (9 and 10
Vict c. 54). For at least 600 years the jndgte irf the
superior courts of common law werd always seijeanta, If
a judge was appointed who was not a seijeant at the time
of his appointment, he was formally created one immedi-
ately before bis elevation to the bench. By the Judicature
Act, 1873, sect. S, no person appointed ajndge of the High
Court of Justice Or the Court of Appeal is required to toko
or have taken the d^^ee of serjeant-at-law. The seijeants
had their own inn of court' down to a very recent date,
Seijeants' Inn was formerly in two divisions, one in Fleet
Street and one in Chancery Lane. In 1758 the members
of the former joined the latter. In 1877 the latter was
dissolved, the inn sold to one of the'members, and the
proceeds divided Among the existing Serjeants. "He extinc-
tion of the order is ngw only a question of time, no seijeonl
having been created unce 1868. It is, however, still with-
in the discretion of the crown to create fresh seijeonta if
ever it should be deemed advisable to do so. In Ireland
the order still exists. The three Serjeants at the Irish bar
have precedence next after the law officers of the crown.
See Servie"! ad Lrgtm, by Ui Seqcint Usnning ; Tlu Order of
tie Coif, by Mr. Serjeant Pulling.
SERJEANTY, a form of tennre. See Rsal Eratx.
SERPENT, a musical instrnmenL See Ormaxat,
■jcA. iviL p. 778.
SERPENTINE, a compact ciypttxrystalline or Gboos
mineral substance, occurring in rock-massee which com-
monly present dark green colonra, variously mottled and
fancifully compared to the markings on certain aerpent^
whence the name "serpentine." For a likereasonjt istcane-
times called " ophite," while Italian sculptors have tented
it "ranocchia," in allusion to its resemblance to the skin (rfa
frog. In consequence of its variegated tints, the stone ia
frequently cut and polished for ornamental porpoaee, and
is hence popularly called a Garble. From tme marUe^
however, it di^rs in chemical oompodtion, being eesen-
tially a hydrated silicate of ma^esitm, nsoally associated
with certain metallic oxides (such as those of iron, nickel,
and chromiiun) which confer upon the stone its chaiocter-
istic tints. In some localities serpentine is fonnd in
S E R — S E R
683
TniUMW vUcli aia •rldenttj Intmnra Knong other Toeka,
while elwwhere it oooon interbeddad, uiuallj in lenticular
msMSj, UMciAt«d with gneiai uid crTstalline achirta. It
ill notaworthr t^t the Mrpentine i« freqaentlj eranbed
and breeciated, exhibiting polished ilip-facea which are
wmetimga rtmted. The nuface of on aipcoed mam of
Aerpentine lj generftUy bBrren, whence bowea of the rock
KTO known in the Alpd aa " monta morbt.' The origin of
«BrpeQtino ha* been a aubject of nmch dlipnte. It waa
pointed oat bj Soiidberger and Tachermak that the altera-
tioa of oliviQe may give riae to thii product, and pdeudo-
moiphji of serpentina after chiTaoIite are well known to
minendot^i'ta. Profeaaor Bonney and totuij other geo-
logiiti reynrd aerpentine aa being generail/ an altered
eraptive rock, doa to the hydration of peridotiten, auch aa
lher«otit« ; probably it may alao reanit from the decom-
position of oltvine-gabbro and other locka rich in mag-
neaian lilicatea. Angite and hornblende may become
alterod to aerpGntine. On the contTAry, Dr Sterr; Hunt
and certain other chemical geologista believe that perpentiae
haa geDerally been fonned *■ an aqneotu aediment, prob-
ably pi«cipitated by tba reaction d sulphate or chloride
of magneaium upon the ailicate of lime or alkaline ailicatea
derived from the dinint«gration of crystalline rocka and
found in aolntlon ia many natural watera. Berpentine ia
a rock of rather limited occurrence. Its principal localitiea
in England are Cornwall, especially in the Linrd district,
where it oocnpiea a oonaiderable area. The famous aoenerj
of Eynanoe Cove owea much of its besnty to the vivid
coloim and brilliant surface of the aerpentine. The rock
ii worke4 into vases, oolumna, mantelpieces, te., and of
late yean haa been uaed to a limited extent for tjke deco-
ratitm of ahop-fronis in London. The b««aty of the Liard
rock i* heightened by the white veina of ateatite which
ttaverae il^ and in aome caaea by diaaeminated erydtala of
baiitite, which gliaten with metallic luatre. Much of the
Liiard aerpentine ia of rich red and brown colour. Green
serpentine is found near Holyhead in Angleaea, A singu.
larly beautiful variety of mottled red and green tinta, with
veins of steatite, occurs near Portsoy in Banfiahire, Scot-
land. It is also found with dhrome iron ore in the Shetland
lalanda. The green serpentine of Oalway oecutB in inti-
mate association with eryBtalline limestone, fonuing the rock
known as "ophicalcite" or "aerpeiitinouB marble." Bach an
association is by no meana uncommon ; but, tlioagh the
beauty of the serpentina may thus be enhanced, its dura-
bility seems to be impaired. On ezposore to the weather
the carbonate of calcium decomposea more readily than the
ailicate of magnaduin, and hence the atone aoon presenta
a roufjh eroded surface. The Oalway rock comes into the
market under the name of " Irish green " or " Connemaia
marble.' Ophicalcitea alao occur in Ayrshire, Scotland,
and in varioua porta of tile Scottish Eighlanda; and the
green iiebblea found in lona beking to this tjpb ot rock.
On the Continent aerpentiaea are largely worked at
Zoblita and at Waldhsim in Saiony. The famoos rock
of Zobliti, mentioned by Jigricola, is known to have been
wiongbt for between three and four centuries, and ia still
eitaiuively explored by open quarries and by subterranean
galleries. The rock osually presenta various ahadea of
green and brown, red being very rare ; bat its moat ,in-
tereatipg feature is the freqaent presence of pyrope, or
Bohemian garnet, which occurs scattered through the rock
in daik red grains, that decompose on weathering to a green
cUoritio product. Very little of the Zoblita serpentine
oomes to England, but it is common throu^out Germany,
and a good deal is sent to Rusaia and even to the United
Btate«. It has been naed in the construction ot the maiiM-
team of Prince Albert at f^«gmore, and for Abraham Lin-
coln's monument at Springfield Illinois. The beat known
of tbe Italian aerpentinei is the "verde Pratc^" which
haa been qnairied for centuries at Honteferrato, near
Prato in Tuscany. Aeeordbg to Copocci thia aerpentine
ia probably of Eocene age. It haa been largely nsed aa »
decorative stona in ecclewastical architecture in Prato,
Pi^toia, and Florence. A good deal of serpentine ia found
neat Ucnna and Levanto. The "verde di Pegli" i* ob-
toined from Pegli, not far from Genoa, while' the " verde
di Oenova''iB a broeciated aerpentinoua limestone ttom
Hetra Lavezzara. Serpentine aLo occura at variona othw
pointa of the Apennines, in Elba, and in Corsic*. The
term " ophiolite " has been vaguely used to include not onljr
seqventines but many of the rocks associated with the
Italian aerpentinea. In like manner the term "gabbro,"
derived from a locality near Leghorn, was at one time used
as a general name for serpentine and its o^sociatea, though
now uaoally restricted to a rock composed essentially of
Elo^oclase and diallage. It is notable that this true gab-
ro is often found in compan; nitb serpentina.
Serpentine is found in numerous localities in the Alps
and in France. An elegant variety ia quarried at £pinal
in the Yosges, and a b«intiful ophicaJcite is worked at St
Viran and Uaurirui, in the department of Eautea-Alpea.
The aerpentine of the Bonda lilountaina in Spain haa
been described by Mr J. llacpher^. In North America
serjwntine ia ao eitenaively diatribated that only a few
localitiea can be mentioned. It ia found at Byracvse in
New York ; on Uanhattan and Btaten Islands: at Hobo-
ken in New Jersey ; at Newport, Eliode Island ; at New-
boryport, UasGachusetts ; at Wext^hester, Chester coun^,
and at Texas, Lancaster county, in Pennsylvania. It also
occurs between Clear lake and New Idrui iu California.
A fine ophicalcite has been obtained from near Milford and
NewGaven in Connecticut, and a beautiful variety has been
worked at Port Henry, Ess^x county. Now York (Dana).
The Canadian eozoon occurs in a serpentinous limestone.
B« Oeoloct, vol. X, pp. !£B, £32 ; JfAKiiLi, voL xv. p. GSB ; and
UiKKiiAioor, vol. ivL p. *14. Th« Iftnature of the Italisn ind
Saxon Mrpentinas ia rather volominoiu. Or reoon t EuirUah writings
on lerpenlins nferencs may be mule to Boaney, fa Qlunl. Jcum.
OtoL Soc., London, xuiii. p. 8S1, uxir. p. -US, xxxviL p. 10,
inii. p. 21, and in OioL J/ag., [2] ri. p. 862, [3] i p. (Ofl ;
uid to (^ollias, Quart Jmrn. OtdL Soc., il. p. iiS, and OaL
ifoo., [S] ii. p. 298. Steny Hunt his vrittoi in aUborata iaii«ir
in tne. Btji. Soc Canada, ISSS, SMt iv. pp. ie5-21G. Bea lUia
Teall, British Pttroarafky, 1888, and Becker, in Amer. Jbuth. tf
Seienee, May 1886. <P. W. B".) i
8EEPENT3. Bee Swakbs.
8ERFUKH0FF, adistrict town ot Buaua, in the govern-
ment qt Moscow, S 1 miles south ot the city ot Moacow, with'
whidi it ia connected by rail. Built on high cli& oq both
banka ot the river Nara, 3 miles above ita junction with
the Oka, Berpukhoft haa of late become an impwtant
manufacturing and commercial town. The aggregate pro-
duction ot its manufactories (cotton and woollen stnSi^
paper, leather), which employ about 4000 banda, in 1880
vrea valued at about £300,000. The surrounding district
has several lai^ cotton and woollen- foeloriea, with a
yearly output worth about £1,000,000. Petty trades
ar« abo much developed in the Deighbourhood, — textile
fabrics, furnitures &»^ earthenware and porcelain being
produosd by Uie peasantry. The nianufactured goods of
SerpnkhofF are sent — mostly W rail — to the fiiin of Nuui-
Novgorod and the Ukraine, while large amounts of grain,
hemp, and timber, brought from the eaat on the Oka, are
diachorged at Serpnkhoff and sent <n to Moscow and St
Petersburg. The goods trafBo by rail and river ahowed
in 1880 ao aggregate ot 6,400,000 cwta, (exclusive ot
timber floated down the Oka). Notwithstanding ita recent
prosperity and the soma beqoeathed to tha monicipali^
by wealthy meiebanta, Serpnkhoff improve* but alovly.
Thaofttiiedral (IMO) wu reWlt in the IBth century; of
G84
S E R — S E R
tli« old fortraki, litiwted on a promontoi; formed bj a bwd
of the NftTB, a few heaps of itooes ue the ooij remainB.
The population in 1884 vai 22,430.
Sarpnkhoff ii ons ot ths oldot toinu d the princlpditr of
HoMOv; it ti msatioDH] in ths nil ot Inn Du^orich (IStS),
at wlikh tim* it wu ■ uurty iiidependsnt principality ondst tho
{mtactsnla ot Mokdw, lit foTtrem, protecting Houov oa the
awitb, WM eftni ittukad b; ths TiUn ; Toktunlih plundtnd it
in 1381, ud the Uthuuiu prince Bridriiiiuro in UIO. In Mf
tha.toiRi wai (tranglr fiutIfi«C aathit firteea jears later it iru able
to iHit ^a Mongol inTaaioii. Its coauuBniiZ importaucs datas
ftom th* ISth notiuj.
SEBTORIUB, QmHTiTti. The life and career of the
Roman Bertoiins, a man of remarkable genioa both as a
general and as a statesman, ma; be eaid to be compriaed
between ths jeara 109 and 73 B.C., a period of civil war
and TBTolution in the Boman world, when ererj mail of
anj mark had to be an adherent either of SiUla or of
HariuB. Sartoriu^ who came from a little Sabine village
nnder the Apennines and was a self-made roati, attached
himself to the partj of die latter, and served under him
in 102 ilo. at the great battle of Aqua Seitite (Aii), in
which the Teutones were decisively defeated. Three years
before he had witnessed the rout of a Bopiaa army by the
Ombri ca die Rhone. In 97 he was serving in Spain and
thus bad a good opportunity of making himself acquainted
wiUi tiie country with which his fame ia chiefly associated.
In 91 he was qn«atot in Cisalpine Gaul, and on his return
to Rome he met witJi such a hearty welcome that he would
have been elected to the tribnnediip but for the decided
opposition of Sulla, He now declared himself for Harius
and the democrat party, though of Marius himself as a
man he had the worst opinion. He must have been a con-
senting party to those hideous massacres of Harius and
C^nna in 87, though he seems to have done what he could
to mitigate their horrors by potting a stop to the ontrages
perpetrated by the scnm of Uarius's soldiery. On Sulk's
return from ^e East and the war with Mithrodates in 63,
Sertorioa left Rome for Spain, where he represented the
Marian or democratic party, bnt^ it would appear, without
receiving any definite commission oi appointment. Here
be passed the remainder of his life, with Ihe Giception
of some cmises in the Meditemmean in conjunction with
Cilician pirates, and of a campaign in Mauretania, in which
he defeated one of Sulla's generals and captured Tingis
(Tangier). This snccess recommended him to the Bpaniords,
more particularly to the Lusitanion tribes in the west, whom
Roman generals and governors of Sulla's party hod plun-
dered and oppressed. Bnvs and kindly and gifted with
a rough telling eloquence, Sertorius was just the man to
impress Spanibfds favooiably, and the native militia, which
he organized, spake of him as the "new Hannibal." Many
Roman refugaos and de<ierters joined him, and with these
and his Spanish volunteers he. completely defeated one of
Sulla's generals and drove Metellus, who hod been specially
sent against him from Rome, out of Lnsitooia, or Further
Spain as the Bomons called it. Bertorius owed much of
hu nucess to his statesmanlike ability, and it seems that
be aspired to be in Spain what the great Agricola after-
wards was in Britain. His object was to build up a stable
government in the country with the consent and co-apent-
lion of the people, whom he wished to civilize after the
Latin modeL He established a senate of 300 members,
drawn from Boman emigrants, with probably a sprinkling
of the best Spaniards. For the children of the chief native
families he provided a school at Osca (Hnesca), where they
received a R<Hnan education and even adopted the dress
of Roman youths. Strict and severe as he was with his
soldiers, he was particularly considerate to the people
generally and made their bo^ens as light as possible. It
seems clear that he had a peculiar gift for evoking the
enthusiasm of mde tribes, and we can well nudei»l«nd
how the famous white fawn, which was his coDstaat com-
panion, may have promoted his popularity. For six yeaia
he may be said to have really ruled Spain. In 77 be vc«a
joined by Perpeooa, one ot the officers of Lepidoa, from
Borne, with a following of Roman nobles, and in the eame
year the great Pompey, then quite a yo^g man and merely
a knight, was sent by the senate to take the commajid is
Spain and with Metellus to crush Sertorius. The war -was
waged with varying success, but on the whole Sertoniu
proved himself more than a match for. hij advenariei^
utterly defeating their nnited forces on one occasion near
Saguntum. Pompey wrote to Rome for reinforcemeata,
without which, he said, he end Hetellus would be driven
out of Spain. Rome's position was very critical, the more
BO as Sertorius was in league with the pirates in the Hedi-
tenaneon, was negotiating with the formidable Mithradates,
and was in communication wi^ the insurgent slavea in
Italy. But owing to jealousies among the Roman ofEcer^
who served under him and the Spaniards of higher rank
he could not maintain his position, and his influence ot^
the native tribes slipped away from him, though he won Tic-
tones to the last. In 73 be was BBsassinated at a bnnqnet,
Perpenna, it seems, being the chief instigator of the deed-
What we know of Sertorius ie mainly drairn from Plntareb'a
Liva, from Aiipian, and from the fragments of Satlmt. Tbne b
t good life of him bv O. Long in Smith'i Clan. Diet.
SERVANT. See Uabtz> ijoi Sbbtakt.
SERVETUS,HiCHAKL,orHioinLSEKTFro(1511-IS53X
physicun and polemic, was bom in IGll' at Tndela in
Navarre (according to his Vienne deposition^ his father
being Hernando Villanneva, a notary of good family in
Aragon. His surname is given by himself as Serreto in
his earliest works, "per Michaelem Serneto, alias Rente."
Later he Latinized it into Servetus, and even when writing
in French (1S53) he signs "Uichel Semetus,"' Jt ia not
certain that he was r^ted to bis contemporary Aodrts
Serveto of AniSon, the Bologna jurist ; but it ia probable
that he was of the same family as the Spanish ecclsBiastic
Uarco Antonio Serveto de Reves (d. 1598), bom at Villa-
nneva de Sigena in the diocese of Huesca (Idtassa, Biblio-
ieea Kueva, 1798, i. 609). Servetus, who at Qeneva makes
" Vilieneuf ve " his birthplace, fixes it in the adjoining dio-
cese of Lends, in which there ore three villages named
Vilonovo. Having apparently had his early training at the
university of Saragossa, he was sent by his father to study
law at Toulouse, where be first became acquainted witli the
Bible (1523). From 1525 he bad found a patron in Joan
de QuintaBa (d, 1534), a Franciscan promoted in 1530 to
be coufeesor to Charles V, In the train of QnintaSa hs
witnessed at Bologna the coronation of Charles in February
1530, visited Augsburg, and perhaps saw Luther at Coburg.
The spectacle of the adoration of the pope at Bologna hod
strongly impressed his mind in an snti-papal direction.
He left Qiiintaila, and, after visiting Lyons and Geneva,
repaired to CEcolompadins at Basel, whence be pushed on
to Buoer and Capito at Strasburg. A crude, but »ery
original and earnest, theological essay, Dt TrinitalU Errori-
but, printed at Hagenaa in 1531, attracted con^derabla
attention ; Melanchtbon writes " Servetum multum lego."
It was followed in 1533 by a revised presentation of its
aigument We next find Servetus at Lyons, in 153S, as
an editor of scientific works for the printing firm of Trechsel,
tinder the name of Michel de Villeneufve or Michael Villa-
novanus, which he tued without interruption till the year
' ThLadits
reata n
« to hia
asaCboth
rt
TienuandG.
d that of CdTin. An
i»lated
•a-asetfU.
Gene™ tertimony may
be adduced in rappoK
>riKW.
aauta o[ Baael
awn
and ia never nKdbrUmnlt
'^Bov-U-
b
j.sGo. Goo<^lc
S E' R V E T U S
685
oE hii dektb. Hen he fonnd a friend in Dr Symphorisn
duunpier (CMnpegina) <U73-1639), whoae pnifeuion lie
reeolred to follow. Accordingly b« iraiit (1G36) to Fuii,
where he atudied medicine imdar Johann GQather, Jocqnei
Duboii, and Jean FenieL It wms in 1536, whan Ceinn
WM on a hnrried and final *iiit to Franca, that he fint
met Serretna at Paria, and, aa he himself atjt, propoeed
to set htm right ia theological matten.' Aa asdatant to
Qitnther, Serretiu tucceeded the famoiu anatomist V«»-
alina ; Qiinther, who paja the higheet tribato to hii general
culture, describee him aa speciallj skilled in dissection and
"vii nlli secnndoa" in knowledge of Oalen. He gradu-
ated in arts and asnerta that he also gradnated in medicine,
Eablished a set of lectures on ijinpe (the most popular of
is works), lectured on geometrj and. astrology, and de-
fended bycouneelatuit brought against him (March 153S)
bj the medical focnltj on the ground ot hit astnihigical
lectures. In June 1638 we fiod him at the nuTersitj of
Lonvain (where he was inscribed on the roll of ttndenta as
Hichael Vilknova on 11th December 1537), atndjing
theology and Hebrew, explaining to his father (then reei-
dent at Baa Oil) his removal from Pkri*, early in Septem-
ber 1537, as a consequence of the death (8th August) of
hia master (el seftor mi maestro), and piopoeing to return
to Paris as soon aa peace was proclaimed. After this he
practised medicine for a short time at ATignoo, and for a
longer period at Chartieu (where he contemplated marriage,
but was deterred by a physical impediment). In Septem-
ber 1540 he entered himself for farther study in the medi-
cal school at Hontpellier. In 1S41 he returned editorial
work for die Lyons bookHllera, to whoae nNghbonrhood
he had letnmed.
Among the attendants upon his Paris leeturee had been
a distinguished ecclesiastic, Pierre Panlmier. since 1528
archbishop of Vienna. Paulmier invited Serretus to Vienne
as his confidential physician. He acted in this capacity for
(Helve years (1541-S3), and made money. Outwardly he
conformed to Bomau Catholic worship ; in private he pur-
sued his theological speculations. It ia probable that in
1541 he had been rebaptized. Ha opened a correspondence
with Oalvin, and late in 1545, or veiy early in 1S46, ha
forwarded to Calvin the mannacnpt of a revised and en-
larged edition of his theological tracts, and ezix^ased a
wish to visit him at Geneva. Calvin replied on 3Sd Febru-
ary 1546, in a letter which ia lost, but in which, he says,
he expressed himself " plua durement que ma coustume
ne porte." On the same day he wrote to Ouillaume
Farel, "si venerit, modo valeat mea antoritss, vivum exire
nunquam patiar," and to Rerre Viret in the same terms.
Servetus had fair warning that if he went to Geneva it
was at his pariL In his letter to Abel Fonppin (in or
about 1547), after stating that he had failed to recover his
manuscript from Calvin, he saya, " mihi ob earn rem mori-
eudam esse certo ecio." The volume of theological tracts,
again recast was declined by a Basel publisher in April
1653, but an edition of 1000 copies was secretly printed
at Vieune. It was finished on 3d January 1553; the
bulk of the impression was privately consigned to Lyons
and Frankfort, for the Easter market. But on 26th
February a letter, encloang a sheet of the printed book,
and revealing the secret of its authorship, was vrntten from
Geneva by Ouillaume H. C. de Trye, formerly ieAen» of
Lyons, to his cousin Antmne Ameya in that city. This
letter bears no sign of dictation by Calvin ; the hutoiy of
De Trye shows that it may have bem) instigated in part by
personal ill-feeling towards the Lyons booksellers. But
Calvin famished (roluctaTitly, according to De Trye) the
samples of Servetus's handwriting enclosed in a aubaequent
letter, for the express purpose ot securing his conviction.
' ' Bms iDconMUy DMiksa 8«cvMi ' ~
The inqnisitor-gciieral at Lyons, Mattbien Ory, set to
work on 13th Uarch ; Servetus was interrogated on I6th
ibreh and arrested on 4th April Under examination
hia defence was that, in correepondence with Calvin, he
had assumed the character of Servetus for purposes of dis-
cussion. At 4 A.M. on 7th April he escaped from his
prison, evidently by connivance. He took the road for
Spain, bnt tnmed back in fear of arrest How be spent
the next fonr montha ia not known ; Calvin believed he
waa wandering in Italy ; the idea that he lay concealed
in Geneva was first alarted by Spon. On Saturday 1 2th
Auguat he rode mto Louyaet, a village on the French aide
of Geneva Next momiog he walked into Geneva, and
ordered a boat, to take him towards Zurich on his way
for NaplHS. He was recognized that day at church and
immediately arretted. The process against him lasted
from 14th Auguat to 36th October, when sentence "estre
bmale tout vyfz " waa passed, and carried out next day at
Champel (27th October 1663). Calvin would have had
him beheaded. Ueanwhile the civil tribunal at Vienne
had ordered (ITth June) that he be fined and burned alive ;
the sentence of the eccleaiaatical tribunal at Vienne was
delayed till 23d December. Jacques Gharmier, a priest
in Servetua's confidenct^ was condemned to three years'
impiisonment at Vienne. The life of Servetus is full of
puzdes ; bis writings give the impression not only of quick
genius but also of transparent sincerity ; they throw, how-
aver, tittle light on the mysterious parts of his story. Don
Pedro Gonzales de Velaaco (see his Miguel Servd, 1880)
has placed a statue of Servetus in the p^ch of the Insti-
tuto Antiopologico at Madrid.
Tlis opinions of Suratni, nurkad liy rtrmig inJividnility, tia
not easily doKribod is the tdniu of auy cmrsnt ijitim. Hii tut-
baptina. with hia dtoisl of the trinnoiuJity of tht Godbwd snd
ot ths stsrnity ot ths aon, nuds hb views tbhomnt to Cttholica
ud Protatuiti slike ; whils hia intana Biblicism, Ui puaionits
dsvotioa to th* person of Christ, snd the esMatisUj ChrutocoDtric
cbmctar ot his visw o[ the nnivanB giva him m shuDst nnitjua
place in tha history of Tcli^na thought Hs ia aomatinus cliaaed
witlL the Aiiuia ; but ha eodonea In his own wa.; tbe homooD^n
tormnls, sod ■pasks contemptuonsly of Alius u " Chriati ^oruo
incapaciHiniDB. Ha has had many eritlca, aome IpdoclBli (r.g.,
Poatol and LioenrlnsX and faw followara. Tha fiftean coaaamnitrirv
claoaa^ inbodnclng the aantaace of Sairetua at Geneva, aat forth
in detail that hs hJtd bsan fonnd gniltj ot bereaiei, <ipr«a>«d in
bUspbamons Isngnsga, anioat the tme foandaliou of tha OhrlatLan
leligioiL It la cuiooa that one InttaoM ot hia Injnrioos kngniga
ia ma employment ot the term " Irinitaixea " to denote " ceui (jui
croyent en U Trinita. " No Uw, cuirent in GeDeva, hu trat Iwn
addaced aa enacting the oapitAl Bent«n», Claude Rigot, tbe pro-
rarsor-BJD^ral, examined Serretna iritb a yiaw to aboH that his
logsl aaocation mnat have fsmilisrued him with the proriaioDa ot
the cod* at JoBtinisn to thii effect i but in 1 ESS all Uie old tava on
tha anl^jeet of leiigion had been set aside at Geneva ; the«nly civil
penalty for nligion, retained by the edicts ot IIIIS, «» buiish-
mont. The Swua chnrehes, while agreeing to condemn Servetna,
give no hint of capital pnnisbmeDt iu their letter* otudt-cc The
extinct law eeems to have been arbitr^lj revived for the occasiDn.
A valoable contiDvenj fidlowcd, on the qneatioD of executing here-
tici, in which Bezs (for), Uino Celo (against), and seveial esoitio
■nonymona writaim took part
The worka ot ServeCna are not ao rare as ia often auppoaed, bnt
the mot common era hie earliest, in which be spproachea nearer
to the position snsrwsnla token lij F. Socinua than he does in Lia
mora matured jmblicationa. The following ii so enumention of
them in the ordTer of their appeonncc. (1) Si TrinUaiis Errar&iu
Ztiri£!7(ni,15Sl,lamo. {2) Diaiogonttit iU TrmitaU Libri Dia,
ISSZ, lemo 1 tour chaptois an added on Jiudficitisn aud kindiwl
topica These two books have been twice reprinled snd manu9>-ript
cornea sie common ; s Dntch venion, bj fleynier Telle, na pnb-
li^ed in 1620. (3) Oarndli PMvmiei AUzniulriiii G/ajra^iai
BMBrratiaiiit LOri Ode: a SiUbaidi Pintluymeri Iramialiime,
UiduuU yiUoAotano jam
Aolia, kc,, Lyons,
^ , „ , — , „ ji, Lyons (Hugo k
Pacta), IGll, t.(., lUlj piintsd try Caoiar TrMihsal it Tienne,
foL; onthiswwk TolUa iSmidshisliidi estimsls otServetos as a
comparstivs gsocnpheri the puHme UKriminated on liis trial ss
attscklng the suSiOTi^ of Ucaea ia an tztraet firai Lorsns FriMe^
S £ R — S E It
X«IM», l«ri»»» i W> •»»"* WPT to known i ToULi h»
imriBttd m •rtimrt bom tt. (S) Btrmntm Uniarta Batui, ta,
htll, 1M7, Mmo; thm w«r» few anbaeqaeDt ediSoni, tL> Iwt
brina Ttnin, lEU (rix iMtlms od dioBBtioD, tha oompc^tKin ud
twi&ijnip«1)»lngtc«l«diiitli»afttbchi«). (8) A wwAm
inolimwl i
Um lactnnt of Samttu on utnmomj, naim which ha
lSU,'fbL, nnuttk»bi» for iM theory of' prophecy, etplMned
- „ md lUoMralad in tho uoti* (8) D'Artigoj nyt thrt
**fit Im *rgttinei»" to » SpaDioh Tersion of th* Sunma
,g i> knoii
BWTBtul
ofAquinu; bat Dotiiu„ - .
dtenmmain" vhicb he tnnaUted &om L>^ , i-,
CEIrJKfnii&ni JioMtilia, tt, 1S5», 8tc {parfect eopia* in Vienu*
tad P»rta, an impgrftet copy in Edinburgh), partly rsprinlod,
London, 172J ; Ito (oapie« in London ind P«ria), reprinted 1790 ;
tro, by Bin it NniBmberg for Da Unrr, from tho Viennn copy ;
muinMript comai m nra ; tha Parii libniy ku » minDM^ript
oony of an airilST Meouion of Mmnl books, indadins tha oftan-^
qnottd dcMriptiOB of Iba pnlmoniiy eircnlalion. TTiii work I*
nfloi oalled inonTmou, bnt the Initials M. 8. T. ue ^van it the
and and ths Ml bum it p. IW ; tha voloma is not > nogia treatiso
bnt m laembUfle of tiMoIo^ed tnct* mitten in i namms ind
apignmmitio rtjle and with gnat eommand of tbtj Tirioo* laam-
lu ; the Apatajia addnand to HeUncbthou, with whkb it con-
dadai, to in tha writai*! beat mannat Two traatbaa, Dt^tUriiu
a^gned to Serratni. Of Ba few remaining lattan moat will ba
fonnd in Uojieim.
TlHniMatiD<ialBtlB|toSgmtu{m|Tbin,biit Um AiUmrtni en ema
•« tha aioBt lainrtul piteta. CalTln'i Oi/k^ onlKdmm FlitL kc, lui,
D. ITJI, lima)
arufc, ITIl'U (inndBead la rnodi, awuL JmL, laMai^in, ITIT, lima),
« taOaiiA Mt J% ImpBUal ffMm ta., 17H, in tald ta tm\i KUhulel
UaiTaiofiMUtUi tBidAad br Vn^MlBi), i> iBunedad bj Xeabdm'i XadiF-
taaiaansT tta paliUvttn af tka reeoida ortbaVlOH Iriil to irlrtlnr. in
JtaHMi JHiaaCw tarn., *«;, tdL IL, ITM, Itao. ClisqbpWB uluW
M4gla la VOn. ilM. ffMbrigafc nL It., IM, ftri. (tnaHMad sapanMr br
Bar. Jiiaai IbIt, ITn, «»), nukes no na* gf Kndidm'i IsUa immrilm,
ItaehMl, Ja Ml ciw. JadHXtarlir aer r. SKi% *a., hk. L,IB«,BinuiB
aUaTalUUBBMlakla ap todata, BlaeB (hen thilnaiil^Uoiu afH.TolnB
(pdiililiad Is a lariaB rf^Bsme tatr aaianile arUelaa In miou Jsonala tnm
fir* talM>)haTatbKiwallilitsiiTMn'P«tt«artliealt|aBt- TbaiwmU
if tha Oaom IrU, Int paSi^id bT Di h Biieb^ aad t^ndaaed ti RlUkit'a
antHm, te., UU, «T0, sad alMiAan are taat alTan In Tsl. *JU. (MltQ at
tbaeSSiB e/cuA'a mti br Bsui, Canity BBd^BeBB : Refrtita KM. ih
AH>kil>(lbii<H,TeLlT.,IfrT,bHiBa(i)aeeDiiiitoni<ilh{Mil>. TbajiaMca
diianiBi Hit inhBawrabnlatiinifi <bal Htletd lif W. Wotlea. is Kubaloiu
■OM JtStiU and Hit. iHradu, UU, bb4 liu ilni riM to a IHeninn
Sin* owUi-eM MpactallT noG'i IMi XaMtebaaf £> BtnO^ririaiVL kg.,
ur«, Bider, hi rbifci(U% In., hbrwrr 1S7I ; lal ToUiaV JrltUU Snir-
ln<iHn<tarAan>iiw'<i(«rarvfur,IHt. OBht ttT^iilfcleal afaealstknii
otbrntiu an BoUd b* MEnK^Simi rHKlMil n«rla i/8in«i^llW)i
bM It bH ewepad JSIgmoBl tLat SnTttDB Iwi BH Idaa a( the aoBipod«« <J
mtar aad oTalr. Aa a thinker, Serretae ta elahned ea anparfMil cnnBda br
Dollariui {■« WillUK JaMMa. BM., mO, L an who Ibtb wrttbni anaral
aeeeogti o' Um ot wbtata B. WiMti Jfattn, M^ IM^. *'o, la the want,
ai t. a. PRter'a Softtta mt &Mb, ta., laM, «to, pntam tha laat.
BiIbM, la Bo. te Otu VndK "<*, tnata Benchu ai s paoUiebt : he li
MIoved hj wnua, hi Ml Sm<M aad Cilttf*, UTT, In, a aiMt BBBtlBhctoiT
book <aoBp. nail. JteK, April aad jBlfinsv ■KUle'i Da LAnmtim MldnA
imttt, 1 rale., Isra-Tt, STti, and P(ii|)n'> mupnidlDBt fit NldMHe Sirwll
OttfrlK *«., unL>ro, are nimble digeate riUi aplalima, (nm dlRmit
laamfcrMM iflitail gin^Jvn^^ (hi FmiA with aUlttooa br Daidlir,
/kftnUCknicOn^ UK»T^ Ble etanr iMa bM* dnaMliBd br Max Blag.
Db Cnftr (MNQt ^ Aal icbeniaj, ^ Jfiw«n beloMeinnOVand liy
AHmiI BaiMBB, SmM (IMll, ne reaeal dleooreiT at tin Ilwrd oncc.
Landau, (V. IM) and Ihj BrifiA MaHam (OoMoii mA, Oalbi a I.) of hit«>-
•eptad tellan tram eamtna at Ijmain ta luc iddi eaialdimblr to oor lu-
SEB PIA, a kingdom belanging to tlie BaJbn peninEolft
of En' Dp«^ Ijing between Boenia on the west imd Bnlgarin
and KoniDania on the east, and betireeu the Tnrkiah pro-
Tuce of Albania on the south and the Auitiian Military
Frontier on the north. From Boniia it is aepaiated by
the Drina, fi^m Auatrtaa and Roumanian territory by the
Danube and the Save, and from Bulgaria partly by the
IHmok. Some parts of the aouCheni frontier are indicated
by mountains, but elsewhere there are no aatural boond-
ariea. In shape Bervia is an irregolai; trapezium, sitoated
betireen about 42° 30' and 4S' N. lat. and 19' and 22' SO*
E. long. The area is about 18,760 aquare milea, and the
popuUtion (1,667,199 in 1874) was eetimated at the end
of 1884 to be 1,902,419, thus giTuig a deoaity of about
to the square mile. 'Hiaa lowdefui^, (mljaboatoa*-
d of that of tha United Kingdom, is exi^uned hj Ot
100 tod
third ol . „ .
of the aurface, the inland position, tha defeetm
communicaticaui with the aztarioi, and tlui ohajnoe of
manofactoring induitriea.
The mrfoce is for the moet part momttainoiw or liiDy,
though there ate no well-defined mountain ranges of any
extent The highest sumiuits lie near the middle of ^
eonthem frontier, where Mount Kopoonik attains the
height ol nearly 7000 feet. Towards the Bosnian frontier
the mountains are pretty closely massed together, and some
of the summits approach 4000 feet; this height is ec-
ceeded .on the eastern side of the country, where the monn-
taius, forming a continuation of the Carpathiana, are is
many places more rugged and precipitous than anfwhera
else in the kingdom. He Rudmk Mountains, -whicb
b«f^ immediatdy to the north of. the SerriaD Motki^
have their highest parts in the eonth and giadually sink
towards the north from nearly 3000 to leas than 2O0O
feet. Still lower are tiie derations in tiie prowincea in
the extreme south acquired in 1878 under the treaty of
Berlin. As a general rule the Servian highlands conBist oC
detached groups of motmtaics and conical hills with gentia
slopes rising from verdant valleys, and thej an vaoMf
covered to the top with forests, chiefly of oak and beedi,
the higher eunumts in the souui also with conifen; Bot
the pMns, though numerous, are of no great extent, utd
occur chiefly along the banks of the rivets. Apart from
frontier riveia, the most important stream is the Mar«va,
which, rising on the western slopes of the Kara Dagli, ft
little beyond the Servian frontier, enters the coonby with
a north-easterly course near the extreme south-east, and
then turns north-north-west and flows almost in a strai^t
line through the heart of the kingdom to the Danube. La
the upper part of its conrse it is known as the Bnlgarian
MoravB, and only after receiving the Servian Uorava on
the left is it known as the MotaVa umply or as the Great
Motava. The only other important tributary is the Niahava,
irhich it receives from the right at Nish. The valleys of
all these rivers, especially those of the Bulgarian and the
Great Morava, and of the Nishava, contain considerabls
areas of level or low-lying oountir well suited fat the
growth of com, and the low groondg along the Save and
the Danube from the Drina to the Horava are also well
adapted for agricnltote, though for the moet part devoted
only to pasture. Altogether no more than one-sixtli of
the surface is estimated to be occupied by cultivated fields
and vineyards, while one-fifth is estimated to form paatnre
land and about on equal area woodland. Kearly one-half
of the entire area is believed to be unproductiTe.
Besides the frontier streams on the north and west, the
only river of any importance for navigation is the Morava,
which is navigable for steamers of light draught as high
as Tiupriia about 60 miles from its mouth, but its toII^
is important as the main highway of the country, and ^
the more since the introduction of railways. Railways
both to Constantinople and to Salonica are now (1886) in
course of construction under a convention concluded with
Anstria in 1681. The section conunon to the two syatam^
that from Belgrade to Nish, 1G3 milea in lengUi, was
opened tor traffic in September 1884, and the line (TS
miles^ from Kiah to Vtonja was completed in March 188^
but the connexion with the Turkish railway from Bolonics
remains to be completed. At present, in consequence vi
the unsatisfactory communication with tiie south, only
about 7 or 8 per cent, of the Servian imports enter by the
southern frontier, 85 per cent, coming through Analria-
""' ' liad been b«gan
a I^rot, on the
S E R V I A
ll« gMl<^iesl atractnre of Servbt Is vniied. la tlia
■onth ud west the Badiioentarj rocki most Uigelj de-
veloped ftM of uicion^ pre-CarbaaifeTam data, inter-
rupted hj cooBidecable patchea of granite, serpentine, and
other oryitalline rocks. Bejond this belt there appear in
the aorth-weat Masozoio limestones, sach as occupy so
eztensiTa an area in tba north-west of the Balkan [len-
iDsuls geneiaQj, aiid the Talleji opening in that quarter
to the Drina ba*e the same desolate aspect as belongs to
these rocks in the rest of that region. In the eztretne
north-east the crjstallina schists of the Carpathians extend
to the south side of the Danube, and stretch parallel to
tha Moniva in a band along its right bank. Elsewhere
east of tha llorava the prevailing rocks belong to the
Cretacaoos series, which enters Servia from Bulgaria. The
lieart of the country — the Bhumadia, as it is called — is
mainly occupied by rocks of Tertiary age, with inter-
vening patches of older strata; and the Rudnik Uouit-
toins are traversed by metalliferous veins of syenite. Tlie
mineral wealth of Servia is considerable and varied, though
far from being adequately developed. Gold, silver, iron,
and lead ore said to have been worked in the time of the
Romans. Heaps of ancient slag from lead mioes still
exist in the ndghbourhood of Belgrade, and other old lead
mines occur in the valley of the Toplitxo. ' Gold dust is
washed down bj heavy rains in the vaUey of tha Timok,
where it is gathered by the peasanta. In Uia syenite veins
of the Bndnik Mountains ores of lead, zinc, co{q>er, sulphur,
and arsenic are present, but are not worked, and from Che
mines of Knpani in the north-west argentiferous lead,
antimony, and other ores have been obtained. The prin-
cipal mining centre east of the Morava is Maidaopek in
the north, where there is a large iroD-smelting establish-
ment in the hands of aa English comiHiny. Coai or
lignite is met with in many places, including a number
of points OQ tha Servian i^way. The largest deposit
lies ronod Tiupriia, aOd measures about 19 miles in
length l^ T) in breadth. All the minerals belong to the
stat^ but permission to work them caa be obtained on
payment of a moderate royalty.
The climate of Servia is ob the whole mild, though
snlgect to the extremes chaiacteristic of inland Eastern
countries. In eammer the temperature may rise as high
as 106* Fahr., while in winter it often sinks to 13* or
even sometimes 20* below lero. The high-lying valleys
m the south are colder than the rest of the country, not
only on aecount of their greater elevation but also be-
cause of their being exposed to the cold winds from the
north laA north-east. Accordingly, the chief products of
the soil are such as thrive under a vrarm summer and are
unaCTected by a cold winter. Both moiie and wine ore
grown, but the olive is excluded by the severity of the
cold season.
Udu i> the i
{« uuiiiid
^linclnal objdct of BgrionlCure, tlje iTmsee ua
crop bong Mtinut«d st upwards of 6,000,000 biuheli, v!
nimin)[ next with an avsnga crap of Ian than 4,000,000 bnshcLa.
BeHtdm cemal^ flax, bemp, sad tobacco ara grown, but tha
Mtsmptt made to cultivate oottou have proved unAucccAafuL *"
chief wine-growing localiW b Id tba "' ' "
lasffldent
ing lecaliQ' b Id tba norlh-«it round Kegotis.
■e tbe implsmanti and bscknatd tLe methodi of
other indoatiin, sod it is expected tbit thli eipurt will bo ^^roatly
iocivaaed od tba coBptetwn of the railway syitem to tha uuthem
aaaporti. Tbe gnia chiefly eiported ii wheat, — maiza iuiiplying.
aa among aU ttia Blan of tba Balkan pauiniuli, the chio^ food at
tha people. Hitbatto live-atock his formad the largett item in tha
exports, aometimea amomitiiig to over one-half. Among tbe« piffs,
which are fed in inunenie numhen on the mart of the foreaU,
lake tha tint plane. Of lata fean their number bsa grwtly
declined, largely Is conaaqnance of Amailom compatitian ; bat
ralatiraly to popnlition Bervia atill maintaizia a mncb eraitar
nnislMr than any other ooantiy at Bnropa ; and tha game is tnia
of ib«^ nliich Bie here relatively mors thou twice a* namaroa*
687
bat are ratreil wlaly •■
„ . la very generally kept, —
the bonev being connuned In tha coonby, the wax exported. Tha
laaiing of eilkwomia ia apreading, aniecislly liuca cocooiu and agga
have begun to be eiported to Ilaly. Orchard! are very eiten-
aiva, and all kinde of fruit batonging to ceulral Europe are grown
in abundance, — above all, tba plum, from vhi<:h ia diitill^ the
itional Bfurit, divovitia. Tba avaraga auuual vslue of
par head of populiCion. Atter live
wont iu Sorria), cotton
being high, a couaidar-
.1..^. alwBVa be ailowod for smuggled gooda. Though
Ik of the unporta antM tho country by the Austrian
inereaaingly bitve proportion cornea originaHy from
iMjrond Auatria-Hniigary. Thai in IS'B, of the totai uuantity of
import! icron the Auetrian Iroutiar, 7S per cant were of Anitnan-
Hnnprian ormn, in 1880 78 per cent, in 1881 BB per cent, leaving
24, 27. and 85 per cenL reapectiTely for coun trios lay oud. Among
tha btler Oamuny conies neit alter Auatrii-Hungniy and then
England. Colonial warea (angar, coffee, kc^ are now imported
cheeper by way of Hamburg than by way of 'Irieeto.
The natural increaee of population in Sarvia ia pretty rapid, tha
annual birth-rate being among tlie highest in Europe, while tha
78,86^
anirit,
[ports la ■ little ov<
animals and giaiu coma hidea'and pnu
tha cliiaf itema are ninr, silt (wholly
goodi, and other laitilea. Ii
the great
of upwardaof t3 perthoueind, a
end of IS84 give a birth-rate
rate of len thau S7 per thoa-
. 3ier dcatha of nearly 17 par
uiDumnd. The average proportion of mala to fc^le birthe la
ItHilOO. The people are mainly Serba, though tne uroportiona
have been modified by the incnaae of territory under the treaty of
BarlirL Tbla territory, st one time occupied by Servian^ had been
to a Urge extent dwertod by them in conecquenra of tha oppnaaiva
Turkish yoke, and their pUoa luA been taken by Mohammedan
Albanians veat of tha llorava and by Hiilguriins in the valley of
the Miahava. Uoat of tha AJbtniana, hon-erer, quitted tliair homes
at the time of annexation, and Servians ate now returning to tUcir
fonnarieati. PreviDni to tba treaty of Berlin tha principal element
■of tha population neit after tha Serriant consisted of Roumanians,
of whom there wore about 1 30,000. The Servian Church forms a
branch of the Oriental Orwk Church nith a perfectly independent
admlniitratioii. Tha highest ecclesiastical authority is eierclead
by the national synod. Elementary educatioo is in a very buknard
state, but reoantly a law has been P ' '
mak^g edncation obligatory on all ct
teachers npon school diatricta. At BolgrTida there is a high adiool
or univennty with faculties of philosophy, h>w, and tcchnica.
Tha sgrieultnral population ara acattared among a great naiuber
of villages, most of which consist of single isolated homesteads.
Eaeh bomeatead is occupied by ■ gronp of familica connected by
blood and acknowledging ona bewC tba itarahUia, who ia nsoslly
tha patriaieh of the community, but is often choean bv the raat of
*"■ ibors on account of bis prudence and aljilily. Ha regulatea
followed without question. TTia Isnd
homestead, and his ruling is fall<
cultivated by a family or group of families is always their oi
property. The building belonging to tba homestead* are cneloe
within an immense palisade, inside which a large expanse of flal
iimast1yplantedwiltiplum,daniBon,and other fruit-trees, surround-
ing tha houses of tlie occilpien In the midit of these b tho
house of the atareabtna, which contaliia tlia common kitchen, eating
hall, and family hall of the entire homeatead- In thia last all tlic
members Bseemblo in the evening for couvenation uid suiusement,
tha woman spinning wliilo tha children play. Tho people take
delight in listening to tho mcitation of the poedcal rliapsodie* in
which the Servian literature ia raraorkably rich- The hiuaca are
mostly very small wooden atructurca, serving for little cl4a bit
Bleeping places. But that of tlia starcshint ia often of brick, and
b invariably of better construction Uian tho rrst,
Since fltb Ifarch 18SS tha government haa bees a constitutional
monarchy. The legislative tody is called the tkaialilimi, and in
1831 conaiated of 178 mombera, throe-fourths of whom are elected
by the people, tha remainder being nominated by tho king. A new
skcpahtina is elected every three yeori. For tha settlement of
special quaetlons of groat moment an cxlrwirdinaiy akupslitina oi
groat national sssemWy is elected, in wliieh there ste four timea Si
many members, all elected, as in the ordinary aknpahtint. There if
alno a permanent council of stale of 16 membcra, who have tb<
taak of drawing op proposals for legislstion, hearijig compUiuti
regarding tha dacinons of ministers, and perfonniiiB other functiona
p j-_-!_..^., .L_ L,_ _.__ ,_ -ij^jj into twenty.
be budget for 1U»
■timatad at nesrlj
O'
For admi
ietrative
la
S E R V I A
<1,E00,000, ■nd to lU4-Be tt abeot £l,UO,Wi. Thi uMloul
d^ at tU «ad t>r 1SS4 una aboot ^7,000,000. An wUitioul
debt of dMDt £1,000,000 vu eontCMUd daring tha SartD-Bolfuian
war df ISat-SO.
Tba Barrlan tnaj ta diridsd into thtat cUmiIi Th« Snt cUh^
■mIsaclDg maa betvMii tS and 30 jaaia of tge, conatltatia ths
Btanding aim;, wlilch nambcr* lS,000on tpaaot rooting and about
100,000 00 a vai footiUE. The fint two jaua an aarnd *ith tfar
coloiua and (hs nmalndai oT tba t«nn in tba naerra. Tha aecoai
elaia containi men betwtan 30 and 37 vbo ban Mirad in thr
atanding arm;. Tha third claai, irhicb ia onl/ sailed out in axtn
ordinaiT amargancin, ia mmlKiaad of man bntwaan 87 and 60. Th<
total militai; itrength olSarria Tor caaaa of amaignioy ii aatiaaatad
to ba about 110.000 DMn.
Tba oajHtal of Seryia ia Baigrada, at tba JtmcCkni of th< Danaba
and the Sava. It ii tba on]; town with mon than IS, 000 Inhabil-
antx. Ntit In ti» la Niih, in the territory addod by tba trsalj
ol Berlin, wban the ralley of the Nlahara openi into that of tha
Bnlgarian HoinTa. The other chief towna ua KragnabcTati in tbs
oaatra of tba Shnmadia, the former capital of [ba conntr7, Sbabati
on tha 8«T(^ SameDdria on tha Dannbe, Siuthnati, Aiaiunati [ths
oentra of tha flax and hamp groniag diiCiiot), UiUtia, PoabaraTaa,
a.c)
Tha origlBal horn* of At Cnata and Barba, who an Idantloal in
noeand langnaga, waa tba conntr)' adjoining the Ckniatblan nnga.
Their *pe«h ehon them to belong (o tha aaatani diriaion of tba
SUronio (unilj (aaa SLi.*i). Tbg nnenlly accapted darintian
of the name OmAat, Crtat, it from tba original daaignation of the
Carpatbiana, Chri((, "a ridga,"an opinioa eunported bj Schalarlk
~i Profeaaor Ijubid, inthor of a Croatian hiatorj.
■Iby Schi
ThUTl
It grooud*. The li
ie word with the hujii
" ia derived (aJ»-M, Hu, tni) and
makaa it aignifj the "TiauJa," tboaa who follow a chief. Tbi
derivatian auggsited b; Schafarik for "Serb" ie the root n, "tt
produce"; thua the name would come to mean the people, ju*t aa
iMlieh ia from diu, "peonle." Ha oonaidera it to have been Iho
niginal appellation of all the Blare. Thia mnat ba accepted ai the
heat eipknatian hitherto giren, thongh not altogether latialBctorT.
We find tha name Zipfi« lq Ptolemy and Sirii m Flinr.
TheSerbe and Croata hare no hiator; ttU tha jnarOtS jLD., at
which period they left their original aattlenunta uid mignted Into
the ancient nijncnm and part of M«ia. Whether anf of (hia
people bad prsfiotul; taken op their aboits [n the Balkan penin-
aala ia by no mewi> clear, and rery diffennt opiniona ba*e been
held ou the aubject The moat probable account la that amall
BlaTonio ooloniea wen aettled het« and then aa early aa tha Id and
Id centuriea, CDnaiating maiul; of priaonen taken bi war ; and we
liear of two tribea, the Kaipi and tb* Koatobdii, who an claiued
b^ Bchahiik with good raasoo aa 31ara. Jireoak cooaidera that for
two hundred youa bebn the Bbri are boajrd of in hiatorr aooth
of the Danube the; wen acattoad aa eoloniata in Uceaia, Thrace,
Ionian ia, and Uamlanla. Profeaaor DrinolT Bnda mention of Slar-
ooic coloniea in Thrace in the Itiiurarium BiemolymHtoitin and
/(iuritriuin Antmini ; and, sTen if we do not give a complsle
adhaaion to hia liowa, there an man; namoe of towna in Prooopiua
^ '^^' If [f^of th^ath centnrr) which an nndoubwdly SUvonic
.If of the Blh centniy) which an nndoubwdly SI
the original inhabrtanta have diaappeartd^ ex
Albau^na nproae^it theae peoplea. It ia gi
lefirathaif.
tnceaof thi
.. .1 aa the Albar
belieredthatthewo ., „^^
In tha ZakmUi of Dnahan, refati to the Hi
Our BDthority for the Berrian migration in the middle of tha Tth
eantnrj la the emperor Conatantina Porohyniganitua. Aoooiding
•i the brothen Clncas, Lobolua,
1 latere, Tup and Buga
e pooplei' It ia gene'tall;
A or MTD^ aignifying a alaya, foond
'— *- ••- ■"-mpiana, an cdd Thnciaa
iiy, fire Croatian p
Coeentiii'MuiJilo andChroEatu^ and „
'''i! P'li?"? '.'"' P™P""tJ . <»n>o at thia peri^ fiSi north^
or BalD^hrobatia, aa it waa called, the origin home of the Croata
in the Qirpathian Moontama. The deaccnSanta of their people who
remained in the terntor; an loat among tha autroundina ponula-
tio.L The .e™ of th«e Croata were made nae of by the eSS^ror
iieraeiina, and the; became a birtier agaiiut the Arara, whom
il' wv' ^\ "onlry in which the; aettted. The territor;
which they occupied waa diyidod by them iuto elaran tuau or
"""^^ S' P*°r' "'■*' "'"biled lie wealeru portion kept the
name of Croat, tboa* in the eeaUm wen called fierbt We muat
S^T-TI' , "^ " in thia article we hare oal. to do with the
Serba properly ao called. The Croatian branch of the femily, after
beiogrnW by,ett;6a«(.word aaid to be of Avar origin), waa
V'^"'Z ^ ^,' '^'■W'"'" "f Hangarr, and after the KthTcentary
followed the fortunca of the houae of Hapaburfl.
1 A'-*\t fjr iluUeai MltoJojii; Til. set.
foe fire cnrtniiea after their actlTal In their na* tnritiirica *«
hear nothing of tha Serba eave an occaaional rerr brief mentis* la
tha Bytantiua cbroniclera, The native annaliati Jo not be^ewiio'
than the 12th century. Aa ii Croatia ao auuuR lb* Strim, the
amaller inpaua' gndually betanie mergKl into two or tlirre gnat
onea. The head lupan of SerriA, vbo rwUeJ lu llii^ica, callol
by ConitaotiDe Detlinica, wai at Grit the auitraiu of all llie other
Servian fa{atna, with the exception of the PaK*ni, conccmiiig wbow
I^Iin name the emperor Constantine makea tbe very alrmngc ravajk
—*ai ylif Ha-yoni HBvi rV T-r ZlXi^fc* -ji^ra^ ifiirrunvt ifm-
wrCeimu. After tbe land waa bairic4 b; the Biil^Lrtana kv find th«
CL fupao of Dioclea (Doclea) mpreme ; he ai-ijuind the title of
J, aud revaived hia inaignia from the pope. Fuially, Nsuiiiya,
the deacendant of a iu^iau bmil; of Dioclea, founded a uew dj^naitj
in Maia (mod. Novibciar^ and onitod Servia and Bomia into sue
Btrong empire. Thenamea of the earlier priiicea, who aru iit>i^Lfr-
cant and do not hrlp a* to folloH IL. thirBd of Srrviau fainon,
Greek emperon and aometimea indipendeut They appear, mon-
over, to have been engaged in conatant wan with the Dnlgvian^
About 101S VUdimit vu nigning ) but he wu aaaaaaiiiaUd by
the Bnlgarian uar John, vbo got poueeaion of Serrin, but died
two ;«n aflarvanla on an Fipctliiion against tbe Orecka. To-
gether Kith Bulgaria, Servia liill under the imwer of tlio fiiiihw,
and ita affain ware managed by ■ Greek governor. Stephsn Vo)imifif
made an inatimction in lOjO, expelled tha g — ""
Eroticna, and defeated the Orecka in
Michael (1060-80), at fint lived in p
aflarwarda entcreU into diplouutic IcIitioRi with tLe Wsit. took
the title of king (rer), and received hia inaignia from the pn*
(1078). He conquered Durauo (pni.') in 1078, and reignnl Ihiri;
yeai*. Hia aon, Conatantiae Botlin, Bvbjngiiteil tlie inpaui of
Boania and Baia. About 1I2S Onmh, aumauicd Beta, jujuu U
datoa the power of
■a. ODiiCting IhiK
' ■■ ■"'- ■-■y«(iiE»-
and Baia. About 1I2S Oni
Baaa, aacended the throne. From
Seivia. Hia wife Anna waa a Gem
inaignUlcant rtilern,
»S), 1 •
man;
thirty-aix yean, ai
but waa not able to una nagnaa.
to hia son Stephen in UOS and bi
Simeon, dying in 1200 in the m
Athoa. Stephen waa crowne<l bj
-ihbiahop of the conntr;, with
en by hia aon Ran. H
imea aticcceaful aniiiat tl
" abandoned the airTen
k under Oie u
iGlHka,
aatery of Chilander
ia youngndt brother Sava, liS,
crown which bad been coiue-
:h Bagiiaa. H
i wo find then
GertnanB to work the Servia
mentioned in Servian docun
all; in the ZakimiJt of Slophcn Duahan. No tracea, however,' caD
be found of them at the preeent day. TladialalTa conrt ia aaid to
V — I jj_ diedci"
1 childlcai
ITom bia throne by hu aon Dnmtin and died in 1272. The latl«,
howevar, etong b; conaciencs, abandoned the crown to hia bnlbrr
Uilatin and contented himaelf with Syruiiii, when ha died la
1817. Tbe nign of Uihitin wai chiufly oc.iiiMcd with atmpl.a
against the Oreeka ; he waa generally aaccennil in hia cainlmgna.
But hia domoitic life waa nnbapny : he divonwd Ihm wirta and
oanaed hia oiilv ecu Stephen to be blinded from aiupicion of kii
treachery. The opetalioQ, however, waa imiwrfoctly perfomjiit
and tha vonth tecoiere.1 hia Bight In 1311 ililutln (ought on ilio
aide of the emperor Aiidrouicna against the Turka, and in the MW
Eiai forced the Kagunna to pay him tribulo. After hia brelhcr
ragutin'a death he aeiied hia hcmdltnry douiiniona, and rccalliuj;
hia aon Stephen, whom be had baniahed to Conatanlinople, ga'C
him Dioclea. In 1310 the Hungariana dc].riYcd bin of Boauvt^
two yean bitor he died. Hia aoii Stephen wag engaged in i^rpeluJ
warm. In 1380 he defeated ths Iluleariana at the Imok komcBth*
near Telbnihd, when the Bnlgarian oar Uiehael waa alain. It
waa on thia occaaion that his aon called Stephen Duahan first
diatinguiabed himaelf. In spile of the king'a aacceaacj a^Ulal ikc
Grseka, he waa deatined to cloeo hia roigu la tbe mrwl lamcntablo
manner i be waa impriaoned and atnngled b; order of hi. own rta
33A It ia from thia crime that ENishan gained Va
iii-emii.g thle jiriuee, wc an
terrible in appearance. Ho coodnoted tl
the Orecka. In 1337 he took Slniniilia aud aiihjogal
.ThL^eanhiiiico, Boirtnr, and Jaiiina, Uiroatcnbl
laudaiibjogalerallll
or, and Jaiiina, Uiroa
h IJie emperor Asdm
8 E R V I A
wko «U (hot «p Id ncMdonlM. Ha d
rdifided hii Usgdom
lOtvploTha __ _ ^_
into right diitristi and tiniu[>d erajthiiig on tta* Bymil
modoL Hb eanqnoed the wboK ot Huwdonii, and euued him_^
to b* cnwned gmptror ot Serria, hii toa Unah aa king {trai, rat),
■nd tha anhUahop of the connbr aa patriarch. In 1 MB, at a diet,
hapnbUahad hia oalabralad Zabmiior "Book of Iiain"(Me b«-
lawj. Id 1I6S ha began a new campaign agaiiit Che Qraeka, hit
objeot being to aeiu CooitantinDple, to phn tbe QmL orown opon.
lUa head, and drJTa the Tarka out of Europe ; but in the midat ofhia
■chem«a ha died at Deaboiia in Albania on I8th Dsconbar I3BS.
Hia Km tJroili wu then bnt nlnateaa f ean of age, and, being aickl;
Id bodf and male in mind, he waa nnable to atruggla uttuat ths
rvvoltad goverDon ot hii provioce^ aome et whom wiihi
the
maatan o( oonaldaiable portiDua
afTnki
fint anDcaaafnl agaiut th« Torka, nair alnsd;
or the B71 " ' ■ '
id manf
Is ilaeplng. Many alia irere drovued In tha walan ot
the HaritBi "ud thate th«Sc bong* laf and wera narar bnriad."
Thabteof VnkaahlBandafUabratha'ChiikaiiMaDcaHaiu. Tha
Innmn of Duabaa now began to fUl topiecea and Sarria waa again.
without a nil«. Hand, tha boo of Ynkaahin, declared hiiMeU
the •nocaaaor of hit bthv ; but the lino via unpopular with the
Sarb^ and at a diet at Pad (Ipek) in 117* the; alectad a Toung
noble^ Imoi anblianoriah, a connaziaa of tha old princely bouae.
Ha did not, havaTsr, take the title of either cmparor or kui^^ but
onlj of knB 01 priuca. Boania mi aepaiatad biim Sarria and fell
nnder the rale of a noble named Trartko. Sultan Kurad had
ftlreadj oonquered tha Bulgarian aarerelgn Sbiahnian and now
manthed igauut Serria. On the lEtb of June 1389 tha Serb* sere
oomplaCelr defeated at the battle ot K«oto, the "field of block-
Ucda." No BTent baa been ao mach celebrated in tha national
aonga u this. Uanr are tha Uja which tell of the treachai; of
V^ BiankoTich and the gloriooa eelt-immoUtlaa ot Uiloeli Obiljch,
who itabbed tha oosqneior an tbe baCtleGeld. The lilken ihroud.
ambroldored with gold, irith which his wife Militia cOTsred the
bodj ot her hnibaDid is atill praserred ia tbe monsatery of Vrdnik
jn oyrmiSt and a tree which aha planted ia ahrjwn to baTalten at
Zupa. Acoording to one account I^iai waa klUsd in tlie battle ;
Mjcording to others ha was taken prisoner and executed before the
area of tCe dving Hnnd. The boo« of Laiai now reet at RaTsnitn
on tha Filtioka Qora in Sjrmia. - We hear no more of indepaDdent
Serb priucea ; tbe country was now tributaij to Tuike;, and Ita
mien wera styled daapola. Stephen, the Bon of Laiar, wai DOu£rmed
<n thia Htle W &^)aild, the snccasKir ot llurad. Ifllltia died in
a oonvent in 1109. Stephen died in ltX7 childleaa, and waa *uc-
miilnil b; Oeorga BrankoTicb, a man sixty yaan of age, whoae reign
waa a tnrablad one. In I13T he waa Dompelled to flf to Hongary
to (Tud tb* wrath of Uorad IL , and did not recover hii territory
tillHanTadiandBcandarbogdroTebacktheTarkiinllll. QeorEe
tUl, In Uw ninaty-fiiat year of hia aga, ia battle with a Hungarian
magiata named Hidhaal Siila^i on Mth Decembet 1157. Uii
Kan«t son Lasar succeeded bun after comniitting many Crimea,
t only snrrtrad hia latW fir "■- -"— "-'— '^'-
Hii widow, Helena Pala-
ok^Wi pva Om OMintiy to the pope in order to secure hii aiaiit-
ance against tha Torka. Upon this (he anltan raTagod Serria in
the most pitUiM manoar, burnt the churchea and monaatarlea,
IS most pit
idMiriad 0
of the descendanta of ita
_^ jj off 200,000 poiaoua into capliritj.
all fsapocts a Tnrkiih province, although we occaiJonaUy And the
empty title ot "dospot" borne by ' """ ' ^— ■- - -■-
prinoee. Great numbe™ ot tha S , - -.
HungarT. In 1BS9 noie tbonaanda under tbe commana of tbe
despot Oeorga BrukoTicb entered the imparial (Gemsn) army.
' — ■ -' " — 'n patriarch, Arsaniua ctemojevlch, led abcmt
letLte in rarioui parte of HoDgsir, chiefly in
a. Theae tadmgat, ai thoy am called, are not
,, „ .or aenn ot tbe word, conaiatiug of parent! and children,
bnt conunuolties of fomiliee acoording to the coitom (till found
among the Crosta of tha Uililary Fnmtisr. The nunitcr ot Che
emlgnnta at that time would probably amount to 100,000 or
"'hera followed them in 17Sa and 1788. Theae
. ._.^. . religion and language In ipita of tbe deaperate
oDbrta ot iba QoTBnunent to Hagyaiiia them. The last dapo
of Serria ma George Ebvnkorich, who died in eaptirity
in 1711.
InconaoquDacoofthoipWdidTictorieaorPrincoI
soquired tbe greater part ot Sarria by tha treaty o(
1TI8, hut the Turks reguned it by tha peace of Belgrade in
For upwaidi ot four canturiea the Serbe groaned nndei the Turkish
yoke, untU, in 1804, unable to endure the oppnsslon of tbe Tnrkiib
iaJtU, they broke out into rebellion under Gaorp Patrorldi, snr'
named 7Wni,or"BlackOeorge"(inTBrkiihJr<»ra). EanOeoTfie
waa bom at Topola fTspolja] in 1T6T ; at first ha msraly aimed at
conquering tha dehla, bat afterwardi ha att«nptod to drira the
^'^soBtofBorria. Tbiabeaucceededindirfi^uteinan
•rnanjUlans.
le returned in 1817,
had now beoonie tha Serrlan leader. ^ ..
aketch the stnugglea of Hlloah to secnra the Indarnndence of Serria.
Ha waa biniaelft^ peaaant origin, and In hia youth had been a awlne-
hard. The Turks had oxrtilTed to kill or drive out <tf tbe conntn
" the Senian aiiilaancy, leaTingoulypeaanta to till tha ground,
■■ — ■■-» (ona of tbs great iuduabiei of the countij), and pay tiia
Mlloah ma Oeclared prince by the national aaemhly, and
mt of the Porte to his onjoymeiit of Iha
d to his bmlly. Turkey allowed
title with tha ■
Serria a gnasi-indapendanos, hot held and gamioneil ee'voral for-
Hiloahbi^ BD little ftirgotlcn hia Turkiah training that
by hli dcipotio
to Ui 11. ^
Ha waa a man of almple, ereo ooaraa babiCa, aa many of the anao-
dolea told ot him testifr. Hs waa compelled to abdioate in 1S39
' ' of hia son Uilan, who, bowavn, was of too taatde a eon-
atitution to direct tha goTammant, and. •iyingaooi
■ded bf hia yunngar brother UlclhaeL Ha also abdicated in
and the Ssrbs then elected AlsiaodB> tbe son of Timi OflorgSk
, a gin him hia Sarriu patronymic, Karagaorntrich. Hia lula
bated ssTsntaan years.; he waa compelled to rengn In 18CS, and
Uiloah, DOW Tsry old, Waa inritad to coma &om Bocharast. He
llrad. bowarai, wily one jtu, dying in 1800, and left the throne
'- ■■'- ion Mlrfiael, than and (or^, who wis thus 1 * --'---
prinoa of Sarria. Hichaal waa a man of ri
the Tnrkiih gantiona remored from Belgnda. The Hosl
habitants hare gradually withdrawn (Tom the country, ao that thoy
repreeented by a Tory few bmilie^ Of tbo two maaqoc4
laining in Balgrads, ona la doTOled Is their nae, the other
having been tomed into a gaa-woil:. While walking in his park,
called Eoahubiiak or To{iahlder^ near Belgnde, Uichaef was
Biaaaalnated by tha rmitsiinmi ot Aleiander KarsgaoracTtch on 10th
1S0& Hs waa ancceaded by his aaoond oonon, tlUan. grand-
if Yepbrem, a hrothsr of imosh. Ulan was ban In 18H ;
he became prince of SeiTta in IS7& In lB7e he msnlBd a Biusian
~ J, Ifata£e da KacAo. In 1878 the Bute declared war against
Turkey, but th^ anna w«re oniuccossAil. and thoy wera only mvti
by the tntoTraDtion of BnsaiB. By the treaty ot Berlin, July 1878,
the country noeired a large aoceation of territory, ud Che prince
canted hims^ to be proclaimed king. Peace continued till tha
year 1S8I>, sod during this period the Borbe seemed to make con-
aideiable pingieas aa a nation. In B[dta at Che bltteroeii ot political
bctian. In IBSt, howarar, Serria made an iU-lndgad and salfiah
attack upon Bul^iia, which waa ignomluiowly bsaten off.
LrnsATcni.
For soma account of tha Serrian language, aoe Suva.
Under Senian lltentnn tha Dalmatian and Croatian in lb*
limited Benae of the term mnet be inelndsd. Tbe letter, howeTn-,
i meagts. Thii litenture is divided into three periods —
le earliait times to tbe fall of Servian independence at
the battle of Koaovo, ISSB; (!) from the riw of the uajiortanco of
KaguM in tha Ifitb century till iU decay tomrdi the end ot thi-
via ; (8) IVom tha time ot Dcaltel Obrailovich to the proaent day.
Kn( jWod.— The eailioat campoeiCion which hu come down to
ua in the Servian or Illyrian language, to use a term in which wr
may include the Dalmatian SUn, who are euentiilly the lam*
pcoplo, ii the production of an unknown pricat ot Dioclee (Doclca),
Ions pro.
intca by
ivar UofatiB. His title in Latm Li " Ai
Prabytar Dlodena," or in SUvonio''Pop Dukljanin."
have lived about the middJa ot the 11th ccutory, is the 1
compiled by him eilsnda to the year llSl. It ii
ducbon, and ponsssos only antlaaariia Interest ; it is printci
Kukuljeviii Sokcinaki^ in the Arkit ia Poouttiiea Junotbivnum
(Agiam, 18fil). The oldeat documente ot (ha Servian Ungnage in
tha narrowar aanas of the term are a letter of Kulin, the ben of
Bosnia in IIBB, and the letter of Simeon or Stephen Namiuya to
the monutory of Chiknder on Mount Athoa. Theae productions
are aimply PaliBOalavonla with s niituro of Berbisma, The hietory
of early Servian liCeiaCure hai been thoronglily invcitif^ted by
Schafarik in hie ScrbiiOi* Lacienur (Feith. laSS). Wo have only
■pace to mention the more important productioni. (1) Tho L^i of SI
fiimeonbyhiseonSlSabbaaorfla'-- ■'^- '-^ " '
iboat 1210. Tha ea
AmaM In his son SI Sabbaa or Bava, the first archbishop of Scrvis,
was written ibont 1210. Tha es^ manUBcripta have been loat
' lest copy known only datea from the 17th centnry.
Beaidaa tUs winfc. Save also c(
npUad*.
or cdlection ot atatutss
le foondv of the celebrated C
Eript of tho 11th century.
S E R V I A
nm b ■ ml (dUoa br DulcUBh, to wluai
a nlubls iBiiadB of Old SmtIul (t) Tha Jl
Scrriu Ungi ud ■nhbiiiu^ni
ilsd br ARhftibap Dtnfel
Ridodilt Tlididafc DrMh,
Halaiu, MUntln, ke. After hk dwth
dnctiotu 1* dry and lait^Mi. Iluf -^ — _
mind with StiUou. HUhlding h** oomiMBUd with gnat
•nsitj oa th«tr bombiaUo ud uuu(TTlad ftfla,— tbt mod com-
[ilhneiitUT optlwb being mmdiad to minj *OT«nig« wboM ounn
. wan lUlnsd witb crinu*. X*) Tbt I^fi ^ SItplitH, taniaati ' D»-
ehuuU,'' Eram tha monailnj Daehuil wblch ba ftiandad, wiltUa
br Onmr Tninblik, htgannMS at tbs lanie nonutety. (G) In
llW va bsTB th* Coda oT Uwi (AOmlir) of Stapben Dniiun,
which baa baen pn^aniW mantioruMl ; it ii tbs icilieat ^adman
of Sarriu lagiiUtioii, and baa oonie down fn Mnral nunuiTlpt^
baJDg fnt pobliihed bj Baich in bii Hiilorf at tba doaa o( the
latb cmtnrr. Bum that tima other aditiooa baTa appaand, the
two moat impoTtuit bains Ilioai of Uihloiich and NoraCoiIch.
Smnd Fwriod. — To tbii apocb, which may bo aaid to ooto —
wIUi tha ISth oantmr, balong Kimo of tlio Serrian chraiucli
- ■ ■ - ■ -'Kand otE.
w^ in !»(-»«■
IS to Staphsu
' Andionhnia,
ibsu Uroih IV. aa ai
aw Bnllaii Uutad. TIm tint attam^ at eollaoting
la br tha Tnndaoan moak Andraw Kaiiid'lliolid, a
10 diad in ITtC Hli work wai pdbliihtd at Tanioa
to bli anita aiDg tiagla "^^ ealobratiiig tho n«at axploita o( their
national haroea. Aa IL Hi^ tanaika in hti HiMerif ^ Slmmie
LUeratiiTt, tiiia ahowi tba aiklance of a national <!»« among tho
Serba bafora tha battle ot Koaora In tha daacription of an unbaiaj
■ant ftom Vianna to OanataiitinoplB In 1B51 a certain Kuripeihici^
W hirth a Blorana, apaaka irf haaiing aon^ taof In hnioiir of
Uiloah who dew Bnllan Uutad. Tha tint attamj
tham wii msda br tha Tnndaoan monk Andrai
Dalmatian, wiio diad in ITtC Hli work wai nnl
in 17S6 nndei tba title ot Baigotor Ifynditi Ifm .
(Secicationi of tbe SUtohIc People). &ome of the ^aeea Inc
u thli Tolnme wen writl«n br Ui<^ hinuett and ha made
altsntbn* in the old ones. Iliia, bowever, «aa quite in tha
of the we
UUads &
ITM ther ___, _,
mn Snallir collected by Tnk SlephauoTich Kar^lch and publlihad
at Leipaic in ISM under the title Xkrodna Sry^ F^itmt (Popnlar
Sarrian Soium). Soma of them ware afterward! tianilatad into
Oaniiau by Theresa ton Jacob and into EsDliib br Bowrinir ud
Lord Lytton.
It WDald bs ii
Lb of Ensi I^tar ai
ontanta of these remarkable ballejla. To tbe majority of reader*
: and bli fato at the battle of
aUi ~
-- ballads, then „
KnleTich, who, liks the Bniaiui Ilja Uinometi, baa many of the
the cycle which . . .. __ _
KosoTD will prore the moat intareatins. Bsaidea hiatorlcal penoni
Introduced in tbe ballads, then ii the half-mTtbieal bsro U«Ko
characterlitica of a anpematnnl be£^ Bla Tliitoria*, chiefly
Turks and Uigyan, are nanatad in the moat bombastlo pbraaeolivT.
At laat ha diea in battle) but the belief praraile that he nimami
people from t
himself la bis . .._,_. .._. ^ ^
or Ibii7. After the death of Vnk StaphanoTlcb (IM4) a sappla-
mentarr Tolonia ma pnbtiahed hr hia widow, which her husband
had left pteparad for the preai SrjiA Ifanchit JVnu U Btnt-
gniM [nipnlar Servian Bonos frran HBtt^torina, Vienna, ISM).
A good coDoction of sonRs of tba Uontenwilns (Timagortil) was
edited st Leipeis in 1SG7 by Kjlutinorich. There has also appeared
a little Tolmne of Serrian national aongs from Boanla, collscted by
Bogolub PstrsnoTich in 1867. Since then volunas of Serrian
popular poetry by Rayacherich and Ristich bare spp? ared.
Dutlug this period Slaronk UtsrstDre reached a high pitoh of
culture in tho little city of Eagnaa, called In Slaronic Dubroroik.
During the 16th, ISth, and 17th centuries this city, noR in a state
of decay, waa a kind of Slaronia Athens. To the iufluence of
Italian Lurature ns addod the culture introdnccd by the crowds
of Isamed Greeka,— Chaloooondylaa, Laacaris, and others,— who
found tetiige within its walla after the £ill of Coastantinople.
Lyrics and the lyric drama seem Co hate been the general pro-
ductions of llie more noteworthy authors. The mfluence of
Italian is perceptible throughout The first writer of eminence
waa Hannibal Ludi', a rcry popular poet in his day, author of lore-
aon|p^ a drama Bubi^a (llie yemala Slave), and translations pub-
lished Gitt by his son Anthony at Venice in 156S, and reprinted
by Dr 0^ at igram in 1847- A very Interesting poem by this
author Is Mi Evlagg of the city of Dubromik (Bagua). Another
writer of considerable reputstion waa Kieholaa T'alraniii-CavHii
(1482-1570), who artsrwarda became a monk and lived as a hermit
on one ot the islands on the Dalmatian coast, Ha baa laft aereial
pUya ud, b«*UN Inaatatlaa tbs FmoIm oT Eoripida^ ««*
eereral myrtatlea. In the s^la a the feligima playi onoa an J«val«
Ibmng^odt Ennps ; ef these tha BauV^ tfjinlitmi b daliM.
Hia poem entitled iloiy ia mnatkalda for tha wim sAetin it
siprsmii to theeonntiTof hliedneatfon. Fetar BektcowrU (lUt-
1(71) mm a Heh Roprtetor of tha island of Zara, tuA la wont
Goonuy. ne nsa inimancea aoma sonp id db jtopiv* a juuvmi
Prfaatenui* (TiihinK and a Dialqgna of Hsbarmen). Tefy cale-
biBted In ila time waa ths Jtgitrta or Oipsy of Andrew Cabsamirif
- ■imnitb. Hia jpoam tt thi
la the Ibllowug mansai
ng a young lady and nrgiai
1 aconiftdly in Ilallaa to ha
- ^ --, - - . rfth.
aaid to have been eroked la t
U wst on ona occasioB following a .
his suit whan she tuned raund and said aconiftdly in
attendant, in tbe hearing ot the poet, " Che Tuola d» na qaasia
ZingaroT"("WhatdoeathiaQipay«ant«{thmat"). Tbadanisid
lover took np the word of reproach and wrote a poem In wUta k*
intn..-uced a Olpsy prophesying to a company of ladla thair ndon
fottnnea and concluding with an aipcMiilation to tbe haid-liaulBl
beanty for her obduracy. Bchatsiik ipaaki of tbi> plaoa witb peat
entbosiaim and calls it " a truly splendid flower ii tha gudea *(
the lllfrian Muaea." The Bosaian critic PIpin luppoaa^ indi K>^
probability, that tbs poem was written as a acirt of mammaaa br
ths carnival. It enjoyed oanaiderahla popnlarlty and waa naquailli
Imitated. A dmilar story is said to Iibtb suggsated tba Jlmtfm
(Dsrvlshlofl"^ ■^' '- -'-■-■- ' ■ — "
as a Turkish
tba Italian m
Nicholas KaUeakoriii (ISI0-1BB7) waa a natin of Banas nl
author of sevenl pastoral plays In the style then aa mncBin ngot
throughout Europe. Of the eame description ai- " ^ — " —
of Uarino Drflii (15W>-1S80), of wb™ '•- — *-
"il pon^ vago, e dotce canto." ^.
Dlnko Banjina and Uauro Orbinl (d. 1014). Anotbar (dab
poetwBiDomlncoZUtari6(lEES-lS07),vho,bcaidiB tnoafaitinclha
£l*ctn of Bophodea, produced a veraian of the ^mJiUm oif IhaM
and has left asrenl mfaior luecea. Ths diief of tba SuoMn pos^
bowaret, was Ivan Oundntlc (sometimea called 1^ his UJSaa lams
of Gondola). Very lev facia an^knoini id hia Hb ; bvt ba died
in 1 WB a»d fifty, hi ving discharged saveral immtant pnblia dBesK
Hb death, says Schafartt, was not too aariy for hia nma hit IB*
early for literators and the dory and proaperilj of kia coontiT.
He himaalf pnbliabad bnt litue, and muy u hii writing paiUnd
in the earthquake in 1667, after which Kagnm ntrar ngBfised ha
fonner piospeiity. Tbs so-called Pettardmo asbMl of niytian
poetry tangnishod after thia and Wasted ita aneigy on al^gaat
triflsa. Dalmatian posts ot the 18th and IVtfajxntnrUi bava Ml
■able flme. Tb "
, a an epic In twdsa _.. ., . .
a the victory of the Polea_nuder ChodUewlci Ortt O* TETks
elodioos, bat on the whole it seems a tedloBi poem. Tba aboit
^uatnins in which it Is written Uck the tms side disnl^. Laaving
if manooD avcog tbs
B laat deapot, who eom-
Satery of Sircia tilt Ou and c/ Ot 17a CMwy, which bai
been edited by Chedomil Miystorich, ambsaaadoT from tha court el
Bervia to St James's {1886). From this period tUl tbe doaa of tbf
18th c*ntury there is no Borrian hterature : the spirit of the j
... of them by Austrian ^
the one band and by Turkish on the other. Till tbe fdgn of lUtoah
Obrenovich in ths Iflth csntntT hardly a Servian printed boA wa^
to bo seen. Tha works ot Yun Kriihanicb, who, althoo^ a Sci^
wrote in Ruasian, are mentioued under Roaaia (pL 103),
Third Ftried {from J7S0).— Tho spark ot nationality waa atill
burning among the Serbs, in spite of their de^rsdatioo, and men
0 fan it Such a
for learning that a
whom he very much resembled, 'jiios we ana i**" *m^i£ m^
way on foot frem his native town to Kieff, where be w*« ncaival
into the ecclosiastica] teminary and devoted bimasif to thcoloKy.
After ipendlntf thne yoara at Eieff, ha betook himaelf to Koacow,
Meeting, on bis return to his native eomitry, with a cold lacaptlan
from those whom he had expected to foeter his studJoa^ ba went
back to Husaia, and while at Kieff reaalvod to writo thaUatoty (f
tho Servian nation. Knowing that the SlBTonic monaiterloa ia
European Turkey oontalued many unpublished manuacrlMa (nnm-
ben of which hare slues perished m the wars which hare (feraatatad
the country or hate been deotroyod by the Greeks), he viaited Odd-
stnntinople and many other parts of that empire in order to coOect
nulenala. On his return to Austria he &ok up hia abode at
Keuali on tho Danube (alw long the bndiiaarian < JlebalMki
O"
S E R V I A
691
and mriraa at U* liMarr. vhUl U €til>lud In irtS, bat it vu
not pablUied tUl nirninl' of tunntr ntn Utv. In 17T3 lit
bacuu ■ monk, and M diad in ISOl- Ttu work of Buich, thoaelt
intemting u & mooaoiQat of Idnied inJiutry, doot not now
potBBB mach critical Talua. Th« njle ii binh and ■ gnat deal
at Ifae ithnologj (i >eiaDM then in iti infanc;) aasoiuid. Thna,
among otliar atranga atiCamsnta, hs bolda tlie Bnlgnmna ou the
Volga to bars been filara. Artor Biich ;ni come npsu two inda-
rntigable H«man workera, Doaitei Obrsdovi^h (1739-1811) and Vuk
Sttrphanovich (1787-1881). Ths Ufa of lis former has boeo uritten
lij himaelr. Ha iraa a man of rarlad IcamiDg, and hi* oareer
ma marked bf mauj cnriout adrantona. Aitir hariag viiited
naarlf avar; part of Sarops (lucludiog EngUnd, irhar« he na
tvceired with great hoapitali^),' Obradovich retomcd to Btn'u.
and bosama tutor to the childreu of Tmii Oeorge. Hs waa a
man aprnng fimi tlie paaple, and an indefati^ble and aaccacafal
Ubonrar for nationil adncation. Tha llit of hia compilaliona and
traoaLationa ia conaidartbls. Acting on tho viw principle that
the langiugo oi tt u niitai afaauld be coltiratad and uot a iatgon
Dvorloaded with arcludc and rappoaad elmical fonna, he din good
by deatrojimg the inflnancs of the PalHalaronic uuoiig hli coantrr-
man. Bafore bia death hia aarrioa* to liii ooontiT wan wayitwd
by bb appoiatmant aa mambn of the aanata and upailntaiidaDt of
nationat adncation. Tlie man, howarar, who wu daatinad to bring
Uie SgiTian Itngna^ into the greateat promluenca na Tnfc rWoU)
SlaphanoTich Eaiqich, whoaa ooUaction of aonga waa mendonad
•bo*a. Ynk «u an indafatigabla aeholar and patriot. Till his
time tha Sarriau langoaga liad bmm, ao bi aa all fanignara were
couc«iiiiAd, rimply riirfit indigtila^ laeiit. He wrote a good
grauimaTi which naa formed tha baaia of aUpubliahai aince, and to
ttiie Jacob Orimm tnrniafaed a pieboe. To blm atao we owa ■
fiarrian dictionary and a coUeddon of lalaauid {roTarba. Hia rap-
poaed iunoTBtioua in Ibe Servian Ungnaga with leprd to the rajeo-
[ion ot archaiami and lie introdaction of a new lyitam of ortbo-
giapliy raiaed np a hott of anaiDJea aeiimt him, id that not vnly
waa ha (brbtdden to eutir Sania hot hu iaAt ware exehidsd from
tlieeoantry. Ha dkd at tho baginning of 18B4, bat pamioioa 1^
mak* naa of bia Imtorationa wat not i^Tan tUI foiir yens aftarwaris
A complete aonmanlioa ol tha Sarrlan and Cnatiaa antUn* of
tin inh Matury would Ui aicewl the Umlts of tUi article. PA
ratrictad aenae, as applied to tha Anatrian prorfDO*^ Qtat Itllfca
He nubliehed in 1781 a ancceiafol ntire aatttUd SaUr UiHIM^-
Cntik Satire or tha Olarer Uan), at Dreadeo. A Gnr namaa, aaatl
of whish macka a deAnlta ttetnie of tha Ulecatim, Bnut anttoa
Ludan Uoahltzki (17T7-tS51), au awhimandrita, aftarwardi Uabop
of Carloiriti. wM kidily esteemad by hii countrymen at a poa£
Hia odea are fall of patristic feeling. Yarau HadcUch (ITM-iarO)
wroto ondn tiia wnn da pIxBU of Uiloth Svatlch. foe
u an aothorl^ in 8*man litaratnn^ imt nlHiiiatdy hia iuilnaiaa
waned. Stmeon UiloUDorich, a noted writer, idioee life waa fall
of atianp adventatea, compoaed an epic poam entitled BaKaKln,
nhich daecribei Uie ohjef Incldanta of the Berrtan wai In ISIS. It
was pobllahed at Leipda In 1SS& We haTO poTfoosly atladed to
hia coUectioa of Montenegrin aonga. He 1* alao tha anHur of a
tngedyonUUoahOUliclLwhoslewinltaBlIiiTad. UUntinoTleh,
who waa a Boanian, diad fn pomty In 18(7, Tlinil PopOTich
(lS08-lBea), a native of the Banat, via a writer of moch lidnstiy
end merit, and gained a conddenbla lepnlatkn br ^ Pl*n ^*
aotijacta of which wen talum from Sernan hkCray and were pnt
npon the etige with coniddenbla elbot 'Withoat hdog a gnat
dramatia writer, he had the art of ounilruuUiis jdeois to which
peorie wonld liaten, — something Ilka Sharldan Kuoirieai To thia
cinla balonn also Vnri Mabtieb, anthor of SftrntnA Lukkmem
ifiidUUWn (A Hamorlal to Lndan Mnshlt^), and also tha^wOf
erit ^ Sara Oforit. In 1847 the mD-kaewn Journal ffloaaifc fDw
Uuaangv) waa fimnded, which haa eenlinoid!^ to die pnaent time
and con tai na many ralnable papsn on Sarvlaa Uiton and Utetatnta.
Bchafarik had pnTiottsly ftnmdsd at ITenaati O^Tori Bad) the JfoMsa
Sriika, aa eiii^ant aoaiety for printing Bo'Vian hooka
Tha Create have abe beeo icUVe in modan timaa. The i<m«ric>
abig poem, J)*aa <^ Ukt Jgha Ifmait Omgii, by Inm MslmanU
(Inm in 1813), la said to be so popular anxMig uwSerba, aa stimolat-
ing their liatnd ot tha Tnrk, that it baa bean called "Hie Epci of
Hale." lamaU was the desoendant of an ^ Bemiaa bmily iriia
bail turned Kuanlmans to keep thoT (atatei whan Uta ommtry —
Brat invaded. These ranegadea, aa might be ezpaetad, an mon
lanatical than tha Tnrka thamaelvm. Hia axploita wan chiel^
directed anlnat tha Uikoks and the HraMnagrins. _Tbe poem u
cosipcaBd In tha aama metre aa tl
by Tnk. It is spirited, but haa
sd anlnat tha Uikoks and the Hontanagfins.
■ad In tha aama metre aa that ot tha Sernan bi
-, jk. It is spirited, but haa a aaTBga air abont ....
hj tha scansB deaoibed, tha fleroe border wars of long twnditary
la air abont it, Ni|endared
hatred. The account of tho ernoltii.'B nnnmittaJ by tbi' Tnrka while
oollectinB tha iaraek and tlie conctnaion, whan tha body of the
■lain Agha is bronght to lbs barmit, are dnmalicalty concrived.
Tha fcnr moat celebrated Serro-Croalian poels arc Stanko Vtnz,
PRrad0Ti<<, Yovonovlch, au.1 EadichaTich. BCanko Vru (IBtO-
1861) n-aa by birlh a Slorcna ; ha joined, however, tho Illyrian
moirement under IJndevit Oaj and need tha Servo. Croatian lan-
gnaga. Tha attompt of Gaj to form a common lilcrary langnagi
uuiJcr the name of Illyrian by fuaing tha Servo-Croat and Uio Sloven .
ish Ungnogos was not sucoeaful. Ferbaps the only 'vault, ifitlioil
best! paneverad in, wonld have been that the Slovenes would have
<- complatsly German iwit, aa a pedantic litenuy bnguagn
Some of his shorter pieces are very eli«aut and bi
colonring. Pelm Proradoviii 11818-1872), a nati
|18I8-l87n a native of the Jlilitary
bom in tha
. in ISS).
palriDtiua ibown in his writings and
la larked important
emonaia <a uiaaamaa
IS angigad upon a great
i*toVbmd,»l]rbaa
ti (1809-isf ax «I» l»i ■
His popularity rosla ui
their spirited tone. Nor have the Servo-
workan in tha Selda of hiatory and philDlivj. aiuud); uieae man
be mmtloned Dyuro Danicbieh (1825-1B(I£), who waa educated
partly at Faath and Partly at Vienna, at tbe latter nnlreraity be-
coming the papQ of Mlklosicb. Ha lint made himaelf conipicuous
bv a^oQaiag tba eanae of Ynk Slephanovich Kar^ich in the dispute
abant SacTiaa tnthogiuhy. Baaidea coDtribating valuable papate
to the Olamtit, b* waa tba author of an Old Servian dleOonary of
great Hrrloa to itodanta. Ha edited, as pmiously mantianed, the
memcrial* of Old Sanian'Iitara.tan. At the time of his death ha
Servo-Croatian diottouary, a work which,
ontiBliad by aoma of bia pnpils. Ijudevit
-_. , „ already been nuntiaied, waa a Croat and
lahoond to taincahontanatloDal unity. Hi( aamaaa wen inraln-
eblaai an edito of the Old Dalmatian eUaslcs. Armin FavU (atiU
Uring) haa written a good histon dtbe Dalmatian drama (JTutorv'i*
JhiinwatfOram4,lgata,l9/ITi. StoyanKovakorich (bom 1843),
at OM time miaaiar ofjnUio Inabnctiu^ baaldaa oontribating
nlnable artiolaa in tha Otuitik, baa publsabed an historical fibres-
toraathy of the Berrisn language and *n edition of tha SalnUk of
Stephen Duahatu Anothat woAer in tha as ~ "
llijfatortch, prr--—' *■- - -■ -
worka, an admbahla Arin an Fmtitndev Jimdmnuku (Collectiou
of Doamwnta for South Slaronia Hlstoiy), of which aevenl volomas
have qipoued, — a Tarilabia atonhooaa of Slavonic bMoiy, archm-
Isgy, and litaratnn. Ha haa fimnd an axeslltat ceadJnUr in Dr
Fiucis Bajki (bran 1839), among whose worka mw be mantimad
Ftimo <8I«!i^aafce (SlaTonio Wilting^ Agram, 1801), OHemci ix
Driamegafrava StrvaOlivga (Ttaraoanta ^ Croatiaii I«w, iSdl),
and mai^laoallent Uslorical artiSaa In the joomala FotardBa
Obaervav) t^A Sad (Laboor)*
After Mikleaich, &» most IndefUigBble worker In the Oeld of
Slavonic litmtnn now living ia flicrCraat Ignai Tatroalsff Jagij
(bom ISS6), Ibrmariy a proli»»or at Berlin, wEio now occuidcs the
«hab of Blavonio phDoainhj at St Patenboi^ in tbe place (rf
ScanenkL He hu pubusbid many valoabla woke on Blavtaiic
[Mology, such aa (in 1S4T) a .BiUtoy 4^&rM-a«attaa XtltroAm,
alao a nading-book with spedmeDsgit early Glagolitic and Cyrillia
woika (PrMM StanktnaUaga Jmlta). fie has alao edited two
oftheoIdeat8kT(mkeodles«,HariaatuaiidZognpliauda. Uor*-
— i',tnlB7Shetbaiidedthawell.kiiawn.^ivMe/to'slB(-(teibJWto-
have bean written by BllthMar Bcf^iMj (mtti
of thaaoutliamSlaiiandBDathSlBvonklawgtiHauir. uuibuuiub
have been made use of by Sir HaayHaliM. On* of th« moat cala-
btated of living Servian posts la IlattUaa Ban, die BDtbat of nranl
poems and plan wU^ liava baeu Tan fcmnablT lacaiTad.
A liw wetdi ma- "- --'-■-' •■ "— " =- •■'-' —
atantoTLi^ datal
Of Seta. Uaay ta
pnnoeB)
_. Uaay faiitlTaa betook tl
the battle of Eosova Ivan awmoyavkh atttlad tn Taatinra
Iqje)inli8SBDdballta«hnnhaBdaDnaaata(y. luUMhla
retired to Yeniee, and Uontanegro wia garemad
D)Feiiauuii>iaaHmblvandavladIka{prino«Uabap> nweoautn
waaruMbyThdikaaof various IkdUlaa tin IMT. Inthatyeai
the oflet became bareditsrr hi the fkmfly of PabovMi ol NagML
Mglnallf tba aoclaataalkd and ditt fanuUaaa ww* wbtoaj in
(Cattime)!]
S E R — S E K
tha panon of Uia rUiliki, bat thxj were uptntod on tlif death of
Feter II. in IBGl. Tlta latter nu the author of Knua pocnu in tbo
Bemaa languaee, the moat calebiated beiug Laudia MUerokiama
{Tha Light of the Kicrocoam), which appr^red at BalKiada in 181S.
Ha vaa aucceodeJ hv his »u I)imiel, lint prince ol Moaianegn, who,
dying in ISSO, was followed bj hia nephew Nicholaa, tlie moat memor-
able erenta of vhoae roign bare been the war with Tarkar aad tlia
increaaeof bia tuTito^jbj the treaty of Berlin. (W. B. K.)
BEBVTTES (Sem Beats Maria Virgima). This reli-
^Dus ordec owes its origin to Bonfiglio Moaaldi, a Florea-
tine, who iu 1233 with^ew oloDgwith di of his comrades
to tbe Campo Uario near the city for prayer and ascetic
eiercioes in honour of the Virgin. Three yean afterwards
they TcmoTcd to Monte Senario, where their nmnberB were
considerably increased. The order at a very early period
received from Bishop Ardingns of Florence the rule of St
Augustine, bnt did not obteun papai sanction until 1255.
It rapidly spread into France, Germany, the Low Countries,
Poland, and Hungary, and from Martin V. it received in
1424 the privileges of the mendicant ordera. The Servite
Tertiaries were founded about the sama time by Qiuliano
FalconierL Under Bernardino de Ricciolini arose the
Hermit Seivitea (1593). The members of the order (Ob-
iierrants and Conventuals) are now found chiefly in Italy,
Hungary, Aostria, and Bavaria.
HBBVinS, the commentator on Virgil, is all but nn-
IcQown to us, BO far aa personal information goes. From
notices ia the SataTnalia of Hacrobios, where he appears
as an interlocntoT, we may infer that in or about 380,
though still quite young, he was already distinguished aa
B "grammaticuB," that is, as an expert in the criticism,
explanation, and teaching of the classical lit«rature of
Rome. Servios therefore belougs to the latter half of the
4th and die earlier yean of the 6th century, to the age
of Symmachus and Claudian, of Jerome and Augustine.
The diusiona of Macrobins uid a short tetter from Sym-
machus to Servius leave no doubt that the grammarian
formed one of that band of cultivated men, lad by Sym-
machus, whose eyes were turned towards the pagan past
and away from Uie Christian future, and who breamed
into pagan culture its last transient sparks of life and
viootir. The race of "grammatid." to which Servins
Mongad, and which had now run at Borne a course of
some 600 years, had done much evil t« literature, had
helped to corrupt, falsify, encumber, and even in some
instances by abbreviations upon abbreviations to kill out
the texts on which they worked ; but on the whole they
had done more good. Iliey had helped to save what could
ba saved of education, culture^ and history, and so hod
in the main contributed to the preservation of the ancient
literature that has a<Mue down to us. Of all the " gram-
matid " none bean on his front more of the virtues and
fewer of the vices of the race than Servius. But it most
be noted that much which passes under the name of
Servius in modem editions, and in modem quotations,
most certainly did not proceed from his huid. The
comments on Virgil to which bis name haa been attadied
come from three different sources. One class of MSS.
contains a comparatively short commentary, definitely
attributed to Servius. A s'lcond class (all going back to
the 10th or Uth century) preeents a much expanded com-
mentary, In which the first is embedded ; bat these HSS.
differ very much in the amount and character of the addi-
tions they make to the original, and none of them bear
the nams of Servius. The added matter is undoubtedly
ancient, dating from a time but little removed from that of
Servius, and is fonnded to a large extent on historical and
antiquarian literature which is now lost. The third class of
HSS., written for the most port in Italy and of late date,
repeats the text of the first class, with l. dmerous interix>lated
scholia of quite recent origin and little or no value.
The real Servian coninientary (for so wa it
the text that -vm find in the fir«t ulass of IISS.) iiiactitallT
gives the only complete extant edition of a clasuic authc;
written before the destruction of the empiro. It is coo-
Btmcted very much on the principle of a modem edition,
but with very different ideas both ad to the rclativo and the
absolute value of the matters treated. Owing to tlie delicary
and originality of his veiled style, to the innujiu.raLlc
threads of ancient history, mythology, and antiquities slict
through the texture of his poems, owing above all to the
finuholdheeorly gained upon the Latin schools, Virgil baJ
a continuous line of eipouuders stretching almo^ from liLt
death to the destruction of the Roman govcmincint of llii:
West. Servius built his edition in part on the extcnititi:
Virplian literature of preceding times, much of which \=
known only from the fragments and fitctd he boa predcrvcrL
The notices of Virgil's text, though scliloui or never
authoritative in face of the existing M&3., which go bock
to, or even beyond, the times of Servius, yet su^'iily v^uaUo
information couccming the ancient roccnsiomi and textual
criticism of Virgil. Li the grammatical inteqiretation uf
his author's language, Serviuajloca not rise above the tiiS
and overwrought subtleties of thiit day ; while his etyiaa.
logiee, as is natural, violate every law of sound ajul scn^A
Aa a literary critit the shortcomiogs of Servius ore gml,
if we judge hint by a modem standard, but bo ahina
if compared with his contemporaries. In particular, bo
deserves credit for setting his face against the provalent
allegorical methods of exposition. But the abiding nice
of his work lies in his preservation of facts ia Roman
history, religion, antiquities, and language which but fur
him might have perished. Not a little of t^ loboriou
eradition of Varro and other ancient scholars, to whcu
time haa proved unkind, haa survived in Servina'a pagca
The older MSS. sometimes add to the name Servius th^
of Magister (given to other diatinguiahed graminarians at
different times) ; the later Italian MSS. in some caaci gi>e
his name as Maums Serviua Hoooratns. Besides the
Virgilian commentary, we have other works of Servius, —
a collection of notes on the grammar {Art) of Dooatus ; a.
treatise on metrical endings ; the tract i^ CmttiM J/derlt
or CaUmeter.
The Dioat noted editions of the Tiiplian commeutan' are bji
Fabridus (lESl) ; P, Daniel, who first publiabod the cnlar)^
commcntBinr (1600) ; and br Thilo and Hagen (Loiunc, IS7a-S4).
The £itai tur Seniut by S. Tbomu (Psrii, 1880] is an eUboialt
«jid valoable emainitioa of all mitten conaected with Serriui ;
many points are treated also by Bibbeck in hi* " FrolcKwaoui " ta
Virgil, and b]> Thilo and Uagen aa ibove. The amaller worka tt
Sertini are printed in Keil's OrarKmatici Latiai.
SERVIUS TULLIUS, the sixth king of Rome, deaccibed
in one account aa originally a slave, is said to have married
a daught«r of Tarquin, and to have gained the throne by
the contrivance of Tanaquil, his mother-in-law. Anotba
legend represented him as a soldier of fortune originally
named tbstama, from Etruria, who attached himaelf to
Cgeles Vibenno, the founder of an Etruscan city on the
Cielian HilL Servins included within one circuit tha five
separately fortified hills which were then inhabited and
added two more, thus completing the "Septdmontium°;
the space thus inclosed ho divided into fotir " regionca," the
Sabojana, Esquilino, Collina, and Falatina (see Rome, voL
XX p. 813). For his contributions to lioman law sec
Roman La.w, voL zi. p. 669 *;., and for his isforms of
the constitution see Roh^ vcd. xx. pp. 734-735. Uia
legislation was extremely distasteful to the patridan order,
and his reign of forty-four years was brought to « close
by a conspiracy headed by his son-in-law Tarquiniua
Superbui, The street in which TuUia drove her ear over
her father's body ever after bore the name of tha " Vicni
Scolcratus,"
S E S— S E T
FiESAUE, the most uaitorbLDt i)Iant of the geniu
.S'i,»i(«isin (not. ori i'fdjlinea), is that which in lued
throQghont India and athor tropical countries for the lake
of the oil exi>rc;ued from it4 Bseds. S. indiaan is an herb
3 to 4 feet high, ivith the lower leoTca od long ttcJks, broad,
ccarad7 toothod or lobed. The upper leaves are opposite,
lanoookito, and bear in their axils cnived, tnbalar, two-
li|>tKHl flowera, each about j inch long, and pinkuh or
yelloiriah in colour. The four stamens arc of unequal
tongth, with a trace of a fifth stamen, and the two-cetled
ovarj ripens into a two-valred pod with numerous seeds.
The plant has been cultivated in the tropics from time
immemorial, and is snppoaad on philological grounds to
lutTo been dissemioated from the islands of the Indian
iVrchipcIago, bat at ^>resent it is not known with certainty
in u wild state. The plant vario? in tbo colour of the
flower, and espcdall; in that of the seeds, which range from
li^'ht jellow or whitish to hUck. Sesame oil, otherwise
known as gingellj or til (not to be coofonuded with that
dorivcd from Gtiuotvi oleifera, known uudet the same
Temacnlor name), is Tory largslj used for the tame pur-
poses OS olive oil, and, although less widely known bj
name, ia commercially a much more importajit oil j thus,
apart from the almost nniversal use of the oil in India,
from 60 to SO millions of kilogrammes of the seed are stated
to hav.e bean introduced annualij into France in 1870-
[873. . The seed is also largelj exported from ^nsbai
and Formosa. The seeds and leaves also are used bj the
natives as demnlceuts and for other medicinal purposes.
The soot obtained iu burning the oil is said to constitute
one of Iho ingredients in India or Chinees ink. The
plant might be cultivated with advantage in almost all
tho tropical and semi-tropical colonies of Britun, bot will
uot succeed in any port of Europe.
SESOSTRIS {iim^iM, eo Herodotus ; Diodorns writes
&'e>oom; other forms are SaoncKons, SttotU, Se$othu,
.<:c) is according to Oteek htatoriaua Uio name of a king
of Egypt who conquered the whole world, eveo Scythia,
the knds of the Oanges, and Ethiopia, which wcm not
Bubject to any of tbe later great empires. The oonquerot
in whose exploits these extravagant legends took their rise
was Kamses H (see Eotpt, vol vii. p. 739); but the
Oroek accounts nnite in his person all the greaUet deeds of
the ancient Pharaohs, end add much that is purely imagin-
ary. In Hanatho's liats Sesostria is identified with a much
older king, Usertesen Jt, perhape because authentic tradi-
tion made him the conqueror of .Ethiopia (see vol. viL p.
73 1). When Herodotus nys that he himself saw monu-
ments of Sesoetris iu Palestine, he has been thought to'refer
to the figures of Eamsea IL hewn in the rocks of Nahr-ol-
Ealh, near Beirut, bat they do not agree well with his
description (Hdt, ii 102-106), whicOi seems to point rather
to Astarte pillars (AiAmm). The monnments in Ionia of
which be speaks still exist in the Earabel Pass. They are
qot Egyptian bnt so-called " Hittite," i.e., probably Cappo-
docian. See Wright, Empire of iht fftoUtt, last plate.
BESBA, a fown at the kingdom of Italy, province of
Terra di'Lavoro, situated among hills on Qio site of the
ancient Stteua Aunatea, on a small ofSuent of the Gari-
gliauo, is 17 miles east of Qaeta and half a mile from
SanI* Agata. Tbe hill on which Sessa is sitajited is a mass
of volcanic tufa, in which have been discovered painted
chamber* enoneottily suppoeed to have belonged to a
ci^ covered by a volcania eniptioa. The town contains
many ancient remains, particularly the ruins of Funte
Anninea and of an amphiueatre. It is the see of a bishop,
has an inttreating b*"!'-^ with three naves, a gymnasiuEn,
a technicaJ school, and a seminary. He ealitedral contains
inscriptions, a mosuo pavement, and a good ambo decorated
with mosaio* resting oa oolomns, In the principal street
are memorial ct^ n&i with inscriptioea in honour of Charles
v., EUimour.ted by an old crucifix with a niOFsii cros*.
Exclusive cl C : environs, the town boa a ]>o^Juktion of
6130. Th:: L..'; of Se»a are celebrated tor their vine^
the "Ager r;!:.'nuB " of the llomaud.
SESSION, CoDfiT o?. Saa Suotlanb, p. 6^5 tupra.
SETTLE, E..i-MJA]i (1G48-1723), a minor i>oet and
playwright of the llestoration period, immortalircJ by the
ridicule of Dryden and Pope, was born at Dunstalju in
1648. He is the "Doeg" of the second part of Ainaium
and Achitaphel, and is treated by tbe satiriiit with some-
what more good-humoured coutemjit than his comjHmion
in the pillory — ShsdwelL
Doeg, tlnragh without knowing tow or wlv,
Uufe itill ■ blandciiiir kind of mslody ;
Bpun'd boldl)! on, uidduh'd throngli tbbk and thin,
TbroBgh Kua snd nonHuo, never out UOI in.
Dryden treats him as a sort of harmless fool, who
"rhymed and rattled" along in perfect satisfaction with
himself. For some time alao be was taken by the public
at fais own valuation. At college ho seems to have been
regarded as a prodigy, and his juvenile verse was preferred
hi Dryden's. Coming to London, he began to produce
tragedies. His Emprat of Moroeeo (acted in 1673, when
tiie author wsa twenty-five) was a signal success on the
stage, and ia said by Dennis to have been " the first play
that was ever sold in England for two shillings, and the
first that was ever printed with cuta." Puffed up by this
success, Settle made haughty allusiona in hia preface,
which excited the ire of hu contemporaries ; and Dryden
co-operated with Ciowae and Bhadwell in writing sarcastic
notes on Tht Emprat. Settle's next collision with
Dryden was also provoked by himself. He attempted a
counterblast to Diyden's great satire in Ahtaiom Senior,
oud was contemptuously demolished in return. Settle was
then comparatively a young man, his age being thirty-five,
bat he had touched the height of his fame, and the remain-
ing forty years of his life were not so sacceaafoL Dryden
mockingly said of him that his ambition was to be " the
master of a puppet-ahow," alluding to his duties in the office
of city poet, in which he was one of the successttts of Lodge,
Middleton, Jouson, and Qoorles ; and to this he was litenUy
reduced in his old age, keeping a booth at Bartholomew
Fair, where he is aaid to have played the port of the dragon
in green leather. He died in the Charterhouse iu 1723.
BEITLEMENT, in law, is a mutual arrangement
between living persons for regulating the present or futnre
enjoyment of property. It also denotes the instrument by
which such enjoyment is regulated. The prevailing notion
of a settlement is the deoUng with property in a maoner
dlfierent from that in which t£e law would l^ve dealt with
it apart from the settlement. Definitions of settlement for
the pnrpoBes of the Acts are contained in the Acts of 1856,
1877, and 1882 (see below). They are, however, scarcely
sufficient for a general definition. On the one band they
are too extensive, and include wills ; on the other they are
not comprehensive enough, as they apply only to real estate.
They also include only cases of successive limitations, but
the idea of succession does not in itself seem a netMssary
port of the conception of settlement, although no doubt
most settlements contemplate suoceasive enjoyment. Settle-
ments may be either for valuable eonsiderattou or not ; the
latter ore usually called voluntary, and are in law to some
extent in the same position as revocable gifts ; the f(»mer
are really contracts, and in general their validity depend*
upon the law of contract. They may accordKigly contain
any provisious not contrary to law or public policy.^
' la thli EngUili Isw allinni grutar fnadom Uun French. Br
1 791 at tha Coda Mapolien, In ■ contract of minl>ga th* loccaiilon
SETTLEMENT
The elementB of the modani KttlMneiit are to b« found
in Bomaa kw. Tbe mlgan*, pvpiHttru, or txtnplaru
nt&jtWHfu) (coDuitiDg in thv ftppoiotment of luccemiTe
heirs in case of the duatb, incapocitj, or refusal cX the
hi^ir first nominatHd) va-j have luggcBted the modsm
mode of giving eiyoymeat of properqr in mcMaaioii,
Such a tubkitutvt conld, however, onl; have been mads by
will, while the Mttlemeut of Englith kw i% in the general
acceptation of tba term, eicludTslj an iutrameDt viitr
mnu. The Jot or donatio propttr nuptial eotretpoads to a
considerable extant witli the nuuiiage Mttlement, the
iostrument itself being rnmaented ity the dolatt uufrw-
mijiltiat or pcKla dotatia. In tiw eariieat period of Koman
kw no provision for the wife was Aqnired, for ahe paned
under mama at bar hnaband, tad baoamo in law his
daughter, entitled aa inch to a ahara of hu property at his
death. In course of time the plcbdan form of marriage
by lUKf, according to which the wife did not become sub-
ject to maiuu, gradually superseded the older fonn, and it
became neceasary to make a proTision ten the wife by
contract Such provision from the wife's dde was made
by the dot, the property contributed by the wife oi some
one on her behalf towaids the ezpenses of the new house-
hold. Dm might be given before or after marriage, or
might be increMed after marriage. It was a duty enforced
by legislation to provide dot where the father poBsessed a
Bufficient fortune. Dot was of three kinds : — pro/ectiiia,
contributed by the father or other ascendant on the male
side ; adventilia, by the wife herself or any person other
tliau those who contributed dot pro/eetitia ; receptitia, by
any person who contributed dot adveniitia, subject to the
stipnlatioD that the property was to be returned to the
person advancing it on diaaolation of the marriage. The
position of the husband gradually changed for the worse.
From baing owner, auliyect to an obligation to return tho
dot if the wife predeceaud him, he became a trustee of
the eorput of the property for the wife's family, retaioiog
only the eigoyment of the income aa long as the matriage
continued. The contribution by the husband was called
doKtUio propter nuptiat.''- The moat striking point of dif-
ference between the Roman and the English kw is that
under the former the children took no interest in the con-
tributions made by the parents. Other modes of settling
property In Boman kw were the life interest or kmu, the
fidneommittmn, and the prohibition of alienation of a
The oldest form of settlement in England was perfaapa
the gift in f lankmarriage to the donees in frankmaniag^
and the heirs between them two begotten (Littleton, %n).
This was simply a form of gift in special tail, whidi
became up to the reign of Queen Elizabeth the most ososj
kiod of settlement The time at which the modem form
of settlement of real estate came into oae seeou to be
doubtful. There does not appear to be any trace of a
limitation of an estate to an unborn child prior to 1SB6.
Id an instrument of that year such a limitation was
effected by means of a fooSment to uses. The plan of
granting iha freehold to trustees to preserve contingent
remainders* is said to have been iovented by Lord Keeper
Bridgman in the 17th century, the object being to preserve
the estate from .forfeiture for treason during the Common-
wealth.* The Belclemont of chattels is no doubt of consider-
ably kter origin, and the principles were adopted by courts
of equity from the corre? ponding kw as to real estate.
■ Sm Hnntir, AmM £aw, p. ISO ; IhiM, Xarl^ Buterf <i/ luM.
Ivtlmi, l«t. li.
' Thg uppolBtnunt of inch trailMi hu biu nsdarad TOBtetmtrj
br S ud S Virt. 0. 106 uid to ud 11 Vict. a. 13.
* Tlila •kncharth«hlitoT7(f Httlaiuntla tbiUcid baa s p*p«r
b; Uu UU Kt Jtabfui milimi, Aqwn tfthtJvrmaol tatittf, voL
At the prenut time the Mttlement in Eagbuad ia, aofit
as legaida real estate. Died for two inconsistent poipoti,
— to "make an eldeat son," as it is called, aad to avod
the results of the right of snecession to real propet^ of tht
eldest son \sy making provision for the jouigGr childnn
The first result is generally obtained by a strict aettleaa-.l,
the ktter by a marriage settlement, which is for Tslnal^
consideration it ante-nnptial, voluntary if post-nuptlaL At
tiie same time it should be remembered tJt&t these t>t)
kinds of settlement are not mutually exclusive : k marriap
settlement may often take the form of a strict settlenncl
and be in snbstanoe a resettlement of the familf estate.
Thon are thrta poalbla vailetlN of tfa* moniigs aetUcmail :—
(1) ths dotal ^(tem (rtWsN (Mot), nndv whioh lbs hBlud
niwrally hai tlis niafrnct eat not th« property in tb* ifo* ; tliii a
u« syitam gansnlly foUowsd In oooBtris* wban tbe Rowiss In
pre>uli; (S) ths Sfstsn
lint), by which the wife
thij ayHlfiiD, ■ "
it commnni^ of goods (en
fsbsonmaskiDaafpirtiMrof the hutiwri^
>(n»lly tha o "
i> in vogue in frauM uid Louuiuu; (S) the ^^toi il
sepuoM property, by which (mbject to eontrict) tlie wifBi pi
Krtj il ^n Irom d» control of bar bubud ; thii ■yatcm pRMiJf
tbs Unitad Elsgdom and ths Ualted Ststo. As ordiDui
Engluh muriug NtClamsnt of penonal^ is ■ desd to whieb th
partis in tbi mtanJod boibuid lad wila lad tnataoi Bomiailai
OD thair babilt It ginatally eontuni tl» following cIubu:— i
powar to vary tb> inTsbnenti of thi Httlad propwtj witbn
limits ; tnuli of the incoma for tha bRiefit of ths inshand uJ
wifa during thslr liv« ; tnuti 'for 111* iMoa, uinaUy sccordiiiK t>
tho ippainCmeiit of tho hoabuid and wife or tha nirTivor, lad a
daFiult for aoni Bttiining twenty-OD0 lad for daoghtan sttiinifi^
tlut igs or nunTflng, signally, labject to i "hotchpot" diBi,
charging ths cbildno with the unount of any pravioui appout
mania; a power of Bdvaacamcnt of tha portiona of chiUren a
anticlpilioa ; a tnaC for Qxa miintenuioa of fufant childran ifhr
tbg death of the ptmnCs, with a direorion for thi iccanolatios ol
inrpliu iocome ; ultimata tnute fixing tha daatinstiOD of tb
•otttad proparty in dafaalC of tan*. "Rix rsetipt ud bwln
cUuKt, at on* timo nasal, hsva bson iwidared nnnrii ii^ij hj
tacant legiidation. Tha Cmvajaneiu Act, 1S81, snpanediri!
Lord St Leonaid'i Act of ISM and Lotd Cranwotth'i AM oTlSK.
glrea power to ippoiiit naw trustee*, and mikes s tnutea'i rsflpt
1 nifHcient diacHirge, Tnutaai wen foimerlT ranch nalricUu
in tfaair Inveitmanti, bat virlooa Acta of Failiimant ban n*
inemasd their powen <^ cholcs of InvNtmeot (i«a Tsmr). Tb
•ettlamestot real ealata il ilill s nuttw of ^niter dineallv thu
tbit of panonalty, thonsh it baa been conndanblj aimpliood b7
recant lagiilatfon. A ihott etatutory form of tettlenient of ml
nUta !• provided by tha Conviyincina Act, 1881 {Fourth Schmlilt.
Form iv.}. Tha Act tbrthn eoicta Out a connuit by the Rtil«
flic fnrtbar ssnmnce is to be impli«d. Thia take* tfaa plin d
those ooTontDla ninilly iniirted in aettlementa befor* tba Art, i
wbiih wen the oidinuy covenants for title. (3ea Rau. Eiiriii)
The Sattlsd tsnd Act 1SS2, give* ititutory enthoritv to nrluii
pnviiians geserally Inserted by conveyanoan. Tha ciinxa Din.
however, stUl vary IsAaitaly icoording Is the dnnmitaiiBs at
particakr eaaca. Whan tha sattlement I* of copyholdi, the nail
coone la to surinider tbaia to the naa of tmiteaa aa joint tauiD
In fee upon inch tinata aa will effect the deditd davcdntion of tk
property. ■
A imct aatUement of real eatite nniilly take* placs on lb '
comisg of ago or miRiag* of the eldeat ion. If it be the intention
of tha psiiiB* that the eetats ihonld oontinne nndivided. Tb(
coniidatition for tba Httlement in tha fitit eua ii ssnally u
immsdlate illovicca mide to the loo, in the second tha mani^
itttVt, a valaabl* conaideretloD. It wlU appeir on rafiBitiag Ui
tha article* Entaii. and RsAl. EsTATa that an eetats ouiBOl ^ I
eatulad for a period eicesdinga Gied number of exiitiugUvaaaJ
u iddttional t«rm of twenty^one yean, but that if it b* ioe^l 1o I
bar the antail within that period the conient of tha protector of
the Mttlement mnet be obulned. Tha I^ooees of nsettlsneel ii
thoi deacribed )iy Lord St Laonuds ; "When then an yaoBiii
childno, tha tithar il almyi anxioua to have the satata naeUM
on them end their iacne, in cai* of tillura of Ume of the first aia
Thia be cannot aecoaipllah without tha conmmnca of tha KSi I
and, 11 tha aon, Dpon hia eatabliihrnent In life in hli fatho-'i lib-
time, nquins in nnmediite preriiion, the father genenlly veiuti |
to him a provision during thair Joint livaa as a coosidintian for
tha ruettlement of tha estate in nmaisdir apos flis ysonger aona*
Tba seUlemect uauilly tikea the fonn of a lije Mat* (brtSa blhir,
followed by a lifi eitite for the ion, with remtindd In taO to tb<
onbom dkUd of the son, the contissano* of Ih* astats is Us
fasiily befog farther laoursd by a teriis of emss-nseaindus. Tim
la oftsa a name and ansa elassa ondsr wUeb, by noaai of s
SETTLEMENT
695
.ihifUng DM («g Time), vntj pgiwn nc<«eding ta th* lettled
the nttlor nTiiiar pouUty cf forftitnn of hii «tUt4. Csrtun parti
or tha pensiult; of tha lettlor an often Htlled npon tnuti to
iIctdIto with tha raal state. In order to attain tliii ind. the
cliattel* are not rimplj aabJMtnl to the tame llmitatione a* the
Ti»l Mtata. If aa inbjected, they woolJ Teat aUolutsly in the
firat tenant in 101:0831011, aa BS Mtala caa be li>nit«d io penonalty
(!ias Feridnal EnATE). A declantlon ia added that they ihtU
not leit Bbwitntaly in any tenant until h« ihail attain tnenty-one
and in caao he ihonld die under that age that they ahall ileTolre
as nearly u poariblo in the aaine ny ai the landa By muna of
Btrict aettlemrnt the actnal poaaeewr of a aettled ealite at any
giTtn time a io general only a tenant for lUa. It ia a rnle of law
that in a aettlanunt of thia nature then ghould ba a toll and com-
plela communlcatioD of all mabnial cjcamitanoM by tha one
party to tha other.'
It ia only within ■ oonipantlnly recent pntod that any dia-
aaturaetioa at tha ryvtam o! isttlnnent haa been (bit In 1B2S
the Real Piapetty ConuniatlonRa ibw no naann to recommend any
■Iteration of the la-r aa f^ then eiiited. To nee the «orda of tha
Fint Beport, p. 0, "Battlemanta htstD-^apon the praentpoeuMor
of an eatata the benaflta 0! owntrnhlp, an! wcun the propeTty
to hie poetBrlty. The eiiating rule reapecting p-rnetuitica baa
happily hit tha madinm between tha ttn'ct entaili vhich preTail
in the Bortben part of tfas ialanl, and by which the property
entailed ia for evor ahatra/'ted r:-oni eomnierce,' md the totzl'pra-
1 of anlatilntinna' and tha
alway.
of deriaing' ettablithed in tome conntrjea on the Conti
Lropa, In Englrnd iamiliea an pmaorvad, and pnrchf
afinil ft ropplyof land in the market." Thla optimlatis T
acarcely neceaaary to aay, ia not the one gaoerally accepted at
eiib The ineaavenienee) inaepanhle in an economical point
or Tiaw from the aetttement of land luTe been propoaed to b> met
In two wayi,— (1) by a total prohibition of the cnilion of life
eitatea (aee Land), and (2) by an eiteniim of tha pcma of the
limited owner. The latter ia the one which haa hitherto eom-
meoded itaelf to the lagialaton of the United Kingdom.
Un to thirty yaara ago a aettled estate in EngUnd or Ireland
could be aold or leued only ondar the anthority of a private Act
of Paillamanb Thadralingiof the limited oimer with Ua property
van prsetjcally confined to certain powera of raiaing money for
diainmg oonfened by 8 knd 9 Tiet c M and the Public and Printa
Dniuga Acta [now repealed). The fint general Act wsi the
Laaaea and Bale of Battled Eatatea Act, IB5S, which proceeded on
the prinoiplea genenlly followed in the printe Acta. The Act
■llaw«i the tenant for lift to demiaa the premiaea (except the
ptincipil maneion hooje) tor Tariona tarma, and to aelt with the
approTal of tha conrL Barenl amending Acta wen paaaed, and
finally the Uw «u coneolidated and amended by the Settled
EatataaAot, 1877(10 and 41 7ict. c IB). Ueanwhile the ImproTe-
DMDt of Und Act, ISM (which appliea to the Unitod Ein^om],
ud the Limited Ownara' Reaidence Acts, IS70 and 1871, ha^ been
pawed. Tha Act of IBfll allowed the owner of a aettled (sUte to
charge npon the land, by wiy of rant-charge, tbeeipcnanof certAin
inproreDHOta, tneh >a dninasa, irdgation, incloiing, reclamation,
daring araation ct labanierr cottagea and farmhonae-hoildinga,
planting for ihelter, conitmction of any bnildings which will
Incraaaa tha Talna of the land for agricnitnral pnrpoee^ and con-
■tnction of Jettiea or landing-pkcei on the lei-coait or naTigatje
rinn and Ukea. Thia liit of improTementa bi> been aince
extended by the Settled Idad Act, 1883. The Act of 1870 enabled
the ownen of lattlad ertatae to charp anch Htatn with the eipenaa''
of bnilding mautlou aa naidencai. Tha balldins of anch man-
tinu ia by the Act of 1871 an imprortment wilhia tha meaning
■;rthaAetotIBSl. The Settled Eatatea Act, 1S77 (10 and nVicL
c 18), allowad the taiwntfoTUIa, orfor a greater eatate, of a aettled
eatata, to damiaa aattlad land on »o agncoltural lease for a term
not eioaadlng twaDty-oiw yean (in Ireland thirty -fire yean). The
laue ninatnotbewitlioatlDipaachnient of waste. Thia is the only
cue ia wUdt the powen of the Act may be eierciscd without tbe
iean of the o:uTt. The oonrt may anthoriu leasea of any aettled
artatas or of my ilghti otprirtlm orar ot afihcting any aettled
eatatea, ul^ect to & oonditiona that— (1) the leiM ba mada to take
affiwt In poMSirion at ar within on* year neit altar the making,
id ba fiit a tenu for an ^ilesltnnl lent 11 aboTe, for a mining
to^gnnt
ta Iha antar tf Us «HHrw
gr ■ iHitar U hb
{or a longer term If in ucoiduca witb the eoitam of the dfatrlct
and bcneBcial to tha inheritanoa ; (S) the beat nnt must ba
rcaarred ; (SJ in a mineral leaae three-fourtlit of the nnt ia to be
invested (one-fourth when the limited owner ia entitled to work
the minanla for his own benefit) ; (1) the l(u> i< not tn antboriie
felling of trees except lor the pnrpoae of cIh
entry or
worU
Chancery D
except ;
ba by
siithoriie salea of aettled
■ streeta, roada, eqnarea, gardi
uinglorbBildiog; (S)
light days. The conrt
• and of timber, and
, sewers, end other
Chancery DiTision) is by petition io a eommary way with the
consent of the perwms haring any beneficial eaUla nndor tha
..« . .-.1 ,11 . — ..__ [living any estsle on belulf of any
. and all
unborn child. The court may
ceiLain dreomatancai. No a^plicatioa is to be granted by the
Honey ifcsivad on sale under the Act is to be invested as the Act
diraeta, for tha benefit of the settled estate. InlSaSthepowersoftha
llmitad owner were still (Wthar increased. In thut year was passed
tha Settled Und Act, ISS2 (K and 40 Vict, c 88], since emended hy
47 and 48 Vict c IB. For thia very Tslnable Act the atslute book
ia indebted to the late Earl Caima. It doea uot repeal the Act of
1877, but gires cnmulstiTa powers. The Act et 1S77 must itill
be hningbt into action in certain caaes to which the Act of 1882
ooes uot apply. Tbe brtwl distinction between the two Acts is
that the poweiagiTan by the Act of IS77an beaed entirely, except
in agricnitnral kases, on judicial proceedings, while tlioae given
by tlia Act of 1883 may be eierciisd by the tenant for life at his
option, generally witbont the consent of truitcee or the court
Ilia powen are thoae ninally inserted in settlements of real estate,
and an oonfarred npon svery tenant for life bencfidullv ciiliilcd 10
poaaawon. Thia ineliidea a Isnant in tail by Act of Parliament
restrained Itam defeating an estate tail, bnt not a tenant in tail
whan tha land in reapect of which he is reatjmiucd wma purrhaaed
with money pTO*id»i by parliament,' a tenant in foe simple
aubjcct to an aiecntory limitation, a penoo entitled to a base lee,
t tenant for years determinable on a life, a tensnt^r nufre tit, a
tenant in (ail after postibillty of issue extinct, a tenant Uy 11m
cnrtaay, Ac. A mamed woman may aiercisa the powen given by
the Act in tplla of any raatraint on snticipation contained In tire
or aggregate. Tha chief powen given by the Act are those of sell -
ing and leasing. A tenant for liromsj sell settled land or any pari
oflt, or any easement, right or priyifege orer it. or the seignnry of
Teral, and by auction or
d land in England may not be
kind twenty -
-- --„ orreapomlenca
with thosB of the Act of 1877. Tha time for which non-paymrnt
of nnt gives a right of n-entry ia thirty Instead ol twevty-eight
days, and there are additional regnlatioDa aa to building and
mining leaaea. Vhen the tenant for life is impeachable for waata
in reapoct of mines, throe-fourtl s of the mining rent is to be «*
buUdingninety-nUs ]
one. The ngnlationi
pita I n
sney,
1 other
le-fonrth.
life may surrender and regrant li
honae and tha demasnea thereof, and other linds naoilly occupied
thenwith, cannot be sold or leased without tha consent of the
tiuatsca of the settlement or tha order of the court Tha Act pro-
Tidoa for three kinds of sele :— (1 ) by the tenant for life mirs modi,
the ordinary "" "* - • . ...- _ .1-- - __ t_
of money
as in the
. . ; (8) bj orde
case of the variation of a building >r mining leaae accc
circumstancca of the district of parliamentary oppos
protBction or recovery of settled land, and of the aalo or piirchnse
of chattels *s heirlooms to devolve with land.' I^nd acijiiircd by
punhasa, sichange, or partition ii to be settled aa fur aa possihlo
on the nms truita as the other aettled property. Capital money
ia to be applied a* the Act dinKta, genenlly for tha benefit of
tha settled property. The tenant for Hfo may enter into a contract
for cairyiog into effect the purposes of the Act A contract not to
eierdaa the powcta of the Act ia void. As to procedure, an ap-
pllcatiiin to the Chancery Division is to be made by petition
Ireland civil bill courts) in respect to land or peraonsi chatteta
aettlad or to ba sottiej, not exceeding in eapitsl value lEWO or in
096
ETTLEMENT
intenit of tlie hHIot In (tieli piopertj 1 J<1 [ttjud to lli
Ths nncHtfiitif rorsuttltmont, li far u tho i.[(a'» Intereito »ni
ronccrrni, hut hwn diminiihod bj tho Harried Womcn'i Propaitr
Act, 18aS(1Jkn<l4a Vict c7i). Il !• itill, hon-fivsr, nnul to luva
a HtClflinenB on muria^^ o/pocioll; <[vhara thsTfl !■ property r " inj
coD'ideralilf Tilns. The A^t conutoj ■ urlng of eitsting Mttle-
r AjfrMmAnt nc
Bpted from t
cmliton tban nich mt^
-marlo or coLcrod Into bj i
In Httlod twivoMltr u ■peciilly exeepte
AlaliniV Act (30 and SI Tict c E), nnilcr vhich i lurnod Tamsl
mnj by deed tckiiQwIortewi dinporw of her fntn™ or r*v»r«ion»ry
Intursft in nniettltil nrraonilty. Tbe former Uw as to Kjiiity lo
a lelltea.tsi Kcmi to fisTS bsen rendered ah»Iele by the Uurted
Wotutn't Pmnorty ApL Tbo doctrine of oqnity formerly wu in
uxoriljiica with tho niuiin, "He itho »oki exility moat do
Saity,"— tbut, vhsro 1 hunbsn'l Iru forced to obtain tba uiiitaiice
a court of Cijoity to TBOch property to irhich ha was entitled in
right of hb wifo, equity wonld only aid him on condition of hli
KttlinE a certain portion on bii wile. Now that « hnabaid cannot
■ncnKd to any pro)Krty in right of hia wife dnring bet lifetime,
tha reaaas for the doctrine of eqnitr to a Htdement haa dia-
appeared.
la a mlo a settlement caa only be made by a penon sot under
diaabi lily,— therefore apart from atatnte not by a lunatic, or abanlc-
mpt, and generilly Dot by aa infant. But by the Infanti' Settlo-
nmnt Act (^ and 19 Tict 0. 43} 'nfint milee of twenlT or orer
or infant feniilea of teventeen ot over may with the approbation of
the Chancer DiTiaion obtained by petitioa make a nlid aettla-
RMUt or eoDtnct for a ■elllement of all or any part of their pro-
perty. By tha Acts of 1B77 and 1S83 the powera of the Acta may
Where fti
and guard lar
ot infant
■Dt, article* fot a Mttlement an aomelima entered into,
but more rarely then formerly on aecoant of the facilitiu offered
by the Infants' Settlement Act. The conrt will enforce the
CTBcnlion of \ Ktllement in accordanco with tha articles, and will
reform one already made if not in aceordanos with them. Tlio
court wili also enforce the ipeciGc performance of any contract on
"■- '-'th of which a marriage hu taken place, in tpito ot the pro.
I of i 4 of the SUInta of Pranda (tea FsAira).' It abonld be
riadiction. An
l«-nuptia] agree
binding as between the parliea by a poit-nuplisl lattloment ; bot
tbii will not protect such > eetllement from being treated as a
toluBtarr aettlement against creditors.
A aottlaroent or contract for settlement made in consideration of
mnrriage or for other Tsloable eanaidention is as a rule irrevocable
by the Buttlor and good against creditoriL The only eiception or
apparent eiception ja tho prorliion in the Dnnkrnptcy Act, 1SS3
(te and «7 Vict c E2, J 47 (Z)], that any coTenaiit or contract
for the seltlor'a wife or children of any money or proporty wherein
... , .'8 of lands or chattili _._
. >r defraud crbdilors or othera, with a
proviso protecting estates or IntcrentB conveyed on good consldera'
;ion and bBnajUle to persona not hariTig notice of fraud, 4A
a against ci
a delay, hii
bBnajUle to persona not hariTig notice of
c ££, g 47 (Ij, enacts that an^ settlement
rirp«rty,ni
a settlement :.
fear children of tbe settlor of property wbtch ]
ttlor after mniriage in right of his wife, shall, if the setClo:
h haa accraed to the
the settlor becomes bankrupt within tea year", be void againit the
tmatce nnleaa the partiea claimbg under the settlement can provo
that the settlor was at the time of nuking the settlement able ts
fkj all bia debts withottt the aid of the settled property, and that
thereof. S7 Elir. c 4
was passed for the lieneKt of pnrrhaien, aa 13 Zlix. c. 5 vai
for that of crediton, Vcit nfsri to real eitite aud cbalteli ml
only. It enieta that every umveyanco of lands with intent [u
defreud parchasers rhsll be void as sg^iinrt ancb narchaeera only,
and that conveyancea withpover oC revocation ahafl be ToiJ adjust
subseiiuent parchasan. The Act has b^en crnslnicd to mean that
aequeiit porcheser, mortgagre, or lessee for raloe. AVilh tlma
and the objects of tho settlement, aud aa betireeo thetn SDiI third
petMni. Bo fur is this tha ca.-a tlmt the court will not auiit i
settlor to diilroy (beelfict of a vol nntory settlement by coinpclliog
spocilic porformnnco again/t & subsequent pnrchaaor. On tho other
>■--' "- — " ' ipecilic iwrformance of ■ Tolnolary
property after death, and
b will than the English ■
English seltlen
ante, or poet.nnptia], Tha main dilferenoa between tho snts- and
the [xiat-nuptial contract U tlie extent to which tlia propor^ Out
subject of the contract may be withdnnu from crediton. In the
Mitriod Women's Frowrty Act IBSl. t*
complete mistress of her property, at thi _._ _. ___
eiclode or abridge the power of lettlenLent by uite-nuptial eoatnct
of marriage.
A eontract of Diarringe may be made sritu or without the
creation of trastee.. tbe latter being tho more osnal form. If Ibe
contract settle heritable property, It genenlly contaiua a namtiv*
or indnctira clanie, containing the namca of the parties with sa
obligation to celebrate the marriage, a dispoeldon ot the estate wilk
Its destlnBtian, uroTulona as to (he wife end younger childn^n and
a declanlion that these provisions shall be In full of their lepl
claims, a conveyance by the wife of her whole means and estate le
her bnaband or the truteea, aa appointment of tmitees ti
chiUrei
I pgistmtkn
Clause, anu a testing clause. If tho coutract settle mavabloa, it i^
tnuiafii vwta-ndii. In mnch the same form, with tho adJitioD of a
clause eiclnding the >uf martii of s future bnaband of the wifi
(ue Juridical Slyla, YoL i. p. 171, vol ii. p. 4»8). The Knthrr-
ford Act (11 and 13 Tict. c BS) aud th* EuUll Act, ^US
(45 and 4S Tict c. 63), epecially provide that settlera<-nts bi
marriage contract an not to bo disappointed until the binh ol
a child, who by hlnustf or hie guardian consents to disentail, h
until tho marruige Is ilissolred, nnless with the consent of the
trustees of the contract Improrementa by limit«l ownrra wn>
allowed by law much eitrller than in England. 10 Geo. III. c. i1
enabled hein of entail to chirgo tho entailed estates vith tiie sanu
of money laid out by them in building mansiona. Thia priatipli
was eTpresaly adopted for England, aa the preamble of tbe Art
ahows, by the Limited Ownete' Beaidence Act, JS70. The Ruthcr-
fonl Act and other Acta empowered heira of entail to eicamti, to
feu, to teaae, to charge by bond and dispaaitiaa in ■ecnrily, to eell.
to grant family provisions, aud to erect laboureni' aitla». Tlr
Settled Estates Act and Settled Lund Act do not tpply to ScotUad.
Substitution, ss in Roman biw, can only be rasde by tcstntoentin
or murlii auia disposition. Tlie Rulhcrfold Art and tho Entail
Amendment Act, 1S68 (31 and S2 Vict c. 84), mora .strict tbu
the law of Engls.nd against perpetuitioa, forbid the creation of
a llfa-rent Interest in heritables or movables except la faronr of a
pirty in life at the date of tho deed creating snch mtereat
l/niled £Un<c(.— Uarrlsge ecttlemcnta are not in aa commnn uai
as in England, no donbt owing to the fact that the principle ol
the Uarned Women's rroperly Act WM the Uv of noet of the
atatM of the Union long before ita adoption by Englaiid. Id
Louisiana, in the nbiienco of ati[mlatlon to the contrary, commoni^
of good) Is the rule. SattleraenCs other than marriage eetllementa
are practically unknown in the United States. Property cannot, as
a general rule, be tird Dp to anything like the eitent atill admis-
elMe in EngUnil. lu these States whero entail is allowed tl<e
entail may bs barred by simple means of alienation. (J. Wt. )
SETTLEMENT, Act ot. By thia Act, 12 Jt 13 WiO.
in. c. 2, passed in 1701 (followed bj the parlument of
Scotland ia the Act of Union, 1707, c. 7), the crown v*i
SE T — 8 E V
wttled upon tbt Fiinceas Sopltu, electreai and 4n(JwH
dowager of Hanover, gniDddaQghter of Jamea L, and tba
hdre of Iier bod;, being Protestanta. The Aot conteiiwd
in addition eome important constitational prorinMia.
ThoBB wUch aro still law are ae follow* ; — (1) that irhoao-
ever ahall heitafter come to the paaMsoon of tiui crovn
shall join in communion with tha Church of EngUikd^
bf taw establtihed; (2) that io caae the crown of tlua
realm ihall hereafter come to any penon not. being a
natiTe of this kingdom of England, this nation be not
obliged to engage in anj war for the defence of an;
dominiona or territorieg which do not belong to the crows
of England without the consent of parliament ; (3) that
after &e limitation ahall take effect no person born ont of
the kingdoms of England, Scotland, or Ireland, or the
dominions therennto belonging althon^ he be naturaliwd
or made a denizen (except anch as are bom of English
porenta), shall be capable to be of tha privy council or a
member of eithar Eooae of Parliament, or ^oj any <^oe
or place of truat, either citU or military, or to have any
grant <)t lands, tenements, or hereditaments frun the
crown to himself, or to any other or others in tmat for
him ;■ (4) that after the limitation shall take effect judges'
oommissions be made i^MaiKfiii *e bme generiait,* and their
Binaries ascertained and established, but npon the address
' of boA Houses of Parliament it may be lawfnl to remove
them ; (6) that no pardon under the great seal of England
be pleadable to an impeachment by the Commons in parlia-
ment. The importance of the Act of Battlement appears
from the fact that in all tha Regency Acts it is Bpecially
mentioned as oca of those Acts which the regent may not
WK^At to repeal {see RiOKirr). To maintain or affirm the
right of any person to the crown, ocmtrary to the provisions
of the Act of Settlement is treason by 6th Anne, a. 7. '
SETTLEMENT OF THE POOB. See Poos Laws.
S^TUBAI^ called by the English St Ubes, a port and
commsteial town in the prorince of Estremadnra, Portugal,
nearly SO milea south-east of Lisbon, lining for about
three-qnorters of a mile the north shore of a harbour of
the same name, 3 leagnee long by half a leagne broad and
inferior only to that of Lisbon, at the end of a fertile
vall^ of 6 milea long from Palmella, where tha Sabo river
discharges into the &y of S^tubol, and on tha Portngnese
railway (Lisbon-Barreico-S^tabal). It is overtopped on the
west by the great red treeless range of Arrabida. In the
Finr '***''*' of a low-lying promontory in the bay, over against
S4tubal, are the ruins of " Troia," uncovered in part by
heavy rains in 1814, and again in 1850 by an antiquarian
society. These ruins of " Troia," among which have been
brought to view a beautiful Soman hooae and some 1600
Roman coins, refer, beyond almost all dispnt*^ to Cetobriga,
wbioh flonrished 300-400 i.r. In the neighbourhood, on
a mountain 1700 feet high, is the cloister Arrabtda, with
stalactite cavern, whither pious pilgrimages are made.
There are five forts for the ddeflee of die harbour, and that
«f 6t Philip, built by Philip UL, commands the town.
SMabal is an emporium of the Portuguese salt trade carried
on principally with Scandinavian ports, the salt being
deemed the finest for curing meat and fisL By reason
of thia advantage and the excellence of its oraugee, the
best in Portugal, and of ibt Muscatel grapee, it has much
commercial im))ortance, and is the fourth city in the king-
dom. It also manufactures leather and does a consideiable
fishing trade. There are five churches, several convents, a
theatre, a monument of the poet Socage, who was horn here.
I TUi dww !• TlrtiuUy nptdsd lij tha HitonHiMloii Act, ia70
(BS k S4 yii*. a. 14, I 7), u Io pvBiu obtalniBg t, oottUoMa ol
iuftsllt'""*
1 Thrii unuoMos* bsd grsrloiul; bMO mida Jurirt Imi
and an acasnoL Among its other paUic boildiiigs are the
StuiaL the £em£n, which has a huideome fountain, the
Fonte Nova, and the AunnnoiatA. B^tubal suffered
Mvetely, along with Lisbon, from the earthquake of 176S,
The pwulation vras 14,788 in 187S.
SEVENOAES, a market town of Kent. England, sitttated
on high ground about a mile from the railway station, 35
miles south-east of London by the London, Chatham, and
Dover Railway, and 20 by the Bouth-Eastem Bailway. It
consists principally of two streets which converge at the
south end, near which is tha church of St Nicholas, of the
ISth, 14th. and 15th centnriaa. restored in 1878, and con-
taining! monuments of the Amheiat family and a tablet to
William Lombarde, the " Parambulatw" of Kent (d. 1601),
removed from tha old parish church of Greenwich when
that was demolished. At the grammar school founded in
1418 by Sir William Sevenoke, lord mayor of London,
George Orote received his edncatum. There is also a sehocJ
founded by lady Margaret Beawell, wife of Sir William
Boawell, amba»ador to Cfaarlw 1. at Ha Hagu^ and alms-
houses founded by Sir William Sevenoke in connexion
with his school The Walthamstow HaU for 100 children,
daughters of Christian miHsionaries. erecc«d at a cost of
£32,000, wasopenedinieea. Ooee to Bevenoeks is Enole
Fark,oDe of the finest old reddencee in England, which in the
tuns lA King 3<iia was possessed by the eari of Pembroke^
and after pasnng to varionit owners was bongbt by Ardi-
Inslu^ BoDRJiier (d. I486), who rebuilt the house. He left
the prapst^ to tha see of Canterbury, and about the time
of the oisst^tiMt it was given up b; Cianmer to Henry
Tm. By Elinbeth it was couf etnd first on the earl of
Leieester and afterwards on Thomas Sackvill^ earl <^
Dorset, by whom it was in great part rebuilt and fitted
np in r^ard to decoration and furniture very much as it
at present ezista. In the time of Eliabeth conn^ aMona
were heU in the town. Of lata years Sevenoaks ha«
very much increased b; the addition of viUtt residences
for persona having their business in London. The popo-
lation of the urban sanitary district (area 2028 acne) in
1871 waa 4118, and in 1881 it was 62»6.
BEVEN SLEEPERS OF EPHESUS, Tni^ aooording
to the most common form of an old l^end of Syrian
origin, first referred to in Western literature by Qregoiy lA
Tours (Dt Glor. Mart, c. 95), were seven Christian youths
of Ephesns, who, to escape tha rage of Dedus, lived for
some time in concealment in a cave. Tina enemy at last,
however, discovmwi their hiding place, and caused great
stones to be rolled to-ite mouth that they might £e of
hunger. The martyrs fell aaleep in a mutual embrace.
The occurrence had long been forgotten, when it fdl
out, ia the thirtieth year of Theodosins H., 190 years
afterwords, that a certain inhabitant of Ephseus, se^ng
shelter lor his cattle, rediscovered the cave on Mount
Ocehan, and, letting in the light, awoke the inmate^ who
sent one of their nnmber down to buy food. Ctotiously
approaching the city, the lad was greatiy astonished to
find the cross displayed over the gate^ and on entering to
hear the name of Christ openly pronounced. By tendering
ooin of the time of Dedns at a baker's shop he roused
suspicion, and in his confusion being nnable to exphun
how he had come by the money he was token before the
authorities as a dishonest fioder of hidden treosnre. He
iras eadly able to confirm Ae strange story be now hod to
tell by actually leading his accusers to the cavern where
his six companions were found, youthful and rosy and
.beailaing witik a holy radiance, lieodosina, hearing what
hod happened, hastened to the spot in time to hear from
their lips that Qod bad wrou^t this wond« to confirm his
fftith in the reonnection of the dead. This messsga onoe
deUvend, tli«y w;ain fell asleep^
, , ,XXL— .«8,._
S E V— S E V
Qngan Myi Iw bail lb* Itgand froni th* IntirpntaEioo ot "■
MTtalD SjrUa" ; in point at tut tbe itory I* Tin- nnnmiDn in
Sniu taarett. It tonw ths inbjrot of ■ homil; ot J v»b nT Sunig
(A. Ill ^D.), vhich ii pna in tlui ^<(a SniiiUiinisi. Aootliar
BTilu TmiDn ii printoil id Lwiil'* Atuedata, iiu St tj. i ma iln
Bulubiwi*. CAron. JtaUt., L 142 »., tud compva Ananuni,
BO. Or., L SSSu. Rohm romiiof ths Inland eiTB,aight>leepni,_
«.«., uinoicnt MS. of ths flth untniT now in tha BriCuh Miwaum
(Cat. Sfr. ass., p. lOSO). There >n MondBnbl* »rlitloiii u to
"-' , ThBl<^mdi»piJl7itt^nadaaTidediffuii
i Itaci
J Hohuaniad (■or. t
a ef tha (•*«." A
n, p> ISG) «rt>in a:
nl {CiiTvnology, it.
_.. _ . .... D thi Bth otntury. Tha mtui
dtapwi m k bTODill* (abjeot in aul; mcdiieval irt
BEViUUT, Tbb, next to the Thftmee in length unong
the riven of Engiand, liua ftt Maee Hafrea on the eutern
aide of Plinlimmon, en the Math-aoDth-veet botdera of
Hontgomerjahire, and flow* in a neaclf BemicircolAr
ootifae of about 300 milea to the aea ; the direct diatance
from itt nource to ita month in the BriatuI Channel ia
■boat 80 milD& B7 the Britona it wm called Ealfren,
and ita old Latin lume waa Sabrina. Throngli Hont-
gomerTibire ita conne ia at fiiat in a aonth-eaaterljr direc-
tion, and for the flnt 16 milea it flowa over a roagh
predpitona bed. At Llaaidloea, where the valley widena
to • breadth of ona or tvo milea a;nd aMamea a more
fertile appearance, it benda tomrda the north-eaat, pwaiug
Newtown and Welahpocd. On the borders of Bfan^ahire it
reeeivee the Vjrnwj, and than turning in a eonth-caaterlj
direction entan the broad rich plain of Bhrewabiuy, after
which it benda eouthward paat Ironbridge and Bridg-
north to Bewdtajr in 'Woroesterahira. Id Shropebire it
reoeivaa a numlm- of tiibntaiiea (aea SanoFaBiKi). Still
continning ita wintharljr ooone throng Woreeatenhire it
pauea Stoorport, where it reoeivea the Stoar (left), and
Worceater, ahortdj after which it receives the Teme (right).
It enten Qlonceeterahire at Tewkeabury, where it receivee
the Avon (left), after which, bending in a aonth-weaterly
ditttBtioa, it paaaea the town of Qlonceater, 18 milea below
which the estnary wid^ia oat into the Bristol Channel, at
the point where it receivee from the left the Lower Avon
or Briatol river, and from the right the Wye.
From KavtawB tt> ftll li tSE faat, th« aTanfe tall par mile being
■bont a f«at I incbea, but Avm Ironbrid^ to QloncMMr, * djetuica
of about 70 mOea, tha hll 1) mAj aboat las ftat Batneen Sloar-
port and Oloncana tha bnadth !■ 150 faat, but below thit town
flu bnadth npidlj Incnuea and tha banki bsooma boldsr and
mon pjotonaqns. Owing to tha mdnj daenaia in the width
and daptb of tha Biialol Chaona] tha tida enten with gtrnt totM,
fanning ■ tidal nre or bom ibonl 9 faat in hai^t, which it cer-
tain timo cfoma groet deatniclioD, among the more Hirioua inna-
dationa bring those of leOS, 1887, 1703, end 18SI. The tctal ■»!
dninad bj the Severn ia abont IKOO ■qoira niUea. Iti nivigation
aitanda to abont IM milea abova ita inoalh ; bitvea can aKend ai
(aru Btoorport, and large veeael* to GloncMtar Owing to tlioditfl-
onlUea of tha navigation tha OloDcntw aod Berkelej Ship Caual, 18
mile* in length, wie eonatruetad, admitting veaaala of SGO toni to
OloDoaatar, the river onlyadmltting vtaaela of ISO tone. Tba only
other important port ia Briitol, but then an a raw amallar porta
and Itahing town^ while b]P maana of canali the Savam bia OOD-
Derion with aome of tha principal towna of Eaglead. TTith tha
ThuBta It ia connected bv tha Btroodwatar and Thamn end Severn
Oanala ; by varioaa oan^ it baa eommnnicetion with tba Trent
and tha tlvan at tha north ; and the Hereford and Oloaostac Canal
Bonnaota tboee two dtiea. The Savera ia a gixid aalmon river, and
ia (peoially tUnona for ita lempreja
SEVEEK, Joseph <I793-1ST9), portrait and aulgect
painter, waa bom in 1793. During hie earlier yeara he
pictiaed portraitnre aa a miniatariat ; and, having studied
m Uie achoola of the Royal Academy, be exhibited his
flnt work in oil, Hermia and Helena, a subject from the
ifid*tmmer Sxgkf* Drtam, in the Royal Academy Exhibi-
tion of 1819. In 1830 he gained the gold medal and a
three years' travelling atndentthip for his Una and the
Bed Croii Knight in the Cave of DeapaJr, a painting now
in the poMession of thA repreaentativM ot the tet« Livd
Houghton. He accompanied his friend Keata the poet to
Italy, and nnned him tiU hia death in 1831. In 1H61 he
WM appdnted llritish consul at Ilome, a poet which ha
held till 1873, and dnring a great pari of the time be abo
acted as Italian oonsuL Hia moat remarkable wcH-k is the
Spectre Ship from the Andnl tfariner. He painleil
Cordelia Watching by the Bed of Lear, the Koman
Beggar, Ariel, the Fountain, and Rienzi, eieentad a large
altarpiece for the church of St Panl at Rome, and pro-
duced many portraits, including one of Baron Buneen and
aeveial of Keats. He died at Rome Angnst 3, 1879.
SEVERUS, LcciUB SxptnuiJi, the twenty-firat emperor
of Borne, reigned from 193 to 311 a.ii. He waa bom in
116 at Leptis Magika, an African coaat town in the
district of Syrtea, wboee' ancient proajierity ia atill attented
by ita extensive ruina. In thia region of Africa, des^ta
its long poaaoarion by the Romana, the Punio tongue was
atill ^oken by the people in genPraL Severat bad to
acquire Latin as a foreign language, and is said to have
spoken it to the end of bis daya with a strong African
accent After be had arrived at the throne he dientined
abrapUy from Borne a sieter who bad come to visit htB,
becanae be felt shame at her abominable lAtio. Tet
Sevems and hia dynasty were almost the only emperon
of provincial descent who frankly cheriahed the province
of Iheir origin, while the province ahowed true loyalty to
the only Roman emperor ever boru on African kmI, and
to the aucceaaors who derived their title from him.
Of the origin ot the Severi nothing is known : it ia a
natural but vary doubtfol coqectore Utat the L. Septimini
Bevema, a native of Africa, addressed by the poet Stating
waa an ancestor of the emperor who bore the same name.
The father of Severus was a Roman citizen of equestrian
rank, and it may safely be affirmed that the family held
a poor poaition when he was bom, but had riaen in
importance by the time he reached manhood. Two of
hie imclea attained to eonsular lank. Fnlvina Pina, tht
maternal grandfather of Sevens, is often identified with
tha man of that liame who was governor of Africa, ao^
after being oondemned for corruption by Pertinaz, was
highly honoured by Didina Julianns ; but datea an
strongly against the identification. Of the f atnre empooi^
education we learn nothing but ita results. Spartianai
declares him to have been "very learned in Lat! and
Oreek literature," to have had a genuine ical for stttdy,
and to have been fond of philosophy and rhetmie. Boi
the learning of mien is often aeen through a magni^ring
mediom, and we may better accept the statement of Do
Caaains that in the . pursuit of education his eagemew wai
greater than his success, and that he waa rather ibrevd
Uian facile. No doubt in hia early years he acqnired that
love for jurisprudence which distingoiahtd him as wnpeint.
Of his youth we know only that it waa entirely qMnt at
Leptis. Beyond that there is merdy one anecdotal fabri-
cation giving an account of youthful wildneaa.
The removal of Severns from L^da to B/nat is attri-
buted by his biographer to the deaire for higher adocatioo,
but was also no doubt due in some degree to amfaitioii
From the emperor Marcus Aurelius he early obtained, by
inlerceedon of a consular nnd^ the distinction of the
broad purple stripe. At twenty-eix, that is, almost at tha
earliest age allowed l:^ law, Several attained the qncstor
chip and a eeat in the senate, and i»ooeeded as ^iiaeator
ntilitarii to the senatorial province (rf Bsatica, in the
Peninsula. While Bevenis was temporarily ahaent in
Africa in coneeqoeDce of Hie death ot hia. &ther, the
province ei Bctica, disordered by invasion and internal
commotion, waa taken over by the wnperor, who gHve the
lenatfl Sardinia in uchange. On thjs Severaa became
S E V E E U S
mOitoiy qiuwtor ot Swdinu. HIi nut office, probablj
in 17i, wu thftt of legato to the prooonnil of Africa, and
in the foUowiog jcar he wu tribone of the pUbt. This
mogUtracj, though fu different from what it had been in
the dajB of the republic, waa «till one of dignity, and
brought with it ptomotion to a higher grade in the aeoate.
During the tribunate be married his first wife Marcia,
whoae name he passed over in his aatobic^raphy, though
he erected atatoee of her after ha became emperor. In
1 78 Sevaras became prstoc, not b; favoor of the emperor,
but by competition for the BUltrages of the sGuatara.
Than, probably in the tame year, he went to Spain as
legate ; after tiut (179) he commaoded a legion in Syria.
The death of Marcus Anrelios seemB in aome way to We
iDtermpted his career; he vas noemployed for aeveral
years, and devoted great part of his leisure to the etqdy
of tiCerature, religion, and antiquities (so saye Bpartianus)
at Athena. The year of Severus's £rst cooHulahip cannot
be detBrmined irith precision, but it falls vithin the space
betveea IBS and 190. In this time also fails the marriage
irith Julis, afterwards famous as Julia Domna, whoae
acquaintance he had no doubt made when an officer in
Syria. Her two bods Basstanns (known as Catacalla) and
Oeta were probably born in 188 and IBS. Bererua waa
governor in sacceesion of Oallia Lugdonensia, Sicily, and
Pannonia Superior. He waa in command of three kgiona
at Camnntom, the capital of the province last named, when
news reached him that Commodna had been mnrdered by
hia favourite concubine and his most trusted aervanta.
Up to this moment the career of Sevenis had been
ordinary in its character. He had not raised himself above
the asDal official level. He had achieved no militaiy dis-
tinction,— had indeed seen no warfare beyond the petty
border frays of a frontier province But the Aorm that
now tried all official spirits found hia alone powerful enough
to brave it. Three imperial dynasties had now been ended
by. assassination. The Flavian line had enjoyed much
shorter duration and much leea prestige than the other two,
and the ^rcumstaoces of its fall bad been peculiar in that
it was probably planned in the interest of the senate and
the senate certainly reaped the immediate fruits. But the
crisis which aroae on the death of Nero and the crisis which
arose on the death of Commodos were atrihingly alike. In
both caaet it was left to the army to determine by a struggle
which of the divisional commanders shoold succeed to the
command-in-cliief, that is, lo the imperial throne In each
cose the contest began with an impulsion given to the com-
manders by the legioDaries themselves. The soldiers of
the great commands competed keenly fur the honour and
the material advantages to be won by placing their general
in the seat of empire. The officer who lefosed to lead
wonld have been deemed a traitor to hia troopt, and would
have suffered the pnniahment of hia treason.
There is a widsispread impresuon that the Piwtorian
guards at all times held the Roman empire in their hands,
bat its errooeoui-ne&s ia demonstrated 1^ the events of the
year 199. For the first time in the course of imperial
history the Prietorians presumed to nominate sa emperor
a mao who had no legions at his bock. Thia was Pertinax,
who has been well styled the Galba of his time — npright
and Ubnourable to severity, and sealous for good govern-
ment, bat blindly optimist about the poasibilities of
reform iu a feeble and corrupt age. After a three months'
rule he wa* destroyed by the power that lifted him up.
According lo the well-known atorj, true rather in its out-
line than in its details, the Fnetoriaoi sold the throne lo
DidiuB Juliaous. But at the end of two months both the
Pnetoriana and their nominee were iwept away by the
real disposers of Boman rule, the provincial legions. Four
gnropa of tenons at the timo were itrong enough to .aspire
determine the deetiny of the empire, — tlioae qnartered
Britain, in Qermany, in Pannonia, in Syria. Thrae of
the groups actooUy took the deciuve aiap, and Bevenu in
Pannonia, Pescenniua Niger in Syria, Clodius Albinus in
Britain, received from their troops the title of Augustus.
Sevems far outdid hia rivala in promptness and decision,
what meana we do not know, Jie secured the aid of
the legions in Germany and of those in Illyria. Thes^
with the forces in Pannonia, made a combination suffi-
ciently formidable to overawe Albinua for the moment.
He probably deemed that his best chanoe lay in the
BiIiauBtion of his competitors by an internecine stmggle.
A^ oil events he Kiceived with submission an offer mode by
Sevenis, no doubt well understood by both to bo politic
insincere, and temporaiy. Beveros sent a trusted officer,
vho confirmed Albinus in his power and bestowed npoD
him the title of Csaar, m»hiTig liim ^e nominal heii^
apparent to the tfaroa&
Before the aetbn of Sevems was known In Bomct the
senate and people had shown signa of turning to Peecen-
aius Niger, that he might deliver them from the poor
puppet Didius Julionns and avenge on the Prstorians the
muiiier of Pertinax. Having secured the co-operation or
ueuttali^ of all the forcee In the western part of th»
empire, Bevems hastened to Bome. To win the sympathy
of the capital he posed as the avenger and successor of
Pertinax, whose name he even added to his own, and used
to the end of hia reign. The feeble defeitces of Julianas
were broken down and the Pnetorians disarmed and dis-
banded, without a blow being struck. A new body of
honsehokl troops was enrolled and organiced on qnil«
different principlea from the old. In foee of the senaU^
OS Dio tells us, Bevems acted for the moment like "one
of the good emperors la the olden days." After a mogni-
ficeu^ entry Into the city he joined the senate in eieci«b-
ing the memory of Commodua, and in punishing the
murdereiB of Pertinax, whom he honoured with the moat
splendid funeral ritea. He also eocoujaged the senate- to
i|asB a decree directing that any emperor or subordinate
of an emperor who should put a senator to death should
be treated as a publio enetny. But he ominonslv refr&ined
from asking the senate to sanction his acceeaion to the
throne. ~
The rest of Severus's reign, aa it is read in the Bnclent
histories. Is in the main occupied with wars, over which
n-e shaU rapidly pass. The power wielded by Pescennloa
Niger, who caUed himself emperor, and was supposed to
control one half of the Boman world, proved to be more
imposing than substantiaL The ttM^^Sceni promises at
Oriental princes were falsified as usuel In the hour of need.
Niger himself, as described by Pio, was the very type of
m^iocrity, conspicuous for no faculties, good or bad.
This very character had no doubt commended him to
Commodua as suited for the important command in Syria,
which might have proved a source of danger in abler
hands. "1110 contest between Sevems and Niger was
practically decided after two or three engagements, foDght
by Severus's officers. The last bettie, which took place
at Issna, ended in the defeat and death of Niger (194).
After this the emperor spent two yean in successful
attacks n]»n the peoples bordering, on Syria, particularly
in Adiabene and Osrhoene. Byzantium, the fint of Niger's
poesessions to be attacked, was the list to fall, Jter a
^orions dafence.
Lete in 196 Sevems turned weetward, to reckon with
Alblnu^ who wsa well aware that the reckoning waa
Inevitable. He was better bom and better educated than
Severua, but In capacity far Inferior. As Bevema waa
Hearing Italy ho received the nsws tbat Albinus had been
dechved emperor by hia aoldien. The first coonter-atroke
700
S E V E R U 8
of SoreniB ma to Affiliate bimaelt and his elder eoa to the
Antoniaen by • sort of ^oriooa and poetbumoos adap-
tioD. The preatige of the old name, even when gained in
this iilegitimate wa?, waa probably worth a good de«L
baamanna, the elder aon of Bererna, thereafter known aa
Anreliiia Antoniniia, waa named Ceeaar in place of Albinna,
and was tliiis marked oat aa ancceaaor to hu father. With-
oat iDterrnpting the march of hie forcea, Sevenu con-
trived to make an etcnnioa to BomcL Here he availed
hinuelf with mnch enbtlttj of the aympatby many aenatora
were known to bare felt for Niger. Thoagk be waa ao
far faithful to the decree paaaed by hia own advice that
he put DO aenator to death, yet he baniahed and
imporeriahed many whoee preaence or inflnenee aeemed
dangeroos or inconvenient to hia proapecta. Of the
anffuera probably few bad aver aeen or oommnnicated
witb Niger.
The coUiaion between the forces of Bavertu and Albinua
waa the moat violent that had taken plapa between Komau
traopa ainca the mighty contest at Philippi. Tho decisive
engagement waa fongbt in February of the year 197 on
tha plain between the Rhone and the Safine, to the north
<a Lyona. Dio tolla na that leO.OOO men fought on each
aide. The fortnnea of Sevenu were, to all appearance, at
one atage of the battle aa hopeleaa aa thoae of Joliua Cxear
were for aome honrs daring the battle of Hnnda. The
tide waa tomed by the same meana in both caaee — by the
personal condnct and bravery of the commander.
By thia crowning victory Severaa waa releaaed from all
need far di^^niee, and " ponred forth on tha civil popula-
tion all the wraUi which ha had been itoring np for a long
time" (Dio). He particularly frightened the lenate by
calling himaelf the aon of Marcna and brother of Commodai,
whom be had before insolted. And be read a speech in
which he declarod that the aeverity and cruelty of Snila,
Marina, and Auguatoa had proved to be safer policy than
the clemency of Pompey and Jnliaa Csaar, which hail
WTonght their min. He ended "with an apology for Com-
modns and bitter reproaohea against the senate for their
sympathy with hia aasasains. Over six^ senators were
armtad, on a charge of having adhered to Albinna, and half
of them ware pnt to death. !□ moat instences the charge
waa merely a pretence to enable the emperor to crash oat
tlie forward and dangerous epirits in the aenate. The
mnrdereraofCommodna were punished; Commodna himself
waa deided ; and on the monameots from thia time onward
Severua fignrea as the brother of that reproduction of all
the vice and cruelty of Nero with tha reSoemsnt left out
The next yeata (197-202) were devoted by Sevcrus to
one of the dominant ideas of the empire from its earliest
days — war agunst tha Parthians. The results to which
Trajan and Tenu bad aapired were now fnlly attained, and
Uesopotamia was deSnitoly eatabUahed aa a Boman pro-
vince. Fart of the time waa spent in the erploiation of
Egypt, in respect of which Dio tabes opportanity to say that
Severna was not the man to Isave anything human or ^vine
nninveetigated. The emperor returned to enjoy a well-
earned triumph, commemorated to thia day by the arch in
Borne which bwrs hia name. During the tax years which
followed (202-20S) Beverua reeided at Borne and gave bis
attention to the organiation of the empire. No doubt hia
vigorous inflnenee waa felt to its ramotset oomera, bnt onr
hiatoriane deaert ns at this point and leave us for the most
part to the important bat dim and defective conclnaiona to
be drawn from the abnndant monnmental records of the
rmgo. Only two or three events in the dvil history of this
panod are fnlly narrated by the ancient writers. The first
of these ia the featival of the Decennalia, or rqoioings in
the tenth year of tha empator'a reign. Contemporaneoas
with this featival waa tha naniage of Anrelioa Antoninna
(Caiacalla) with Pkntilla, tbe dangliter of PlanttftonB, etna-
majider of the reorganiaed Pnetorisa gnarda. This officer
holds a conspicuous poaition in tha ancient acconnts of tbe
reign, yet it ia all bot impoaaible to believe a good deal
that we are told conceroiag him. Neverthelcea, without a
clear view of the career of Plautianus, it is difficult to
graap definitely aome important features in tb« cb*Tacter
of Severna, or to appredato exactly the natnr« of his
government According to Dio and Herodian, Plantianux
was allowed for years to exercise and abuse tbe whole
power of tbe emperor, so &r aa it did not relate to tha
actual condnct of war. He was emel, arrogant and
corrupt; and the whole empire groaned nndar hia axae-
tiona. Qeta, the brother (rf Severns, tried to open tba
emperor's eyea, bat the licence of Plautianua waa merely
raetricted for a moment^ to be beetowed again in fnll.
Finally, in 203 thia aecond Sqanos fell a victim to an
intrigna aet on foot by hia own aon-in-law Antoninna
(Caracalla), tbe details of which wera not deariy known
even to contemporary writers. It ia bard to see in what
way we are to reconcile thia history with the known bets
of Sevenu's character and career, nnleaa we aaaame tiM
Plautianns was reaUy the instrument of hia master for tbe
execution of bis new policy towards the aenate and tbe
aenatoriat provinces. That Plautianns abuaed his autbori^
and brooght about his own fall is probable enoogb, — also
that Severna bad destined him at one time for the goardian-
ahip of hia aona. Flantianua waa succeeded in Ub oSee
by two men, one of whom waa tbe celebrated jurist
I^pioian.
Severna apeot Iha laat three years of Ua life (20S-211)
in Britain, amidst conatant and not very sncceasfnl war-
fare, which he ia aaid to have provoked partly to atrengthea
the diadpline and powera of the legions, partly to wean
his aona from their evil coaraaa by hard nulttarj aerviee.
He died at Tork in February of the year SIX. There aie
vague traditions that bis death waa in aome way '■wrtnntfl
by Caiacalla. Thia prince had been, unce about 197,
nominally joint emperor with hia bther, ao tlut an
ceremony waa needed for bia recognition aa monarch.
Ths nitnn] ^fta of aevaras were of m hi^ or nniBDsI etdw.
He had a clear asad, promptitodi^ rseelntioD, taoadty, and gntt
ni^niring pan', Iflt BA Icoch of gmlm. Hut M was end
ounot ba quatiaDed, bnt hia orael^ was U tbs »ii-uitT» Uad,
uid slnjs durly dlnotad to soma end. Ea threw Oa bead rf
Niger ovtr tb* nmputi of BjunUum, bat maidy ta Qm bnt
mesiu of pneoring a aQmuder at tht itubbomly difnidad brtma.
Tba head of iJUmn h* ubiUlad it Bqibo, bat only aa a wannag
to the wpHal to tampai m men with pratniden. Tha dkildiHi
of Nigar w«« held h hoati^B ud kindty traated ao Img h tbn
might poasiblr aBbrd a ujefol bus Tor tKontiiition widi thcG
fkthar : wboi ha waa dabrtad they wen kiUed, leat thna among
them should arias a olaimant For tfu ImpetUl powar. Stere aad
larbamu [laniihmant was always met^ out oy Sevsroa to tbo
ooDnaerad loa^ bat tenor wsa demned tha bait gaaiantaa Itar psaca.
Hs risltnoacnipleaof conadanMOrboDODTif he tbooght htaiuteiaat
at itake, bat be waa not wont to tako an excited or ezaggnatRl
view o( what hb lotenat nqalrad. Hanacd or destroyed men and
inititntioiia slika with oool jndgnisnt aad a ainds aye to tha naia
puipoaa oT hia life, the leCDre eatabUahmaat of bk dynBBty. Tba
few tracea of aimleaa aaTieery which wo find in the andcnl nam-
tivei an probably the naolt of foar working on tba imaf^uatkn of
Aa a aoldisr Beveros was personally brave, but ha can hudly bt
called a general, in apita of hia BDcccflBfnl tampaignL He «u
Tather tha organiier of^ victory than the actaal author of it. na
onantioBa agalnit ITlger were carried ont autfrely by hia offlnra
Sio even declana that tba final battle with Albinoa waa tbs Rnt
at which Savonta had ever been actually preaant Whao a war
waa going on ba was conatantly travelling oret tbe aoane of il,
planning it and inatilliog Into tba anny hia own perlinaciDDa
t^t, hat tha actaal fightangwaa nnallj left to olhcn. Hia tnat-
mant of tha anny ia tha noat ohatadaristio teatura of hia nign.
He frankly broke with the decent eonvantiana of tha Angntua
ranatttation, ignored tha aeoats, sod candidly baaed hia nile niioa
Kho. Tha onl^Utle ha ever laid to tha throne was the
■Uantii of the Isgunu^ nham adhorance to hia oss ~
S E V E U U 8
701
to wad ths ■nay u « wbola to the rupport ot h!i djuuti. Hs
iDornwl enormourlj tho niterUl giini ud tha h<>iiani7 ili'tlnc-
tioDi of tbo MfyicD, BO that ho tiu chamd with eomiptina tin
trooiM. Yrt it unnot bo Joaind that, all thingi coniuland, ha
U!\ thi
IncniuHl
■ without militiry einono;
or initioot, ioto « choun corru of votsniii. Their niiVi «
filial bj promotion from all tha' logioni on HTTica, irbereaii [
vioualy then bad bneu epscial Buliitmeot rrom ItaU and oog
two ol the nainhbooriiig proyinow. It wei hopeik that th
pickoJ Dien todIiI form a forsa oa vhicli an omperoi
oej. But ti
afthofmiiw
I abrogHted ; Italy beeama a nroTincs, aD
ny weta quartarod in It nnJcr the dire
ir. Fuitbor to ob»iat» tli( ri»k of rsToli
tha turbulent (Mtern frontier, It WH not poiaibla fo
to disposa of troopa namaroo* enongh to rendai hL
the goTarament
Dot, *hila tha policy of SeTeraa wai prtitiarilj i
he wu by
tlia ampin. Only
did ha wealcan it* (
iralK
anlyai
1 of Byanl
oaived the apodal i
ib«DlntistTie«of thBgoTotomant into tha taituraof
If tho Itgal ch»ngss of tha reign, importint a» they
ly, whan tha Gothauma to dominate
The conitutly tnablnonia DannhUn rneioiu re-
sial attention of tha emperor, but all over the realm
._. .. . I prlTil^ei of Dommiuiitiat aDd diatricti were recait
in the ray that aasmad likely to couduu to their proiparity. Tha
admlniitntian acquired more and mora of a military character, iu
Italy H well aa iu the proTinna. Ratirad militiiV offlcsn now
filled many of tha potta formerly reoerred for ciiiliana of aquaatriaq
Ttnk, The prairaet of the Pnetariajii receiTtd linia civil and Judi-
cial powen, 10 that the Inioatment of Papinian with the ofHca wia
le« uonatnral than It at firat awht Bcema. Tha alliance between
SeTenu and the joriKOnaDlta had important conaeqiMDcea. While
he gave tham new importanoa in the body politio, and co-operaUiI
with them in the work of legal nform, they did hii '--' - — --
by working " '" ' -■ ■ -- - •- - - '
tiomaa Uw.
vera, we can only mentTon a few dstaila. Tht ,
A devoted and irpright judge, but he abnck a grvat blow at the
finritr of the law by tnnsferring the eierciw of imperial jnriidic-
lon from the forum to the pilaca. Ha aharpenad in DiiBy rMpMta
pcnWiuM. altered largely that Important KCtion of the law which
daSnad the rishU of the Bkob. and daraloped fiirthar the lodal
policy which ADgoitiu had embodied in the Ux Julia it edMlUriit
tnd uia i*£ Papia Poppivtu
Eteicma boldly adopted u an olScial dealgnathin tha antootatio
tltla odtomlnut, which the better of hi> predeceavjn had renounced,
and with which the wona had only toyed, aa Domlttan, whom
Martial did not haaitata to call "hla loril and hia god.* During
Savema'a reign the aenats wu abaolntely powetleis; be took all
InitlatiTa into hia handi. He broke down the diitinction between
the eervanta of tha eaoste and the Hriaate of the emperor. All
Dominationi to office or function puaed under hia ecratiny. The
eatimadon ot the old oonenUr uid other republican titlae wia
ditniaiihad. Tha growth of capacity In the eenite waa aSectoally
obooked by ontting o9 the talieat of the poppy-headi aitrly la the
nlgn. The eanite beeama a mere reginration office for tha
imperial determinationa, and iti memhera, aa haa bei
1 chair for drawling conrentioiiBl hymna of pralaa ii
the monarch. Bren tha nominal reatoratjoa OE the aei
at the time of Alexander Berenu, and th^ acoeason of BO-ciUed
"aenaCorial ampcron" later on, did not DSaoe the work ot
Septtmina Sererna, which waa nmmad and carried to itt fulEl-
mmt by Diocletian.
It only remaina to Bay a taw word* of the ampenr'a attitode
towafdo litonttira, art, and religion. Ho period in tha hiatoiy ot
Idtin literature ia eo barren aa the reign of Berema. Uany latai
perioda-tha age of StiUcho, for eiunpre-ahlDe brilliantly by com.
perieon. The only gnat Latin writari are tha Chriatiane Tertaltitn
and Cyprian. Tha Greek literatnra of tho period ia richer, but not
owing to any patronage ot the emperor, eicopt perhape in the caia
of Dio CasiioB, who, though no ailniirar of Severua, attributaa to
encouragement receired from him the eiooution of the Breat hia-
torleal work which hu oome down to our time. The numerone
mtoTationa of ancient buildingi and the many new conatractiona
carried oat by Sereroe ebow that he wu not ineeniibla to tha artiatio
gloriea of the paat ; and ha ie knoi
t in ton
a pit™
nnolaaaar of ut. Aa to religloa,
CDtrenta of tha time. Ha probably did a good deal to atrenElbaD
and extend the oniclal cult of the imparial fimi)y, which bad been
greatly dareloped daring tho proiparoiu tinira ot the Anlonlnoii.
But what ho thonghc of Chrutiaiiity, Jadainn. or tha Orianlil
myiticiam to ihldiliia wife Jolia Domna gave ntch an impolu In
tha enccaeding nigii, itieiuipo^ihlo to aay. We inaj bettcanolndo
that hli relLgioui ikympathtea wore vide, einca tradition hae not
jwintad him aa tha partiren of any ona form of wonhip.
Tha energy and dominance of SoTerua'a character and Ma capadtjr
for rule may be deemed, vithont tancifulneM, to be traceabla in
tha nomenna rapttMiitationi of hii fratnraa which bars annriTeil
SETERtTS, MABOca Atjbbliiib Ai.KXAin>ni, RonutD
emperor from 322 to 235, wu of Syrian parentage^ and waa
bom at Area near the Syrian Tripoli* ^now 'Irl^a ; Ti^t,
iii. 653 ; cf. Oen. x. 17), probablj' in Uie year SOS. Eia
father Qe^tit Uuciantu held oBao more tlun mca as an
imperial procttrutor j hia mother Julia M"""*^ waa the
daughter of Jolia Mua, tha scheming and ambitiona
lad; of Emaia who had mcceeded in raising her grand-
son Elagabttlni to the throne of the CtBsars j see the
genealogical table in Ekuooabai,ub. His original name
was Alexins Baasianns, but he changed it in 231, when
Haeta persuaded Elagabalus to adopt hia conain aa rac-
ceaMr and create hitn Caeaar. In t&e next jear Elagabalua
waa murdered, and Alexander waa proclaimed by the
Pmtoriana .and accepted by the saoate. He was then a
mere lad, amiable, weit-meaning, but somewhat weak, and
entirely under the dominion of his mother, a'woman of
mariy rirtues, who snrronnded her son with wise coansel-
lota, watched over the development of his character, and
improved the tone ot the adminiattation, bnt on tha other
hand was inordinately jealotis of her indnence, and alien-
ated the army by extreme parsimony, while neither she
nor her son had a strong enough hand to keep tight the
reins of military discipline. Mutinies became fraqneDt in
ail parts of the empire ; to one of them the life of the
pnetorian praf ect TJlpiaa waa sacrificed ; another compelled
703
tiie nUremeot of Dion Cwioa from hii commud (bob
Dior). On the whole, bowerei', the reign of Alexander
Sbtbtiu wm proeperous till he wu BqiniiioDed to the Ewt
to fMe the new power trf the stii4.ni.nM ^Me Phuoa, toL
zviiL p. 607). Of the war thet followed we have Terf
vuiotu account* ; Uommteu (roL v. p. 420 tq.) leeiu to
that which ii loait favoanbls to the Kotuaoa At all
eveata, though the PernaoB were checked for the time,
the oondact of the Bomao army ihowed an eitraordinary
lack of disciplina. The emperor retomed to Rome and
celebrated a triumph (233), but Dezt year he w«« called
to lace German inraders in Qaol, and there was shun
with hia mother in a mutiojr which wm probably led by
Uaiiminiu, and at any rate porohaaed bim the throne.
Whaterer the peraooal Tirtnea of Alexander woe, and
they have not lo«t by cootraet with his ■ucoeeeor'* bratal
tyranny, he was not of the etnfi to rule a military empire.
SEVEItUS, SuuionTB (e. 36l!-e. 43B), early Chrirtian
writer. A native of Aqnitania, he wa« thoroughly imbued
with the ctJtnre of hia country aod time. The eeven
•outham provinoee of Qaul, between the Alpa and the
Loire, had long been completely Bomanind. The very
name " Gaul " was repudiated by the inhabitaots and
confined to the nativee of the rader northern districtt.
The lifetime of Sevemi exactly coincided with the period
of greatest literary development in Aqnitania, Uien the
traeet or only true home of lAtiu littsrs and learning —
their last place of refuge, from which Sevema law them
driven before hs closed hii eyes on the world. Almoet all
that we know of hie life.eomee from a few allniiont in his
own writiDge, and some paaiagea in the lettera of hii
friend Panlinus, bishop of Nola. In his early days he
was famooB u a pleader in the courts, and hi* knowledge
of Koman law is reflected in parts of his writings. He
married a wealthy lidy belonging to a consular family,
wbo died youDft leaving him no children. At this time
SeveruB came under the powerful inflnence of St Uartin,
bishop of Tour^ by whom he was led to devote hii wealth
to the Christian poor, and his own power* to a life of good
works and meditation. To use the words of his friend
Faulious, he broke with his father, followed Christ, and set
ths teachings of the " fiahenneo' far above all hi* " Tnllian
learning.' He rose to no higher tank in the church than
that of presbyter. His time was passed chisfiy in the
neighbourhood of Toulouse, and such literary efiorts as he
permitted to himself were made in the intetests of
Cbriitianity. In oiaoy respects no two men could be
more unlike than Severus, the scholar and orator, well
Teriad iu the ways of the world, and Uartin, the rough
Pannonian bishop of Toon, ignorant of learning sus-
picious of culture, the champion of the monastic life, the
seer of viaiona, and the worker of miiaoles. Yet the spirit
of the rugged taint snbdued that of the polished schoUr,
and the works of Severus would have Uttle importance
now did they not reflect the ideas, influence, and aspira-
tion* of Hartio, the foremoat et^Jeeiaatic of Oanl, and one
of the most striking figure* in the church of his day.
Thr chiat work of S«TBrai i* ths Chroniai, ■ lainmiirT ot ucnd
hbtorr from tho bsglDntng of tb< world to hb ova tim«, vltb
Uir oinUon of ths eTtnM ramrdsd in the GoaptU uid ttu icit,
* lest til* lUm of hli brief work ahoold detnst (hm the taonoar
iw to tLoH erenU.* Tlie book wu In furl s t«t-book. mi <nu
tctutllj Bied s* noh in the Bhaols of Eumpa for ibont 1 eutiirj
■nd s half sftsr ths siHIw princtpt «u pnblUhtd by FUciu
JLljiisoi in IKA, Ssrenii aowhsre elearly points to the cIam of
iswlan tor whom his book la ilestgned. Hs disoUfnu the inten.
tioo of nuking hiM work ■ nbrtiCDtii for ths notaiii umtlve
contained in &s BLbls. 'Worldlj hiiCorlsni ' had brto nwd
by him, he
SEVERUS
whethsr In thilr Qntk or their Utln form, wonlJ be dbtsitBTal.
The litsTU7 •traitnn of tb* nuntlre Itaelt ebon that Bavers
hsd in b» mind nrinoipsUT reutsni on tbe mm.' Isral of CK.Isn
with hiDiulf. Hr ni sulou to show that eaorsd bbtoay
taiAt bs intseotod in a form which lor^n of SaUiut imd TacitH
ooold appnclats and sqief. Tb* ityl* id lucid and almcat
aathon are Inwoveu h»* uid than, th* namtire flowi <m rmmij,
vith no trace of the Jolta uid Jerka wblch oB'sBd na In aliucat
every line of a patchwork imitat« of the tiajatea Itka KdoaiM.
In order that hii work miKhl btrly itand beside that of tlis dJ
Latin vHtcn, SeTsrui boldly Uiumd tiia allcgorica] naOKKla cf
intarpretiog aacnd bittoiy to which the heretics and the artbeda
of the ege were aliks woddad. Foaalbt; be aae not anahaka is
bla adhariince to th* pemliar reading which noariy all mea tb**
gave to ths naxini that * the letter kUlolh l«t ths elilrit naaluth
Am an authority tor times antecedent te his awn, Bsnnia b rf
llttli moment. At only a fsw poind does b* tnaUa as to eniTsct
or Bupplsment otbnr ncorda. BtToayahaa ibown tliat be iHaed
hIa uamtiTe of the diatmctlon of Jeniaalem bj Tltua cai thi
aooonnt given b; TaciRu in hia "Hiitoriea,' a portion of whkb
baa bean ioat Ts an snabled that to contrast Ticitiis with
eoataet froi
mtils rulcn with whom ths Jswa am* Ub
1 ths lims or the Uaceabasa onwards, Sarenu da-
pointa which are cot wilboot importance. But tk'
real btsrsat ot his work lies, Int, In the incidental gUmwa it
affords all thioutfh of the history oS his own tima, next and sha
particnlarly, In thi- Information ha hae preaerred aoneiittiiiiK Ibi
atniggls over the Friscmianist heresy, which diaorniiiur ud
degraded the charthea of Siiain and Qtal, slid partico&rlj aibeltd
Aqiiitains. The ejnimCbiea hen Lstravad by SeTerw an wheDj
tboBD of Bt llartli. The stoat Liihop had wilhitood ta his ba
llaxlmna, who ruled for aoms jeara ■ laigs part ot ths WEricti
portion 01 the empire, thoaffh he ncTar Ainqaersd Italy. Ho had
rcproachad him with sttacking and overth rowing hia pradecsaoa
OB th* throns, and for his deanugs with ths chnnh. Savmu loa
no opportnnitT pnssntad by hia nairatlva for laytnff atraas ea Ik*
etim» ud follies of lulen, and on their cmslty, thoo^ ba ana
dularH that, enul aa mlcr* muld ba, prissts codd bs eriMllsr stiQ.
Tbii last Btalement has refareiin to the blahoia whe had Idt
llaiimuB no peace till he had ataioed his hud* irith tbe blood tt
Priscillian and hia followers. Uartin, too, bad doaMlBead Ike
worldliness and greed of the Caullah bidiopa and clergy. AecBri*
ingly we End that ScTsrui, in narTattOf> the dirision at Canaaa
among the tjibea, calls Ihe special attootion of anlailBatics te tba
fact that no portion of the land was sssigned to the ttibc of Leri,
lint thav ahoald be hindind In thoir acirics of Ood. * Onr dcn^
ssemi'tae lafB, "not merely forgstfat uf thaliBon lat Igoorantof it.
sock s psasion for poaaeesiona has in our days batsnsd lik« a pesti.
Isncs on their sooK They arr gtsady *[ pn)p*rly, and tend thnt
estatsi and hoard their gold, and boy and aill and gir* tbdr minft
to gain. Tboae sf them who an rejinted to beof betta principle
who neither bold property car barter, sit and wait lor gifta, IM
pollnte all (he gnce of theii Uth b; taking feea, whUs thay aLaoal
make market of their holinssi ; hal J bars dicnaed farther than I
Intanded. tkrough Teiilian and weBrin«H of thi pnemt ua." IF*
li*t* catch an intareating glioipae of the drtnmatane^ WMcb ns
winning over good men (0 uonaaliciam in ths Wrst, tboo^ thtcfi.
dsnos 1^ aa eathuaiutic rotary of the aoliUry Ufa. snch as Seretns
ra^ la probably not fres from cxj>fcg*ratian. Bersma aJao fullj
aympathued with th* sc
This myeterious WssUi
if Bt Hutln tt
^hlug PrlscilliamjEL
lyeterious WasUn offahoot of QnoatioiBDi had no ain^i
lutnr* about it which ooold softsn the btatililr U • cbaraetrr
snch as Martin's was, but he staunchly resisted the IntmdnctioB J
sscular pnnisbment for evil doctrine, and withdraw trou commaiiioa
irltb (h»s bishops in Qaul, a Una mijoriCy, who iuvoksd ths ail
of Maxlmna againat their erring brsthren. In this connoxion It V
Intsnsling to noU ths account glren by StTsroa of ths synod held
■t Siniini in 1GB, vher* the qn<atian aroaa wbathtr tt* Udien
attending the adomblj might lawfullj rscslTs ouHwy fboia tbf
psrial trtcsurT to reconp their ttivelling and otbv ncpssan
1 .„:j_-., *., . ..u 1 .1.. n-i.i.L „j Caulii
of th* church
' emporor.
Lr of and abor* the state.
psonniary obllKatlai
iftsr ths Chnn<
MaHitij a contribution to popular Christian Utaratnrt ■
did much to ■stablish thr groat rvpuUtinu wblch that wundar-
working saint maintained tbrongbout tbs Hlddl* Aga*. Tha book
la not prupDi'ly a hiogtaphy. but a catalogue of ■Hii*i>l**_ told In all
the aimptidtj of alwlute belisf, Th^ power to work mincnloas
■Igns Is asmniid to be in dinct ^porti^n to holinass, and is ^if
dsToma valued merely as an rvideueo of boliiissa. which hs Is
[isnaadsd mn only ba atlaiuwl thnmgh a lib «f isolatlan h«n tla
S E V — a B V
703
Horhi. In tbo fint oT bu cIuId'^'uh BoTerai pnla iota tlM niona
of *n intiriocntor m Tnat pleuing de*cri]itiaa of tha lite o
canobilea and aoHtariea in ths iltwrti bonlcnnjt on EcTpt. Thi
nmin sviilfnco of tha Tirtna atUiDHl by thai ■■ ^- '' ■— ■ —
■ubjectioa to them of Iho aaviga baaata ami
Tlie >an]« diiloeua ihowahim to baitir* to ita diDgenaml dafccta.
Tha tKond dialogna ia a lug* appndix to ths Life of Uartin, and
raallT aappliei mora Information of hia Ufa aa hiahop and of hia
Tiewa than ths work -liich bun tha tilU PUa S. Martini. Tha
two dinlognea occaaionall/ maks intoreatiiiBrsfsrencn to paraoMpea
1 of Origen.
h tha/ livsd.
epoch. Id VM.
Tha Jndgmoot of S«Tenu htoiHlr ia no donht that which hs pi
that oaa and tha uma man conJd have ao Tar diffared Cram himaall
that in ths apprarad portion of tail norki hs has no aqoal ainea
tlia apoitlea, whits in that ^rtion for which hs ia jnatl^ blamsd
" -iranod that
epiatlea complett
is aaid to havs b«D led awaj
to h&va r«pent<d and inflicted 1
portion foi . ,
hu oommitted man tnuMmlf er
n hia old agvli]' Pelagiuiian
■S. al XndiU l> • >i>rk filadT
m^a^nr™
cl sJenu'ira Ibsu 1^ Do F»u
jr.'-j^j.^.^
iripli on tha Citriii<u br Banufi (Barllii.'lMl>.
SEVIQNE, Marts db Eabdtih-Chahtai, MARQtnsB
DE (1636-1696), ths most chumiDg of «J1 lettar-writera
in all langnagBS, wte born ftt Pftlis on Febroary G, 1626,
and died at the chat«aa of QrigtikD (DrAme), on April 18,
1696. The familj of Rabutln (if not so illnatrioos as Bnsay,
Madams ds Sdvign^'B QObarioni conaiQ, affected to consider
it) was one of grut age and diatinction in Bnrgnndy. It
was traceable in documenta to the 12th centnrj, and the
castle irhich gave it name etill exitted, Ihoogh in rains, in
Hadame de S^vigni's time. The family bad been "gens
d'6pte" far the moat 'p&ct, thongh Frangoia de Rabnttn,
the anthor of valuable memoirs on the sixth decade of the
I6tb centnrj, nndaabtedl; beloDged to it. It ia aaid that
BuBsy's silly Tajiity led him to eiclnde thia Frnn^oia from
the genealogy of hia house becanae he bad not occopied
any high poaitioo. Uuie's father, Celae B^nigne de
Rabatin, Bftron de Chantal, was the aoO of the celebrated
" Saiate " Chantal, friend and disciple of St Francis of
Sales ; her mother was Maiie de Conlangea. Celae de
Rabtitin shared to the fnll the mania for dnelling which
Ufas the cnree of the gentlemen of Franc« during die GraC
half of the ITth century, and was frequently in-danger both
directly from hia adreraaries and indirectly from the Ian.
He died, however, in a more legitimate manner, being
killed during the English descent on tlie laleof RhA in
July 1627. Hia wife did not aorriTe him many years, and
Marie was left an orphan at the age of seven years and a
few months. She then passed into the care of her grand-
parents on the moiher's aide; but they were both aged,
and tba survivor of them, Philippe de Coolanges, died in
1636, Marie being than ten yeara old. According to French
custam a family council was held to aalect a gtiardian of
the young heiress, for ancb she was to aome extetit. *, Ser,
uncle Christopba de Conlangea, Abb4 de Livry, was cboMO.
He was aomewhat yoimg for the giurdianahip of a girl,
being only twenty-nine, but readers of hia niece's letlera
know how well "Le Bien Bon 7 — for such is hia name in
Madame da S^vigni'a little language — acquitted- himself
of the trust. Be lived till within ten yeara of his ward'a
death, and long after hia nominal functions were ended he
was in all matters of buaineea the good angel of the family,
while tor half a century hia abbacy of Livry was the
favourite residence^ both of his niece and her datightar.
Coulanges was much mors of a man of bustneaa than of
a man of letters, but either choice or the faahion of the
time indnced him to make of his niece a learned lady.
OhapeluQ and Manage are specially mentioned as her
tutors, and Hioage at least fell in love with her, in which
p<HDt be resembled the rest of the world, and was eonatast
to hia own habits in regard to his pupils. Tallemant dea
lUauz gives more than one instance of the cool and good-
humoured raillery with which ahe received his paasion,
and the earliest lettera of hers that we poaaesa are
addressed to Manage. Another literary friend o£ her
youth was the poet Saint-FaviiL Among her own sei she
was intimate with all ths coterie of the HOtel Bambouiilet,
and her special ally wEia Mademoiselle de !a Vergne, after,
warda Madame de la Fayette. In person she was extremely
attractive, though the minute critics of the time (whicb
waa the palmy day of portraits in words) objected to her
divers deviationa from strictly regular beauty, such as eyes
of different colotu? and sizes, a " square-ended " nose, and
a somewhat heavy jaw. Her beautiful hair and com-
plezioo, however, were admitted even by these cenaoia, as
well as the extraordinary spirit and lirelinesa ol her
expression. Her long minority, under so careful a
guardian as Coulanges, hod also raised her fMtnne lo Ibe
amount of 100,000 crowns — a large sum for the time, and
one which with her birth and beauty might have allowed
her to expect a very bnlliaut marriage. That which she
Gually made waa certainly one of affection on her ude
rather than of interest. There had been some talk of her
cousin Bossy, but very fortunately for her this came to
nothing. She actually married Henri, tfarqaisde S£vign£,
a Breton gentleman of a good family, and allied to the
oldest houses of that provioce, but of do great estate.'
The marriage took place on August 4, 1641, and the pair
went almost immediately to S^vignt'a manor-houae of Lea
Bocbere^ near yitr£, a place which Madame de S^vignA
waa in future years to immortalize. It waa an unfortified
chateau of no very great aiie, but picturesque enough, with
the peaked turrets common in French architecture, and
surrounded by a park and grounds of no large extent, but
thickly wooded and communicating with other woods.
The abundance of trees gave it the repute of being damp
and somewhat gloomy. Fond, however, as Iifadame de
S£vign4 waa of society, it may be suspected that the
happiest days of her brief married life were spent there.
For there at any rate her husband had less opportunity
than in Paris of neglecting her, and of wasting her money
and < his own. (Very little good ia said of Henri de
K£rign£ by any of hia cootempoiariea. He was one of
the innumeiabk lovers of NinoQ de rEocIoe, and made
himself even more coDspicnous with a certain Madame de
Qondran, known in the nickname alang of the time as
" La Belle Lola." - He waa vrildly extravagant in That his
wife loved him and that be did .not love her waa generally
admitted, and the frank if aomewhat coxcomb-like accounts
which BuBsyRabutiu gives of bis own attempt and failure
to persuade her to retaliate on her hosband are decisive
as to her virtue. « At last Sivigni's pleasant vices came
home to him. V He quarrelled with the Chevalier d'Albret
about Madame de Oondran, fought with him and waa
mortally wounded on tha 4tb of Febrttary 16S1 ; ha died
two days afterwards. : There ia no reasonable doubt that
hia wife regretted him a great deal more than he deserved.
On two different occaaiona ahe ia said to have fainted in
public at the sight once of bia adversary and once of his
second in the fatal dael; and whatever Madame de
S4vign£ waa (and ahe had eeveral faults) ahe was certainly
not a hypocrit«. Her husband had when living accused
her of coldness, — the common excuse of libertiue hueband^
— but even he seems to have fotmd fault only with her
temperament, not with her heart. To close this part of
the subject it may be said that though only six and
twenty, and more beantifal than ever, she never married
a^in despite fre^nt offers, uid that no aspumoa was
7M
S £ V I O N E
•Tw thioim Mfe in on* inatkUM on W bune. For tii«
TMt of bar life, whidi wm long the gave beneU «p to bar
ebildnn. Tittat wara two in nQmbsr, knd tbej diTided
Ihtir tnotber'a Affections bj no muna eqiullj. Tbe eldeit
«u a danghtat, Fran^ise Harguarits de Bdvigni, trbo
WM bom on Octobw 10, 1646, vhether »t Lea Kocben
or in Paru is not abaolatelf certAin. The second, t, son,
Cbarle* de Bdvigni, wis born at Les Bocbara in the sprinK
of 1648. To hi» Hadame de S^vignA was an indnlgant,
ft genaroos tthongb not sltogetber jost), and in a waj an
•ffaotionala motber. Her daoohtei. the future Uadame de
Grigoan, ibe wonbipped iritb an almost insane aflectioa,
wbieb only it* charming literarj results and tbe dGligbtfnl
qoalitiea ffbicb accompanied it in tbe wonhipper, thoogb
not in tba worshipped, save from being ludieroui if not
Tovoltiog. As it ia, not one in a hnndred of Madame de
Birigai't reodeta can find in hi* heart to be angry with
ber for ber derotion to a very tmdivi&e divinity.
After bar bnsband's death Madame da Bingai paasod
the greater part of tlie year 1651 in retirement at Lea
Boebera. She bad, however, no intention of renooncing
the world, and she retamed to Paris in November of that
year, her affair* having been put in such order as Sivign&'a
ezbavagance permitted by the faithful Coulanges. For
nearly ten yeara little of importance occurred in ber Ufa,
which waa passed at Paris in a boose she pocupied in the
PUoe BoyMe (not a* yet In tbe tamoos Hfttel CBmavalet),
at Las Rocbert, at Livr;, or at her own eatate of Bourbilly
in the Htconnais. Bhe had, however, in 1658 a quarrel
with her c(>nun Busay, which bad not nnimportant raauJla,
and at the end of the time mentioned above *he narrowly
escaped being compromLeed in reputation, though not poU-
tically, at Fouqaat's downfall. Notwithstanding Bossy's
nnamiible character and the early affair of the proposed
marriaga, and notwithatanding also his libeitine conduct
toward* ber, the consina had always been friends;. and
the moat amusing and characteristic part of Madame de
84vign6'B Gorrapondenc^ before the date of her daughter'*
marriage, ia addressed to him. She bad a very strong
belief m family tie* ; she recognized in Bossy a kindred
Hiirit, and she excused hi* faults a* Babulinada and
Sabutinoffa — the terms aha uses in alluding to tbe rather
excitable and humorist temper of the bonsa, Bu
1653 a misunderstanding about money broo^t about a
quarrel, which in it* torn had a long sequel, and resnlta
not unimportant In liteiatnre. Bossy and his cousin had
Jcnntly eome is for a considerable legacy, and be asked her
for a lean. If thli was not poulively rdnsed, there wa* a
difficulty nude about it, and Busay wss deeply oSanded.
A year later, at tbe eec^ada of Roiasy (>ee Babutik),
aocordinff to his own aeoonn^ be improvised (according
to pcobuility he had long before written it) the fai
portrait irf Madams de SAvignd whiob appears in
notoriooi Bittoin Amovraai, and which is • triumph of
maltoe. CSroolated at first in manuBcript and afterwards
in print, thi* eaued Madame de B^vigod the deepest pun
and indignation, and the qnarrel between the cousins
not fully made up for years, if indeed it was ever fully
mad* npk Tbia portrait, however, was more woud"
to ealf-iove than in any way really dangerous, for, read
betwaen tha lines, it is in affect a testimcmial of character.
Tba Foaquat matter was more seriooa, Hie auperin-
tendent wia a famona lady-killer, but Madame de &6vignd,
thoogh ha was her- friend, and though she bad beei
ardently MOrtad by him as by others (one qnarrel in hai
Mttaenoe between the Doke de Rohan and tbs Harquia de
Tonqnadao had baoMne DoU»ioai), bad hitherto escsped
■oaitaaL At Fooqnat'* downfall in 1691 it was announced
on indnbitabU authority that communications from her
bad been found In tbe eoSai where Fonquet kept hi* lov*
lettera. She protested thai the notes in qneBtkm i
fcieodi^p merely, and Buuy (one of tbe uot very ntu
'ins <rf Id* life) obtunod from Le Tallin, wbo u
lad ezamioed the letters, a corroboration of li:
protest. Bnt tba lettera were never pablielted, uta tber;
have alwaya been tboea who held that Madame de S^vigc.
raguded Fouqnet with at least a very wartn kind d
friendship. I*, i* certain that her letters to FompoaH
describing bis trial are among her maatorviscea of
luaffected, vivid, and sympathetis nuTAtion.
During tbeea earlier yean, beaideii tbr cucamalBDm
already meotioned, Madame da Suvignd concoived, tkt
most of the better and mora tbonghtful amoog Frenchnis
and Frenchwoman, a great -affection for the eBtabliobmrsl
of Port Boyal, which waa not without its effoct oo b^
literary work. That work, however (if writing than wbl::
certainly none was ever less carried out in a afint d I
mere workmanship can be to called), dates in ita Lolk sad
really important part almoat entiraly from tbe la^t tbirtr
yean of ber life. Her letters before tbe marriage of tc
daughter, though by themselvea they would auffice to fin
her a very high rank among letter-writsiB, would not d*
more than fiU one moderate^iied volume. Those sfw
that maniaga fill nearly ten large volnntea in the Uteu
and beet edition. We do not bear very much of Maiifr
miHaelle de Sivigni'a early yontb. For a short time, si i
rather uncertain dale, she was placed at acbool with tl!
nuns of Bt Marie at Nantea But for the most part la
mother brought her up herself, assisted by tb« Abbi d* k
Monsae, a faithful friend, and for a time ono of her mo)
constant companions. La Mousae waa a great Ckiteasc.
and he made Mademoiselle de Sdvigni also a devotee i^
the bold aoldiar of Touraine to a degree which oven in Ih^
oentur; of bine atockiags excited turprise and scmim rici-
cnle. But Mademoiselle de Sdvignd vras bont on nan
mundane triompba than philoao^y had to offer. Ect
beauty is all the mora incootaalable that she waa by ic
meana generally liked. Bussy, a critical and not too beoi-
volent judge, called ber " la pins jolie fille de France,*
and it seems to be agreed that she resembled her motbir,
with tha advantage of more regular features. She «*•
introduced at court early, and as she danced weU ibi
figured frequently in the ballets which wera tbe chief
amosement of the court of Louie XIV. in its oarly dan
If, however, she iras mora regularly beautiful than bet
mother she had littie or nothing of her attiactlon, ud
Lka many other beauties who have entered society wltk
umilar expectations she did not immediately find t
husband. Tariou* pn^ected alliances fell thioagb for oae
reason or another, and it waa not till the end of 166S
that ber destiny was settled. On January 29 in tbe not
year she married Fraufoia Adh^mar, Comte de Qri|(n*ii,
a Proven^ of one of tiia noblest tamiliea of Franco, ud
a man of amiaUe and honourable character, bnt neilbei
young not handsome^ nor in reality rich. He had beoi
twice married and his great estates wera hmvily encum-
bered. Neither did the large dowry (300,000 iivro)
which Madame de SAvigni, somewhat unfairly to her sih,
beetowed npcm her daughter, suffice to clear encnmlnaacei,
which were constantly increased in tha sequel by the
extravagance of Madame de Orignan as well as of ha
husbancL
Cbarlea de Sivignd was by this time twenty yean oU,
but he bad no doubt already leamt that bo waa not tha
person of chief importance la the family. He nevv,
throu^iout his life^ appean to have roeeutad bis mother'i
S reference of hia sister; but, tboOjjh thoroughly amiably
e was not (at any rate in his youth) a model chaiactar.
Nothing i* known of his education, but just before hii
volontwred for a rather hairbnined
S E V I G N E
706
credit. Then hu motLer bonght „
tpndoH (a kind of anlnxniiet) in Ae QttuUnnM Dknphin,
in whicb legiment he wrTed for aome fMn, uid lAei
long oompUining of the slowiiesa id prmnotioii rather
rapidlj tok to the rank o£ eaptun, when he aaM oat
Bat tboo^ he ftlw&ja tooght well ho wu not mi enthnai-
Mtia Kildisr, ftod wu eoDstSintly and not often fortnnatel;
in love. He foUowed hu father ioto the nets of Ninon
de I'Eadoa, and wa* Bacine'i riral with Madomoiiwlle
ChampmaBl^ The w»j in which hii motlier wu made
oonfidante of these discreditable and not varj ■ncceMfnl
iorei iii diatacteriitie both of the time and of the country.
In 1669 M. de Orignan, who had pteviooalf been lien-
tenant-goTeroor of I^ngnodoo, was transferred to Provenoa.
The governor-in-chief was the jonng dnhe irf TendAme.
Bnt at this time he was a, hav, and he never reaUf tool
np the govemmeot, so that Orignan lor more than fort;
jean was in effect vioeroy of this impra^t provinoe.
His wife i^oiced gteatljr in the part of viee-qneen ; bat
their peculiar dtnation threw on them the expenses
without the emtdnmsnts of the offlce, and those expenses
were increased by the extravagance of both, so that the
Orignan money aSun hold a largw place in Hadame de
fUngaffa lettras than might perb^ be wished.
In 1671 Madame de 86vignA with her aon paid a viut
to Lee Bochere, which is memoi&bla in hx history and in
literature. The sl&tea of Brittany were convoked that
Cat TitrA. This town being in the immediate nei^-
hood of Le» Rochert, Ma(Uine de Sdvigni's tuoally
qmet life at her coonttj house wu diveiufied by the
necessity of entertaining the governor, the Doe de
Chaolnes, of appeariqg at his reoepticna, and lo forth.
All theaa matters are duly conwgned to record in her
letters, together with much good-nfitared raillery (it moat
be admitted that it is sometimes almost on the verge of
being ill-nSitared, though never quite over it) on the
ooontiy ladies of the neighbourhood and thair waya. She
remained at Lea Bocbers during the whole summer and
autumn of 1671, and did not tetnm to Paris till late in
November. The country news is then aacceeded by news
of the oonrt At the end of the next year, 1673, one
great wish of har heart was gratified by paying a visit tO'
her daughter in her vice-royalty of Provence. Madame
de Orignan does not seem to have been very anzions for
thia vImI, — perhaps becanae, as the letters show in many
cases, the eiacUng affection of her mother was somewhat
tAo strong for htir own colder nature, perhaps because she
feared such a witness of the minoni extravagance which
charaotericed the Orignan household. Bnt her mother
remained with her for nearly a year, and did not retoro to
Paris till the end of 1673. Daring this time we have (u
is usually the case during theae novencal visits and uie
visits of Hadame de Grignan to I^uis) some letters
addressed to Uadams de Sdvignd, bnt comparatively few
from her. A visit of the aeoond class wu the chief event
of 1674, and the references to Ais, such as they are, is
the chief evidence that mother and daughter were on the
whole better apart 1676 brought with it the death of
Tnrenne (of which Madante de Bivigni has given a very
noteworthy aooonn^ eharaeteriatu; w her more ambitions
but not perhapa her more aaccessfnl manner), and also
serious diaturbaDoea in Brittany. Kotwithstanding these
it wu neocMaiy for Hadame de Qingai to make her
periodical visit to Lee Bochera. She reached the honae in
safety, and the friewUup of Cfaanlnee protected her both
from violence and from the szactioiw wliidi the miaerable
province nndarwent m a panishment for its rwiatance to
excessive and nnoonslatntional taxation. No small port
of hor letter* is oeanpied by these a&ir*.
TIm year 1676 saw aaimal Ouagi impottant in Ibdame
de Singnd's Hf e. For the firat time aha wu serioosly ill,
—it would ^>p«ar willi rheunatia fever, — and she did not
Ihoroiuhly recover till die had visited Vichy. Her letters
from wis plaoe are among her very bes^ and [ucture life
at a 17tii'«aiitiii7 watering-place with nnimrpatwnil vivid-
ness. In this year, too, took pboe the trial and execntion
of Madame da Briunlliers. Hub event Ggnrea in the
letters, and the tefeiencee to it are among those which
have given occasion to nnfavourable comments on Hadame
de BAvigo^a character — comments which, with others of
the kind, will be more coaveniently treated together.
In the next year, 1677, she moved into the HOtel Carna-
valet, a houaa which still remaina and is inseparably
connected with her mnnory, and she had the pleasure
of welcoming the whole Orignan family to iL They
remained there a long Ume ; iildeed nearly two years
seem to have been spent by Hadame de Ongnan partly
in IWs and partly at Livry. The return to Provence
took place in October 1678, and next year Hadame de
Sdvi^iA had the grief of Itning La Rochefoucauld, the
moet eminent and one of the mo«t intimate of her close
personal friends and comtCant associates. In 1680 she
again visitad Brittany, but the close of that year saw her
Mck in Paris to recsive another and even longer visit
from her daughter, who remained in Paris for four years.
Before the end of the last year of this stay (in February
16S4) Charles de B^vignd, after all his wanderiog loves,
and after more tiian one talked-of alliance, was married
to a young Breton lady, Jeanne Marguerite de Hauron,
iriio had a oonuderable tottone. In the arrangements for
this marriage Madame de SAvign^ practically divided all
ho fcotone between ber children (Ibdame de Orignan of
coarse receiving an nndnly large share), and reserved only
part of the life interest The greed of Hadame de
Orignan nearly broke her brother's marriage, bat it wu
finally concluded and proved a very happy one in a some-
what singular fashion. Botii Sivignd and his wife became
deeply religious, and at first Madame de S^vignt found
their household (for she gave up L«fl Bochei« to Ihem)
not at all lively. But by d^reea she grew fond of her
daughter-in-biw. During this year she spent a consider-
able time in Brittany, first on bnsinees, afterwards on a
visit to her son, and partly it would appear iix motives
of economy. But Madame de Orignan still continued
with only shut afaaences to inhabit Vazia, and the mother
and daughter were practically in each other's company
until 1688. The proportion of letter* therefore thtU we
have for the decade 1677-1687 is much smaller than
that which represents the decade preceding it ; indeed the
earlier period contains the great bulk of the whole corre-
spondence. In 1687 the Abb6 de Coutangee, Hadame de
^vignA's uncle and good angel, died, and in the following
year the whole fanuly were greatly excited by the first
campaign of the young Uarqoia de Orignan, Madame de
Qrignan's only son, who wu sent splendidly equipped to
the nege of Pbilippebourg. In the same year Madame de
Sdvigni was present at the Bt Cyr perfonnanoe of Btiher,
and some <rf uer moet amusing deecriptioua of conrt cere-
monies and experiences date from this time. 1669 and
1690 were almost entirely spent by ber at Les Bochera
with her son ; and on leaving him she went across France
to Provence. There wu some excitement during her
Breton stay, owing to tiie rumour of an English descent,
on irtuch occasion the Breton militia waa caJled out, and
Charles de S^viguA appeared for the last time u a soldier ;
but it came to notiiing. ' 1691 was paued at Orignan and
other places in the loath, but at the end of it Hadame de
B£vign6 returned to Paris, bringing the Chignana with
ber; and ber daughter stayed with her till 1691. Tbo
XXL — B9
706
S E V I G N E
Tflu 1693 Mir tho loM of two of bra oMeat Irienda,— Bqmj
Bkbntin, faw fajthlen and tnrablesotne but in his own waj
kSoetumate cotudD, and Uadune de la Fajrette, her life-
long compftuioQ, and on the whole perhaps hra beet and
wuest friend. Another friend almoat u intimate, Hadtune
de Lavardin, toUowed in 1691. Madame de Bivigni
spent bnt a few mraith« of Ifati Utter jear alone, and
followed her daughter to Frovence. She never leTisited
Brittany after 1691. Two important marriagea with
their prapaiationa occapied moot of her thonghta daring
1694-1696. The young Harquia de Orignan married the
daughter of Saint-Amant, au immenaelj rich financier ;
but his mother's pride, ill-nataies and bad taste (she is
said to have remarked in full court that it was neccesarj
now and then to " manure the best lands." referring to
Saint-AmaDt's wealth, low birth, and the Orignon's nobiBtj)
made the marriage not a very happy one. Hia usEer
Fauhae, who, in the impossibility of dowering her richly,
had a narrow escape of the cloister, made a marriage of
affection with H. de Bimiane, and eventually became the
sole repreaenlative and continoator of the familiss of
Qrignan and Sivign&
Hadame dp S^vignj survived theae alliancea bnt a very
short tim& During an illnesa of her daughter she herself
warattacked by smallpoz in April 1696, and she died on
the ITth of diat month at Ori^ian, and was buried there.
Her idolized dan^ter was not present during any time of
ber illness'; it has been charitably hoped that she was too
iU herself. Her known attention to her own good looks,
and the terror of the smailpoz which then prevailed,
supply perhaps a less charitable bnt sofficient eiplanation.
But in her wUf Madame de S^vign£ still showed ber prefer-
ence tor this not too grateful child, and Charles de S^vign^
accepted his mother's wishes in a letter showing the good-
natnte which he had nevw lacked, and the good sense
which, after his early follies, and even in a way daring
them, ha had also diown. But the two Aunilies were,
except M has been sud for Madame de Simione and her
posterity, to be rapidjy iHoken np. Charles de S^ignd
and his wife had no children, and be himself, aft«r occQpy-
ing some public poets (he was king's lieutenant in Brittany
in 169T), went with bis wife into roligioos retirement at
Paris in 1703, and after a time sequestered himself still
mora in the seminary of Sainte-Magloire, where he died on
March 26, 1713. His widow sarvived him twenty years.
Madame de Qrignan bad died on Aogost 16, 170G, at a
oonntry house near MarseHles, of the very disease which
she had tried to escape by not visiting her dying mother.
Her son, who had fought at Blenheim, had died of the
same malady at Thionville the year before. Marie
Blanche, her eldest daughter, was in a convent, and, as til
the Oomte de Qrignan's brothers had either entered the
chorch or died nnmamed, the family, already bankmpt
in tortnne, was eztingnished in the nude line by Qrignan's
own death in 1711, at a very great age. Madame de
Simiane, whose connexion with &e history of the letters
is important, died in 1737.
Tha ohisf ■ubjscti of pnblio Intsnat and th* priodpal hmilj
ovrat* of imporUncs wblbh sis notind in tha 1«ttsn of Usdung
da Biriffii hsve bean indicaCsd ilrMd^. But, u will rtadily be
nndsrstoo^ naitltei the whole nor even the cbi«r intereit of her
eonespondeace ii confined to nch thingt. In the Uteat edition
tha letten attsod to eiiteen or nTsntaen hnndnd, of which, how.
srar, ■ conndenble noraber (perhaps a third) are replies cl otbrr
Bnnna or lattsn ■ddmaed to bar, or tetter* of ber family and
endi having mora or leaa conneiion with the nibjecti of her cor-
rtapondence. Am a rale her own lettera, eapeciallv thoes to ber
JaoghUr, are of great length. Writini; aa ibe did ID a dms when
uewapapen weie not, oi at bnat ware emoiy and Mnne, gonip of
all eorta ap|«an among her aubjiHta, and aome oT W moat funona
latten are pun nporiofjt (to nae a modern French elang tonn),
while othara deal with atriutly prlnte nilijcota. Tbni ono of her i
Iiaat known plocos ba* tor anbjeot the finiuiw mldilc nf thu girnt '
rslaitding as tt> ths piwSdoB eflsh
tha king by CowU at CbutfllT.
■aotnWia of sll) dials with th*
jnept J
pnjaoted ouuriege of Lstubs and UaitaiiKdiialla d* Mcntpsnatg ;
another with the rotnaal of one of her own footman to tom hay-
maker when it waa Important to get the crop fn at La Bochat* :
inntbar with ths fir« which bnmt oat her nelphlnnr'i honaa is
Paria. M one moment aha tells how a forward lady of honon-
■as diaoonoartsd in offering cartain aerticea at Hsdsmoiaelle's
levie 1 at another how HI a coojtiei'i clotbei became him. Sbs
sntaiB. ai bu been aid, at gnat length into the
dllBooltiea of bar daughtar; ahe tella the moat ■ '
itorieg of the bubion In which Cbsrlea da Birignj au
oati ; the takea an almsat (enwiou* intareat and aids in h*r
daoghtor'e quuTala with tiral beantiaa or great offleiaja in PtoriatBt
' ■' '" ■ the way of goVMnment
"— Li^ latton since Hadaoe da BMnfs
t axtnordinarT
JBowadUswDd
throw difficn
Almoat all wri
daya, oi
ia therefore only by applying that biatorio srtlmats npon which
all trne criticleni rests Uiat her toll ralna can be discaraed. Tha
chann of bar work ia, however, so Inaaiatibl* that, read ma witli-
«it any hietorical knowledge and in tha compantivalj adnltaratMi
^___,_ _^..i. .. , ..„ -^tb, that charm can hardly
imbat of ths itiong and
criginBl group of writere — Bati. Im, Bochefoacanld. ComsQla, I'aacaL
9t Evramond, Descartea, and the rest— who asoaped the Bnieal aad
weakening letorms of tha later 17th esatnry, while tor th* nort part
rly work otloois XIIL's tmi*^ Ae«nllB{ttD
of the Academy her phnsaolo^ ta aomatiean
incorrect, and It oocaaioDally ihowt tnceiof thaqnaantandaBaetod
etylaoftba/Wnnua; but theaa thinra onlv add to it* avoor and
piqnaaey. In lively nanalion faw wntan ban oiealhd ber, aod
n sU-obaerTant aya for
iralTaortaol
deep though not roleble or o
baaotlea of nature. Bat with all thi* ahe had aa nndsratanding aa
solid a* b*r temper was gey. Unlike her daughter ahe waa not a
profsiaed blna-etockln^ or philDaopheaa. But ehe had a stnmg
sHMIon fortheoliWT, m which ■heinclined (like tba gnat miti'>'ity
of the religious andintalligeitt Uity of her time in Fianea) to tha
Janaaniat eida. Hsr favourita anthor in Ihia ehus was Nioola.
She baa been reproachad with her fondneaa for tbs mmaDcaa «i
Mile, de Scnd^ and ib* rest of bar echooL Bat pnbaUy many
penoo* who make that npnach bsva tbennelves never read the
worke they den***, and are igaersnt how mnJi nait there i* ia
booki whose ohtef faolt* an that they a» written in a stnuigly
marked and now obsolete feshioa, and tbat their length (which.
however, (carcoly it at all eiceede that of ^2arun) ia pnpcaterona
In purely lilanry criticism Itidame da B^vigni, few as were tbr
ain eh* gav* heneJf, was no miuui upert. Her pnfennea for
CoinaiUe over Racine baa much more in it than the fact that tbr
elder poet bad been bar la>oiril« befon the younger b^sn to
writ« 1 and her reraarke on Ia Fontaine uid tome other authon
■re both judiciooa and independent. ITor ia ahe wanting id
original rrdetiooi of no ordinary merit. All tbess IMaffi, added
to her abundance of amusing matter and the chum of bar brigfat
and ceaseleBsly flowing elyle^ fully account lor the onchanged sad
undiminiehed delight which hslT a doiea generatiouB have taken
in her work, Bnt it cannot be npeated too often that to enjoy
that work in its meet enjoyable ^Int— the comliination of Huent
and easy itrle with quaint anbaiams and tricks of phnae — it mnat
be read sa she wtotd ii sod not In tha trimmed and oorractad vendan
of Perrin and Hadame de Simiana
Than can, moreoTer, be no one, however wedded he may be to
the plan ot critldijng literature ae litantnra, who will not aihnit
that gnat {art of the interest and vain* of thrsa nmaikabl* woriu
li« in the pictun of character which thay prtaent Indeed, gnat
part ot their purely literary merit liee lu the eitnordinaiy vivid-
--■» of this very preaentation. Uedame de Sivigaft cbaracter,
wever, has not united quite such a unanimity of suffrage ssber
Jit^ In writing. In her own time then were not wantins
imie* (indeed her nnapariug jiartlaanihip on her danghtsr^
a could not fail to provoke asob} who msinlainad tbat her
ten wen written tor affect, and that her afltelioD Fw bar
dangbtsr was oetentatiDOS and unreal Gnt Uv noden eritica
have followed these detracton, and it may ba add eonfidHitly that
impetent judge of chsncter, after patiently raadlne the tetter^
or amonient admit their view. But tbia kind ol nwDyhss
followed by another, who, not overehooting his mark ao oon-
ously, has been wmewhst mora ancow^iil in pimudlug
spovtatoi* that he has bit it. Her eicesnra alTactian for Hadame
do Qrignan (the slmnt importnoato charaster irf wUsh sssos to
S E V — S E V
707
Monn liu atepduighlan' dowriai ud to ftona thMDMltM ialo L
MBTent) ; har ouIhUb lolsnno* of h»r mm'! TOdthftal lallf« on
the oiu hand tnd tlu DMnn b4l*iioa which iha Iwtd In montj
Bwttm betmo him uul hk «iM*T on. tbs nthar : th* ■ppuut
lantjr nltli wUoh iha iptaki af tbs snlbriBp c( lUiIanis da
BrinvilU>n,ornU«jalaniLortheF«a«Btr;.Ac; audthafraadom
of lugmga which iha oiat twnell and tolanta from ottaan,— hira
.ill baen oait Dp •oiiMt bar. Hira the bafen-mantloaed hirtoria
•stunnlr anffleuintlT diipoMt of aonw at ths objwitlaiu, % littla
•Mmmon wnM of othara. aod a Taiy littla ohailty of tha naL If
bh> math Iots fait hj ■ motlnr towardi a daoahtar be ■ halt, than
MTtBiol}' Uidiuua de S^figiij wu ant of the moat oRcadlng aonla
th«t em livad ; but it will hinlly, eveD with tha injutioa whioh
lika ill BicwiTa affection It breoght in it* toin. bo bald d«tniing.
iDdeeil, tha gnilt; ladj^waa avldeutlj ijoita Bwara of her weakoaaa
in thia reapect, aod it i» ona rf tha moit noleworth)' tbiagi of her
lllaiai7 oapaoitT that, eioaaalTa ai tha waakneaa ii, it doaa not dii-
gatt or w«r7 the itsdar. Tha ringnUr oanfldaana which Uadama
da B^Tigni nOBlved fkDm bar am utd tnnamlttad to bar diagbUr
ij ^ .1. .1 . . ' ' ig in Franca thui in
and aini, to wbiab tha almoat
e* latiiar lodiorosa, but eortalnlr
— IB to tha ImmadiBtalj kindnd obatga
of enidi^ of lugnaga, and to that of wast of PTmisthj with nfreT-
ioK OBpaeiall; with tha Bnffaringi of tha paoplL it ia Bipaclillr
nacooarj to nmambar of wbat ganatation Ma^ma da S^rignj
waa lad wbat wen her drconutanoaa. Tliat ganantloa wai tha
ganantioa which Uaduns da Bomboalllat endaaToarad with aoma
aocsea to poliih and bDmintia, bat whioh had bvalj' noOTend
ths haidaniog inflneDcaa of the ratigioiia and elTJl wara wbaa it
— I plnnaad into tha Fronde, it waa tha ganaration to which
ong tCa almoat incrediMa yat tmatwcnthr
raalf had I
d alnad; nached
TallamanC, and in i
middla Ufa, Bomt I
indeed to ponsrfnf reaantmenta bnt did not
aa a gentleman and 10141 of lioD9ar. It ia abaotd to oipeot at aneh
a time and in prirals lottera the'delicacj proper to qnito difforant
timea and drcamataticea, UonoTer, u to tha oharga of inhaminit;
not Duly do thaae coniiderttiona apply hut there i* more to ba
plaaded than mere aitannatlng drcnnutanoea. It li not tne that
kUdama da Sirigni ahowi no ajmpathf with tha oppnnloii of tha
Bratona; it i) JtTjhl traa trm, thoogh tier incniabla habit ot
hnmonjoi eipreiaioB — of Satutiaaai, aa iha nyi — mikeg bar ocoi-
aioniU^r nu light phnaea aboat the matter. But it ia ia fact aa
unreaaoaabla to cxpMt niodeni pplitical riewi fmio her {and It fi
from certain modern political itaodpoiDti that the charge ia ninallj
made) aa it ii to expect her to otaerve Uia eanoni of a 18th-»atar)'
propristj. On the whole the wit be aa fairlr and confidently
ac([uitled of any moral fault, lave the one peccadilla of loving her
daughter too eiclniively and blindly, aa ahe may be acqaittad ot
all litenry faulu whateoaTer. Her lettare are wholly, what her
aoa-ia-law laid well of her after bar death, tompagtiau dtlieUux;
and, fir fmm fanltleaa u Hidaiua da Qrignu wiL none of her fanlta
ia mora felt by the reader than het long riiiti to her mother, dniing
which the letten ceaaed.
The Inblio^phio hiitory of Uidama de S^Tignfa lattera Ia of
cooddenble interait in itaalf, ud ia moroorer typical of moch
other contemporary lit«ii[y hlatory. The 17th century wia par
actllmat the century of printely eireolated literature, ind from
Madame de SMgni faenelf wa know that her own letter* wen
copied and handed abont, aometime* tinder epecified titlaa, aa early
aa 1«78. None of them, however, wen pntlitl-^ — "" "■
a pnbliihad antil her cor-
Gomrpondtnet^ partly 10 the year oi
if her death, partly next year.
.u= .<^.iuujiuiu -on: iiui ji.iu-iu in any form for thirty yair*.
Then between ]72£ and 172B appeand no leai then aaran un-
antboriied sditlona, containing more or fewer idditioni from the
copiaa which hid been circulated printely. The biblio^phy Ot
theee ie complicated and onrioua, and maat be aooght in ipedal
worka (aeaeapedaU^ tha ffrmulfAriBBM edition, vol Ji). ^ey
hare, howarer, abiding intanat chiefly becaiue they itirred np
Uidime de Siidiane, the wiiter'i only living repraaentatlve, to
give an autborizad verrion. Thii appeared tinder the can of tha
Chevalier de Perrin in 0 loli. (Paria. 17S1-S7). It oontalnod only
the letten to Uidime de Orignan, ind theae were aubjeetad to
editing rather canful than conaciantiow, the reanlt* of which wan
never tboroiuihly removed until qnlta mantly. Id the fint plaoe,
Uadame de Simiase. who uo*ieaa*d her mothar'a repliea, ia aaid to
hava burnt the whole ot theaa from ralieiona motiTM ; thi* phra**
to ■zpUined by MwUni* d« CMgBui^ 0»n«ii«Bi«a, whioh to
aupuoaad to hava lid hiT to eifraaiun* alinniDg to Mtbodoiy.
In the aaoond, aeruplea partly having to do with the anacaptibilltjea
of living peraone, partly concembfiJinBeBiet and other {n^odioea,
fortuualaly, Che ehinga of taaie laeme to have nqnind (till mon
□umarona altentloui ot Ityle and lauEuage, inch aa the inbititn-
tion of " Hi Fiila ~ for llidamt de Sevlgne'e uanil and chirmiDg
" Ua Bonne.' and many othen. Peirin followed thia edition up
in 17G1 with 1 volume ol aupplemantary letter* not addreawd to
Hadame de Orignan. and in l>£t rabllehed hia lait edition of tha
whole,whlchwaa long the itindin:(Bvola,Paiia]. During tlie Itat
half of the 18tb oaotnry DnmerQUe edition! of the whole er parte
appeand with important idditiona, auch la that of 176^ giving
for the fint time the lettera to Potuponne on the Fonqaet trial j
the fliit time the Bnmy letten aepinte from hie memoira, 4c. An
Important ocUecled edition of all thaM fngmenta, by the AbU da
Tanioeilta, ippeared in 1801 (Puii, AnlxTjin 10 vola ; ilvayear*
later Oourelle (Paria, ISOt, B vols.) intiodaced thaUmprovament
ot chronological order ; thii wu reprinted in 12 voli. (Pirii, 1819]
with Borne mon trapul>lUhed letten which had eeparalaly appearrd
meanwhile. In tha aame year ippeared the flnC edition of U. de
Uonmerquj. From that date continual, idditioue of nnpnbUthed
iettan were made, in great part by the eame editor, and it laat the
whole waa nmodellea on toenUKript copiee (the oriHiaite onfor-
tsnatcly an aviilable for but few] in tha edition celled Dee Oranda
J U. Bilvaatn
1B82-18B8). This, which 1
iindBome edition pnbliihad
de Sacy), cooaiite of twelve
so^, iwo voinmea of lexicon, and an alhi
all the publlihed letten to and froin "
npliia where they exiit. with ill tbi
da Hmlana (many d which bed been
that contain any mtareit. "^- -'- '-
album of plate
Hidinia de Hj
)flflit,n.
It 01
HMgn^ with the
and mm Uidama
o tha main body)
fault to be found with tfala
id to each volume a table of
nienta giving each tetter aa it comes with 1 brief afaelnet of Ua
ntenta To it, however, mnet be added two volumea (printed
liformiy} of iaUrat Yaidilu, pnbliahed by U. Ch. Capm
and aJdidi
... .. ,jjj^j^mgii^j,i,gjj _.
vela., Paris, V.
common with all other* aieept tba
ontaina an iJoltented lait.
ot W>:cJiinur(>d td.,I'utt, IBH. 1 Tck.), D vbUl llluelil U addHl Ike murk,
leli /ru„lr( it Mth. d> SiMtniat Aubniii (Parti trA St PilanVoii, IB4I).
In Eniliili ui iiesUeet HOJi Iwok b; UIh HieEknr (Un Rlldik), UUberrll
•u<l Londne, 1*81^ inv ^ ncomnieDded. HhI el Uia edUku liiii inrtnJH
»:ere or «.». (iWi.)
BEVILLE, B SpanUb provioce — one of the eioht into
which Andalusia ia divided — and formerly one of the four
Hooriab kingdoniB, is bounded oa the S. b,T Hal«g* and
Cadij^ on the W. by Huslvo, on tbo N. by Badtuoz, and
on the H bj CordoTa. The enpsrficial area is 5429 Bqaare
tnilea, and in 18TT the popnlatioQ numhered 50tS,291.
Northwards the proTince is broken up hj low apurt of the
Sienk Horenft, Uie anmmita of which in tlie extnme uortli
rise to a considerable beight ; bnt in the aonthem and
larger half the gronnd ia Sat and fertile, and the only
moQDlainoiu part is the frontier line formed by the Sierra
de Konda. Tbe Oaadalqnivir trayersee the province from
north-east to sonth-weat and recaivea io ita conne the
waters of several streams, the chief being the Genii and
tha Gnadaira on the left, and the Qoadalimar to the ri^t.
The prorioce is one of tlia most productive and flourishing
in Spain, and grows all lands of grain and vegeEabtea.
Oil and wine, oranges and olive^ are among ita chief
exports, while tobaMO, leather, paper, spirita, chocolate,
textile fabrics of silk and wool, soap, glua, and earthen-
ware are unungst its manofaettirea. Sheep and oxen,
horses and asse^ are reared on its pastures ; and in the
monntainons districts there ar« copper, silver, le«d, iron,
coal, and salt mines, and quarriea of chalk and marbls.
CommercB has made great strides of lata years owing to
the opening np of the country by railways, and foreign
capital has developed the natural resources of the distriot
The proviace is divided for administrative purposes into
loarteen[>artidoBjadicialeeand ninety-eight a^tuqi^tos,
708
SEVILLE
•nd ii npnuntod io tho cortet by four Mnatora and
twelre deputies. The foUowing towiu have % population
irf more thftu 10,000 within the municipal boundariea :—
Seville (aee below), CKrmona (17,136), Conatantina
(10,988), teiia (24,9tSS}, Lebrija (12,804), Hsrehena
(13,768), Horon de U Frontera (U,8TS), Osnna (17,311),
utdUtram(ie,093).
SETILLE (Span. Sevilla, Latin IipalU, Arabic IMt-
liyi), capital of the above province and tha scat of aa
uchbif^oprio, with a population of 133,938 in 1677, u
■itaatedin37°32'N.lat.aad
6' 68' W. long., 63 miles
(96 hj nil) north-aorth-«a*t
of O^ and 3S6 milce kouth-
aoath-weat of Madrid, on
the left bank of tbs Qoadal-
qnivir, which here flow*
tiirongh a level eonntij aa
prodootivA aa a garden. The
river is navlgaUe np to the
ci^, whk& it hi^j {ucttK-
eoqne in ita eombioation of
anoiact building! with bnaj
oommsTM. Fnwitheeadiest
timet the port has been a
ohief outlet for the wealth of
Spain. Under the Bomana
the dtj waa made the capital
of BKtica, and became a
favonrite resort for wealthy
Bomana Tha emperon
Hadrian, Trajan, and Tbeo-
dosins wen bom in the
neighbourhood at Italica
(now Sanliponee) where an
the remains of a considerable
amphitheatre. The chief
exiating monnment of the
Bomana in Seville itaelf is the
aqueduct, on foni bandr«d
and ten arches, by which the
water from AlcaU de Qna-
dairacontinned nntil reoentljr
to be anpplied to the town.
At the beginning of the Sth
OMitorj the' Silingi Vandals
made S«>ville the seat of their
empire^ until it paated in 531
noocc the Qoths, who chose
Toledo for their capital.
After tba defeat of Don
Roderick at Qnadalete in
713 the Araba took poseea-
•ion of the dty after a siege
of some mon^ Under the
Aiaha Seville oontinned to
flourisL Bdriai speaks in
particular of its great export
trade Id the oil of Atjarafe.
The diatriot was in great
part occopiad hj Syrian
Arabs from Emew, part of the troops that entered Spain
with Ba|j in 741 at the time of the revolt of the Berbers. It
iras a sdon of one of these Emesan families, AbA 1-lUsim
Mohammed, oadi of Seville, who on the fall of the Spanish
caliphate headed the revolt of bis townsmen against their
Berber masters (1023) and became the founder of the
Abb&did dynasty, of which Seville was capital, and wliich
lasted nnder hia son Holadid (1043-1069) and pandson
Hatamid (1069-1091) till the city waa taken by tba
Almoravida The later yean of the Almonviil rala were
very oppressive to tho Moslems of Spun; in 1133 the
people of Seville were prepared to we1c(»ne the v'
arms of Alphonso VIL, and eleven yeora later A
broke out in geneml rebellion. Almohade troopa do*
passed over into Spain and took Seville io 1147. Under
the Almobades Seville was the seat of govwnment and
enjoyed great prosperity ; the great moaqne was com-
menced by Ydmif I. and completed by his son the funous
Almanior. In the decline of thvdynasty betweat 1238
Flu of SnIIla.
and 1248 Seville underwent various revolntdona, and nlti-
mately acknowledged the Ha^te prince, who^ however,
was nnable to save the city from Ferdinand TTT ^ irbo
restored it to Christendom in 1348. Tha aspect of the
town even oow is esKntially Moorish, with its narrow torta-
ons elmets aod fine inner court-yards to tl>o honsea. Hany
of theao date from before the Christian oonqnes^ and the
walls and towera which until recency encircled tha dty for
a length of 6 miles have a similar ori^n. n* victory of
SEVILLE
709
Fonlinand btonght tompoiuy mill on tho dtj, for it
is toid that 400,000 of tho iohabitacta went into Tolun-
torj siUo, and aomo tlmo D!a[>Bed before SotiIIb reooTerral
from the loss. Bat its poeition woe too faTooraDle
for trade for it to fall into permanent docaj, and by
the ISth centnrj it 'waa again in a position to deiive
foil benefit from the discorei; of America. After the
reign of Philip IL it« proeperlty giadnallj waned with
that of the reat of tho Peninsula ; jet even in 1700 iti
aiik foctoriee gave employment to thooaondB of work-
people; their nnmbere, however, b; the end of the ISch
centnry had fallen to fonr hundred. In ISOO an ont.
break of yellow fever carried off 30,000 of the inhab-
itanta, and in ISIO the city aaflered severely from the
French nnder Sonlt, who plundered to the extent of
sir millione iteriing. Sinco that time it has gradnally
recovered prosperity, and is now one of the most busy
and active centres of trade in the peninanla. Politically
Sovillo has olirays hod the repntation of peculiar loyalty
to tho throne from the time when, on the death of
Ferdinand III, it wu tho only city which remained
faithful to hti son Alphonso the Wise. It was coose-
(jnentJy macb favouied by the monarchs, and freqnently a
Beat of the eonrL In 1739 the treaty between England,
France, and Spain waa signed in the city ; in 1608 the
central iaata was formed bero and removed in 1810 to
Cadii ; in 18311 the cortoa brought the king with them
from Madrid ; and in 1848 Seville combined with Malaga
and Granada against Eapartero, who bombarded the
city but fled on the retnm of Qaeen Maria Christina
to Madrid.
Savillo eont«ina tnoanrci of art and ardutsetnrs whicb miko it
cBthodial, dodi-
ii do b 8cda, ranks in tint only after SC Petei'i
- itIong,2»a-
I d( ths I
»a»ntaUc ,.._ ,
it Homo, Utiiis 41fi fHt long, SBS feat wiJo, ud 150 to .„.. .
tlid tt»f of tliD narc Tha ««t front ii ■nproachod by a Ugh
night of atiipa, inU ttie platfonn on which tua catliiMiral atonds lb
nUTOondcd !>y ■ himdnjil ahifU at colnmni from tlw nioiqno which
J >^le of Sraniali
front nmiinDd unfiniihsl; nntil 1B27,
renewed in s purer ityia At
;iro fiao Collie
'ith good KUlptnn to th* Crnipsiu>i ind an tho north
Lcrta del Perdon, u It ii cilfed, hu »mo veiT eiqniiito
tho hoiH-thoc anh, and ■ )iur of hat bronn Joan. Tha
the cathednl ntnr ba disannointinf. but tha iuiarior
ilainiuK
leaici llttls to be deaired. It ronoa ■ perallelo
a nnvu and four aialea with anrronnding cUapcIa,
III foot hiRh inaidf and at ths «aat «nd a royal KpalcLnl chapel,
triiich wna an addition of tho l^Ch CODEnry. 'The Ihirty-two
immonio claatored columna, tho ninatr-thne wiudon, miatl; filled
with the fincat glara hy fl«miih artiita of the Iflth centniy, and
Iho prohigion of art work of rarioDa kindi diaplayed on all aidsi
|iroduca an nuBurpuaed effect of magnifiecnco and grandonr. The
rcndog ii an enonnona Oothle work oontaining forty-four fascia
of gilt and coloured wood carTinca by Dincart, dating from H82,
nnil a ailnr itatao of tho Virgin bv Franciico Atfaro of lS»e.
Tho arehbiahop'a throne and tho choir-rtall. (1476-1518) ate fine
piocog 'of caning, and amougit the notable metal -work an tha rail-
inga (IGIB) by Soncha Hnhoi, and tho loctorn by Dartolomi Uocel
of tho aanie period. Tb* bronro candelibnun for tenabrc, 26 feet
in height, ia ■ iplendid work by UomL la tbo 8«mttla Alta la a
ailvtrrepoiuidrallqutiiYptnentedby Alphonao ths Wise inthslSth
contnry ; and in tha Sacriatia Uiyor, which ia ■ good plstamaqno
addition by DiMO da RUAo in l&SO, la a magnifiant oolleotian of
ch arch plate and Toatmenta. A.t the weat end of the aaveia the grave
of fordinsnd, tha aoa of Calnmbni, and (t tho eut and. In the royal
chapel, lioa tlie b«ty of t^t Fordinond, wliich ia etpossd three timia
in the year. Tbia ohnpel alas containg ■ etirioiu life-aiB Imago of
tho Virgin, which waa prcwntol to the royal sdnt by Bt Lama of
Franco in the ]3tb ceutmy. lE ia in carrod wood with niovabla
anna, soated on a lilrEr throne and with hair of iptm gold. The chief
pictnroa m the cathedral an the GnordianAngol and the 81 Anthony
at HnriUo, tho Holy Family of Tobu. tho Nattrity and I« Oonen-
don of Lnia ds Vaigai, Valdja Loal'i Uaniasa of tha Virgin, and
Onadalapfa Danent tnm tha Cnaa. In tha SaorlsEU Xlta ar«
a Coucoption b;
ande/, and in tha Sals Cafittnlar
at Ferdinand by Pacheco. The
largest in tho world ; it contnini over E300
pijfem. A enriona and ujiimie ritual ia ub^crTDd by the chair boya
on tho rntivnli ot CoiT.ua Chriat! and tho Immaculate Conoaption,
—a aolemn danco with caatsneti bain^ porfarmed by them koforo
tha alEar ; tho cuetom in an old ana bnE Its ori;^ ia obscure.
Tha Bogrulo on tlio north of the cathedral i> a RanaiwDcs vl'lilion
by Mif-nel ia Zumomga, which acrroa oi the puiah church. At
the Dorth-onit corner of Elic catbnimt atonda (bo Qlrolda, • boll
tover of Uooriah otimn, E7G f«t in height The lower part of the
tower, or about 185 feel, waa built in tho Utter half of tho 12th
century by Abu Yuauf Yakul) ; tho upper part and tho belfry,
which ia anrmaunted by a vano forme.! ot ■ hi-—
Wgh ■ -. -- --
mounted by a vano form
ting The Faith, wore add
EC ii^ure 14 fe
It la made by aicria ot inclinod nlanoa Tho exterior ii
enenulod with dolicato Uooriah detail, and tho tower it a]la;^ther
the finest apocimeu of iti kind in Europe. At llio baw Ilea tho
Court of Orangci, of which only two eidei now rirniaiii ; theoriglnol
Uooriah tonntain, howeier, ia atUI iire^rv»L Hat tho chief nlio ot
tho Arab dominion in Seville ia tbo Aleour, a |*[aoa cicelled in
inlercat and beiuEy auly by the AlbamLra of Granada. 11 waa
began ia 1181 by Jalubi during the b».t period of Ibo AlmohaJos
and waa lurrounded by walla and towtm of which ll.o Torre del
■ 'e, it now the priucipai
derail! 0 alterationa and
Ore, a decagonal
aurrivaL Pedro the Cruel m
additiona in tbo 141h century,
wronght by Chariea V. Keaton
poBibtc, and the pilaeo ia non
of Uooriah work. The fafadc-
Potio de hit 111- -
aflorwmrda
been ofTectad aa far as
I an Htremily beauliful exojnpla
tho hall of amhanadan, and the
. _ loal itriking porlioni, after whieh
Palio do laa Soneellaa and the chapd of loabello.
AniOD); other Uooriih remoina iu Seiillo mny be mentioned tho
CaaaO'Shea, which ia aomewhat apoiled by wjiilenwh, andlbeCm
de hu Dnehoa, with eleven conrt-yards and nine [ountaina- Tho
Caiada Piktoeia In a piendo-Uooruh atylo of the ISIh century,
and, in addition tn ita elegant conrt-yord anrraundcd by a marble
colonnade, containa aome £nc decorative work. Tho Cnk do log
Abodoa la in tbo Bevillian plattrenquo atyle, which ia atrengly
tinged with Uooriah feollng. Tha follonbg arc the moit notable
ohtirchea in Bevillc :— Sjinta tlaria la Dlanca, an old Jewiah avna-
gogua 1 San Uarroi. badly reolored, but n iih n remnrktblo mudejar
portaJ; Ouinium SoncComm, erected upon the mina of a Rotnnlr
temple; San Jnan uo la Talma; San Julian ; Santa Catnlina; Sou
Uiguel; Sau Clcmonte cl Ileal; tho church of La Raiigre H»|.Uali
tho Ootbic Parroiiuia ot Santa Ana, in the Triana luburb ; anil La
Caridnd. The lail-named bclonga to a well -conducted alairliouw
fouiidod by tho Sovillian Don Juan, Miguel de Uaii .
aeaaei aU misteriaceoa by Unrillo, and two by Voldja Leal.
ore enriched by the prodocta of tha bruili or chl«l ot Peehoeol
UontihoB, Alonoo Cans, Valdte Leal, Roelai, Catnmho, Uoralea,
Varn^ and Zurbunin. The miuenm waa formerly the church and
convent of Ia llereed. It now conlaiaa pric«ln9 elaniplea of tbo
Seville achnol of painting, nhlch flonriihed during tho ISth and
17th centuries. Among the maoteim reprewntfd are Velouinci aud
Uurillo {both uatlvaa of Seville), Zutbaran. Roelaa, Mermru tlio
Elder, Facheco, Juan de Caatillo, Alonto Cano. Cupedca, Uoca-
negra, Vald^ Leal, Goya, and Uartia do Voa. The nnivottlty
wnafoaaded in 1502, and iU preac-nl birfldui(t« W5r« originally a
convent built b 1687 from designs by Herrero, but devoted to iW
pment nMi in 1787 on the cipulaion of tho Jeinito. The Coaa del
Aynituniento, la the cinquecento style, waa begun In
Tlia
d halt and h
Lonja, or exchange, waa built by Hi
Done and Ionic alyle ; the hrown and
laada tn the Archivo da Indlis Is tha h
arcbivH cantun 30, 000 volumea t«Uti
diaeovcrora, many of which i
ra in 1585 iu his an
d marble ataircaa
part ot the desicn.
!l- Tb"oa ^'"
16S7 : the moat notable feat
Tlio
voyageo i
Tbear
eight eonrt-yarda. Employment ia given in it ta 4SO0 bauda, wfia
wark up 11,000,000 pounds ot tobacco yearly. Tlio palace of Ban
Teimo, now occupied by tho duko ot Uontpensier, won formcriy the
seat ot a naval eollega origiaally fonnd8dl>y the ron of Colmnhno.
The immense doorway is the principal arcliitectnrJ ftatuni. Tlio
Soville am tlie Plan Nueva, the Plata do la Canatilueion. ttie Plata
delDuque, ondthePlaaadolTrinnfo. Thebull-ri
18,000 apectaton, and ia the next in '
aro saveni beautiful pTomenndea, th
along tha river bank below tho toivn. Tho dlv aloo rontaina aevorol
theatroo. Arraaa tha rirar, and ocnnoctod with tho city by a brid«a,
ia the Glpay quartar of the Triono. The navigation of the rivw bat
been improved ot lata yoon (0 that vesaola ot large draught can now
Mcand the (tnani. The remits ara ohown in a Uiger ttodo, and in
at Madrid. There
i Laa DoUciao,
ontaina aevoro]
«hW AetoriM ot tl
710
IS8ath«ian«itabiittb«aofTPMeI(Blntrprl ttnonntod to SIJS, EU
tMU<U,>SlBritMi), ThslmiBrtevtnnlDfdit £I,S7B,EE2, <iud
the Mpottit *t £l,190,aX(. In tbo Littoi vsrs lii.lailod SllO tuun
of oUno{l>blnp«ttatli<irnlliid Kingdom, uul ISlOtoim af qniok-
Mnt flma the Alm^en ninoi, vldoti hod rumiorly «nt tliolr
• ,. TLj._ 1- j^jHon to mHetly lo«l liKloitrlM tho
)> an tha tolaooo foctoiy, tbs oinuDn
n* lutot}. Tbcn in ilio ■ pstroleam
nanir*, aanw soap waib, Itou bondriari, ■rtlflclal loe mod
BuniUd* betoriM, and lannlpattarii]*. The uiuiotitiioanm o(
Wktar lOpfilT faarisg pcortd loiaKdant, iiHwnatxm ormlorworVi
«H dalgnKL and wai btDoght to ■ nwoMrftal (»in|il«t[oii In 1S8S
by a flmi ot Sn^fa enginNn. (H.aB.)
BEVBES, a town of Fnuice, in the dBTMitmsnt of
8«in»«tOiw, on tbe left bank of the Seine, midwaj
bstwONi FUu end Tenoillea, wiOi » povoktion of 67GH
In 1B61, owei its celebrity to tbe Oovernmeot porcelain
iMPofactory, which d&tea from 1766. In 18T6 a dbw
building wm erected at the end of the park of Bt Clond to
npkoe the oldec itnictBrea, which were in a duigeronii
ftate, bat hare nooe been tiwiafonned into a normal Bchool
for girl*. In tite miuenni oonnectad with the works ore
pnKrred ^>edmen( of the different kinde of wue mana-
netnrad in all agei and oonntriee, and tbe whole eeriea ot
■aodeb employed at SAvre* from the oommeacement of
tha manatacturc^ fee an account ot which lee voL xix.
pp. 037-38. A tecbnical achool of mosaic was eebibliihed
■t B«nn in 167S.
BEVttES, Dbux, a department of weatem France,
farmed in 1790 mainly ot the diatriota of niotuua,
OfttiouB, and Niortaia, which conttitnted about one-fonrtb
of Ftutou, and to a amall extent ot a portioo of Daaae-
Baintonge and Angonmoia, and a very amoll fragment of
Anoia. It derives ita name from the SAvre of Niort,
which flowa acrcas the aoath of the department from oaat to
wea^ and the Sovre of Nantea, which drains the north-weat.
Lying between 46° 68' and 47" 7' N. lat and between
tr 56' W. and 0* 13' E. bng., it U bonnded (for the moat
part conventionally) N. l^ Hain»«t-Iioire, K by Vienne,
ELE. by Charenle, B. by Lower Chai«nte, and W, by I&
TendiKi. Fart belong to the baain of the Loire, port
to that of the Sivrea of Niort, and part to that of the
Charente. There are three regiooa,— the OUine, the
"Plain," and the "Marsh," — diatingniahed by their geo-
logical character and their general physical appearaiics.
The Qitinci formed of primitive rocks (granite and
aohisCa), is the aontinaation of the "Bocage" of . Ia
Vondoe and Uoine-et-Loirti It is a poor district with
m irregalar anrtace, covered with hedgea and elnmpa of
wood or foreeta. He Plain, resting tm Oolitic lime-
■tono or the "white rock" (piem blamehe), is a fertile
grain country, llie Harah, occapying mly a small part
ti the department to tbe sonth-weat, conaiata of alluvial
days which also are extremely ptodnotiv« when pro-
perly drained. The higheat point in tbe departEnent (893
feet above the sea) is to the east of Parthenay; the
lowott lies only 10 feet above sea-IeveL ^le climate is
mild, tbe annnkl temperature at Niort being 04* FiJir.,
and the rainfall a little more than 34 inches. Tbe winters
are colder in the Oltine, the snmmere warmer in the
Plain ; and the Uanh is the moiateet and mildeat of the
throe districts.
With a total una of I,l«e,eiW aar«, tU denartment ooatalni
l,a4S,7I>S usTM of anbl* irronDd, 13S,BU urn a( nwadowi, «,lst
of vlncjanlih 108,233 of fonati, 30,419 ot bosth. The Uv< Kook
Ih ISSO mnpridid SS,1M lionM. ]3,S00 buIm, 3011 sMsa, SIZ.BU
aaltk, 1S,40G (horp (vml slip 103 too*) 7S,nO fi^ U,M1 floats,
1B,MS boc-hiTto (SS toni of houey). Tbe honm in a itroag braed,
awl t1» dopartmant nixt laulai for Bpala, the Alps, Aanrne,
awl rravonn. lii IBSt thcro wen prodoood— wbai^ ),»M,»0
Inahcl* ; moatin, iU,>OS ; 17(1, a73,si) ; and in 1880 barln pro-
doowl l.m.WO biulialt ; bnokwlioat, 13I,SW; nalss and mmot,
■08,043; oaU, 3,r44,fi00 ; putMOM, 4,911,000; pidM, 1B3,S00
bMhsli ; beatmo^ 138,43a ton* ) hgmp, B4S ton ; Bax, »U bnu ;
MiKawl,7t,»(» boiluli (840 tDmBfoa). Tb* wlaa aad cidst
8 E V-S E W
■monntiid In 18BS to 3,d50,eia and SIO.SH i-dldTu nMi«liMlj
ViKtoEiibtiii (artiiboliH, Hpnnfin, mlibajio, jra-r, oiitona) urn lar^'j
onltivaUH]- Oslcis ehsiitDati, and biiorb» an tlir riKMt hii|iortMt
traua. Tlw annlo-ttoH ot tbo QUlne and tbe nilftat-tiCM ol tb*
llidii an abB of eonsbiunbla valoo. Cod (30) minrn^ uil Sl,4»;
tDUHlD 1889) ami ptat are voiknt ; lion -on, arginiliriiTinu lead, ami
siittmony oiiat bat are not vorVad ; aiid EmcMoiie, both Iiitd »><
■oft, ia vary axtomdvely qoarritd. Than an smnl niI(diDroiir
minonl watan ta lb* di|iartmeBt Tbo luoat iDiportaat iinliMiT
ia tlio iiiaiinRu'tnn d' oiolh — ■vr^ta, dniggota, liuan, baDilkorebicI^
flaniiols, swsii-ikin*, and krifttKl goocGT Woo] aad oottoo-ipin-
nln|^ taimln^ and ouTTing, gloTe, limfdi, oud bat maJctn^ diat^l-
liiiK, Imirinii:, Sour -milling, and oil-nlliiing an alio oarriod ob.
i_ .,„ _.._is,_v___^ wator-poiior ia mod to tlio eitsot of SOOO
Imwinir, 0
0 eaUblbki
d 301 il
d 877 lio«e-]«*o
Tbo comiM
rcpnwriit napocllTc ^ _. . , . _. .
of tho dorartaioiit, which eappliH icaloa, cattle, and ptotU
Paris aod the iii^ht»Driiig great town, ia facilitatod bj 3
of witorway (the Sim aud tta loFt-haod tribataiy the HicnoaX
3S» mUm of untlonal nada, 8&3G of other roadi, and 333 nula cJ
nilwBT. Id denaity of po[HiUUon (SGO,10I Id ISSl) tha do|art-
ment la below tho anrago of Franoa. It containa 88,000 Pn-
testants, npoclally in the aonth-Mst, there bmBS only three Fraoeb
dcpartinoDta— Oud, Atdiobe, aad Dctne — vbich aarpaat it la
thia rupocL The foor ammdiaaemonli an Nloit, Brcaaotao (S54»
iDliabiUnta In tba town), Hella (3438), and Parthenay <4S4S)i
the eantoDB number 81, and the oommDnea 8W, It ia jmH of tbo
dioDOat of Poltiora, wbeie alio li the eoirt of anpaal ; lU MfUtaij
boadqnaitan an at Toon. Bt HiixSDt {47MI} has an iabmbi
BEWAQK Bee Skwxraob.
SEWARD, WiLLiAV Hznsv (1801-I87S),' Ajuariean
statesman, was bom May 16, 1601, in the town id Honda,
Orange oonnty, N.Y. He was graduated at Unlcm CoUego
in 1820, and be^n the practice of law three yeara after
in the town of Aubom, which became his home for
the rest of his life. Several of his caaes brought him
reputation as a lawyer, but he soon drift«d into tiw more
congenial field of polities. After he had served for foor
years in tbe State oenate, tbe Whig party of New York
nominated him for governor of the State in 1834. Tlioa^
then defeated, be waa nominated again in 1838 and
elected, serving until 1643. He then returned to hid law
practice, retaining, however, tbo recognized leadership of
tbe Whig party in the -moat important State of tbe DniofL
During Sie next aeven years slavery became the bamiDg
qneation of American politics. The purely ethical and tba
philanthropic aides of tho onti-alavery struggle are npn-
eentod by Oakuhoit and Qbsklit (f.«.). Beward was
tbe first to develop that pnroly political aide, witli an
eoonomio bains, which probably beat met tho deainM and
prejndicas of tho great maas of those who took pait^ will-
ing or unwilling, in the struggle. The keynote of hie
theory was stmck in 1848 in a speech at Clereland :—
" The party of alavety ni^wlds an aristocracy, fowidti c«
tAa ImmMaiitm of UAottr, aa neceeHuy to tbe exiateDce of
a chivalrous republic' The absurdity of the cono^itioa
of a drilixed nation which, in Sat opposition to historical
development, should tolerate for ever a systematio hnmilio-
tion d labour was only hia starting point Eia theory
cnlmiDated naturally in hia famous Bocbester wptoA of
18S8, in which he ennmorated the inevitable direot' aiid
indirect oonaequencea of a free-labour and a slave-labour
system reapeotively, showed the two to be abacdntely
irreconcilable and yet steadily iucreaung their interf frenoea
with one another, and drew thia pr^nant inf erenoe : — there
ia here "an irrepmnbte oonflbt between oppoaing and
enduring forces, and it means that the United Rtates mnst
and will, aooner or later, become either entirely a slave-
holding nation or entinly a free-labour natdon." Dot the
germ of the " irropmsiUe conflict * of 18fi8 lay oleariy in
the utteranoea of 1848, and Beward waa even then moat
widely known aa its exponent. Vhn, IhetcfoK^ die N«w
Tork Whigs, who in 1849 oontioUed tbe State l^^Uatoi^
which elects United Statea senatoH, aent Sewaid to the
■anate with hardly 4 ahow of oppodtion, tbur deBaMO ef
S E W — S E W
711
the Madwrn wing of tbeii ptiij was ft ^remonitioti of tha
general break-up ot parties three jean afterward*. Id the
teoate Sevard hiid at first but two proiiouneed anti-alaveiy
asKidates. As aati-aUvery feeling increaaed, and the
BepnblicaD party waa organiud in 18E&-06, he went into
it nalnrally, for it was to him on!; an anti-«laverj Whig
party, and him pnMumnaDt ability made hkn at once tti
recogabeed leader. In the Republican oonvention of 1860
he waa the leading candidate for the oominatioa fo^
preaident ; and it wa> only by a anddea onion of all the
elemenla of oppoaition to him that the Domination «aa
Raally given to Abraham Lincoln, whoae name waa then
hardly known outside of Ulincoa. It has been an almoat
iuTBriable rule that American preddenla have fonnd their
moat irritating difGcultiee in dealing with the New Tork
leaden of their reapectiTO portiee ; Lincoln when elected
removed any auch pomibiliCyby (Bering E^waid the chief
poaition in his cabinet, that of aecretary of atate. Hei«,
for at leaat four yean, Seward did the great work of hia
life. Eia arroTB, whether of oonatitntional law, inter-
national law, or polic]^ are more clearly Men now than
they were then. In spite of tliem all the eatiffiate of the
value of bis work must be very high, if we consider the
chajicea in favour of foreign iotervention at some time
during a four years' war, and hia unbroken success in in-
cnlcating on other Oovemments the propriety and wisdom
of nentnJity. Much of this soccesa waa due to dreum-
■tanceB which he did not eieate, to his abQity to rely
solidly on Uie cordial f riendahip of the " plain people ' (to
nae Lincoln's common phiaae) of Qieat K'itain uid
Fnoee, and particularly to the change of policy induced
iy the emancipation proclamaltona of 1862-^3; bat much
ia still left to', tha credit of the secretary, whoae seal,
acateness, and efficiency brought the ship safely thnmgh
the intricacies of intematioiial relations while the crew
were potting oat the fira in her hold In the proceaa
of reconatractioa which immediately followed the war
Seward sided heartily with Preaident Johnson and shared
bis defeat. The Whig element had been burned oat of
the Bepublican party by the war ; a new party had grown
np, not limited by omit bdimm Dotitnw, and it ra[«dly
came to look upon Sownrd, its imee basted leader, not only
as a traitor bat as the main intellectnal force wbicn
supported Johnson's clamiy attempt* at treason. At
the eod of his second term as secretary of atate in 1669
he retired to bis home at Aabctn, broken by Iom of health,
by loss of pohtical standing, and by the death of his wife
aiid daughter. He spent tiie next two years in foreign
ttSTsl, and died at Anbora, October 10, 1872.
B Tola, sdited by 0«arge E.
is carsar dnring his flnt tarm
SEWEBAQE is the proee^ of systematicaUy collect-
ing and removing refoae from dwellingi. The matter 1o
be dealt with may conveuieQ^y be duaified as made np
of four parts:— {1) dust, adua, kitchen waste, and
asAid matters generally, other than solid excreta; (3)
excreta, consisting of urine and feces ; (3) slop-water, or
the discharge from mnk^ banns, baths, ie., and the waste
water of industrial prooeaaea; (4) snrfaee water due to
rainfall Before tha use of ondergronnd aondoits became
g^ieial, the third and fonrth ennstitaents were commonly
allowed to sink into the nM^twoiing groood, oi to find
their way by surface channela to a watecconiae or to the
sea. Tht &nt and second ooostitaenta were conserved in
middens or pita, either together or separately, and were
carried away from time to tima to be sallied as maonie to
tiia land. In more modern times the pits in which exne-
mant was collected took the form of oovered tanks called
eesspools, and wi^k diia BoaiGcati<w the primitive tjttun
of oonaervancy, with oceasiooal removal by carta, is still
to be foond in many towns. Even whve the plan erf
removing excrement by sewers has been adopted, die first
kind of refuse named above is )itill treated by collecting it
in pails or bins, whoae contents are removed by carta
either daily or at longer iutervala. It therefore forms no
part of the nearly liquid sewage which the other con-
sti taenia unite to form.
Hie second conatitaont ia from an agrioultnral point of
view the moat valuable, and from a hygienic point of view
the moat dangerona, element of sewage. Even healthy
excreta deMunpoae, if kept for a short time after they
are prodnced, and give rise to nozions gaaes ; but a more
sarions danger proceeds fnm the fact tl^t in certain casea
of sickness thaae products are charged with nwdfic germs
of disease. Speedy removal or deatmctdon of excremental
sewage ia thereftne imperative. It may be removed in an
UDmixed state, either in pails U' tanka or (with the aid
of pneomatic preaaare) by pipes ; or it may be defncated
1^ mixture with dry earti or aahea ; or, finally, it may be
conveyed away in sewera by gravitation, after the addition
of a relatively large volume of water. Thia laat mode of
diapoaal is termed the water«arri>ge system of sewerage.
It is the plan now usually adopted in towna which have a
Boffldent water snpply, and it is probably the mode which
beat meets the needs of any large commnni^. Tba sewera
whid cany the dilated excreta serve also to take slop-
water, and may or may not be used to remove the surface
water due to rainfaU. Tha water-carriage system baa
the disHivantage that mnch of the agricnitnral value of
sewage is lost by its dilution, while the volume of foul
matter to be disposed of ia greatly increased. But it has
been found that, even when the excrement of a community
is kept ont c^ the sewers, and subjected to distinct treat-
ment, the contents of the sevrers are still so foul that
their discharge into stteams is scarcely leas objectionable
than when Uie water-csmage system is adopted ; and,
futber, it appears difficult if not impossible to realise the
agrionltuial nine of exctement by any proceas of separate
treatment that is not offensive or dangerona or in^tpli-
cable to towna.
When, in the water-carriage systNu, the same wwera
carry foul sewage and surface-water due to rainfall, Uie
sewerage is said to be "combined"; the "sepatate"
system, on the other hand, is that in which a djstinct set
of sewera ia provided to carry ofi rainfall EacB plan has
its advantagea. In the separate system the foul-water
sewers need be large enough to take only the normal flow ;
they may thus be made self-cleansiDg much more readily
than if their size were sniBeient to carry the immensely
greater volnme to which (on the combined plan) sewage
may be swollen during heavy rain. "nie amount of
daugeronsly foul matter is also much lednced. On the
other hand, the contents of the lajn-water sewera are still
too much tainted by the filth of the streets to render theii
discharge into rivers or lakes desirable ; and the complica
tiou of two sets of mains and branches is a sarions draw-
hack. Where old sewers are giving place to new ones it
is not unosnal to retain the old sewera for the carriage of
surface-water ; but in new works a single syatem of sewers,
provided with atorm-oTerflowB to rsEeve them of part of
the lainfall during exoaplionaUy heavy showers, would
probably be preferred in nearly eveiy ease.' Since sawera
should, in all caaes, be water-tight, they do aet form
anitabla collectors of subsoil watec
' An uBcpUoD ta tU* nmuk ntj )» made In tha oaaa of Ixnklaa,
when Uw ■wmuHu iraa to ba di^iiad, *■ wall <■ tha dlStnltT at
diapodng at tha taol Min^ oa accooBt of Ita lirga voloma, hu lad
tba OonrnMoaaiB « HatnpoUtui Saw^a DiKbvp to adilaa ^
th(lrBap«torlBM)Uul'>lDDnrdralufa woifca ths sawsga ihoald
ks, H bra* poMfUa, sapantad tr«« tba lalabll.''
712
The
SEWERAGE
_ , „i will be noticed
bore nnilar its three upeeta ; — (1) the oltiiiuto diapoial of
HWRge ; (3) the sTBtem of tauimoa aewen 1^ whidi
•ewage u conveyed to ita deetiaatian ; (3) the domestic
Birangemente fot the collection of seirage.
L Tbi Ultdutb DisFoeAt oi Watbb-cakried Bmw-
xa%. — In the water-caniagB ayBtem of uwerage the fertilis-
ing elemeota ue so Urgelj dilated that it becomes » nutter
of the ntmoEt difficulCj to turn them to proflUble mcoiidL
It has been estimated that every ton of London «evage
coDtoini ingredisntB whose value as nanon is rather
more' than 2d.,' a value which, conid it be raaliied, would
make the eew&ge of the metropolis worth a million and
three qnartera sterling per anaom. Sewage fanning,
however, does not pay. After much costly ezperinwot
the GonvictioD is gaining groond that, neither 1^ applying
Mwage directly to huicC tiot by any process of dtonieal
treatment that has yet been proposed, can sewage be made
to yield a retom as manare wMdi will cover the cost of its
transport, treatment, and distribution, except perhaps in a
few eases where the circumstances aie peculiarly bvoonble.
At the same time, sewage farming doe* afford one sadt-
foctory scdution of the problem of how to dispose of
sewage without creating a nnLeance — a problem in which
any question of profit or loss is of leoondaij importance.
A very early iiutance of irrigation by sewage is that of
the Craigentinny Ueadows, a sandy tract of 400 acres, <m
which part of the sewage of Edinbargh has been dia-
charged d^ng certain seasoiu for nearly a oantoiy;
There, owing to favourable coaditions, and to the tact tlut
oomplate purification of the sewage is not attempted, the
rteei yields a profit ; but no nu£ resnlt ooold be looked
if the sea were not at hand to receive tiie imperfectly
cleansed sewage and the wholly naeleansed aniplns.
Germany funuhes a atiU older example of inigatioii
in the sewage farm of the town of BomElan, whiu bas
been in oiatwice for more than diree hundred years.
Five methods of treating sewage may bo MUMdt of
which two or more are often found in combinatton.
I DItAarge mto On Staot Into % Urn mtaroasna ia is g«aafsl
tha kut esMly maani bj whiob • eommsnlty nan lid ltMU(f tta
•ewiga. Knell ears in tlia choioa of oatUta 1* necaaaair to maka
Ihia ^an tOaetiva in avoiding miauMa. Bona towM maka dm vt
laaka or tntlat-aawitB of hm tuMtitj, fron wUob th* dia^na
iBaUowadtooccaroaljwhanfiMUdababl'-- -^ -■■ ^ - •-
"*" " Pbvmhiia,
■biu 'Whaa^TolDsa*
ion daa* not wholly [co-
-its. A sbiUoB InaUkM
h diaehaigaa ita tawaga
. tlu Udal aatasry of tba Thainaa at Barting and Oroasnaaa
daring onl^ loiiia threo or bar boon fh>m tha tuna o( aseh Urii
tUa. It la iMud that tha dixjuuvad nattar Ii waahod op and
down tba lira witl> arary Uda, ocsadoBallv raachlng aa fkr ap aa
TiddiutOB, and thst tha portion wbich la not dapodtad In tha
Ibnn of nod banks obIt vary alowl]' worka Ita way to tha at*.
Broad IrhfatSoiL—aj thii ia mout the oae of aawaga to Inigata
a oompantival} large tract of cnltlvated land, in tha poportion of
aboot 1 aera (or mon) of land to BTiiy 120 pgraona in tha lawaga-
Conbiboting popolstion. Tbla ijatam ii now lu^y ud anr n «■
IUIvnMd,<apaoiallywlHnflnBoQiaaporooaMnilvloun. 7aus
thst tha rarnu would provodsngarou to tha hasUh oftha naighbom^
log diatrict, and that tha tnpa and vagatshlas oown on tbeui
woaldb*aswbidaaaaia,bavopKivadgn»ndkaa. Wbon tbeCann ia
pnpvlj laid oDt and caratBUy managed the sOnent water ia pore
•aaigh to ba adndttad to ■ oW •tnsm from whiah watar-ani^y
la drawn. Bnad inigatun ia nracUaad at Croydon, Cbeltenliui,
Blaokbars, and many othar Engliah towna I and it ha* rMontly baan
n^ied, on a vtcy Isiga acala, to diapoa* of tba a*wa» of Batlin.
MtrmdUmt Oowt^ard AUrattos.— Tbia i, " -
porifyiagi
uilgraon
(aot that if aaw^a wan paaaad fluongh poraoa aoil, not omtina-
Ivbatat Intarvala Jongasoo^ to kt tbaaoll baooraa Mislad,
Id potMcstlon took plaoo tluxw^ Ik* oitdialiB seti^ of th*
S^_P
I Hoffmann and Witt, Rmrt ta On Otttmwmt Btftnm a
JCdnwiKCait Sn^Mfw, lUT.
' JfjfBrt af tta R*mt IVMtm Otmmtmlviun, IWO.
•ir whioh tho aoil halj is its pons. „.
of aoitabla around. woD tnimahod with aobaoil draina to leave
Cht watar afloi nnaoUtion, could in thia wav take the aowsge of
2000 panona. Tbia aatimato ia now cooaiiland (xoaarirs, ami
lOOO (wraoiu to tha acrs ia a mora rasant Unit. Jb t. Bul*}-
Denton at ou» WA op Dt naukLand'a aoggeatioai, »d in lua
banda tbo afitam of Intoimittsnt BltntioD thio«^ liod ha* kec*
anccoaafnllj appliad to tha aawaga ot many towna.* The hud
wbich CDnaUtataa tha Bltor ia naed to grow Ttealalda* and otlia
crops. Claj aoila are, aa br aa ponibla, sfoidad. and tha land ii
thomnghlvnudatdnisedatadaptihafabMit 8 bet. The sewage i)
diatribnted over th* aoifao* in span dkaunala, tha pntmr laying sol
ot which i* an important Itam In th* oa*t of tba Tatam, bat i* etaa-
tkltoitaaacoeK WhanthanmnberstpoiaonaaioaadsSODpssen
it ia adviaaUo to ptadpllsta the BoUd wattti that is bdd in m-
paaaioabatota thaUqindiian^iad toaalaial,iHotdarto pmut
the anrfueot the pound from heeoningBloggrd with aswuealod^
Hr Bailay-Danloa liaa pmntod oat tha advantage which to* sysbH
of intanuttant titration oSrb aa-a aapplaoust to bnad imgaliia,
whara that ia esniad out. A aarioDa obieetion to the dinool ef
aawago br irrigatioa ia tba bot Oat t£a faisHS moat take the
aawaga alwayi,— at times wban it hnrta tha land aa wall aa at timee
whfc tha land waata ft Bnt by kylog oat * portion of th* land
aa a Altai lioJ tba anraga may ba thnim.on thst ariwiiBver in
iveaanee m tba ramaludar woBld do hann TBthar than good. Ht
Denton haa applied thia oomUnad ajatam in aantsl lustama, and
iniista, appaiantly with much raaaon, that aaeh s coabteatka
oSen a battai protpaet ot profit than any other offleinit n»da if
parirying aawaga. Tha entam of intermittent tlltiatiaai tlinagh
land haa bean TeoommaDdad by the Boyal fVaimieainn td 1SS3~84
aa ■ mode at treating London aawaga.
#!UlraliMa)vii^.4rtf;(cwl^atanof aDd,nsv«l,^haa. eW-
ooal, ook(^ peat, kc, thoiufa often aiparimantadoa, ^aa aeaiealj ha
deaQrlbadaainsotadayaUm. It ia attended by tbs diOealbr that
tha Bllar baoomaa apaadily ehokad by Uh dapoalt a Oaigt. na
inlarmittaot na* <rf a idMila artiSoial Hilar wHI, howamr, Km
aOdentlv to oildlaa and thatatbr* pori^ tha Uanid ~
aawaiM fiom whkh the ahidga hsa lw<n pnviooalr j
NwUehiaw
ttobadaacribad.
piauma whi
Trmimml,
antaldaoo* ot tha solid psrUola* lak«* pkioe.
howavar, moehtooalowtolmcompletabnnd.
Bat itmsy be vary grsatlr aeoeltntad by tha
- - ■ -■- thaot^ael ■ - ' ' ■
(AflafasI IViiUmail, *r AwMtsMaa.— Whan aaasos isal
stand, or to flow vary aloi^ throng a km* tank^ gi
ped|ltBl>iAkli,iB&
parfidlasof solid msti
Use ia tbs anbiaui
Orij cl<
howavar, moah too alow to ba liomplata bstote Jaeempealttoa aete ia.
*^* itmsy be vary matly aeoeltnted by tha addition tl tartals
ent^ witb thaot^eetrfpmdnd>vapP
will oany down with it th* minnta p
are aaapuidad thieof^ioat &» bsMi
t nsaall; eoipliTsd. It ialntiadaoed la flu fiam of milk tt
, and in th* pwwertloa of sbont ens tsa tt lims.te one mHIlM
Mofsoaua whaatfaoraivMy adxe^Oe Uqaid k Mt at
and a isidd aapantion of tha aawaga fidlow*, into a eonais.
- clear anparnatant Ufsil sad s glatiaon* praeiptlst* «r
j«^" Tb alndg* hm Utdo vslna s* nsasr*, br the hM
agrienltaial eaaatitaaata of tawaga ara eontaiaad ia aofattiaa, and
vaty Uttl* ot Oe lohibletnattar i* eaniad down ia ib* daptat.
^Maladgaia dried by being ataalnad ever badaot daft praaaediBta
bloeka fm tnnapoit, and got rid of by being bmnl or dog iala
tha gnmnd or tarown Into th* aaa. It ha* beaa oaad m tha
msnobetnte of brii^ aad ot oamant (BootCa prooeaa), bnt in pnaaal
it can be diapoaad of only at a loaa ThadariBod aMaant wOl cam-
talna ditaolved organio matter, and may ba admitlsd into numing
atreama only whalt a lifgh atandaid of parity ia not campnlaocj.
Whan, however, tha voloma Of tha mnning watv which it esUca
ia lalstivatj very large s qoi^ parifitatjon take* pises b; mesa*
of^a oxygen which tha . water oarriaa In aolatiau.
ia prrctiiBd, without fOrthes puriflcatioB of
I L*eda and at Bnmley. At Bradford, after
nndpltatloii t^ Uma, the efliuBt la Utand throng bade of ooka-
breaaa^ At Birmlsgnam tha aawaga of 400,000 pMria^ altar dari-
fteatioa by linia (which also aarvea to nentralisa Uia acid oaalri-
bnted by maniAetariaa], ia naed to iirigat* a faim of 1300 acrea.
Vary many patents bav* bean obtninad fcr the pneipilation af
sulphate of alnmiua, protoaulphete of iron, sndllm^ sad tha
eanant la aftarwsrdi flUend UtTDUgh land, in O* proinirthai of 1
"o MOO of the popolstion.
Isr'a "ABC" p run aaa. worked by tba Ifstiv* Ooaao Cob-
. . at Ayleahnry, diAara from othara in producing a aindgi
wiiieh hH oonaidtrsbl* vsloa aa mannra. An mnnUon of clay
aad-OBilmi with s little blood ta bat mixed with the aawaga ; a
' jltatlag aolnUon of ahan ia then ^dad, and tha mrgfawt
■ J.Briky.I>a
OtPrmeUttaul
XtiKAt i)^«tiMfw ArsriiV, lat ed. lasO, ad ad. l«l&
SEWERAGE
713
•neat, m
1b allowdl tn Mttta. Tho proewi tfnt % nmubUj oliu tfloant;
pnctiajlj thg irbiilo Mt Hit liualabU ooutltnaiiti of ths «avus
■jid m pnrtloB of thg disolTwl impnrltiH *n ouriad down in tE<
piwnpitel^ vhidi, vhen drud 4Dd BToiuid along with iobu
Bulnhat* of migiuiia, ii lold under ths unu of lutiTt couio. Tbs
ABC pmoa hjii b««n ia racowtfiil UB for nins jwi at ij\tBbair,
-whore the ''pu^lo° finds ■ Hie et 70l par tan. In 1870 tba
Birere Pollalion Oommiwk'Dm reportad nufivoiuablr on the [m)-
i»aa, a lUt which majr han prerented iti adoption hy other tovni,
bat it hiB ^u« then noetTad the apnoral of nunr ■psdaliiti.
A rweat pnCnctad inrertigatiaa b]rl)r C. H. Tidj and Prat
JHwar ihowed that the penenlaga of oiidinble organic mattat
rcmorad bj the prooaa lanM Elom 75 to SS— a naal^ in tlulc
judgment, latiihetarr. At Xaadi^ where the prooaaa <ni tried tor
a tims, it wo RiTen up became ths aflUtant wis pnier than the
riTcr into which It ran, and the ilmpla lime-pnwMa, which cceli
lad hnt givaa a Icaa dear ei&ncDt* wu adoptad id Ita plaoa*
Much diSsrenca of opinioa (till aiiati i> to the nUtive msrili
of broad irrigation, filtiatioD tbroogh lud, iDd chamieal tnat-
UM of diipoiing of Mwan. That either of tha two
a combination of tham both can b« made to field a
ilntion of the HWige problem, frmn a hj^uiic point
of Tiaw, aaem* nnqoaitianahla. That chemical tnatment, eepe-
ciallf if npplnnanted by filtration thr(n]{[h laud, will alao DnnlV
wall, i* gaoentlj admitted. No prooiM o! aSeetlTo poriflcation u
now aipecled to yield a profit -, bat the qnestion of coat, on which
tho eholee of a •jatam pnunpallr tuna, ia too axtenalTe to tw
tonched in thii aiticia.
n. The Corvxtjjks ov Sxwao*. — For noall Mwen,
circaUr pip«a of gUzed eArthenware' or fire-da; or of
motilded cemoot are used, from 6 incliee to 18 inchea
and even 30 inches in dioiaeter. The pipes are made in
short Uogthi^ and are luaaUy jointed by passing ths
end or spigot of one into the socket or faacet of the
noit. Into the Bpoce bettreon the spigot and faacet a
ling of gasket or (aired hemp shanld bis foioed, and die
rest of the space filled np with camant, not clay. The
gasket prevents the cement from entering ths pipe, aad ao
obstructing the flow ; afr ths same time it forau aa elastic
packing which serves to keep the locceesiTe lengths of
pipe concentric, even if the cement should fail. The
pipes are laid with the spigot ends pointing in the dirsction
of the flow, with a unUorra giadlen^ and, where practi-
cable, in straight lines. In special poeitiou, mch at
nnder the bed of a stream, east-iion pipes are used for
tha convBTanco of sewage. Where the capacity of an
18-inch circular pipe wonld be iosofficient, built sewers
are used in place of earthenware pipes. Iliese are somo-
timea circular or oval, bat more conunonlj of an egg-
shaped section, the invert or lower side of tha sowar being
a curve of shorter radios than the arch or apper side.
The advantage of this form lies in the fact tiut great
variations in ths volome of flow mnst be expected, and
the egg-section presents for the small or dry-weather flow
a narrower channel piha would be presented, bj a circolar
sewer of the same total capacity. Figa. 1 uid 2 show
two commoa forms of egg-aections, with dimensions az-
pr«ssed in terms of the diametea of the arcL Fig. 3 is
tha mora modern form, and has the advantage of a
sharper invert. The ratio of width to height is S to 3.
Built sewsrs ars most commonly made of bricks,
nioitMed to soit the curved strncture of which they ara to
form part. Separate invert blocks of gland Mrthenwara,
terracotta, or £r»«lay are often used in combinatiOD with
brickwork. Tho bricks are laid over a t«mp1et made to
the section of the sewer, and are grouted with cement.
An egg-shaped sewer, made with two thicknesses of bric^
an invert block, and
a concrete setting,
ia illnstrated in fig.
3, OoncreteisDOW
very largely used
in tha construction
of sewers, either in
combination with
brickwork or alone.
For this pnrpoaa
the concnte eon-
usts of from 5 to
7 parts of sand and
gravel or broken
stone to 1 of Fort-
land cement It
may be used as a
cradle for or as a
>i—'Hng to a brick
ring, or as tha solo
material of conatracfion by ranning it into position ronnd
a mould which is removed when the concrete is lafficieDtly
se^ the inner surface of the sewei being in this case coated
with a thin layer of cement
In dststminins tlw iHmwuinna at aaweti^ the amaont of Nw^a
propar may be taken aa oqoal to the wstar aopply (gBoeiallr abont
to gallona ps head per diam), and to thii moat be addad sn allow-
~~i» for tSs soifaoe water due to rainfall The btter, which ia
(on» of tha moat recent Initancea of Iho o
■yitsm applied on a Urge Kale), the maiimnm rsinlall allowtd Sit
ii I of an mob per hour, of which one-third la' mppoaed to antar
the eewet*. In any estimate of the liM of eoaera based on
rainfall accoont mnat of conne be taicen of Ihe relief provided t>y
etorm-aTerflowi, and alio of the ' capacity of the eewen to become
■imply chained witll watar dnring the ihort tinw to which very
hearj ahowen axe invariabW limited. Bainfall at the rate of tl or
8 Indiea per honr haa bean known to occur for a low minntaa, bat
it ia altogsthei onneceaaaiy to provide (even above atorm-ovetnowi)
■aweia capable of discharging any inch amount aa thia ; the tima
taken bv aewen of more moderate aiia to fill wonld of itself prevent
the diecWge Iram them from leaching a condition of steady Sow ;
and, apart Dom thia, tha rifllc of damage by anch an exceptional
(all wobld not warrant >o great an init!^ expenditnra. Euginears
dififer w'dely in their utimaUa of tlia allowance to be made for
the discharge of suifaca water, and no mis can bo laid down
which would be of genera] application.
In order that aewen ahonld be Belf-deanrin^ tha mean velocity
o[ flow ehonld be not lera thin H fast par second. Ths gradtsnt
necaaaaiy to aeoora thia is calculated on principles which have been
elated in the article HiDHomcKAHICa (g.e>]. Tha velocity of flow,
''■" T-cv*s;
where < ia ths inclination, or ratio of vertical to boriKinCal dietanca ;
■• fa the * hjdnalie meaa depth," or the ratio of,araa of section of
tha atream to the wetted perunetai ; and c la a ooeSdent depend-
log on the dimeoaiona and the roDghno* of tha chansal and the
depth of tha atreaio. A table of valnea of c will be fbnnd In | SO
of the article refoiTtid to. Thii velocity multiplied by the area of
the streua givea tha rata of diacharga. Tablea to bcilitate the
ire the conlonr of the groun
It FroTH tha gathering groans
ia tregnonlly d.
Into
ower gas ia a term applied tx
■ which are formed by the
cr^anie germs which il
Decoiaity, and also for other reasone,
a gather lewege from tho whole aroa
Kt tha aewago of higher portiona of
■veloi ' ■
lied by miztnie with
n of aowago, and by
CAiTIca m anfipennon, that fills the
iboro the liqud atieam. It is uni-
versally rscogniiad that sewer gas is a m«liiim for the cosvoyanee
XXL — 9°
TW
SEWERAGE
of iSttiae, U)i in lU wtll-dwigiud irttsmi of Mwsti^ itrlnsant
pTMantioDi (which wilt be pnmitir dBiDrilMd) ua taliiia to k«p IC
oat d( hoiUH. It ia tiiatllj csrUin tlut th« dugsroni ohnnctn
of Hwar gu is radaoed, if not «nttnly nmoTAd, by fna aduiixtuTO
lith tbt oiirssD of &Mh dr. Sgwsn ihonld b« Uboratly Teuti-
kted, not Dnl;r For thii nuon, but to proTeot the lii withlh them
fram Biur bttiog Its preuan niott fbjr ludden influx of ntor) M
ooiwidvnblj u to foros tho " trap* which Hpumto it from tho
mtmoflphora of d^ellinga. Tha pl^n of rantilation now moat
AppToTBd a the Teryeiipplo ana of m«kiogop«aiDg3 from tho aewer
to tha lorfkcfi of tha etreot at abort diitancea. — nnerallr ahaf^a built
cf brick *nd catoetit, — and coTering IhsH with mataUio gndoga.
Uadar each grating it ia usual to haog a box or tnj td oatch
■oj atoDu or dirt that may fait through ftOD) the itmt, bat the
pMU^ of air to and from the eewer ii laft aa frse aa poailbla. Tha
opgoinga to the atreet are fnqaentlj made Urge gnongh to lltow •
man to m down to eiuiin* or claan tha nwai^ and an then callad
" manhcdea." Smaller openingi, Urge enough to allow a lamp to
ha lowered for pnrpoaea of intpention, aie called " Umpholea," and
an otlan boUt up of Tertiol langtha of dnin-plpa.
^ - - . •« fcr «a
poaajble, laid in itrught linia oE nnifonn gradient, vith m. man^lf
or lani[diole at eaoh change of dinction or of aloiio and at tmrk
joDOtionr' — '— "■' ■' '"■ '--'---
To fadlllata fntpaotlon and deanhig ■
■oaajble, laid in itraight linia oE nnifonn gn
nitb fanuchea. Tha ■
if loTcl botWttS
tha entrance and nit I>lpea tend* to prereut continBana flow of
aawar gaa towafda the higher part* of the aTstam, and makra th(
TontiUtion of each aeoUon mora Independent and thonnf^
When tfas gradient ii alight, and the dry-wMthrr flow tbxj amali.
ceoaiional tluahlng moat be naortud to. Flap tiJte.i or alslicf
penatock* an introdoced a
-w — - "- — '*- -1 — ' water ui[Ti>iuce<
inaepecial fluehing chamber, and ii then illoiod to ailTum with a
luah- Hanj aelf-acting arrangementa for fluAhing hare becfi daviatd
which act b; allowing a contlnaotu etnaio of compantinlj ami
Tolame to aoGnmolata in a tank that diAchar^foa itaclf vaddenlj
whan ftilL A nry TaJnable oontriTince of tbii kind it Ur Boecf
Flald'a aiphon flash tank, shown in % 4. Whea the liquid hi
tlw tank lecomnlatH ao that it raaohaa the top of the an"nl<tT
■iphou, and beglnB to flow orer the lip, it cmtila* with it enon^
■Jr to prodaoe a putial faoanm In the tube. Tha aiphoa then
bnnti into action, and a rapid discharge takea plaoe, which son-
tinnei till the water iaral aiaka to tha foot of tha baU-ahapad eoTer.
in. Doicnno 6BwiKAai.'--Ia the WBter-curiagq
STstem each hoiue baa ita ovd network of dnin-pipea,
iOil-pipe«, and wastD^pipM, which lead from the bauiu,
ainia, clotets, tad. galliw within and about tha hooae
U> itM common aewer. Thwe muit be planned to
remore tewage from the house and ita pracincta qnicklj
and without leakage or depoait by the way ; the lur
within thorn miut be kept ont of the dwelling, by
placing a water-trap at every opening throngh which
ae^age ia to enter tJie pipea, and by tnaking all internal
pipes gBB-tight ; tiie pipea mtiM be freely Teotilated by a
current of fresh air, in ordet to oxidize any deposited filth
and to dilute any nozioiu gaa they may contain ; finally —
and thia ia of prime importance— the air of th^ common
aewer miut be ligoroual; shtit oat from all drains and pipes
within the honae. To diaoonnect the pipea of each indi-
vldnal bonae from the atmoaphere of the common aawar
is the first principle of sound domestic aanitation. When
thia ia done the hoaae ia safe from contagion from without,
K> far aa contagion cad come through eewer gaa; and, how-
erer faulty in other respects the internal fittings may be,
th« honae can suSer no other risk than that which ariaee
from iti own sewage.
{^taction againat the passage of gaa thtongh open-
ing! which admit of tha entrj of water ia aecured by the
fnwiilif device known as the water-trap.
The almplat and in many reapacti tha beat form of Imp ia a
bent pipe or infertsd liphon (fig. 6) which i» aaaled by water tjing
in the bond. Tho amount of tho aaal (nwaiond bj tho Teitical
diatanca between the llnea a and b) Tarioa in practic* from abont i
■D inohto > Inchaa. If the praminiofair inthin tha pipe, below
r than that of tlw air above Am tnp br >i
pnamn dna to a oolnma of tntsr eqaal u haigbt to
— will be forad and air will bnbbU tbiongh. Thu
17 fail, but this mi^ be prareottJ bt
pipe below the trap. Other •
lOweTsr, only too nnmeroor
ne time, tha water may evi
the tnji, is grsat
exceeding the pn
the seal, the traj
enfBcient lentlUtkin of
If tha pipe ii disused for
ponte BO oonaiderably aa id orvaa uie aeai. 'ine pipe,
if of lead, may bend oat of ahape, or it may even be ao
badly set in the fint Inatanoe aa to make the trap in-
opentire. The aeai loa^ be
broken by the capillary actton of
a thread or atrip of cloth, bulg-
ing over the lip of tha trap .and
causing the water to dnla away.
•nddenly armted, may pass &e
leave it wholly or partly empty.
faUnn
fennae
to fig. 6.
Let a column
ofwatffi
mahdo
:,*,r.fis
e from
a cloHt
duchari
jeeinloi
at aema highe
[ArtUl Taouam in the branch, and so
of the tisp'. Thispnceaa, wfaich ia aometimea called the atiihonigt
of ^pa, can be guarded againat br vantiUting the btmnch, eithir
br a sepatats ventilating pipe leading to the open air or by a pine 1
(ahown by dotted lines) ooonectuig the top of the branch H wiih t
point lumoienlly (ar np on the aou-plpe to be shore tho eolu^u ot
water which LB paaaing the junction. Onemon imperfection in tra|a
may be named. The experiment* of Dr Feigoa bars ahown that
the iMMi in trape will allow gaaaa to paaa through by abaorbiBg Ihs
gaa on one iuiface and Riving it off at the other. It is imftob-
able that this action occurs to such an extent aa to bi
by pennitting the transfer of diaeaae genna from one I
aide. Apart from any risK of thia kind, however, it ja elaar t
trap is open to an many poatibilitie* of Ikilon aa to form a vai
•ufflcien t Wrier between the air of a room and the foul air cf a ■
JJeverthoiMB the practice was until vonf Utely al
and i> BtlU Car fram u ....
itnnivan^
SEWBEAGE
715
itbh bedroom bulni with oammoD uwon by ■ aintliiainu njmtaa ol
limine, in which th« odIt nfegrurd te^lo't tl>* 'Ott? d' ■"■« gu li
I lingle trap doM to euhdnk orbuln. Thii mwu thit uwdr ni,
:lurguiriUi ths infsction Dfivhole oommoiiitj, ii brought wimin
k few iocheg of tht ttmosphsn of tba dvoUinft nadj to contamin-
ito it vbeatrgr tb» tnp full IVom inj of the noiaa vUch bkTi
leen nuntd, or vhaneTar, bj i flow of water through it, the anl ii
luf&dsatl J difltorbed to illoir bubble* of gag to eaoipt Into the loom.
The rvajedj for thia Ilea ld hariuf^ at any oonTaalflDt point on
lach hanie-dnin, a diicctiaectiiia trap which aepialea the hoDM
nay be called an oat^r line of dsTaQce. Anj / "tn!!!!?^
iccidentalleaka^oCuwecgaatbroDghitthei " ^
lose ao mora than caose a comparatiTely allgh
wllution of the air within the hoDse-drains
ind if these are well rentilated the effect* 0
Jiis are inKasIble. At each indiTidnal bani
>r other fitting a trap ii atill required, bat lb
runctioD u now merely to abut oat the air o
lir of the hoOBe-dralns ia no longer pollntei
iiy cooneiioa with the lewin, the occaaiona
failun of thii functjoa ia a natter of com
paratiiEl; noatl momeat. Further, the di»
unnectiDg trap on th* bouaa-dnin forniihei
I coaTeolent place of acaeaa for freoh ail ; and
he mutilation ii compUtsd hj cajrying th<
ligbeat point of eaoh (oil-plpe or waale-pipt
IP to the leret of the roof asd leering It open
■hen. Thia anangement will Im ludaratood
Jj reference to fig. 8, which sbovi a aoll-plpe,
Ipea at it* upper end, diacharging Into i
lonse-dnin in which then is a disconnactin j
np proTided with an open grating for thi
n^ of air. The aoil-pipe ia Tentilated b; ■
luirent of ui which (ueually if not always)
Iowa npwanla. TUt not only dilutea any
puea Chat an produced in Uio pipe, but
[uicklj oildiaea any find matter that may
nihtn to the (idea. Can muet be taken to
.Toid having the npper end of the pipe open
'—' ■; under eavee. Ia ths figure
__J-s;sS"ffi^s.s "■■••-u.
0 a point above the roof;
jid where Beratal flttingi diiohiige Into one aoil-plpe, ths Mme
'antllating pipe mty be made to ttzn lor all. An "lamnlii ol the
Bttararruiesnunt
s ahown in ng. 10. i
rbe form of dia-
nnnaeting trap ■
hown in fig. 6 I
i that o( Mr I
?. P. Bochaa of I
lla^DW, who hai i
toue eioaUantter< '
■ioe to the (MUM I
if lanltarr n- |
arm by practUng I
jid adTocating I
lottse-draina >__
dQ. pipes. ThB aanii
hown to a largu acali
, when it appears ii
luilt manhole, whicli {
eea to the tnp in at
«ccnning ohoked. H
t die tap ; <r the top
loaed by a aolid Dlate
ntiuftthenbetoi
. l^BoElua Tiap aad NaBhekjWt
■dbU), It
which .
entUatiag ahaft ii catTiod from tne manhole to aom* other open-
ig. Fig. 7 ihowi inch a abaft leading to a grating which Is placed
aitically in a nelghboorlng vaU. Among athn good forms ol
Itoounectlng trap, more or teaa like Boohao'i^ mantloil may be
lade o[ Weaver's, Potta'a, and HaUyer'i.
1^1^
An ■nangemant of douMa diseonncotlng trap la Ulnatrated in fie,
a. Any aewer gaa forcing tha trap next we aewsr ia still kapt ba^
by tiie npper trap a- ' — ""
aaeape by a grating i
venhlatlng ahaft
enten at A, while
ventilate the houa
entare the nppv tta
the manhole. This*
ment no doubt givs
abeolata protection
iiogle trap of the k
taadj deacrlbsd, ba:
probable that t»c<
caaea where the aewei
very foul and liabl
pnuaun) the ad- i
vantage la so slight |
aa to De m<»* tun
CDuntatbalanced by
1^" rSifiS ~.-~.».~~-«.™»
atoppaga and grealtv complexity which thia anangement <
Tho extant to which it is pennisdhl* oi advisabte in prai
allow aeveral fittinga to diacharge into a sdn^e waat*.
ioil-plpe will vary in different oaaia. We can noogniie I
diatinction between eewaga from oloaets and nrinal^ liable «
moat dangerou taint shonld dlaeaae oomr within th« honae,
the coDpantiTely innocuona aawage that oomea f^om baaiu^ hi
and nnkt. Some sanitarians go ao far as to adviae that theai
' ilntaly apart within the b
mof hoate drain-plpea.
, _ _o reaaonable olyectlon o_ —
urged againat tha diactaarga Into a waterH^loaet eoil-pip* ol water
fiMB a bath or washband baain in the aama room, aieept psrbapa
that if the aoil-plpe ia of lead its oorrosion ia haalaned by hot
watar ; and the additional fiuahlng which the aoil-mp* ao racaivM
ia a diitinct adranti^ Bnt to oonnsat a water4lo*et aol-pipa
with sinki and baidna m other apartmsnts is to multiply poaalbUiliei
for the spread of diaeaie within the honae, and it ia atrongly advia-
ablo to coDTej the waslo from them by a aepaiate pipe, protaotad
from the aewer by a disconneotlnf; ttap of Ita own with a grating
op«i to the air. Thia applies with epadal force to the waahhand
basins that an often tlied in bedrooma and drtasfng-rooma.
Nothing coold bo more daogarans than the wjpi nf which many
good honaaa still furnish iustance* — of multiplying theao canven-
ienoes wiQioat regard to the risk they inrolva, and mjUng thia
riak aa gnat aa poaaible by placing each in direct conunnniaHon
tbiOBgh an ordinary trap with the aoil-plpe, itaelf perhapa nnven.
tiUted and prorided witti no diaconneuon fTpm the aawar. Sran
when the drain or soil-pipe ia ventilatad an'
the aawBT, no bedroom baain ahonld, nnder a
allowed to diaeha^e into It without first paaalng a aeparata open
trap. On the other hand, a bedroom basin may ba mads psilaotlj
safe by leading Its
waate - pipe (trapped
under the baain in the
usual way) into an
gnlW ontal
mae (fig. 9).
Fio. ft— OpeaTfiv-
ve any water aeoidenlally spilt,
waste-pipe or lotl-plpe below the flxtore.
ahonld ba
adoptsd In the case of
pancry and sonllerjr
sinks. Under moat
plumbing flitnn* it ia
Bsoal to place a safb-tray to
The diiohirge pipe* from ""
jectionably, led Into the II
a nip*
ir (ilg. 1'
need bo, to keep ent draught
Oreiflow -pipes horn ciatems naod for dietetic purpwes shonld be
.-d, in the same way, into the open air and not Into aoQ-pipea or
waatfr-pipes (fig. 10). Traps on thnn cannot be depended on to
remain aaaled, and any connexion of an overfiow-pipe with a aoil-
plpa would nanlt in allowing foul air from the pipe to dlAias
'tnlf over the anrface of water In the datetn— a state of things
pwnliarly likely to cause poUntJon of the water. When a dstern
IS used only tor water-cloaet aerricc^ Ita oveiilow-plpe may propeil^
be led into the baain of tba oloset.
Bain-plpM, extending as they do to the Toof, ai
SEWERAGE
0-ldMu»d wiL.. ,.,_..
gr it duchargM the dnin
, . . , r« ^ k gananU; IniiiB
ita tbt boom. Iht TantUiting mid of * toil-pip* abould
1 to a hJahor laral, ■■ is lig. S, dau of the lomr adga of
It Ii betttr to mtriot ndn-plpM to thtit logldmsta
fancUoa «f tiUiic mrfkoe mCei
tham to leoain uop-watsr froi
to Mm M TUtllitlBg ooDtbniatioBi i
napcMtlea tlap«a toMcionioUMtif .
■Ir jut ludor tM tnm, at * pMoa wbare ^ ii gananU; IniiiB
in-plpM t
linka uid bauiB, and to miki
OTor open trap* from which i connaiion ii
taksn to tlM bonat^nin or anrer (Bs. 9).
In flga 10 asdll ths tauitaij Rtaaa of annaU home at* ihon
bf dlagraoia, which ihoold ba cu«riilly iRidied
at aBmpIirTliig a mU-arruiEsd ijitem. Two {■
olciagt*,aiid alMth and baain u tba doMt apart- in
•oanl^ UNhuga into a nil-pipt oa tha right, and e I S
Hm bcauohM (auMit that de tha Imuh} an Tsntl-
latad brpipn baduutoaMpa-
-^ -'t plp^ *Wch,_)tka ibo
atharralDhpipa
alao dladkarga.
H«aiir, a«
a^Dchaa tnp In a Imllt nunbola, vhidi k oorarad with a
HonBoJiaiM^ Uiat 1. to ay, thoaa parte of tho domartio ijitain
of draioag* which ntand from the aoil-plpea ud waata-pipet to
£! ^^I^U^ made of gUiad finwUy p^p„, -nanUy TE^m
bat aeiMtiiiMi onlj 4 inthaa in diameter. A lawBr ilz. than «
iudm b rudr If grer denrabla. Tha pipea an apwot-uid-fanoM-
Jcdnted, and tba Jointa ahonU ba made VI^ otrntith tba mu w
abeadT dtaorlbad for nwna. Whm, aa ii aft«a nnmToidable, the
hont^dirin h« to put nndar a part of tha houw, or to ooma
liom back to tont, iron pint jrfntad with lead and ooatad with
ui aatl-corrouTa componnd ara profenwd to firaolaT plnaa at
^™g • battn HCiniiv ««In>t {ha production of leali St tha
5!^ ?i ^ ^" ""^ "^"T ""^ Soil-pipet, whan ciri«l
down ftsde the hoiui^ ara of either lead or irorfwiien onUdt the
T V,*'."" "?^? of iron. Ab oottida toil-pipt h obrioiuly
ptefenbla to an mtiSa oas; If tho amogemant (!f the bnildini
makea M maid* loil-ptpt nectmrr, oare mut be Ukta that it thafl
batw^^acca^blt & latptclionatall part^of il,l,Bgth. Ilia
I roof without
LtHating pips.
ina to ba meatiMad, —
pipe it neatly ahortaned if proTiiioD Ba tha frot circulation of i '
5r«^^v", '■"""?",!■ ,* '^'"^ toU-pip. beeoona in tii
plydwith holat, aapsoiaUf In the nppar partt of itt lengOL
•"ikj_J""7">~zr'~;r-^ le nppar paftt of itt lenga.
ftitBtiTejotota in aoQ.pipea and wuta-pipet^ paitionUrly where
tbar Bonnaot wiOi draina, ckMet-baalnt, linki, *c., „ iaothar
^^h^^.^ '°'^^, ^.T,""' of air-Briitneaa in draina
tt loll-iipti within a dwalling leadt to the p^utimk of tU air, >ot
manly bjr diffOaion, lint by an aotnal In-drao^^ for gantially (h*
air of the hoDie b^t it* pranira radncail by chimnvr dranghti 10
a Ttlna iliglitly lower Uiu that of tha lir ontiide. TIu hoOH, a
&ot, vantiJatta tltalf l>y drawing in air from the pipe at any boii.
a foot which may laaily be demonitnitid by balding Uie flame a(
a bipar near the hole.
Tariont experimantal raothodi ara oted of datacting aoeh kaiu
u wonld admit fonl air to the dwelling. Of thae tb« beat ia t>ic
"amoke teat.' It oonaittt of filling the hooao-dnun, aoQ-iapa*,
and woata-pipea with a danaa and pnngent imoka, BUT cacapo rf
wfaioh Into Uia bonaa it raadily obacrreri bj aye and noae. 1
quantity of ootton-waata aoaked in oil it lighted, aod ita fumfl
an blown into tha houaa-dnin bj a reTolTiog fan^t tho vmtilai-
ing ooTor of the ditoonnacting trap, or at aoy other conTcnicEt
opening 'Bmoka aoon Gila tha pipea, and begtna to aacapo at thf
root The nppar anda of the pipea an then clcaad, and tlia boote
it narebed for amolca.' Anotbar teat, apeoiall^ applkabta tg
thoaa parts of drmlna that aia laid under honaea, u t£e bjdmuL.
teat, which conaiatt in atopping up the lower end of tho pap.
filling it with water to at to product a raodemte preaaore, aid
then ohaarring whether tha laral of the water talla. Ttiia tait,
howarar, ia too aaran tor any bnt new and nry wall eonatiwcU]
Evaiy baain, nnlc, or oUiar fitting ahonld be Kiparatolj tr^fcd
bj a bend on tha watta-
pipe or tome other form
of'tni
•"§■ ■
>hi^
iiletbtothe pipe on the
band, faeilitatet cleaning
(Gg.fi). Thewarmwaata-
walar from pantry and
acnllery tinkt oontalna
mooh greate, and ahonld _
be diaohargad into a
Faaa* box (ilg. 12) whara
the water beeomta cool
and depoaiti ila greaaa
bafon orerflowing into
the drain. To colleot nr&ea water from lanndr; flooi% ana^
oonrt-yard^ fco., an open trap or golly ia naed. Fig. 9 tfaowa a
almple and good form of open
trap; hot ifthe water ia liable
to carry down land or earth
a golly (fi^ IS) ia mora anit-
aUe. ETtn In tbia aimple
flttinga remarfaible Ingennltr
of tiTW hat baas dirolaytd.
Hany of the forma faranctd _,
bntldata an bad either bacanaa (f
an Intacnn taal, a nalraw oatltl,
or a tendency to gather filtli. One
in particolar, the well.knows
"Bell" tnp, la an example cf
niarly arerything a trap ahoold
Vatar-doaata need to be almoit
inTBriably of tha "pan" ^pe, bnt rit.it.— OtBjTn^.
wharaaat lanitary reform haa been
preached to tny pnrpcae tht pan cltoet la giring place to deuM
and wholeaomer pattema. The erila of the pan ctoaet will ba ari-
dent from an inepection of fig.
Ii. At each nee of the cicaet
tha hinged pan a la tilted down
ao that it ditchargaa ita contanta a
into tha container i. Tlia aidaa ]
of the container an inaooetaibia
gndna
ilnBantionofthap^, They
Inally baoome coatod with a
ronl depcaiL A gnat of tainted
ur eaaipea at aTBiy naa of the
cloaat ; and it rarely happene that tha
container ie air-tight, and that tl
hoa gatharad doea not caoae a ai
in interrali of dlanaa. To make mattora
my of tha tddar pan oloaata are
wia the--' ' '^^
-■X
aito liable to become a gathcnng place for Gith. Eren with n
ordinary trap, bowaTer, the pan cloaat remaina ao bad that its aw
la to be atrongl; condamaed.
Amnch bettor oleaat it the Talra or Biamth clotty anaxcelleDt
bllluUvd^
SEWERAGE
ntiBpU ot wUch by 7nw «t Patth b ihown fn tig. IS. Tha
buin ia kept putlj ftiU of ntar b; a groond gim-matal nln
tightly preaml —
■gunrt a oonif^
■t ths buln'
The cbunlm Mowli
onl; lun uumgh ta
allow the t«1t« '"
height » llndtsd t^ths
orerflow vhioli oecnn 1
of thii Uod tba tUtb b plued , — , , —
neailj ntHal In inottiaT t;pg of nln cl«Mt (Jtoiiiiin'a) tb«
ValTB li ■ ooninl pliw, pntaai T«rti<sllr dovn on * mtt itiba Mi
Talrs eloMti can be mada blrij affectirs ud ntUtetoiT fioi
r. BuiltuT pnnt of Ti» ; bnt ■ msdi chnpai ud mrtaiulT nt
ku tzoaUtnt ^po el doaat Ii tho "truhont,' an azample i
nhieb (tho "National") it ahown in Sg. It.
-~t doaat, bj Donlton, appaan in fig. 6.) Thaa
a gnat nrioty of good lOnn^
vhita ttoiuvan. Th^ eomlriD* «haaptN«a and limplldt; with a
dagna of aanitair paiftotion that la pohabty not laackad bj-
tha mdat aipaimra cloaata of the Una* alnuy naowd. Tluj
hara no workug parts ; thvclaaet ia eltanaad after sua dmply 1^
tha fliult of water, which aweapa areiythiDg bafote it. Th» lalb,
moat of conrae Ita good: » ll-indi aarrlaa plpa from a diteni
not leaa than E taet uora the eloaat will do waU. In (UM ncant
deaigna tba datam la a box at tha back of tba aaat with a wide
0 tha fliuhing lim of tha pan i thia
^ bfl dstom ia tow. A faatora of con-
which may bs"atT0iig1f recommanded la to laara tha
cloeat anCirely open for inapectian and ekaning, inatead of con-
cealing it ia ■ wooden cue. Tho asit then geneially raeta an Inn
braeketa projecting frcm tlis wall, and can be niied on hlngaa at
tha bach, to that tha pan may b« nnd aa a nriuat or alni-abilc
without the mk of fonltng. Anothec good typo of doaat, abaring
with the waahcot tl» adraataga of luting no mechanical Mit^ S
the " hopper," innstrated in fg. IT (Dodd'a Hopper). Id all theae
donb the hOm mailed T is for attaclilDg a TenlJUing pipa.
For the anpply ot water to a cloeat a ae^iata ciatem 1* dcdnUe,
eepeclally whan water for diatstic puipnaia la liable to be drawn
from tha main ciateni (inatead of being taken direct ftvm tha water
BOTTice pipe, which ia battn). It woald
wen it not that inch fanlts ore —
0 clstoni — onleaa
need toi water-
old be placed in
h or jugt under
a water-clOHt. and that the room
Iteelf shonld be well liglited, wall
Tantllated, and wall >hut off from
bedrooma. To prevent finahlng
of doaeta fiom Being imperfect
thnnsh caralasness, many plana
hate Men deviaed for euanrmg tliat
onc« tha flow of water ia atartad it
oiTan TolnnM baa i>aen diadkaiged. Osa of
X- lentof al[*on Snah fkatcbedin
d tha downmab of water atarta
. . . an ahonld a be thin doaed tli*
Sow oontiDiKa mitil tha watar-lard lUb t» (^ rikaa all ia admitted
717
and the dphon Maaaa to act ^la atr-ptpa > b ant to gtre tha
dealrad Tolnma.
Aa regards hooafrdrainage generally, tiie pointB of chief
importaoM maj be briefiy aummed np aa followa : — (1) the
naa of one or more diaanmecting traps to ahat oS aewer
gaa from the whole ayitem of honaO'dTaina and pipea;
(3) the thorough ventilation of hoiue-diBinB, aoil-pipea,
txti branchea, bj proridiog opeoioga throngh wtdch air
con enter at the foot ftnd escape at the top ; (3) the dia-
charge of all einke^ banns, Ac, .other t^utn wateT'cloaet
fitliiigs, and espeetally of fixed bedroom Imsud^ into opeo
tr^ia in the open air ; (4) the direct discharge of dstent
orerfiows and aafe-ttaja into the open aii ; (&) the nee of
deanlj and well-deaigned doaucs, baains, kc, each sealed
hj an ordinary beat trap ; (6) the use of aepante aerrice
ejateraa tea watercloaeta.
It may aeem saper&nona to add that tlie Byitem of
pipea most provide a rapid and effactive carriage of all
sewage to the aewer, and most be water-ti^t and air-
tight Daring the last five years, however, it has been
proved, by examination of Uie best houses in London,
that it ia no uncommon case for a house to be ao completely
wiUiont effective connexion with the aewer tliat all its own
aewage ainka into the soil under the basement ; and abont
7S per cenL of the hooaea inapected have failed to pass
tha-amokoteat,"
In tliia oonnoiion mention ahonld ba made of the
^■Etem of cfKiperative hooaa-inspection wiginatad by the
late TtoL Flewning Jenkin. The Edinbnr^ SanitaiT
Protection AjMOdation waa foDnded by him in 1878 to
carry out the idea that the sanitary fitting of a honaa
ahonld bo periodically nibmitted to examination by an
expert, and that hoasaholders should combine to sacnre
for thia pnrpoae tiie oontinaons service of an engineer
able to datoct flaws, to advise improvemente^ md to
anperinteod alterations. The Edinbnrgh association soon
justified its existence by diacovering, in tha houses of its
members, a state of tlungs even worse than stndenta of
sanitary science had imagined poaaible. Similar associa-
tiona are now doing excdient work in London, GUagow,
and many other large towns.
Bpaco admita of only a veiy brief mention of thcae ayitemi of
aeweiage is which excreta ate not lemoved by the aid of water. Tlie
dry-earth ayatam, latrodoced by the Bar. H. Hoola, takee advan-
tage of the otldiidDg effect which a poroua aabatance inch aa dry
earth erarta by bringing any sewage with which it ia mixed into
intimate contact with t£a«ir contained in its potss. A diadui^
of nrine and fnss iaqniddy sndcom^tdy deodoriied and abe«n>ed
when covered with a amali qnand^ of dry earth ; and tha same
soil, if exposed to the air and allowed to dry, mav be naed over and
over again for tha aame pnrpDsa. Even after sou hu been several
timaa nted, however, ita valne as mannre Is not ao neat aa to pay
for Ita tnnaport to any consideiable distance ; and for thia naaon.
aa well as fnm the (kct that it leaves other conatilseDti of lewege
to be dealt with by other means, tha ayatem it ot rather limited
application. Bo far as it goes it is excellent, and where Uiere la
DO geuaial ayatem of water-cmniaga aawerage, or where the water-
snpply is imall or nacertain, an earth-closet will, in.carerol lianda,
giva parfeot aatlsfiotion. NunenHu forme of earlji-cloaet are sold in
which a snitaUa quantity ot earth is automatically thrown into the
pan at each time of nae. ArraDsemente of thia kind are, howarar,
not neoiaaaiT to the aoooeas ot the system ; a box filled with dry
earth and a hand scoop will anawet the pnrpoae not leee effectivdv.
Aihes are eometimea anbetitntod for or mixed with the dry eartb,
and powdered charcoal Is alao need.
The moat primitive method of dealing ayatematically with
axcnta ia to collect the dlscbargea directly in a veaad which la
either itself earned to the conntiy, and ita contenla allied U "
ito a more portable vessel for Untr pnrpoae.
, in apite of the difficult of tnnaport over bad
labonr, the latter plan ia universally toUowed :
land, or is emptied into
roads and by hnman labonr, the latter plan is universally toUowed :
the land and tlia people have in (act perlbrmed tor centnriea what
may be called a oomideta cycle of opcntioDS. Tha agrtanltanl
ratom la ao good that lamian pay let leave to ramovo exavmeal^
and honssboldsn look to duir dJachargea as a sonrce of iiuoma.
The plan, althoogh carried ont in tho nragbeat manner, ^laaia
toinTolve fewer sanitary drawtaakafliaBiM^t bavqietMi kl^
718
S E W — S E W
tha HHtb Itam mMm ml c«rti, md, >1jot* lU, from th« inoeou
ol smptybig b; ladls, are ■ jmiiuico which no WmUfh oommnnl^
would tolerate. A uniplo foil njrtBro, in irhioh the lewage i>
eoUoetcd uid remoied in the tame n—et bu boon aied at Roeh-
dile t aootlur, with in ^biorbent liniuK Is the piili. it Hdlfii.
A plu mocb nitd in Contiaeatil dUo u to collect eionaieDt tn
tlpit TknlU, which in (mptisd it iatetnia into t tank cart hj a
notion piuup or irncctor, A more raooat pnenmatio ijitnn li
Ibit of uarnnr, applied at Amaterdam, when MWige raMrraln at
IndiTtdnal hodiar an nrmaaaiitlr oonnoctod with a tentral naerrolr
a, fiiroarii wUeh the ooatent* of the f lur are nicked by
, Ins air Rom the naerroir at thaMDtial ttanion. A flndlor
plan hMMan triad at Lfoiia and Farla bj K. Berllw
jkp^ MdHrgh 18H Olw wni ad lul iweit »
'oruia •«)>«).. SHilwUielriapwtaiaWa
■ — ifsrs--
— ■ ■■..■jtOrllll...
to E. BtBT-'Dmlai, BttMll* tTBimM SaMaHm,
AmMw «< AHh SrMmt, <iti el, laaii V. Euitt, fMnH S<w«. ia7<i
OK^rf, JTiwH Drmkmfl, Kn T«l, ISit i VmilDC. Cadnrr iVMu^i ^
JWim^lfcM.BeeaiQ.«tteJ., IW; r. luUn, AaUti Aih«, un ; ud
SKWIH, or Sewkt. See Saucoktds, vol izL p. 232.
BEWINa MACHINBa The Mwing mocliiae, u ia
tba caae with most mechaQical iaventioiu, ia the ramlt ol
Uw efforta of tmoj ingenious peraoni, [dthongh it wonld
•ppear thftt the most meritoriooB of theM worked in entire
igDOMDce of the iabooie and euooeeaes of others ia the
Mme fidil, Hany of the early ettempta to hw by
umebmerj went on tiie linee of imitating ordinaij hand-
wwio^ and all wich inventions piored eonspienona
failona. 'Bia maAod of hand-sewing is of neeeisity slow
and intermittent^ seeing that only a dsBnite luigth of
thread is used, wUch panes Its fnll extent thrau^ the
eloth at BTeij stitoh, thns candng the wo^og ann, hnmaii
or otherwise, to travel a great length for every stitch
made, and demanding fieqnent renewals of 'thread, ^e
foondaition ot machmewwing was bid by the invention
of a doable-ptustod needle, with the CTe in the centre,
patented l? Charies F. Weieeotbal in 1759. This device
wss intended to obviate the iiecessity for inverting the
needle in sewing or emUoidering and it was sabseqoently
utilised in Hulman's wdl-known emtwndery machine.
Many of the ftetores of the sewing machine are dis-
tinotly specified in a patent seenred In ^\gland by TLomaa
Saint in 1T99, In which he, uiter alia, deecribeB a machine
for stitching, qnilting, or sewing. Saint** mactiine, which
appear* to have been intended principally for leather work,
was fitted with an awl idilch, working vertically, pierced
a hole for the tltread. A spindle and prqeotion laid the
thread over thia hole, and a descending forked needle
pteaead a loop of thread thiongb it The loop was caught
on the under ude by a reciprocating hook ; a feed moved
the vrork forward the extent of' one stitch; and a second
loop WM formed by the same motions aa the fitsL It,
however, descended within the -fint, which was thrown oS
1^ the hook a* it canght the second, and being tlii
secured and tightened np an ordinary tomboor or chai
ctitch was formed. Had Saint tut on the idea of the eye-
pcdnted needle his machine would have been a complete
anticipation of the modem chun-stitoh madune.
Hie inventor who first devised a real working maohine
was a poor tailor, Barthilsmy Thimonier, of St £tiennet
who obtained lettwi patiat in France in 1830. In Thi-
Bonier'a appejatos the needle was crocheted, and deacend-
Ing through the eloth it brought np with it a fax^ of
thread which it carried throngh tlie'Btevioaaly.tiuda loc^
and thna it formed a chain on Ae apper sarfaee of tie
fabric 3%e machine was a rather clumsy affiur, made
principally of wood, notwithstanding which b> many ai
eighty were being worked in Paris in 1S41, maVing Biny
clothing, when an ignorant and furious ciovrd wrwi*d
thefBtabliahwent «n.d nearly murdered the nnfortoiiale
inventor. Thimonier, however, was not dieoonrsgad, ftr
in 1610 he twice patented improvemeats oa it, amd in
1648 he obtained both in France and the Unitad Kingdan
patents for farther improvemeats. ^e machine wse then
made entirely of metal, and vastly improved od Cbe Gnrt
model But the troubles of 1818 blasted the prOepeeta
of the reaolute inventor. His patent righta for Great
Britain were sold ; a machine ehowa in the Qreat Ezhj-
bttioD of 1851 attracted no attentbn, and TfaimoniiBr died
in 18BT nnfriended and tmrewarded.
The moat important ideas of an eye-pointed naedl*
a doable thread or lock^ltitch an stnctly of American
.(vigin, and that combination was first coDcuved by
WUter Hunt of New Tork about 1 832-34. Hunt reaiped
nothing of the enormous pecnniary reward which ha*
been shared among the introdnoers ot the sewing maehiot^
and it is therefore all the more aecessaiy tiiat hia great
merit as an inventor should be insiated on. - Heoonabncted
a machine having a vibrating arm, at the eztremi^ <d
vbich ht fixed a curved needle with an eye near i(a point
By this needle a loop of thread was formed jutdtr the
cloth to be sewn, and throng that loop a thread eanied
in an oecitlating shuttle was paaaed, thus making the lock-
stitch of all ordinary tvo-thread machines. Hnnfa inven-
tion was purchased by a blacksmith named Airowamith,
and a good deal wns done towards improving its mecfcanical
details, but no patent was sought, nor- was any aarioiia
attempt mode to draw attention to the invention. Afttf
the soooess of machines baseii on his two devioea ws*
fully established, Hnnt in 18^ applied for a potent; bat
his claim was disallowed on the ground of abandofunoDt.
The most important feature in Honfs invention — the eye-
pointed needle^was first patented in the United Ki«gil«ii
by Newton and Arohbold .in 1841, in connazioB with
and >
Apparently quite UDConecions of the invention of Walter
Hunt, the attention c^ EUas Howe, a native of Bpotcer,
Mass., was di-
rected to machine-
sewing about the
yaw 1843. *
1844 he com-
pleted a rough
model, and ia
1646 he patented
hie sewing ma-
chine (fig. 1).
Howe was thas
the first to patent J
a locb-stitcn me
chine, bat bis in
venUon hod the ^
two essential feat- ,
ures — the curved i
^e-poioted needle
and the nnder-
thread shuttle —
which undoubted-
ly were inveuted
by Walter Hunt
twelve years previously. Howe's invention was sold in
England to William Thomas of Chaapaide, London, a ooraet
manufacturer, for £250. Thomas saonivd in Dbeember
1646 the Rrgli'Fb potent in his own aams^ and enjHnd
SEWING
Eowe On weekl7 wigea ta uiapt the mtkchiDs for hU mutn-
faoturing purpoaea. The career of the inTentot iu London
was chequered and nnEOceeaf nl ; and, baTing pawned hit
American patent rights in England, he retomed in April
1849 in deep povMiy to America. There in the mean-
time the eevring machina ma beginning to excite pt^lic
corioaity, and variona perBona wwe jnaking mBchinee
which Howe found to trench on hii patent rights. The
most prominent of Hie mannfactnrert, if not of ioTentora,
oltimatel; appeared la the person of laaao Herritt Singer,
who in 1861 BBcored a patent for his machine (fig. 2),
and immediatelj
devoted himeelf
with immeDse en-
ergy to push the
fortanes of the
infant industry. ^
Howe now became
alert to vindicate
his rights, and,
After regaining jjr
poeaeBsion of his I
pawned patent, |
he matitntedauita "
MFainst the in-
Mngm. A«.ni.t- F,»i-!ii,.^»^»u«.
moiu amooDt of litigation ensoed, in which Singer figond
as a most obstinate defendant, bnt nltimately all makers
became tribatary to Kliaa Howe. It is calcniated that
Howe i^ceived in the form of lOToltiea on machinea made
np to the period of the expiry of hia extended patent —
September 1B6T— which was also the month of hia death,
a sum of not less than two millions of dollan.
The practicability of machin»«ewiiig being demonstrated,
inventiona of considerable coiginality and merit followed
in qnick ancoessian. One of the most ingeniona of all
the inventors — who worked also wtthont knowledge of
previoQs efTorta — was Mt Ailan R Wilson. In 1849 he
devised the rotary hook and bobbin combination, which
now forms the special featm« of the Wheeler & Wilson
macbine. Ur Wilson obtained a patent for hia machine,
which included the important and effective four-motion
feed, in November 1850. In Febmarj 18&1 Hr William
O. Orover, tailor, of Boston, patented his doable chain-
stitch action, which formed the basis of the Qrover ib
Baker machine. At a later date, In 18fi6, Hr James A. E.
Qibba, a Titginia farmer, devised the improved chain-
atitch machine now popularly known m the Willcoz t
Qibba. These together — all American inventions — form
. the types of the various machines now in common nse.
Several Uiausands of patents have been issned in the
United States and Europe, covering improvements in the
sewing machine ; but, although the efflciency of the macbine
has been greatly increased by numerous aectaeoriea and
attachments, the main- principles of the various machines
have not been aSocted thereby.
In nucliDS sewing tlien us thru nrlatha of atitoh mula, — (1)
tba idmpla chain or tunboar itibih, (S) tbs doable ohsin rtitch,
ud (S) the lock ititoh. In th« fint variety'the nuebfne works
with ■ ringle thread j tba Dthor (dthu ma two, ui upper sad su
under thread.
The stniotUTO of the chsin etltoh ie ihown In tf. S. The needl*
lint deaoends ttrongh tba cloth, than as It begins to aaaeud the
friction of the thiwd ^
ogeinit the fabric le (uf-
fidont to fonn a nnBll m
loop into wblch the f
point of a hook openC-
pleto enters, einani
ind holiUnK the 1 .
while the ueodl* riKfl to it* fiitl height. The feed then moves the
Ubrio lorwanl cno atiteh length, tho hook with ill loop la also
MACHINES
projected h that when
within"- ' — '--
719
tbf cloth
h loop ifl, by mi
loD after it baa
pueed throughita pre^
It the nsedla deacendi Its loop fa^brmad
£ -071001 loop. The hook then relcaaaa loop Ho, 1, leiigs
loop No. 2, and in so doing drsirs np the pnTioiu loop
Into a ititch, chiintike on the nnder lide bnt plain on the upper
mfaoe of tho fabrii^ The aeim eo made ie firm end elutie, but
eaailj nndona, for if at sny point a threed ii broken [ha whSe of
the Hwing oan be nsdil; run ont backwude by polliuK the thread,
iott a* in crocbat worlt. To a oortain extant thie imperfcctlDn
in the chaiu-ititch machine ia DT«rcome in the Willcoi k Qibln
macbine, iu which each ■ - -
twiitad haJT a
The double chala stitch la made by maclunti aaaodated with
the name of OroTei k Baker. Theaomewhat o " ' '
of tba threads fn thia stitch .
ia shown In &g. 4. Tbo
nsder tbrtsd in uds machine
ia iupplied from an ordlnorv
bobbin and Ii threaded
through a drenlor needle ot
pecnlurform. Themocbln*
ia waateTuI of thnad, and tho
aswing fonns a knotted ridge
Eioapt &r apecial nianafaoturing and ornamental pnrpoaes the
mschine is now ia little naa.
The lock atiteh ii that made by all ordinary two-thread aawing
tnacbinea,and is aititch peculiar to machine aewing. Ita atmctun
is, *a ahown in Sg. S, wy limpla, and whan by proper tenuoD
the thrtada interlock with- *
in tbo work the atiteh
I the under aide ot the fabric
along the aarface aa at b, held man or lass tightlf by the
upper loopa. It will be seen that to make the chain ttltcb tho
under thrsad ha* to be paiaed quite through the loop of the upper
thmd. That ii done in two principal wave. By the Snt plan a
amall metal shuttle, holdin« within it* bobbin of thread, ia carried
bockworil And forWoM nndcr the cloth plate, and at each forward
morement it paaaea through the upper thread loop formed by ea«b
■acceadiag atroke of the noodle. Sj^ch ia the principle devised by
Hnnt, introduoed by Howe, and improved by Singer and many
othara. The second piiacipol method of fanning the lock atiteh
eouslsia in sBiiing the loop of the npper thread by a rotating hook,
eiponding tJie loop and paaeing it around a itationsry bobUn
within which ia wound the under thread. The method ia the
inTinCion of Hr A. B. Tilaon, and ia known generally aa the
Wheeler fe Wilson prindnla. Tba rotary hook eeen at ft, f g. fl.
Is ao beTslled and notched that it opens and expands the npper
thread loop, causing it quits to aneloaa the bobbin of under throad,
after which it throw* it off and the so- formed lock stitcb ia pulled
up and tightened either by so independont take-up motion aa iu
recent nucbinea, or by the eiponaion of tho next loop aa in the
older forma. The bobUn A, Wtinilar In torm, and 111 caaa B,
na.<.
nd Botitrli Cisa (Wlieelcr a
fig. S, flt eaaily Into a elnmlar dapreasian within the book, against
which tbay are held by tho bobbm holder a, Bg. 6.
Intermediate Utween the shuttle and the rotarj-hook maohinea
la ths now oacillating-shnttio machine introduced by the Binger
Oo. The shuttle isliook-fonnod, not nnlike the Wilson hook,
and it ouria within it a capaciaQS drr^ular bobbin of thread A,
fig. 7. Thia shuttle is driveo by an oaeilUting driyer eft within
*n uinulir racewsy a a, *nd, instosd ot revolving ocimplotaly
liko tho Wilaon hook, It only oadllatm in »n aro of 160°, ao &r
na aarroa to eatoh and clear the nptier tbroad. Tli* naoUlaMDg-
720
S E X — S E X
Xhmt in Dnmaniu apoi^ ■"">% muhinai tdiptsd lor letCber
work, don-HWlDS, fee, mme ot which Till bs ■llniled tt> nndcc
Baon. [J. PA.)
SEX Since tho article RspRODUcnoH (;.*.) includes
not only Bome accaaat at the reproductiTe proceaees bat
aa ontlioe of the compaiatdve &iutom j of the reproductive
orguu, Mid ereo a somewhat detailed description of the
eiseatial hziuI elementB, it onlj remains here to Diake a
toief anrvej of the more important groups with respect to
the abaence, union, or diatioction of the seiea and to the
aaseciated " secondary sexual characten " which distinctly
male and female organism* to freqnentlf and strikingly
present, and to follow np that ontline of tha morpholc^ical
facts with a brief discusdoa ot the nature and origin of
the sexes and of the theory of reproduction.
CKaraeten t^ the Stxa. — Starting with the Prototoa, we
tad indeed that union or conjugation ot two or more
isdiTidnals ii of frequent if not anivenal occurrence ; yet,
since, at any rate with rare and alight exceptions, no
permanent morphological difference can bo made out which
would entitle ns to speak of mates or females, the group is
generally defined as chaiacterized by the absence of aezoal
reprodnc^on. Without at present 'accepting or rqecliog
tiui riqw, it is convenient to poetpooe its discussion until
tlie origin of *es cornea to be considered.
Fusing to (1m Crsbafani, ws find unoiif[ ths Eydromtduim
the isiM woillj diitinot, ud thii diitinctuni <:^ the teiea hu
cuptioDB, howVTer, c
Ths hishu Madm
Tviaiarta, which is a
■ ■ " aad
, ... ksfma uid leo^th of ths prehuuila
(Amlia). Oftryaaora, liow«iT«r, ii hamu^hinUts. mis Sipltmo-
iHypTMsnt both saxss within > nngl< eolan j, — thsgeuo-
f^fai
MnsHypTMsnt i
I thsmsslns bei
ritiiina nn^i edan j, — fhsgeuo-
rar, tukistnaL In ■ bv aiss
{JppUmta wwtria, Dtfkyti sanafawfti) the colony itself is sntiralj
mus or IndsIs. Tlia Oltnaitma an innritbljr baimsphrodite ;
and among tha BtxaMnia tnis ia fnqsently thongli not gcnenUT
n oocurring {Otrardia),
the colony itaelf is sntiraW
inTuf-'- '- '—'•'-
freqnmtly
Huonie* eren i . . .
Aianif ih* dtacUiia the sum *n nnuUy diitini .
•• the oolouica are coueanitd, j»t th*r* sn muir ernptioD*, *./.,
Cbnriiiww, which hu mila, family sad hennsfliradita polypi on
ths luia Hock. ' Ba« HtDIOeOi, Coaiu, fcs.
Tha XcluMidtnnata an •rtty rarely haniuphiodita (Synigila,
^mpknvn Huonuta), but Kconduy saxiul cbuactaim mra almost
nnlmown. Thfoiu, bowevu, hu ths Buls orifiw on * amall pro-
tabarancc. Sae Sokihodekiiata.
Fiobabljr no ioTsrtebnta gronp pitaanti ao nried and iutcnat-
inff a aeriea of aHEial phcDomena aa the VtmuM. Thna the
Mmm exhibit that nmatlubls SModitlon of hcnnaphroditisii
with aaaznal-nptodiution which ao fraqaantly raenti in orguiimi
of TegetstiTe habit The Braclilapodi alio an henna|ihradita, u
alao an the Oligoohctaa ; tha PiifAata only siotptioaally io;'
SOBM ilfinidm) exhibit Moondary anoal shuutan ao mil mailiad
ss to hare bees miitaksn for speeifla or iTen ganarie ones, nie
FMJ^ilwtiiUlM with few sgmeptlans ara bsnnaphigdita ; th«
Nemertaana (except Seiiatia) tn nmacrnul ■■(] oceaBiaptBy
rarely hwiiuphMdha {^jgoria Aledytn], bat pceamt nry
being nanal^ ncogniialda 1^ soalkt
Spiailas or ela^io* iot oopolatka
an also preaent. In StnHgghu the tenale ii cuiied hy tsa msk
in a ventral foirow. The alMinut uematold SekimiirkipidHiM h
alio dliBCioDa. SagfUa ii harawhioditei Salaneglimit* ■piaemil,
bat withoat HCODduy eeiaal diBnokoa Same of lbs moat
itrildng caasa of aexul diUbornhiBn are pceeenttd br the Sat^/in,
where the oiile ia often a Gulen HpiiamtatiTa at tha apecifie
type praaanlad by tha ftenala, having not only greatly '^i'-'"*'*— '
in nB bat having tmleigoDe thoimi^ degiaantlou in atroctaie,
tho allmenlan eanal eaucisUy bfming mneeiiiiliiit by a mare
imperfbiata thnid of cell). Nor are mch caeet of mala dagenv-
■tion by any means confined to this gnmp : a vet more atrifciBi;
initance is pnientad by tho GephyrMn BaulSa, in wUck Oa
OTidact ot iht large and wall-grown lUiiiIe eoatalaa a nanbcr
of ilmoet mieraaco|do dilated TDrballaiiu.lookiDg panaitaa, which
hava been ahowa to be ths dcgensrata males. The oQier ApAyna
pnacnt no auch axbaoedlDary dimorfAism, while the DiKffim
are hecmaphrodite. Sea Polixdi, BaacHlopODi, AjnrKmu, Ha-
Hiaisam PLaxuuir^ TanwoiM, BaantA, uxoa, kc
Among Cnstaoeans tlu miles sn ftaqnently emallar or rdativaly
dwarflih, aomettmsa attached panMsaUy to tha female, and tha
aexea ere genorallv dietingoiihahlo at leatt ij diffeimeea in tha
straetoi* u aome oi the appendages, — geneiall]', howner, in evidsat
relation to tbeii reapacbve fopctiona. AraoDg tho Copspodi tba
eexea are aeparate, and a marked tenden? to dimarpUaB ia
manifeitad, avan among the free-living forma ^kia la atimetiiare
manif eeted io a way wUcb anggeata the aexnal magnlSeenca af
the higheat -"'■"■'■ i thna^r i~-t-imt, the mab S^f/UriuM haa
the bnllianoa of a gem. With the appcaraDoe of paiaaitiem is
the gnap the reiatiaaetlve relations beeoaM profonndly ——""-' ;
thoa it 11 tha afwaya leea activa female which fnt becomes aaala
and pareaitio ; the male oocaaioDally pennanently retaina ft«adi«B|
as in the oommoaJViieoMMof the laMei'agill;nion anally, how-
ever, be aattlee down baalde or even upon the female end heeoaie
mote or leea oompletaly.epi-paiaaltk^ indergoing a mora thortfa^
d^BoentloD than the female hetaeU. The analagaaa agiia mm
tree to panuitia forma faniahed by the (tencoda and Oirriftdim
ate yet inon nmirkabla in their acoaal dagenoatioa, aiaoa not
onlydoaa heimaphroditisa beooms the rule, but 'eomplaaiaitatj
malea" (moat Inqaantly two to caie Ennale] iMeai. Theae an
otteily d^Boeiatii in dxe and atmetofa, ia uet <rflaa «ite
uiincognizabtD aa Cirripedet at all, miuh less ss msmbsn at da
aune apeciea, eava tor their developmentnl bletoty and tiia «*<■*—*«
of a tew Intarmadleta degreee of dageneratjoa between fb» noimni
and the loat CirHpede otnaistlon, t-f., lUa o> Bmlftttiim, wbaea
the males of eoow ipaciea ttOI tetaln diri andbnSMl ldsoa& la
some eaaea st least their mala Tepndnctlve fsnctlen aaama to be
early In larval lif^ beftoi* tha exchange of bae te
■charnd early In larval lif^ bd
Mile habite, their sabseqoent life
even In Jfut
Tod Siebold e
withoat finding
fnqnent
tenda to
icnaanda of apecimeaa dniiig twelve yean
a male ; in other yean, however, haa
malea have rinoe been foimd. Beeidea
ths oaoal eopolatoiy modUcationa of appandagea the malea of acaa
Pbyllopode nave non olfhotary Uamsnta on the antaniiB. In
Amphipods similar diffarsiaeea nave bean noted ; in laopoda theee
often beooms tnnch moia marked,— anmatimea.aa in the «'—'*■'
eaae of Atmlsn snd .rfwnia, reaching a d«Tee at dimorphism with-
out dsMuention wUoh la hardly eioeededin the animal kingdom,
and which qnita nataially lad to tha aepantion ot the aexea into
Schiiopods exhibit conaideiahle sexual diAnanoai-
atoong the male* the antenna bear larger olbetocy Qomb-like
atractnrea and Utvar abdominal memboa ; oopolstoty appendagea
may alao be apedafised ; while the bmalaa, aa in many laimoda, kc,
have a brood-nouch formed ot overlapping ventral bunalla!. Tbe
diflannt podtioa <tf the eex-openisB and the cbatactMistic farms
of the limba render the aexea eaauy diatingidahabia amoi^ the
Decapoda ; the ernba have an obviooaly broader abdomen id the
female (aee Cxtwtacu). Among tha Anukwiila, the anbaie
king-cratM already ataow eligfat external aex-dilfarenaa ; among
the Riidera the malea have a maiiUaiy palp qieciaUy modiBed for a
copolatory oraau, an adaptation which, nanHated with thdr
often extnmely small we, ia of great importance in aiding their
eecapa froin thdr l^jgar and ferodoo* mataa. Some apeeiee ef
naridhm have a itridalating apparatia. The mala acorpigiia
on the other band aeem to poaeeaa a rather ilrouer dsrdopment ;
1b ths jttarUm the smiUw male* ar* mote distinct);
SEX
fttatm anpBndagM moilifiod for tttuhmmt, and •ciDMtfma nti<n
M, tm bauit or lifa u di^ingiiiAlud from tJta paruitic fBiuAlei.
Sw Akachhida.
Among InaKtd the hih aro diitiaffDiBhed b^ TBi^ing nodifica'
tjona of diSeront parti of tb« bodji, and dilFcreaca in ganonl fon
,f«qn..
mllf utiTS
mon txaatlfal, usd Ham bettar endowed with kok or^ju, tlioiigh
tuqaIIj BTnaJler tliui the fomoloa. The nuJea have ilso a pn-
In wlation to thia thaitSo pejchology of ki can tint Iw aaid to
come within tht raoge of observation. Thui tha fioldcrickct is
■aid to lower tlio tone ol hie song whils caroaiap the if male with
bii aatuiDB. In th« poruitio rorraa dimorpliism. u might be
•KMcCad, beroinei Tery marked ; in Slriptijitera the nuitea an free
and winged, while th» females are blind and wingleu, in fact,
panaasentlf brral. Similar caiei occur in other otden, the glow-
worm being probably the moat familiar initana. In parasitic or
abondantly nonriihcd forma parthonogeneaia Terv ftonnently
appsan, th* extreme can being presented bj Cceidomyia, a At
Which tihibita rapid earthen ogeiiclic reprodnetlon in tht larral
fraqnentlj acqtiire* the moat extraordinary ■pecUliiitiona of
aM«ni>l form, has received eapecisl attention from Darwin, whoas
Detant iff Van includu the fullcsE detaila Here it ii enough to
mention that Belchensn baa recently ^inted out the eooitilence
of the larger aiio and relatiTa inactivity of the male with the
praaence ol these fuiictionlese outgrowths. The beeutjful saiual
dimorphiwn eo oommon among the Lepidoptera need not be more
.i._ _._.,__.. .. .. _i:._ jgg rtjm.rk.ble aeiaal
differtntiatioa of HymnuipUra (bea,
be aaaumenl to be inlflciently familiar. See Ihsicti
Inaereral miva {DipUn, Ltpidoptira, ColmpUra)
pbtam oocnr among the females thenuolves, or ei
males ; as many aa three forms of femaica han be
9, Asra, 'Btia.
branclia, of which aome genera (moat apeciaaol < . ,
are, hoveTsr, hermaphrodite. The Ptaropodi, Pnlnoiuite*, aad
I, iVUa, Jic )
_..,._, noutes, aad
ProMhrmiKlia, Heleropoda,
■Opitthobrancfa are bcmiaphrodi
and Cephalopoda uniieiual. Thoorii elight diShieiMe* bare I
deecribod even in LameUibranch ehell* (I'nta), and the«f4
internal anatomy of the essential and acceaaory ' '
hiffh oompteiitf, the eitnordinsry phi
^l!".
d w^
iphalopod tn the ooiy marked
>f that seiual dimoTpbisDi which reachea its
;. (See UoLLUECA, CuTrLK-nBi).) The
AniplUmut, howerer, )s
Among Fiahee hermiphtwiitisi
is aitrtnielr
:ed by the mc
cUipers, dc, and are at the lerroductiTe period
.^ — j_i._Li_ r — ,u. e. — 1_ ^ It,;- i.J.1,...
pel»ic limla ...
.aften readily diBtinguishable from the femalea n their brighter
-colour or other cutaneous changes, snch as ruffling of tiM ikin.
Jlale and female raja are readily also distroguisliable by their toeth
-aud dermal defenciia. The booked jaw oF the male salmon gi'ea
lim a chiracleriatio physiognomy dnriug the breeding teason. The
carp nndei^oea a tort of epidermic eruptioa at the aime [lerjed ;
mate and female ecla, too, are said often to become diatingoishabia
iboth in colour and BhBf>e. BtridulntiDg apparatus may be present,
notably in the Siluroida. |3ae loHTHTOLOor.) Among Amphi-
iluani the bright donal ci«st of the male Itewt l* perhaja the moat
latriUi^ ot sex dutinctions, but many male frogs and toads have
'rocal air saca, epidtrmal cal]<nties, and some {Cwtripes, Ptlobaia)
-poneaaa gland under the fore-limb. |See Akpbibia.)
AnongthaOphidiana the molea are smaller, and hare longer and
more Blender tails ; the warn, too, diiTer aometimei In colour and
markinga. Hale Chaloniaua, too, have aometimea longer taila and
claws imd may even give Toice. The anbDiaxiUsT? mnak-gland
of the crocodile la eapecially active in the breeding season ; the
liiarda have timarkahie throat-pouches and creits, which may ba
epidermis or even correspond to cranial outgrovtha, as in the
chameleon.
the minutest detaili, and showing how the higher evolution of
parental can which tho inevitably prolonged embryonic life in-
volvM and the wider range of seiiul aelectiou have co-o]>orated in
nCiated from ^c femalea by the acquirement of
aeoondary leiual chartctera which are mainly either otTensive and
defanuve aidj for bsttls with each other, or which aasist in gaiuing
the admiratJon of the tetnalea ; and theaa may coeiiat or coincjda in
very vationi denwa. Thna acent-glands sre of common occurrenoe
from the Intadimm [perhaps ereu from OmUiorkyncAia) U|iwarda.
Qreatar beauty of markings or mon vivid colour* are acquired, —
In many AnlknpidM (baboons, fce. ] the latter being of pecnliarly
.bly In th
But it ia unnnsationable tliaC in this as in not a few other
rtepMti the birda, rather than the laammala. have ttaohed the
highest stages of evolution. For here seiual chartctera no longer
seem merely superadded or Bnp;>lsmentary to the sppantDS of
individual fife, but habits and orcaniiatiou alike beoome thor-
onghty adapted to these— tho sci-diSnreucea snd the reproductive
functions as it were saturating tha whole life, and iiroducing so
many and marvellous results, in habits and character, in bSButy
and Bong, that it is not to be wondered at thet the descriptive
laboun of the profeBsd omithDlogiat have conatantly riaen into
tboae oC tha artist and eion the poet Sea Dlus, and Darwin's
DcacenI qf llatt.
Ifature aitd DeUminatioH of Stx. — It in not hertt pro-
posed to enter upoo die task of historical renew and
criticinm of the nrioui tbeorie* of aex— wUicb were eati-
mnted at to many aa five hundred at ths beginaiag of tbe
last century, oi even to attempt any sketch of tbe present
very conflicting state of opinion on the subject'
Although our theories of sex may be still vague enough,
ths greatest step to the solution has been mads in Uie
general abandonment by scientific men of tho doubtless
BtiU popular explanation — in terms of a " natural tend-
ency " for tlie production of an ezcasa of males or the like.
It is DOW held that " quality and quantity of food, elevation
of abode, conditions of tempenttaro, relative age of parents,
their mode of life, habib, rank, ix., are all factors which
have to be considered." The idea that the problem of the
nature of sei is capable of being approached by empirical
obeervatitHi of tha nombvs of different sexea prodseed
under known sets of conditions, and the obvious piaetkol
corollary of this, viz., that tha proportion of the sexes mnst
therefore be capable of bdng experimentally modified and
r^ulated, ire conceptions iriiich have steadily been aoquir-
iog prominenoe, especially of late. In short, if we can
find how sex is determined, ve shall have gone far to
investigate sex itself.
One of the most crude attempts has been that of
Canestrini, who Bscribes the determination of sex to the
nomber of sperms entering the ovum, but this view has
been already demolished by Fol and PflOger. The time of
^rtiJiiation has also and apparently with greaU^ weight
been inaiated upon ; thus Thury, followed by Diising, holds
that the eex of the offspring depends on tl^ period of fer-
tilization : an ovum fertilized soon after liberation prodncea
a female, while the fertilitation of an older ovum produoea a
male. This view has been carried a atep farther by Hensen,
who atiggeets that the same should probably hold true of
the spermatosoA, and thus tbe fertiUiation of a yonng ovum
by a fresh sperm would have a double likeiibood of result-
ing in a female. There are some obeervatioos which
support this: thus Thury and other cattle-breedern have
clumed to determine the sex of cattle on this priiicipl«^
and Girou long ago alleged that female flowers, fetiilued
as soon as ^y are able to receive pollen, jffodnced a
distinct excess d female offspring.
Qreat weight haa also been laid on the relative age of
the parents. Thus Uofacker, bo long ago as 1828, and
Badlet a conple of yean later, iodcpendently pnbli^ed a
body of statistics (each of about 2000 births) in favour of
the generaliiation (iiiDce known aa Hofacker's and Sadler's
law) that when the male parent is the elder the offitt>ring
are prepopderatingly •sale : while, if the parentii be of the
eame age, or a JoriJori if the male parent be yonoger.
^ Aa for rtprodactloQ In general, ao for aex, the most convenient
stsrting-point is the work of HcDseD{"Dis Zanguiig, " In IlerBiaan (
Jldli. d. Pkyiialogit], while other diiiartaUou am to ba foond In tha
leading maaaala of roology and botany, eapecially, however, in special
papers too DuzDeroiu to rDontiob. See alao RaFKonm.Tioir, and for
fuller bibliographical detalli see Oeddes, " On ths Theory of Growth,
Baproductioa, Sex, snd Huadlty," Pnc Sof. Soc SJin., ISM.
XXL — gi
7S6!
SEX
f«nale oSapring kppetr in incnMiiig m^arity. lHus view
W been aoufirmed t^ Qoehlart, Boolajiger, Legoj^ and
Othen; Kune bresden of horses, cattle, and pigeoUB have
also aoeepCed it. Odier Ineeden, however, den; it alto-
C' ' ir ; monMYor, the ceoant statiiticB of 8tisda and of
er (takan iudependentlj from Alsaoe-Lomune and
ScaudiiMTia) teem to stand in irreeoncilabLi contcadiction.
At any rate pJt preeent we do not leBm jiutified in ascribiag
greater importanoe to the reUtive age of parents than ata
Moondai; factor, which ma; probably take its place autoog
thoM caosee inflnenciug QonriahmeDt discoBsed below,*
That good nooriabtaent appears to produce a dUtinct
preponderance of femalei is perhaps the single resnit
which can at present be regarded as olearlj proven and
generallr accepted. Tet it would ba too mnch to say that
nnanimity ii ersn here complete ; thoa, ainong plan^ the
experiments of Qiion (1833), Haberlandt (1669), and
ault; those of H^yer (l86S)
andt (1669),
of Heyer ^1
tli0 genM^ia
altogether, idiile Haberlaadt (1877) bronght arideiuM iix
reguding the hesN of fenalea aa largely due to tba greater
BMrtali^ of the nwlea. The investigatioDa of agrionltmal
obawraM, eapedally Haehan (1878), whiah are wentially
oorrobMated by DOaing ( 1883), however, leava littla doabt
that abnndaat moiitnrB »nd nonridunant tand to pcoiai»
funalea. Some of Meehan's p^ts tr« axtramely inatmo-
tive^ ThnsoldbraiuiheacrfOMiifaraovergtownanddiaded
'n'TOtinger ones prodnoe only male inflc
vAich n
l> may be taken in connexioo with Sadeback's obser-
TCtion that aiKne fern prothallt^ under nnfaronraUe a>a-
ditioni^ can itill f<vm anthfridia bnt not archc^onia. The
formation of female flowcn on male heads it maiBe i*
ascribed by Enop to better nutrition consequent on abnnd'
ant moisiare. The on^ Mtioaily eonttadictory observa-
tiona are dun thoM of H<7er, and it is therefore naaanring
' ■ '■ r shows his iU<on-
dneted uperimenta (which land him in tbecondnaon that
the ommam is not modifiable by its environment at all)
to be largely capable of a levenad interpretation, .l^e
ic; of temperature is also ot oODsidecable importanco.
s Heehan finds that the male plants (^ huel grow.
agMu; o
'Abs H«
states that Sfralute* tMtU* bears only female fiowers
wMh of nS* lat, and from 50* sonthwarda «ily mala ones.
Other instances mi^t be given.
Fnsdng to the animal kJngdtnn we find the nse of
insects pecoliarly clear ; thns Mrs Treat showed that if
■atarpillars were starved before entering the chrysalis
state the rcmltant bntterfliea or moths were males, while
others of the same tuvod highly noarished came out
females. Gentry too has shown tat moths that innnM-
tiooa or diseased food prodoced males ; hence perhaps a
partial ezplaaa&n (rf the excess of male insects in autumn,
altbou^ lempenttare is prob^dy more important. The
recent experiments of Tnng on tadpoles sse also very
concInsivB. Thus he raised the percentage of famalea in
one brood from 56' in those onfed to 76 in those fed wiOi
beef, and in another supply from 61 to 81 par cent by.
feeding with fish ; while, when the eepecially nutritions
fleah of frog* was supplied, the percentage rose from 64
to 92. Among mammals the difficnltiea of proof are
greater, but evince is by no means wanting. Thus an
important ezpMiment was long ago made by Oiron, who
divided a fiaat. of 300 ewee into equal parts, of which the
one half were extremely well fed and served by two young
rams, while the other was served by two matnre rams and
pocrly ted. The propwtioa of ewe lambs in the two cases
was reapeetivaly 00 and 10 per cent. Dflmng also states
that It ii usually the heavier awM which tmng forth ewe
Nor does aez fn the bnman speciea appeu to V
independcDt of differences of nutrition. After achiAa
epidemic or a war more boys are said io be b«n, nj
Diising also points out that in femalea with amaB plucais
and little menstruation more boys are fonnd, and ens
affirms that the number of male children Tariee witli tk>
rise in pricee. In towns and in piospeMUS familin Itm
are also more females, while males are more namenu is
the conntry and among the poor.- TikS influence of Itei-
peratnre is also marked : more malea are bom dnrii^ tS>
colder months, a fact noted also by Bchlechter tor lionM.
The beat known and probably still most inSaeutkl
theory is that systematized by Oirou and known as thst d
" compoiative vigour." This makce eex of offering depend
on that ot the more vigoroos parent. Bat to this iter
there are eerious difficultieB : ibuB conaomptive mottwt
jovdnce a great excess of daughters, not sons as mi^ la
ejected from the superior health of the &ther. Still In
wei^ can be attached to that form of the hypothn
which would make sex follow "genital saperiwi^' v
"relative ardency" alone. Any new theory has ^u to
noondle the arguments in favonr of each of the prtcediq
views, and meet the diffienlliee whidi beset aU. ii
Staikiveather puts it, it must at once acoount for aid
facb as " the preponderance of male births in Znn^ if
femalea among mulattoa and other hybrid rftoei^ as sk)
among polygamona animals, and iot the eqnali^ usODf
other animiJs. Hon especially it muat anggcst bdm
principle of aelf-a4}ustment by whii^ not only ii At
Manoe of the sexes nearly preserved on the whide, bat t;
which also in esse erf qtedal diatnrbance the hluct
tenda to rea4J'>*t itad£" Stai^weatlieir praeeeJ| t>
attempt thi^ and his argument may be briefly samnis,iwl
While few wmhhajii my easratial equality of Aa im»,
and still fewer any superiiui^ of &» female^ tbe wai^ of
authority has been from the earlieat times infitvooretAi
doctrine of male superiority. From the eariieal igt
phikaophers have contended that woman is hot sa sw
veloped mai^j Darwin's theory ot sexnal aelactioaJrMip
poses a aaperiority in the nuJe line and entailed oi tU
Bsx ; for %ienoer the development of wwnan is ea^
arrested hj proereative functions : in alu^ Sarwia'sHi
is as it were an evolved woman, and Spencer^ wnmaa n
arrested man. On such grounds we ItaTe a nnailM it
theoriea of sex. Eou{^ thinks males are boni when At
system is at its beat, man females when oecopied ia
growth, ' repantaon,. or diseaa^ Bo, too, Tiadnaa sad
others regard every embryo as originally frasle aid
remaining female if aneated, while Velpaa ccovenitT
regards embryos aa all natnrally male^ bnt fiequntlr
degenerating to the female state. Starkweather panto (ut
some of the difficnltiea to the view of female inAricritji
and lays it down as the foundation of hia woik tU
"neither sex is physically thesnperiM', bnt both are mmo-
tially eqnal in a physiolo^cal sensi.* But, while tliia ■
true of the average, there are many grades of indiiW'*
differences and d^ciencies Iq detail, involvingagrestmw
less degree ot superiority in one or other ot ava^ pair.
Starkweather's theory then is " that sex is detennW b]
the superior parent, also that the superior parent ptodttaj
the opposite sex." The arguments adduced in- favonr of
this view, however, are scarify worthy ot it, aiiKK^ >^" '
chapter of paendo-phymoli^cal discnasiou of vital AxcM
and polarities, of anperiority, — nervona, electrical, ^'
they rest mainly on the vagne and shifting graaiid> >
physiognomy and temperament And when ■npenci^,''
analyaed into its factoiB, — cerebral developmant tad K<i<'
ity, temperament stale of health, of nutrition, ie.,—if>^
we find under the appearance of simplicity a lair kai bM
obtHMd not by diMoVeriiv wj nal mil; tmdar tb uff
Sfi X
725
ttpfuto.^ diffbtent fftctOTS, but hj umplr lumping tlem
tutdtO' a conmoQ nama. Notisa ratLoDale giveaof tbe
•iBrmed nverail of aez, which BchlectiUr and other
anthoritJBB moreover whoU; deny. Dcapite these and
other fanlta and fulores the work ia inteteBting and often
BUggsftiTe, and that not onlj^ on acconot of its theoretic
potition bat its Mmgoioa proposals for the piactical ooaltol
of MX.
Tha work of Dasing (1883), while less specuIatiTB, is of
great importance in reapect to the causes which ragulata
the proportions of the sexes ; siaco, inetead of falling tack
with Darwin on tbe uneipUined operation of natatal
■election, he seeks to note the circnrnfUncBs in which a
m^jorit^ of one sex ia profitable, and to show that
oTganiims have really the power to produce in such circum-
stancea a mqori^ of one sex, — in abort, that distorbancea
in die propco'tion of the sexes bring about their own
compensatioo, and further supports these news by calcula-
tion and atatistieal flvideoce.
Hs Mpants ths oowi det«nii!iiing Bi into tlioH iflectiiw (a)
ana panat u)d (ft) both ilike. Starting with s niinont7 of ana
to, M ampliuina tils importuiw olda&ysd fcrtiliation, uxept-
ing It ss ■ bet tbtX ttmili* lats fertilizKL bsar moat malts (thia
eomspooiling in nuu to a tcMtitj of milei unong lh« lower
uimal*). Ba notei that the fliitbom cliild ii most frequently
s mala, aapacloUj among oHer penona, and thui eiplaini ho*
afta a war, when there ia a want of malei, mott male chjldren an
bun. Ha aieiibM importanoa to the amount of iciual interconna.
Thn^ nppoaa a minoritj of femilBi : their fectiliiation tenda to
oeenr uon frequently, and thui (if tha general ilatament ba
dOTTact) thar ahoald prodoos • majority of thoir own aei, or
dmilarlr wllta malta. Thia ia anpportaJ by refarenca to cattlt-
braading, and it Is intarpnted phyiialogicall} to iaTolra (hat
jouDg spansatozoa prodace a m^i»i^ of males. Snppooe a great
tt^foiitj at malM : tba ebsnccs of early fertiliaatiiin oFthe femalet
ara of ootuva great, bat egga fartilized early tend to prodnca
tamaha. Or snpposa 0ODT»r*elya great minority of main: tha
cbanaa of aarlj fartiliaatioo ara email, hat old egga tend to
noduoa malaa, and aither exean will tbua became compeisated.
Or again, tha more decided the minori^ of one sex tha mora
ftaqoaot tha nxusI aotJTity of its iDdiTiduals, the yoanger (hair
■exnal alBmeuta,and conaaqoantly the mare indiridnalt afihat lei
are prodnoed. DHaing next take* up *e indirecl caoaea eqoiTalent
to a mioority of indi^dnals-^) deficient notrition ; juat >i fr«-
qoant Bopolation orerttraine tlia geoitU orgena the aama reaolt
nay arisa from tbe defideot oatritioD of the ayitem ; henca an ill-
tad ODV yialdi a female to a well-fed boll and via verta ; (») nlalira
age ; ths nsanr either parent ia to tha period of greataet raproduc-
axt capacity tha lea^ ha thinka, ia a birth of that ui probable.
As botoca aSeoUng both {arents ha fint diicnaan nrtntieiia in
nutrlUon ) althongh maan* of inbsiatence may decreaaa, there ii at
Artt DO damaaaa in the aumbor of progeny, fiat it ia necmarr to
diatiigniah tha reprodDction of tba nwciea from ita multiplicadoa,
•a that in dafaotiTs DDttitioQ, thoogh an animal may not raproduca
IsM, it will pannanently multiply much Icaa. He agreea with
Danrtn that tha raprodtLotiia ayatem ia moit (eantiTe to changta
of nntritiao', giTea caaea ihowiDg the eS'ect of abundant nntritum
on rapTodnotiva acUvit^, notia ths inftnenca of dtmata, tanctian,
*a., andoontmataorganiameofhiEh aotiTity, like birds and inaecta,
with pataaitaa. Tba UDtritiTe relationa of the aeiea are also
onatiaatad ; ^oe tamalee bava (o gire to tba embryo more than
tbe mala, thay an much more dependent on food (or vigour of
their raprodnijaTe cupacily, and hencs tha (Sequent oontraat of
their aiia, ftc Furthermore, aolmali anit their mnltlpliciCion lo
their cooditiona of natrition ; if food be abnndant then la an
increaea in the number of fsnudee, and thsratora a further increaae
in number of iodividuali of the apocies ; if food, bowsTer, bs too
riora males ara produced and the nnmher of ths ipacies
ninish. Hanoo the connsiion above montionod between
ehildnu (npsdally femalei) in prosperity and after a
.. __i .1.. ,i,j^g proportion ol^ boys during a rise of
tends to di
good harveat,
8 rices. Similarly fi:
lie mora rapidly thi
and the leaa rapid the'
mora female flowers a
ipeciea
;^iii
ire food thj
; the less food the mare mala
plantaon good soil produ!
owera preponderate, mostly perieh, and the speeiaa
tenda to disappear. The extreme cue of optimum nutrition tends
• ''— --irmal parthenogeneala ("thelytokie"), yielding onl^
'B«sDltafan,/ia^ii(sri*r.,]g86; Starinraathar, £av ^ &i, 188^,
Thtory of Btprodvditm and Sac. — If we now attempt
to reach a rational standpoint from which to criticize and
compare tha innumerable empirical conceptions of sex, —
much mora if we seek a firm basia for the conatraction of
a really compreheneiTe theory, — it ia evident that such
a theory moat be addreaaed not merely to tha apecialist
concerned with problems of reprodaction and development,
bn^ while embradog details and anomaliea, must be aatia-
&ctory alike to the general morphologiat and phyiio-
logiat. We mnat therefore lutTe before us that conception
of the main lines of thought on each of these antijects
which has been outlined nnder the headings PsTBtoLoor
and UoBPROLooT.
The cloee cmncidence between these two independent
developments ii especially to be noted. From the vague
account of general form and appearance, of haUta and
temperaments, which made Dp the descriptive natural
history of tha paat, tha two alreams of progress, thoogh
distinct, are wholly parolleL Thus BnSon furnished a
brilliant and synthetic exposition of the oldest view, while
one aide of their general aspect received new preeiaion at
the hands of Linniens, — to some extent tbe other also at tbe
handaof biaphyHiological contemporariea. The anatomical
advance of Cuvier is paraUel to the detailed study of the
functions of the organs, while the great step made 1^
Bichat lay in piercing below the conception of tbe organ
and its function at nltimate, and in seeking to interpret
boUi by reference to tbe component tisanes. The cell-
theory of Schwann and his saccessora analysed theae tisanes
a atep farther, while the latest and deepest analyais refera
all atrnctnre ultimately to the substance called protoplasm,
and aimilsrly daima to express all function in terms of
the construction and destruction, ayntheus and analysis,
anabolism and katabolism of thia. See PaTBioioor, Proto-
PLiBH, MoarsoLOOT.
Now, since every morphological and physiological fact or
theory is in one or other of these few categories, it ia
evident that we have here the required criterion of theories
of reproduction and sex. The question What is sexl what
is meant by mala or female 1 admits of a ngular series
of answers. Tbe Srafr and earlieat is in terms of general
aspect, temperament, and habit, and, tboagb crude, em-
pirical, and superficial, it lacks neither unity nor tuefolnesa.
At thia plane e,n not only most 'popular conoeptioua but
many theories like that of Starkweather, whidi may be
mentioned ea the most recent The anatomist oonteDta
himself with the recognition of specific organs of sex, or at
moat with a similarly empirical account of their functions ;
while the embiyologist and histologist will not rest con-
tented withont seeking to refer these organs to the tiaaues
of which they are composed and the layer from which theiy
spring, and even reaches and describes the ultimata cellular
elements essential to aex, — the ovnm and spermatozoon. A
parallel phyeiolt^cal interpretation of these ia next required,
end at thia point appear such hypotheses oa these of Weis-
mann and others.
Thua the bewildering tnperabnndance of widely dif-
ferent theories at the present jnnetnie becomes intelligible
enough; and, each once classified according to its stage
of progress, a detailed criticiam would bs easy. But this
is not enough : the demand for nn eiplnnation at once
rational and ultimate, to comprehend and underlie all tbe
preceding ones, it only the more urgent Where shall wa
seek for it I On the one hand the morphological aspect of
toch an explanation must interpret the forms of sex cells
in terms of those of cells in general, and in terms of the
structural properties of protopUtm itself ; while its more
difficolt yet more satisfying physiological aspect mnat
eipreaa ijio myaterioos difference of male and female in
terms of the life procesaee of that protoplasm, — in terms.
724
S E X — 8 E X
thftt u to aaj, of uaboIUm and katabtJiim. Were tleu
atepa mada a new ajntheais would be reacbed, and from
tbEa point it ihonld area next be possible to tetracs the
progMM of the Bcience, and interpret the turms and the
fUDctiona of tiaanea and organs, naj, even of the facta of
A^Mct, habit, and temperament, so fnrniahtng the deductive
i&tionale of each hitherto morelj empirical order of ob-
aervad fact and connectiag tlieor;.
Thfle this oOSoeptioD d«a Dot admit of dBTalapment vltbiii
the pi«auit limita,' ■ brief Bbatruit of nch in intscprstatlon of
npndaoUDD and of sex In tsrma a( anaboUmu ut4 katsbollsm ma;
bg af intsrot to th« rudsr. The thioiT of rspradncUon, Id
gcaara] prineipt« at t«aat, ia aimpla cnoDgh. A BontinDad tnrplaa
<n uuboUim iDTolTea snwth, and the aattlnp in of raprodnction
vkea gnnrth (topi Impliei a nlativt katabolum. Thin in ihort
b mtnl; a Bum pieciae leatatamant of the lamllur antltheili
betwaaa notiltiaa aad TapTodoctiaa. At fint thia diaintagration
and rdnlagiatloii antinlj aifaaoat the organiim and conclnds iti
iodlTidnaraxiiteliea, but aa we awwnd the nroceaa becomo* a more
ud nor* loeatiiad one. Tbe orinn of this locallntion of the
reprodnctiTe fanction maf beat m nndaraUod ir m figure to
oamlrea a (ragmnit of the ganealogical tru of the evolntioniat in
Kraater detail, and bear In mind that thia ia made up of a con-
flnnona alternate aeiie* of enHnll aad o^aniaDi, tbe ot^anlam, too,
becoming leae and leM diittngnbhed fima ita parent »U aatil the
two pratSeallr ooindde in the iMMao, vrhleh ahould be defined not
■o mach aa " organiama devoid of aexaal teprodDddon " but ratbet
aa Dndlfferentiatsd nprodoetiTe odla (protoaMnna or protora, aa
tber might in taut b« called), which hiTsnot buElt np round them-
aeiTBa a bodj. Wo .hoold note, too, how the oontinuona Emmortal
atnam of Protouan life (aee Fbotoioa) la continoed bf that -ol
ordlnaij raproduotire «tli BiaoDg the higher animals, for the mor-
talit7 of tbeae do«a not tWect thu continuity any more than the ,
(all of tearea d«a the continued life of the tree. The interprsta- '.
tloa of aei la thna leaa difficult than might at lint eight appear,
Tor anabcliam and kataboliam cannot and da not abaalutely bal-
ance, ai til the taiita of reat and motion, nutritioa and leprodno-
tion, Tariatiou and diaaaae, in abort of life and death, clearly abow.
During ilia aeltber proceaa can completely atop, but their algebraic
■am kean Tarylag within tbe wideetlimita. Let ue note tbereanit,
■tarting tram the nndiBerentiated amcaboid cell A anrplna of ana-
bolinn orer kataboliam inrolTee not only a growth in aize but a
redaction ia kioetio and a gain in potential energy, i.i., a diminu-
tion of mOTement IrrecaJaritifla thua tend to diaappear ; aurfaca
tenatoli too may aid ; and the cell act^nira a epberotdal form. Ttit
large and qaieecent ovam ta thna intelligible enoug^h. Again atarting
from the amceboid oell, if katnboliam be in iacreamng prepondaranoa
the inereaaing liberation of kinetic aner^ thua implied muat ftud
ila outward ejpiuMlun in increased activity of moTemont and in
dirainlabad liie; the more actiTe cell becomee modified in form
_• throogh Itl fluid enTimnment, and the flagellate form
ke aponnatoioon la thua natural enoughs It ianotew«thy, too,
toMi these phydologioally Doimal cBaulti of [he rhythm of cellular
lift, tba raitiii^ aSoebiud, and dUats tonus, are pieoiaely thoaa
lAioh wa empuieall/ reach on morphologicM grounds alone (see
HoiraoLOOT, ToL itL p. 811).
Qtieo, flken, the conc^oD of ths oellnlar Ufa rhythm as capable
of tbm paadng Inta a diatdnotly anabolio or katabolio halnt or
distbesla, tba ezplaoationaf tha phenomeDaof reprodactioii bscomee
oaly a epedal luld within a more general Tiew of straetare and
fnndJoD, nay eren of rariatian, nonoal and pathologica]. Thua
tha ^anaiali^, Dae, and Datora of the praceaa ot^fsrtiliiatioa become
readily intalugibla. The profonnd chemical difference annniMd by
■0 many antlmr* becomea intellicible u the ontcome ol anabolEam
and kataboliam renactiTely, and tbe union of tbeli products aa
rastoclna thanonnal balance and rhythm of the renewed mllnlat life.
'WUhont dUondng the dstaila of Lhla, farther than to note bow
it nnaua tlie (peaolattcBa of Bolpb and othen a& to the origin
ef IMilintion tnm mntnal digestion, of the reprodootlTe from Uie
nntritiTe f nnctioD, we may note how they illualiala m this Tlew that
origin of tartiliaatioB thna canjagatlon which ia the eentral problem
of the oatoganjr and phy1«[feny of aai. Tha fbniation of polar
veeiolea asenu thai an erirasien of katabolio (or male) elemanta,
and coDTeiael^ ila analognea in spermatoseneMa (aee BaraoDuo-
Tioa). Passing ore( anch tempting a[^Gcatioas aa that to the
explanation of a^mentaldon and even aobaeqaeat derelcpmental
ohangeL It mnat anffloe to uots that the eonataat iniiatanoa of
•mbryokigialB upon tba phyalolegical importansa of flie embnonic
1 — _v u.ii -vJi li J — 1 — jj olina-
l^naatg* tl
of the aparma
diseentinnoni growth which wB term asexual reprodaction, i
this again to aexualltf or tbe frequent reverae progreaa ta capable
af rational Interpretatlan In Hke manner: the " altamation of gese-
* Baa psfar hj Qaddaa alieadj maathBad at t- ni, ft
rt (ions ' ta but a rhytiim between a relattnly aaitMdia and tnlslefil
preponderance ; a parthanogaoetio ornm ia an inooBpIatsIy dlBn-
antutcrdoTom which istainiB moasura of katabolio (malejinUil^
and thus doaa not need fertiliution ; Hbila bannapbnKlltiBia ii ilv
to the local prepondemncca oT aiiabolitm or katalioliani la eu k(
of rBprodnotlre cells or in one pencil of their lifa The nnnkit
of unisexnal farois to bemisphrodits onea, or of tbaae to wiul
ones, which we hiTS seen in KOch eanatunC association sritli kink
nntrition and low oxpendituro,' Is no Icngtr Innipllcable. Tij
female sex beiu^ tbus prepoaderatingty anaboUc, tho irapartim g[
good nntrition in determioing it is eiplalited: menstnatloB ia ■■■■
to be the meana of getting rid of the aBaboUc aarplu la slusiii
of its fotal consumption, while the higher taraparatare and gnala
activltiei of tbe male eei exprosa lu katabolio diathaiia. IV
phenomena of tax, then, are DO Isolatad ones, bat eipKB Hx
higheat outcome of the whole actlTitlea of tha organism— tbe litaid
bloeeomlng of the Indlvidoal life. (P. 01)
SEXTANT, an inatrameDt for measniiDg an^ «i lie
celeatial apbere. Tbe name (indieating that the imtn-
ment ia f umiahad with a gradnated arc eqnal to a uitli
port of a circle) ia now only used to dosigmte an iasin-
meat employing leflexion to meaaim an angle ; bit
cnginally it waa introdaced by I^cho Biah^ who <»
atnictad aeTeral sextants with two aighta, one on a tai,
tha other on a movable radius, which the obaerrcf peialtd
to the two objecta of which As angnlu dialanee mi to
be measured.
In tha article NaTiOATiox the instninieata an dMoSM
which were in use before ^le inTention at the raflttti^
sextant. Their imperfectioiu were so evident that tkt
idea of employing reflexion to remove tJiem oeewnJ
independently to saTeral minda. Hooka eontiited tn
reflecting instrnmenta. Tha first is deacribed in his iW-
kumma Worki (p. G03) ; it had only one minor, >UA
Tsflacted the light from one otyect into a telescope >UA
is pointed directly at the other. HooWa second pin
employed two single reflexions, whereby an eye ^aeedit
the aide of a quadrant could at the same tune m tb
images formed in two telescopes, tbe »xea of whid an
radii of the quadrant and which were pointed at the tv)
objects to be meaaured. Thia plan ia deacribed in HMb^
Animadvenion* to tb» Maehina CaUMfi* of Scidva, pik-
lished in 1674, while the first one seems to haTo bm
eommuniottad to the Boyal Society in 166S. Keatoe
had aUo hia attention tnmed to thia anbject, but DotUs;
was known about his ideas till 1713, when a dMcriptim
in his own handwriting of an instrument devised bj laa
waa found among Bailey's papers and printed ia th
Fkiloiophieal Trantactioiu (No. 465). It ccoiitta d •
sector of broaa, the are of which, though only equal lo
one-eighth port of a circle, ia divided into 90'. A leb'
scope LB fixed along a radios of Ae aector, the oliject ^
being close to the centre and having ontaide it a phw
mirror inclined 4S' to the axis of tbe teiaaoop^ ti
intercepting half the light which wonld otherwise Islt »
the object glaaa. One object is aoen throng tbe tek-
acopB, while a movable radiua, carrying a aeoond Dorm
close to the firat, ia toned ronnd the ceabe tmtil the
second object by double reflexion ia teen in the tdetni*
to coincide with the first.
Bnt long before thia plan of Newton's saw the !i#
the sextont in ita preaent form had been invented and W
come into practical use. ^On May 13, ITSl, John HallV
gave an account of an'"octant," amploying doaWaw
flexion, and a fortnight later he exhibited die initruneit
> Thna Uarahall Waid has lately drawn attnittoB to Ita swdri"
of paraaltism with tbe dlsqipeamooa of aaxost nfnimMta laiwP
{Qaart. Jour. Micr. Sci., uli.J. ,__
* HadleydeurlbadtwodUbreateosumeUoaai laeMtbsWwV
■aa Hied along a radiua aa in Kewtaa's fOim, la tb* <^^^
pisead In tbe way aftermfd* ontTarsallT tHa^M; < "*~^
flrat eonatncUon 1 " " ■■ •
erofI»D,*>
on waa made aa sntly aa OM s, _
mad* to the Boyal Seststy Ir BaHay'b l«olh«e*«
i.m*. 1>-
S E X — S E T
725
On tbft aOth Ibj H^«j aUtod to tba tocietj M»i
Nevtam bad inTeoted an iostrament foanded on the ninB
principle, and bad oommiiQicated an aicconnt of it to the
•ociaty in 1699, but on search being made in the minutes
it was onlj' found that Newton had (bowed a new in«tru-
ment " for obeerving the moon and st&n for the longitude
at seat being the old instrument mended of some faults,"
but nothing whatever was found la the minutes concerning
the principle of tha oonstmction. Halley bad sridently
only a tery dim recollection of Newton's plan, and at a
meeting of (be Boyal Bociety on December 16, 1T31, he
declared hinuelf satisfied that Hadley's idea was quite
different from Newton's. The new inatrnment was already
in Angut IT33 tried on board the " Chatham " yacht by
order of the Admiralty, and was found satisfactory, but
otberwiee it doe* not seem to have snperseded the older
instruments for at least twenty years. Aa eonetructed
by Eadley tbe instrument could only measure angles up
to 90*; but in 1TS7 Captain Campbell of the navy, one
of the Erst to nse it assiduously, proposed to enlarge it so
as to measure angles up to ISO*, is which form it is now
generally employed.
Quite independently of Hadley and Newton the sextant
was invented by Thomas Oodfrey, a poor glazier in Phila-
delphia. In Hay IT33 Mr JamW Logan of that city
wrote to Ealley that Qodfre; had abont eighteen months
previously showed him a common sea qnadittnt "to
which be bad fitted two pieeee of looking-glass in such a
manner as brought two stars at almoet any distance to
coincide. " The letter gave a full description of the instra-
msnt ; the principle was the same as that of Hadiey's first
octant which had the telescope along a radins. At the
meeting of the Royal Bociety on January 31, 1734, two
affidavits sworn before tbe mayor of Philadelphia were
read, proving that Godfrey's quadrant was made abont
November 1730, that on the 2eth November it was
brooght by O. Stewart, mate, on board a sloop, the
" Tmman," John Cox, master, bound for Jamaica, and
that in August 1731 it was used by the same persons on
a voyage to Newfoundland. There can thus be no doubt
that Oodfrey invented the inatroment independently ; but
the statement of several modem writers that a brother of
Godfrey, a captain in the West India trades *old the
qnadnnt at Jamaica to a Captain or Lieutenant Eadley
ot thff British navy, who bniught it .to London to his
brother, an instrument maker in tha Strand, has been
proved to be devoid of all foundation. Not only is this
totally at variance with all the particolars given in the
affidavits, but between 1719 and 1743 there was no officer
in the British navy of the name of Hadley, and John
Hadley cannot possibly have been in the West Indies at
that tims^ as be was present at many meetings of the
Royal Society between November 1730 and May 1731;
besides, neither Hadley nor his brothers were professional
iustrnmsnt maken. A detailed discussion of this question
by Prof. Rigaud is found in the Jfantkal Magamt, voL
iL No. 31.'
■eiCsnt. ABC „ ^. .
•ecbir of OO*, th« limb AB IiitIiik ■ gnJuatod m of tilvei (hi
tiiDH ot ^Id) intiid in th< bruL It i> hald Is the hand by ■
■ it Che haok, eithor T«tio«lly to meuur* tbe (JHtude
noDQ u, wasn %inuii piuia miTTor
perpudlcnlu' to tha pune of tha ■»
D ii a veniier rasd thioiigb a nnall Ic
of (ilvered plate-irliB Is fixed
..._. -J =_ .u. ]P„ CD. At
■ud ■ tmgtat
on or nflectlng
uij parfectloa hu nude tniuT aDthcin ot utnmomicil
'*" ' * ■ v» a protearioMi imbomaDt maktf. . Hla
•crew which euUa tha obssrvsr to rirs the ana CD a very ilow
motion within eertttn IfmilL At B u uother minor " theborinn
gUn,' alio peipandienlir to the plsift of the Hitsnt and panllal
toCa FbitmiJltilncape .;.
fiisd un» CB, pmllal to \
tbe plane CAB md polmted \_
can be placed ontaida E and
between E asd C when ob-
aerTine tb* aim. Aa onlv
thalowBc half otE Uailverad,
the obeerrer can aea the horl-
lon in tha teleacope throacrh '
the nnailTered ball^ whue
silvered haliDf E and thenos
thtoDgli E to the observer's
Vj*. If CD bu been moved
star or of the limb of the
■nn coincide with that of the
horizoD, it is asay to Bee that
the ugle SCH (the altitude
of the star or aoUi limb) ia
ana] to twice the angle
;D. The limb AB is al-
wBja graduated ao sa to avoid tba uecaoitf o^ doubling tha mas-
enred anele, s space marked as a itigm on the limb being in
reality only Iff. The remier should point to 0* C 0" when the
two miiror* en parallel, or in other words, when the dinet sud
refiaotsd images ot > vary distant object are aeen to coincide. Eor
the methoda of adjoatiDg the mirrors and finding tha indsi error
•ee NAV10A.T10JI (voj. ivii. p. 898).
If tha aeitant ia employed on land, an artiflcial horizon has to
be nsed. This is genenlly a basin ot meroni]' prateeted from tbe
wind by a loof ot plals-glaa with perfeclly parallal faces ; eome-
timea a gleet plate is used (nith the lower lurfUa blackened),
which can be iBvellcd on three aerewa by a drcnlar level The
i>pa ia directed to the image of the calcstial object reHectad
the sitifiFiil boTiain. and tbie image ii mads to eoiaclde
■ ^ ■ ™ tt. angle
irda tha end of
Image ii
ia.^n tl
n is a diameter
BCD will be double
last and the beginning of tbia century the aeitant
on land for determining latitudes, bat, though in me nsnoa oi a
akilfol ohaarvei it can give rsault* far anperloi to irbat one migfat
expect from a amaU InatnimeDt held in the hand (or attachwl to a
small etand), it bsa on afaon been quite soperseded bj the portaMa
altaiimnth or theodtilits, while at sea it cootinnaa to be indis-
Iha^rindpla ot tha aaxtut has been appliad to the rwnatnu.
Hon OE nflactiag oirclee, on which tha indai
with s vernier at each and to elimfnate the <
The cirdaa oonstnctsd by listor sod Htrtinj ot Berlin have a
gists prlam instead ot the hoiiion glass and tn sxtremaly oon-
venient (J. I* 1. D.).
BEXTUS EHFIBICUS. Bee Scxpnoigii.
SEYCHELLES, an archipelago of the Indian Ocean,
consisting of eighty islands— ^veral of them mere islets—
situated between 3* 38' and 6* 45' 8. lat. and 53* 55' and
53° 50* E. long., abont 1400 miles south-east of Aden and
1000 miles east of Zanzibar. They are the only small
tropical oceanic islands of gtanitic structure, and rise
steeply out of the sea, culminating in the island of Hah^
at an elevation of 2998 feet above the sea-lereL The
most northerly island is Bird, j by ^ rijle ; the most
southerly, Plate; the most easterly. Frigates; the most
westerly. Silhouette. Hah^ the largest island of the
group, 3 by 1^ miles, is very nearly centtal, 60 miles south
of Bird, and having to the north and north-east of it La
Digoe, F^licit^ I^aslin, and Curiense. Only a few—
Mah^ Praslin, La Digoe, Denis, and Bird— are inhabited.
Ths total area is about 50,130 acres, of which MahS alone
comprises 34,749. The beaches of glistening calcareous
sand are begirt by coral reefs which form a wall round the
islands. The valleys and easier slopes are overlaid with a
very fertile soil, and vegetation is most luxuriant ^ongh
the climate is tropical, the heat ia tempered and lendsred
uniform by the sea breeies, and probaUy this aoconnts for
Bn!H»nii' •li—ases and endemic fsver bun(f of nnMnuion
726
8E T — SH A
TbeM V* nnmeKKu brooki ud tdirents,
itukiog their m; to tbe aea betvMo blocki of gnnito.
The inUnda an graeo &Dd fraili at all timeo, pniticolarlj
during the iret Beason from Novembar to Maj. The tottti
ninfiOl for 1881 wm 113-GO inchea. Tlie extreme nnge
«f the thermometer ia 1881 and 1883 ma ool; 33*
(minimum 71*, maiinmni 99'). lie beat ia aaldom anltij
and oppreaeive. The Befchellea lie too far to the Dorth
to rweive tho hmricaiiaa which occaaionallf aweep over
Bourbou and Mauritius, and even tbanderstorma are rare.
Tho popnlation at the ceostu of 1881 -wM 14,081 (71T9
iDolas and 6902 fcnialea)— COO white (moetly French
creolw), 11,000 black, iuid 3000 oooUee. Since 1881 the
popuktioD has considerab]; increaaed in conseqnenoe of a
tide of immigration from Hauritioa. Hen and women of ,
exceptionally gre«t age are freqneaU; met with, and thi
death-rate for 1880 amonated to only 131 per 1000, Tho
prerailing language is a French patois,
tansht in the schooia.
Th« iiUnilj wtn ducoTend at ths tH^ncing of tha Iflth
centnrj, bnt nerer oocnpisd, by tin PgrtiignnwL In ITta the
FnDDb look pomenloD oC tbetn, nlliiiK tfaem at flret Ilea dga
l^biianjoaniiu, but anamrdi ths Sgrchellu, from CoBiit Hinolt
d« Baychellei, tn offlctr of tbs Eut Indiui Seat. Tho fint Httle-
msDi wu midB in ITeS M Uihi, now Fori Tictoris. In 17»1 the
Enali^ wnated them fnm the French iloiig with Huuitiai,
and thej ire now ruled by a board of air ciril oommiaalonen, aa a
depondancT ander the gOTsmar of Maarillaa. In ISSl llaTST
waa abalidied, and aiace tlieD the plantaliona have bean in a
declining .tab). In ISSi tlnr. wen in tbs ieUnda M prtmaiy
achool) aided by OoTernmant granti uid attended bj 1830 children.
Then an 16 obnrtbM balonginK to tlta Eoman Cktholioa (tha
dominant fiith) and 11 to tha Clmnih ot EngUnd. Tba mala
prodoct i* the oocoa-nat, hat tobaooc^ ooffae, lioe, malia, iweet
poUtoei, and nunioo an niaed Tor boma eonaamptlon, while eoCton,
popper, cionamon, and other iploei fnnw wild. Uaof of tha tret*
aiaplar Bimaltaiieouly hloaaomi and nnilpa and ripa fmit Ilia
■o-catledHaor UaldiradoabUaoaoa-nat, ''mooda mar," thahvit
of the palm-tree Lcdowta SKhtilt^vn^ la peculiar to oartaiQ of
theie yandi. It va* Iode known only ftom aBt-bonu ipeclmena
oast np on tha UaldlTo and other ooaiti, waa thooght to now on
a mbnurina palm, aod, being eatsemad a loian^ antldota to
poiioni [I«ita<j, I. ISO), commanded exorbitant prices io the £a;rt.
This palm will gron to a hnight at 100 feet, and ahowa fern like
I from Ammoa anrsa
like tawDi DTer tha aoii and qnaka at every etep takao OTar them.
Tbc cocoa-nut palm Bouriibn in the gard«na, OTeitopping tha
houaaa and moat other t»«, lining tha thore, olimbiog high Dp
tha monntain^ and In many plaua fotmitig eitenayv Ibnata.
There are no natin mam mala, and domaatb animala are acarcv.
The birda eomprlaa gannats, tenia in gnat numberi, and white
agrela. Tortoiaea aca oommon,— among them tha gigantia tortla
aod Mack tnrtla, whoa* fluab li eiportad. The aea abounda in
flah, many of tham diatlngnLibad 1^ nilendld oolonra, and ylalda
tha inhabitanta net only a large part of their animal food but alao
material for building Uair hoiugs, — a apedea c^ maaaira oorat,
PoriUi gatmarOi, being hewn into aqnare building blooka which
at a diatanoa gllatan like white marble.
Tba i»incipai barbunr la Port Victoria, aitnaled ea HaM ialand.
The total Talue of Importa here in 188*. inolnding Ka,37,0W apecia,
waa UalSS.SOS, and of the aipoTta, including Ra.Sl,63S speri^
Ra8»2,17S. Tba chief importi wen ooSea and cotton mannfac-
tVToa ; tba chief aipqrta, oocoa-nut, ooooa-nnt oH, and apeno oiL
The naoal receipU for 1BS4 amonnt«l to Ra.lS0,017. The enltiTa-
tioB ol cocoa u progreeiing faiouiably, bat the aame cannot be
uid of tho lanilla and clove plantatioaa, which aoBer from want
rngidar labonr, attributubla lo the widaapread ihars ajatam,
ioh tho negroaa pnfer to regnlar work. The lui diaaaaa afiect-
' eofTae haa ilon4 great injury, and ooooa-ont plaautlona have
surTared bom tha raVBga of an inasct, but no alTort aeema to have
yot been nude by weeding ths plantaliona to alamp ont tba diaeua.
OrthaS4,74«acreaor land maVing op Hah^ 1S,«)0 acraa an laid
out in cocoa-nut, GOO la vanilla, co^ee, and claTee, and ISOO an In
fonat : of the uncnltiiated land 8000 acna an well auitad for
SeVmOUK, Edwakd. See Sombbsit, Duu of.
SEYKB, La, a town of France, in the department of
Tar, 6 milee aouth-weit of Toulon, with a popnlation of
9788 in 1B81. It owes its importuice mainly to its ihip-
bntlding, the BodiU iea Forgea et Cfaantien de la M«(0- I
termnia hanng hare one of the finest boilding yards in I
is,:
are eieonted for prirate shipownen, for tt ^
Meeaageriea Haritimee Company, and for variooi QorerD.
mants. The port, which has commnnieation by tteuan
and omaibos with that of Tonloo, is 6 acres in extent, tad
admits YeaaeU of tho largest tonnage.
BFAX, a city of Tnnis, sooond in importanoe tmly to
the capital, ia sitnated 113 miles south of M-haHinj on
the coast of the Qnlf of Qabes (Syrti* Minor) oi^oaila tb
Kerkenah Islands. It consists of diree disUnct portkns:
— the new European quarter to the sooth, wiUi road),
piers, and other imprOTemanls carried out by the muni-
cipality ; the Arab town in the middle wiUi ila tower-
flanked walls entered by only two gate* ; and to the Berth
the French camp. Konnd tha town f or ti or 6 milee to
the north and west etretch orchards and gardens and
oonntry houses, where moat of the Bfai famiLes have thdr
summer quartera Datei^ almonds, grapes, figs, peaches,
apricots, olives, and in rainy yean meloos aod cuoumlim^
grow there in great abondanne without irrigation. Two
enormous cistema maintained by public charitable trusts
supply the town with watet in diy seosrais. Sfax wss
formerly the tarminns of a cararan route to Centaal Africa,
but its inland trade now eitonds only to Gafaa- Uw
export trade (esparto grass, oil, almonds, pistachio nnti^
sponges, wool, to.) has atlaiQed eonaiderable dimenaioDs.
Fifty-one English Tessels (34,707 tons) visited the port in
1884. 111? anchorage is 3 miles from the shore, aod
there is a rise and fall of 0 feet at spring tides (a. rate
pheoomenoo in the Mediterranean). In 1881 the popula-
tion was said to be abont Ifi.OOO (including 1200 Aiab^
IBOO Tanidao Jews, 1000 Maltese, ^., 000 Enropeaoa);
in 18S6 it ia stated at 32,000 a200 Haltase, 1000 Euro-
Sfu (tho Arable AsOlsia or SaTskn*, aometinui tailed tlw aiy of
Cucumben] occu^ the alta ot tba ancient ruAnWo. In tha
Middle Agaa It waa famooa for its vaat export d( oUts oiL The
BicJliana took Sfax under Rwar the Norman in the Itth cantur.
and tha Bpaniarda ocounled it forabrief periDd lo tba l«th oatiity.
The bombardment of the town la IBSI waaena of tha princiul
eventa of tha Fnooh conouaat of Tnnil ; it waa pillaasd by iha
aoldiara on Julj l«th and the inhabitants bad afterwardi to pay a
war indemnity of £250,000.
BFORZA, HouBi of. See Hilah, vol ni p. S93,
and iTAir, toL liiL p. 479.
BHAD is the name given to certain migratorr spedei
of Herringa (Chipfa), which are distinguished tnnn the
herriafp proper by the total absence of teeth in the ^wi.
Two species occur in Europe, mach resembling each other,
— one commonly called AJlis Shad (Clvpea alota\ and the
other known as Twaite Shad {Vlup>afi»ta). Both are, like
the m^ority of hemogs, sreeni^ on the back and bright
silvery on iha sides, bat they are distinguished from ths
other European species of Clvpta by wo ^>reaeaee of s
large biockUh blotch behind the giU-opeun^ which i*
succeeded by a series of eeveral other similsr spots along
the middle of the side of the body. So closely alUed are
these two fishes that their distiDCtnese con be prored only
by an examination of tha gill-Mparatus, the allia ifcad
having from sixty to eighty very fine and long aU-raken
along the concave edge of the firat branchial arch, whiM
the twaite shad possewM from twenty-one to tirenty-aeven
stoot and stiff gill-rakers only. In their habits and geo-
graphical distribution also the tvro shads ate veijr aimilar.
They inhabit the coaats of temperate E^rop^ the twute
shad being more nnmeroos in the Mediterranean, whito
they are in salt water they live singly or in very smsJl
companies, bnt during May (the twaite shad some ireeks
later) they congregate, and in mat numben saoBBdlaige
rivers, such as the Sevortt (and formerly the ThamasX »»"
8ein^ tha Ehine, the Nile, 4c, in order to depoait their
S H A — S H A
JST
■nwn, — •oinetinier tntTenJag hondredi of miiwi, nntO
tZHB (in^rau ia ureitad bf Mme nutiml obatrnetion. A
faw wceka after thoj nuj be obaerred dicpping down tho
river, lean and thorooghtj exliaiutcd, nnmbera floating
dMd on tlie surface «o tbat odJ; a email proportion Beem
to nigun tliB sea. Although millions of ova moat be da-
pcaited by them in the npper resfhea of a rirer, the fir
doea not aeem to have been actoally obaerred io fresh
water, eo that it seemi probable that the jonng fish ttarel
to the MA bng before tbej tuiTe aittained to any eize.
On riven in which those flshe* make their periodical
appearaace they have become the object of a regular
fiahery, and thtur laloB increases in proportioa to the
distance from the sea at which they are otoght Tbns
they are much esteemed on the midde Bhine^ when tbey
are geneiftUy known as "Moifisch"; those caught on their
return journey are worthless and nneatabla. The allis
shad is caught at a size from IS to 24 inches, and is con-
sidered to be better SaTonred than the twi^te shad, which
gennally temaioB within smaller dimensions.
Ollwr, but oioMJy ^iei specie^ oBior ca ths Atlurtli eouti of
Nortta AuMica, sIT nip-iaiiig ths BorapiBa tfdm to imwrtuc*
M bod-flshH and emnonde nine, rii., tht Amsrlcui StMd (C^ZttpM
MpftHnfMB), Om Qmvcwn or Als-wifs {0. ■uMoiinen), ud ths
Hsnhadan (C. aimiaJm). Sm UmBAjnui.
SHADDOCK (Citnu dtcmmma) ia a tfee aOied to the
orange and the lemon, prenunably natiTe to the Malay
and Polynesian islands^ ont generaUy coltiTated tbrough-
OQt the tropics. The leaves are like those of the Mange,
bat downy on the under sarfac^ as are also the young
sboota The dowers are large and white, and are snccaeded
by very large globose or pear-ihaped froita like wangea, bat
paler ia eoTonr, and with lesa flavonr. Hie name Shad-
dock is asserted to be that of a c^ttain who iotntdnoed
the tree to the West Indiee. The fnilt is also known
under the name of pomnuJoes and "forUddea bait."
There are two Tarieties coBunooly met with, floe with pale
and the other with red pnlp.
SHADWELL, Thohab (1640-1693), a plt^wri^t and
miscellaneous versifier of the Beetontion period, Dryden's
snocassor in the laoreateehip, ia rememhwed now, not by
hia works, thoogh be was a prcdifio writer of CMoedies
highly succesafol in their day, but as the sutgect of
Drydan's satirical portraits "MacFlecknoe" and "Oe-"
He was a nativu of Norfolk — not an Irishman, ta he
retorted wiUk significant imbecililj when Dryden's satire
Kjfpeand, — went throogh the fornu of study at Cambridge
and the Inner Temple, travelled abroad (or a littl^
ntorned to Loudon, cultivated the litetary society of
aoSes-honses and taverns, and in 1668, at the age of 28,
gained the ear of the stage with a comedy Th» SuOat
Lower*. For fourteen yeaia afterwards, till his memorable
flDOOOnter with Drydea he continued regularly to pcodoee
a comedy nearly every year, showing considerable derer-
n«aa in caricatnring the oddities of the tima. Ben Joason
was his model, but he drew his materials largely from coo-
tuiqioraiy life. He also acquired standing antoug the witi
as a talker. In the qDarrel with Diydea he was the aggres-
sor. They had been good enough friends, and Dtydm in
I6T9 had furnished him with a prologue for hu TVw
Widow. Bat when Dryden threw in his lot with the oonrt,
and satiriKd the oppodtioa in JtiMbst muf J(Atlq^«f and
3^ Jltdal, EOutdweU was lath enough to oonstitute himself
the diampioD cA the tme-blne Protestants and wrote a
mal and senrriloas attac]
)/ Jokn Bafo. Diyden
WM,
soomfal personal
k few mca* rough tonohsa ot aaperoilioos mockery in the
■seood part of Abtalom amd AiUt^pU, ^wn Sbadwall
a^res H "Og'.--*
Of faen a trasMD-tefsn nlKng hoo^
Bsmiil H ■ glob% and liquond tnrj shiiik |
Ooodly ud gnct he luli bahind bii linlt-
Drydaa mar not be strictly fair when he addressw his
enemy as " thou last gtetd prophet of toatology," and
makes Fleoknoe extol Him becuisa "he never deviatea
into seose^" but Shadwell had birly earned his chaatise-
menl^ the sting of which lay in its subatantial truth. Be
survived till 1603, and on Dryden's resignation of tlie
laureateship in 1688 was promoted t« the office, a sign of
Htn poverty of the Whig side at the time in literary men,
and part of the siplauation of thur anxiety in the next
literary ti'
RtfKl Bhtpitrdm, lOei; n> SumarM, 1671; !*»
jtuir. lerii 4<R» ViOi, msi ar<M i»fii n, xibrtw,
ISTe ; n< FMwm, ia7« ; Tinm ^ MHau, 1078 ; A Trm
Wi^M, 1<7BI Ttit Waman Ooflaiii, IWO; n* LanaaKiir*
WOAo, less ; n> BquiTt if JItaHa, ISSB ; Ainr Afr, IMS |
T)u Ammonia Bigol, IBM; Tin SBnomn, IBtl j and Tti
FahaHfn, 1«S>.
8HAr|t BHAFItBS. See SujaifM.
SHAFTESBUBY, Ahthojtt Aam»T Cboim, Fan
Eakl 0* (1621-1683), was the son of Kr John Cooper of
Bockboume in Hamp^iie, and of Anne^ the only ohild of
Bir Anthony Ashl^, Bart, and was born at TUmbome 8t
Giles, Dorset, on Joly S2, 1631. His parMta died bafem
he was ten years of age, and ha luhetitM extensiTe estatea
in Hampshire Wiltshire Dotsetriiira, and Sometaetshiio.
much redooed, however, by litigation in Chaneery. He
lived for some time with Sb Daniel N(n1(»^ one of his
tmsteei^ at Sonthwiek, ind npoD hk death in 163S with
Mr Tooker, an nnels 1^ msrriage^ at Salisbury. In 1637
he went as a gendeman-eommonsr to Exeter CoU^c^
Oxford, where he remained about ayaar. No record of his
stndiea is to be found, bttt he has left an amnung aoconnt
of hia part in the wilder doingi of the nniversitj life of that
day, in which, in spite of his small stature, he was reet^
nizsd by his feJEows as their leader. At the age of eighteen,
on February SB, 1639, he married Margaret, dau^ter of
Lord Ooventry, wiUi whom he and hia wife lived at Durham
House in the Strand, and at Canonbary House b laling^
ton. In March 1640, though stiil a minor, he was elected
tor Tewkesbury, and sat in Hie parliament which net on
April 13, but appears to hare bJceu no sotive part in Its
jwooeedingi. In 1640 Lord Coventry died, and Cooper
then lived with his brothw-in-law at Dorchester Houk In
Covent Garden. F<w the Long Parliament, which met on
Norember S, 164(^ he was dected for Dowobm in Wilt-
shire, but the return wse dispotad, and he did not taks
his seat,~hja election not bung declared valid until the
last days of the Bump. He was present as a spaolatw at
tlie setting up of the king's standard at Nottin^iam oo
August 26, 1642 ; and in 1643 he appeared openly 00
Charles's side in Drasetshire, where he laised at his own
Charlee'B side ii. ^w>— >u.<, -...-w —
expense a regiment of foot and a troop of horse of houirt
which ho took the commaod. He was also appointed
govvnor of Weymouth, sherifi ot Dorsetshire for the king
and pTMident of the king's council of war in tho count;.
IJi the beginning of January 16*4, however, for rMSons
which are nriously reported by himself and Clarendon,
he resigned his governorship and comminions and went
over to the I^riiament. He appeared on March 6 before
the standing oommittee of the two Houses to explun bis
conduct, when he stated that he bad come over hec^ hs
MW danger to the Protestant religicn in the king's swvie^
and expressed his wHliugness to take the Covenant &>
Ja^ 1644 he wont to D(«*etahin on nililary service Bad
ooAngnst 3 received a oommisBion sa fldd-mwsbal genMaL
He assisted at the taking of Wareham, and shortly aftct^
wat<te oompooDded f« his estates I9 % fine << X3Q0 frmq
728
SHAFTESBURY
vhtoh, boireTer, lie wm aftwwudt Telieved hj CroinweU.
Od Ootobn 36 hs *m nude oocanunder-ia-chuf in Donet-
tbin, and in DDTembei ho took by Btorm AbbotsbiiTy, the
houae ol Bir Jolm Btrangirays, — on aCbur in which he
e{)pe»n to h&ve shown conaiderable penonaJ g&IUntry.
In Deoembet he rslievod Tauotoo. His milittuy asrviM
terminatad kt ths time of the Self-denying Ordiosnoe in
1640; he had eaooiated himself with the Preib7teri«n
faction, and naturally enough wai not included in the
New Hodal, For ths next Mvea or eight yean he lived
in eomparatiTB pnvacy. He was high ^eiiS of Wiltshire
during 1617, and duplayed mneh vigonr in this offioe.
Upon the eieontiDn of Charlea, Cooper took tJie Engage-
moot, and was a commiidoiiet to adminiBter it in Doreet-
ihiro. On April 29, 16S0, he married I^y Fiancee
Oeetl, nstci of the earl of Eaeex, hie flnt wife haTiiig 6Xti
in theprevione jMr leaving no family. In 16G1 a eon
was bom to him, who died in ehildhood, and on Jannary
Ifl, 16G2, anoUier son, named after himself, who was bis
hur. On Jannary IT he was named on the oommieaion
for law reform, of which Hale was the ohi«f ; and on March
17, 16&S, he wee peidoned td all deUaqneney, and thns at
bat made canbls of sitting in parliament He mX tot
WiHahira in the Borebooee parUament, of which he wae a
leading member, and where he naloiuly and prudent^
ani^oried Cromwell's views ag&inet the extreme section.
He was at once appointed on the oonncil of thirty. On
the resignatioD of this parliament he became a member of
the oonncil of state named in the "InitmmenL'' In the
fint parliamsDt elected under this " Instrument " he eat
for Wiltshire, having been elected also for Poole and
Tewkesbury, and was one of the oommiasionen for die
qeetion of unworthy mimiteie. After December SS, 1654,
for reaeoDs which it is impoaiiblB to aeeertain with clear-
IWM, he left the privy council, and henceforward is found
vith (he Preebyterians and Bepublicant, in oppoaition to
CromwelL Hie second wife had died during tbia year;
in 16S6 ha married a third, who earvived him, Margaret,
danghtar of Lord Spenoer, niece of the earl of Soothampton,
and sister of the earl of Sunderkad, who died at Newbury.
By his three marriages he wae tbu connected with many
of the leading politicians of Chariee H'e reign.
Oooper was again elected for Willebii« for the parlia-
ment of 1696, but Cromwell refused to allow him, with
many others irf his oppoaBOts, to dt He signed a letter
of eomplaint, with sixty-fiTo ezeluded member^ to the
speaker, as also a " fiamonatranoe " addreased to the
penile. In the parliament which met on January 20,
1606, be took bis seat, and wae Bctive in oppoeition to
ibe new oonsCitntiOD of the two Housea He was alao a
leader of the oppoeitioD in Bichatil Oomwell's puliameot,
eapedally oo tlie matter oF the Umitation of the power of
the Protector, and agunst the House of Lords. He wa«
throughout these debatee celebrated for the " nervous and
subtle oratoir" which made him eo formidable in after
daya: he baa "hie tongue well hnn& and wOTda at will*
Upon the leptacjng 5 the Rump % the army, after the
beaking up of Richard'* parliaraeot, Cooper endeavoured
nnsnooeesfully to take hie seat on the ground of his fonner
disputed election (ta Downton. He was, however, elected
en the oonncil of state, and wae the only Presbyterian in
it i be was at once accused by Scot, along with White-
loeks^ of cwreaponding with Hyde, lliis be eolemnly
denied. After the rising in Cheudre Cooper was arrested
in Donetshiie oa a charge of oorreepcmdenoe with its
leader Booth, but on tbe matter bwng inveatigatBd bj the
eonneil he was nnanimonaly aoqaltted. In the diipute*
betweeo I^mbert at the head of tbe military party and
tbe Bomp in union with the oouncil at state, be supported
the latter, and upon the tem[mary enprenaoy^f iMnberCi
par^ worked indefatigably to rertrae th6 Rmnp. With
Monk's commissioners bo, with HaaeHg, had a fruitlas
oonfarenoi but be aeeurod Mcaik of his cooperation, aid
joined with eight others of tbe overthrown council of etsls
in naming him commander-in-chief of the forces ol Eng-
land and Bcotland. He wae inetrumental in aeeuiing the
Tower for the Parliament, and in obtaining the adbatM
of Admiral Lawson and die fleet. Upon the restoiadon
of the Parliament on December 26 Cooper was chu of tht
Gomaueeioneni to command the army, and on JaAuaiy i
was made one c^ the new council of state. On January!
be took his seat on his election for Dowoton in 1S4(\ ud
was made oolonel of Fleetwood's regiment of horse. He
speedily secured the admiuion of the secluded memba^
having meanwhile bean in continual commn n iratinn inA
Honk, was again one of tbe fresh council of state, coa-
sisling entirely of friend* of tbe Beetoration, and accepted
from Monk a commiiisioQ to be governor of the Iila of
Wight and captain ol a company of foot. He noa
steadily pursued the design of i» Bestoration, bat will-
out holding any private correspondence with the king
and only on terms similar to those mopoaed in 164S te
Charles L at the Isle of Wight In the Conveetioe
Parliament he sat for Wiltshire. Monk cat short tbM
dehberations and forced on the Reatoration witboet cce-
dition. Cooper was one of the twelve com missioners who
went to Chariee at Breda to inrite him to return. On hit
journey he was upaet from his earriege, and die accidsot
caused an internal abacee* which was never cured.
Cooper was at once placed on the privy council, receii-
iog hlao a formal pardiKi for former dellnqnenciw. Hit
fiist du^ wtt* to examine the Anabaptist prlsooen in lh>
Tower. In tbe prolonged discussions regarding the Bill
of Indemnity he wss instrumenbd in saving the life of
Haselrig, and oppceed the oloase compelling all officers tIu
bad served nnder Cromwell to refund their salarioi, be
bimeelf never having hod any. He showed indeed noesc'
tbe grasping and avaricious temper so common among fix
politicians of tbe time. He was one of the cximnuHicDcn
for conducting the trials of the regicide*, but wss binmil
vehemently " fallen upon " by P^ne for having sctsd
with CromwelL He vae named on the council of pUot*-
tions and on that of trade. In the debate abolishing tb
court of wards be spoke, like meet landed proprietor!, is
tavonr of laying tbe burden on the eicise indeed of <*>
the land, and on the queetion of tbe restoration of tht
bishops carried in the interests of tbe court an adj^^'
ment of the debate for three months. At tbe coronationm
April 1661 Cooper bad been made a peer, as Baron Ashbj
of Wimbome 8t Qilee, in exproes recognition of bis ■ervios
at the Bestoration ; and on (he meeting of tbe nsw perlis-
ment in May he was appointed chancellor cf tbe excbeqaBr
and under-treasurer, aided no doubt by bis connenoo
with Southampton. He vehemently opposed Ibe perM-
Guting Acts iiow passed,— the Corpceation Act, the ITst
formity Bill, against which he is said to have qiokes thtt*
hundred times, and the Militia Act He is stated obo (e
have influenced the king in issuing his dispensing dsclH*'
tion of December 26, 1662, and he sealonsly «pported»
bill introduced for the pnrpoae of confirming the decllrt-
tion, rising thorebj in favour and influence with Qiarke.
He was bimeelT the author of a treatise on toleronM d»
was now recognized as one of the chief opponent v
Oarendon sod the High Anglican policy. On the hr«t-
ing out of tbe Dnteb War in 1664 he was made tresMf*
of the priiea, being accountable to tbe king alene fc u
sums received or spent. He was aL>a one of the pviMt
of the province of Carolina and took a leading p«* •" *
management ; it wee at his request that Locks in i^
drew up a Constitution for the new colony. InBept*"'"'
SHAFTESBURY
729
1665 tha king anexpeetedly paid bim a vUit at Wim-
borna. Ho oiiposcd unBuccesafuIly the appropriation pro-
Tiw introduced iDto the supply bill as hindering tho due
adminintntloa of finance, and this opposition Beectui to
have brought about a reconciliation ivith Clarendon. In
1G68, howavsr, be supported a bill to appoint commis-
Hionera to examine the accoDuta of the Dutch War, though
in the previous year ha had oppoeed it- In accordance
with his formor action on all questions of religious tolera-
tion he atTODgly opposed the shameful Five Mile Act of
166-1. In 1667 he eagerly supported the bill for prohibit-
ing the importatioa of Irish cattle oa the ground that it
would lead to a great fall of rents in England. Ashley
was himself a large landowner, ajid moreover was opposed
to Ormonde who would have greatly benefited by tile im-
portation. In all otber queatiotu of this kind he shows
himseiE far in advance of ti>e economic fallaciea of the day.
His action led to an altercation with- Ossory, the son of
Ormonde, iu wbicb Ossory used language for which he was
compelled to apologise. On the death of Bgnthampton,
Ashley was placed on the commission of the treasury,
Clifford and William Coveatry being his principal col-
leagues. He appears to have taken no part iu the attempt
to impeach Clarendon on a general charge of treason.
The new administration was beaded by Buckingbani, in
whose toleration and comprehension principles Ashley
shared to the full. A meet able paper written by him to
the king in support of these principles, on the groand
especially of their advantage to trade, has been preserTed.
He excepts, however, from toleration Roman Ca^olics and
Fifth Monarchy men. His attention to all trade questions
was close and constant; he was a member of the council
of trade tad plantations appointed in 1670, and was its
president from 1672 to 1676. The difficalty of the suc-
cession also occupied him, and be co-operated thus early
in tho design of legitimizing Monmouth as a rival to James.
In the intriguds which led to the infamous treaty of
Dover he had no pact That treaty contained a clause by
which Charles was bouud to declare himself a Catholic,
and with the knowledge of this Ashley, as a staunch
Protestant, could not be trusted. In order to blind him
and the other Protestant members of the Cabal a sham
treaty was arranged in which this clause did not appear,
and it was not until a considerable while afterwards that
he found out that he had been duped. Under this
tnisnnderHtanding he signed the sham Dover treaty on
December 31, 1670. This treaty, however, was carefully
kept from public knoivledgs, and Ashley did not hesitate
to help Charles to hoodwink parliament by signing a
similar treaty on February 2, 1673, which was then laid
IraFore (hem as the only one in existence. This is one of
the proved dishonourable actions of his life. His approval
of the attempt of the Lords to alter a money bill led to
tha loss of the supply to Charles and to the consequent
diapleasore of tho king. His support of the Lord Roos
Act, ascribed generally to his desire to iogratiatc himself
with Charles, was no doubt dne in part to the fact that
bin sou had married Lord Rooa's sister. It is, too, neces-
nary to notice that, so far from advising the "Stop of the
Exchequer," he actively opposed this bad measure; the
reawns which he left with the king for his opposition are
Bitant. The responaibility rests with Clifford alone. In
tbe other great measure of the Cabal ministry, Charles's
Declaration of Indulgence, he cordially concurred. He
was now rewarded by being made Earl of Shaftesbury and
Baron Cooper of Pawlett by a patent dated April 23, 1672-
It is suted too tb»t he was offered, but refused, the lord
traisarenhip. On November 17, 1672, however, he
became lord chancellor, Bridgmon having been compelled
lomipitiwwal. Aa dwDcgUor he iisned mriti ior the
: election o( thirty-six new membeiB to fill ncoDidei eaniad
during the long recess; this, though groanded apon pre-
cedent, was certainly open to tha gravest suspicion as on
attempt to fonify Charles, and ms vehemently attacked
bj an angry House of Commons which met on February
i, 1673. The write were cancelled, and the principle wra
established that the issning of writs rested with tha Honia
itself. It was at the opening of parliament that Shaftett-
bury made bis celebrated "delenda eet Carthago" speech
against Holland, in which he urged the Second Dutch War,
on the ground of tbe uecessity of destroying so formidable
a commercial rival to England, eicuaed tha Stop of the
Exchequer which he hod opposed, and vindicated the
DeclvatioD of Indulgence. On March 8 he aaopunced to
parliament that tbe declotaUon bod been cancelled, thoogb
he did his beet to induce . Charles to remain firm. For
affixing the great seal to this declaration he was threatened
with impeachment by tbe Commons. Tbe Tut Act wta
now brought forward, and Shaftesbury, who appeua to
have heard how he had beeo' duped in 1670, warmly sup-
ported it, with the object probably of thereby getting nd
of Clifford- He now began to be regarded as the chief
upholder of Protestantism in the ministry; be rapidly lost
favour with Charles, and on Sunday, September 9, 1673,
was dismissed from the chanceUocship. Among the reasona
for this dismissal is probably tbe undoabted fact that he
opposed reckless grants to Uie king's mistresses. He hM
been accused of much vanity and ostentation in his office^
but his reputation for ability and integrity oa a judge waa
Charles soon regretted tbe lo«s of Shaftesbury, and
endeavoured, as did also Louis, to induce biin to retnra,
but in vain. Ha preferred now to become the great
popular leader against all tbe measures of the court, and
may be regarded ss the intellectual chief of tbe ippositioo.
At the meeting of parliament on January 8, 1671, he
carried a motion for a proclamation banishing Catholici
to a distance of ten. miles from London. During the
whole session be organised and directed the opposition in
their attacks on the king's ministers. - On May 19 he
was dismissed the privy council and ordered to leave
London. He hereupon retired to Wimbome, from whence
be nrged upon his parliamentary followeia the necessity
of securing a new parliament. He was in the House of
Lords, however, in 1675, when Danbj brought forward
his famous Non-resisting Test Bill, and headed the opposi-
tion which was carried on for seventeen days, distinguish-
ing himself, says Burnet, more in this session than ever
he had done before. The bill was finally shelved, a pro-
rogation having taken place in consequence of a quarrel
between the two Hdubss, supposed to have been purposely
got up by Shaftesbury, in which he vigorously supported
the right of tbe Lords to bear appeal cases, even whero
the defendant was a member of the Lower House. Parlia-
ment was prorogued for fifteen months until February 1!^,
1677, and it was determined by the opposition to attoL!.
its existence on the ground that a prorogation for mo; 3
than a year vraa illegal In this matter the oppoutio.i
were clearly in the wrong, and by attockiog the parliament
discredited tbenuelvei. He immediate result was that
Shaftesbury, Buckingham, Wharton, and Salisbury were
sent to the Tower. In June Shaftesbury applied for a
writ of habeai corptu, but could get no release until
February 26, I6T8, after bis letter and three petitions to
the king. Being brought before the bar-of the House of
Lords he at length made a complete snbDiission as to bis
conduct in declaring parliament dissolved by the proroga-
tion, and in violating the Lords' pnvilc^iea b; bringing a
habtat corpvt in tbe King's Bench.
33ta breaking out of Ue Fopiib Twroc in 1678 mark*
XXL — 9a
780
SHAFTESBURY
the wont ptrt of Shftfteubnr;'* oreer. Tlut ao deu-
hendsd a nuui could havo reoU; credited tho extravagant
lies of Oates uid the other perjoren ii lieyond belief ; and
the Dtonner ia vbich by iQccssant agitutioa he excited the
moat boselsEj alorais, and encouraged the nildeat exceasoa
of fkaatle cruelty, for nothing but piutj aJvaat&ge, is
utterly withoat oicuso. On Novembci 2 he oponed
the great attack by proposing an addr«s<i declaring
the necesiity for tho kiog's di^nisaiDg Jamea from hie
council. Under hia advice the oppoaitioQ now made an
alliance witU Louis whereby the Fceach king promiaed to
help them to rojn Dauby oa coodition that they vould
compel Charles, by etopping the EuppUes, to make peace
with France, doing thus a grave injorj to Protestantism
abroad for tho sake of a tem[ioTary party advantage at
home. Upon tho refusal in November Wf the Lords to
concur in the address of the Commooa requesting the
removal of the queen from court, he joined in a protest
yinst the refusal, and was foremost io all the violent acts
the scnioo. He urged on the bill by which Catholics
were prohibited from sitting in either House of Parliament,
aad was bitter in his expressions of disappointmant when
the Commcina passed a proviso exceptmg James, against
whom the bill was especially aimed, from its operation. A
new parliament met on Uarch 6, 1679. Shaftesbury had
meaQwhile ioeSoctually warned the king that nnleaa be
followed his advice there would be uo peace with the people.
On March 25 he made a striking speech upon the state of
the nation, especially upoa the dangers to Protestantism and
the misgovenunent of Scotland and Ireland. He was, too,
suspected of doing all in his power to bring about a revolt
in Scotland. Bj the advice of Temple, Charles now tried
the eipetiment o( tonning a new privy cojincil in which
the chief membeni of the opposition were included, and
Shaftesbury was made president, with a salary of £4000,
being also a member of the committee for foreign affairs.
He did not. hovever, in aoy way chanse either bis opinions
or his action. He vigorously opposed the compelling of
Protestant Nonconformists to take tboi oath required of
Roman Catholics. That indeed, as Bonke says, which
makes him memorable in Kngll.ti Liitory is that be
opposed tho establiabmcQt of on Anglican and Royalist
organization with decisive success. The question of the
succession was now again prominent, and Shaftoabury, in
opposition to Halif&x, committed tbe error, which really
brought about his fall, of putting forward Monmouth as
his nominee, thos aticnating a targe number of his sup-
porters ; he cnConragcd, too, the belief that this was agree-
able to the king. Ho proased on the Exclusion Bill with
all hie power, and, when that and the inquiry into tbe
nayments for secret servico and the trial of tbe five peer^
tor v/hicb too be had been eager, were brought to an end
3r a sudden prorogation, be is reported to have declared
oud that he would have the beads of those who were the
king's advisers to this course. Before the prorogation,
Iiowover, he saw tbe invaluable Act of Habeas Corpus,
v/hich he had carried through parliament, receive the
royal assent. In pursuance of nia patronage of Mon-
mouth, Shaftesbury now secured for him the oommand of
the army sent to suppress the insurrection in Scotland,
which he is suppoaed to have fomented. lu Octol>er
ICTO, the circumstances nhich led Charles to desire to
conciliate tho oppoi^itioii having ceased, Bboftesbury was
L-'^missed from hb presidency and from the privy council ;
..l;:n applied to by Sundcrl&nd to return to office be made
w' cufioitions tbe divorce of the qneen and tbe exclusion
of James. With nine other peers be presented a petition
to the king in Novemiier, praying tor the meeting of
parliament, of which Charlas took no notice. In April,
t-pon tbe king's declaration that be was reaolved to wad
for Jamea from Scotland, Shaftesbnij strongly adviMl
tbe popular leaders at once to leave the council, and they
followed his advice. In Uarch we find him anscrupnlomly
eager in the prosecution of the alleged Irish CatboUe plot.
Upon the king's illness in May he hold frequent meeting
of Monmouth's friends at his hoiue to consider how beat to
act for the security of tbe Protestant religion. On Jnne 26,
accompanied by fourteen others, be presented to the grand
jury of Westminster an indictment of the duko of York
as a Popish recusant In the middle of September ha
was seriously ill On November 15 the- Eicltuion BiD,
having passed the Commons, was brought up to th
Lords, and an historic debate took place, in which Halifii
and Shaftesbury were the leaders on opporite udeo. Tko
bill was thrown out, and Shaftesbury signed the pcolat
against its rejection. The next dsy be urged upon tlio
Houao the divorce of the queen. On December 7, to ha
lasting diahonour, he voted for the- condemnation of Lent
StafFord. On tlie 23d he again spoke vehemently for
exclusion, and his speech was immodiatoly printed. M
opposition was, however, checked by the dissolutico os
January 18. A new parliament was called to meet it
Oxford, to avoid the inSnences of tbe city of LoDdoi,
where Shaftesbury bad taken the greatest pains to msla
himself popular. Shaftesbury, with fifteen other peen, si
once petitioned the king that it might as usual be held in
the capital He prepared, too, instructions to be hsedld
by constituencies to their members upon election, in vhidi
exclusion, disbanding, the limitation oC the prcrogativs is
proroguing and dissolving parUomont, and security tgUKl
Popery and arbitrary power were insisted on. At thii
parliament, whicb lasted but a few days, he again madt s
personal appeal to Charlea, which was curtly rejected, to
permit tbe legitimiiiDg of Monmouth. The king's odvittn
now urged him to arrest Shaftesbury i be was seised w
July 3, 1681, and committed to the Tower, the judgv
refusing his petition to be tried or admitted to bail lUi
refusal was twice repeated in September and October, iba
court hoping to obtain evidence sufficient to ensure his nui.
In October he wrote offering to retire to Carolina if 1m
were released Oo November 2i he wsa indicted fa
high treason at the Old Bailey, the chief ground beiii;*
paper of associatioa for the defence of tbe Protegtsst
religion, which, though among his papere, iras not is
his handwriting; but the grand jury ignored the bill
He was released on bail on December 1. In 1682, Iier-
ever, Charles secured tbe appointment of Tory (berin tm
London ; and, as the juries were chosen by the shHilU
Bhaftesbury felt that he was no Icmger aafs ftwn tte
vengeance of tho court. Failing hetJtb and the dit-
appointment of his political plans led him now into violeot
courses. He appears to have entered into consultation of
a treasonable lund with Monmouth and others ; he him-
self had, he declared, ten thousand brisk toys in Loodoa
ready to rise at his bidding. For tome weeks ha >s<
concealed in the citv and in Wappmg; but, finding tbe
schemes for a rising hang fire, be dstermined to floe, al
went to Harwich, disguised as a Presbyterian minister, snd
after a week's delay, during which be was in imminecl riu
of discovery, if indeed, as is very probable, his escape nu
not winked at by the Government, he sailed to Hollaiid on
November 2S, 16S2, and reached Amsterdam in the begin-
ning of December. Here he was welcomed with the juli
referring to bis famous speech against the Dutch, "ixm-
dum deleta Carthago." He was mode a citizen of Jub^"'
dam, bnt died there of gout in the stomach on JsnnuT
21, 1683. His body vraa sent in February to Foolei >■>
Dorset, and was buried at Wimbome St Qileo.
8HAFTESBUEY
731
d Oif dui'a mUn hu b
liatoriuia. uienlxj in aapMUl hu sisitHl lU hii wit, thoa^k
a fiigiut uDtndietioa Of pnibibUit]r ud bet, to dnpaa itill
orthsr the thule which iMti apon hii reputotion. Mr ChriiUa,
fortht
OD the other hsnd, ia pa««>ioii of Utar
ud with moT* honeit parpoae,
0(K«ion»liy, howorer, he ippeui
a o( iofornutiaii,
hM done mnch to nhlbllltita bim.
id, thooali bki picton ia compundreljr ■ tn» one, ihonld
Worthios," ilr H. D. TmiU pn ■
EngluL
intimtiDg idJi^ to mr coaceptlon of sLifto-
bmy'i pUoe in Kogliih po^iUo, by iuilatiiig OD hu podtian u the
Gnt gmt putj l«de[ ia ths modern nnie, uid u the rounder
of modorn psrlLUoentarj onlorr. Ia other rupoct* hit book i>
deriTod elmoet eatiralf from Cbriitie. Hnch of ShiftnbDij'i
iacnuinglf ao M it owne near ita cio«, ia Juoipible of
nee ; but it hu eactstd h
ition, appanutlf full of i
ea, na CTidentlf guided
_ ^ le leading ptioi^'ple, the determinetioii to uphold the anprasur
oF parliament, ■ principle vhicb, hawETer obecured by aelf-interen,
appean alao to have underlain hia vhole political nrar. H* ma,
too, ever the friend of reDgioua freedom aod o( Ml enlightanod
policy In all tnde queationi. And, ibore all, it ahonliTnot he
ror^atCeo, In jualice to Bhafteaborr'a memor]', thst "daiiag hia
long political career, in an age of general corruption, be ma eTar
incorrupt, and nerer gruped either monej or land^ la the dAJa
of the OimaianiiealU ha oerer obtaiaed or aonght moti ol
forreitod eetatn. In the daya of the leatored monarchy ne neTar
pro&Ied by the kin^a hioor for anght beyond th* le|{*l <au>la'
menta of offic«, and m office or oat <n offlea aponad all ud Duoy
offen of hiibea from the rrench king." (O. i.)
BHAPTE8BURY, Anthoky Ashlit Coopkr, Thibd
Eakl or (1 67 1-lT 13), was bora at Zxeter Home in Loodon,
February 36, 1670-71. He was grandeoa of the flrat and
aoD of tlie ncond carL Hia motliar was I^dy Dorathf
Manoen, daughter of John, earl of Rutland. Accordisg
to a cnriooi atoij, told hj the third earl hintiel^ the
marriage between hia father and mother waa negotiated
by John Locke, who iraa a tnuted friend of the firet earl
The secood Lord Shafteebur]' appean to have been a poor
creature, .bath phj«icall]r and mentally, — " bom a shapelesB
Inmp, like anarchj,' according to what ii donbtlen the
exaggerated metaphor' of Drydait. At the early aga of
three hia eon waa made over to the formal gnardionahip
of his grandfather. Locke, vha in bis capacity of
medical atteodant to the Aahlsy honaehold bad already
asaiated in bringing the boy into the world, though not
hia inatructor, waa entnuted with the snperintendence of
hia adnoatiou. Tbia waa conducted according to tho
principles eunnciated in Locke'a Tkovghtt ameenting
BdneatioH, and the method ol teaching L&tin and Greek
oouTemtionally was panned with inch ancceag by hi*
inatmctresi, Ur« Elinbeth Birch, that at the age of eleven,
it is said, young Athley conld read both langnagei with
ease. In November 1683, soma months after the death
of the fint earl, hia father enUred h'm at Wincheater ai
a waiden'a boarder. Being a aby, retiring boy, and being
moreover conalantly taunted with the opiniona and fate of
his grandfather, he appears to have been tendered miaecabla
by the roagh mannara of bis scboolfellowa, and to have
left Wincbester in 1686 for a coniee of foreign travel
By this change he waa brought into direct contact with
those artistic and classical aseociations which afterwards
exercised so marked an influence on hia character and
opinions. On hia traveb be did not, wa are told by the
fourth earl, " greatly seek the eonveiaaljon of other English
young gentlemen on tiuur traTela," bnt rather that of their
tutors, with whom be could converM on oongsniol topics.
In 1669, the year after the Hevolntion, Lord J^bley
returned to Engiaod, and for nearly five years from this
time he appears to have led a quiet, aneventful, and
atudiooa Ufa There can be no doubt that the greater
part of hia attention waa directed to the pemaol of Uicae
daaaical anthort, and to the attempt to realiie the true
spirit of that tlaaaical antiquity, for wliich bo bad
oonoeived so ardent a psMiao. He had no intention,
however, of becoming a reclute, at of permanontlj htdding
himself atoot from putdio life. Acoordingly, he became a
candidate for the boroogh of Poole, and waa retunied
Uay 31, 1695. He aoon diatingnished hii^mif tij ^
speech, whidi ezdted great attention at the &ne, in
support of the Bill for Begulating Triala in Cases of
Treason, one proviaion of which was what aeema to ns the
obvioualy reascmabls one that a perscn indicted for trwson
or miaprision of treason should be allowed the saaiataoce
of GonnseL In connexion with this speech a story is told
of Shaftesbury which ia alsd told, thong{i with 1<«
verisimilitude, of Halifax, that, being overcome by
shyness, and tmable to oontfnae hia apsech, he simply
said, befon dtting down : " If I, air, who rise only to
apeak my opinion on the bill now depending, am ao
oonfonnded that I am unable to express the le«st of what I
proposed to say, what must the condition of that man be
who is pleading for his life without any assistance and
under apprebenaioDs of being deprived of itt" "The
suddan turn of thought," aays hia son, the fourth e&rl,
" pleased the House axtremely, and, it ia generally
believed, carried a greater weight than any of Uia argu-
ments which were offered in favour of the bilL" Bu^
though a Whig, alike ly descent, by ednoation, and by
conviction, Ashley conld by no means be depended on to
give a party vote ; he was alw^s ready to anpport any
propoaitiona, from whatever quarter they came, that
appeared to him to promote the hlserty of the aubject
and the independence of parliament. Unfortunately, hia
health was so treacherous that, on the diasolntion of Jidy
1698, he waa obliged to retire from parliamentary life.
He BuiTered much from aathma, a oompUint whiui was
aggravated by the London smoke, ~
Lord Ashley now retired Into Hollaod, lAere he became
acquainted with Le Clero, Bi^le, Beigamin Furly, the
Engtiah Quaker merchant, at whose bouse Locke had
resided during hia stay at Botterdam, and probably
Limborch and the rest of the literary circle of whidi
Locke had been a cheriabed* and honoured member nine
or ten yeara bc^OTe. To Lord Ashley this societ; was
probably far more congenial than hia surroundii^ in
England. Unrestrained convenatioo on the topics which
most inteteeted him— pbilosopliy, politics, morals, religion
— waa at this time to be had in Holland with less duger
and in greater abundance than in any other countiy in
the world. To the period of this sojonm in Holland must
probably be referred the enrr^titdoua impression or
publication of an imperfect edition of the /n^wtrp condens-
ing Virint, from a rough draught, sketched when be was
only twenty years of age. This liber^ was taken, during
hia absence, by Toland.
After an afaeence of over a twelvemonth, Ashley
returned to England, and soon succeeded bis father as aarl
of Shaftesbury. He took an active part, on the Whig
side, in the general election of 1700-1, and again, with
more success, in thst of the autumn of 1701. It is said
that William nX showed bis appreciation of Bhaftesbory's
services on this latter oocamon by offering bim a secretary'
ship of atata, wbicb, however, his declining health
compelled bim to decline. Had the king's life ooutinued,
Shafbwbnry'a influeuce at court would probably have
been considerable. After the firat few weeka of Anne's
reign, Bbaftesbury, who bad been deprived of the vice-
admiralty of Dorset, returned to hia retired mode of
life, bnt bis letters to Furly show that he still retained a
keen interest in politics. In August 1703 he again sett^d
in Holland, in the air of wbicb be ssama, like Locke, to have
had great faith. At Botterdam he lived, he saya in a tetter
to hia aleword Wheelock, at tbe rate of less thoa £20n «
782
BHAFTBSBUKT
Jt»t, mi yet bad mndi "to diapcw of and spend beyond
convamoat liTuig" Ha retnnied to EogUcd, much
unpiDTsd in betJtli, in Augott 1701. Bnt, tlioiigh hs
fcul raceived immediate b«aiefit from hi« Bt«7 abroad,
■ymptomi of consomption were ooDsUntiy alarming bim,
ud he gradoally became a eonGrmed invalid. Eii occn-
ntioni were now almost eiclnoiTelj litersjy, and from
tAiB time forward he wu probably engaged in writing,
completing, or revising the treatiees which were afterwards
indaded in the ChartteUrittiet. He still oontinned, Low-
oTor, to take a warm interest in politics, both home and
fongn, and especially in the war against France, of which
Lb was an efitbnsiastic inpporter.
ShaftMbnry was nearly forty before he married, and
even then be appears to have taken this step at the
nrgsnt instigation of bis friends, mainly to sapply a suo-
ceaaor to the titleL Tbe object of his choice (or rather of
his second choice^ for an earlier project of marriage bad
shortly before fallen throngb) was a Miss Jane Ewer, the
daoghter of a gentleman in Hertfordshire. The marriage
took place in tbe automn of 1709, and on Febroary 9,
1710, was bom at his bonee at lUigate, in Surrey, his
only child and heir, the fonrth earl, to whooe manoscript
Bccoants we are in great part indebted for tbe details of
his father's life. The match appears to bave been a happy
one, thoof^ Shaftesbury oeither had nor pretended io
have much sentiment on the subject of married life.
With the exceptioD of a Prtfaet to tA« Strmcmt of Dr
Whickeoti, one of tbe Cambridge Flatonists or latitudin-
arians, published in 1S9S, Bhafteabury appears to bave
printed nothing himself till the year 1708. Abont this
time the French prophets, a« they were called, attracted
much attention by the extravagance* and follies of which
they were guilty. Various remedies of tbe repressive
kind. were proposed, but Shaftesbury maintained tluit their
fanatieism was best encountered by ** railtery " and " good-
bnmour." In support of this Yiew he wrote a letter to
Lord Somer^ dated September 1707 which was published
anonymonsly in the following year, and provoked several
replies. In Hay 1709 he returned to the subject and
printed another letter, entitled Semui Conmimit, an
X—aj/ on tkt Frttdom of WU and Hvmoar. In tbe same
year he also published The MoralitU, a Philetophical
SA^pioiy, and in the following year Soliioqu]/, or Adviee
to an AvtAor. None of these pieces seem to have been
printed either with his name or his initials. In 1711
appeared the CAaraeterutia of Men, Manneri, Opiniont,
Timji, in three volnmea, also withoQt any cams or initials
oo the titte-page, and without even the name of a printer.
Theoe three handsome volumes contaio in addition to the
four treatises already mentioned, 3fucellane/nu Btjlectvint,
now first printed, and the /n^wtrjr adeeming Viriiu or
Mtrii,. described as "formerly printed from an imperfect
copy, now corrected and published iutire," and as "printed
first in tbe year 1699.'
Tbe declining state of Shaftesbtuy'B health rendered it
necessary for bim to seek a warmer climate, and in July
1711 be set out for Italy. He eettied at Naples in
November, and lived there considerably over a year. His
principal occupation at this time must have conusted in
preparing for tbe press a second ediUon of the Character-
ittict, which appeared in 1713, soon after his death. Hie
copy, most carefully corrected in his own handwriting, is
still preserved in tlie British Museum. He wss ^so
enga^, during his stay at Naples, in writing tbe
little treatise (afterwards incladed in the Charaeterittia]
entitled A ITotiom of l/ie HidorwU Draught or TaUature
of tht Jitdgment of Sereula, and tbe letter concerning
Dttign. A little before hi* death he had also formed «
scheme of writing a Diaeoarse on the Arts of Fainting
Scolptore, Etching &«., bnt wheabe died Iia bad msda
but little progress with it "Uedals, and picture^ sod
antiqnities," be writes to Furly, "are oar duef «lt«rtli^
ments here." His conversation was with men of lit ud
science, "the virCuoei of tbia place."
The events preceding the peace of Utrecht, which it
regarded as ' preparing the way for a base deeertion of on
allies, greatly troubled the last months of Sbaitealmifi
life. He did not, however, live to see the actual concJs-
sion of tbe treaty (March 31, 1713), as he died the amlh
before, Febmary 4, 1712, O.S. At the time of his dntli
be had not yet completed his forty-eecond year. His
body was brought back by sea to England and fanned at
St OiWs, the family seat in Dwset^bite. Thongh he did
so long ago, and was one of the earliest of tbe EsgM
moralists, his descendant, tbe celebrated philaothn^uit,
who died so recently as I8SS, was only his great-gtandan
Shaftesbury's amiability of character seems to hsit
been one of his prinnpal characteristiea. All acoonla
concur in representing him ae full of eweetaess icid
kindliness towards others, tbongh he may eometiaiM bin-
self have been the victim of melaocholy and dtspODdoKf.
Like Locke he had a pecntiai pleasure in bringing fomid
young men. Amongst theoe may be especially mentioMd
Michael Ainsworth, a native of Wimbome 8t Qile^ At
young man who wes the recipient of tbe Letten addttSMJ
to a stodent at the university, and who iras maintsiiMd
by bim at Univereity College, Oxford. Tbe keen intereil
which Shaftesbury took in bis atadiM, and the deaiie tint
he should be specially fitted for the profesaon wiiicli i»
had selected, that of a clergyman of the Chorch of Eii|-
land, are marked features of the letters. Other ysolcfft
were Crell, a young Pole, the two yoting Furly^ ud
Harry Wilkinson, a boy who was sent into Fnrly'a o&ce
at Botterdsm, and to whom seveni of the letten Kill
extant in the Record Office are addressed.
In the popular mind, Shaftesbnry is generally legudid
as a writer hostile to religion. Bn^ however Bbort liti
orthodoxy might fall if tried by tba otondards ol u;
particular church, bis temperament was pie-emineDtl; t
religious one. This fact is shown conspicnonsly in ^
letters, where he bad no reason for making any secret o(
his opinions. Tbe belief in a God, all-wise, aU-jnrt, i»d
all-mercifol, governing tbe world providentially fv ll"
best, pervades all bis works, bis correepondenco, and to
life. Nor bad he any wish to anderaune eslabliiM
beliefs, except where be conceived that tbey cenlKtsi
with a truer religion and a purer morality.
To the public ordinances of the church he scropnIoiiJl
conformed. But, nnfortonately, there were many thi'lP
both in the teaching and the practice of the ecclcsiaitia
of that day which were calculated to repel man of boIh
judgment end high principle Theee evil tendenciM n
the popular presentation of Christianity undoublulr
begot in Bhafteabnry's mind a certain amonnt otrepvg^
canceand contempt to some of the doctrines of Christiim^
itaelf ; and, cultivating, almost of set purpose, hi« win a
tbe ridiculous, be woa too apt to assume towards bko
doctrines and their teachers a tone of millery and bsi'^t
which sometimes oven approaches grimace.
Bat, whatever might be Shaftesbury's «p«ciilili"
opinions or his mode of expressing them, all witoesw
concur in bearing teatimony to tbe elevation and (leritj^
his life and urns. Molesworth, who had no special Ituoi
for flattering him, speaks of bim as " posBesusg "K^'
reason in a more eminent degree than the rest of ^^
kind," and of his character as "tbe highest that tht F^
fection of human nature is capable of." Even WsrbortW
in his dedication of the ZXnnt Leffotum to tbe !">■
thinkers, is wmpelled to "own that this' loid W t"^
IHAFTESBDKT
73S
excellent qntlitica, both w • man and a writer. Ha wu
tampente, chaste, hooMt, ud a lorar of hu country."
Ab an eanieet ttudeat, an ardeat lover of libartj, an en-
tlmmaat in the cause of virtne, and a nuQ of unbiemuhed
life and untiring beneficence, fihafteeburj probabJj bod do
Buperior in hii geDeration. Hie character and purBoits are
the ixore reisarfcable, conaideriag the rank of life in which
be WM bom and the circnoEtaDCBs nnder which he was
brought Dp. In mnaj reapecte be remiods ni of the impe-
rial phtlneopher Jlarcus Anroltna, whose works we know
hiDi to have atudied with avidity, and wboee influence is
nnniistakably itamped apon hiii own productions.
llort of Shiftoftnir)^* wtitiigi Iiitb h«n dnidf monliosed.
In idditiDa to than then hoTs been publwfaBd fouri«D letten
from Bhiftiabnry to Uoimirorth, oclitoj bj ToUnd in 1721 ;
•omii letlcn to Bonjsmin Fnrl;, in nat, and bii elark Uurj
WmdnHm, inclnilixl In i toIudib entitled Onfiaal LtUtrt «'
Lxii, SidHe}, and S/ia/lWrnrg, wliich vu pabJubod bj Ur T.
Kontar Id 1830, ud ogiiiii in an enluBSd form in 1647 ; thrtx
lettsn, written rMpectivoly to Stringer, Lord Orton', ind LonI
OoJolpIiiD, wbicli sn;>ureil, for tht Gnt lims, la tht Omral
Ditiiemr<i; ind lutly ■ lattiT to La dure, In bi> lecolJectioiu of
Locka, lint pabliahed in ifeUt aid Qatnet, Feb. 8, ISEl. Tfao
LilUn to a Youitg Uan at Ou Uuiitftay [MicbMl Aioaaartlil
ilrradj monlioncd, wera flnrt publiihod Is 17lB, it boing nncartiin
»m\om. Tb) Lattai on Deaign wit first pnhliahod In tba edition
the Charailiriitia iwiad in 17S2. BondM tba pabliahad writ-
ing!, than an itlll to be loond Mvnal mamonndL lettin, longb
dmfti. &0., in the Bbftrtosbarr papers in tbe Rocord Office.
Bboftaabnr;, it ia plain, took great puui in the alabontion of hla
atyla, ud he tnenoded in fir aa to Duka hii meaning traoi-
pvaut. The thoagbt ia alwap clair. But, on tho othar hand, lio
did not a^QiUr aaccaed in attainiDg alegance, an object at wbic;h
ha laemi aqnallj to bare aimed. Tbere ia a cnrioua aitactation
about Ua a^U.—a lalselto note,— vbich, notTrilhittading all bis
chonctariatLO ia perhapa baat hit on by Charlaa Lamb when he
calli it "genteeL Ua poaaatoo mnch ai aiina gentleman, and ia
BO aniiona not to be Ukta for a pmlant of the Tolgar icholaatic
kind that ha Iklla into the hnnllj mora attiaatiTa podniitrf ol
the Batbate and nriiuBiL Bat, uotwithalanding tbeao drfecta, be
poanasa* the gnat merita of being euil; r«d and eaailj nnder-
ttood. Hgoca, probabtr, the wida popnUritj which hia vorki
anjojad in the laateBntnir ; and hence, UDdoubtedly, tbeagieeablo
feoling with wliich, notinth standing aU their filM taita and their
tireaome difreadoiia, they itill improBa the modem reader.
It ia maialr u a moralist that SbartfflbDrj b«a a claim to a
plaea in the Liatorr oT litsntora andphiloaophy. Like moat oC
the ethical writen of hia time hia first imptUso to apoculation, or
at least topobbcatioD, leema to hare been derived from a deairato
com bet the etiU faahionable »ndoiaa of Hobbea, and to arreat the
pngnas of doclriDea at which aociety etill oontinDod to be aerioDilj
iluDiad. Hence it bectms hit mam coueam to aaacrt the reaUty
and iadapendDnce of onr benevolent affocHona, and to ahow that
theae and the acta which latult &om them are whit mainly elicit
the feeling of moral approbation. ThUwork he appears to hare
conceived it hia apedal miaalon to nndertake, not ea a "pedant "
ora " Schoolman, ° bnt a* a "man of taalo." Jt »»a probably
in accordance with thia conception that he refrained from uiing
tlie langiage abont the "Uwt of nature" wfiich had hitherto
been cnnent in ethical treatiaca, and that he preferred to tepreatLt
rather than u dictated aimplj by raaaon.
The leading ideat in SbaftnbtirT'a ethical theory are thoae of a
iyatem, or the relation of jsrta to a whole, benevoUnce, moral
Hanty, and a mora] testa.
The individual nun faimaelf it a ayitam oonaiatliig of variona
appcCilaa, paaaiooB, and alTectiona, all nnited under the anpnme
control of reaaon. Of thia ayilctn the parte are to nicety adjuated
to each other that any ditarrangemont or diaproportiin. however
•light, may mar and disfimire the whole. "Whoever ia tc the leait
veraed in Uiia moral kind of architeatnre will find thaianard fabric
eo adjoatad, and the whole lo nicely built, that the harely crtending
of a aini:le puaioo ■ little too far, or the continuance of it too long,
it able to bring irrecovorable min and miaery."
Bat morality and human natnro cannot be adeqoatcly atndied
In the tyitem of the individual man. There arc parte in that
ayjtam, both meatal and bodily, wbich hare an tvidant respect to
aomothing outaide it. Kaithn man nor any other animal, tbongh
' af parte at to all within, can be allowed
■molat.
all withi
a the syatam of hu
to tba wirid (our avthj ; and thia ajgaiD t« the bi^K" world
and to the tmlvaiaa. "Sd beiii; ou proparly ba called good or 01
except b refereiico to the ayatama of which he ia a part " Wben,
in general, all the aSectlona « paaaioni am suited to tile publle
pwil or and of the apaciaa, then ia the natonl temper entirely
good. If, on the contrary, any laqniaits pamiua ba wantinx, or
If then beany one snpemumerary or waak, or any wiae diaaarvioeible
or contrary to that main end, then ia tha natural temper. 111
conaoquently the creature himaalf, in aome meaanra oorrnU n-i
ia " Hanoe it followa that banavolBBOt, if not the aula. Is at
least tho principal moral viitne.
The idoa of a monl and aocial ayatem, the parte of which an In
a conttant proportion to each other, and ao nicely tdjuslsl tiut
tlio tlighteat diaomiigemeDt would mar tba unity of daaign,
almoat neoeiaarily luggeaU an analogy betweea morality and art
portion betireoa ita parta, or la a cartain harmony
if the VI
groat enda
mtribnia to promote tht
lay auppoae, th
conautiag la it
St thev Eontnbnia to ,
1 aimilsrly, we may auppoae, tht
Id be eiplainad at -—'—*-- '- =-
iprfnpofao
M our bclog.
icution to the virtoona characrtr ._ .. „, _. _
the other acta ofa vlrtaoua life, or to the general condition ota
rirtnona atald of aociety. This anilogj between art and morality,
or, aa It may otherwiaa he eiprstud, betwaea the beasty of
external objecte and the beauty of actiooa or characten, it urer
lung abtcnt fram Sbaftaabnn'a mind. CloaaJy connectwl with it
analyia It It
between theee I
intellectual pnx
iticipatea HnEcbeaon by calling it a "moral
an eipnsslon, mdeod, which he may bt nld to hsva
ted to the English language Thia " aenaa of right and
ia "aa natural to ns u nitunl aBection llaelf,* and "a
ciple in our conatituCion and make." At the tame time
ea a certain amoDlit of judgnient or refleiloD, that it to
tional clatoent. Shaftesbury'a doctrine on thia head may,
briefly be anmmed up u lollows. Each man bat from
a natural acniH of right and wrong, a ' moral aenaa ' oi
nee " (lU which eipretaiona he employe aa synanymou).
aa ia, in Ita natural condition, wholly or msloly emotioBal,
it admita of constant edncation and impivvament, tho
or nflectivs element in it gradually bacomea mora pro-
Its decisions are genenUy deacr^b-d a* if Ibey ware
la an emotional elemont, little or ao attempt It made to
laervod for Hume properly to diaoiimlnata
imenta, and to point out that, while tha
ilution or diaapprobation it Inatantaneon^
ibicb precedea it la often the naolt of an
Luffldont to Bupplenu
bnry'a tjUim by a atill briefer aammaiy of the anawet*, ao far aa
they can ba oollected from hit works, which ha would have givtn
to the principal qneationa of etblca aa they an now otoally pro-
lionnded. His antveti to thiaa ijnettiona are, aa it appeara to tha
proaeut writer, that our moral idaaa — the diatinetlaDB of virtue
and vice, right and wrong — are to be found In the very make and
csnatdtution of our natun ; that morality la independent of
thsali^, actions being danominited good or juit, not by tha
arbitivy will of God [at bad raoently been maintained by Locki),
but in virtue of aome quality axitling In themielvea ; that the
altimats tut of a right action ia ita tendency to promote tha
general walfara ; that we hava a peculiar organ, the moral aenaa,
aualogous to taste in art, by which we dlecrimimta between
chnractera and actions aa good or bad ; that tha highai nitnras
among mankind are impelled to right action, and detatred from
wrong aetloa, partly by the moral tanse, partly by the lovf and
reverence of a jnat and good Qod. while the lower DBturea an
mainly iaflnenead by the opiniona of othera, or by the hope of
reward and the fear of pnniahment ; that appalita and raaaon
both concur in the doterminatlan of action ; lattly, that tht
qneation whether the will does or doea not poaaeta any freedom of
cnoica, imtpectlvely of character and motivoa, ia one [at laaat ao
we may gather f.-om Shaflatbary'a retieence) which it doat mt
if Hotihaeon's tpecnlatir
ghaft«bnry, amounting ao
identi^, will be apparent on
nferance to the aceount of that pbllnaapber (VoL xii. pp. «»-ll].
Kelt to Hobbea, the moralitt with whoae viawa Shaftealniry'a atand
ia moat direct antagoniam ia Locke, whs not only maintsiitd
that moral distinctions depend solely OB the arbitrarr will of Ood,
bat that the aanctiona by which they an mainly eiifcnql are the
hope of futon nwanl and the laar of futnr* paniahmant " By
the holt 1* the rod, and with th* Iiiiiiili— iiii a In nad; Je
734
I H A — S H A
(Doiib It" BhaftMlmTj'i wu In rMlitr, though psrhifs not in
upiannca, ■ more tnily religimu phil<i»op!i/. For with him
tbe inuntiTeg U wsll-doing ud^tha daUmirti fmm DvU-daing on
to ba Hiuht not aolely, or nea miiiilf, In tLi« opinioD of tnan-
kisd, or u tho nnnli ud poniihrniints of ths magiitiiite, or in
Ihs hopa and traron oT » (ntnni ■orld, bat In tha aonnT of ■
nod coueianeo •npraring Tutiu uid diinpproving rica, and in
tha loTi o( k Oao. vho, by Hii inHaila «udom ud Hii alL-
cmbndng bmaflaanM, i> worthf of ttat lore ud admintioD of
Hucmtoisi.
Tb* main ohjaot ot tbo Mbr(Uiil$ Is ta propound a ayatam o[
tiatnlal thaologj, ud to TinilicaU, aa Tar u natural raligion ii
ratigiDU
with an
ooBcanitd, tha waji of God to man. Tba articlca of ShaTtwbiirr'.
T and umple, but thoie bo eutartained
1 vara tew
..^^...1 up ai a bsliat in one Ood whose id«-
tattribsta In uuTSnal banerolanca. in tho niond fpiTeminai
tho UjTona, ud in a fotiira itata of man making np foi
tmpBrfections and rapairing tha Inoquilitieg of tha rmcnt
ehiiftaaburf ii amphatioillf an or"-"'"* '"'
but then is a pauagB in
tho jrvroJuCt (pt.~iL axt 4) which would laid na to luppooo
that ha ngarded mattur aa u indiBoniit prindiils, co^xistiut and
ccHotirnal with Ood, limiting Hii o^iationa, and tha cauM of thu
eiil and fmperfwtion whieh, noCwitha landing the bonaTolenca of
the Creator, ii atill to be found in Uii work. If this riow of hb
oiittmiini be oornct, &haft«burj, u Hill nya of LoibniCz, muat
bo ngarded u muntnining, not that thit ia the boat of all
imacbikblB but only of all poonble wotlda. Thia brief notico of
Bh*ft««biU7'» BcbBmo of niEuml nlipon would bo compicuouily
imperfeift nnliiss it won ftddad that it u iiopalariiiid in Papo'a£i«iii
en Man, Mvaral linaa of which, flapoi:iaUj of tbe fint epistloT pro
■implj aUtomonta fnm the MoraltaU done hito nne. Whether,
liowerer, these wore taken immediatolT by Pope from Shaftoabnij,
or whether thej came to him through the papera which Bolijig-
broke hiulprenisd for his us^ >o hare no mcmaof delsnniiiing,
Bhaftoabory't pbiIo«phical aotrrUj waa ODuiined to etbica,
tnthetiaa, and religion. For mBtapbjBiaa^ properly ao callod, and
«Ten panhology, aicept M far le It afibrded a bull for ethics, ba
vrideDtly had no tuts. Lopio he probably daepiscd «a merely an
«iiM^y at the unlTeraltiat, then wu only too much ground.
The iDflnanoo of Shiftasbnry'* writinea wat rery eondderthle
^M>th at home and abroad. Hia ethical ayitem was nprodncod,
though in a more prwnsa and philoaophicaf form, by Hiitoluaon,
and from him descended, with certaUi rariations, to Hnma and
Adam Binith. Nor WM It without its effect OTen ou the apecula-
tiona of Butler. Of the wi-called deiata Shaftoabury was nrohably
the moat important, as ha waa certainly the moat plauaiblo nud
the most reapectabla. Bo eooner had the CharatitHiiia appeared
than they wore woloomod, in trrma of warm oomniendation. by Iji
Claraand LeibniU In 174S Diderot adapted or reproduced tho
/nfniry cancrrning yirtiu in what waa afterwards known as hb
SMtai lur U Mtritt it la Virtu, fn 1788 a French translation of
tha whole of Shafteabnry'a worka, Including the LeUtrt, wu
nnbliahed it Genera. Tnnalatious of (epanta trastisoa into
beiman begu to ba made in 1738, and in 177S-177B then
sppsartd a complete German tnnalitian of Iho Outnulerialia.
Hermann Hetlnet says thst not only Leibnitz, Voltaire, and
Didarol, but Leasing, Hendelaaohn, Wiel.nd, oud Henler, ilrew
tha most stimulating nutriment from fihafteabui?. "Hiacharma,"
ho addih " an aver ireah. A new.bom Hellenism, or dirlne cnltus
of beauty preaontad itaelf before hia inspired eool." Hcrdc
-'"'■■■ ' tbe ilora
espacially eulogiatia. In the AdnuUa he prononncca tbe itontlistt
to be a campotltion in form well-nigh wnruj of Grecian antiquity,
ud in its contenta almnt superior to iC Tbo iatorost felt by Oar-
man literary men in Sbaflasbnry hu'bean recently reTiroJ by tho
K
uonogTanhs, out
mainly from the theological aide by Dr Oideon Sjiicker (fnibnrg
in Qaden, 1878), tho other dealing with him mainly from the philo-
~ ■■-r.._..^ ^Jjg,_
a phneeoptwra" ^f^\
ai, UnofliltlstT M msssa always cIoh
Or Bfesk to Iks Omirtt Oiakrvt. 'm
B~ Iksaslir tslsnnoB mar ake
flSH^to, WI»w<rr>Wir)
mffSB«ls tt Apfod, jDsffi ■ -^^^^ - -■- —
JUMm ritfsiiU ta Aviaail. AtM vtt Onrtoa* AgdliA CAsnri ta
A^WHUt aworf, and A. S. raiTBr'i&DrH LaMuas. C''' f->
SEAFTESBUKT, Authoft Aafoxf Coopni, Sbvbith
:Eau, of {1801-188.1), -wv tha Ko pf C>r»ple7, uxth earl.
and Anne, daughter of the tbird duke of IfftHbwMigliiid
woa born 28th April 1801. He' irni educated at Huny
and Christ Chtuch, Oxford, where lio obtained a Gnt du
in classica in 1822, and gmdimtffil M.A. in 1633, h
1811 ha received from hia untTenitj the degree of D.C.L
Ho entered parliament aa member for tlie pocket boroicli
of Wood-tock in 1S26; in 1830 he waa retnnted Td:
Dorchoater; from 1831 till Fcbnuiry 1846 he reprtsenlel
tho couDty of Dorset ; and he wa9i member for Batt Inm
1847 till (haviog proviouel; boroe the conrteaj itt
Iiord Ashley) he aucceedcd his father as earl in IS}].
Although giving a general 8u^|>ort to the CoDBerratitei.
hia parliamentaiy conduct was greatly modified by hj
intense interest in the improvement of the social coBditicic
□f the working classes, his efforts in behalf of whom ban
made hia name a household word. He oppoaed tha Refcra
Bill of 1S33, but was a supporter of Catholic emaan'[a.
tion, and his objection to the continuanco of resistonct la
the abolition of the Com Laws led him to resign hie tai
for Dorset iti 1846. In parliament his name, more Ibu
anj other, is associated with tbe factory legislation (nt
Pactoby Acts, vol viii. p. 845). He waa a lord of lit
admiraltj under Sir Robert Peel (1834-35), hot on kiil|
invited to Join Peel's admin Ldtration in 1841 refimt
having been unable to obtain Peel's snpport for tha Tga
Hotus' Bill Chiefly bv his persistent ofibrta a Ten Hoan'
Bill was carried in 1847, but its oporatioo was Jmjjoieil
bf legal difGcultiea, which were only removed by nuxosin
Acts, instigated chieny by bim, until legialation rcachiJ
a final stage in the Factory Act of 1874. The part vbiEi
he took in the legislation bearing on coal mines was eqmll;
prominent. It is worthy of notice that his effotti In
behalf of the practical welfare of the working cLaacswEtt
guided by hia own personal knowledge of their anxt
stances and wants. Thus in 1846 ho took adrantifec'
his leisure after tbe resignation of his seat for Donttu
explore the slums of the metropolis, and by tho infon*
tion he obtained not only gave a new impulse to the wen
ment for the establishment of ragged schools, but wuibli
to make it more widely beneficial. For ovei foiiy jn'>
he was president of the Ragged School Union. He ■»
also one of the principal founders ot Tefonnatotj t)t
refuge unions, young men's Christian ossociationi, aid
working men's institutes. He took an active interest la
foreign missions, and was president of several of tha mnl
important philanthropic and religious societies of Lradoa
Ha died Ist October 1885. By hia marriage to I*ij
Emily, daughter of tbe fifth Earl Cowper, he left i big:
family, and was succeeded by his eldest sor Anlhonj, ™
committed suicide shortly afterwards,
SHAGREEN. See Leaihbb, vol liv. p 390, ai
B^kKkBkD, a. British district in the FaCna dinam
of the licutenant-govamorahip of Bengal, India, betwGM
24' 31' and 25' 43' K. lat. and between 83" 23' W
84° GS' £. long., with an area of 4365 square milM^ !■
is bounded on the N. by tha district of Qhatipar In tW
North-Weatem Provinces and by Saran, on tlie £ M
Patna and GayA districts, on the S. by Lohardaga, W
on the W. by Minapur, Bonarea, and Qhaiipur distM
of the Norlh-Western Provinces. About Jbroe-foofthiif
the whole area lying to the north in an alluvial flnl, ^'^^
under cultivation, and fairly planted with mangoes, no-
boos, and other trees; while the southern portion of tb
district is occupied by the Kiumnc Hill", a branch ol >■■
great Vindhyon range, and is a deeaely wooded tiwt
The chief rivers are the Oangos und tho Son, whi<4 nni"
in tbe north-eastern corner of ShAhAb&d. A seriu of cuiiU
ou the Son are reported to have secured toi the district
iramanity from fature fainisQ. ^^Uis sootlura port"*
S H A — S H A
735
of the dutdct large gtw nbonoda, iDclBdlDg tlio tiger,
bear, leopard, and uver»l Tarieties of deer ; and Bmoag
other aniiaoli mot with are the wild boaj, bj.-enn, jackal,
aad fox. Tbo n;lgb[iu a seen on the Kaimur Hills. Tbe
climate u rery sultry, and the ruins heavy. The East Indian
BaUtvay tmTerscs the north of the district for GO miles,
and the aggregate length of roods is about 1000 miles.
insdaus 118,73!, aaJ CJiristii
population •loceding 10,000, Tii, Artuh 42,898, Duuii
17,429, Baini 1S,1SS, and Jagdispni ll,G(tS. Tbe adiuiuistro
hesdijnutsn of tha diitrict ■» it Atnh. The chief itipli
Shahabod ii ricB. whieh prodncea three cropa during tbe 71
vheit, bsrley, mBi», cermts. and Tariou other rUuts in
groKD. The priucifol u
p»I)or, saltpetre, blnnkeli,
of th* district are lugir,
. — , -1 cloth, and Lraei uteiuil^
chiefly carried oa bj mecui of pennaaent marketi in
mo mirn and et fain. The priuciiml exports are ri«, wheat,
barley, pulio, grain, oata, iineeed, cazrawij aeed, piper, and ipicei ;
iinporli cotuiiC of cleaned rice, brtal-iiut, tabacco, epjpir, molaue^
loaf. The ravcDiie'ofShiihAbild district m 1831-84 imonnted to
£253,542, of vhich the laud jielded £lTi,U3. The aoulhem
part of the diettict wai ceded to the BKtiih ij Shah Alum,
emperor of Delhi in 17B5, and the northern pott by Ainf-ud-
Dowlih, Tidet of Ouilh, ten ycora latii.
SHIH JAHi-N, Mogul emperor from 16ST to 1658.
See India, toL lii. p. T9S.
SKiBJAHiNPUR, the eaatammost district of the
Rohilkhnnd dtiisioa in the lieu ten ant-governorship of the
Horth-Weetern ProTiocM of British India, lying between
27* 36' and 28* 29' N. lat and between W 33' and
80° 26' E. long. It ha< an area of ITIG sqaore miles, and
is bounded on the N. and N.W. by Pilibhit, on the K by
Sardoi and Kheri, on the S. by tbe Qauges, separatiog it
from Farukhabad, and on the Vf. by Budunn and Bar-
eiUy. The district consiita of a long and narrow tract
luoniog up from the Onnges towarda tha Himalayas, and
is for tha moat pert level and without any hills or
considerate nndnlations. The principal rivers are the
Qumti, Khauaut, Garili, and Rimgango. The last-named
is the main naterv&y of tha district, and is naTigahle
as far as Kola Obat near JaUUbid, whence grain is
shipped for the Ganges porta. To tbe nortb-east beyond
Gumti the country re^iembles tbe tarai in the preponder-
ance of waste and forest over cultivated land, in the sparae-
uess of population, and in general nnhealthineas. Between
tbe Gumti and the Khanaut the coantry varies from a
rather wild and unhealthy nortbera region to a densely
inhabited tract in the south, with a productive soil well
cultivated with sugar-cane and other remunerative cropa
Tbe section between the Deoha and OarAi comprises
much marshy land ; but south of the Qarii, and between
it and the BAmgaoga, the soil is mostly of a sandy nature.
From lUmgaaga to the Ganges in the aoath is a continuous
low country of raarsby patches alternating with a hard
clayey soil requiring much irrigation in partiL Shih-
jaUnpnr contains a number of jbils or lakes, which afford
irrigation for the spring crops in their neighbourhood.
The Oudh and Rohilkhand Railway traverses the district
a diatancB of 39 miles. The climate of the district is
very similar to that of most parts of Ondh and Rohil-
khaad, but maister than that of the Doab. Except in Uay
and June, tbe country baa a fresh and green appearance.
Its average annual rainfall is abont 38 inches.
In lesi the population of Shihjihinpar numbered 856,944
(miIh 4110,064, femslei B9«,B8!), of wham 7S5,£44 wen Hindus
SDd 110,214 were Uohamniedana The dittrict conUiui onlf tvo
tewsi itith s uoimlatinn exceeding 10,004, viz., SifAHjjlnjlMriiH
(f.D.) lull Tilhar U^.^Sl). Of Ihe total ana of 17(6 equare loiiea
188S-84, ■ ■■■ ■
—..--...«. -..- chief moTicaia' ' ""
la iprlu^ and In
. , .... shieBj SDgar, ersin of all
kindi, pnliea, indigo, cotton, and timber, and the iinporti an
niaiul; Eunpoon goole, m^^tala, and (olt The gron nrtnne
miKd in the Uiitrict in 1883-84 amonnlod to.ieiS6,ia2, of which
the land eontribulo.1 f 118,633. The ouly naniifadtureii of any
importADce under EDroprin ■upcrniaion aie thoae of sugar and
rem and of indigo. «h,lLjdmuin(r was ceded to tbo EiigUah by
treaty in 1301. During tlio mutiny of 1857 it became the acenn
of opon nboUion. The Europmni uore attacked ulioo in church ;
tbtve ven shot down, but tlie nimalnder, aldcl bv a hundroJ
faithful aepoyi, eicnped. Tbe foreo uuJtr Lord Clyde put • Blop
to the anarchy in April 18S3, and eliortly artcrnards peace and
Jrity wen
ircd.
SHAHJAHANFUR, municipal town and
tive headquarters of the above district, lies in 27* 53' 41"
N. lat. and 73" 57' 30" E. long., on the left bonk of tho
Deoha, It is a large place, with some stately old mosques
and a castle now in ruins, lie city was founded in
1647 during the reign of Bbdh Jahin, wbos^ name it bears,
by Nawdb BahAdur KhAn, n PathAn. It has a considerable
eiport trade in cereals, pulses, and sugar. In 1881 the
population was 74,830 (36,8(0 milet, and 37,030 females).
SHi^PUB, the soutbemmost district of the Rawal
Pindi division in the lieutenant-governorship of tbe
Punjab, India, between 31" 32' and 32* 42' N. lat. and
betneea 71' 37' and 73° 24' E. long., with an area of
4691 square miles. The district is bounded on the N. by
the Jbelum district, on tha £L by O^jrAt and tbe Cbenab,
on tba a by Jhang, and ou the W. and N.W. by Sera
Ismail Khan and Bannn. On both sides of tbe Jhelam
stretch wide upland plains, utterly barren or covered only
tvith brushwood 1 a considerable portion of this area, how-
ever, is composed of good soil, only requiring irrigation to
make it productive. The most imjiortant physical sub-
divisions of the district are the Salt range in tbe north,
the valleys of the Chen&b and Jhelum, and the plains
between those rivers and between the Jhelnm and the
Salt range. The characteristics of these two plains are
widely different : tbe desert portion of the souuem plain
is termed the bar; the corresponding tract north of the
Jhelum is known as the thai. That part of ShAbpur to
the north of tbe Jhelum is by far the moat interesting,
containing as it does snch varieties of scenery and climate,
such contrasts of soil, vegetation, and natural capabilities.
Communications ore carried on by well-made roads, by
the Jhelum, which is navigable for country craft through-
out its coarse within the distric^ and by 52 miles of the
Salt branch of the Punjab Northern State Railway. The
climate of ths plains a hot and dry, but in tha Salt
range it is mnch cooler ; the average annnal rainfall is
about IS inches. Tigen, leopards, and wolves are fonnd
in the Salt range, while small game and antelope abound
among tbe thick jungle of the bar,
Tbe cennu of 1881 diaclowid a population of 4S1,50S (mala
221,678, femalea 1»9,882] ; of theie 6»,02S ocn Hindu* and
3G7,?42 ven Uobammedan). Tbe only town in tho diatriM with
more than 10,000 inhabitanta ia Bhera, with 16,165 ; but tbo
adminl^tretive heulnuarten of the diatrict an at tbe troall toirii
of Shahiiar on the Jhelnm river, the iwpulatiou of which in 1881
nil M24. Of Ihe total am only Sh iquan miles «er« noder
cultivable. What ia tbe ebiaf ttapC', and coven nearly a half of
the cultivated area; b^'ra and cotton an the noit meat eitenaively
grown cropa ; among other crops are augar-cane and opium. The
commorcial importance of the district depende aim oat entirely upon
its connexion with the Salt lange, nil boing found thnughoat
tiixHi hitli. The revenao derived from thia product, however,
though collected in the SbahpUT diatrict, cannot pivperlT bo
eredital to It, aa tbe mineral, though abundant in ths Shahpnr
portion of tha isuge, ia worked chiefly in that part: of il which liia
wool, aki, and aaltpetre ; tbe imports lugar, English piece-goodi,
and metala lU manufacturca cooaiat of edk end cotton >aulB,
toyi, and felt and blankeU. Tbe gross revenue in 1883-84 amounted
._ ■.,««- _._if_i .i_i__j .,^^:i..|t5j £3^ pjQ
tbe Engliab along with the
•npf nailan of the HiUtaa lebelUoB in
Shahpar pa"*J '"''' the 1
■t of tha Punjab on ths si
736
8 H A — S H A
■ ItohftmniMlui
•nil thoDgli tlu Tiikgoa
of lOpOYS OCCntrad. Bin™ •luiouiiiuu mo lu^.Mi ~— WUU.1......V™
at the diatrioL Iuts andergone uiany changu.
SE£AHRASTAKI (1086-1 1S3). Abu'I-Fatb McAammod
ibn 'Abd al-KarIm, callod al-Shahraat&ul, a native of
Sbahraatin (ShBlirictin) in Khorisin, Persia, was notad oti
u juciaconEoIt and Uieologian of the ABh'arite scbooL He
went to Baghdad ia 1 1 ] 6 and etayed theca three yean, but
afterwards retarded to hU native plac^ where ha died.
Bam'tlnl, the famous Listorian of Baghdad, yni one of hia
hearen. and to him Ibn KhatliUn (No. 622, Eng. tr. iL
679 (3.) mainlf owes the little that is koo«n of Shahra-
Htinfs life.
tio wrote TSriDU nork^ of wLich lerenl stUl ailit ; thttwhich
trim him ■ etxlai to notice hsra in tba intflreaCiug Eitiii al-Xilal
— ■ ■ " el B«1igioiu Secti and nUowphieal
'" '" " LCl tiAuiUted into Getmsu
I'wock for hia tccODnt of the ancieut Arabs and liu b«i
lelerretl Io~bui», but hu to be read with caution, aa the ai
oltea Titf uncritical. It treaU mceamiitij 0! thi
•eoU, o( othar rsligiaiu hodiea (Jen, Sunariti
MB4{i>(i4, Manichieauji, &C.), oC philoaaphical achooli (incladlutf the
(liseki), aud o( Uio aucient Araba and ladifiai, aud eoutauia a
greit Ji'al of curioua and valuable tuatUr,
SHAIKP, John CAKfBELL (1819-1885), principal of
Iba Uoited College, SI Andt«wB, and profesaor of poetiy
at Oxford,, wiu bom at Eotuttoun House, Linlithgowshire,
on Julj 30, 1819. He was the third son of Major
Normaa Shair|) of Hoostonn and K Binning, daaghter of
J. Campbell of Kildaloig, ArgjUahire. He waa educated
at Ediaburgli Academy and Glasgow Univeniitf, where he
gained the Snell exhibition, and entered at Balliol College,
Oxford, ia_ 1810. While a student at Qlasgov and an
nndergradnate at Oxford it was his privilege to make
tUADj warm friends and to be very widely loved. At
Glasgow begau bis lifelong friendahip with Dr Korman
M'Leod, while among those with whom he was most
intimate at Oxford were the names of Bradley, Coleridge,
Temple, Clough, Walrood, Riddell, Frichard, and Edwin
Palmer. Ia 1813 he gaiued the Kewdigate prize for a
poem on Charles XII., and in 1644 took hia degree with
seooud class hooonrs. During these years the "Oxford
movement" was at its UeigliL Shairp's earueat nature
was greatly stirred by Newman's sermons, while Keble's
poetry spoke home to his heart ; but, though full of warm
Bjtapatby for many Bi|^ Church views, he remained
futbful to hilt Presbyterian upbringing. After teaving
Oxford he took a maatershtp at Rugby under Dr Tait ;
here he sought loyally to develop Dr Arnold's system by
appealing to the better feelings of his pupils and by giving
them wide views of culture and education. And in this ho
was successful, making among his pupils warm and lasting
friends. In 1857 he became assistant to the professor of
linmanity in the uuiveraity of St Audiews, and in 1861 he
was appointed professor of that chair. In 1353 he married
EUm, daughter of Heury Alexander Douglas, Eilhead,
Duuifriesshire, and had oue sQrviving son, John Cam[)bcll,
who became an advocate at the Scottish bar. Bbairp was
higliiy rc<s{)ected by the more ewaasC studenla, and much
loved 1iy some whose S|uritual as veil as mental nature he
lielped to (juicken. In 1864 he published Kilmaliof, a
lliglUimd Padoral ; In this his devotion to the scenery and
the people of the Scottish Highlands, where ho always spent
his vacations, found vent. In tliis poem there was a
directneoa, simplicity, and moral earnestness which showed
the true poet In 1SC8 he republished some articles noder
the name of SlwiUi in Pixtiy and FhiititojAj/ ; this book
showed hira to be one of the foremost critics of hia day ; the
chief enl^ects it disaiwsed were Wordsworth, Coleridge^ and
Keblo. fie insisted strongly on the high iipiritual teach-
ing and the deep poeticftl power of the great lake bard.
While not blind to his maaj fai^Ha of s^la, bis oeeuirail
puerility, and his promoess, he urged his cUinu ti 1
unique interpreter of Nature and a spiritual philiwipbn.
Coleridge interested him as a poet, but much mnt u 1
religious teacher ; the Aidt to Rtfitctiott was a favoiirik
present to his young friends, and often gave a text fn ^
deeper conversatiims. The most popular essay w»i Ik
on Keble, in which he gave a vivid sketch oC Newmui
iuduBuce in Oxford, while he spoke of the aiith« ol Tk
Chrittian Year with enthosasm aa a Christian tadix,
and with disceming criticism as a poeti In 1868 it n
presented to the principalship of the United CoU^^ tboi:
by the death of J. D. Forbes ; he discharged the du^ u
thia office with conscienlions leal and interest, and iln on-
tinued to lecture from time to time on liteiaiy and etlviJ
subjects. A course of the lectures, published u l^TO,
Cvltuit and Etligion, ia one of his most populsi \ai>.
In 1873 he helped to edit the life of Frincipd Yv/lm.
aud in 1874 he edited Dorothy Windswortb^ chuvij
RecollKtiom 0/ a T<mr in SeotUind m 1S03. In 187? b I
was elected professor of poetry at Oxford in snocessittfc
Sir F. H. Doyle. Of his lectures frran tiiiB chair ttitiM |
were published in 1880 as AiptiU of Poatrf. In 187Ih I
had published r*« Porfw /»te;pr«(f(iK»« 0/ JTirfMre, in irW
he enters fnlly into the "old quarrel,'' aa Flato oliiit '
between science and poetry, and traoca witii grest d«i 1
neea and literary acumen the ideas of nature, in tUik j
chief Hebrew, cLosaical, and English poete. Is Wi k
published a short life of Kobert Bums. Such wen Ebiip'i
chief literary works, though many oncollected to^im I
articles and a few poems show the verM^lity of his t^\
attention may be apeciolly called to his article Emu * .
this Sncydopi^ia as au example of his critical pover. It
1382 he was re-elected to the poetry chair and diicbu^
hia dutiea there and at St Andrews till the end of 1^;
but his health had been frail for same times "^ ^ ^^
ISSfiheeoaghtachangeof urintheBivieia. Herehw^ |
in June somewhat bene£ted, but he caught a dull io ^
autumn, and, after a short itlneas, died at OnnmiJ, AigH' 1
shire, on September 18, 1886. '
SHAKERS is the name commonly applied to Mil d»
rejected by a religions denomination of which the cfinl
title is "The United Society of Believers ia Quit)'
Second Appearing." The fonndrev was Ann 1m> *"
was bom in Toad Lone, Manchester, S9th FsimuTl'^
but only privately baptized 1st June 174S. Hir fUe
was a blacksmith, and at an early age she fonnd sni[^ |
ment, being at one time a cutter of hattei^ fv, w"^
another cook in the infirmary of her native toWa* 1
wag a quiet child of a somewhat visionary temjo*"'^ |
and in 1758 joined a small religious body, areauwi<^
the French Prophets. The leader was Jane Wii^ ,
who was regarded by her followers as the " spirit al J* I
the Baptist operating in the fenu^e Une." 1^>** 1"^
were called Shaken because, like the early Qi^f^ I^
were seized with violent tremblings and eliskuigi <*°
under the influence of strong religions omotii*. ^ 'T
in 1T62 nutfried a blacksmith whose eluracter «u <*
very good. Their fonr children died in infwuT- »
beiame " a seeker after salvation," and her coannw
followed by her Uking the lead in the Shsket Socu^
which she promulgated a doctrine of ceUUi^' ^~i
previons training had led them to expect that the mn"
coming of Christ would be in the form of ■ """fv
Eve was the mother of all living, so in tbnr ih" 'fr,
the Shakers recognized "the firat mother w tT,
parent in the line of the female.* With tisii M*^
zeal aBame, they preached thur doctrine in •
W»»i'f
of season, and snffered somotbing from mob vi"^ ^
from tlie int(deranoe of the conatitated lathiiAtM
S H A — S HA
787
1771 Ajui tlu yfati oud elglit of lier disdples emignted
to Americ*, wid luded at New York oa Aogntt 1st of
that ymr. AtothAm Btanlay, not reluhing hU wife's
celibate crasd, abaudoDed her for aDo'thar woman. Tha
"BeliBran" settled at Keiukeiiiia, now called Watervliet,
and were impriaoned for refusing to take the oath, for
which reason they were enspect«d of being unfavoorable
to the cause of the Revolatioo. On being released they
preached their creed &ad gradually gained conrerts. Ann
Lee died at Wat«rTUet 8tb September 1780. She was
succeeded bj James Whittaker, who died in 1788, when
Joseph Meacham succeeded to the leadership and organized
tha society on that communistic basis which now distin-
guishes it. In the early history of the Shakers various
charges were brought against them, indnding flagellation
and naked dancing, but they have ontlived these scandals
and are now geoeiallj respected. There is an interesting
sketch of a Shaker commnnity in Howell's Undxteovertd
Cotmtry. They all work ; they ore capital agriculturists ;
they have a widespread repntaCion for tboronghnesa, fni-
j^ality, and temperance. They believe in the reality of
constant intercoorae with the world of spirits. There are
" poems " by Mother Ann which it is claimed have been
dictated by her bom tho ipirit world. They claim from
time to time the eserolw of the gift of tongnw ftnd tha
gift of healing. The theological ideas ^ the Shakna are
set forth in the TeiHmony of Chritf* See/md Appiaratg
uctmpl}fitd by lAi PrMcipU and Pradiee of (A« Trvt CAurcA
of Chriit, of which a fourth edition, printed in 1866, waa
extensively drcnlated. A oompacter statement is that in
F. W. Evans's Shaierf CompmiUuni, which was printed
at New Lebanon in 1859. Elder Evans, who is the best-
known representative of Shakerism, is of English birUi,
and has published an autobiograpbj'. In 1870 there were
eighteen distinct Shaker cummunitles, with eighteen church
buildings capable of seating 8S50 penons, and possessing
property valued at $86,900. These socialist villages are in
Connecticut, Kentucky, Main^ Maeeachnaett^ New York,
New Hampshire, and Ohio.
Tha bait kaown of tha uttlaaunti ii that at Nswlitlienoa, whm
thera in (hr« aeportta KKietiea in viewof esch othar. Tha ITorth
Funijj, the Church Ttnalj, and tlio Ssoond Fuuilj ua dtatlnct
Knmn, whose mamban live togather ind hsva ■ common right la
Und, bonia, hati, tooli, booki, and ill tbit than m. Tha craly
tonn of piTwiimBnt i> that aupplied bj tlia pohlie opinion of tlie
commomtj, aa expreBied in ita aocLal meatinga far mntiul aon-
fnaion, comuel, and criCiciam. MrHtpiioi^Daiia'tlfnBAtiuHta
gira an istsreating acwnnt of thair eommnuiitiB methods.'
ippaaM taW. B. A. U«> »g«r«MiN JMM «r Jm ml Uw^^w'Z
SHAKESPEARE
TTTILLIAMSHAKESPEAEE(1 664-1616), the national
VV poet of England, the greatest dramatist that modem
Europe has produced, was born in April, in the year IS64,
nt Stratford-upon-Avon, in the county of Warmck. The
known facts of the poefs personal history are compara-
tively few, and before giving them in order we purpose
considenng in some detail the larger educational influeucea
which helped to stimulate his latent powers, to evoke and
strengthen his poetical and patriotic sympathies, and thos
prepare and qualify him for his future work. In dealing
with these influences we are on Arm and fruitful ground.
We know, for example, that Shakespeare was bom and lived
for twenty years at Stratford-upon-Avon ; and we can say
therefore with certainty tJiat all the physical and moral
influences of that picturesque and richly-storied lilidknd
district melted as yean went by into the fall current of
his ardent blood, became indeed the vital elemeot, tha
yarj breath of life hi* expanding spirit breathed. We
know a good deal about hie homo, his parents, and his
domestic surroundings ; and theae powerful factors in the
development of any mind gifted with insight and sensibility
must bare acted with redoubled force on a nature so richly
and harmoniously endowed as that of the Stratford poet
It would be difficult indeed to overestimate tha combined
effect of these vital elements on his capacious and retentive
mind, a mind in which the receptive and creative powers
were so equally poised and of such unrivalled strength.
This review of the larger influences operating with con-
centrated force daring the critical years of youth and early
manhood will help to connect and interpret tho few and
scattered particulars of Shakespeare's pertonal history.
These pcu^culars mnst indeed be to some extent connectod
and interpreted in order to be clearly understood, and any
intelligible account of Shakespeare's Ufa must therefore
take the shape of a biographical essay, rather than of a
biography proper. We may add that the sketch will be
coDflned to tha points connected with Shakespeare's local
■uiroundings and personal history. The large literary
qneations connected with his works, such as the 'aasiflca-
tion, ths chroniJogy, and analyos of the plays, could not of
course be adequately dwlt with ia ntcb a Aetch. It ia
the leas necessary that this wider task «honld be attempted
aa the main points it embraces have recently been well
handled by competent Shakespearian scholars. The beat
and most convenient manuals embodying the results ot
recent criticism and research will be referred to at the
close of the article. Meanwhile we have first to look at
the locality of Shakespeare's birth, both in ite material and
moral aspects.
Warwickshire waa known to Shakespeare's content-
poiaries as the central county or heart of England. It
was the middle shire of the Midlands, where the two great
Boman roads crossing the island from east to west and
west to east met, — forming at their point of junction tha
centre of an irregular St Andrew's cross, of which the arma
extended from Dover to Cheater on the one side and from
Totnes to Lincoln and the north on the other. The centre
in which these roads-^Watling Street and the Eoeee Way
^thua met was early known from this circumstance as tha
High Cross. Being the moat important Midland podtLon
during the Boman occupatiou of the country, several
Boman stations were formed in tha neighbourhood of this
veneraUe Qnatra Bras. Of these Camden spedfles tho
ancient and flourishing dty of Clychester, represented in
part by tha modem Clybrook, and Mandoesstdam, the
memory of which is probably retained in the modem Man-
cettar. Important Boman remains have also been found
within a few miles of Stratford, at Alcester, a cenbal
station on the third great Boman road, Bicknild Street,
which mna from south to north acroaa the western side of
the county. In later times, when means of communieatiDn
were multiplied, tbe great roads to the nt^th-weet atill
' Than i* unaidanbla iIiiiIIhI^ batwean tha Amaricui dladplia <4
Add Lea ud tha Engliah Shitan of tha Kew ninrt, who cuna into
pnbUij notice In 1S71. Om of Owlr membna had boiight St ama ot
lind, which thtj colIlTatad nndart^dliaotiaa i^ "Hothar" liarr Abb
aiTliflg,«hoirB*Btaiuiathalr(imndnMaiid|in)pliaU« AsUitnaBH
of loiDi UUsatioo the Ehikan vara ^|act«l la 1B74, end, aftar hnta(
ihelter for a Uma on ■ rano halonglat to the Hod. Anbarai Harbat^
thaTtheabacamaalait eomaianltT. Chaigaa wars made agilnatUHD
of nikiid duclng In tha aonna ot thalr nllgiau aoatauta. "Btn
baUava In the aaooDd advMi^ i^iBd Hia Olritnt M Ui* WOVM Itarish,
bsvs ell pnpn^ ia ooniaaa, end fnaoh the dootrin* o( aaUbaey.
XXL — 9^
738
iHAKESPEAKE
puNd tiuoni^ the eonntr, Md one of them, the inail
totd bom London through 6zford to BinninghMn, Staffoid,
>na OhiBter, wm the " streets " or public waj thkt croeaed
IliB Avon «t the celebrated ford spanned in 1183 by Sir
Hogh doptoa'i magaifioeat bridge of fourteea uchee.
Imms^telj beyond the bridge roas the homely gablea and
wide thorooghfaret of Shakeape&re'a natire pIscs,
In Bbakecpeare'a time Warwickshire was divided by the
irregulw line of the Avon into two oneqiul bat wdl-markad
divirion^ known reapaetively, from their main character-
is^ca, u the woodland Md the open ooantry, or more
teohnicaUy &■ the diatricto of,Arden and Feldon. The
fonnM indnded the thicklj-wooded region north of the
Avon, of which the celebrated foreit of Ardea was the
centre^ and the latter the champugn ooonttj, the rich and
fertile paature-landa betireen the Avon and Uie line of hills
separatiog Warwick from the thirea of Oxford and Korth-
amptoQ. Shakespeare himself wtu of conrw familiar with.
thia diviaiou of hia native ahirc^ and he has well ezpreased
it in Lear's deaoription of the aection of the kmgdom
uugned to hia eldest daoghtar Ooneril, —
'Of all iTinan Tinniiili. rrmi tram thiillna ta thli.
Witli ihadowy fomt
With plmtMm rlvn
Wa mika thee Udj.'
Ho better general deacription of WarwickaUie oodd
indeed be given ^n is conbuned in these lines. Tkkiiig
the Boman roods, Watliog and Bicknild Strneti, at
bonndarioi, th^ vividly depict the ehaiaoteristie featoies
of tho eotmty, includiog its plenteona riven and wide-
akirtsd mcftdt. ^e old and oential division of Arden
and Fekhn Is etswlj embodied in Uie second linc^
"wilb shadowy foresia and vilh fh^mpaim rich'd."
This disdnetion, practically eSaoed in modern times by
agriealtaial and miniDg progress, was partially affected bj
Ossa eanses avw in Shakeapaare'a own day. The wide
Arden, or belt d forest territory wliioh had once extended
not only across the ooonty but from Hm Trent to the
Severn, was then very much rertrict«d to the centre of the
shin^ the line of low bins and luidalatiiig coantry whidi
■tretohed away for upwards of twenty mUea to the north
of Stratford. The whole of the northern district was, it it
true, still deowly wooded, but the intervening patches of
stable and paetoie land gradoally encroached more aod
more upon the bracken ud bmahwood, and every year
larg^ areas wen cleared and prepared for tilUge by the
axe and the pIoodL In the aeoond half of the 16th
centory, however, ttie Arden district still retained enough
of its primitive character to fill the poefs imagination with
the exhilarating breadth and tweetaess of woodland haonts,
the beauty, variety, and freedom of sylvan life, and thns to
impart to the acenery of Ai Yim Liie It the vivid fresh-
ness and Hality of a living experience. In thia delightfnl
comedy the details of forest-lifB are tooobed with so light
bnt at ttie Mma time so aure ■ hand as to prove the
wiitai'k fiuuiliari^ with the whole art of venery, his
thonodi knowledge of that "hi^est franidiiae trf noble
and piuioely pleai re ' frttioh the royal demesnes of wood
and park afloided. In retening to the marches w wide
ma^nt oa the oatakirla of the forest^ legally known as
ptirliens, Shakespears indeed displays a minute technical
acooraey which would seem to indicate that in bit early
romblea about the forest and caaoal talks with its keepers
and woodmen he bad pioked up the legal ineidenta of
i^lvon economy, as well as eqjoyed the froadom and charm
M forest-Iifa Throughout the purlieiu, for instance, the
forest lawi were only partially in force, while the more
important ri^ts of indixidnal owners were folly recognised
and eittabUshed. Hence it hiqipened that Oonn's master,
dfrellin^ as Boaalind puts it in a qnaint bnt ohoiaetonstie
simile Uiat betrays her ser, "here is tits sUrta of &•
forest, like fringe apon a petticoat,' could sell "htsootc^hia
flock, and bounds of feed," and that Celia and Bosalind
were able to porchaae " the cottage, the pasture^ aiid tba
flock." It may be noted, too, that, in exchange for tba
independence the dwellers in the puriieos aoqnired aa
private owners, they had to relinqniah thur oommoa
right or OQstomaiy privilege of poatnring &eircattlDiB the
forest Sheep, indeed, were not nsnally included in thia
right of common, theur presence in the forest being r^arded
Bs tnunical to the deer. When kept in the purliena, there-
fore, they had to be strictly limited to their bonnda of feed,
shepherded daring the ia.j and carefully folded every
night, and theee points are futhfolly reflected by SQiake-
speare. Again, only those specially privileged could hunt
venison wiwin the forest. But if the deer strayed beyond
the forest bonndt they could be &eely followed by the
dwellers in the purlieus, aud these happy hunting gronnds
outaidEr the forest piecdncta were in many eases spadooa and
extenaive. The special office of a forest ranger waa
indeed to drive back the deer straying in the purlieus T^
banished duke evidently hss this in mind wiien, as a
casual deniien of ths fores^ he proposes to make war on
its native dtiiens : —
" Come, bIiaU wb go sod kl
-' " "' 'hepoord.pi
« of this d«t .
coBflDB, with fii
H»Te thaii ronnd htonehos gor'iL''
And the melancholy Jaques, refining as usual with qnkal
sentimealaliam on every way of life aud every load of
action, thinks it wotdd be a special outrage
" To ftight the intmili, tnd to kill than np,
In th& snign'd ind nitiva dwallEiig place. "
Kolonlyin^i Ton LUx It, but mLov^t Labour'i Led,
in A itidiitmmer Nighf* Dream, in the Merry Witt of
Windtor, and indeed throughout his dramatio work^
Shakespeare displays the moat intimate knowledge of the
aspects and incideuts of forest life ; and it is certain that
in the first ioatance this knowledge must havp been gained
from bis early familiarity with the Arden district. Tiit,
as we have seen, stretched to the north of Sbatford in tU
its amplitude and variety of hill and dole, leafy covert and
sunny glade, giant oaks and taiigled thicketa,— the wood-
land stiUaesa being broken at intervals not only \sj the
noise of brawling brooks below and of feathered outcries
and flutterings overhead, but by dappled herds sweeping
ocroBS the open lawns or twinkling in die shadowy blacken,
as well aa by scattered groups of timid conies nedin^ at
matins- and vespers, on the tender shoots and sweet
herbage of the fOrest side. The deer-stealing tradition it
sufficient evidence of the popular belief in the poefs Ion
irf daring exploits in the regions of vert and vcmiaon,
and of hit devotion, although in a somewhat irregolar way
perhaps, to the attractive woodcraft of the por^ the
warren, and the chaae. The tradilicHial scene vf 'Saa
odventnn was Charlecote Rwk, a few milea nrath-east d
Stratford] bnt the poefs early wanderings in Arden
extended, no doubt, much further afield. Stirred by the
natural deaire of visiting at leisure the more celeteated
places of his native district^ he would pasa from Sbatfoid
to Henley aod Hampton, to Wroiall Priory and Kenilwtvth
Castie, to Sloneleigh Abbey and Leamington Priors, to
Warwick Keep and Guy's CliSe. The remaikablp beauty
of this last Btoried spot stira the learned and tranquil pens
of the antiquaries Camden and Dugdale to an unwonted
effort of description, even in the predesoriptive en.
" Under thia hiU," says Camden, " hard hj flie river Avon,
standeth Ouy-elifle, others call it Qib-cliffe, the dwelling
house at this day of Sir Thomas Bean-foe, descended frou
SHAKESPEARE
739
tbe aoolent Nonnftna line, and tiie very seate itieire of
pleasantnaBSe. There liave yea a Bfaody little wood, cleers
and crutali spriogH, dioboj bottomes and cavea, medowes
alwaies fresh ftod greeite, the river rumbling here and
there among the stonea with his ntream making a nulde
Doioe and gentle whispering, aod berides all this, solitary
aod rtill quietneiiee, Uiingi luoat gtatefnl to the HniHe."
But the whole of the circuit was richly wooded, the
towns, as the names indicate, being forest towns, — Uealey-
in-ArdcD, Hampton-in-Arden,— while tbe casUea and
■aculariied religiouu boudes were poled oS within their
own parlu and bounds from the sylvan wildemese around
tbem. Soma, like the celebrated castle of the Uountftxda,
called from its pleasant sitoatioa amongst the woods
Beaudeeert, haviDg beeii dismantled during the Wars of
tbe Rosea were already abandoned, and had in Shake-
speare's day lelapaed from the stately revelry tliat once
Riled their halls into the silence of the surrounding woods.
&t every point of the journey, indeed, as the poet's eager
knd meditatiTe eye embraced new Tistaa, it might be said,
Bogomed higb in tofted tma."
On tlie southero margin of the Arden diTision, towarda the
Avon, small farms ware indeed already Domerona, and
cultivation had become tolerably generaL But the region
IS a whotli still retained its distinctive character as the
Arden or wooded division of the county. Even no*r,
indeed, it includes probably more woods and parks than
■re to be found over the same am in any other English
Wbile ports of the Ardeo district were in this way
nnder eoltindon, it must not be anppoaed that the
diampaiga or open oonntrj to the south ot the Avon, the
Feldon division of the county, was destitute of wood ; on the
contrary its extensive postures were not only well watered
by lociil streams overshadowed by willow and alder,
bnt well wooded at intervals by groups of more stately
trees. Hie numerous Socks and herds that grazed
throughout the valley of the Bed Hoise fonnd welcome
shelter from the noonday heat and the driving wind under
the green roofs and leafy acresns that lined and dotted
thdr bounds of teed. And, although even the graang
farms wore comparatively small, almost every homestead
had its group of protecting elms, its oatlying patch of
hanging beech and ash, or stiaggluig copee' of oak and
hozeL His is still reflected in such local names as Wood
Park, Shrub I^ds, Ockley Wood, Forxe Hill, Oakham,
Asbbome, Alcott Wo«kI, Berecote Wood, and Radland
Gone. These features gave interest and variety to the
Feldon district, and jnstiEed the characteristic epithet
which for contoriaii was popularly applied to the county as
a wholt^ that of " woody Warwickshire." And Shakespeare,
in passing oat of tbe county on his London joumeyi^
would quickly feel the difference, as beyond its borders he
came upon stretches of less clothed end cultivated scenery.
Aa his slout gelding mounted Edgehill, and he turned in
the saddle to lake a parting look at the familiar landscape
be was leaving, he would behold what Speed, in his
entbunasm, calls "another Edon, as Lot tbe plain of
Jordan." While the general a^iect would bo that of green
postures and grassy levels, there would be at the same time
the picturesque intermingling of wood and water, of mill
and grange and manor house, which gives light and shade,
colour and movement, interest end animation, to the plainer
sweeps and more monolonoas objects of pastoral acenerj.
On the hii4orica1 side Warwickshire has points of
interest as striking and diutinctive as its physical features.
During the Boman occupotioD of the coontiy it woa, as we
have seen, -the site of several eentiol Bomon ata^ons, of
whioL. hendea those alreody noticed, th«fottifled oompe ot
TripoDtium and Prteadium on the lino of the Avou were
tbe most importaDt A Bomon road crosMd the Avon at
Stratford, and radiating north and south K>on reached
some of the larger Boman towns of the west, rucfa Od
Urioonium and Otmnium. Between theee towns wen.
counti; villas or Dianaion:^, many of tbem being, like that
at Woodcbenter, " magniiicBnt palaced covsring as much
ground as a whole town." The entire district must in
this way have been powerfully affected by the bigber
forms of social life and material splendoni which the
wealthier provincials bod introduced. Tbe immediate
effect of tlus Bomon iodnence on the native impulationd
re know, to divide them into opposed groupa
whose conflicts h^ped directly to produce the dioaatroiu
results which followed the withdrairal of the Romans from
the island. But the more permanent and more important
effect is probably to be traced in the far less obstinate
resistance oSored by tbe Celtic tribes of Mid Britain to
the invading Angles from the north and l^uxons frou
the south, by whom themselvoj and their district were
eventually absorbed. Instead of the fierce conflicta and
wrathful withdrawal or extermination of the conquered
Britons which prevailed further east, and for a time
perhaps further west also, the intervening tribes sppear to
have accepted the overlordship of their Teutonic neighhoun
and united with tbem in libe cultivation and defence of their
common territory. The fact that no record of any early
Angle conquest remains seems to indicate that, after at
most a bri^ resistance, there was a gradual cooleecence of
the invading with the native tribes rather tboa any fierce
or memorable struggle between them. Even tho more
independent and warlike tribes about the Severn rapeatedly
joined tbe Soxon Hwiccos, whose northern frontier was the
forest of Arden, in resisting the advance of Wessez from
the south. And for more than a hundred yean ofter the
establiahmuit of tbe central kingdom of the Angles, tbe
neighbouring Welsh princes are found acting in friendly
alliance with the Mercian rulers. It was thus the very
district where from on early period the two race elements
that have gone to the making of the uatioa were moat
neorly bolanced and most completely blended. The union
of a strong Celtic element with the dominant Angles is still
reflected in the local nomenclature, not only in the nomen
of tbe chief natural features, such as rivera and heighta,
^Arden and Avon, Lickey, Abe, and Thame, — bnt in
tbe numerous amiba and cotes or wti, as in the reduplica-
tive Cotswold, in the Jhiu, dotu, and dent, and in sucb
distinctively Celtic elements as Man, }>ol, tiy, in names
of places scottered through the district. The cotei are, it
ia true, omlnguous, being in a m^ority of coseu perhaps
Saxon rather than Celtic, bnt in a forest oountry near tho
old Walsh marches many must still represent the Celtio
cott or coed, and in some cases this is clear from the word
itself, as in Kingsoot, a variation of Ein^wsod, and even
Charlecote exists in tbe alternative form of Chorlewood.
This union of the two races, combined with the stirring
conditions of life in a wild and picturesque border country,
gave 0 vigorous impnlse and distinctive character to the
population, the influence of which may be clearly traced in
the Bubaequent literory as well as in the politicol bistory
of the country. As early as the 9th century, when the
ravages of the Danea had desolated the homes and scattered
the representativeB of learning in Weoaex, it woa to westeni
Mercia that King Alfred sent for scholars and chnrchmen
to tmit« witli him in helping to restore the fallen fortunes
of religion and letters. And after the long blank in the
native literature produced by the Norman Conquest the
authentic signs of its indestmotibla vitality first appeond
on the bonks of the Severn. I^yomon's spired poem
dealing with the legenduy biatoty of Briton. u8 writtei
740
SHAKESPEARE
A rUj, within li^^t of the rivar's m^eatie
AtB«d«toiie _ . ,,
Bweep Mnidst iU bordering woods and hills, is by far the
meet importuit litenry moanment of ■emi-Sazotu And,
while Hm poem as a whole dUplajs a Saxon teoaeity of
purpoaa in workiDg out a oomprehensive tcheme of
memorial vaiM, its mwe original parta have tonche* of
panion and pietaraeqneDea^ aa well aa of diamatio
TiTacit7, that recall the patriotio Jre of the Celtio barda.
A hoDchred and fifty tsm later the £ist great period of
Englith litentnre was inaognrated b; another poem of
marked rai^Dali^ and power, written under the dhadow
of the HalTcm HiUe. The writer of the ttrikiog series of
allegorie* known as Pitri PlovTmaa't Yinoru was a Shrop-
shire mail, and, notwithstanding his ooeasional Tisits to
London and offii^ employments there^ appears to have
apeot his beet and moat productiTe years on the weatem
border between the Bevem and the Malvern Hills. In
man; points both of anbetanee and form the poem may,
it is tnie, be described as almost tjrpically Sazon. Bat it
has at the same time a power of vivid portreitnre, a senae
of colour, with an intense and penetrating if not exag-
gerated feeling for k>aal grievanoee which are probably
doe to tha etiain (rf Celtie blood in ths writer's veins.
Two ce&tnrisB later, from the nme district, from a small
town on an afflnent of the Severn, a few miles to the west
of Oie river, came the national poet, who not oul; inherited
the patriotio fire and keen sensibility of Layamon and
Luwand, bat who combined in the most perfect form and
earned to the highest point of development the best
qwlitiea of the two gnat lacaa represented in the blood
and history of tbe K"gl''*' nation. Hr J. B. Oreen, in
referring to the moral eSacta arising from the miztnn of
races in ths Midland district, has noted this fae' in one
of those sagacious oid&^Dees that make his hiatorj ao
instmetive. " It u not without aigniScance," he says,
" that the highest type of the race, tiie one TInglishman who
has combiaod in their largest measure the mobility and
bncj of the Celt with the ^^^ '^^ energy of the Tentonio
temper, was born on the old Welsh and English borderland,
in tiie forest of Arden." And from the pnrely critical
side Mr Matthew Arnold has clearly broDl^t ont tlie same
point He baces some of the finest qtulities of Shake-
speaie's poeta7 to the Celtic niirit which touched hia
imssination as with an enchanter^ wand, and thna helped
to brighten and enrich the pKrfoondsr elementa of hia
creative genius.
n* hlrtoy o( Wuwfakifaln la An^^^azon tlnua ia Idantlikd
wtAthsktafdoB of IfMda, wUch, mdw a nciMof aUe ralaiSi
WIS fotatfaas tte dninla»alBow«t of ths t/umMj. Inlalas Uiiii^
trem ill sratnl poslUen, tb* sood^ wis liabU lo be nwiMid krr
uilitarf foKM if nballlan mad* kiad In ths oorth or wtst, ai wall
at te bs ttaTRMd and eo«ap(*d by tlw rinl aimiea dnring dw
poioda of dvll nir. Ha moat lapntant tvMit^ biiiMd, oon-
ntctid with tha dilta bafm Shakaapaaia's tin* eeaaned during
lb* tvo gnattrt dvU eonflkt* in tha aarllw national innsh
dw Baront' Vai la ths llth cantary, and llu 'Wan of the Bmm In
till IBth. Tha dsiUre battha that eloasd Umm long and bittw
and Ana baeama toniiiw pdnk in ear ogoititnticHial
an both fought on tha bMdan of WaiwldahiT*, — tba
coufliot — tha (MBdar of flis Oanunona Eoaaa oi Psrilamaot add the
* nttar «p and pollw dowa at Uug*'— MS* diiaetly ooDBadad wi^
TanriakaUn. KasOwocth balsogad to Slnoa da lIoBtlort,Hid
Ha il^ and aDneadar oonatltBtid lb last a«t In tha Barai^ Wit.
Daring tha Wan at fiw Boeaa Iha noontr *h natmaUy pnAni.
DBDt in pablla a&fn, M tta local aari, tka ImI and grttW of
^lawlMa,|ndl(a],andambitiowban>Baof aai#aval tlmts, waa
stinnlatad tb* rival houe of York te , _
taidi^ and mnantUa rlaan wan ilnTi Id txTaat of ■ atn
govaniiunt, LDadon, with tba aaitam eoiuitia* and Uu oblaf pc
and Mmnanial towns, bvourad ths boiu* of Tack. On tha ot
haaJ, BonthWalaa, some ef the Mdlaad sad most oCAaiaaUia
■hina, Dudsr Iha laadanUp of th* Baanlbrla, awl ow Bortlm
ooaotU. DBdar tha laadwdiip of CUObrd and Hoathambcriaad,
raptxHlad tha howa ol l^neastar. foUtlcal fadiw ia tba Prisa
pJity ilaalf wu ■ gooi deal divided. Tha daka at Tosk atOl
powwaad Lodlow Cutl^ and, tha Walih of tha northam bonkr
balDs dvTolsd to tha banae* of Uirch and Uortiinir, Prim
Edwsnl, tha young aari of Uuob, aftar tb* daAat and death of ha
rather at Wiliefisid, wai able to nU; on tba bttdar a " mJ^tj
powar of manluuon,' and, aftar onltaog hi* ftooaa with tboaa i
Warwick, to aacnn tha daciilva victon of Ttowtoa which platad
him aaounlT on tha throna. SUU, dnnng tb* ewUer atagea of tht
itnggta the Raanforta, with tb* aarla M Puntavka, Dcvob, aad
WilShin,wanBblato — '-' —
laDnaoatiiaDdw
to kup tht TorkUta in ehaok. And whaa lb* Bnal atrngsla caa^
-wbon Heniy of Blchmond knded at UUfoni Hstbh.— tEa W JA
blood in hi* Tains lallied to hia standard so powtrfnl a nmtiiigTrt
of tha »Dthan aiatBhiiMI that b* Wa* abl* at ooce to croaa iha
Bsvara, and, liavaniBg north Warwlekabin, to cmfnmt the foana
of Biahacd, with tha aMoiaoe* that In tb* honi ef need he w«U
be BDppotted by Stanlay and NorthuabarlsniL VarvkbUn Uic3
was, a* alrtady intimated, oonridonjdy divided evaa ia lb* an*
■ctlva erlagaa of Uka oonfliet, OoraBtty bains atrmiri*' ia favoor ■<
th* Bed &**, whit* VaiwM^ ndar tha inlaaoea of tha mA, wae
IiH a while devoted to th* tame of tha White Boa*. Senihrortt
wai still held by th* boa* U lanoaalar, and Hani; VL at tla
ontatt of dw eonqaeat had mem than ansa bka lafnss tbsa. Oi
the otbar hand Sdwaid IT. and Btoharil IIL batb viaited Warwick,
the latter being ao iatacaalad 1> tba aastla that ha ia aaU la hav*
i.:j »v. i—ZSi 1 . ^ "migh^ lavn' towar «■ tb
ta Ba7s Tower, Edwaid IT ■
for popolaritr, aad — -™— ^ rf
_ leili^ the paopla of Oomlry kf
vialtlaa the town and wltwaalBg ila aabhatad paoaaats Boa» tkM
oiia*-«t Chriatnaa la 1M6 a^ at tba ftaUvil of Bt Omm ta
H7t. Althou^ ha w«a aooonpaniad tf U* qnaaa tha aT-^ -
win tb* town nou it* attachmaat to Uu rival hooea do not
__ bava bean vary socoeasM. Tlndac Idwaid^ ml* ihm n . —
tloB of aotlvi partlasaihlp waa natnraUy In ^Mjana^ and so dsakt
the beliag nsv to soMa eMcat have dadlaed. iBdaa^ta tbabi^
•tagaa of tha stng^ Waiwickabli*, like to uny otbt* ai
obtdienot to Oa royal mandate levied a fotte OB bcbiif of tba knc
bot aa tfaia fbna aavav aehiaUv jtdaad tba rnal atawdaril it W
utnnlly Bssamad that it vna dOar iBtsnertad by atawj oa kai
mtrah to Botworth neld at had volsntarily joined hl||a tm th* wn
of tba battl*. Ia vtaw of th* ■troog laDnutariao moBathiti is
th* ncfth snd east of tba abiia the latter it by hr Ow w**
ptefaaU* NppetUiga. lathi* eta, or Indeed on eitbaraliiiaalii^
It nwy b* tne, aa aaatclad In tha pattnt of aiaa aahaaqa^^
^j — oi_L ._ ,_.i.- ihrt Ma anoiatow had fcuht m
t battk that nlaad tha ««B o
.than.
toatttnd thioogfa Warwlokabii* hi tha 16th oaatniy, aad it it
tbiRfora not at all nnllkdy that aoaa tf dkdi - iiiliiit had
wlaldad a spiar with efltot la tb* battl* Oat, to 1h* laisiisii
rtUtf of tb* ooonliy, happi^ olostd Iha Beat miastahla diil
Bat wbtdm any of bis aaotaton bn^ at Bonrarlh PUl
«r not, Bhakaq^aara woaU ba ania ia hi* yooth to htar. ai»ort
at fliM bead, a naltitad* of exailiBg ttotits and adn^ iad-
dtnla eonnaetad widi ao mtatoiatde uid hi i tab Inn a VKton
Adar tiw battle Henry Til. bad alept at Oevaatxr, aad an*
anttrtalntd by tb* dtiatna and prtaeated wUh haadawaa ^fla
Ha Beams than alao to hava Stit amaitsd Us i^UMwer Iw tea-
tha maytr ot (ha towa. ne battle wia
, . ..^^,, — power. In Oa l«k
oantoiT, iadatd, tha naat avtnls of tha nsHon'a Hl^ at wdl ■
moi* imporlant local inddeot^ wtia ponilBriv iiitaaieil aad
ttanmittad by mean of onl IndltioB aad acaiio iiafiaf. <Mj
a amall and outimd data oonld aoqnin Iheit knowMn of tU>
throogh Htorary ebronielta and learaad taocnda ^m pinaltl
mind waa ot naotarity \mitf M and tttaralattd bv tba nekn
namttvta of Oa nittfa) Mivil aad Oa wialat iMtlda. i^ a
oiiet atttled nalgfabDorhood Hka attaUiied, oat of tba ai^ bal
Bear the |^eat oentrN ot national aetivlty. wonU ha paealkdy Mt
fai thiaa atorad-np awtttlak of uwrjttaa biatorr. Iha vav M
that within tight mHea of Saktnaan'a birtl^laca anat ft«
their eedared doiMa the halle and toWM of the gm« anl ^
for mora than a qoartai of a esatwr wMdid a BoUlW ad
RHAKESPEABE
741
tntlitarj pawn NiifiliKn thui injr raljoct hul wicMal Ixirore
wonltl gira tho diitrict n emvtioul rramlnnco In the Tjitionit
taiDMh, which woulU Ix) locallf refldctot in au umoring wealth of
hUtorio IndiUou. lu 6)ii>kcb<]Kiar«'i <]>; WtrwicktLhiro (liiu tup-
plied th« mntcriiiU dI i lilvral slnnantaiy Iniuing in ths heroio
auiuli ot tlia )«l, utJ oajiociill; in tlie grtal (Tonta of th« ncent
put that hail (aUblisbixl ths Tnilon on the tbrons, conioliditod
til* lATmoiiuut iulemti o( tho GoTonimant uid tho conntrf, and
faoljied diroctlj to promoEo tho orowing nnitj apd itreTigtn, pr
■peritj mJ miiown, ^t tli" ' ' — *"■- ■' — '--
t)i* kingdonL Tbu Bpecinl ruluo i
itLrprotatLon of thia pflTiod, iriiTnff froi
h Uio rich and prognant materiALa (
nwrittou tistorj, Gu rocoiitly lioen iiuitted oi
jr moat canful ami luanicd antliorilisa In tha pnrtct to fail
otlt on Tin Boitia qf laimtUr <ni<l Tart, Br Jani«a Gaipdnor
lyi:— "Fot ^ii |«rio<l of Kiigliah hintorr we an foitoaato la poe-
■ing an nurirallad intotiinlcr In anr gnat dEamaUc poat
_i AtoguUf aoquoiioa af hiiitiirical plaj»eih[bll» '
ganonl ohi ' ' " '
IM ganonl oharacCiir ot each
iind, we naliu
Shaki
- - ■ ■ - itoaailT
haid II.
iWiigtha iruidaaca
>thsr opoch. And
. eijiocialljr towaida
tha olaae, !■ one or tlio moat otocura in English hletoi;. Dnring
tho period of tha Warm of tha Roaat wa hava, comparatiiBly epoak-
Ing, Taty few oontomparat? narrattTet of what toak place, and
uijthing liks a gtnaral hiitoi; of tha timet wu not vntten till (
roDoh later data. Bnt tho doinga of ^hot etormj iga,— tha lad
calunltiM nidarad bj kings — ths luiideii dunga of fortnue in
giwt man—the glitter of chlTilrr and the hom>n of ciril war,—
■II left > dMp impranioD npon the mind of tha natloa, which toot
tept oltot Ay nvid tnutiUoiu of llupaM al du timt Uiat our froi
dramatiti mvU, Uanoa, notwitlutanding theaontini-nof racoida
and tha meagraneei af ancient chronicles, wo hare eingntarlj little
dlffionltf in nnderataoding the ipirit and chanctsr of tha Umea.'
FamilitT aa he miut have bean in hia jooth with the material*
that enabled him to intorprat eo itimng a period, it is nnt •orprla-
ing that 8Ten amidit the qniet hedgenin and maadowi of Stmt'
ford Bhakeapeaie'a pnlie ehould hara beat high with ^laCriotio
entbnduin, or that when Itnached on hli new career la the
metrapolii he ihoold have aympathlud to the full eitent on hia
larger power* with the glow of lonl feeling that, nnder Eliiibeth'*
rale, and etpociallr in tb* omfliet with Sjailn, thrilled tha natloa')
honrt with aa ainllingMaw of full politiol life, realized national
paver, and gatbering Kunpeaa bni*.
In the ialerral that elapKd hetween the battle of Bosworth
Field and the birth of Siialceipeare Wariiickshirs coatinnod to bs
riaitad by tha reigning monarch and membert of the n>yal runiiy.
Tho fear after hii acceaaioa to the crown Henrf VIII.. with Qneen
Catherine, Tttlttd CoTeutr; in state, and wilnsHed there a eerics
of mignifloent pageants. In 152G the Frinoaa Htcv epent tn-o
daji at the prlorj, tieing antiTtAined with the nanal iporta and
ibowe, and preaeotad bj the citiiene on her (tepartare with hand-
•omepnaonta The year after Sliakeapaan'a birth Qneen Kliiabetb
made a itaU riait to Corantry, Kenilworth, and Warwick, tha
yonng qneen being receired at ererr point of her pragreta wit'
Bnnaoallj iplandid demonitrationi of loyalty and deTOtion. An
-' '■ifora Sh-' '- *-■-"■ "■ — "" — ' "' -- ■•^- '-
. . .lie laigi
nUbliihmant byR
guild at Stratfo^,
o( rellgloai honeei dating hie fathar e iui);a.
The town of Stratford liee on tlie north bank of the
Avon, at a point about midwaj in ita eonrae from its rise
in NorUianiptonBliira hilla to ita junction with the SOTern
at Tawkesbiuy. On entering tb« town, across Sir Hngh
Clopton's noble bridge, tbe road from the eouth-toat faoa
oot in three main directions, — on liie right to Warwick and
Coventry, on the left to Alcester, while between moa the
central street, the modem repreaentative of the oldRoaum
way to Birmingham, Chester, and the north. Further to
the left a fourth and leas important road leavei the town
beyond the church, and, beeping in tbe main the line of
tbe river, goea to Bidford, Salford Priors, and Evesham.
It is a pictoreeque country road connecting a string of
undulating villages and hamlets with Stratford. The
town itself uonaisted in the 16th century of the low gable-
roofed wood-and-plasler botues dotted at intervals along
thaae roads and down the cross streets that eoouected
them with each other and with the river. Most of the
houM in Bhahwptro'a tima bad ganlnu at tha ba^
and naay at the sides also; and the space between the
honsea, combined with the nausaal width of the atrmt%
gave the town an open cheerful look which enabled it to
retain pleasant touchee of its earlier rural state. Aaita
prosperity increased the scattered dwellLUga Datnrally
tended to close up their ranks, and present a more united
front of exposed wares and convenient hostelriea to tha
yeomen and graziers, who with their wives and families
frequented the place on fur and market days. Bnt In
Shakeepeare's time the irregular line of gables and porches^
of ponthoaae walla and garden palings, with patchea <A
flowers and overarching foliage between, still varied the
view and refreshed the eye in looking dowo the leading
tborongUarea. These thoroughfares took the shape of a
central cross, of which Church, Chapel, and High Btreete,
running in a continuous line north and sunth, constituted
the shaft or steni, while Bridge and Wood Streets, running
in another line east and west, were the transverse boun
or bar. At the point of intersection stood the High Cross,
a solid stone building with steps below and open arches
above, from which public prochinations were made, and,
as in London and other large towns, sermons sometimes
delivered. Tbe open space around the High Croaa was
the centre of trade and merchandise on market days, and
from the force of custom it naturally became the site oo
which at a later period the market-house was built. Oppo-
site the High Croes the main road, carried over Sir Hugh
Clopton's arches and along Bridge Street, turns to the left
through Henley Street on ita way to Henley-in-Arden
and the more distant northerly towns. At tha western
end of Wood Street was a IsJge and open space called
Bother Market, whence Bother Street running parallel
with High Street led through narrower lanes into tha
Evesham Boad,
Thieopen ground wa^ a* the name indicate*, the gnat cattle
market of Stratford, one of the moat important feature* of It*
indoatrial history from vary early time*. lu tha later Middle
Ago mo*t of tha wealthier inhabiUnU were engaged in Strmiog
operations, and tho groirth and pioepetity of the plan nsnltad
from ita poaitioo aa a market town in tha midst of an agricultural
' grazing dietrict. In the 13th eeatury am*
,. • . ^._ .1. .__._T„ latkinge,
obtained from
the early Flnntagaaat Viaga, ampowerlufl the
._ __ __ ...Jymtrketand oorawar thanfiroannnalfidn,
fonrof which ware mainly for cattl& In Liter timaa a aeries id
great cattle markota, one for each month in the year, waa added
to tbe liat Tha name of the Stmlford cattle marVet embodiea
■Iv Eii.._„, _
I atill ii
manta and i
(eao'f tha realm. ThniCoireU, in hia law dictionary, n
tha heading " Rother-boaata," aiplaina that "the same eompre.
bends oian, oows, ateen, heifete, u>d anch like homed beaata,"
and refers to atatnta of Elizaboth and James la enpport of the
naags. And Arthur Golding in 1^67 tmnilatea Orid's liaes—
A UuwJBid hnrta tf nMir-t««i, M bl )lU Sg11> tU kM^-
The word eaems to have been longer retained and mors tmij
need in the Midland counties than elKwhors, and Shake^ieare
himself employe it with colloqnial procinion in Iho restored Una of
rimon iif AUuiu : " It is the poatnre larda the rathsr's sideB.'
Many a time, no doubt, aa a boy, daring the spring and anmmsr
fair^ he had risen with tha aun, uid, rnaLing hia way from Haalay
atreot to tha bridge, Witched the Brat arri™!* of the " lajra-eyed
kine' atowly driven in frem tbe rich paaturea af tha "Sad Horaa
Valley. " TTiete would he aome variety and excitement in ths spe»
tacle aa the drovea of medilsttve otea were inraded from timet*
time by gronpa of HeRfordshiie cowa lowing aoiionaly after their
akittieh calrcs, as well as by tbe preaonee and i'^ ■" "-'"
whose heavy i_..
borina stohdity
~ rnarkat-oraet '
,. ,l.;a'
Kxmcarling »et
boy would be sun to fallow
ipingwith tl
ud heifers atonnd tham. There vai
rOie Bother expanse, and tbi* wae tha
chief gathering placs for the cattle-dealer*, *a th* Hl^ Ctoh *m
th*idlriDg^lntarthsd«al*niiooniand«aurti7Spda**> IB
742
IHAliESPEARfi
Mdwn StnUoTJ Botlwr lUilut nUlm lla pUa u tlia bndwi
DMtn it tlu tuniul hii^ dnrisg ona oF which It ii Kill nutomuTf
ta rout ui ox in th« opra itrMt, aften uuldit > good iml al
Eipiilu' aiciUmHit tnd MntiTid u;
~ Dff front F
diTidlng
■naoiinp smei m m ooatiDDODilins, indSchoUr'* I^iii
LoDt in inotlier ling. Th.j run pmllol with the i. ..
BriHgs and Wnod Strscti, and llk« them tnnnc from lut to w«t
tht northern ihift of tb* orau that oautitatsd the ground plnn of
the toTD. BUctiog down thii line rrom th* mtrkst hoUM at th«
top, tht lint dirialon, the High Stmt, ia now, u it wai in Shake-
■pian'i dsj, tht bnaleat part for ahopa and ahopping, tha aolid
hnilding at the hrther comer to the left being the Com Exchange.
At the fint coraeT of the aecond dlriaisn, called Chapel Stroet,
■tuda the town-hall, while at the fnrtbet
popnlaj eicitament and coDtinal upnai.
The cnm wan golns front Rother Strot to the rlnr dde, wUah
cat tha oentnl line, dividing it into three aectiona, an Klj Btnat
■ andChapal
Chapel !
third and lait dirialon, Icnowi ,
of Ootbio buildinga belonging to the guild of the Hal j Croaa, and
oonalating of the chapel, tha haU, Uie grammar achool, and th*
almahonaeaof the ancient gnild. Tnming to the left at the bottom
of Chnich Street, foa enter upon what waa in Shakeapeare'i
dar % well-wDodtd inbnrb, with a faw good houaei acattttad among
the ancient elmt, and anrroimded ij cotiMnaatal gardeni and
aitMiiT* priTat* gronnda. Ia ""^ o' theaa honaea, with annnT
eiponae of lawn and ahmbberj, llred in tha Mrlj fern ofthe 17tb
panied brnia (kTonrite daughter, realliii)^ to the tall the 4^^
•qjajment of the aytran acena and ita aocul (nrroandinga, Thia
plaaaant anburb, called then aa now Old Town, lead* dinctW to the
church o( the HolyTrinilj. near the riTBT aide, Theehuret, a Una
apscimen of Decontsd and Perpandicnlar Oothle with a loftf tfin,
la appro^hed on tha nordiern aide throagh an arenna of lunai^
and aheltered on tha cut and aoath b^ aa irregaUr bat maaatn
trauMpta, the chanoal, and tht rirer. Below tha chorcti. on tht
in*rnn ot the river, were the mill, the mill-bridge, and the weir,
halt bidden br gnj willows, green aider*, and tail bed* of mitling
■edgo. And, beyond the charch, the college, and the line of atiHti
■liwdy deacribed, the auburbt atretchtd avay into gardeni,
orcharila, meadowi, and cnltiratad fielda, divided bj nude lane*
witb noaiy baukt, flowering hedgerowi, and lamincna viataa of
bewUderlng beanlj. Theao onua and country reada were dotted
at latarval* with cottigt bomiatsada, iaolated brmi, and the
amtll groupe of both which conititntMl the TillagM andbimleti
Incladed within th' wide aweep of old Btimtford pariah. Amongtt
theae were the villagea and himleCt of Wtloombe, logon, Dnyton,
fthattarv. LnddimrtOTi. Little Wilmcote, and Biahopaton. The
by daiaied mtadowi and blot-
the lalai
town waa thna girdled in the apring by dtii
•omlng orchard), and enriched dnriag Uie later month) by the
onnge and gold of harreat Beldi and antnnui folit^ mjiiglail
with the ooral and porple cla*t«n of elder, hawthorn, and moun-
tain aob, and, around the fanni and oottigM, witb the glow of
ripening fruit for tha wtnter'i (tore.
Bnt' perhapa the moat ckuacterutio featnra of the
K«nei7 in the neighbourhood of Stratfcnd i« to be found
in the union of this rich KQd rsried caltivktioD with
pictureeqne Bnmvtib of the primeTBl foreat territory. The
low bills that rise at interraU aboTe the well-tnrned soil
atill carry ou their semled cr«ati tiie lingering glories of
the ancient woodland. Thongh the ones mighty foreat of
Arden has disappeared, the »fter-glow of ite sylvan beanty
rests on the neighbooring heights formerly enclosed within
its ample margin. These traces of the foreat wildness and
freedom were of course fat more striking and abnndant in
Shakeapeare's day than now. At that time many of the
farms had only recently been reclaimed from the forest,
and most of them still had their bosky acres " of tooth'd
briars, sharp funes, pricking goss and thorns," their
broom groTes, hazel copeea, and outlying patches of
unshrabbed down. And the hills that rose above the
chief Tillages of the neigbbonrbood were still clothed and
crowned with the gteen and mystic mantle of the leafy
Arden, But, thongh much of the ancient woodland has
disappeared since Bhakespeare's day, many tiacas of it
still remain. Any of the roads ont c^ Stratfoid will soon
adMtrian to some of these pietniesqae anr-
> old foreat vildniMH. On the Warwick
bring the pedeal
vinb of Uw d
lOad, at die distance of about a mile bom tbft town, t^
an on the left the Welcembe Wooda, and joat hajaai tx
woods the well-known Dingles, a Mt of atzag^iag iii
and hawthorn winding irregularly throu^^ Une-bell deptx
and briery hollows from the pathwa,; below to the as:
of the hill above, while immediately kround ria tii
Welcombe Hills, from the top of which ia obtaiDed Hi
finest local view of Stratford and tha Bc(j*cei>t (
Looking soalli-west and facing the centnl lioa ^ ^ j
town, yon see below you, above the maas of n>^ ^
square tower of the gaild chapel, the graceful tpki* d d-
more distant chnrch, the sweep of th« winding ritn, la:
beyond the river the nndulating valkiy of tbo Bad Hem
shnt in by the bine range of the Ootswold Hilk 1
couple of miles to the east of the Walcombe HHb is dt
village oE Snitterfield, where Shakeapeare's graadfatki.
Bichard Shakespeare, lived and coltivatad to tha co^ >'
his days the acre* aroond bis rmtie dwslting. fiayc«
the village on its weatem ude there ia aa nplaml rtaci d
wildemeaa in the shape of a hill, coverad witli alirab oc
copaewood, and known aa the Bnitterfiald Boahea. Hn |
S)^keape«re as a boy most have often rambled, nojojii^
the fraedom of the nntenoed down% aad onlugiiig bi
knowledge of nature's emberant vitality. Oa t2>
opposite side of ibe town, about a mile on th* Evtdoa
road, or rather between tiis Evaaham and Aloeatv nsik
liea the hamlet of Bhottery, half concealed by aacean
elms and nestling amongst ita homeatead frniti nd
flowers. From one of theas homesteads Shaks^Mn
obtained bis bride Anne Hathaway; A mila ra two ■
the central road, passing ont of ^e town throng Bokf
Street, is the village of Bearley, and above the ji3tp
anothw sweep of wooded npland known aa Bsailn
Bushes. And at varioos more distant pointe betna I
theae roads the marl and sandstone heighti, fringed wl |
woods or covered with wilding growths, still bear eloqs^
testimony to the time when Ony of Warwick and to
tutor in chivalry, Eeraud of Arden, still roamed' the fotf
in search of the wild oz and savage boar that frayed ik
infrequent tcavellen and devastated at intervals Ik
slender cultivation of the district, ne subtle power d
Ihia order of sceneiy, arising from the onion of all iW t
rich and carcfol in onltivation with all that ia wild iM
free in natoral beaoty, is ezact^ of the kind beat fittad a
attract and delight imaginative and euotiaoal uinda b
poasassM the peooliar charm that in character ariaca fno
the union of refined culture with the bright and axhilantiv
spontaneity of a free and generous natnre.
On ita morAl nde aoch ecenery has an expending '"—lin^
power which link) it to the wider and deeper inttnats al haBa>l<
aa a whole. Natnie aeema to pat forth huvUal Miarnas expnT
for the relief of nan') tatst^ apptariag sa bin Mana naid Mic
and oonaoler. Inatead of bainf abaoibad is her owa t^.»t— at
grandeni* and aclitsry inblbnitui, aha axart) har baoicn tiiflaii ~
aipreaaly aa it were for hia good, b> cbear and ari^toa ia
evuieasant daya, and baantttj Ola temponry homa, Boldw lai
mote tn^iged taudBcapea, gloomy gUns, and thnnder-eMiiad jaki
may excite more jutionata fadings. Day rooaa and stm-thw V
mctioa the Individual iatic elemanls of aJad and (baractx. iM
thna produce tht hardy, daring ty^ of moontaineai, flit isliac
ealf-ccDtnd and deSant local patriot or hen, tba ehieflain lal
hit claoimen, coiUrw mwidum. Va donbt It is alto tns tbil tb
vuCor and loriler mountain rangea hare a nniqae power afaoDK
in tneceptible mind) the emotioni of awe, waader, a>d anUiBitt
But the very power and pennuence ol tbaat ni^ty aoUtad^ lb
grandeur and inunobili^ of their meaaureleaa abngth Bad iapaitl
lepoae, dwuf by oom[wiaon all merely baman intenal* ; tat n
the meditatira mind swept by tha spint ol tmii iamaidlia tti
monnniB of onr mottal liJb BMm to melt as daw-dropa inta lb
nltneaor thair eternal yean. Iht fMlnp thu sidM, ba^ n
themaelvt) of the eaatace ol poetiT, may fiidaed Sod tiiii la^ia ia
veiae and in vetae of a noUe kind, bu the poatry wilf U Ijrid
and raSectlTe, not dnmatio, orif draiaJHo la letm tSwflHelviipl
inanbftanoa. '- -- •>-<^- •- .-^^ -^ ^^ ~ ?—
u tha thntiTi
preiarrg In oniht to Hours
"7>
•than
SHAKESPEARE
r, Uie nnlv«TMl riiloi
T vbole, or nthec of natnr
■whMi the dmiuatiat
ark. lloitiitnin
intennty of fegling It oicitM, bst lixsll; rsmota in iU Hpmtinit
rrom thr fnUmtii 11111 occonotiaiiB of mon. It ii thai nmoTsd
rrom the tIuI olBmeDt in vluch tha dnmitiit mrka, If lot In Iti
nrho di«Di'«> the quvtiaii on ■ wltlcr b>^ at knaitlnica uid
cxpcrlenca tbon perhapR any IiTins authority eicopt llr Rankin,
■npporti this tIbw. " A« a grntnil rale," ho lays, " I thonlii my
then, ia an antngoDlam iHtireen the lore ol moantalna ami Iho
knon'Icdga ct mankliid, that tho lorer oT motmtaliu vill often b«
fituAe'l with their appeaiucei of pomr and paauoo, their ipleudour
and gloom, tholr Morning cheerfaloeia or melancbDly, nlien ■
tnjnd inclifTerflQt to thia olua of acenory might atady tlie aiulogona
j'haoos Df human' charwstar." When, indeed, the hiflqenoe of
iintare ia oiorpoireriug, aain tha East, irondar, — tho ironder aieitad
Ly mere phyaical Taitneo, poTer, and infijiltodfl, — tahea the placo
of intalligcnt iuterat In iadividnal Ufa and clumctor.
But the diamatio poet bas to deal primarQj with hnnuui
power and paraioa ; and not for him therafora Li tha life of
lotiely laptnrea and awful delighti realued bj the moiin-
taia wanderer or tbe Alp-inaptrod bard. Hia work lies
Dearer die homes and waja of men, and Ua ohoicest
Bceaecj will be found in the forms of natural beaut; most
directly tssociated with tbeir haUtoal activities, most
oompletelj blended with their more vivid emotional
czperienceB. A wooded uodolating couutrj, watered by
memorable atreama, its roder features relieved bj the
graces of oultivation, and its whole circuit rich in histwi-
cal remains and associatious, is outside the domun of
cities, the natural stage and theatre of the dramatist and
story-teller. This was the kind of scenery that fascinated
Scott's imagination, amidst which he fixed his chosen
home, and where he sleeps his lost sleepL It is a border
country of grey waving hills, divided by streams renowned
in song, and enriched by the mooamente of the piety,
splendour, and martial power of the leaders whose fierce
Taida and patriotic confiicts filled with lomantic tale and
minatrelay the whole district from the Lomtnennoor* to
the Chevioti, and from the Leader and tbe Tweed to the
Bolway FirtL In earlier times Bhakespeare's own dis-
trict had been virtually a border country aJO. The
meditevol tide of Intermittent bat savage waifare, between
the unsubdued Welsh and the Angio-Normans under the
feudal lords of the marches, ebbsd and flowed across the
Severn, inundating at times the whole of Fowis-land, and
sweeping on to the very verge of Warwickshire. In the
12tb and 13th centuries the policy of intermarriage
between their own families and the Welsh prinris was
tried by the English monarcha, and King John, on betroth-
iDg hit daughter Joan to the Welsh prince Llewelyn, gave
tbe manor of Bidford, six jfiUaa from Stratford-on-Avon, at
port of her dower. The fact of this English priucett
bung thus identified with Bouth Warwickshire may help
to eiplun the prevalence of the name Joan in the conuty,
but the early impulte towards the pving of this K^al name
wonid no doubt be strengthened by tbe knowledge that
John of Qaunt's daughter, the mother of the great earl
of Warwick, had also borne the favourite local name.
Shakespeare himself it will be remembered had two titters
of thit name, Ae elder Joan, bom some time before bin),
the firstborn of the family indeed, who died in infancy,
and tiie yonngtr Joan, who survived him. But the IomI
E polarity of a name, familiarly associated vrili the
xhea and the scullery rather tbui with the court or the
palace, it no doubt due to one of the more striking
incidents of the bug conflict between the English and the
Welsh on the western border. As we have seen, during
the Barons' War and the Wars of the Boses tbe vrestem
border was the scene of active conflict, «Bch party seeking
Welsh support, and Mch being able in torn to rally a
povtr of hardy morchmen to its banner. And that thf
insurgent Welsh were not idle during the interval belweet-
thesa civil conflicts we have the emphatic teatimony ol
Glendower :—
■ rhrM tlmca hslh Honry Dolingbroolto rnoil* hood
Againit my poirer ; thrice from Dio bauka of Wy
And aedgy-lKittonied Seven bnvn I anit him
Bootleaa hamo. and sntlicr-'bcototi book."
The Hotspur nud Mortimer revolt against Henry IT.
well illustratea, indeed, tbe kind of support wbich En^sh
disaffection found for centuries in tho WeUh marches. A
rich heritage of stirring border life and heroic martial
story was thus transmitted from the stormy of^ of faith
and feudalism to the more settled Tudor times. Apart
from tbe border warfare there were also the multiplied
associationt connected with the struggles between the
nobles and tha crown, and the rite of the Commons as a
diitinctive power in Uie conutry. The whole local record
of great nomea and signal deeds wot in Shakespeare's daj
so far withdrawn into tho past, and mellowed by seenlar
distance as to be capable of exerting its full enchantment
over the teelingt and the imagination. The hittorieat
associations thnt connected with the bitlt and streams, the
abbeys and caatlee, of Warwickshire added elements of
striking moral interest to the natural beauty of the
scenery. To tbe penetrating imagination of poetic
natures these dementt reflected tbe continuity of national
life as well as the gnatness and eplendour of the per-
sonalities and achievements by which it waa developed
from age to age. They also helped to kindle within them a
genuine enthusiasm for the torkunes and the fame of their
native land. And scenery beautiful in itself acquired a
tenfold charm from the power it thus possessed of bring-
ing vividly before the mind the wide and moving panorama
of the heroic past. The facts sufficiently prove that
scenery endowed with this multiplied charm takes, if a
calmer, sf'U a deeper and firmer hold of the affections
than any isolated and remote natural feature however
beautiful and snblime, have power to do. T^ general
truth is illustrated with even exceptionsl force in the Uvea
of Scott and Shakespeare. Both were passionately attached
to tbeir native dis^ct^ and tbe.memorable scenes amidst
which their early years were passed. 60 intense was
Scott's feeling that he told Wttbington Irving that if he
did not see the grey hills and the heather once a year he
thought he should die. And one of the few traditions
preserved of Shakespeare it that even in the meet active
period of hit London career he always visited Stratford
at least once every year. We know indeed from other
sources that during htt absence Shakeajieare continued to
take the liveliest interest in the affairs of his native place,
and that, although London was for some years bis profea-
sional residence^ he never ceased to regard Stratfnd at bis
Amongst other illnstrationt of this strong feeling of
local attachment that might be given there is one that
bat recently excited a good deal of attention and is worth
notidug in some detsdl. Hr Hallom, in a well-known
passage, hat stated that "no letter of Sbakeepeare's writ-
ing, no record of his oonverMtion, has been preserved."
But we certainly have at least one eonvereation reported
at first hand, and it turns directly on the point in qnettion.
It relates to a proposal made in 1614 by some of the local
OToprietors for the encloenre of certain common lands at
Welcombe and Old Stratford. Tbe corporation of Strat-
ford strongly opposed tbe project on the ground that it
wonId be a hardsbip to the p^iter members of tbe com-
manity, and tbeir derk Hr Thomas Oreene^ who wot
related to Sbakespean, was in London about the busineas
in November of the same year. Under date November
744
IHAKESPEAEE
ITtb Gresne mji, in notd* which itUl exint, " yij comd
Pbakeipear wmyDg jutord; to town, I went to loo him
bow he did. Ha tolil me that the; aiwured him the;
ment to iodoBa no fnrth«r than to Ofupell Bush, tad bo
app atraight (laavjng out port of the UfOglea to the
fR^) to the gate in Clopton bedg, and take in Bali/-
bnryed peace; and that the; inaan in Aprill to Borvej the
land, and then to gjva aatiafaction, and not before ; and
he and Mr Hall say thay think tUer will be nothjng done
at all" Thid proTea that the agentd of the tobeme bad
■een Shaksidpeare on the anbjecC, that be bad gone eore-
fnllj into the details of tbair plan, oonsnlted bu Bon-in-
law D[ John Hall about them, and arriTed at the concla-
aii>n that fof the preaent tbay need take no decided action
in the matter. Tbere la sTidentlj on Bhakes^ieare'a part
a strong feeling against tbe proixieeil eiicloeure, and tba
agents of the scheme bad clearly done their best to remove
hia objectionii, promising amongst other things that if it
went forward ha sboiild suffer no peeaniary loes, a pro-
mise already conSrmed hj a legal initmment. But nine
months later, when the local proprietors aeetued bent on
ptuUhg the ttcbeme, Khakespeare take* a more decided
stand, and prononncei strongly against the whole bosineM.
We hava a notice, dated September 1, 1619, to the
olfect that Mr Bbakaspeare bad on that da^ told tba agent
of the oorpraaUon "that be was not able to hear the
aticloaing of Welcombe." As hia proprietary rights and
l)eGnniai7 interests ware not to be affected by the pro-
posed enclooure, tbid strong aipression of feeling must
refer to tba pnblie advantagsM of the Weleombe common
fleid^ and especislly to what in Scotland wonld be called
their " amenity," the element of ralue arising from their
freedom and beanty, their local history and associations.
Weloomhe, as we have seen, was tbe most picCureaque
anburb of Btratbrd. Tbe hills divided by tbe leafy
Dinglee afordsd the flnedt panoramis view oF the whole
neighboarhood. On their eastern alope tbey led to Fnl-
broke Park, the probsble scene of the deor-atealiog adven-
ture and towards tbe nortb-aer't to tba village of Baitter>
field with ltd wooded sweep of upland " busbea." Evei7
acre of the ground was associated with tbe bappieat dayi
of EShakes^ieare's youth. In hi<i boyish holidays he hod
repeatedly crossed and recroesed tbe nnfenced fieMa at
the foot of tbe Weloombe HilLi on bis ways to tbe mstio
■eened and occU[«tions of bis uncle Henry's farm in tbe
outlying forest village. He knew by heart every boundary
tree and stone and bank, every pond and abeep-pool,
every bom and cattle-shed, throu^ont the whole welL-
freiiuented circuit. And in his later years, when after
tba turmoil and excitement of his London life he came to
reside at Btntford, and could visit at leinure tbe scenes of
hia youth, it was perfectly natural that he should shrink
from tbe prospect of Iiaving these acenee partially destroyed
and tbeir associaCiona broken up by tbe rash band of
■■■- • Uer> innovation. In hu own smphaCio laognage, " be
could not bear the ancloaing of Welcorabe," and ^e only
authoritative fragment of hLi eonvenetiou prtaeived to
us thmi briuf^ vi-vidly out one of the beat known and
moHt distinctive features of bia peraoual character and
history — biu deep and lifa-IoDg attachment to hia native
place. Another illustration of the same feeling, common
bo& to Scott and Bbakespeare, is supplied by tbe pmdence
and foresight they both displayed in husbanding their
early gains in order to provide, amidat the scenery they
loved, a permanent home for themaelTeii and tbeir funities.
Sbokeapeare, tbe more careful and sbarii-sighted of tbe
two, ran no such risks and experienced no such revenes of
fortune as those which saddened Scotfd later days. Both,
however, ([lent Uie last yeara of their lives in tbe home
which their energy aud affection bad provided, and both
sle^ their last sleep nnder the changing iikier and mM
the fieldii and ptreanu that gave light and musie to tLcir
earliest yearik Heoce, of all great author^ they ur uh
two mout habitually thought of in eounexioa with fLw
native bannta and bomedteads. Etbu to bis coateiup
raries Bbake-'^ieare was known as the Swan of Avon. Tli'
two spoti on BriUsh ground most oompietely identiSol
with the noblest euergier of genius, con.'ecrated by lili.
long OBSociationj, and ballonred by sacrod duyt sr tL*
banks of the Tweed from Abbotaford to Dryburgb .IbUj,
end tbo jwecp of the Avon from Chorlecote Pork to Hat-
ford ehiircb. To all lover* of literature, to all vhar
spiriti have been toucliod to finer issuej" by iti regenentiiif
iofluenco, tboce ciwld, and above all the abbey graieiiid
tbe cbaucei tomb, are holy gronndj—natiooalBbiiiieiiirileii
by pilgrim* from every land, wbo breathe with priile ui
graticude and affection the household named of Shokeqiwit
and of Scott
Tbe name Shakespeare ia found in the Midland enutia
two centuries before the birth of the poet, Kstlered >
widely that it id not easy at first eight to fix the keslilj
of its rise or trace the liooi of its progress. Several IkI^
however, would seem to indicate tbat tbose who £nt Lu*
it entered Warwickshire from tbe north and vrast, and ttj
therefore have migrated in early times from tbe neigfalinr
ing marches. Tbe name itself is of course thonni^
English, and it ia given by Camden and Verategtn uu
illnstration of tba way in which sumsjned were fabrioled
when first introduced into England in the 13tb ceobii;.
But it is by no means improbable that aolue iuij
bordcreta wbo hod fought suocedsfuUy in the En^
ranks may have received or assumed a mgniBcact ud
sounding designation that wonld help to perpetoste tlv
memory of tbeir martial prowess. ¥'e have iadod ■
distinct and authoritative assertion that aome of M«l»
speare'a ancestors had served their conntry in thii nf.
Howsver this may be, familiea bettring the nuat uf
found during tbe 15tb and 16th centuries in tha Aria
district^ eepecially at Wroiholl and Boviingtiut, — aw
being connected with the priory of ffroxhsll, ^^
during tbe IGtb century the names of more than tvtli^
are enumerated aa belonging to the guild of St Aoii,il
£noll near Uowington. In the roll of thia guild or eH^
are aiao fonnd tbe repreeentatived of some of Iht M
families in tbe county, such as the Ferrerwd of TsmvfltL
and tbe Clintons of ColeshilL Amoug the memUra oi
the guild tbe poet's ancestor* ore to be looked foe, udit
is not improbable, as Mr French auggetita, thst Jolis td
Joan Shakespeare, eutaced on tbe Knoll rcwLiter in 1'^
may have been the parents of BichatU Shakeapetn d
BnitterSeld, whose sons gave each to bis childns >k
favourite family names. Richard Shakespeare, the [«*
grandfather, oecnpied a anbstantial dwelling sad cuD-
vated a forest farm at Snitterfield, between 3 and 4 iiiil>
from Stratford. He was the tenant of Robert Arin <*
Wilmcota, " a gentleman of worship,' who formed lit on
estate, situated a few milea to the west ci Snitterfieia
BJcbard Bbateapeare »-as settled at the latter bomlet ist
doing weU as early as 1 B*3, Tbontas Atwood of St«.lW
having in tbat year bequeathed to him four oxen vludi
were then in bis keeping ; and he oontinued to n™*
there certainly till 1560, and probably till hia death. n>
appears to have had two sons, John and Reniy, of ^jT
John, the eldest, early broke through the oonUaeted Of*
of rustic life at Soitterfield, made hia way to BHattod, ■"
established himself as a trader in one of the i^m
thorougbforu of the town. Thia moviment to lbs («*■
probably took plaoe in IBBl, aa in 1663 John t^fky**
ia dtecribed in an official documout as reiiduig in """^
Htnet, where (be poet woa MbaoqawiUy bm. istoiw
HAKES I'EAKE
r«
[>T«dw k.Unie of his occupujon, ti» kind of mree in
which he pnncipalij dwlt, there &ra Tariooa and conflict-
ing etatementa tbat have given rise to a good deal of dis-
ooasion. The earlioet official statement on the subject
occnis in die regiatei of die boilifi's court for the year
1C56. He IB then deaeribed a« k " gbver," which,
according to the verbal osa^ of the tjtne, included deal-
ing in akin^ em well as in the various ieather-made
artidea of fanning gear, such aa rough ^ontletB and
leggings for hedging and ditching, white le^er glovea for
chopping wood, and the like. But in addition to the
trade of glover and fell-monKar tradition assigua to John
Bhakespeare the functions of butcher, wool-itapler, corn-
dealer, and timber-merchant. These otxupatioiu ore not
incompatible, and together they represent the main lines
some of which at least a joung farmer going into the
town for trading purpoeea would be likely to pursue.
He would naturallj deal with the things he knew most
about, such as corn, wool, timber, skins, and leather-made
articles used in farm Tnirk — in a word, he would desl in
farm conveniences and (arm products. In a town that.
was the centre and chief market of an agricnltursl and
grazing district, and as the member of a family whose
wide eonnetiona were nearly all engaged in famling
operations, his prospects were certainly rather favourable
than otherwise. And he eoon began to turn hia counti7
coonezioD to oceount There is distinct evidence that he
aarl^ dealt in corn and wood aj well as gloves and leather,
for in ICSG ha sues a neighbour for e^teen quarters of
barlof, and a, few years later is paid tliree shillings by the
corporation for a load of timber.
The poef B father was evidendy a man of energy, ambition,
and public spirit, with the knowledge and ability requisite
for pushing his fortune with fair success in his new career.
Jlla youthful vigour and intelligence soon told in his favour,
a.nd in a short time we find liim taking Em active part in
public afisirs. He mods way so rapidly indeed amongst
his fellow-townsmen, that vdthin five years after entering
SttatCord he is recognized as a fitting recipient of municipal
bononi? ; and hia official appointments steadily rise in
dignity and value through the various gradations of leet-
juror, ala-taster, constable, afieeror, burgess, ciiamberlain,
and alderman, ontil in ICSShegaias the most distinguished
post of official dignity, that of high-boilifi or mayor of
the town. Within twenty yoaiv after starting in busineas
in Henley Street he thus rises to the highest place in the
direction of municipal affairs, presiding as their bead over
iba deliberations of his fellow aldermen and burgesses,
and as chief magistrate over the local ' court of record
Tnree years later, in 1571, be was agaui elected as chief
alderman. There ia ample evidence, loo, that during
these years he advanced in material prosperity aa well as
in municipal dignities and honours. As early aa ] 656 be
had means at bis command which enabled him to purchase
two boBses in the town, one in Henley Street with a
coostderable garden, and another in OreenhiU Street with
a garden and croft attached to it. In the following year
be married an heiress of gentle birth, Mary Arden of the
Aabiee, who had recently inherited under her father's will
a substantial sum of ready money, an estate at Wilmcota,
consisting of nearly CO acres of land with two or three
houses, and a reversionary interest in houaas and lands at
Snitterfieid, including the farm tenanted by Richard
Shakespeare, har husband's father. Being now a landed
proprietor and a man of rising position and influence, John
Bbakeapeare would be able to extend hjs bosiDess open-
tions, and it is clear that he did so, though whether
always with due prudence and fcreaight may be fairly
questioned. To a man of his sanguine and somewhat
impetuous temper the sodden increase of wealth was
probably by no- moans an nnmixod good, lint for some
years, at idl events, ho wa* able to maintain his mini
proepsrans states ^^d his new venturos appear for a time
to have turned out welL He is deeignated in official
documents as yeoman, freeholder, and gentloman, and baa '
the epithet "master" prefixed to Us name; this, being
equivalent to esquire, was rarely used except in relation
to men of means and station, possessing landed proper^
of their own. In a note to another official doonment it
is stated that about the time of his becoming chief magia-
trate of Stratford John Shakespeare had " lands and tene-
ments of good worth and sabstaDce" estimated in value
at XQOO, and though there may be some exaggeration in
this estimate his property from various sources most bavo
beeo worth nearly that sum. And in ISTS he increased tbo
total amount by porchasing two houses in Henley Street,
the two that still remain identified with the name and are
consecrated by tradition as the birthplace of the poet Bnt
this was his last purchase, the tide of hia hitherto pro-
sperous fortunes being but too clearly already on the turA.
Having passed the highest point of social and commeicial
succeaa, he wea now facing the downward slope, and the
descent once begun ,waa for aome years oondnnous, and at
times alarmingly and almost inscmtably rapid
It WMD* d»r indMd ftom tL« futi erf tha cus that, botttlth.
rtandiiig John ShakHpem's tntclligonoa, %ifll<iia, and ttiij
■uccen, thtro wu loDia dofoct or chiractir whloh intradiKKid sn
otomsnt or inatsbili^ into bin cuear, aud In tba wd *erj unA
ssutniliied ths working ot hli ooblsr power*. Taintlf diuoraible
psrhapa from th» fir«t, and ovcrponernd onl/ for a tine by tha
Bcceas or proapority that foUovod hia tortwiats marrlag*, this viU
flaw nltiinatelv prodaond Ita natoral frail in tbo aerlou ombwraia-
mantg thai oloadod bii lator y«ra. I'ba pnxdaa aatoni of tha
dcifect can an!; bo indicatal in gsuonl term*, tnt It auaoia to
bare coiuiatA] vary mucb in a want of maasiiTa and balanoo, of
adoijiute can and foraight, In hia buainoai dtalinp and calcuU-
tiooa. Ha asems to have poooesed the Mgei singiiiDa tampan-
man t wbicb, abaorbod in the immediata object of pnnmlt, averlooks
difBooltles and n^locta tha widei oonaidenlloiia on vhloh Ustinc
■uooaaa dependa. Zven In hia eulj yaan at Btratfoid than, ata
algna ot this ardent, impatient, aomewliat naheedfel temper. Hs
ia not only tctlTe and pnahing, but too rsfUeai and eidtabU la
pay proper attontion to necaaaary detaili, or dlaoliatge with
punctnalitY the minor dnUea of his podUon. The first reoordsd
tact in hia load hietorj illustralo* tU* liatiira of hia chaiutor. In
ApHl 1GE2 J ohnShauapeareia fined twelve peooe,*qnal to between
eight and ten ahillinn of our EndlsL moDey now, lor not romov-
ing the heap of hoeaehold dirt and refuse that had aommahitod In
front of hia own door. AnotheiillnatialloDof bliwuitortliorongli
method and tyitem iii the manoecmeut of bia afTaira ia anpplied
by the fkct that in ths yoan lEES-GT he allowed himaelf to bo m«d
in tha bailifTa coort (or compantiTelf imaU debts. Thlaoould not
\. : I . .1 j..^.,„tj|j „m, pmioJ, in
' ' — i to of two
:e porcbaae already n
October 1556, 1
hooaaa with oitonaive gaidniL. _ .
fore hare been the reault of negligence ot tamper on Johu
Shakoepoare't part, and either tltematire toUi almoet a|,aall;
againat liia habita of buainAa oodnoae and rognljmty. Another
illiutration of hia restloa, ill-coneidored, and nnbuJuicsd enercf
may be toand iu the muober and Tarietv of occDpatiani which ho
•soma to hare added to hia earlj trade of Elorer and teuthac-doaler.
Aa hii proapecta improved ho appears to have aoiied on freafa
brunchea of bnainin, nntil he had included within bU glup the
whole circle ot agricoltaisl producta that could in sBf waj be
brought to market. It wmUd aoom alao that be added fanuina
to a not incooalderable extant, to his eipanding retail buaioDaa m
Stratford. Bat it ta eqoall; clear that he lacked tha orJurly
method, the comprahenaiTs ontlook, and the vlgiUnt care for
details (saentiat tor holding well in hand the thruda of so com-
.tcd a eommnrcia] wob. Other dinlnrbing forcoa may iitobably
bodi
9* may iitol
_, or aooal m__.._
h Bppoai to bo among the gronnd notet ol
la it is rovoalod In ua ir "■-
year of his mayoralty he brought companies of players into the
town, and inaugnratod dramatic performancoa in the guild halL
It ia during the year of hia filling the poet of high-baililf that w*
flrathor of etaga plays at Stratfonl, and the plajcra mut haTo
vlalted the town, if not, u ia moat likrlv, st the InriUtion and
duiro oI the poot'a father, at loaat with bu aauetion ami SDpjiMl.
XXL - 9* ^
shakespeae:
In nak anu Oa pl^vi ooold not wit >t all wiOoDt th* par-
wtrtoB of th* aajot and cooDisil, and thair Ant par(bnuw» vai
onillj • fraa antarttinioau^ paaiaind and nid fbi bj tlu corpora'
he nutToi'a play. In all tUi John ShakiapsaM
• and in ao dM^ yrobMj Mpad to daddo the
The notai of panmul pride uid locial
■not It fa on noord, for examplg, that
• hjghtrt poit or manieipd diidnstiDD th*
poef • bther applied to the benUda' college for ■ grut of anna.
nda ^tplisation wa* not at tba time aneeaaafal, but it ■iiiiin to
bar* bean m far aarionelT enlMtdned that offidal Inqnlrlea wen
— •- •-'- "- -~"j }^ttfj laA aodal itaodlng U t^ "*-
next few yean abowed tboee of John Bbake^eare to be. At the
bla hoaaehou aipenaoa, vbila ble otfcial poeition, combined with
ble opta and genennu Baton, hie lore of lociel lympethT, dietjnc-
tbUgUid tnpport, would probeblj hare led him into hiblta of free-
banded boaj^tality and inconiidenite ezpeuytare. All thla mnat
beT* belped to iiitn>diiee * eeale of lariib domeetla aotlay tbat
Ibat epeedilf Ibllowed. And on finding thinga going agalnit Uni
John Sbekannu* Waa Jnat tbe nu to diKniiiit bla araiUbla
naonnaa, an^ ti tha praann inareaaad, Bortme bia Attoie and
adopt anT poedble expedient for milnldaing tbe InoNMed pert
end lociJ DoniaqiiaDOe be bad luprDdentlj aanmad.
Tbie aeema to uto been &e eonree eotoallf numed wben pecn-
BiarydiSIciiltiiearaea. During tbe tbn* ntn tfiat elepaed afinc hk
Uet pnrchiie of hDua proper^ hia alUia became eo eenonaly emhat-
KMed that it wij found neoeaaaiy, if not to aaoriJIoat at leaat to jeo-
pardiie tbe moat oheiiihed fatnre of tbe hmilj in oiilei' to meet the
■xigendei of tha moment. In IBTS John and Itair ShkkMpean
nntgaged for fort; poondi their moat oonndNible [dece of landed
propn^, tbe eatate of tbe Aebiee. 1^ mortg^pa wie a bnlly
eonnexlon of their own, Bdmnnd Idmbart, who Md married Mmtj
Sbaluapeare'e aliter Joan. Th» nlaeqaent Uetory of tbia tranaao-
tlon aliava bow liittar mnat hare bean the need flut Indnced tbe
BhakaapHrea to annendaT, eran lot ■ dma, their ftall oontnd otv
tbe enoMrtnl BBtate. Tht next n«, howenr, the DrName, inatead
of being nliaTod tnr the Mcrinee, had beoona itul moi* nrgent,
end tbe obI; oattTlnf propert]' that roBuiiied to meat it waa tbe
memloiiarT Interwtln the Snitterfleld aetata. Under a family
Battlement Ifary Shekeapean^ on tiie death of ber etepnatber,
wonJd eoma into tha pceaaaaien of hosaa* and laud at Bnitlofiald
( eqnal in nine to tbe AaUea eetat*. Bnt in 1E70 the
~ it BBOOHery tu oiipoae eltogetbec of thii
_, • In that V(«r it wia aold to Robert Webb
tar the nun of fortr poondL The barn wh a nephew of Hirr
Bhakeneare, 'usmg the bob of Aleiander Tebb, who bed murled
bar diter Haroar^ In thu applying to relitlTfa or &mily con-
ftailopa in thoCr need, and oupoemg of tbmr property to them, the
Hhakiepearaa may hare hoped it would be more eaaily ngelned
Aonid timee of proiwity ntum. Tha lecrifiss of the renuiBing
btMeata in the Biiitterfield_proper^ aDbrdad, howsrer, only a
tamunan leUet, gnite innlBtelent to remore the aoonualeting
budaiafdebt anddifflenlty i?Mchnaw wel{[hed the Bhekeepearee
down, no notee of the prooeedinp of tbe Stratford oorporatJan
•Ddof Oaloealootirt of tMotd mlBsleBtljr ebow that John Sbake-
■eaw^eadTeraa ti>rtnBa Mntinaed fiuongh a etriea of yeen, and tbey
■lee aable m in pert to anderatand how he bore bimtalf mider tbe
1 wore called , . ,
ation to the militerj equipment to be prorided
by tbe town, Jobs Stukaapeare <e >o fu reUercd that only ono
hklf the emoont is reqmred from him. I^ter in the year we fiiid
him whoIlT eiompted from the weekly Ui paid b; hli fellow-
aUsmen for the mlief of the poor. In tbe eprikg of tbe (bllow-
bgyeai, on a further tu for militaty pnrpoeee b^ng laid on the
town, he ii nnable to ooiitribals anytbiog, and ia aooordinaly
reported ea a deTniriter. A few jem liter, in en action for e debt
• Teidict li recordod agnlBit him, with the oScial report that he had
no goodi on which diitnint coald be nude. About the aame time
ka appaem to have been nnder eome natraint, if not actnally
impifaonad for debt. And aa lata •* 1GB3 it ii officially atated, ei
« reanlt of an Inquiry tnto the uumber who fail to attend the
olmnih aerriDo once a month according to the atetntory nquln-
BMiat, that John Shakeipcare with ecime othcn, two of wbom,
enrioody enongh, are nanied rlneDen and Bardolph, " come not to
dnreh lor fear of proocae lot debt." In tho year 1884 another
aldormeii had at length been ohoaen io hia pUce, the reaeon given
being enreaaiy beoraee " John Bhaktapaen dolh not oome to the
ballac whan they ere warned, nor hath not dano for a loBg time.*
' "-- brief oRldal record it would aeem that under hu rerena
le in ita place of honour on tbelr tali, partly no dooU h i
kof nspect for hia charaoter and peri ■errieea, and paitlji:
may be in the hope that bia fortnnea might imprvre and pnapme
dayi retom. And, wlian at length he le inpaiwedad fay the appiiu.
maut of another a hia plao^ tbie ia dnia, not on tbaBoaadii
hia redneed drcnmotaaoea, but aimply becanaa be TOODrtini;
indkataa tbe kind of monl nillapae that bwl fiillowed tha a:
tlnaouinaaiue of Buterial lareraaa. Tbe aagar aangolDe utm
that bad ao aeBlaDy expanded in proepeiity mi^ It le dear, mi;
chilled and depraaed by adreni^. He abandona tbe naoal fliot
oftaBDrt. wlOdrawa bimaalf bmntbe meet* ' "" -~
and ceaaaa to aoeooiate nth hia (allow-bi
I etgniflcant becanea bla <
And! what il
AUthkiilk
■camatancaa, tbongh aariaad;
— , . J mnch Mdooad, ware nmr ■
aa to compel bim to part wItJi hia fiaaaoh) mfatj ia
J .treat In tbe darkeat honn of hia elonded lottmi h
aUl retained tbe now world-teuioaa hosaaa aaaotaated vitb ill
poaf e Urtb and early yeara. There wm no adsqaate nam Itm-
fn« lAy Jobn Bhakaapeaia ehoold baTe ao eomMately fecaabn di
naoal haonta and icgnlar aaambUea of hia feOow-townama iti
frianda. Bnt II aaema dear, aa already Intimalsd, that, vbili
gifted with a gwd deal o( natlTe anai|n and InteUigaan, ad
iiiaaiiialin' a temper that waa proud, aenaiaTev and area faBBWI^
John Bluikaapeare lacked the kind of fortitnds aAd moral «enp
whkh enabka man to meet eerione rerenae of fortune with ^getj
and raaarra, If not with cbeerfDlneBa and hapat With tha imtiia
of a wonnded animal be aeema to hare left the proaperooa hail oi
hold np hia head again until tbe tdlcieD t ngfot
aql anabledbim to lakf actira BMeoona fie lit
iteonrj of hia allanated eatala and loat poaltion in the town, E;
tbe middle of tbe bet deotde of Hn letb eentnnr tbe poef • moi
In Ua proteaaieai waa thonra^y aaanred, and be waa on Uw lot
load to WMltb and bma. It aetof. dramatiat, and pntaUj ik
were oeaioaiea. too eon waa now inereion ae now m m<^
alwan been willing to help hia father to imln Oie pnltioi "
oomfart and dignity be had formerly oont^ad. We Imd iwi
ingly that in 1597 John and Kary ShaluBpaara Bled a Ul d
ChaiLoeiy egiinet John I^mbert tor the recorery of Aa Iwa
eet■t^ whidi had been mortgaged to bia father neeriy tmn
yean before. Then hwl indeed been aome momiant n v
matter ten yean earllw, on the daalb tl Eitwaid UbM fl'
mortgagee. Hia eon John being apparently audona to •ctlh tu
diepnte, it wai prDpoaed that he abonld pay an additioBil naii
twenty pounde in order to conrert tbe mortgigB into a w w
that be ahould then reoelTs from tbe Bhakeauarea u abeolen nu
to the eatate. The amngament waa not noweier, cairiaa Mi
and in lfia» John Bhakeepeaie broe^t > hdll of eomdaial tg^
Lambert In the Court o^ Queen'a BenoL Nothii^Jiirthet. hsf
erir, aaama to have been done, probebly bacaoae umbtrC B4
hare felt that in tha kw etata vl the Shakaapaar^ fotov <■
aotlon could not ha pnaaed. In 1W7, howerer, thwe <na •
change in the reUtlT* poaitton of tbe litjgonta, John BhAaffa
baring now tbe pone of bla aon at bia command, and ■^i*^'
"^-noeiy wee oooo
npport of the
alao be repaid at
npned, and there '
tha BhafcaepeaRB.
by bim on tlw gronnd Ibat other anma wen owiw ™~
10 be repaid at tbe aame time. To tbia plea Joha U"^
and then ia a otill further " replioation " os tli' F^JI
keepearea. How the matter waa arentoally danJeiiiy
....„, no decna of the court in the eaae haTing baan di«iM»
But the probabilitice are that it waa aettled ont of OOorC, aad, ■
the eaUU did not ntum to the Shakeapaena, prelaUy nlf
benie of the prcpoaal already mode,— that of Uia peTHiaat « •■
additional aum W John Lambert Aboat tbe aaBM data. <r^
earlier, in 1SB«, John Shakeepaere alao "Mwed bla inOanB
tbe hereldi' oollege tor a great ^ arnu and tUa time nu "f""
The grant waa made on the ground Oiat the hiatuy and ic^
'•"■- "^-'^-epoan and Arden iamilleefdly «titleifli»>PP^
>et armour. Than can bono doubt *^*,^i'?'^
aappntiog theee npltoatlona wen oniplM ? )r
would be well raw^Sed l» tha knawla4e that D »J
ia dan bii bther bad at leafftb le^ui>^'l»i:Sl'
hia heart, being oBdally reoognlmd aa a* genOeoaa ef •;»?,
And, what would now peibapa |i1«iim bta bfiM ilfll brtti^ "
of the Shakaapoan and Ardi . .
to reoeira ooet armour. Than
required tor
poet, and h(
SHAKESPBAKE
747
would ba tbla to hand on tlir dlitinctlon to bii tea, vhoH p
(naioc. pisTui^ him nt tba time from giliiing
aciMIint JohD Bhaknpun died In ISOf, binng Chrou^h the
■(TsctioDkta osra of bi* KD apeat tb« lut fesn dT hii lib m tbe
e*H and oonitoit beHtting ona irba bsd not ohIt baea ■ pniparoiu
bnrssaa, bat chlof ililDniun and imyor af Btnt^ord.
Of Uary Aiden, tha poet'a mother, ws know litUe,
hftrdlj ftDytbing directly indeed ; bat the little kaovn ia
wholly in her favour. From ths prori^iouB of her father'*
will it ia clear tliBt of hiiBeven daughters ahe was his favonT'
ite; and the linka of evideDce are now complete connecting
b.6t father Bobert Arden with the great Warwickshire family
of ArdoD, whose mombera had more than ooce filled the
poets of high-sheriff and lord-lieutenant of the comity.
She ma Urns deaceoded from an old county family, the
oldett in Warwickshire, and had inherited tbe traditions of
gentle birth and good breeding. Her anceaton are traced
back, not only to Norman, but to Anglo-Saxon times,
: Alvin, an early representative of the family, and himself
connected with the royal honae of Athalstaue, haviag been
viee-eomet or sheriff of Warwickihire in the time of Edward
the Confeerar. His son Tttrchill retained his exteaaive
possessions nodDr the Conqueror ; and, when they were
dirided on tbe marriage of his daughter Mai^aret to a
Norman noble created ^ William Rufus earl of Warwick,
Tarchill betook himself to his nameroua lordships in tbe
Arden district of the comity, and assumed the name of De
Arderu or Afdeu. His descendaata, who retained the name,
multiplied in the shire, and were tmited in marriage from
time to time with the best Norman blood of the kingdom.
The family of Arden thus repreeented the amoo, under
Bomsidiat rare eoaditions of ori^nal distinction and
equality, of the two great race elements that have gone to
the making of the typical modem Engliahman. Tbe
immediate anceetora of Uary Sbakeapeare were the Ardens
of Farkhall, near Aston in the north-western part of the
ehire. During &« Wars of the Bosea Bobert Aiden of
Farkhall, being at the outset of the quarrel a devoted
Yorkist, waa suied by the Lauoastrians, attached for high
treason, and ezecnted at Ludlow in 11Q3. He left an oi^y
■on, Walter Arden, who was restored by Edward lY. to hia
pceition in the country, and received back his hereditary
lordships and laoda. At his death in 1C02 he was buried
with great state in Aston church, where three separate
monumenta were erected to his memory. He bad married
Eleanor, second daughter of John Hampden of Bocks, and
by her bad ught children, six sons and two daughters.
Ths eldest son. Sir John Arden of Farkhall, having been
for some years esquire of the body of Henry TU., wae
knighted and rewarded by that monarch. Sir John was
the great-uncle of Mary Bhakeapeore, — hia brother Thomas,
the second son of Walter Arden, being her grandfather.
Thomas Arden ia found residing at Aston Cautlowe during
the first half of the 16tk century, and in the year 1501 he
united with his son Robert ^^ien, Hary Shakeepeare'a
father, in the pnrcbaae of the Snitterfieid estate. Hary
Sbakeapeue waa thus directly counectad by biith and
liaeage with those who had taken, and were to take, a
foremost part in the great conflicts which constitute turning-
points in the hiatory of the country. On her father's side
she was related to Bobert Arden, who in the 16th century
lost his Ufs while engaged in rallying local forces on behaLf
of the White Rose, and on her oiother'e side to Johu
Hunpden, who took a atill more distinguished part in the
momentous civil struggles of tha ITtb century.
A very needless and abortive attempt has been made to
call in question Bobert Arden'a social and family position
OD the ground that in a contemporary deed be is called a
huabandman (ngrieola), — the assumption being that a
husbandman is simply a farm-labourer. But the term
linsbutdnuiii was often used in Sliakeapeare'a day to deug^
note a landed proprietor who farmed one of bid own estates.
The fact of his beiog spoken of in official documents as
a husbandman does not therefore in the least affect Bobert
Arden'a social position, or his relation to the great house
of Arden, which is now eBtablinhed on the cleareat evidence.
He waa, however, a younger member of the house, and
would naturally share in the diminished fortune and
obscurer career of such a position. But, even sa a cadet
of BO old and distinguished a family, he would tenaciously
pnaerve the generous traditions of birth and breeding ho
had inherited! Mary Arden was thus a gentlewoman in
the truest sense of the term, and she would bring into her
husband's household elements of character and culture
that would be of priceless value to the family, and espe-
cially to the eldest son, who naturally had the Gist place
in her care and love. A good mother ia to an imagina-
tive boy his earliest ideal of womanhood, and in her for
him are gathered up, in all their vital fulness, the ten-
derness, sympathy, and truth, tha infinite loTe, patient
watchfnlnesa, and self-abnegation of the whole aex. And
the experience of bit mother'a bearing and example during
the vicissitudes of their home life must have been for the
future dramatist a vivid revelation of the more sprightly
and gracious, as well as of the profounder elements, ot
female character. Id the earlier and prosperous days at
Stratford, when all within the home circle was bright and
happy, and in her interconrae with her boy Mary Shako-
Bpeare could freely unfold the attractive qualities Ihat had
BO endeared her to her father's heart, the delightAd imaga
of the young mother would melt unconsciously into the
boy's mind, fill his imagination, and become a storehouse
whence in after yeare he would draw some of t'le finest
lines in his matchiees portraiture of women. In tbe darker
days tluit followed he would learn eomething of tbe vast
posaibilitiea of soSering personal and ^mpathetic, be-
longing to a deep and sensitive nature, audaa the troubles
made head he would gain some insight into the quiet
courage and aelf-posBession, the unwearied fortitude, awoet-
ness, and dignity which such a nature reveals when stirred
to ita depths by adversity, and rallying all its resources
to meet the inevitable stonns of fate. These storms were
not simply tbe ever-deepening pecuniary embarrassments
and consequent loss of social position. In tbe very crisis
of the troubleo, in the spring of 1579, death entered the
straitened household, carrying off Ann, tbe younger of the
only two remaining daughters of John and Mary Shake-
speareL A characteristie trait of the father's grief and
pride ia afforded by the entry in the chureh books that a
somewhat excessive sum waa paid on this occasion for the
tolling of ths belL Even with ruin staring him in the
face J(^n Shakespeare would forego no point of customary
respect nor abate one jnt of tbe ceremonial usage proper
to the family of an eminent burgess, although the obs^-
once might involve a very needless outlay. In passing
throngh tbeee chequered domestic scenes and vividly
realising tbe alternations of grief and hope, tbe eldest sou,
even in his early years, woidd gain a fund of memorable
experiences. From his native sensibility and strong
family affection he wonid passionately sympathize with
his puenta in their apparently boneless struggle against
the slings and arrows of ontrageous fortune. Above til
he would cherish ths memory of his mother's noble bear-
ing alike under serene and clouded skies, and learn to
estimate at their true worth tha refined strength of
inherited oourage, the dignified grace and silent belpful-
cess of inherited courtesy and genuine kindnees of heart.
These recoliectiona were vitalized in the aprighUy intelli-
gence, quick sympathy, and loving truthfulness belonging
to the female characters of hia early comedies, as well as
in tbe profounder notes of wonuuily jfri^ aod Hiff«iB^
748
SHAKESPEARE
Btnick with w sore a hand lod with nich depth and
'tj a! tone, in the Mrljr tragediet.
^n aidditiDn to her Gonitant inflnsDOB and example the
u probably indebted to hia mother for certain ele-
msnti of his own Enindand character diroctif inherited from
her. Thib pcaition maj be maintained without accepting the
vagae and comparatively empty dictom that Bhakespeare
derived hia geoiiu from hi* mother, ai many eminent men
are loosely nid to have doii& The Micred gift of genioa
has ever been, and perhapi alwaje will be, inexplicable.
No analyaia, however complete, of the toroei acting on
the individual mind can mil to extract Aim vital lecret.
The elements of rac«, ooaatry, par«ntage, and education,
though all powerfnl factora in Its development, fail ada-
qnately to account for the mjetery involved in pre-eminent
poetical genini. like the ntueen wind from heaven it
bloweth where it liiteth, and the inspired voice ia gladly
heard of men, bat none can tell whence it cometh or
whither it goeth. "While, however, geoiiu is thna without
anceatrj or lineage, there are elements of character and
qnalitiee of mind that, like the featarea of the countenance
and the linee of the bodily frame^ appear to ba clearly
tmntmisuble from parent to child. Shakespeare not
nnfieqoently recognicee this general bnth, eepecially in
relation to moral qualities ; and it is mainly qnalitiea of
this kind that he himself appear* to have inherited from
hia gently bom and nnrtnred mother, Harj Anlen of
the AsbisB. At least it is hardly fanciful to Bay that
in the life and character of Ulb poet we may trace ele-
meats of higher feeling and conduct derived from the
hereditary culture and courtesy, the social insight and
refinement, of the Aidena. Amongst such elements may
be reckoned hia strong sense of independence and eelf-
reipect, his delicate feeling of honour, hia halutual con-
sideration for others, and, above all perhaps, his deep
instinctive regard for ril family intereits and relationshipa,
for everything indeed connected with family character
and position. The two epithets which tluMe who knew
Bhakespeare personally most habitually applied to him
appear to embody some of these chaActeristics, They
unite in describing him as "gentle" and "honest" in
character, and of an open and tre^ a frank and generons
disposition. The epithet "gentle" may be taken to repre-
■ent the innate oourte^, the delicate consideration for the
feeling of others, which belongs in a marked decree to
the best representatives of gentle birth, althou^ happily
it is 1:7 no means confined to them. The secoail epithet,
"honeet," which in the usage of the time meant honoorabie,
may l>e taken to express the high spirit of independence
and self-respeot which carefully reapects the just claims
and rights of othera One point of the truest gentle
breeding, which, it not inherited from his mother, mutt
have been derived from her teaching and example^ is the
cardinal maxim, which Shakespeare seems to luive faith-
fully oheerved, as to nice exactness in money matters —
the maxim not lightly to incur pecnniary oiiUgatdons, and
if incurred to meet thom with senipnlous precision and
punctuality. Tint he could not have learnt from his
fether, who, tJion^ an boneet man enough, was too eag^
and careless to he very particular on the point. Indeed,
carelessness in money matters seems rather to have
belonged to the Snitterfield family, the poet's uncle Henry
having lieen often in the courts for debt, and, u we have
seen, this was true of hia father also. But, while his
father wiu> often prosecuted tor dsbt, no trace of any such
actjun against the poet himself, for any amount however
small, hoK boen dtHCOvered. He sued others for money
due to him and at times for sums comparatively small,
but ho never a[i|<caTB as a debtor himaeli Indeed, hia
whole life contndicts the loppositioB that he would ever
have rendered himself liable to such a tiamilktlce. ^
fomQy troubles must have very early dejeh^ sad
strengthened the high feeling of honour on Uiii vitti
point he had inherited. He must Obvioualy have taken
to heart the lesson hia father's impmdeace «ould hsidlj
fail to impress on a mind K) capacioos and reBediie.
John Shakeepeare was no doubt a warin-hcskrted lorsyc
man, wh^ would carry the sympathy and ofiectaon nl ha
family with him through all his bouldes, bnt hia Mat
son, who early understood the secret spiings as well a> tb
open inues of life, muet have realized vividly the rock 01
which their domestic prosperity had h^en wracked, loi
befon he left home he had evidently formed an invincible
reeolution to avoid it at alt hazards. This helps to eiplu'n
what his often excited surprise in relation to hia htan
career — his business industry, financial skill, and attsii;
progress to what may be called worldly saecesa Ta
tMoga are more remarkable in Bhakeepeare's penoMi
history than the resolute spirit of independence ha mv
to have diaplayed from the moment he left his atraiUDMl
household to seek hie fortunes in the world to tha tin
when he returned to live at Btnitford as a man of naill
and pasilion in the town. While 1
dramatists were spendthrifts, li
ing disorderly lives, and aioking h
he must have hosbandad his early r
amount of quiet Qrmnees and self-controL Ctiettle'i teMi-
mony as to Shakespeare's ciuracter and standing <iiiri){
his first years in London is decimve on this head. Hsriii
published a posthumous work by Greene, in whici Mm-
lowe and Bhakespeare were somewhat sb^ply refan^ U,
Chettle expressed his regret iu a preface to a work if Ui
own issued a few mentis latu, in December Ifi91; b
iatimatea that at the time of publisldng Qreene^ Gn^
worth of W^l he knew neither Marbwe nor ShiktqMr^
and that he does not care to become ocqnainted wiu Ik
former. But having made Shakespeare's icqosinhtw
in the interval he expresses his regret tJiat ha ihitll
even as editor, have published a word to his diqanp-
ment, adding this remarkable testimony : "Becanei?"''
have seen his demeanour, no less civil than be enslhil
in the qnalitiea he profaaaes ; beeideB, diven of worUip
have reported his uprightness of dsalin^ whidi tr^
his honesty, and his facetiona grace in writinj^ *^
approves his art." So that Shakespeare, dutiig kis
earliest and most anxious years in London, had not <«If
kept himself out of debt and difficulty, but h«d "tit
lished a reputation of strictly bonooraUe conduct, "dirw
of worahip," it, men of position and authori^ aolitim
to speak on such a point, " having reported hu npri^
nesa of dealing, which argued bis honesty." Now, wBiiilff-
ing the poet's associatee, occupations, and Mimw»'
ings, this is significant testimony, and conclusively prom
that, although fond of social life and its enjajmeih
and without a touch of hajshneas or severity in hit ''"'If'
he yet held himself thoroughly in hand, that a>nn|
the ocean of new experiencee and deeiies on wbid k
waa suddenly launched he never abandoned tbe hdn.
never lost command over hia oourse^ never Bcrifiw' |"
larger intereats of the future to the clamorous er "'**'"
demands of the hour. And this uo doubt indicsto <»
direction in which he was most indebted to hi> nnw''
From his father he might have derived amhitioni dwi"-
energetic impnlsea. and an excitable tempw c*l^ .
rushing to the verge of {tasiuonate excess, lot, '' **' •
clear that he inherited from his moUier the Sw»*"
nerve and fibre as well as the ethical strength leq*!""''
regulating these violent and explosive ^"■"•'''V, iLl.
received as a paternal heritage a very tempest »» *^
wind of poaioD, the nuileiTud gift of tsmpeMx* "■
SHAKESPEAKE
749
nMaaore mmld help to give it BmoDthnMi and finith in
the working, wonld aap^y (□ aome d^ree at leut the
power of concentration and Mlf-control indupen«able for
moalding the extremes of exuberant sensibility and pas-
■iooftte impnlie into forma of intense and varied dramatic
portcaituie; and of coar«e all the finer and r^ulative
elements of dtantcter and diapodtion derived from the
ipindle aide of the botue wodd, thronghont the poet's
earl; yean, be atreDgtheDed and developed by hie mother's
constant presence^ inflosnce, and ezample.
John and Ma^ ShakespMre had eight chlldreo, fonr
•oni and four daughters. Of the latter, twc^ the first
Joan and Uargaret, died in infanoy, before the birth of
the poet, and a third, Anne, in early diildhood. In addition
to Uie poet, three sons, Gilbert, Richard, and Edmnnd,
and one dan^ter, the aecond Joan, lived to matority
and will be referred to again. William Shakespeare
wu christened in Stratford cbnrch on April 36, ISG4,
haring rooct probably been bom, according to tradition,
on the 23d. In July of the lame year the town was
visited by a severe ontbreak of the plague, which in the
conne of a few months earned off onfraizth of the inhab-
itants. Ft^onately, however, the family of the Sbake-
spearea wholly escaped the contagion, their exemption
being probably doe to the fact that they lived in the
bealthieat part of the town, away from the river side, on a
dfj and poroDs soil. At the back of Henley Street, indeed,
were the gfavel pita of the guild, which were in freqaeut
nae for repairing the inundated pathways near the river
after its periodical overflows. For two yeara and a half
William, their first-bom bod, remained the only child of
his parents, and all his motiier'e love and care wonld
natnially be laviohed npon him. A special bond vroold
in t^is way be established between mother and child, and,
his father's aflairs being at the time in a highly prosperoos
slate, Mary Shakespeare woold see to it that the boy had
bU the pteasares and advantages anitable to his age, and
which the family of a foremost Stratford burgess conid
easily command. Healthy outdoor enjoyment is not the
'least valuable part of a boy's education, and the chief
recreationB available for the future dramatist in those
early years would be the sports and pastimes, the recor-
ring festivalsi spectacles, and festdvittes, of the town and
neighbonrhood, Specially the varying round of raral
occnpations and the celebration in the forett farms and
villages of the chief incidents of the agricultural year.
Seed time and harvest, sammei and winter, each brought
its own group of picturesque meny-mokiDgs, including
aome more important festivals that evoked a good deal of
mstic pride, enthnsiasm, and display. There were, during
these years, at least three of the forest farms where the
poet's parents would be always welcome, and where the
boy must have spent many a happy day amidst the free-
dom and dsligbts of outdoor country life. At Soitterfield
his graudfa^er wonld be prond enough of the curly-
heoded youngster with the fine hazel eyes, and bia uncle
Henry wonld be charmed at the boy's interest in all ha
saw and heard as he trotted with him through the byree
and bans, the poultry yard and steading, or, from a safe
nook on the bushy margin of the pool, enjoyed the fun
and excitement of sheep-woahing, or later on watched the
mysteries of the shearing and nw the heavy fleece fall
from the sides of the palpitating victim before the sure
and rapid furrowing of the shears. He woold no doubt
also be lA'esent at the shearing feast and see the qneen of
the festival receive her mstic guests and dlitribnte amongst
them hsr Soral gifts. At Wilmecote^ in the solid oak-
timbered dwelling of the Asbiea, with its well-«tocked
garden and orchai^ the boy would be received with cordial
hoapitolity, u well w witli the attention and respect due
to his parents as the proprieton and to liinuetf o* the hwr
of the maternal estate. At Shotteiy the welcome of the
Shokeapeares would not be less cordial or friendly, as
there is evidence to show that as early as 1666 the
families were known to each other, John Bhakeepeare
having in that year rendered lUchard Hathaway an im-
portant personal service. Here the poet met bis future
bride, Anne Hathaway, in all the charm of her ennny girl-
hood, and they may be said to have grown up together,
except that from Uie difference of their ages she would
reach early womanhood while he was yet a stripling. In
bis later youthful years he would thus be far more fre-
quently at the Hathaway farm than at Snitterfietd or the
Asbiea. There ware, however, family connexions of tlie
Bhakeapeares occupying farms further afield, — Hills and
Webbs at Bearley and I«mbeTta at Barton-on-the-Heath.
There was thus an exceptionally wide circle of country
life open to the poet during his growing years. And in
these years he must have repeatedly gone the whole
picturesque round with the fresh senses and eager feeling,
the observant eye and open mind, that left every deEsil,
from the scarlet hipa by the wayside to the proud tops of
the eastern pines, imprinted indelibly upon his heart and
brun. Hence the apt and vivid references to the scenes
and scenery ol his youth, the intense and penetrating
glances at the moat vital aspects as well as the minutest
beantiM of natores with which his dramas abound. These
glances are so penetrating, the reault of snoh intimate
knowledge and enjoyment, that they often seem to reveal
in a moment, and by a single touch as it were, all the
loveliness and charm of the objects thus rapidly flashed on .
the inward eye. In relation to the scenes of his youth
what fresh and delightful hours at the farms ore reflected
in the full summer beauty and motley humours of a
sheep-shearing festival in the Wmter'i TaU ; in the antomn
glow of the "ann-bnmt sicklemen and aedge-crowned
nymphs" of the masque in the Fimpeil; and in the vivid
pictures of nual sights and sonnds in spring and winter
so musically rendwed in the owl and cuckoo songs of
Xotv'j XoioMT '( Lotl t Bnt, in addition to the festivities
and meny-malriugs of the forest forms, it is clear that, in
his early years, £e poet had some experience of country
sports proper, snch as hunting, hawking, coursing, wild-
dnck shooting, and the like. MaAy of these sports were
poTsned by the local gentry and the yeomen together, and
the poet, as the son of a well-connected burgees of Strat-
ford, who had recently been mayor of the town and
possessed estates in die county, would be well entitled to
share in them, while bis handsome presence and courteous
bearing wonld be likely to ensure him a hearty welcome.
If any of the stiffer local magnates looked coldly upon tho
high-spirited youth, or resented in any way bia presence
amongst them, their condnct would be likely enough to
provoke the kind of sportive retaliations that might
naturally culminate in the deer-stealing adventure. How-
ever this may be, it is clear from internal evidence that
the poet was practically familiar with the field sports of
In the town the chieF holiday spectacles and enteriain-
menta were those connected with the Christmas, New
Year, and Easter festivals, the Hay-day rites and games,
the pageants of delight of Whitsuntide, the beating of the
bounds during Rogation week, and the occasional repre-
eentation of mysteries, moralitiea, and stage-playa In
relation to the mun bent of the poet's minc^ and lilt
fotnre development of his powen, the latter constituted
probably the moat important educational influence and
stimolns which the aodal acttvitiee and public entertain-
ments of the place could have supplied. Most of these
recurring celebrations involved, it is tnw, ft dntnutti«
750
SHAKESPEARE
le hero or exploit, tome emblem or &llegciij,
being repreaeoted bj mewie of coetomed penonatioiu,
paatomime, snd dui"b ahoir, wbile in m&iiy casei eoage,
dances, and brief dialoguea were interposed ae port of a
performance. There were maaquea and moniMliiDciDg
on MKy-da;, u well ae mammerB snd waite at Cbriatmaa.
In a namber of towns and Tillages the exploits of Rolnn
Uood and hb asaociatOR were also celebratod on tiaj-daj,
olteD amidst a {uctorosqne confusion of fioral emblems
and forestry devices. Iq Shakespeare's time the Maj-day
rited and games thus inclnded a variety of elements charged
with legendary, historical, and emblematical sigoificaoce.
But notwithstanding this mixture of festive elements, tie
celobration as a whole retained its leading character and
purpose. It was still the spontaneous meeting of town and
conntry to welcome the fresh beauty of the spring, the
welcome beiog reflected in the open spaces of the sports
by toll painted masts decked with garland^ streamerB,
and flowery crowns, snd in the pnblio thoroughfares by
the leafy screeni and arches, the bright di&ised bloeaoma
and frograat spoiL) brought from the forest by rejoicing
youths and maidens at the dawn. May-day was thus
well fitted to be used, aa it often is by Sha^peare, as
the comprehonsiTo symbol of all that is delightful and
oxhUarating in tho renewed life and vental freshness of
the openiag year.
After May-dny, Whitsuntide was at Stratford perhaps
the moat im^iorl.nt season of testtve pagsantry and scenic
display. In addition to the procemion of the guild and
trades and the usual holiday ales and sports, it involved a
dis^ct and somewhat noteworthy element of diamatdc
lepresentation. And, as in the case of the regular stage-
|)1ayi^ the high-ballifi and council a^ipear to have patron-
ized and supported the pQifinTnances. We find in the
chamberlain's accounts entries of sums paid "for exhibit-
ing a pastyme at Whitsuntide." Shoksspesre himself
refers to these dramatic features of the celebration, and in
a maitoer that almost suggests he may in his youth have
taken port in them. However this may be, the popular
celebrationti of Bhakeupeare'ii youth must have supplied a
kind of training in the simpler forms of poetry and
dnunatio art, and have afforded some scope for tho early
exercise of his own powers in both directions This view
is indiiMtly coufirmed by a passage in the early scenes of
TJii Betur» from Fanvumi, where the academic speakers
sneer at the poets who come up from the country without
any univusity training. The uneer U evidently the more
bitter as it implies that some of these poets had been
successful, — more succodoful than the colU^bred wita.
Tho academic critics suggest that tho uarserios of these
poets were the country ale-house and the country groen,
— tho special wtimulus to their powers being the Jlay-day
celebrations, the morri»4ancas, the hobby-horae, and the
liko.
But the moralities, interludes, and stage-plays proper
afforded tiie most direct and varied dramatic instmc-
tion available b Bhakespeare's yonth. The earliest
popular form of the drama was the mystery or miracle
piny, dealing in the main with Biblical subjects; and,
CoTontry being one of the chief centres tor the productiOQ
and exhibition of the mysterieii, Shakespeare had ample
oppwtunitiea of becoming well acquainted with them.
Bome of the acting oompooies formed from the nnmenms
trade guildj of the " snire-town " were moreover in the
habit of visiting the neigbbonriog cities for the purpose
of exhibiting their plays and pageants. There is evidet
of their having performed at Leicester and Bristol
Hhokespoare's youth, and on returning from the latter
ci^ they would most probably hare stopped at Stratford
nod given some psrfonnoncss tlwre. And io any cam,
OcrrentiT bahig so nwr to Stratford, tlie bme d tie
multiplied pageants presented during tho holiday wseb A
Easter and Whitsmitide, and especially of the hriDiul
eonoonne that came to witness the grand sariea of Coryti
Christ! plays, would have early attracted the yonag pot}
and he must have become familiar with the precincts <(
the Grey Friars at Coventry during the colebtitirai ol
these great ecclesiastical festivals. Ttia indirect en<1em
of this is supplied by Shakespeare's references to the nU-
known characters of the mysteries Fuch as Herod ani
Pilate, Cmu and JodoK, Termagaunt with bis tnihsMd
Turks and infidek^ black-bumiag souls, grim and gipisg
hell, and the like. The moralities and interlude* t^
gradoslly took the ploco of the Btblitad mysterisi ■wm
also acted by companies of Htrolling players ovsr a irida
in the towns and cities of the Midland and vesltfi
ties. Malone gives from nu eye-witness a detiiU
and graphic account of the public acting of ons cf tkM
companies at Gloucester io 1569, the year dnrtng lAiA
the poefs father aa higb-balM had brought the it^
players into Stratford and insngurated a aeries of p>^
formances in the guild halL The play acted at Gbticsriar
was Th^ CradU of Seeuri/y, one of the mwA strikiiig ui
popular of the early moralities or interludes. WiUia, Ik
writer of the account, was just Shakespeare's age, turia; i
been bom in 1SG4. Ah a boy of five yoars oldbebtd |
boon token by his father to see the play, and, slaii^ i
between bis father's knees, watclied the whole perfwmun
with such intenao interest that, writing about it serul;
years afterwards, he says, " the subject took snd ic ID- i
preasion upon me that when I cams afterwards tovwA
man's estate it wod as fresh in my memory as if 1 ^
it newly enacted." In proof of this hegivaadHi
and detailed outline of the play. Willis was evidestlf s
man of no special gifts, and, if die witneastng a plaj tiM
a child could produce on an ordinary mind so DienwraUt
an impression, w« may imagine what the effect would Is
on the mind of the marvelious boy who, about llie wm
time and under like circumstances, was takeu b; In
father to see the iicrformances at Stratford. Tht a»
pany that fir^t visited Stratford being a dictingvished os^
their pUys wore probably of s hi^ar type and Wte
acted than Tin Cr<id/f of Security at Gloucester ; and ikff
effect on the young poet would be the mora viTiJ vi
stimulating from the keener sensibilities and U^
dramatic power to which in his cone they ^P*™-
These early impreBsions would be renewed and deeF«»
with the boy's advancing years. During the doaoe o
Shakoapenro's activs youth from 1673 to 1B84 the W
companies in tho kingdom constantly viMted POslftWi
and he would thixa have the advantage of seeing tketo*
drama* yet produced acted by the beet players ollliotimii
Tilts would he for him a rich and fruitful experience of t»
Bexible and improsstve form of art which at a moonDi«
exuberant nationul vitality was attracting to itself™
scattered forces of poetic genius, and soon gained s jkbI"*
ot unrivalled Fupremacy, Aa he watched the perfornniw
in turn of tho various kinds of intwlude, comedy, i»
pastoral, ot ohromclo and biographical plays, othiaW™
domestic, or ronlistic tragody, he would gain io inBtmcU*
insight into the wido pcoiib and vast resources of Iho noni
drama. And ho would have opportunitiee of soqoi'WB
some knowledge of stage business, manageneuli U"
effects, aa well aa of dramatic form. Amon^ '^'.^
Knies that visited Stratford were those of the po"«"
*I earls of Leicester, Warwick, snd Worosrtef, "M"
members were largely recruited from the Midl»od««J»
The earl of Letceater^ company, the most enuoeat J *^
mclnded several Warwickshire men, while seme "Jj^
leading members^ like the elder Borbage, appw '^ ""
SHAKESPEARE
T51
bMD natives of Stratford or.the immadiKte neighboarliood.
And the podt'j father being, m wb have seeo, so greAt &
friead of tbe pkjere, and during hie moot proaperons jeara
incoBBtant communicatioii with them, Mb sod would have
tffery facilitj for stodjiug their art. Curiosity and in-
terest ftnd tiie ilia would prompt hitn to find out all be
could aboutthe uae of the stage " I>ookB," the diEtributioD of
the porta, tbe cues aod ezite, the management of voice and
gesture, the gradoated paasion and controlled power of
the leading actors in tbe play, tbe just subordination of
the less important parts, and the mrasure and finish of
each OQ which the success of tlie whole so largely depended
It is not improbable, too, that in cooneiion with some of
the companies Shakespeare may have tried his hand boti
as poet and actor even before leaving Stratford. His
poetical powers could hardly be nnkuown, and be may
bare written sceaea and passages to fill oat an imperfect or
complete a defective phiy; and from his known interest
in their work he may have been pressed by the actors to
appear in some secondary port on the stage. In any case
he would be acquainted wt(h some of the leading playera
in the best companies so that when be decided to adopt
thnr profession he might reasonably hope on going to
London to find occupation amongst them without much
difficnlty or delay.
Shakespeare received the tochnical port or scholastic
elements of his education in the giammar school of his
native town. The school was an old foundation dating
from the second half of the 10th century and connected
with the guild of the Holy Cross.' But, having shared Ac
fate of tbe guild at the suppression of religious honses, it
ma reatorsd by Edward VL in ISfiS, a few weeks before
his death. The " King's New School," as it was noV
called, thus represented the fresh impulse given to educa-
tion throughout the kingdom during the reign of Henty
VIII. 's oornest-miuded son, and well sustained under tbe
enlightened rule of his sister, the learned virgin queen.
Wliat the eourso of instruction was in these country
schools during the second half of the I6th century bos
recently been ascertained by special research,^ and may be
slated, at least in outline^ with some degree of certain^
and precision. As might have been expected, Latin was tbe
chief scholastic drill, tbe thorough teaching of the Boman
tongue being, as the name implies, the very purpose for
which tbe gramroar schools were originally founded. The
regular teaching of Qreok was indeed hardly introduced
into the country schools until a somewhat later period.
But the knowledge of Latin, at the language of all tba
learned professions, still largely used in liteiature, was
regarded as quite indispensable. Whatever else might
the )
I of '
vigorously carried on, and the methods of teaching, the
expedients and helps devised for enabling the pupils to
read, write, and talk Latin, if tather complex and operose,
were at the same time ingenious and efiective. As a rule
the pupil entered the grammar school at seven years old,
having already acquired either at home or at the petty
school tlie mdiments of reading and writing. During the
first year the pupils were occupied with the elements of
Latin grammar, the accidence, and lists of common words
which were committed to memory and repeated two or
three times a week, as well as further impressed upon their
minds by varied ezerctsea. In the second year the
grammar was fully mastered, and the boys were drilled in
diort phrase-books, such as the Sentmiits Paerila, to
increase their familiarity with tbe structure and idioms of
the language. In the third year the books used wen
JEaop'i FaMa, Cato's Maximt, and some good manual of
Mhool eonversatdon, such ad the Ct^ahtJaticmt* PtieriUt.
He most popular of these manuals in Shakespeare's day
was that by tbe eminent scholar and still more eminent
teacher Corderius. His celebrated Colloquia were prob-
ably used in almost every school in the kingdom; and
Hoole^ writing in 16S2, says that tbe worth of the book
had been proved " by scores if not hundreds of impreesions
in this and foreign countries." Bayle, indeed, says that
from its univenal use in the schotds the editions of the
book might be counted by thonsanda This helps to
illustrate the colloquial use tj Latin, which was so essential
a feature of grammar school discipline in the 16th and
17th centuriea. The evidence of Briosley, who was
Shakespeare's oontemporary, conclusively proves that the
constant speaking of I^tin by all the boys of the more
advanced forms was indispensable evenin the smallest and
poorest of the oouulry grammar schools. The same holds
true of letter-writing in I^tin ; and this, as we know from
the result, was diligently and successfully practised in tho
Stratford grammar schooL During his school days, there-
fori^ Shakespeare would be thoroughly trained in tho
conversational and epistolary use of latin, and several well-
known passages in lus draroas show that he did not forgot
this early experience, but that like everything else be
acquired it turned, to fruitful uses in his hands. The
books read in the more advanced form^of the school were
the Bdogwt of Mantuanus, the TrMa and JlalamorpAotea
at Ovid, Cicero's (>fftea, OnUiont, and EpMa, the
Otorgie* and ^neid ^ Virgil, and in the highest form
porta of Juvenal, of the comedies of Terence aad Plautus,
and of tbe tragedies of Seneca. Shakespeare, having
remained at school for at least six years, most have gone
through a greater part of this course, and, being a pupil of
unusnal quickness and ability, endowed with rare strength
of mental grip and firmness of moral purpose, he must
during those years have acqtdred a fair mastery of latin,
both colloquial and classicaL After the difficulties of the
grammar had been overcome, his early intellectual cravinge
and poetic sensibilitiea would be alike quickened and
gratiued by the new world of heroic life and adventure
opened to him in reading such authors as Ovid and VirgiL
Unless the teaching at Stratford was very exceptionally
poor he must have become so far familiar with the favourite
sdiool authors, such as Ovid, Tnlly, and Virgil, as to read
them intelligently and with comparative ease.
jtnil then Is DO r«uan vhatsrsr foi snjipoBinf tlist the izutnic-
liaii St the StTfltfoni gruuoar school tba less emcient thau in iho
m,wmMj ichoole of otfiAT provincisi towoa of about the umB ud.
Thera 1> sbnnduit svidsuca to ihow that, with ths fmh impiiUo
given to edacation mulsi energetic Prot«tsnt lutpicei id tho
■econd luilf of the Iflth ccntary, tbe Mching ovea in the eonntrv
gnmnuir KhooLi wv M » rule punctsking, intelligent, snd fraEtfu]-
fcinilej himselt WM for autay-yetn «n ominont ud iuoomful
teacher in the EmnniU' tchool of Anhb^-de-k-Zouohe, ■ email
towQon thebordsnof VsrwicksMre, OBljiifevmileB iudesd fnui
Coventry; and in Va Ludm Liltrarim, nhmog to ■ book ot
eiBTciiea on the Lttin uxmlenn tud gnmmu ho hod prepmd, ha
•aye that he had chiefly followed the order of the qnoetiqiu " of
that uicient eohooloiuUir Uutei Brsoeword of Uu&eld tUaocIea-
fleld] in Cheehire, so much commended fur hie order and •oboUen ;
Another proriacial echoolniMtsr, Mr Robert Dooghty, a contain.
ponuT of Shakeopesre, who wm for nesrly filly years it the head of
the 'Wekefleld gnrnmu tchool, ia celebrated by Uoole, not only u
BU eminent tsKher who bad oonelantly eont out good KhoUn,
but as one who had pTodacod a c!aB> of toachen emuktiDR hia own
oducational leal and intalligenos. The maatera of thoBlralford
gnmmar achool in Sbakeepeare's time aeem to have been men of
a aimilai stamp. One of them. John Bronawonl, who held the pat
for thraa years during the post's cLuldbaod, waa almoat certainly a
■ ■■-a, probably a son, of the eminent MaceleafieU --— ------
chatarter'and work Bnoalcy praisoa » highly. At leaat, Brans-
word being an nncomnion name, when wo find It home by two
gnmmat.achool maatoi in neigliboarlng oountiei who floailibed
aithai together or In cloae anccaiauin to each other. It ia natnntl to
wndnde tiwt there must have been wm* nlsCwuship tntwem
0"~
7m
SHAKESPEARE
fktm, tuAU M *t ntaf Iw mn tint lliB Stntfoid DUrtn, *iio
Cu sTidanUj tl» yonngar tdu, had bwn wsU tMlud uA nmat
in proTad u sfBclent tnuber, Ths mulon who blloind
«Dd kbilltjT, « they npidlj gained promotion in the clmr^
"niodiai Haut, who wu haid-inut«r daring ths mogt liopoiiaat
jtan of ShakBanarts'B Hhod] otniH, bocam« inDnnibrait at ""
Ht tndiUen , „_
bM improbiUe that, ataa haTine been s faToiuite pDplI,
bire bMOra* tb« puwiul biaHl of hb former miute-
€am, dtring th* ntn ot hk nhool atteudimce the jpoot
niiiHd •dMeimt koowtedH of Idtln to loiid for hb oi
Bcin Ukd delight tli* ■ntWa incloded ia the Khool ci
WIiD had atniek Ua tucj and atuanlsted his aoaksDini; ponan.
Whila Ua wrltlnn anpp^ elMr eTbleooe in aapport of thia genaral
fiodtiMi, thar alK> bHng otit Tiridl; tlie fact that Orid km a
ipecial laToarlte with ShiikMpeare at the ontaot of hie
inflneaoe of thii romantio and elwiao Roman no
■tnii^j nurked and dearly tractable in
th« eaNy pUya,
Aooradiog to Bowq'i acoonnt, Sbokeapeore wbb witli-
dnwn from lohool about 1578, a year or two bsfore he tiad
completed the dsobI conns for boja going into baameaB or
pMnng OB to the umTermtieB. The immediate catue of
the withdrawal Beemi to have been the growiDg embarna-
menta of John Sbakeapeare's afiairs, the b(^ being wanted
at home to help in the variotia departmenta of bia father's
bnoinan. The poet bad jtut entered on bia fifteenth jeu,
and hia achool attMnmento and tarn for afiaira, no leea
than bja natiTe energy and *bili^, fittedjiiin for efficient
action in almoat any {airly open career. Bnt open careera
a at Btratford, and John " '
eatening difficoltiea which the zeal and afEection of
uu son were powerleas to remove or avert. No donbt
the boy did bu beet, tryiiu to undetataod bia father's
podtion, and diaehar^og wiUi prompt alacrity any datiee
that ctune to be done. Bat he woald soon discover bow
hopelsM ancb efforts wert^ and with thia deepening
tonvictjon there would come upon him the reaction (rf
wtarinsea and diaappmntment, which ia the tine inftnio
ct ardent youthful minds. Hia father's difficoltiea were
evidently of the chronic and complicated kind against
which Uie generons and impnldve forces of youth and
inexperience are of little avalL And, after hia son had
done hia utmoat to relieve the sinking fNinnea of the
family, the aching aenae of failure would be among the
bitterest Bzperiencea of his early years, wonld be indeed
a sharp awakening to the realities and respoD^bilitiea
of life. Within ue narrow circle of his own domestic
rektionsbipa and dearest inteieat* he would feel with
Hamiet that the times were out of joint, and in bis gloomier
moods be ready to curse the destiny that seemed to lay
upon him, in part at least, the burden of setting the
obstinately crooked atraigbt. As a relief from such
moods and a distraction from the fnutlees tails of home
affairs, be would natttially plunge with keener not into
each onllel* for yonUifii] energy aod adventore oa the
town and nHghtionilioDd affoidad. What the yonng
poefe oetnal ooonpatioDS were during ths four years
and a haU that eb^eed between his leaving school and bis
marriage we have no adequate materiola for deciding in
any detail But the local troditiona on the subject would
aaem to indicate that after the adverse turn in his fortunes
J<din Bhakeapeore had considerably contracted the area of
his commercial tran^aotiona. Having virtually alienated
hia wife'a patrimony by the mortgage of the Aabies and
the oi^osal of all intareat in the Snittarfield property, he
s to have ^ven up the ogricoltaral brancbea ot hia
\, retaining only his original occupation of dealer
m leainer, skin^ and sometimes carcases as welL Eis
wider speanlatious had probably turned oot ill, and having
)io longer any land o( his own ha apparsntfy talinqnished
the corn and timbv boaine^ teatrictang 1
tradea of fellmoncer, wool-stapler.
and batiJwr.
with a deal of youthful eitrnvBAanee indicative of ii»-
preeaible energy and spirit Aubrey alao r«porfa, oo
the authority of Beeston, and aa incidentally [HOTing he
the internal evidence of hid writings that he had spent
two or three years in a lawyer'a office. Thane storiM may
be taken to indicate, what is no donbt frae, QaX at ft tine
of domestia need the poet was roady to turn hia band to
anything that offered. It is no donbt also bus thai he
wonld prefer the comparative retirement and regolari^ of
teaching or clerk's work to the intermittent drodgeir and
indolence of a retail shop in a small market-town. There
is, however, no direct evidence in favour of either aappoca-
tion ; and the indirect evidence for the lavytr'a office
theory which has found favour with several recent critica
is by no means decimve. Whether engaged in a lawyer's
ofQce or not, we may be quite sure that during the yean
of adolescence be was actively occnpied in work of aome
kind or other. He was far loo eensible and eoergatic to
remain without employment; ah^)eleBS idleneaa had no
attraction for hia healthy nature, and his strong bmilj
feeling is certainly in favour of the tradition that tor a Ume
he did bis best to help his father in his bnatneM.
But, however he may have been employed, thia intervd
of home life was tot the poet a time ot active growth and
development, and no kind of bueineas routine could «vail
to absorb hia expanding powers or repren the sznberaut
vitality of Lis nature. l>uring tbeae critical years, to a
vigorous and healthy mind such aa Shakeepeare poeBBosed,
action — action of an adventurous and recieadve kind, in
-which the spirit is quickened and refreshed by new
eiperiencea — must have become an ebeolnte neeoBilj of
eziatence. The necEBsity vras all the more urgent in
Sbakespeare'a case from the narrower circle witbdn whidi
the ones prosperous and expanding home life waa now
confined. We cave seen that the poet occasionally shared
the orthodox field sports organized by the country gentle-
men, where landlords and tenants, yeomen and squire^
animated by a kindred eentimeat, meet to a certtun extent
on common ground. But this lonj;-4iawn pursuit vi
pliniure aa an isolated unit in a local crowd would hardly
satisfy the thirst for passionate excitement and penonol
adventure which is so dominant an impulse in the hey-day
of youthful blood. It is doubtful, too, whether in ths
decline of his father's fortunes Shakespeare vrould have
cared to join the proepetons concourse ot local sportsmea.
He would probably be thrown a good dtal omongBt a
somewhat lower, though no doubt energetic and intelU'
gent, class of town companions. And they would devise
together exploits which, if somewhat irregular, powawed
the inspiring charm of freedom and novelty, and would
thus be congenial to an ardent nature with a pMsiooala
interest in life and action. Sach a nature would eageriy
welcome enterprises vrith a dash ot hazard and daring '
them, fitted to bring the more r
and develop in motueats of emergency
of vigilance and prcanptitude, oourage and enctuiance,
dexterity and skill It would seem indeed at first si^t
OS though a quiet, neighbourhood like Btratford could
afford Uttie scope for such adventures. But ev«i at
Stratford there were always tiie forest and the rirer, tiie
outlying forms with ac^acent parks and manor houses, the
wide circle of picturesque towns and villages with theii
guilds and clubs, tiieir local Shallows and 81ei '
Dcgbecriea and Testes; and in the most qoirt i
.sh ot hazard and daring in
3 reeolate virtues into iday,
ergenuy the manly qu^tiei
SHAKESPEARE
TS3
boufltoocU it rtUl renuuiu tnie Uut ftdTSDtnraa ue to the
ftdTontimnu That Ihii dictum waa verified in Shake-
■peuB^ eTperience nema cle^r tlike from the iatemal
evidence of bii writingB aod tile concnirent testimoaj of
kwBl tradiUon. In its modem form the storj of the
Bidford challenge exploit may indeed be little better than
a mTth. But in sabatanoe it i« by no meana iocredible,
and if m knaw all about the incident we should probably
find there were other points to be tested between the
rind GOmpanka bwides strength of bead to resist the
effects of the well-known Bidford beer. Ihe prompt re-
fuMtl to retam with bis companions and renew the
eonteat on tha following diy,— a decision playtuUy ai-
preaaed and emphasiied in the wellknowD doggral lines, —
impliea that in Bhakespeare's view auoh forma of good
fallowihip were to be ocoepted on aocial not self-indulgent
grounds, that they were not to be resorted to for the sake
of the tower aoceeaories only, or allowed to grow into evil
habits from being nndnly repeated or prolonged. It is
clear tliat this general principle of recraaUve and adTentur-
ona enterpriaB, annoanced more than once in his writings,
guided his own condnot even in the excitable and impulsive
aeaaon of vonth aad early manhood. If he let himself go,
as he no doabt somatimee did, it was only as a good rider
on ooming to tbe tori gives the horse his head in order to
eqjoy the ezliiiantion of a gallop, having the bridle well
in hand the while, and able to rein iu tiie excited steed
at a momMt^i notice. It may be said of Shaksapeue at
wich aeaaoni, aa of his own Prince Hal, that he —
" Olaoiu'd fail oontempUtleD
Undw tbs vdl of wUdiiHa ; irhinh, no doabt,
0»w like tha (omiiHr grus, tutait bj nigh^
Pniiw, T«t oraMirg in hi* ticaltf.''
The deei^tealing tradition illustrates the same point ;
and though bebn^ig perhaps to a rather later period t(
may be conveniently noticed here. This fra^ent of
Shakespeare's personal hiiCdry rests on a mach stirer Insis
fhsn the Bidford incident, being supported not only by
early multiplied and constant traditions, but by evidence
which the poet himself baa supplied. Rowe's somewhat
formal version of the narrative is to the effect that Sbake-
ipeare in his youth was guilty of an extravagance which,
thongh unfortnnate at the time, had the happy reeult of
helping to develop Ms dramatic genius. This misfortune
was tW of being engaged with some of his companions
more than once in robbing a pork belonging to Sir Thomas
Lucy of Charlecote. 8ir Thomas, it is said, prosecuted
him sharply for the offence, and in retaliation he wrote a
•atirical ballad upon him, which so incensed the baiouet
that Shakespeare thought it pmdent to leave Stratford
and join his old friends and associates the players in
I/)fi(toQ. Other vsrsioDs of the tradition exist givin); fresh
details, some of which are on the face of them later
additions of a fictitious and fanciful kind. But it would
t)e useless to diacnaii the accretions incident to any narrative,
however tme, orally transmitted through two or three
generationa before being reduced to a written shape. All
that can be required or expected of sucJi traditions is that
they sbonld contain a kernel of biographical fact, and be
tms in sabatance although possibly not in form. And
tried by this test tbe tradition in qnestion most certainly
be accepted as a gennine contribution to oar knowledge of
the poefa early yean. Indeed it could hardly have been
repeated again and again by inhabitants <Sf Stratford
within a few yeara of Shakespeare's death if it did not
embody a charitcteristic feature of his early life which was
well known in the town. This feature waa no doubt the
poet's love of woodland life, and tbe woodland sports
throQgh which it is realiied in the moat animated and
Recount of Iti gmter e
Th> nri^boniliood el Btntfbrd in ghAiafla«/a dMP eSadad
eouidnmbia asops ftor tills Idnd of lualth* nonattoB. Tbai* was
tbs remnant of th* old Ardsn tmst, which thoa^ still nomiull*
sToyildomaliiiWuTlrtaallylnateBUDyidndsotBport, ladwil,
tbs obnrTioM of th< (a*at kwa hnl talloi into snsh asdnt In
tha aarlr T«n of Elinbath's nign that sven BnllcaDstd d«C'
hunting m tba rajil donuiiu wu common uioii|dL And hardly
any attarapt wu mads to prevcDt lh« punolt of Uis smaUst guna
belcDglng to tha warroo and tbe chase. Then, three or [our milc-i
to the san of Btratford, b«tw«a the Warwick nad and the river,
Btnldiid the romantbi paric of Fnlbroks, which, la the propcrt; ol
■ vlrtoall J open to
m and hie companiona wlahed a imfi
voodi thaj nanally reaortad tc _.
Lvaitabla fbr aporting purpoaaa. Bat acmetimea. probably on
' '" they soem to bare otaangM the
an atronglj in broor of Fnlbroks
itsd Sir TliomH Lacy at Charlaoola in
tha paiii from irhich Bhakeapeaie
tha probabilidaa
When Sir Walter Soott
1S28, Sir Ttomaa told him
le diatwii*. tbe oontaxt Indieatfng Fnlbrcl
eloDffing to a manaion
... ., ._ lUng Fnlbrole M tba acme rf
And Hr Braoebridga, in nil intereeting pamphlet
al4T, in thiswn Tnab light on the anlt-
9 incident more iatelllgiblo bj marehaJllng
' thia view. Tha park had, it sumi, been
held br the Lneya under tbe mowii In the time of Henry VIII., bat
waa anarvaida granted by Queen Haij to one of her privy oonncil'
lore, — Bir Francia Engelfietd. Being a devoted Bomania^ be fled
to Spain on the acceanon of Elieabetb and waa aabaaquantlv ad-
Jndgsd a traitor, the Fnllnoke estate hthis eeqiieatered thoti^ not
adminiatend bj the arown. He park litliig tbns without a le^
cnatodian for more than a quarter of a CK^tnnr beoama dtqarkad,
the paltnoe having fallen into decay and tba nnoss bains in tflany
S'soaa broken down. Tba dear with wbloh It abmtudednn thos
ft witbont any
by enterp"' '
tbe eiplc
. id mi^t be hnntad at wlU
Tha only paraon likaly tc "^ ~ ' '"
" waa Sir Unmaa Lr
harlng a direct intcreat in the state of the neifdibonriu paifc, he
might natonll; think himaalf sntltlad to ai$ aa a Bnd i^ md
inttrim custodian ot Tnlbraks. And with hi* ariatoomtio (aalinft
hia aevere and exacting tamper, ha woold ba likaly anoigh to pash
hie temporary gnardiaDshlp of coatom or ocnrteiy into an ezdnsiva
right, at leait eo far aa tlie reniaon ol tbe park waa coneerned. In
any caie Sb Thomaa's ksepera wonld oecaaionally penmbnlata
Fnlliroke hrk aa a prvtaction to Cbarleoola, and in di^g so they
SsbabI; caoie npon Shakespeare and hia companlooe after tfacy
d broDght down a bock and were ibent to break It np for
removal Or tha hnntad dear mav bare croiaed tha river at tbe
shallow fold between tlie two pan% and, pnnued !>; tbe eager
eportamen, have been broiubt down within the Charlecote
grounds. In either caaa the keepera woold denonosa the Creapas),
■ud ponibly with menacing and abnalve word* demand tbe buck
for their maeter. On being treated in tida ininttina way, Bhake-
apeara, who hod pride anil peraonal dignity aa •rell a* connge,
would deny any intentional or actnal tnepaaa, refnee to give Br
the vcniaon, and TdainiT tell the keepera that they might report
the BiitlDr to Bir Thamaa Lacy and he would Inewer iSr hlmseir
and hia companiona. On finding what liad happenad, Sir Thomaa
wonld ba all die more inceD*«t and indignant fmm the Mnsoiane-
nesa Ibnt be had puahed hia claime beyond the point at which
thoj could iemllj i» enforced. And, being to Hmo eitent in *
TaiH portion, he would be proportionitaly wntblul and findli^tirc
againit the yonthFnl tporlemen, and eepeclallj against their leader
who tied dared to reaiat aiid defy bb tntbority, Sir Thnoai was
the great man of Stratford, who came poriodicallj 1o the town on
mBgiatrakc'a bnaineai, waa appealed to le erbltiator in epeoiBl caen.
and entertained by the corporation daring hia rUlla. In ebuacter
be aeeins to have oomblned arlatwntio pride and nairowneaa with
the harabncae and aeverity of the Puritan temper. Aa a landed
nmptietDr and local megnate bowaeeiaotingandexcliuiTe, looking
with a kind ol Puritaiucal aoDmeaa on all youtbrol frolica, mem-
ment, and iwsreation. He would Chua have a natural tntipathj
to yonng BbakespeaB'e free. Keneroue, and enjoying natnra, and
woold reaent aa an nnpardonahle outrage hia bigh-apirltdd conduot
in attempting to reeist any claima be choae to make. Sir Tbomea
would DO doubt vent bis indignation to ^le ■nlhoiitia at Strat
ford, and try to aet the law in motion, and failing in thb migbt
....... , , ... n. ...... .... .. nake a Slar-Obambor
1 hi.
CZ
. :e Shallow doi
Thit waa the kind of ei
I* whioh a man
0 aveilabte local
re aofTarad. And
7«4
lb* Btntflnd MOstttla^ bring natnrall; Knilaiu to pnnitlata thn
mnt min, miy 1ut« gaggmtei thit it ironld be irelf If jonna
ahakcspous could bs oat of tlie waf foe t tuns. This mmld
blip him to dddds OD tba uloptloa of s iiUn *ln*dj mloiulj
mtortilned of going to London to pnsli lus fortoiM unong tho
SHAKESPEAEE
Thart
thare ia, however, aoothei acpoct in nhicli thia tmditioiul
incident me; be looked at, which eeenu at leaat .woctbj
o[ oooeddention. It is poamble that Sir Thomsa Lucymaj
hftva been prejudiced against the Shakespeorea on religions
groonds, and that this feeling may have prompted ^'""
to a diapla? of exoeptiooal seventy against their eldest
POO. Aa we have seen, he was a narrow and extreme, a
persecnting and almost fanaticaj Protestant, and several
events had recent]; happened calculated to intenalf; hb
bitterness against the Eomanists. In .particular, M&tj
Shakeepeare's family con neiion^tbe Ardena of Parkhall
— had been convicted of conspiracy against the queen's
life. The aon-in-law of Edwai^ Ardeo, John Sometville,
a rush and " hot-apirited young gentleman," inatigated
by Hall, the family priest, bad formed the design of
going to London and aesaasinating Queen Eliaibeth with
his own hand. He started on bis joumejr in November
1B83, but talked so incautiously by the way that he was
arrested, conveyed to the Tower, and under a threat of the
rack confeesed everythinf^ accosing his fathe^in-law as an
probably hastened, aa Dogdale state^ by the
of Lsideater a^nat the Ardens. gomerville strangled
himself in prison, and Edward Arden was hanged at
Tyburn. These events produced a deep impression in
WarwiokBhire, and no one in the locality would be more
excited by them thui Sir Thomaa Lncy. His intensely
TindictiTe feeling agunst the Bomaniste was exemplified
a little latec by his bringicg forward a motion in parlia-
ment in favour of devieing some new and liogering
tortores for the eiecntioa of the Roroanist coospirator
Parry. As Mr Fronde puts it, "Sir Thomas Lucy, —
Shakespeare's Lncy, the original perhaps of Justice ShiJlow,
with an English fierceness at the bottom of his stupid
natore, — having atndied the deloila of the execution of
Gerard, proposed in the House of Commons 'that some
new law should be devised for Pan3r's execution, such as
might be tbonsbt fittest for bis exttaordinatjand horrible
treason.' " T%e Ardens were devoted Bomoniats ; the
terrible calamity that had befallen the family occurred only
a ahort time before the deer-stealiog adventure; and the
Bhakeapeares tbemsehes, so tar from being Puritans, were
suspected by many of being but indifferent Protestants.
John Shak^peare was an irregular attendant at church,
and soon ceased to appear there at all, so that Sir Thomas
Lncy probably regarded him as little better than a
recusant. In any case Sir TboniBS would be likely to
resent the elder Shakespeare's convivial torn and profuse
hoRpitality as alderman and bailifl, and especially his
official patronage of the players and active encoursfoment
of tbeir dramatic representations in the gnlld balL The
Puritans had a rooted antipathy to the stage, and to the
jaundiced eye of the local justice the reverses of the
Sbakespeares would probably appear aa a judgment on
their way of life. He wonid all the more eagerly seiee
any chance of humiliating their eldest son, who still held
up his head and dared to look upon life sa a scene of
cheerful activity and occasional enjoyment. The young
poet, indeed, embodied the yery chaiacteristica most
opposed to Sir Thomas's dark and narrow conceptions of
life and duty. His notions of public duty were very mnch
restricted to peraecating the Bomanista and preserving the
game on Itatestant eetate.4. And Shakespeare probably
took DO pains to conceal hia want ol ^mpatby with theee
supreme olgeots of aristocratic and Paritoaieal MiL AiJ
Sir Thomas, baring at length caught him, as he imaffnri,
in a techniinl trespass, would ba sure to puisae the co^
with the unrelenting rigour of his hard and gloon^ natnt
But, whatever may have been the actual or aggiavaliii^
drenmstances of the original oSenca, there can ba n
donbt that an element of truth is contained in the dcs-
ateeling tradition. The substantial facta in the stoty m
that Shakeapcaie in bis youth was fond of woodland sgaA,
and that in one of his banting adventores be came iols
collision with Sir Thomas Lucy's keepers, and fell avitt
the severe ban of that local potentate. The latter poiat ii
indirectly confirmed by Shakespeare's inimitable slutdi ol
the formal country jostice in the Second Part r^ Saij
17. and the Jfory Wine* of Windto>;—Ba\-ai Shalltn,
Esq., bdng snfficiently identified with Sir Thomas Lm? bf
the pointed allusion to the coat of arms, as well u t;
other allusions of a more indirect but hardly less decitiie
kind. To talk of the sketdi as an act of revenge is to
treat it too serioualy, or rather in too didactic aid
pedestrian a spirit. Having been brought into dot
rehrfJOD* with the justice, Shakespeare conid hardlj k
expected to resist the temptation of tomiDg to drsmstic
acconnt so admirable a subject for humorous portnitsR
The other point of the tradition, Shakespeare's foDdsoi
for woodland life, is supported by the internal evideoce ci
his writings, and especially by the numBrons allnsicau U (k
subject in lus poems and earlier plays. The many rtfs-
encea to woods and sports in the poema are well kocn;
and in the early plays the allusions are not less freqnti
and in some respects even more striking. Having do qace,
however, to give these in detail, a general reference mol
suffice. !rhe entire action of LDvit Labour 'i Zori takd
place in a royal park, while the scene of the most criliid
events of the Tvro Gtntltmen of Virona ia a foreat inhihind
by geoerons outlaws whose offences appear to have bees
youthful follies, and who on bdng pardoned hj the dub
become his loyal followers. In these early plays it awn
aa though Shakespeare could hardly conceive of snjil
palace or capital city withoat a forest dose at hand a> tie
scene of princely spor^ criminal intrigue, or fttiiy encbut
msnt Outside the gates of Athens swept over bill ud
dale the wonderful forest which is the scene of lii
Midtummer Nighti Dream; and in Tilw Andnaiea
imperial Borne seems to be almost surrounded by tin
brightness and terror, the inspiring charm and aasln
shades of rolling forcet lawns and ravinee, the ''rntlile^
vast, and gloomy woods. "
liere can be no doubt, therefore, that during the yW)
of home life at Stratford Shakespeare was (rften is tbe
forest. Sut in the hitter part of the time ba wmMk
found atilt more frequently hastening througji the £eU>
to Shotteiy, paying long visits at the Ha^my fWi
followed by late and reluctant leave-takings. 1v A'
next important fact in Shakeepeare's history i> bn
marriage with Anne Hathaway. Thia even^ or ntb"
the formal and eccleaiaatical part of it, took place is tbe
end of November 1S82, the bond for die licence fiomlbt
consistory court being dated on the 26111 of the sun^
Mr Halliwell-Phillipps has, however, suffidently proved 1;
detailed instances Uiat tbe formal and public put e^ '^
ceremony would, according to the usage of the tiio^ bin
been preceded some months earlier by the betmtbsl^
pr»<ootract, which was in itself of legal valldi^. ^"'^
speare's marriage may therefore be dated from theuo^
irf 1663, he being then in his nineteenth year, while i»
bride waa between seven and eight ywia older. Uai^ <'
the poet's biographers have assnmad that the wrtf
was a hasty, unsuitable, and in its results an unhifil?-^
therefore to jwpeat with all P***
SHAKE
empliadi tbe mll-roniulecl ttetement of Hr HftUiwell-
PLUlippa that " tliero w not a jioiticlo of direct evjdenoe "
for either of thaaa anppodtioiiB. The mairiage could
hftrdl/ hftvB been ■ hasty one, for, u we have «een, the
two families hod been intiniata for fifteen Jtait, and
Bhakeepeare bad known Anne Eathawaj from his early
boyhood. Ab to whether it was suitable or not'Shake-
apeare himself was the best and only adeqoate jndg^ and
thors ia not, in the whole literature of the anlQec^ eren the
shadow of a Bacceaatnl appeal againal bis dedsion. And,
so far from the marriage having been nnhappy, all the
evidcDce within our reach goet to show that it was not
only a nnion of mutual affection but a meet fortunate
event for the poet himself, as welt a« for the wife and
mother who remained at the head of his family, venerated
and loved by her children, and a devoted helpmate to her
husband to the very end. Looking at the matter in ito
wider aspect^ and especially ia relation to his future
career, it may be said that Shakespeare's early marriage
vave him- at the moat emotiouai and oueettled period of
ufe a fixed centre of affectioD and a sapreme motive
to prompt and fruitful exertion. Tliis woold have a
eaiataiy and steadying effect on a nature to richly en-
dowed with plastic fancy and pasaionate impnise, com-
bined with tare powers of refieetive foreedgfat and aelf-
eontroL If Bhakeepeare's range and depth of emotional
and imaginative genius had not been combined with
nnusaal force of character and strength of ethical and
artistic purpose, and these elements had not been early
atimulated to sustained activity, he could never have had
BO great and uninterrupted a career. And nothing perhaps
is a more direct proof of Shakespeare's manly character
than the prompt and serious way in wliich, from the fint,
he assumed the fnlJ responsibility of his acta, and unflinch-
ingly faced the wider range of doties they entailed. He
lumsalf has told ns that
ra young to know what oo
I P E A R ]
7S5
Yst who knawi not eonadmcg ii bom of
and it remains true that conscieace, courage aimpUcity,
and nobleness of condnct are all, in generous natures,
evoked and strengthened by the vital toach of that
regenerating power. Bhakeapeare's whole course was
changed by the new influence; and with his growing
reeponsibilitiee his character seems to have rapidly matured,
and his powera' to have found fresh and more effective
development. Hia first child Susanna was bora in Hay
1 663, and, as she was baptized OD the 26th, the day of her
birth may have been the 23d, which would be exactly a
month after her father completed his nineteenth year. In
February 1B85 the family was unexpectedly enlarged by
the birth of twins, a boy aud a girl, who were named re-
spectively Eamnet and Judith, after Hamnet and Judith
Sadler, inhabitante of Stratford, who were lifelong friends
of 8hakeq>eare. Before he had attained bis m^ority the
poet hiul thus a wife and three children dependent upon
him, with little opportunit; or mean* ^)par«ntl7 of ad-
vancing hia fortune* m Stratford. The BtoatMHi wm in
itself sufficiently serious. But it waa eompliwted by his
father's increasing emborrasamente and mdtiplied family
cbims. Four children still remained in Hei^ Steeet to
be provided for, — the youngest, Edmund, bom in May
1580, being scarcely five years eld. John Shakespeei^
too, was being sued by various creditors, aud ^parently
in some danger of being arrasted for debt All this was
enough to make a much older man than the poet look
auxiDusly about him. But, with the ""^jiing sense and
sagacity he displayed in practical affairs, he seems to have
formed a sober and just estimato of his own powen, and
made a careful survey of the rarioua field* available tor
their remunerative exercise. As the runUt of his delibem-
tions he deoided in favour of trying die uetn^tan staga
and theatre. He had akeady tested his faculty of acting
by occasional essays on the provincial stage ; and, once
in London amongst the players, where new pieces were
constantly required, he would have full scope for the
exercise of his higher poweie aa a dramatic poet At the
•outset he conld indeed only expect to discharge the lower
function, bn^ with the growing popular demand for
dramatic' representations, the actor's calling; thon^ not
without ite social drawbacks, was in the clomng decades of
the lEth century a lucrative one. Qreene, in his autobio-
graphical sketoh NtMT Too Late, otia of the most interest-
ing of his prose tracts, llluatratee this point in the account
he gives of his eai^ dealings witK the players and
experiences as a writer for the stage. Speaking through
his hero Francesco, he says that " when lus fortunes were
at the lowest ebb he fell in amongst a company of players
who persuaded him to 1:7 his wit in writing of comedies,
tiagedies, or pastorals, aud if be could perform anything
worth the stage, then thay would largely reward him for
his pains." Succeeding in the work, he was so well paid
that he soon became comparatively wealthy, and went
about vrith a well-filled purse. Although writing from the
author's rather than the actor's point of view, Qreene
intimates that the players grew rapidly rich and were
eutitled both to praise aud profit so long as they were
"neither covetous vfx iDsolent" In the Betum froa,
Pamauiu (1601) the large sums, fortunes indeed, re^ed
by good actors are referred to as matter of notoriety. One
of the disappointed aeademie scholata, indeed, moraliiiiig
on the fact with some bitterness, exclaims, —
"England aflbids thow gloijotu vigtbonds,
Tbst csttM mt thoir &tiUis on tbait b«k%
Oonnen te rids on thrm^ the giziog atreet^
Sweeping it in tfasir gUiring Mtin intti.
And pagH to attoiid their mutonhlpg 1
With monthinf words that better Tdti bivs bamsd
Thaj pnrchaae luida, and noir esqnires an mada."
And in a hmnorons skettA entitled Satteu Ohoit, and
published in the first decade of the 17th century, an
apparent reference to Shakespeare himself brings out the
same point The hero of the tract, Batsey, a hi^waymao,
having compelled a set of strolling players to act bef(H«
him, ulvised their leader to leave the couutey and get to
London, where, having a good presence for the stage uid a
turn for the work, he would soon fill bis pockets, adding,
"When thou fesleet thy purse well-lined, buy thee some
place of lordship in the country, that, growing weanr of
playing, thy money may bring thee dignity and rejhbi-
tion." The player, thaimng &ax for his advic«^ repLes,
"I have heard indeed of some that have gone to London
very meanly, who have in time become exceedingly
wealthy." The movement to the London stage was there-
the higher pnrposee of Shakespeare's
fore from a worldly pwnt of view a prudent one, and for
'' * ' ' of Shakespeare's life it was equally
For beaidee the economic and practi-
inmdeiations in favour of the stop there must have
pressed on the poefs mind the importance of a wider
sphere of life and action for the enlargement of his inward
horizon, and the effective development of his poetical and
dramatic gifts.
The exact date of this event — of Shakespeare's leaving
Stratford for London — (xnnot be fixed with any certainty.
All the probabilildes of the case^ bowaver, indicate that it
must have taken place between tim spring of ICSO and the
antuMn of 1687. In the latter year three of the hading
companies visited Stratford, thoM belonging to the qnesii.
Lord Leicester, and Lord Essex ; and, as Lord Leioeetec'i
included three of Bhakeopeare'a fellinr townsmen, — Bur-
bag^ Heminge, aud Qreene, — it is not improbable that he
m^ then have decided on tfyii^ his fortane in London.
7se
SHAKESPEARE
At the BUDB tine It ia qnito pcmblf^ and on aotae gtoondB
eten likelv, that ttie Itep nw; bare been taken somewhat
earUw. IM for ths Sts vean between 1G8T and 1502
we have do direct kncnriad^ of Shakeapcare's moretneota
at all, the period being a complete biogiaphical blank,
dimtj illuDunated at the outset bj one or two doabtful
tiaditiocw. We hare indeed the aaenianoe that after leaT-
ing Stratford he coDtinoed to visit hie Dative town at leatt
ODce evei7 ^eai; and if he had left in 1688 we majr oon-
fidently aMune that ha tetnroed the next ^ear for the
pnrpoBc^ amOD^ othere, ot ooasiilting with hit father and
mother about the Aebiia mortgige and of taking part
with them in their action againat John Lambert. Hie
uniting with them in this aotioa deaerrea apecial notice, ae
ehowing that he eontinned to lake the keeneit peiaonal
inteieet in all home aSair^ and, altfaoog^ living mainl; in
London, was rtill looked opon, not onlr aa the eldeat eon,
but aa the advieer and fnend of the family. The anec-
dote* ot Bhakeepeare's occapations on going to London
ace, that at fitet he was employed in a compantively
humble o^ftdty about the theatre^ and that for a time he
tD(A charge ot the hoteee ot those who rode to eee the
Pm, and wai to eocccMfnl in this work that he aoon
a nnmber of juvenile aeuatants who were known
as Hhakeepeore'i b<^ Even in their crude form these
traditions embody a tribute to Bhakeqwore'B busmesa
promptitnde and ikilL If there is any truth in tliem
they ma^ be taken to indicate that while filling some
snhordinate poet in the theatre Shakeepcsra perceived a
defective point in the local anaugements, or heard the
Bomplaints' ot ths mounted gallants aa to the ditBcol^ of
puttiiu[ np their honea. Hie provisians for meeting the
difficulty eeem to have been eompletely and even notori-
onalr snecessfaL There were open aheda or temporary
itables ia connexion with the theatre in ShoTeditch, and
Shakmeare'e boTi, if the tradition ia tme, probably each
took charge ot a horee m tbeae etetdea while ita owner
waa at the i^. But in any oue this would be umply a
brief episode in Shakenwace'e mnltifarioue employments
whsn he fint reaehed tbe aoeoe erf hia active laboun in
London. He mnat aoon have bad more aerioua and
abaocbing profeaaiao&l occnpatione in the green room, on
the Btage, and in the laboratory of hia own teeming brain,
" the qnick forge and working house ot thonght."
I But hi* leisure honia during hii fint yeaia in London
woold natnrally be devoted to continuing his education
and eqnbping himself aa fully as possible for his future
work. It WM probably during this time, aa Ur Halliwell-
Fhillippe anggeata, that he acquired the working knowledge
of French and Italian that bis writings show he must have
poesessed. And it is periiaps now possible to pcunt out
the sonroes wheuoe his knowledge of theee langnagea was
derived, or at least the maater under whom he chiefly
studied them. The meet celebrated and accomplished
teacher of French and Italian in Bhakeepeere's day was
the reai^te Jtdin Florio, who, after leaving Magdalen
Odle^ Oxford, lived lor years in London, engaged in
tatorial and literary work wd intimately sseodated with
eminent men ot letten and tbeir noble patrons. After
the acoenioii of James L, flmio was made tutor to Prinoe
Henry, received an appointment about the court, became
the friend and pneonal fovourite of Queen Anne (to
wfaom he dedicated the second edition of bis Italian
diadoDaty, entitled the Worid of Wordt), and died full of
years and honours in 1030, having survived Btukespeare
nine years. Fbrio had married the mater ot Daniel the
Tioe^ and Ben Jonaon presented a copy of r*« Faa to
him, witlt the inecription, " Tohis loving fotber and worthy
friend Master John Florio, Ben Jonaon asale this testi-
mony of hia friendship and kve." Daniel writes a poem
of eome length In praise «IUs liuMbticm cf Vont^
while otiwr «oirteiij>arsry>Mta contribnta txmuoAbiji
verees whkli ale prefixed to Us ether pnUkatxHM. TIm I
are tabatantial reasons tor believing tbat Shaksneanm'
also one of Florio's trieoda, and that dniing hii lujj
years in London, be evinced hie friendship by jrieldiif
for once to the feshion ot writing this kind ol enlogiit*
verse. Prefixed to Flori A Stand FnaU, ProL Uinti ,
discovered a sonnet so superior and char&cteristie dul U
was impressed with the conviction tliat Shakc^xare Md
have written it The internal evidence ia in favonroflla
conclsaion, while Mr Minto'i critical enalyss and a»
pariaon of its thought and diction irith ShakespesR'i mtf
work tende atrongly to support the meJity eiid vihu i
the discovery. In his next work, produced four jtu
later, Florio claims the sonnet as tite wcfk of a !nei
"who loved better to be a poet than to be csJled cu,'
and vindieatea it from the indirect attack of * iaeit
oritia, H. B., who had also disparaged tie work is viiil
it appeared. There are other points of connexion bctvns
Florio and Shakeapeare. The only known valnme the
certainly belonged to BhakcBpeere and contains hit tn)»
graph ia Florio'a venicm ti Uontu^e'e Aaifs is ^
British Hnaeum ; and critics have from time to tiac
produced evidence to show that Shakeqieare mmt Is*
read it carefully and vraa well acquainted with i& oe
tenta. Victor Hugo in a powerfnl critical Jtma
atrongly anpports this view. The most striking Mgs
proof of the point is Qonado'a ideal rninblie iilW
Tempalf which is aimply a pesaege from nDrin^ vma
turned into bhuik veree. Fkmd and ShakgqMsr* ■>•
both, moreover, intimate persooal trieiids of ths jooil
carl of Southampton, who, iu bannoDf with bis gSDtra
chuacter and strong literary taste^ waa the BnaifcNl
patron of each. Sluieepeare, it wiU be rememhMe^ iA
cated his Ftmu mtd Adonit and his Lwrnt to lUi J<*V
nobleman ; and thne ^eara later, in 1598, FloriadtOaMl
the first edition of his Italian dictionary to the wl ■
terms that almost recall Bhake^>eare^ wotda GUi-
speaie had said in addressing the earl, ""What Ihandni
isyour^ what I have to do is yours, being part iniHI
have devoted yonra," And Florio says, "W tprthl*
knowledge an entire debt, not only of my best Lssswp
but ot all,yea of more than I know or can toTmrtM**
one lordship, most nobla, most virtuous, and mort kai*'
able earl Ot Southampton, in whose pay and psttoa?
I have lived some years, to whom I owe and *°*J}'
y«ars I hate to live." Bhakeepeare was also familiuvttt
Florio's earlier works, his Firtt FnaU and St/xnid /r»H
which were simply carefully prepared men ""I* f°r '^
study <rf Italian, containing an outline of the grsois^
a selection of dialoguea in paraliel colomna ot Italiu_>»
English, and longer eitracta from classical Italian «ntw
in prose and vereci We have collected various V^..
indirect eridence showing Shakeepeare's famiiianlj "i"
these manuals, but these being UDmeroos and ^^
cannot be given here. It mnat suffice to refer in lilniW-
tion of this point to a single instance — the linn in F'^
of Venice which Hotofemes given forth with so mw
unction in Loa^a Laiiow'a Lint. The Fir* FnuU W
published in ISTS, and wee for some years lh» ^
popular manual tor the study of Italian. It ii the b>»
th«t Shakespeare would nBtnrallyhave used in sttemfK
to acquire a knowledge of the language after hi> '^'"\
in London ; and on finding tiiat the author wu the friMB
of eome ot bis literary associates he wonld Tf"^"^!^
sought his Bcquaintaooe and secured his penonal b^^
Aa Florio waa also a French scholar and habitusUy iXY
both langnaoea, Bhakeepeare probably owed to l>wjj
knowledge df French u well aa of Ita^an. If tk« «"■"
SHAKESPEAKE
767
» Moq>tad u BKahmp— m'a wwk he must hsve made
Flmio'B MqukiitUiics willuii ft jt»i or two after going to
LoDdoD, aa ia ISSl he appean in the obaraeter at a
peiaooal friend and well-wiiher. In any case ShakeBpeare
would almoet oartainljr have met Florio a few yeers later
at the houM of Iioid Soathampton, with whom the Italian
echolar aaema to have oocadonally resided. It also appeara
that be was in the habit of Tuitiog at aeTeral titled hcnues,
amongrt others thou of the earl of Bedford and Sic John
HarriDgtoi). It Beams also probable that he may have
ftosisted Harrington in his translation of Arioata Another
and perhapa even more dinot link connecting Shakespeare
with Florio during his aarly years in London is found in
their common relation to the family cf Lord Derby. In the
year 1S86 Florio transUted a letter of news from Bome^
giving an acoonDt of the sndden death of Pope Gregory
XITL and the election of his successor. This tranalation,
liabliahsd in July 1685, was dedicated "To the Right
Bxcellent and Hooonrable Lord, Henry Earl of Derby,"
ia terms ezpr«aaive of Florio'a strong personal obligations
to the earl and devotion to his service. Three years later,
on the death of Leiceater in 1588, Lord Derby's eldest son
Ferdinando Lord Btrange became the patron of Leioeater's
company of players, which Shakespeare bad recently joined.
The new patron must have taken special interest in the
company, as they soon became (chteSy throogh his influ-
ence) great favourites at court, superseding the Queen's
player^ and eq'oying something like a practical monopoly
of royal Tepreseotations. Shakespeare would thus have the
opportunity of mnUng Florio's acquaintance at the outset
of his London career, and everything tends to show that
he did not miss the chance of numbering amongst his
personal friends so accomplished a scholar, so alert, ener-
getic, and original a man of letter^ as the resolute John
Florio. Worburton, it is well-known, had coupled Florio's
name with Shakespeare in the last cootuiy. He sug-
gested, or rather asserted, that Florio was the original
of Haloferuea in Lov^t Labour '« LoH. Ot all Warhnrton's
arbitrary conjectures and dogmatic assumptions this is
perhaps the most infelicitous. That a scholar and man of
the world like Florio, with marked literal^ powers of his
own, the intimate friend and associate of some of the
moat eminent poets of the day, living in princely and
noble circlcB, honoured by royal personages and wetoomed
at noble houses, — that such a man should be selected as
the original of a rustic padant and dominie like HoloIemeB,
is surely the climax of reckless guesswork and absnrd
suggestioa There is, it is true, a distant connexion
between Hdofemea and Italy — the pedant being a well-
known figore ia the Italian comedies that obviously afiected
Shakespeare's early work. This usage calls forth a kind
of Mgh from the easy-going and tolerant Montaigne as
he thinks cd his early tutors and youthful interest in
knowledge. "I have in my youth," he tells us, "often-
times been vexed to see a pedant brought in in most of
Italian cometUea for a vice or sport-maker, and the nick-
name of magister (dominie) to be of no better significa-
tion amongst ua." We may be sore that, if Shakespeare
knew Florio before he produced Xom's LcAour'i Latt, it
was not as a sport-maker to be mocked at, bat as a friend
and literary associate to whom he felt personally indebted.
But, whatever his actual relation to the Italian scholar
may have been, Shakespeare, on reaching London and
beginning to brenthe its literary atmosphere, would nat-
nrally betake himself to the study of Italian. At various
altitudes the English Parnassus was at that time fanned
by soft ain, swept by invigorating braeses, or darkened
hj gloomy And infected vapours from the south. In
other words, the influenoe of Italian literature, so dominant
in £DgUnd during tha aeotmd Iwlf of ttie 16th ptntui^,
may be said to have reached its bi^test point at the very
time when Shakespeare entered on bis poetic and dramatic
labours. This influence was in part a revival of ' the
strong impulse communicated to English literature from
Italy in C3iancer's day. The note of the revival was
struck in the title of 'Thomas's excellent Italian mannal,
" Principal roles of Italian grammar, with a ^ctionarie for
the better imderstandyng of Baecact, Petranhn, and Dmite '
(1650). The first fmits of the revival were the lyrical
poems of Surrey and Wyattj written somewhat earlier, but
published fco' the first time in Tcttle's Mucdta%y (1667).
The sonnets of these poets — the first ever written in
English — produced in a few years the whole musical choir
of EUnbethan sonneteers. Surrey and Wyatt were sym-
pathetio students of Petrarch, and, as Fnttenham says,
reproduced in their sonnets and love poems much of the
musical sweetness, the tender uid refined senUment, erf tho
Petrarehian lytic. lUs perhaps can hardly in strietnsss
of speech be called a revival, for, strong aa was Ibe infio'
ence of Boccaccio, and in a less degree of Dante^ dutng
the first period of Bwgli«h literatnie^ the (jiieal poetry <rf
the souUt, as represented by FetrsMh, sdiaetsd ifa^"''
poetry almost for the first time in tha I61I1 centnir. Hub
inflnenoc^ as snbaeqnent^ devdoped by If ^ in ms prose
comedies and romanosa, indirsetiy afleoled the drama, and
clear traces of it are to be foimd in Shakespsare^ own
work. Surrey, however, nndeied the Elinb^hans a still
grsater service by introdndng fron Italy the nnAjmed
verse, which, with tha truest instiiiDt, was adtqited b; llie
great draniAtiats as ths metrical vehiele bast fitted to meet
the requirements of the moat flexible and expresnva form
of tha poetia art "Bolt, althoo^ in part tha reriral of a
previous inmtlse, the Italian Uteratore that moat power-
fnllyiLffi-rtaJ Tltigliiili puM^j iJniiBg «!■ |ni»ti««h.ii p«riod
was in the main new. During Ae intsrval the [colifio
genius of the south had put forth fresh effetts which
combined, in new arkd characteristio prodnet^ the fetma
of classical poetry and the sabstaDoe tit southern thon^t
and feeing with the spirit of mediaral romanoa. Tim
ohivalrons and martial epics of Ariosto aod Tasso rsGre-
Bented a new school ot poetry whidi embraced wititio
its expanding range every department of ima^native
activity. There appeared in rapid succession romantic
pastorals, romantic elegies, romantic sattrea, and r«nantis
dramas, as well as romantic epica. The epics were
occupied with marvels ot kni^tly daring and chivalrons
adventure, expressed in flowing uid melodious numbers ;
while the literature as a whole dealt largely in ths favourite
elements of ideal sentiment learned allnsiou, and elaborate
ornament, and was brightened at intervals hj grave and
sportive, by highly wrought but fanciful, pietntes of
courtly and Arcadian life. While Sidney and Spenser
represented in England the new r«hool of allegorical and
romantic pastoral and epic, Shakespeare and his associates
betook themselves to the study ii the romantic drama
and t^ whole dramatie element in recent and contempm^
ary sontham literature. The Italian diama proper, so far
as it affected the form adopted by English pl^wright^
had indeed virtually done its work before any <rf Shake-
speare's characteristia pieces were prodnced. His imme-
diate predeoessors, Qreene, Peele, and Lodge, Nash, Kyd,
and Marlowe, had all probably studied Italian models
more carefully than Shakespeare himself ever did; and
the result ia seen in the appearance among these later
Elizabethans of the romantic drama, which united the
better elements of the English academic and popular playa
with features of diction and fanoy, incident mid struetnre,
that were virtually new. Many members of this dramatic
group were, like Qreene, good Italian scholar^ had them-
••Irw travelled ia Italy, knew tba Xtaliaa atiga at firtt
7SS
IHAKEHPEAEB
kuxt, ftad, u thsit writinga ahow, were well ocqaunted
with i«o«at Italian literature. Bat tlie dramatic elemect
in tbat litentore utended far beyond the circle of regular
pi*;*, whatUer tragedies, comedies, or pastorab. It in-
cluded the collections of ihorC proee stories which appeared,
or were linbllphed for the first time, in such numben during
the 16th cantury, the noTela or novelettes of Ser Giovanni,
Gtathio, Baodallo, and their associates. These atotiea,
oouisting of the Iniinoniiis and tragic incidents of actual
life, told in a rivid and diraot waj, naturall; attracted
the attention of the dramatists. We know from the
mult that Shakespeare mast have studied them with
•OHM care, as he durived from this source the plota and
incidents of at least a dozen of his plays. Han; of the
(rtories, it ia trne, had alreadj been translated, either
4ir«stlf from the Italian, or indirectl]' from French and
Latin Tenions. Of Ciuthio's hnndred tales, howerer,
only two or three are known to have been rendered into
English ; and Shakespeare derijed the stor; of Othello
from the untranslated part of this collection. Hanj of
tlie Italian stories touched on darker crimes or more a^ra-
Tated formd of violence than those naturBUy prompted bj
jealoiiBj and revenge, and are indeed revolting from the
stiocitied of savtge cruelty and lust related so calmly as
to betray a kind of cynical insensibility to their true
vhanicter. Bhakeupeare, howeter, with the sound judg-
ment and strong ethical muse that guided the working of
ilia dramatic genius, chose the better and healthier materials
of thil litsratore, leaving the morbid excesses of criminal
pwsiOQ to Webster and Ford. But the Italian inflaence
vo, Shakespeare's work is not to be estimated merely by
Uie OQtlines of plot and incident he borrowed from
southern sources and used ai a kind of canvas foi his
mstchleas portraittire of human character and action. It
is apparent also io points of atructura and diction, in
types of character and shades of local colouring, which
realise and express in a coneentntted form the bright and
lurid, the brilliant and passionate, features of. southern life.
The great majority of the dramatUpenoiui in his comedies,
»M well as in some of the tngedies, have Italian names,
and many of them, such M Hercntio and Gratiano on the
one hand, lachimo and logo on the other, are as Italian in
nature as in name. The moonlight aeene in the Mmhant
of Vntict is Bouthern in every detail and incident And,
U U. Pbilartte Chasles justly points out, Souuo and
JtUitt is Italian throughout, alike in colouring, incident,
and passion. The distinctive influence is further troC'jabJs
in Shakespeare's nse of Italian words, phiuses, and pro-
varba, soma of which, such as " tranect " (from tranare), or
poasibty, ai Rows «ngge8ted,."tTBJect'' {traghetto), are of
special local signiGcance. In ^e person of Eamlet
Shakespeare even appear* as a critic of Italian style.
Ueferring to the murderer who in the players' tragedy
poisons the sleeping dukn, Hamlet eiclainu, " He poisons
him in the garden for his estate. His name 's Ooniago :
the story is eitant and written in very choice Itali!^^."
In further illa»tration of this point Ur Qrant White has
noted some striking tuma of thought and phrase which
Mem to show that Shakespeare must have read parts of
Bemi and Ariosto in the originaL Ko doubt in the case
of Italian poets, as in the case of Latin authors like
0>id, whore workn he was familiar with in tba original,
Shakes}ieare would also diligently read the translations,
especially the translations into English verse. ¥ot in
reading such works a<i Gelding's Ovid, Harrington's Arioato,
and Fairfax's Tvao, he would be increasing his command
over the elements of alpreasive phrase and diction which
were the verbal inatraments, the material vehicle, of his
art Bnt, beudea Mntying the translations of the Italian
fOeU and <gtom wriM* mi4a available fpr E^Ush readers,
ha would naturally derin to poveaa, and m dnlii |
acquired for himself, the key that would unlock the nliou
traasure-honae of Italian literature. The evidence li
Shakespeare's knowledge of French is more'abnudant u<l
decisive, so mnch k> as hardly to need exprea iiloFtrstica. I
There can be little doubt therefore that, during hia tiH; '
years io LoitdoD. he acquired a fw knowkdee both oi
French and Italian.
But, while pursuiog these collateral uds to hia bi^s .
work, there is abundant evidence that Shakespeare *la> '
devoted himself to that work itself. As early as I5%i\t
ia publicly recognized, not only as an actor of distinctini,
but as a dramatist whose work had excited the envy ud
indignation of his contemporaries, and especially of dm n
acctHOplished and so eminent, so good a scholar andmatfo
of the playwright's craft, as Rob^ Greene. Greene hsc^
it is true, a good deal of the irrilability and etcitsUi'
temper often found io the subordinate ranks of poetiiil
genius, and he often talks of himself, his doiiig^ wd
associates in a highly-coloured and extravagant way. Bn
his reference to Shakespeare is specially deliberaU^ baii|
in the form of a solemn and last appeal to hi> fheidi
amongst the scholarly dramatists to relinquish iLsr
connexion with the presumptuous and ongratefnl Agt
In his GroaUworih of Wit, published by his friend CtitVk
a few weeks after his death, Greene urges three of Ui
friends, apparently Marlowe, Lodge, and Peele, to gin op
writing for the players. " Base-nunded men, all thra ol
you, if by my misery ye be not warned; fornntonwac'
you like me sought those bnra to cleave ; those pn^M^ I
mean, who speak from our months, these anticla gsmidi
in our colours. Is it not strange that I, to wh«a tbej
have all been beholding ; is it not like that yon, to vhon
they have all been beholding, shall (vn^ ye in tbal <w
that I am now) be both of them at Cnce f<a«ikral Tk
tnut them not; for there is an upstart Crow, besntiM
in one feathers, that, witii his t^tr't Aeort wrapt » •
ptaj/a'i hide, supposes he is as well able to bomhaitmUt
blank verse as the beet of you, and, being an sIkIiU
Jokatma foe (ofum, is, in his own conceit, the ooij
Sbahsscene in a country. Oh that I might intrcsl jnr
rare wits to be employed in more profitable conns*, sud W
these apes imitate your past excellence, and never M"
acquaint them with your admired inventions." lWiean«
passage tells us indirectly a good deal about Shakc^can.
It bean decirive testimony to his assured position and n^
advance in his profeasiorL The very term of npn*"
applied to him, "Joharmea Factotam," is a trtl«ta»
Shakespeare's industry and practical ability. From t"
beginning of his career he must have been in tba widMl
and best sense a utility man, r^dy to do any *°**5
nacted with the theatre and stage, and eminently snca«|J
in anything be undertook. In the first ii
evidently made his mark as an actor, as i
character he is referred to by Oieene, and d<
going beyond hia province and naurping the fnncti<« »
the dramatist. Greene's words imply that Shskefl**^
not only held a foremost place as an actor, bnt that •■
was already distinguiahed by hit dramatic saaM U
revising and rewriting existing playa. This i» ocmfirnjd
by the parodied line from the Third Part of ffwrT "-
recently reviaod if noi originally written by ShakeipeM*
This must have been produced before Oreena'a iem
which took place in September 1593. lodasd, all ™
three parts of Ifmry VI. in the revised form ^P^/J
have been acted during the spring and summer rf tj"
year. It U not improbable that two or ti«*'^J™5
speare's early comedies may also have been pnidBWi
before Greene's death. And if so, his fw™*? '"^.1*,^
academic scholar, s^nst the oanntry acUx who hui sis
« be lad
SHAKESPEARE
769
OdIj baoomo k dnmatiat bat bkd excelled Oteene hinuelf
in bis ehaeea fisld of tomanlic comedy becomes intelligible
euongh. £v«n in his wrath, horrerer, Greeae beara
eloquent witneae to Bbakespeare'i diligence, ftbilitj, and
marked mcteM, both as actor and playwright All this
is fnllj Mnfiimed b; tbe mote delibente and detailed
Iaiignage,of ChetUe's apolog;, alreadj quoted. Of Sboke-
epeare's BTn<uing indiutrj and conspicnoufl mcceM the
neit feir years mpplj amjile evidence. Within six or
seven years he not onlj produosd the brilliant reflective
and descriptive poems of Veuaa aivi Adonit and Lnerrec,
but at least fifteen of bis dramas, including tragedies,
comediee, and .historical plays. Having fouOd his trne
vocation, Shakespeare works during theaq ysara as a
master, having toll command over the materials and
reeonrcfls of his art. Hie dramas produced have a fulness
of life and a richness of Imagery, a sense of joyonsnees
and power, that speak of tlie writer's emltant absorption
and consdons binisph in bis chosen work. He sparkling
comedies and great historical plajs beloDging to this
period evince the ease sM delist of an exuberant mind
realizing ita matured creations.
Nor after all is this result so very surprising. Shaka-
spears entsred on his London cai«er at ^e very moment
best fitted for the full development of bis dpimntie
genius. From the accession of SUiabeth all the domi-
nant impulses and Isading events of her reign liad pre-
pared the way for tbe splendid triumph of policy and
arms that doeed its third decade, and for the yet more
splendid literary triumph of the fnll-orbed drama that
followed. After the gloom and terror of Mary's reign
the coming of Elicabeth to the crown was hailed with
exultation by Hie people^ and seemed in itself to open
a new and brighter page of the nation's history.
Elizabeth's petsonal channs and . mental gifts, her bigh
spirit and dauntless courage, her unfailing political tact
and judgment, her frank bearing and popular addreo,
combined with her nnafiected love for her people and
devotion to their interests, awakened tbe etrongeat feelings
of persona] loyalty, and kindled into posuonate ardour
the spirit of national pride and patriotism that mads the
whole kingdom one. The moat powerful movements of
the time directly tended to reinforce and ooncentrate these
awakened ener^ee. While the Betonnation and Kenais-
lance impolses had liberalized men's minds and enlarged
their moral horizon, the effect of botb was at first of a
political and practical rather thou of a purely religious or
literary kind. The strong and exhilarating sense of civil
and religions freedom realized through the Beformation
was inseparably associated with the exultant spirit of
nationality it helped to stimulate and diflose. The pope,
and his emissaries the Jesuits, were looked upon far more
as foreign enemi«s menacing the iiidependence of the
kingdom than as religions foes and firebrands seeking to
destroy the newly established faitb, Tbe conspii&ciea,
fomsnted from abroad, that gathered around the captive
qneen of Scots, tbe plots successively formed tor the
aBsBssination of Elizabeth, were regarded as murderons
assaults on the nation's life, and the Englishmen who
organized them abroad or aided them at home were
denounced and prosecuted with pitiless severity as traitors
to their country. Protestantism thus came to be largely
identified with patriotism, and all the active forces of tbe
kingdom, its rising wealth, energy, and intelligence, were
concentrated to defend the rights of tbe liberated empire
against the assaults of despotic Europe represented by
Rome and Bpain. These forces gained volume and
impetus as the natiou was thrilled by the details of Alva's
mtblefs butcheries, and the awful massacre of Bt Bar-
ttolomew, until at length tbej wm organiied and burled
with resistless effect against the grandest naval and military
armament ever equipped by a Cnctinontai power, — an arma-
ment that had been sent forth with tbs assurance of victory
by the wealthiest, most abeolute, and meet determined
monarch of the time. ' There woa a vigorous moral element
in that national struggle and triumph. It was the spirit
of freedom, oE the energies liberated by the revolt from
Rome, and illuminated by the fair humanities of Greece
and Italy, that nerved the arm of that happy breed of
men in the day of battle, and enabled them to strike with
fatal effect against the abettora of despotic rule in chnnih
and state. The material results of tbe victory were at
once apparent England became mistress of tbe seas, and
rose to an asanred position in Europe as a political and
maritime power of the first order. The literary reanlts
at home were equally strikbg. The whole conflict reacted
powerfully on the genius of the race, quickening into life
its latent seeds of reflective knowledge and wisdom, of
poetical and dramatic art.
Of these effects the rapid growth and develop-
ment of tlie national drama was tbe most brilliant
and characteristic. There was indeed at the time a
unique stimulus in this durection. lie greater num-
ber of the eager excited listenera who crowded tbe
rude theatres from floor to roof had shared in the
adventurous exploits of the age, while all felt the keenest
interest in life and action. And the stage represented
with admirable breadth and fidelity the struggling forces,
the mingled elements, htunorons and tragic, the passionate
hopes, . deep-rooted animosities, and fitful misgivings of
those eventful years. The spirit of the time had made
personal daring a common heritage : -with noble and
commoner, gentle and simple, alike, love of queen and
country was a romantic passion, and heroic self-devotion
at the call of either a beaten way of ordinary life. To
act with energy and decision in the face of danger,
to strike at once sgainat any odds in the causa of
freedom and independence, was the desire and ambition
of all. This complete unity of national sentiment
and action became the great characteristic of the time.
He daugere threatening the newly liberated kingdom were
too real and pressing to admit of anything like seriously
divided conndls, or bitterly hostile parties within, the
realm. Everything thus conspired to give an extraordinary
degree of concentration and loilliancy to the national life.
For tbe twenty yeara that followed the destruction of the
Armada London was the centre and focus of that life.
Here gathered the soldiers and officers who hod fought
against Spain in the Low Countries, against France in
Scotland, and against Some in Ireland. Along tLj river
side, and in noble houses about tbe Strand, were the hardy
mariners and adventurous sea captains, such ss Drake,
Hawkins, and Frobtshor, who had driven their dauntless
keels into unknown seas, who had vidted strange lands
and alien races in order to enlarge the knowledge, increase
the dominions, and augment the wealth of their fellow-
countrymen. Here assembled tbe noble conndllors,
scholars, and cavaliera whose foremght and skill guided tbe
helm of state, whose accomplishment in letters and arms
gave refinement and distinction to court pageants and
ceremonials, and whose patronage and support of tho
rising drama helped to make the metropolitan theatre
the great centre of genins and art, the great school of
historical teaching, tbe great mirror of human nature, in
all the breadth and em^iasis of ita interests, convictions,
and activities. Tho theatre was indeed tbe living organ
tbrongh which oil the marvellous and mingled experiences
of a time incomparably rich in vital elamenta found
expression. There was.no other, no organized or adeqnata
means, of popular expression at aJL Books were a solitary
760
SHAKESPEARE
eotertaiiuneDt in the bAodi of fnw ; nempapen did not
Bziit; kod the modern relief of iaceuant pablic meeliags
wu, fortuiwtelj perhape, fto uokaovrn Iiuurj. And yet,
amidct the plenitude of oation&l life centred io London,
the DMd for «ome oommoa otgfta of eipressioa wm never
moTB nrgeot or imperiotii. New ftnd nlmoit ioeibanatible
■pnngB from the well-hBBda of intellectoai life bad for
jean been giadaallj fertilizing the prodactive Eugliah
mind. The heroia life of the put, in clear ontUne and
stately moTement, had boon reToaled in the recovered
maiterpiecei of Qreece and Rumo, The itonia of more
recant wisdom and knowledge, diocortny and inTention,
tcieoca and art, were poured continually into the literary
ezcheqaer of the nation, and widely diSused amongst
eager and open-minded recipients. Under this combined
stimalns the national intellect and imagination had
already reacted fraitfnlly in ways that were full of higher
promissL The material results of these newly awakened
energies were, as wb hava seen, not less signal or
momentous. The number, variety, and power of the new
forces thns acting on society efiected in a short period a
complete moral revolution. The bairiers against the
spnad of knowledge and the epirit of free inquiry erected
Ukd long maintained by medi»Tal ignorance and pre-
judice were now thtown down, ^e bonds of feudal
authority and Bomish domination that had hitherto
forcibly repressed the expanding national life were eSectn-
ally broken. Usn opened their eyee upon a new world
which it was an absorbing interest and endless delight
t» explore, —a new world physically, where the old gea-
gnqthical limits had melted into the blue haze of distant
boruona — a new world morally, where the abolition of
alien dogma and priestly role gave frse pla^ to fresh snct'
vigorous social energies; and, above all, more surprising
and mysterioos than all, they opened their eyes with a
strange sense of wonder and exultation on the uew world
of the emancipated human spirit. At no previons period
had the popi^ curiosity about human life and human
aflairs been ao vivid and intense. In an age of deeds so
memcrabie, nian naturally became the centre of interest,
and the whole world ot hnman action and passion,
character and conduct, was inveeted with irresistible
attraction. All ranks and cImsm had the keenest desire
to penetrate the mysterious depths, explore the unknown
rt^ns, and realise a« fuUy as might be the actual
achievements and ide*l possibUities of the natore throbbing
with ao fall a pulse within themselves and reflected so
powerfnDy in the world around them. Human nature^
released from the oppreasion and darkness of the ages, and
emerging with all its in&nite faculties and latent powers
into the radiant light of a secular day, was the new world
that eidted an admiration more ^found and hopes far
more ardent than any recently dietoveted lands beyond
the sinking sun. At the critical mumeat Shakespeare
appeared as the Columbus of that new world. Pioneere
had indeed gone before and in a measore prepared the
way, bat Shakespeare still remains the great disooverer,
occupying a position of almost lonely grandeur in the
isolation and completeness of his work.
Never before, except perhaps in the Athens of Pericles, bod
all the elsmenta and conditions of a great national drama
met in such perfect union. As we have seen, the popular
conditions supplied by the stir of great public events and
the stimulus of an ^preciative audience were present in
eicepdonal force. With regard to the stags conditions, —
the means of adequate dramatic representation, — public
theatres had for the first time been recently established in
London on a permanent basis. In 1G74 a royal licence
had been granted by the qneen to the earl of Leicester's
Gompai^ " to ow, exeroiM^ and occupy the art and foenl^
of playing Comediea, Tragedies Interinda^ «Bd Stag* I^
and such other like as they have boon aiiody nsed ssd
studied, as well for the recmation of our loving anljeeka
for our solace and pleasure when we shall **■■—*• good S
see them " ; aod, although the civil authorities teaiatrJ ik
attempt to establish a public Lhsatre within tke city,
or three were speedily erected just ontude ita * '-
in the moet convenient and acceosibla aal
Curtain and iJie Theatre in Shoiediteh, heyaad tfas
boundary, and the Blackfriars theatre witbia tb« pteooce
of the dissolved monastery, just beyond tbe ovic jniMii-
tion on the western side. A few yean lat«r otlwr hu^
were built on the southern side of the rivsr, — tbe Ev
near the foot of London Bridge and ths Sme and S*ai
further afield. There was also at Hewington Batta a pha
of recreation andentertainmmt forthe Arcbeasaadbcdi^
people^ with a central building which, like tttt tiicm M
Pans Qarden, was used during the cmnmor mootfca f>
dramatic porpoaea. These theatres w«re occnpisd I7
diSerent companies in turn, and Ri»»v— j— ~ darisg
his early yaaia in London appears to hava acted st
seversl of them. Bat from bis fiiat coming op i
•eems dear .that ha was' more identified vrmi tlM ssd
of LMoe«t«'s players, of whom hia energetie Mn
townsman, James Bnrbage, was the bead, tian witl
any other group of acton. To Bnrbags imbsil Is
long* the dutinctiou of having firtt est^bliabad paUc
theatres as a characteristio feature of naebopoUtaa life
His spirit and enterprise first relieved (ho Inading a^
panics from the stigma of being strolling plajci^ sad
transferred their dramatic exhibition^ bitberto*
to temporary scaffolds in the coort-yarda of
hostelriea, to the more reputable stage and c
appliances ot a permanent theatre. In 1675
having secured the lease of a piece of land at .
erected there the hoose which proved so sac*
was known for twenty ycMs as lAt IlieatTe, frooa Aa Ikt
that it wis Qte first ever erected in the metropolia. Bi
seems also to have been concerned in the ereotaoa <{ s
second theatre iit the same locality called tba Oiilsli;
and later on, in tpite of many difficultieo, aad a p«t
deal of local oppoeition, he provided the mora odt/bntti
home of tiia. rising drama known as the BlaeUisn
theabv. When Sbokeapeare went (o Londoi^ tltate 1^
thns theatre* on' both tides of the water — tike otrtlyisg
houses bung chiefly used during the summer aad atrtoia
months, whilo the Blackfriara, being roofed in and {!>
tected from the weather, was specially used fd> petfciK-
ances during the winter season. In qiita of tbe penirteBl
opposition of the lord mayos and city aldetmea, de
denunciations of Puritan preachers and their alttea i> Iks
press, and difficulties arising from intermi'.tent sWarh cf
the plague and the occasional intervention of the ooait
authorities, the theatres bad now token firm root ia the
metropolis; and, strong in royal favour, in noUe pabte-
age, and above all in popular snppor^ the atage W
already begun to assume its higher functiona aa tbe fiviif
organ of the national voice, the manj-ooloared nimf osd
reflexion of the national life. A few yean later tba esa-
ponies of players and the theatres they occopied ««>■
consolidated and placed on a still firmer' pablie htm.
For some years past, in addition to t^A octoira nallyw
nominally attached to noble bonsea, ttien bad iiijslali
body of twelve performers, selected bj r^al antteiQ
(in 1G&3) from diflerent ccHnpaniea and Imown aa tk
Quean's players. The earl of LeioeatBr's, being the ki>ilis[
company, had naturally ftimished a n^^bar of nemib la
the Queen's players, whoee duty it was to act kt ^mkmI
seasons before Her U^eaty and the eonrf. Bvt viwaa
few yean after Sbake^eai* athved ia Loadok IfciTJ^.
HAKESPEARl
761
f/Km/K of aotiiR «HD diridsd into two gmt compuiiea,
qiscudi; lieeoaed ud belonging respectirely to the Lord
ChMnberkio uid the Lord Adminl. Under the new
•nuinmeot the earl of Leionter'B uton (who, as abeadj
■tatei^ after the earl's death in 1 BBS found for a time a new
Mtron in Lord StiaageJ^ bocune the eemnt* of the Lord
uiunbarUin. Jamee Bnrbags had alreadv retired from
the company, hia place being taken by hia more cele-
Mted Bon Richard Bniisgo, the Garnet of the Elin-
betlian itage, who acted with ao mnch distinction and
■Dccees all tho great parts in Bhaknpeare's leading
^■js. In order that the Lord Chamberlain's company
might hare houMs of their own both for summer and
winter nsa, Richard Burbagc^ his brother Cathbert, and
their adsociates, including Shakespeaxe, undertook in 1599
to boild a new theatre on the bank side, not hz from the
old ISris Garden circos. We know from a subsequent
document, which refers incidentalljr to the building of
this theatre, that the Bnrbttgea htd originally introduced
ShakespOBM to the Blockfriars company. He had indeed
iirored liimself so aseful, both as actor and poet, that
' they were eridently glad to »oeure his future sarvicea by
giving him a share as part proprietor in the Bleckfriars
property. The new theatre now built by the company
«!!« that known u the Globe, and it was for fifteen
years, during tho sammer and autumn months, the
popnlar and highly auccesiful borne of the Shakespearian
drama. Three years earlier Richard Burbage and his
associates had rebuilt the Blackfriars theatre on a more
extended scale ; and this well-known house divided
with the Olobe the honour of producing Shakespeare's
houses and with the Lord Chamberlain's company to
which they beloDged. On the accession of Jamss I, this
company, being specially favonred by the new monarch,
received a fresh royal charter, aod the members of it were
henceforth known as the King's servants. In the earty
;earB of Shakespeare's career the national drama had thus
a permanent home in theatres conveniently central on
either side of the river, and crowded during the summer
and winter months by eager and excited audiences.
Even before the building of the Qlobe, the house at New-
ington where three of Marlowe's most iniportant plays and
Xe of Shakespeare's early tragedies were prodnced was
n oowded to the doom. In the mimmer of 1592,
when the Firtf Part qfffmiy 71., as revised by Shake-
speare, was acted, the performance was so popnlar that, we
are told by Nash, ten thousand spectators witnessed it in
the course of a few weeks. It is true that even in the best
s the appliances in the way of scenes and stage
ery ware of the simplest descrtptiDn, change of scene
being often indicated by the primitive device of a board
with the name painted upon it. Bat players and play-
wrights, both arts being often combined in the same person,
knew thwr business thoroughly well, and justly relied for
snocees on the more vital attractions of powerful acting,
vigorous writing, and practisod skill in the constmction of
their pieces. In the presence of strong passions eipresaed
in Irindllng words and powerfully realued in living action,
gesture, and incident, the absence of canvas sunlight and
painted ^oom was hardly felL Or, as the stirring
choruses m Hrmry 7, show, the wont of more elaborate and
realistic scenery was abundantly supplied by the excited
fancy, active imagination, and concantraled iuterait of the
spectatora.
The diamatie oonditionB of a national theatn wet«
indeed, at the outset of Shakeepeate's career, more oom-
plete, or rather in a more advanced state of development
than the playboosee themselves or their stage acoesaorieo.
If Shafce^eaie was fortunate in entering on his London
work amidst the full tide of awakened patriotism and
public soirit, he was equally fortonate in fading ready to
his hand the forms of art in which the rich acd complex
life of the time ooold be adequately expressed. During
the decade in which Bhakespeare left Stntfrad the play^
Wright's art had undergone changes so important as to
constitute a revolution in the form and spirit of the
national drama. For twenty years after the aoceesion
of Eliatbeth the two roots whence the English drama
sprung—the academic or classical, and the popular, devel-
oped spdntaneously in the line of mysteries, moralities
-and interludes — continued to exist apart, and to pnduca
their accustomed fruit independently of each other, nie
popular drama, it is true, becoming morn secular and
realistic, enlarged its area by collecting its materials tern
all source*, — 6om novels, talee, ballacb, and histories, as
well as from fairy mythology, local superstitions, and folk-
lore. But the incongruous materials were^ for the most
part, handled in a crude and semi-barbaions way, with
jnst sufficient art to satisfy the -cravings and damoura of
^unlettered audiencea. The academic plays, on the other
hand, were written by scholars for courtly and cultivated
lirdes, were acted at the nniverattdes, the inns of eonr^
public ceremonials, and followed for the
ognized and restricted mles of the clataia
^ third decade of Elizabeth's reign
another dramatic school ari»e intennediate between vb»
two elder ones, which sought to combine in a neww aod^
liigher form the best elements of both. The main impnlM
guidtug the efforts of the new school may be traced in-
directly to a classical source. It was due, not immediately
to the masterpieces of Greece and Rome, but to the fonn
which chuaical ait had assnmed in the oontenuwraiy drama
of Italy, France, and Spun, especially of Italy, whidi
was that earUest developed and best known to the new
school of poets and dramadsts. l^iis southern drama,
while ocBOemic in its leading features, had nevertheless
modern elements blended -wiVa. the ancient form. 'Aa tb*
Italian epics, foUowinp in the main Uie older examgles^
were still charged vrith romantic and realistic elements
unknown to the claadcai epic, so the Italian drama, ooa-
structed on the lines of Seneca and Plaatits, blended with
the severer form essentially romantic featorea. With the
choice of heroic suhjecta, the orderly development of the
plot, the free use of the chorus, uie observance of the
I lUt li BulntaiiMd br Hr Flur 1° 1>1* iwmt -£•/• ■"■^ '''^"^ <>f
natopiav. But tha hMmy oT the wilj dninitie oampulM !• u
ctanr* tW it Is dllBndt to trse* thdr dun^g foitimsi Willi slaalota
it part the ret
unities, and oonstant substitntion of norrativa ttv a
were nnited the vivid colouring of poetio Uaej and
diction, and the use of materials and incidents derived
from recent history and contemporary life. The influence
of the Italian drama on the new school of Engli^ play-
wrights was, however, very mnch restricted to pranta of
style and diction of rhetorical and poetical effect. It
helped to produce amoug them the sense of artistic tnat-
ment, the conscious eff<»t after higher and more elabcoata
forms and vehicles of imaginative and passionate expno-
sion. For the rest, the rising English drama, in ^ata of
the efforts mode by academio eritica to narrow its range
and limit its interests, retained and thorenghly viodicotad
its freedom and independence. The osotral charanKr-
istics of the new eehocu are suffidently explained by the
fact that its leading repreaentotivca were all of tiiem
scholars and poets, Irving by their wiU and gaining a
•omcrwhat precarious Uvalihood onudst the ctir aod faosU^
tbetc
e diitinctife vM Di thdr mric ia tlia ivflox of
8HAKESPEAKE
thsir poaitioit u ocademio scholars working under poetic
Bud popular impulses for the public theatres. The oew
and ttrikiiig combination in tbeir dramas of elements
hitherto nhallj separated iii hat the natural result ot their
tttoiimients and Uterarr activities. From their ODiver-
si^ training and knowledge of the ancients they would
be familiar with the technical lequirements of dramatic
ar^ the deliberate liandling of plot, incident, and char-
acter, and the due subordination of parts essential for
producing the effect of an artistic whole. Their imagina-
tive and emotional sensihilitj, stimulated bj their studies
io BoQthem literature, would natorallj prompt them to
combiue features of poetic beanty aod rhetorical finish
with the evolution of character and action ; while from
ths popular native drama the; derived the breadth of
sympathy, conse of humour, and vivid contact with actual
life which gave reality and ^lowec to their representations.
The leading members of this group or school were Kyd,
Oreeue, Lodges Nash, Peele, and Harlowe, of whom, in
relation to the future development of the drama, Oreene,
Feele, and Marlowe are the most important and infliiential.
They were almost the first poets and men of genius who
devoted themselves to ths production of dramatic pieces
for the public theatres. But they aU helped to redeem
the common stages from the reproach their mde and
bointerouB piecea had brought upon them, and moke the
plays represented poetical and artistic as well as lively,
DDstling, and popular. Some did this rather from a
necessity of nature and stress of circumstance than from
any higher aim or deliberately formed resolve. But
Hailowa^ the greatest of them, avowed the redemption of
the common SMge as the settled pnrpoae of his labours at
the oatset of his dramatic career. And during his brief
and stormy life he nobly discharged the self-imposed task.
His first play, Tamburlint tit Oreai, strock the anthentic
note of artistic and romaotic tragedy. With all its extra-
TmgaoM, and over-stroioiag after vocal and rhetorical
effects, the play throbs with tme passion and true poetry,
and has thronghont the stamp of emotional intensity and
intellectual power. His later tragedies, while marked by
the same features, bring into fuller relief the higher
charactoristics of his passionate aod poetical genius.
Alike in the chmce of subject and method of treatment
Uarlowa is thoroughly independent, deriving little, except
in the way of general stimulus, either from the classical or
popular drama, of his day. The signal and far-reaching
reform ha effected in dramatic metre by the introduction
of modulated blank verse illustrates the striking originality
ot his genius. Gifted with a fine ear for the music of
English nnmbeiB, and impatient of " the gigging veins of
rhyming mother wits," he introduced the noble metro
which was at ones adopted by his contemporaries and
became the vehicle of the great Elizabethan drama, The
new metre quickly abolished the rhyming couplets and
gttntaa that had hitherto prevailed on the popidar stage.
The nfudi^ and oomplatenesa of this metrical revolution
is in itself a powerful tribute to Marbwe's rare insight
and feeling oa a master of musical eipression. The
originality and impcHiance ot Marlowe's innovation are not
materially affected by the tact that one or two classical
plays, such as Gorbadut and Joeatla, had been already
written in nnrhymed verse. In any case these were
|>riT«te plays, and the monotony of cadence and structure
in the verse exdndt* them from anything like ssrious
oomparison with thg richaeas and variety of vocal effect
produced by the akilfnl pooaes and musical interlinking of
Marlowe'* heroie metre. Qreeos and Paale did almoat as
much for romantie oomedy as Harloin had done for
tomantio trofedy, Greane'i eaae and lightness of touch,
"-" • ' n of feeling aod play of Inoj, hi* vivid s^nae^
of the pathos and beauty of ho- ly aceiiM utd Aom^
enjoyment of English rural liie, give to his drsnati
sketches the blended charm of ramanre and reality haidit
to be found elsewhere except in Shakedpeats'i esrij
comedies. In special points of lyrical beauty and dnnuL-
portraiture, such as his sketches of pure and deiMit:
women and of witty and amndng clowns, QntL:
anticipated some of the more delightful and rhaiactniui
features of Shakeupearian couiady, Peele's lighter peca
and Lyiy's prose comedies heli>ed in the ssnie dinctim
Although not written for the public stage, Ljlj'i (xar,
comedies were very impular, and Shakesiieare eTideol^i
gained from their light and eary if somewhat uliGdJ
tone, their constant play of witty banter sod iftA
ling repartee, valuable hinU tor tiie prose of liu m
comedies. Marlowe Bgain prepared the way for ssolbtr
characteristic development of Shakespeare's dramatic m
His Ediaird II. marks the rise of the liiatoricsl Ansa, b
distinguiohod from the older chronicle play, in wbicii Li:
annals of a rci^^n or period were thrown into a vtan d
loose and irregular metrical scenea Peele's Ediiafi~i,
Marlowe's Edward II., and the fine anonymous pU} i'
Edwardlll., in which many critics think l^'hske^KVci
hand may be traced, show how thoroughly the nev t^<\
had felt the rising national pulse, and how promptl; i^
responded to the popular demand for the dramatic tnt
ment of history. The greatness of oonlempoiaiy eiab
bad created a oew sense of the grandeur and coDtJuiitj i
the natioQ's life, and excited amongst all classes t, vri
interest in the leading personalities and critical etn^gii!
that had marked its vrogresa. There was a Etrosg ul
general feeling in favour of historical subjects, ui
especially historical subjects having in them elemeali<:
tragical depth and intensity. Shakespeare's oitd uilj
plays — dealing with the distracted reign of Kin^; Join, Ut
Wars of the Hoses, and the tragical lives of Bichinl H.
aod Richard III.— illustrate this bent of popnlsr I«dit^
The demand being met by men of poetical and dreoBix
genius reacted powerfully on the spirit of the age, bdfi::
in turn to illuminate and strengthen its loyal aod \/>lnM
eympatliies, i
This is in tact the key-note of the Engliih «^ '
in the great period of its development It «m ii"
breadth of national interest and intensity ot trsgic po"i
that niade the English drama so immeasurably BOperiai'
every otber contemporary drama in Euro[>e. Tits' l>>w I
drama Unguiahed because, though carefidJy elabonwl''
point ot form, it had no fulness of national hfe, no cvium |
elements of ethical conviction or aspiration, tii i\Vm
and ennoble it. Even tragedy, in the hoods el Iitliu
dramatists, had no depth at human paasiou, pa eiieigr« j
heroic purpose, to give higher meaning and povet >'' '^ ■
evolutioD. la Spain the dominant courtly sod «^
astical ioHucnces limited the development of the l»tio°>' |
drama, while in France it remained from the oaCutt udrr
the artificial restrictions of classical and iwcudcNchaial
traditione. Shakespeare's predecesaora and coiilcDi]xin'|'|'
in elevating the common stages, and filling tliesi "^
poetry, music, and passion, had attracted to the ibeaUew
classes, includiug the more cultivated and refined; u°
the intelligent interest, energetic patriotism, aod t<^
life of so representative an English audience sup) J iwi ^
strongest stimulus to the more perfect developmest of If
great organ of national expression. The forms of dn^
art, in the three main departments of comedy, ''^G'"^
aod historical drama, had buon, as we have ues, <Mf
discriminated and evolved in their earlier stagw I'"^
ment of supreme promise and expectation, soil m ti'
accidents of earth, or, as we may mora appropriiMf "^
gratefully any, in the ordinancea ot heaven, the «!«*'
SHAKESPEARE
po«t aad
I aniMred to mors than faim the
•a of the time. Bj right of imperiaJ
t all the leaonreea of imaginative insight
tiod uprMsian SbaksBpeare combined the rich diamatia
mateiuU alread; pcepored into more perfect foniu, and
carried tham to the highett point of ideal dsTBlopment.
He qoicklj siupaBaed Marloira in pasiion, muaic, and
intellectDil power ; Oreens in lyrical beant;, el^iac grace,
and ntmtiTB interest ; Peele in pietutesque toocfa and
paitotal Bwoetneaa ; and Lyiy in bright and sparkling
dialogue. And having distanced the atmoet efforts of his
predeceaatMS and contemponriei he took his own higher
way, and reigned to the end without a rival in the new
world of inprame dramatic art he had created. It is a
new world, because Bhakeipeara's w<xk alone can be Mid
to ponesa the organic itr^igth and infinite variety, tho
throbbing fulness, vital complexity, and breathing tmth,
of natoiti henelf. Is points of artistic reaotuce and
technical ability — nich u copious and expressive diction,
freebneas and [HBgnsncy of verbal combination, richly
modulated verse, and atnictaiAl skill ii
of incident and action — Shakespeare's
indeed mffictently assured. Bat, after all,
course in the spirit and subatanee of his work, his power
of piercing to the hidden centres of character, of touch-
ing the deepest spring of impolse and passion, ont of
wUch are the issues of life, and of evolving those issues
dramatically with a flawless strength, subtlety, and truth,
which raises him so immensely above and beyond not only
It is Shakeapeare's unique distinction that he has an
absolute command over all the complezitiea of thought and
feeling that prompt to action and briug out the dividing
lines of character. He sweeps with the hand of a master
the whole gamut of human ezperianc^ from the loweet
note to the very top of its compass, from the spwtive
ohildish treble oi Hamilius and the pleading boyiih tones
of Prince Arthur, up to the spacbe-haunted terrors of
Uioboth, the tropical passion of Othelks the agonized
~~ M and tortured sprit of Hamlet, the auslaiaed elemental
' r, the Titanic force and utterly tragical pathos, of
fftandenr,
Shakespeare's active dramatic career in London lasted
about twenty years, and may be divided into three
tolerably ^mmetrical periods. The first extends from ^e
Tear 1587 to about )693-Bl;the seoond f rom this date to
the end of the century ; and the third from 1 600 to about
1608, soon after which time Sbakeepeare ceased to write
tegolady for the stage, was less in London and mote and
more at Stratford. Some modem critics add to these a
fonrth period, including the few plays which from intamal
as well as external evidence must have been among the
poafs lat«et productions As the exact dates of these
playa are nnbiown, this period may be taken to extend
from 1608 to about 1613. The three dramas produced
during thaaa years are, however, hardly entitled to be
lanked as a separate period. Ihay may rathsr be regarded
as supplementary to the grand series of dramas be]<»iging
to the third and greattat epoch of Shakespeare's pro-
ductive power. To the first period belong Shakespeare's
early tentative efforts in revising and partially rewriting
plays jvodueed by others that already had poeseaaioa of
the stage. These effi»ts are iUostrated in the thtM parts
of Hatrf VI., eapeciaily the second and third parts, which
bear decisive marks of Shakespeare's hand, and were to a
great extent recast and rewritten by him. It is clear
from the internal evidence thus supplied that Shakespeare
was at first powerfully affected by "Marlowe's migh^
Um." Thia ioflaooM is ao marked in the revised second
Marlowe's influence during ^e first period of
Siiakespaare's career. To the same period also belong the
earliest tragedy, that of Titia Andnminu, and the tiiree
comedies— Xow's Lahour 'i L<ut, The Comedy of Brron,
and the Two GaUkaxn of Verona. These dramas are all
marked by the dominant literary influences of the tima.
They present featnrea obvioualy due to the revived and
widea^ead knowledge of dasdcal literature, as well as ta
the active interest in the literature of Italy and tbe' South.
TStM AndriMKiu, in many of its characteristic features,
reflects the form of Roman tragedy almoet universally
accepted and followed in the earlier period of the drama.
This form was supplied by the I^ti'n plays of Seneca,
their darker colours being deejpened by the moral effect of
the Judicial tmgediee and military conflicts of the time.
The execution of the Scottish queen and the Catholic con-
spirators who had acted in her name, and the destruction
of the Spanish Armada, had given mi impulse to tragic
representations of an extreme type. This was nndonbteSy
rather fostered than othervise by the favourite exemplars
ot Roman tragedy. The Mtdea and TAyatft of Seneca are
crowded with pagan horrors of the most revolting kind.
It is true these lunTors are usually related, not represents^
although in the Ittdta the maddened heroine kills her
children on the slue. But from these tragedies the
conception of the physically horrible as on element of
tragedy was imparted into the early English drama, and
intensified by the realistic tendency which the events of the
time and the taste of their ruder audiencee had impressed
upon the common stages. This tendency id eiemi'lifled
in l\tv* Andrtmicvi, obviously a very early work, the
signs ot youthful effi>rt being apparent not only in the
acceptance of so coarse a type of tragedy but in the crude
handling of chaiBcter and motive, and the wont of har-
mony in working oni the details of tho dramatic concep-
tion. Kyd was the most popular contemporary reyro-
senlative of the bloody school, and in the leading motivas
of beachery, concetdment, and revenge there are pointa
of likensaa between Tilui Andronina and the Spcmitk
Tragtdy. But how promptly and completely Shake-
apeare's nobler nature turned from this lower type is
apparent from the fact that he not only never reverted to
i^ bat indirectiy ridicules the piled-up korrora and extra>
vagant language of Kyd's plays.
The early comadiea in the same way are marked by tlw
dominant literary influences of the time, portly da^o
partiy Italian. In the Comedy of Brron, for example,
Shakespeare attempted a hnmorous play of the old dsad-
cal type, the general piMi and many details being derived
directly from FUutus. In Lov^i Labour 'i Latl many
charactaristio features of Italian comedy are freely intn>-
dueed ; the pedant Holofemea, the curate Sir Nathaniel, the
fantastic braggadocio soldier Armado, are all well-known
chatactera of the contemporary Italian drama. Of thia
comedy, indeed, Qeryinns Bays, " the tone of tike Italian
school prevails here more than in any other play. Tka
redni^ance of wit is only to be compared with a similar
redundance of conceit in Shakespeare's nanative poems,
and with the Italian style which ha had early ad^ted."
These comedies displ^ another Mgn of early work ir '^'—
mechanical eiactneas of the plan and a studied aymn
in the grouping of the chief pereonagce of the dramai ut
the 7W Gmtlemm of Vemna, as Prof. Dowden points out,
" Proteus the fickle is set against Valentine the hithfnl,
Silvia the li^t and intelleatnal against Julia the atdent
and tender, I^nce the htunoniist against Speed tha wil"
" ' X(W« Labottr '« LoM, the king end bis tbret Mlow-
7G4
SHAKESPEARE
students baluice the priueeai and her three ladies, and
there u a qrmmetricftl pUj of incidant betveea the two
groope. The art&DgemBiit ia obyiausl; more artiScial
than ^ontaneoua, more mechanicaJ than vital and organic.
But towards the close of the fint period Shakespeare had
full7 lealind hia own power and was able to dispense
with these artificial supporta. Indeed, having rapidlj
gained knowledge and experience, he had before the doee
written plays of a far higher character than any which
even the ablest of his contemporaries had produced. Ho
had £rm]j laid the foundation of his fntnre fame in the
direeUoD both of comedj and tragedy, for, besides the
comediea already referred to, the first sketches of Hamlet
and Bomea md Jtiiiti, and the tragedy of Richard JII.,
ma; probablj be referred to this period.
Another mark of early *ork belonging to these dramas
b the lyrical and elegiac tone and treatment aaaoctatad
with the use of rhyme, of rhyming oonplets and stanzas.
Spenser's musical verse had for the time elevated tlia
ehancter of ihymiog metres bj identifying thrm with the
highest kinds of poetry, and Strnkeepeore was evidently at
first affected \.y this powerful impuke. He rhymed with
great facility, and delighted IQ the gratificatian of his
lyrical fancy and feeling which the more musical rhyming
metre* afforded. Bhyme accordingly has a considerable
and not inappropriate place in the earlier romantic
comedies. The Cosudy of Erron has indeed been de-
scribed a* a kind of lyrical farce in which the oppoute
qnalitiee of elegiac beanty and comic effect are happilj
blended. Rhyme, however, at this period of the poet's
work is not restricted to the comedies. It is largely need
in the tragedies and histories as well, and plays even an
important part in historical drama so late as SvAard II.
Shakespeare appears, however, to have worked out this
favourite vein, and very much taken leave of il^ by the
publication of his descriptive and narrative poems, the
Fanu and Adtmii and the Liiatee, although the enormous
popularity of these poems might almost have tempted him
to return again to the abandoned metrical form. The
only considerable exception to the dianse of rhyming
metres and lyrical treatment is supplied by the Sonnett,
which, though not pabUshed till 1609, were probably
begun early, soon after the poems, and written at mtervals
during eight or ten of the intervening years. Into the
many vexed questions connected with the history and
meaning of these poems it is impoeaible to enter. Xhe
attempts recently mads by the Rev. W. A. Harrison and Mr
T. Tyler to identify the " dark lady " ot the later eonnete,
while of some historical interest, cannot be regarded as
snccessfuL And tJie identification, even if rendered more
probable by the discovery of fresh evidence, would not clear
up the difficulties, Inographical, literary, and historical, con-
nected with these exquisite poems. It is perhaps enongh
to say with Prof. Dowden that in Shakes]«Bre's ease the
most natural interpretation ia the best, and that, so far as
they throw light on his personal character, the sonnets
show that "be was capable of measureless personal devotion;
that he was tenderly sensitive, sensitive above all to every
diminntbu or alteration of that love his heart so eageHy
craved; and that, when wronged, although he suffered
aognidi, he transoeoded his privatA iojary and learned to
Whatever question may be raised wi'.h regard to the
superiority of some of the plays belonging to the first
period of Shakespeare's dramatic career, there can be no
question tt all as to any of the pieces belonging to the
second period, which extends to the eud of the century.
During these years Shakespeare works as a master, baring
complete command over the nuteriala and reaourcea of the
DKiet mature and flexible dramatic arL " To this stage,"
says Ur Swinburne, '' belongs the special factdty at biH,
less, joyous, facile commaitd upon each faculty requLidd
the presiding genius for service or for sport. It ii it tit
middle period of his work that the lanj^uage of Bbte
apeare is most limpid in it* fohieas, the style mat pn
the thought most transparent throagh the ckae vi
luminous raiment of perfect expression.' This poial
includes the magnificent series of historical plays — Sida^
II., the two parts of Ifenty If., and Iltarf Y.—ui t
double series of brilliant comedies. The UidtKmw
yighfi Drmn, AU 't WtU tku end* WiU, and the Ur
dual of Ymir^ irere prodoced befora IS98, and diui^
the next three years there appeared a stilt more coopbtt
and characteristic group including J/«cA ado abatl h
tMng, Aiffov HU it, and Twelfth Siglu. Theae comidiB
and historical plays are all marked by a ran liannujcf
reflective and imaginative insight, perfection of cnalin
art, and completeness of dramatic eOact. Before Ae d*
of this period, in 1596, Francis Hcres paid his de
brated tribute to Shaksepeare's supariori^ in \-j6ai,
descriptive, and drama^ poetry, emphaouing hii n
rivalled distinction in the three main departments d'it
drama, — comedy, tragedy, and historical play. And Ira
this time onwards the contemporary recogniliMi i
Shakespeare's eminence as a poet and dramatist i^iiij
multiply, the critics and eulogists being in mW am
well entitled to speak with authority on the subject.
In the third period of Shakeepean's dramatie oiw
years had evidently brought enlarged viiion, nia
thoughts, and deeper experiences. While the old mutej
of art remains, the works belonging to this period ma to
bear traces of more intense moral struggles, larger swl la
joyous views of human life, more troubled, complei,uJ
profound conceptions and emotions. OomparstiKlj i"
marks of the Ughtness and animation of the eaitin "wb
remain, but at the same time the dramas of Ihia 7^
display an ourivalled power of piercing the in^
mysteries and eoimding tlie most tremendous sad pvpla'
ing problems of human life and human destiny. Tolkb
period belong the four great tragedies — Ilamltt, MaM,
Othtllo, Lear ; the three Koman plays — Corialmnu, J^
Cmtar, Anthony and Clt^xttra ; the two singnkr fl>J>
whose scene and personages ar« Greek but whoM vi'
and meaning are wider and deeper tiian eithH Oi«d >
Roman life — Trmliu and Crtmida and Tim«» ^ iH^'-
and one comedy — Meature for Mtaatre, which is sliM*
tragic in the dw)th and intena^ of its chaiactcn u'
inudenta. The four great tragedies n^nteat the b^
reach of Shakespeare's dramatic power, and they uffidiiBj
illustrate the range and iximplexity of the dec^ pntii*i
that now occupied his miniL TVmoi* and JfeapetJ*
Mvtture, however, exemplify the same tendency tc1s<^
with meditative intensity over the wrongs sod-imKn*
that afflict humanity. These works sufficiently pen IW
during this period Shakespeare gained a distoihiiv h"*^
into £e deeper evils of the world, arising frMD ih '*'■'
passions, such as beechery and revenge. Bot ■* " ^
clear that, wUh the larger visim of a noUe, weUfoin
nature, he at the same time gaitied a fuller potsptin^
the deeper spring* of goodness in faumaD Mtv^ ^"'
great virtues of invincible fidelity and nniKstiid *'^
and he evidently received not only oonsolattoa *'>^.'*^
but new stimulus and power from the fnlln italiat'''''
these virtue*. The typical plays of this piriod-""
embody Shakespeare's ripest experisDce of the gw** ■*?
of Ufa. In the four grand tragedies the centnuio'''''^
a profoundly moral one. It is the inpreiDe bterHl (^^
of good and evil amongst 4s centnl forces ssd 1^
elaments of human nature, as appealsd to ud devdoc'
by sudden and powerful temptataoo, amitten tj kci>>'
IHAKESPEAEE
765
kt«d WMAgl, or plnnged in OTernhelming caluuities. At
the cecolt, we iMm that there is Bomething infinitely more
pracioEu ia Ufa than locUl ease or worldly incceu — noble-
noBs of loal, fidelitj to tenth and honour, baman love and
loyalty, Btrength and tenderoen, and tnut to the very
end. Iq the moat tragia experiencea thii fidelity to all
that in best in life in only possible tliroagh the lou of Ufa
itsell Bat when Deademona expires with a eigh and
Cordelia's loving eyes are clcsed, when Hamlot no more
draws hii breath in pain and the tempest- tossed Leai is at
last liberated from the rack of this tough world, we feel
that, death having set bis sacred seal on their great sorrows
and greater love, they remain with na as poasesaions for
ever. In the three dramas belonging to ShEikespearo's \ut
period, or rather which may be said to close his dramatic
career, the same feeling of severe but consolatory calm is
atill more apparent U the deeper discords of life are not
finally reBolvod, the virtnes which soothe their perplexities
And give us courage aod endnrance to wai^ as well as
confldsnce to trust Hie final issues, — the virtnee of forgive-
ness and generosity, of forbearance and self-control, — are
largely illnstrated. This is a characteristic feature in each
of these closing dramas, in the WitUet'i Tale, Cymbtline,
and the TtmpeiL The Tempttt is snpposed, on tolerably
good groonda, to be ghalcespeare't last work, and in it we
•ee the great magician, having gained by the wonderful
experience of life, and the no less wonderful practice of his
art, serene iviidom, clear and enlarged vision, aod beneficent
self-control, break his magical wand and reUre from the
scene of hi* triumphs to the home he had chosen amidst
the froods and meadows of' the Avon, and sarroonded by
the family and friends he loved.
We must now briefly sammarize the few remaining
facts of the poet's personal history. The year lfS96 was
marked by cansidecable family losses. In August Shake-
speare's only son Hamnet died in the twelfth year of his
ftge. With bis strong domestic affections and cbetisbed
hopes of founding a family, the early death of his only boy
most have been tor his father a severe blow. It was fallowed
in December by the death of Shakespeare's node Henry,
the friend of his childhood and youth, the protector and
encoarager of his boyish sports and enterprises at Bearley,
Snitterfield, and Fnlbroke. A few months later the Shake-
speare household at Snitterfield, so intimately associated
for more than halt a century with the family in Henley
Street, was finally broken np by the death of the poet's aunt
Margaret, Ms nnde Henry's widow. Although the death
of his son and heir had diminished the poet's hope of
founding a family, be did not in any way relax his efforts
to secnre a permanent and comfortable home for his wife
and daughters at Stratford. Aa early as 1597, when he
had pursned his London career for little more than ten years,
he had saved enough to purchase the considerable dwelling-
house in New Place, Stratford, to which he afterwards
retired. This house, originally built by Sir Hngh Clop-
ton and called the '■ Great House," was one of the largest
mansions in the town, and the fact of Shakespeare having
acquired snch a place as his family residence would at once
increase his local importance. From time to time he
made additional purchases of land about the hones and
in the neighbonrhood. In 1602 he largely increased
the property by acquiring 107 acres of arable land, and
later on ha added to this 20 acres of pasture land, with
A convenient cottage and garden in Chapel Idine, oppo-
site the lower grounds of the house. Within a few yean
kis property thus oomprised a snbatantial dwelling-house
with large garden and extensive outbuildings, a cottage
fronting the lower rood, and about 137 acres of arable
and pasture laud. During these years Shakespeare made
another important porcbas* that added considerably to his
income. From the letter of a Stratford burgess to a friend
in London, it spears that as eariy as 1G9T Shakespsare
had been making inquiry about the purchase of tithes in
the town and neighbourhood. And in 1605 ha bought the
unexpired lease of tithes, great aiid small, in Stratford and
two a<i(joiaiDg hamlets, the lease having still thirty years
to run. This purchase yielded hiia an annual income of
£38 a year, equal to upwards of X350 a year of our
present money. The last purchase of property made by
Shakespeare of which we have any definite record is at
BO interesting and so perplexiog as to have stimulated
lua conjectures on the poit of his biographers. This
purchase carries us away from StmCford back to London,
to the immediate neighbourhood of Shakespeare's dramatic
labours and triui^phs. It seems that in Uirch 1613 he
bought a house with a piece of ground attached to it «
little to the south-west of St Paul's cathedral, and not far
from the Blackfriars theatre. The purchase of Uiis house
in Loudon after he had been for some years settled at
Stratford has led some critics to suppose that Shakespeare
had not given up all thought of returning to Oie
metropolis, or at least of spending part of the year there
with his family in the neighbourhood he best knew and
where he was best known. Thegronnd of this suppoaitioD
is, however, a good deal destroyed by the fact that soon
after acquiring this town house Shakeepeare let it for a
lease of ten years. He may possibly have bought the
property as a convenience to some of bis old friends who
were associated with him in the purchase. In view of
future contingencies it would obviously be an advantage to
have a substantial dwelling so near the theatre in the
hands of a friend. It was indeed by means of a similar
purchase that James Burbage had originally started and
eatablished the Blackfriars dieatre.
The year 1607-8 would be noted in Shakespeare's
family calendar as one of vivid and chequered domeatie
experiences. On the 5th of June his eldest daughter
Susanna, who seems to have inherited something of her
father's ganios, was married to Dr John Hall, a medical
man of more than average knowledge and ability, who had
a considerable practice in the neighbourhood of Stratford,
and who was deservedly held in high repute. The newly
married couple settled in one of the picturesque houses of
the wooded suburb between the town and the church
known as Old Stratford- But before the eod of the year
the midsummer marriage bells had changed to sadder
music. In December Shakeepeare lost hie yoongest
bnjther, Edmund, at the early age of twenty-seven. He
bad become an actor, meet probably throtigh his tvother'a
help and influence, and was, at the time of his death,
living in Loudon. He was buried at Southwark on the
last ^y of the year. Two months later there was family
rejoicing in Dr Hall's house at the birth of a daughter,
christened Elizabeth, the only offspring of the union, and
the only grandchild Shakespeare lived to see. llio
rejoicing at this event would be fully shared by the honse-
hold in New Place, and espedally by Shakespeare himself,
whose cherished faroily hopes would thus be strengthened
and renewed. Six months later in this eventful year,
fortune again turned her wheel Early in September
Shakespeare's mother, Hary Arden of the Asbies, died,
having lived long enough to see and welcome her great-
grandchild as a fresh bond of family life. She was buried
at Btratford on the 9th of September, having snrrived
her husband, who was buried on the 8th of September
1601, exactly seven years. Mary Shakespeare died full of
years and honour and coveted rewarda For more than
a decade she had witnessed and shared the growing i«o-
sperity of her eldest son, and felt the mother's thrill of joy
and fride in the aocoesa that had aowned bis Ixilliant
766
SHAKESPEARE
CAIMT. Th« Ion of his motlier wotJd be deeplj fait by
ber faToorite «od, bat thcio nu no bii.tenieii in tlie beroaTo-
ineat, and it even icsihb to Lara oisrted a traaquilUTiuf,',
elevatiag effect on tbo poet'n miad and cbaracter. Aji be
laid her id tli« grii\o ho irouJd recall and realize afresh Che
early jur* during irhicb Lsr bvitig prefcnca and iollucnco
were the light and guide of hi« boyish life. Witb these
vivid and vaKed familj expcriencea a strong wave of hom»-
jeaniiDK seemB to have sat in, which graduallj dreiv the
[loot wbollj back to .Stratford.' Duriug the autumn visit
connected with his mother's death Shakespeare must have
remained several wcclts at the New PUce, tor on the 16tb
of October he acted as godfather to the infant son of an
old persona! friend, Hcur; Walker, who vaa an alderman
of the borough. The child was called William aft«r hia
godfather, uad the poet must have taken a special interest
in the boj, as he remembered him in bis wiU.
It seams ni'ist probable that soon After the chequered
domestic eveuts of this year, aa soon as he could con-
veoientlr tenninate his London engage men tt^ Shake-
speare decided on retiring to his native place. He hod
gained all he cored for in the way of wealth and fame,
ODd his stroagest interests, personal end relative, were
DOW centred in Stratford. But on retiring to settle in bis
native town he bad uothiiif; of the dreauier, the sentiment-
alift, or the tccIubd about him. His healthy natural
feeling wan far too strong, his character too manly and
well-balanced, toadmit of any of the so-called eccentricities
of geniud. He CBtired as a successful professional man
who had gained a comjictcnce by his own exertions and
wished to enjoy it at leisure in a simple, social, rational
way. Ee knew that tho competence ne had gained, the
lands and wealth ho possessed, could only be preserved,
like other valuable possessions, by good management and
rareful hnsbaudry. And, taught by the ud eiperience of
hid earlier years, he evideatly gnided the business details
of his property with a Arm and skilful hand, was vigihiDt
and scrupulously just in his dealings, respecting the rights
of others, and, if need be, enforcing his own. He sued
hi* carelesj and negligent debtors in the local court of
record, had various commercial transactions with the
corporation, and took an active interest in the affairs of
tlie borough. And he went now and then to London,
partly on business connected with the town, partly no
doubt to look after tho administration and ultimate dis-
IKuai of hia own theatrical property, and partly it may be
OKBUmed for the pleasure of seeing his old friends and
fellow dramatists. Even at Stratford, however, Shake-
speare waj not entirely cut off from bis old associates in
arts and kders, hia hospitable board beint; brightened at
intervals by the presence, and animated by the vrit,
humour, and kindly gossip, of one or more of his chown
friends. Two amongst the most cherished of his com-
panions and fellow poets, Drayton and Ben Jonson, had
poid a rifit of thi; kind to Stratford, and bran entertained
by (jhaLespoaro only a few days before his death, which
occurred almost suddenly on the 23d of April IG16.
After three days' illnoss the great poet wan carried off by a
sharp attack of fever, at that time one of the commonest
scourges, even of country towns, and often arising then
as now, only more frequently then than now, from the
neglect of pro[»r sanitary precautions. According to
tradition the 23d of April was Shakes[)eare'B birthday, to
that he died on the completion of the S2d year of his age.
Three days later he was laid in the chancel of Stratford
church, on thp north wall of which his monument, contain-
ing his liost and epitaph, was seon afterwards placed, most
probably by the poet's son-in-law, Dr John tT«ll Shaks-
apeare's widow, the Anne Hathaway of his youth, died in
1G23, havinK surviTed the poet aevea yean, ezMtly the
same length oF tiuo that hU mother ^Tary Ardra )»i W
lived her liuaband. Elijnbcth Uall, the poct'i giatuk^
was married twice, fint to Mr Hio-. Xafli it Stntfnti
ond in ICJD, when »lio hud been two ytaw a »-idow. a
Ut aftoiirardH Kir John UnmBrJ of Ahingtoa in Sortk
nmptonahire. Lady naroord had no family by otko
husband, and the throo children of tha poet> aecac
daughter Judith (who had married Ilidi&rd Qointy a*
Stmttord, two months btforo her father'^ drotht all ix
comparatively young. At Lady Itarnord'a d<-ath in IGTt
the family of the ixwt thui bocom^ extinct. I^ ioj n!'
made a few weeks bcfora his d>-atli Shakeaircare left lii
bnded prtiperty, tho whole of his real c^L-ite indeed, to Lr
eldest daughter iln Susanna Hall, andrr ktrict enlail te
her heirs. He left also a substantial legacy to bU «covd
daugliter and only remaining child JInt Judith QniDei,
and a remembrance to several of his friendd, incIiHiing La
old aasociAtea at the Blackfriara theatre, Garbage, Hcbib^
and Coodell, — the two latter of whom edited the fint col-
lection of his dnroos published in 1G23. The will tlaa
included a bequest to tho poor of Stratford.
From this short sketch it will be seen that all the It^
known facts of Shakespeare'^ personal hiatory bring intr
vivid relief the simplicity and naturalness of hia tajto,
his love of the countcy, tho strength of his doineitic eiee-
tioDs, and the singularly firm hold which the conceptiia
of family life had uik>d his imagination, bis iTiDpathieL
and his schemes of active bbonr. U« had loved tW
country with ardent enthusiasm in bis youth, when tU
nature was lighted with the dawn of rising peaaion ui
kindled imagination ; and after hia varied London eiptii-
cnce we may well believe that he loved it still more will
a deeper and calmer love of one who had looked throng
and through the brilliant forms of wealthy display, puLfic
magnificence, and courtly ceremonial, who had acanatd
the heights and sonndod the depths of existence, and wht
felt that for the king and beggar alike this little life rf
feverish joys and sorrows is soothed by oatunl iDflueOM^
cheered by sunlight and green shadows, aoftened by tke
perennial charm of hill and dale and rippling stream, sad
when the spring returns no more is rounded with a slecfi.
In the more intimate circle of homoD lelatioaahi)!* he
seems clearly to have roaliied that the eovereiga eUxir
against the ills of life, the one antidote of its stmggla
and difficulties, its emptioess and unrest, ia vigikat
charity, faithful love in all ita forms, love of hcnne, km
of kindrod, love of frieoda, love of everything aimjiK
just, and true. The larger and more sacrod f^^np of that
serene and abiding ioAnoncoj flowing from well-ceotred
affections wss naturally identified with farnjly tics, and i:
is clear that the unity and continuity of family life pos-
sessed Shakespeare's imagination with the atreag;th of a
dominant passion and largely determined the scope and
direction of hi* practical activities. As we have seen, be
dispisyed from the first the utmost pmdence and foresight
in securing a comfortabEe home for hia family, and provid-
ing for the future welfare of hij children. The desire of
his heart evidently was to take a good position and foand
a family in his native pbce. And if this waj a wcaknesi
he shares it with other eminent names in the republic ef
letters. In Shakespeare's easo the desire may have been
inherited, not only from hLi father, who bad pride, energy,
and amUtbn, but especially from hu gently dexceoded
mother, Uary Arden of the Asbioi. Bnt, whatever iti
source, the evidence in favour of thid choriahed desire is
unusually full, clear, and docisive. While the poet had
no donbt previously oasisted his father to retriev« hi*
position in the world, the first important step in biiildin|
up the family name was the grant of arm* or armoriu
bearings t« John Bhokaspeare in the year IC9C. TW
SHAKESPEAEE
btttua; It nuy be tmuned, luui applied to the henlda^.
college for tliB grant at the Lost&nca and bj the hslp of
hia BOO. In tbu docameo^ the draft of which ii still
pre^ervad, the groanda on which the anna are given are
ataited aa two : — (1) becanae John Shokeapeare'k aaceaton
luwi randered valnable eerricea to Heuy VIL ; and (3)
that ha, liad married Uarj, daughter aod oae of the hein
of Bobort Arden of Wilmcote, iu the eaid county, gentle-
m&D. In the lagal convejancea of property to Sbake-
Bpoare hinuelf after the grant of arms be ia nnifonnlj
described as "Wllliani Shakespeare of Etratford-npon-
Avon, gentleman." He ia bo deMribed in Che midst of
hid London career, and this auffieiently indicates that
Str&ttord wa4 even then regarded »a hia permanent reaid-
ence or home. In ttie foUowmg year another important
Blep wan taken towards establidiiog the position of the
family. Thia wa« an application hy John and Mar;
Sh&lcaapeare to tLe Court of Chancery for the recovery of
the estate of the Aabiea, which, tmder the preasnre of
family difficulties, baif^beo mortgaged in 15T8 to Edward
Lambert. The issue of the suit is not known, but, as we
baTB Been, the pleedinga' on either side occopy a conaider-
able apace and show how resolately John Shiike«peare.wa«
bent on roooTering hia wife's family estate.
Turning to the poet himaelf, we have the aignificant fact
that dnriog the next ten yeara he continued, with steady
peraiatancy, to' build up the family fortunes by inveating
all hia savings in real property, — in hooaea and land at
Stratford. While many of hia aaaociates and partner* in
the Blackf riara company remained on in London, Living and
dying there, Shakespeare seems to haVe early realized hia
theatrical property for the aake of increasing the acreage of
hb arable and pastore land in the neighbourhood of Strat-
ford. In 199B, the year after the purchase of New Place,
hia family are not only settled there, but he ia publicly
ranked among the most proaperons and well-to-do citizens
of Stratford. In that year, there being some anticipation
of a acarcity of con, an official ttatement waa drawn up as
to the amonnt at wheat in the town. From the list con-
tained in thia ■ document of the chief houaeholdeia in
Chapel Ward, where Kew Place was aituatad, we find
that ont of twenty holders of com eniunerated only two
have mo>« in stock than William Shakespeare. Other
facta belonging to the same year, such aa the anccewful
appeal of a fellow-townsman for important pecuniary help,
and the saggestion from an alderman of the borough that,
for the aake of securing certain private and public benefits,
he should be encouraged to complete a contemplated
purchaae of land at Bbottery, show that Bhakespeara waa
now recogniiad as a local proprietor of wealth and iufinence,
and'that he had so far realized his early desire of taking a
good poaition in the town and neighbourhood. It will be
noted, loo^ that all the leading proviaiona of Shakeapeore's
will embody tbeaame cherished family purpoee. Inatcad
of dividing his property between his two daoghtert, he left,
as we have aeen, the whole of his estate, the whole of hia
real property indeed, to hia eldest daughter Hra Bnaanna
Hall, with a atrict entail to the heira of her body.
Ilia indicatea in the strongest manner the fixed desire of
hia heart to take a pereianent position in the locality,
and, if poaaible, strike the family roots deeply into their
native toil. That this purpoee waa realized in his own
case aeams dear from the apecial respect paid to his
memory. He waa boried, aa we have seen, in the chancel
of the pariah chnrch, where aa a role only persona of
family and poaition could be interred. Hia monument,
one of Che moat considerable in the chtirch, holds a place
of honour on the north wall of the chancel, just above the
altar railing. While thii tribute of marked official reapact
may ba dua in part, aa tho epitaph intimatt^ to hia
767
poet, it waa no doabt, in a cunntry diatrict
like Btiatford, due atill more to hia local importance as a
landed proprietor of wealth and poaition. Indeed, aa a
holder of the great tithea he waa by custom and courteay
entitled to banal in the chanceL
If there ia truth in the early tradition that Shakespeare
originally left Stratford in consequuice of the sharp proaa-
cntion of Sir Thomas Lucy, who rewated wiUi narrow
bitterncas and pride the presumption and audacity of the
high-apirited youth found trespassing on his ground^ the
victim of his petty wrath waa in the end amply avenged.
After a career of nuexampled saccesi in London Shake-
speare retomed to hia native town crowned with wealth
and honoura, and, having apant the last yean (rf hia Ufa in
cordial interconiae with Lis old friends and fellow towna-
men, was followed to the grava with the affectionate
respect and regret of the whide Stratford commanity.
Tliia feeling waa indeed, we may justly assume, fully iliared
by all who had ever known the great poet. His con-
temporaries and associates unaDimoualy bear witnesa to
Shakeapeore's frank, honourable, loving nature. Pethapa
the meat atriking expression of this common feeling comes
from one who in character, diapoaition, and culture vraa
so different from Shakeapeare as his friend and fellow-
dramatiat Ben Jonaon. Even hii rough and cynical
temper could not reaiat the charm of Shakeapaare's genial
character and gracious waya. "I loved the man," he
saya, "and do honour his memory on thia aide idolatry
as much as any. He ma indeed honest, and of an open
and free natures bad an excellent phantasy, brave notions,
and gentle ezpteasions.'* Aa the gauioa of Shakespeare
uuited the moat oppoaita gifta, ao amongst his friends are
fonnd the widest diversity of character, endowment, and
disposition. Thia ia only another way of indicating the
breadth of hia sympathies the variety of his intereats, the
largeness and einbeiant vitality of his whole nature. Ha
touched life at so many pointa, and responded so in-
stinctively to every movement in the complex web of ita
throbbing activities, that nothing affecting humanity waa
alien either to his heart or brain. To one ao gifted with
the power of looking below the snrface of custom and con-
vention, and perceiving, not only the deeper elements of
rapture and anguish to which ordinary eyee are blind,
bat the picturesqtLe, homorona, or pathetic varieties of the
common lot, every form of human experience, every type
of character, would have an attraction of its own. In the
view of each a mind nothing would be common or unclean.
To Shakespeare all aspects of life, even the humblestj had
points of coiitsct wiUi his own. He conld talk simply
and naturally withont a touch of patronage or condescen-
uon to a hodman on hia ladder, a coatermonger at hia
atall, the tailor on his board, the cobbler in his combe, ti>4
hen-wife in her poultry-yard, the ploughman in his furrow,
or the baae mechanicals at the wayside country inu. B i
could watch with fnll and humoroua appreciation 1hi
various fomu of brief authority and petty officialism, tfaa
bovine stolidity and empty consequence of the locil
Dogberries and Shallowa, the strange oaths and martial
swagger of a Piiitol, a Bardolph, or a Farolla^ the pcdaatia
talk of a Holofeme^ the pragmatical sawa of a Polonins,
or the aolemn abeurdities of a salf-conceited Malvolio.
On the other hand he coidd seize from the inner aide by
links of vital affinity every form of higher character, paa-
sionate, reflective, or qiecuttve, — lover uid prince, dnke
and captain, legislator and judge, counsellor and kiuA
and portray with almost eqnal ease and with vivid truth-
fulness men and women of dislatit ages, d different lac^
and widely sundered nationalitua
Aa in his dramatis world he embraeea the widut vidatj
id hunan aipariaac*^ to in hia panonal ofaaiactar ha iwT
768
SHAKESPEARE
be Mid to ham combined in hsimoiiiotia tmicm the widest
noge of qualities, incloding aoma ^jpuently the most
oppneed. He was k vigilant and mcate man of biuioeet, of
great executive ability, with a power of looking into affaire
which inclnded a thoroogh maatery of tediou legal details,
lint with all his worldly prudence and foresight he was at
the lAine time the inoet generona and affectionate of men,
honourod and loved hy bU who knew him, with the irre-
■iatible charm that betongs to simplicity and directnesB of
character, combined with tbonghtfnl eympathy and real
kindness of heart. And, while displaying anrivalled skill,
sagacity, and flrmness in basincei transactions and practical
affain, he could promptly throw the whole burden aside, and
in the ezerciaa of his noble art piorCe with an eagle's wing
the very highest heaven of invention. That indeed was his
native air, his trae home, his pennaneat sphere, where he
BtiU rales with ondisputed sway. He occupies a throne
apart in the ideal and immortal kingdom of snpreme creative
art, poetical genins, and dramatic truth. (i. e. B.)
«(&*-).
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farfaaiipaii Iki Bitbriatt Jlf V>.> ISMt, tTsk. ■>. (n: L 8{™*
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;svi.;
SHAKESPEARE
dt«tCoi,><^le
no SHAKE
L L«k Fttr Oubn ffSiOlt Jtatanl, UTS, fgUs; B.
— S H A
'771
^K-5»
1917 tni lUD, isgn, Bra ^ l)ittriplim4 Ateoitml oT Ou
: K. r. Ootikow.lriiu 8 Ftir' •■ it ffn, Uli-iio. 18
-ratia* If (*f fffif Sf^iajid BiMtorit-Otiuai^
I. liDp. folio. M *<L 17M.
■> MS3., ITM, Sti>; B. Inluid, liftti^atvuiafltrMaiaiu.Vtn, Bio;
BflclMubDFf. f7rt#r tfjA Krp«UuA#n Fund 4r#a&Ai Sandv:'lri^E«n,
, ITOT, no. 8» ; O. CluilnwB. Aa^ami M H« &(iiMn (n ()j ».
.- — Q , ^ 8ra; [□. BmnDsnl auhiunafu, 1801, Bro ;
latffiu, lace, un. 8ro, Diw eilllloD, villi lutrodBcUon bj
J, P. Gollloi, Sw* F«4ff r«niniiiw (iU liA y f.» U3S» SrcL JTfjf J>arHai-
tan, UM, tTD, AirUir PariiiiOan, lOt, Bio, XiHiiit /^ • JffW Atflbn
n/*'. rvit. iwL «d «' •"•■ * ■■ --■ - — -■--■ •--•Ml
^JnUkiir 4^ &'t ftanf UKIf&— mtMdad u XHm w^ (., tul. ))n» (uU'
(--■"'■■>— r-"-) : H. Holnn, JnUonkfyi/S Int. new ti. ISM. tToli.
Unu mu-sb>k«i>nn): Kaiwii'i pTomm. tdliid trr Un n PdIL lara. aio
ijp. CUiclnnibL 1SB4, an^
SHALLOT. See Hobticultitrk, toL xiL p. 288,
6HAMANISH u tbe lume commonly pyen to tbe
tjpe «{ religion whicU once prevailed amoiiE all tba TJcal-
Altaic peoples, — Tungtu, Mongol, and Turkic^, — andirlijcli
Btill lives ID various ports of Dorthern Asia io spite of the
progren of Mohammedanism, Buddhimi, and Cnristianitj.
The shaman himself (in Torkiah, kam) is a wixatd-pnest,
closely akin to the medicin»-men of Bovoge tribes in otber
parts of the world. Outaiden often describe ShunaiiUD)
as pnre devil- worship, but ia reality the shaman or jtmn
deals with good as well as with evil spirits, especially
with the good apirito of ancestors (ff. Beuoioh, yoL zx.
p. 363). Among tbe Altaians, for example, the practices
of the lorceien rest on an elaborate cosmogony and a
developed doctrine of good and evil powers, the friends
and enemies of man. The hxvi has the power of inflnen-
cing these by migic ritual, and hia gift ia heredllary, — his
own ancestors, now good spirits, being the great assiatanta
of his work. His two chief functions are to perform sacri-
fice, with which 14 conjoined the procuring of oracles, and
to purify honae* after a death, preventing tbe deed man
from continning his injurioud presence among the living ;
■ee tbe full accounts of Radios, .JiuSi&m'fli, 1684, vol. il
In his magical apparatna a dmm (fiin^ilr) holds the chief
place. Tbe ceremonies have a diamatic character, the
winrd acting an ascent to the heavens or a descent to the
underworld, and holding colloquy with thur denizens in
scenes of great excitement ending io ecstasy and physical
coltspee. The epithet of devil-worshJp aa applied to the
Altaian F<luimaniBni ia so far justified that the great enemy
of man, Erlik, the king of tbe lower world, from whom
death and all evils come, ia mnch conrted, addressed aa
latber And ^ide, and prOfutiated with offering!. He ii
not, however, a power co-ordinate with the highest good
god Kaira Kan, bat is the creature of the latter, who
banished him nndergronnd for his evil deeda.
SHA^T^f AT, a Jewish tabbi, sometjraea colled Ii?}?,
" the elder," waa the contemporary of Hillbl (^.r) and
the head of a rival achooL Tbe pair ara twelfth in order
in the Pvrki Aboth, where we are informcid that Sbamma[
enjoined hia di^ciplea to make a special business of the
study of the law, to promise little and perform much, and
to receive every one in a friendly spirit Of his personal
history nothing is known. The tendency of ^lammai
and lua school is represented as having bean towards a
more Bcrupaloualy and burdenaomely literal eonstmction
of tbe law than was thought noceaaory by Eillel ; but
their differences so far as knows toroed npon very trifling
minntiie. One example of bis rigour will suffice. It ia
related oE bim in the Mit/aioA that a giandaoa having
been bom to him during tbe feast of tabernacles he caneea
the ceiUng to t>e removed and the bed to be canopied with
branches, in order tbat tlie child also might observe tbe
solemnity according to the law.
BHAHOKIN, a post borough of the United States, in
Northmnbarland county, Pennsylvania, 20 miles south-
east of Sunbury, is a great centre of tJie coal-trade^ and
had a populstbn in 1881 of 8184.
SHANGHAI, a city of China. The native city of
Shanghai ia situated in 31' IC'N. lat. and 121' 3T'E. long.,
and stands on the left or western bank of the Ewang-p^n
river, about twelve miles from the point where that river
empriea itself ixito the estuary of^ the Tang-lsze-kiaug,
The walla which surround it are about 3} miles in drcnm-
ference, and are pierced by seven gates. The streets and
thoronghfarea may be loid to illuatmte^alt Iha wtnte
SHANGHAI
featoraB of CliinMe cities— dirt, clcoenes^ and abaance of
all ■anitaiy ftirangameDta ; while the wont of any build-
ing of architecCoral or actiqnariaQ interest robs the city
of aaj redeeming traits. On the eastern face of the city,
betireen the nulls and the river, stands the princiisi!
tubuib, oS vrhich the natiTe shipping lies anchored. Th«
mtJTe town haa thas nothing to recommend it except it*
geogntpbicai poeittoa Situated in the extreme eastern
C' 'on of the province of
g-aoo, and ponaaasing
A good and commodiona
Ukchonge, as well si an
eatj aecMs to the ocean,
it fonn* the principal
Cof central China.
n the weatern wall
of the city there t .retches
away a rich allnviaJ plain
extending over 1S,000
•qoaie miles, which is
intersected by nnmeroos
waterway! and great
chains of lakao. Hie
prodncla of thii fertile
distriot, aa well as the
teu and silka of more
distant ref^oni, find
their natural outlet at
Shanghai. Tlie looms
of Soochow and the tea
pUctationB of Oaa-bwnv,
together with the ri» ''"^™-
of this "garden of China," have for nuuy jeara before
treaty days supplied the Shanghai junks with their
richest freight Bat though thus favourably titoated
M an emporium of trade Shanghai did not attract tb«
attention of foreign diplomatists Until the outbreak oE
the war of 1841, when the inhabitants purchased protec-
tion front the bombarding propensities of Admiral Parker
by the payment of a ransom of one million taela. In the
Nanking treaty, vhich was aigned in the following year,
ShaaghiLi was iiiclnded among the four new ports which
were thrown open to trade by the terms of that dociunent.
In 1813 Sir George Balfour, then Captain Balfour, was
appointed British consul, and it was on his motion that the
sito of tbe present English settlement which u bounded
on the nMtn by the Soochow creek, on the south by the
Tang-king caoal, and on tbe enat by the river, was chosen.
The site, thus defined on its three sidra (ou the wwt no
boundary was marked out), is thi^e-fifths of a mile in
length, and waa sepanted from the native city by a
narrow atrip of land which was anbaeqnently selected as
the site of the Frqncb settlement. Later again the
Americans eelablished themselves on thi other aide of the
Soochow creek, on a piece of land fronting on the river,
which there makea a sharp torn in au easterly direction.
At first merchacta appeared disinclined to take advantage
of the opportunities offered them at ShangfaaL " At the
end of the first year of iti history as an open port Shanghai
could count only 23 foreign residents and families, 1
consular flag, 11 merchants' housee, and 2 Protestant
miMJcmaries. Only forty-fonr foreign vessels had arrived
during the eame period, "i By degree*, however, the
manifold advantages sa a port of trade possessed by
Shanghai attracLed merchant* of all nationalildes ; and
from the banks of the Hwang-p'n arose lines of hongs
and handsome dwelling-houses, wliich have converted a
reed-oovered swamp into one of the finttt cities in the East,
r*f n*ilf FsfU 9f OiiM tnd Jifon, liy T, F. Msyet
The number of foreigner^ other th&n En^ieb, wbo
took up their abode in the English settlemaut at Shanghai
made it soon necessary to adopt some more catholic fora
of government than that supplied by an English codmiI
who liad control only over British aofajects, and by cmb-
moo agreement a committee of renidonta, consisting of s
chairman and six membera, was elected by the renten
laud for the purposes of general municipal admini»tra-
tion. It was expected when the council wns formed tint
tbe three settlements — tbo British, French, and Americuu
— would have been incorporated into one tnunicipalilj,
but intetnational jealouay prevented the folfilment of t£«
scheme, and it was uot until 1863 that the Americsiw
threw in their lot with the British. In 1853 the pro
sperity of the settlemeuts received a severe check is coi-
sequeoce of the capture of the native rity by a hand ol
insurgents, who held poesession of the walla from September
ii) that year to Febrnar^r 1855. This incident, though is
many ways disaatrona, was tbe exciting caiue of the eslsb-
lishment of the foreign customs service, which has prortd
of such inestimable advantage to the Chinese QovemmenL
The confusion into which the customs system wbj throi
by tbe occupation of the city by the rebels induced tbe
(Ainese authorities to reqneat the consula of Gnat
Britun, France, and tha United States to nominate tlrw
oCBcers to superintend the collection of the revenue. Tbii
arrangement was found to work to weLt that on the re-
occnpition of the city the native antboritiee proposed that
it should be made permanent, and Mr H. N. Laj, of H-M.'t
service, was in consequence appointed inspector
of the Shanghai customs. Tho results of Ur lay's a^
ministration proved so snccesaful that when ananging tba
term* of the treaty of 18S8 the Chinese willingly aasented
to the application of the same system to all tbe treaty porta,
and Ur I^y was thereupon appointed imipector-gencral of
maritime customs. On the retirement of Mr La; in ISG!
Sir Robert Hart iras appointed to the post, which h« still
(1886) occupies.
During ths period from 18M to latl the tnids of Bb.ugl^
IncTMjed bj-lsipi ind by booads, «nd Vm pro«p»rity rniimioilM
bilwwn 1880 snd 18(14, wh(n, in iddi tion to Iba ordiniuy wDinum,
th^influT of Chinna Into tb« fonlgn uttlement in conuiiiu^is «
tL* ulvuic* Hatnrd of tlia Tii.p'iDg reUli sddcd anonnooilr U
the Tshie of Und und to tha prefiti of the losMh older*. Boli a
18(t6snd B«in in IMt tha nbela adnnced to the irilli of Shinf^i^
■nd OB hpttoccMioB. wars driven bark in confuion Iff tha DrilnJj
troopi snd volualeen, aided bj the Dsril forces of Engluil •»
rnoea. It wu in rwnneiion with thl* reiiiUnCB to the tebcli it
Shanghai thitOenBnil-Gordoiisnnnied the comminil of the Cliuio"
fores, which nnder hii direction gave t. meajilng and raalilT to 1'"
hitherto somewhat boaatfal title of "ever-rielorioae anBr''JlW
auozned imder tha genanUfaip of tbe two American ailnatiii«>
Ward and BorgeTine. To Shanghai the aueiMafiU oporalioDi al
Gordon a^mt the tfibala brought temporarilj dLnfitrvni ewi^
qnanoia. With the disappeaninw of the rai-p'ingi tha rafop"
who had KinghE lafatT is the foreign •etllamonti ntnnKd to tfanj
' leaving whole ttnwta and quirtera daeerted and empft'- TM
tu InfllcteU on tha mnnioifialitj wu vcrj conaidentle. in
»*B inlanaiAad by
tea, in both, of which artldea there had bren a great it^tXinn-
■pocnlation. But, thongh the abnormal proafnrity pradowl °f
Ktraordinar? circnmaCacaa waa thDa,auddanlT bronght to an aiH
the gannitia tnde of tba port hai (tndiljr advioced, nitgect of
iHallle
stuadily *i
_'or eample, belweti
ind 1881 the groa* valna of the trade increased from \Kfii
» 141, 291, S» tula In 1383, however, thia amount I
),lB3,e31 taela, (rhila In 1381 it roee again to llS,UIi,EKI IHl*
' - ■ ,bered,hoatiliti(Bwerab.iM
In the aama jeuH,"'
. 47,807 hat« b 188S, •»>
M aB,Mfl,041 B in IS»
jgona bmW
^■IiOD■1 flDctoatii]
bales o( ailk wore B>port*d, j
S7,08t,e7E lb irf green tea.
d and daand at
57 ft. The tots! bartbta of foreign i
banghai duri
,884^VlT^«'
:oni. ui t.aiM unotuii iL,taa,A03 loni van nniun, """p-" -„
imarican, lBft,iS4 iren Japuwee, B3,n6 wars OtrtDU, '''<'*'
■are French, !4,S71 were BnasisD, and Ii,g22 were DtoiA.
Acoonling to ths latest sstimate the uatlvs populitlao « "
S H A — 8 H A
773
imbtolU.OOO.' Wtim to (hl>
. , . nntiBe to 11,000, mnd tha muud
lohibiUnta of ths hmga MttlamsDti, nnnibaruw lU'.KIO, ta
uldnl, n total ia mchiid ol S]!,6D0 aonliL
Entftiih intFiTiti la China and the largs BrltUb
banghai gsTo r
court for Chini
D laaS to thfl utabliiiliniBnt ofi
indji
pau,-
icEdrcLi
.rby
id Japan. AJ
> tH«d bafore ■ aiiiea
a Chintae oBldll aod a
iht JEST JSH XiOi a
. dail J,
^ , ._. _. — — j« WBhj tiifd
t Ihia tribDoal, and W oirU (usa,~la 8S of wblch caaea no
m a aam than £00,000 wu IhtoItmL
A handwmii liaod nma along tb« tirar ftantagi of ths thne
fdnsign aettlsmenta, and ths public bnildingi^ •apacUll; In the
Itrituh settlement, an large and fins. The Fathednl, which ia
ballt in tho ODthiEi atfle, la anotable siunpls of Sir Qilbett Boott'a
akill as an architKt, and tha nmnioilal offices, clnb'lioDss, and
boajiitala an all admlnble In their va;. Shanf^ is nav eon-
neoCnd with Peking bj a tslegTaph, wliich vill doabtlsaa befon
long bo aapplemeutsd bf a railirij. Some Tean ago a abort
rail nay nu Uid down between Shanghai and Woonng bf some
fonignora who wiahed to force tha pace at whloh Ghiu waa pro-
riaing, Bnt ths tims had not corns when inch • (tap would
tdopted b; the Chinou, and ailir a few w«k^ eilalenoe the
plant wu bon^hC bi the □atiTeanthorltiaaand ihipped to formou,
where it hu lines boon allowed to nut and rob The olimate of
Shanghai ii GBaentlatljr nnbealth)'. It li« low, and, thongh tha
early winter ie onjojablc^ anow, and Im being occa^onally sesn,
tho anminer montha an awalteringly hot Fenr, dyienteiy, and
choloni an onfortaoately common eomplainti, and U ia onlr b;
fmiuent trips to Japan and Chefoo that the liiidsnti ars sbls to
proaarra health and stnDgth, Bnt, notwithatuidinB trm db-
adnntaga, the uoaition occupied by Shangbsl M > oenbs of tnde,
aitnated aa it u it tht moatb of ths ^ang-ins-hiaii^ ia tba
IminsJiats neighbourhooil of the rlcheat ailk and t«a dlatiict^ and
in proiimlty to Japan and the nswly-opaosd porta of Corea,
inthsnuan. (O. K. D.)
SHAKNON. Sm Irklaxd, vol. ziU. p. 316.
BHANS. This DRme u applied to a number of for
tlie most part Mmi-independent comnnmitiei oocnpying a
region bonndod on ths W. by Barmab and Aoam, S. and
N.K bj the Chinese province of Tna-iian, E. t^ Toog-
king, and S. bj Siao) (see Plate IX.). Ethixdogicallf
tiio race haa a mnoh wider extensioD, indading the
Siamese (see Bum), and also, Booording to Qamier and
Colqnhoan, the hill tribee aconnd the Ton^king delU
and rarioaa tribes of Etrang-tnng ana Swang-oe, and
extending across tha north of Bnnnah into ftrmnm It
is also iTidely difftuad throngb sontb-weetem Taa-nan.
Terrien de lAconperie eooaidera it allied to tba Uoo, the
lIoDg, and the Fa, aod places its eiirly home ia the
mountains north of Sze-chnen, whence, not baring amal-
gatnated with tha growing Chinese empire^ it waa gnidaally
forced aonthwards. Although the level of dvilimtion and
the pnrity of their Bnddhiam nvy oonddenbly among tha
diSereot branches of the race, there ia everywhere a
remackabla resemblance in appearance, manners, costoms,
and polity. Tha traditipo* cnrnnt of their origin, too,
tbongb localized bj each in its own habitat, are closely
similar. This great homogeneity seems the more remark-
able in that the race is found not only living noder many
different political systems, — ij., either indepeadent, or
subject to Burmah, China, or Siam, — bnt often in com-
maoiciea isolated by ifioontain ranges, inhabited by tribes
of different race and charaoter. All this seenu to point to
a political nnity in earlier times.
The Shans probably appeared on the npper Irawadi
nearly two thonsand years ago, bat Btlrmese and Bhan
traditione agree that they were established some centuries
Bsrlier on the npper wktera of the Shweli and on the
Balwin and adjacent valleys on the eooth-wett frontien
cf YoQ-nui. Hen. ftt all ereDts, in tbe 7th ud 8th can-
tnries, wo hear of the growth of that power which,
temporuily broken by Burmah in the 11th centnry,
re«ched its highest developmBnt in the 13th. This Shan
empire, known by the classicaJ Indian name of Ksnaambi,
— corrupted after the punning Chiueaa fashion into Ko-
shan-pyi, i.e,, nine Shan states, — was a confederacy of
about tan states, known among themselves by the name
of the most powerful member, Man, or Muang MaiL A
great leader, Sam Lung fbo, brother of the king of Hao,
overran and conijuered Upper Assam from tbe Satiya* in
1229, the dynasty lasting until the Bribisb annexation.
These Ahoms still inhabit the Assam districts of Sibwtgar
and south and east lAlchimpur, thoogh ptoued □□ from
the south-west by the Bengalis^ whom they despise as a
black and inferior race, preferring to associate with the
Chinese, whom they regard as congeners, and as the
greatest race in the world.
This 13th and ths following centni^ also nw To): to
the east and Arakan to the west invaded, Burmah being
then weakened by the Mongol invasion ; Chieng Hai and
other Bontbem Shan states were also annexed, and
"AyntliiB" (i.«., Siam), Cambodia, and Tavoy are claimed
by the Bhan historians as among tbeir conqnesta, the
Shan influence beiog felt even in Java. From the 14th to
the i6th century wars with both Burmah and China were
frequent, and Bhan dynestiee ruled at times in Barmah;
bnt in 10SG~G2 the Burmese conquered Mogaung, the
chief province of Man, when Buddhism is recorded to
have been introdnoed : probably only a reform of religion
is meant. In 1604 the districts now known as the Chinese
Shan Btatea, Le,, the heart of the Man empire, lying
chiefly in tbe To-peng basin, east of Bamo, — a town whose
population also is mainly Bhan, — were finally conquered
by China, Mogaong remaining independent on sufferance
till absorbed by Burmah in 1796.
Zimmd or Chieng Mai (indndiog Kiang Eai, Kiang Ben,
Logong and Lapong), whoce capital it now an important
and well-built town, and Tien Chang on the east of the
He-kong, were both great Shan centreii, warring, with
voriotis fnrtunes, with Burmah and Cambodia and with
each other, till subjected by the growing power of Kud
late in the last centnry.
The Burmese Shan Stateti, especially those more remote
from MsndsJay, have latterly become practically inde-
pendent; and, the tyranny which led to extensive south-
ward migration having thus ceased, the stream is partly
returning northwards. Descendants, too, of the populo-
deported by Biam from Kiang Ben about a hundred
years ago are now by the king's permission retaming to
people tiiat fertile territory. The Burmese plan with the
Shans was to govern by fostering internal dissensions, and
they are bitterly hated, while the Chinese are in an equal
decree liked tuid respected. The great Bhan state of
Kiang Hung hoe now accepted the dictation of China, to
whom in foot, like some of Its lesser neighbonra, it has
always paid eertein taxes, while acknowledging the supre-
macy of Burmah. Kiang Tung to the south, which bos
been Burmeee for over a centnry, has lately made over-
tures to Kam, though not forgetting the injuries inflicted
by that power in 1854. The numerous ruins of .great
cities over the whole region from Chieng Mai to Kiang Tung
testify to former wealth and proeperity, though they may
not have all existed contemporaneously. In Luang Pra-
bans in the north-east, on tbe other hand, tribes of a partly
Chinese race a^ pressing southwards. It u remarkable
how many of tne conquering irruptions of south-east Aeia
were doe mainly to the eviction of such conquerors by
some stronger power. laceaaant wars and vast deporta-
tions have tended to oeumilate the various ^lopiilatioiis of
aU this r^fiott.
77-t.
S H A — S H A
e^hahunttttbganntAhj t Ittua {eluiaj/hf/a), or Bnprenis
eUoF, lidad V ■ munoil, >nd ofttn b; ■ oMljutor. Where lh«
aliuu mra In liumsilut* cunloot w<th ana ot their ^mt neiglibaan
epuldni; ireiierBlly, cLviliAtlob incntaca niLthwirdL Kollgion
ia uomiually Diiil<lliuL and ths pria*H, thoiub Ibeir liin tn
Dfliullj for from comcL havo ffraaf iufliuiica ; umplea, uvea, aod
otlier localttiog aiuiml to Boildba tn throngHl wtt)
liboral vith their onVringa; but tha praotieal exsTfd
conauta eUioajr in ttTota to pni]ilti(tg or anrt ths
of tha aaU oc f'hai, ilamoaa uid agurila snrviibgn jimsnt,
whom all wciJenla aod illDsvaa ara attribotaJ. ' ' ■•^ '
baddhft. varioua iiuagea, among whio'
t'iK
Alonj; with tha
ths body-
-natural objaota of iTHcial farm, <.;., of acme part o
-a kept Id tha llouaa to arart diaaaie. Uedical treat
... a bamad
Thua, too, cHiiaala hi
ShaniiuvanoBaadliiat
Chaitutlre* dsported to a diatuics.
iDiiiiant [>lu« III Icffil practice. The
t prajULlim agunat killiDg poultry orcattla
lorunu, uuL uKE Duiuf inUD-QiiDHe and Che Malaya do Dot UH miUi.
Sbnrj.ii guunl 1 th" aapply ia reorolted puily bj raida on
naiuhonuiag hill tribea ; tha Inda-Ctiinns pnctica ot alararj Tor
debt «1bo f ntalla. Ths alarea an not ill-treatad, and are duafl)'
amptojeil in Gald labonr by tlw chaoa^ who own <rnat nomben.
In ■ppeBnaca the North Bhaoa an aallow, bat hardly duker than
South Earopeana, aod ara chanctsilied by > short broad Aat taca,
iHOrv alongatad and neanr tha Tartar type In the upper i laaaiia ;
Hiay hara rad cheeks, brown eyea hardly obliqns, litutk hair,
nose almost annillna, and are rf madinni heiflfal. The Ckiness
Shan) an mack tmallsr, with aqoat Sgnia^ pnanlDent cheek'bonti,
Tbt pnclics of tattooing pnraHa In •ome dMiict*, down to the
npper watrrs at the Ue-nam, and it oocurs also among ths I*as in
the eonth east, tha tattooed being known aa the bUok-bellled, the
non-tattoowl aa tha whlte-bdllel The Bhana an all haidiar and
man manty than their onigenen the Siameea, and thej tn also
man sedata and mon aelFpaeaeesed than tha Burmeaa. Uoat
tranUan apeak of them as bran, Uendlr, aocW, and hoiipitable,
but a good deal oX ths oppnniint and emaltr naEnral to a aemi-
harbarons oonditlon pranlla. Thay an cleanly and fond of
bathing, tha towna and Villagea betnc iDpplted with hambaa
aiioeduct*. Dnmkeunaaa, except at featirala, ia nxe. Oembling
S common, whole hmillea being aold Into alavarj to par dobta
oa contiaotsd. PabUo nmiog and the aale of apirita and
opium an monopollea. They a^nr anch utietie ttate In the
faeantlTnl coloun of their taitila bbrla. the uesdlawork and
embroiderj of tha wonisn, and ths designing ud eieoatioD of the
.;i . i.i.i. ^ in jpTofndon. They show great
1 by Br Hott Hallett to wekoi
, . ided to connect their coontij wi
Uanlmein, croaaing thence to Oahang or aoma neighbouring poi
on tha Ua-nam, and on thnngh the nrtile Talleya and platsan*
its nppar tribntariei to the Chinese tronUar.
Tea ia fonnd, both wild and cnltirated, from Zfannj to Kiang
Tnn^ Opinm la arported to llaodalaT and to China. Indian
oorii|^ engar, and tobacoo an ^rown In tha hnr gronnda^ and
b-i^a
Teak hae I<
id indigo (whlDli d» powe wildln tha iiillt).
freely m tha Ulla
long been worked by An^o-Bu
'. tha Toong-yen and usighbonring Tallrra, an
waat oTOie Ks-plng ; W it
^Uua),
TbsSl
Ahom(A
bound '
FS annnd Eiang 8en ud l^gong, and
"'im, where, hawe7ar, it ia of inferior
and inn, copper, and ailTer-iead
langna^ an claealfied bf Dr Cuihing aa follow) ;—
(Aasam), eitmot i Ehamtl, on the uraier Irawadi and other
north of Botmih \ theChlnase (HanjShann,
dilTcr bu
All hi>e
xnu Buao ; Shana proper, between the mountains which
the Burmaaa pUlna In the aaat and the Ue-kong, and between
1 19° N. lat 1 l*oa to the aonth of thia, from IB" north to the
I of Biam ; and laatly, Siamese. Ths Uat two, aa apokeu,
■t littl^ and ths three othen may be gnaped together,
sepante alphabets (nlated, howaTer, In form), einpt the
auuion i and, ths spelling being phonetio, tha or^ognphy ii
telenbly flied. Bnt it Is a tonal langnaga, and ths Towel ngna
an few, eo that eome hare two or three *alnea aaaigned thcnL
Then an a good many Tali worda dna to Buddhiam, many Bur-
U)B« word) in the diatrict) nnder Burmeaa inUnenca, and a laij^a
forel^ elumeat in the Chinees Shan staCa of Ho-tha, nhen the
hue ia perhaps not fundamentally Biiiui.
■« Her EllM. /Mrsdugrr Skriri ^ Itj BUart tf On Smn (a P»w
m'^'pk^i n"* '"■*** Oaloiiaa, IMl ^Tata, Oluttrr ff ^natp-faJlnai Wnnb
lla.4alatlt Utmiu, ColiiElioeii. 4lHii#U>n«t;^CaabliHt.'uB 'iaiwarT
^„jrjd«»u,), Bs*. Tmflm ■>*< K^tm*.; Nr A. narrt, ""JTf ."^
SHARK. Tha lyateiwitic jioaition of tira gmp ol
SWka or SelacAoidti in tbe diua of FiiJioa, tbeir cUwin
tion, and their geoeml eitemal and niiatotnical cbmcta-
Utict have been already sofficiently noticed ondor loam-
OLOQT (voLxiLpp. 630a7.),ftiid weluiTBheretoioppleBal
thftt article only by a f oUer rafecenca to th« natniml Matnj
of the inoT« common and more importent ^pM tt Ik
group.
Shorka are almost excluHTely inhabitant* of the ■«,
but Boma ■pedes freely enter the moutba ot large rira%
and one apeciei (Cardkariai jfaKffetieut) occtm trtqixiitj
high up in the large riven of India, and in tbe T^
about Baghdad, at a diatance of 350 miles from the Peniu
Qulf in a straight line, and haa even becm leportod fra
a lalce in Viti Levn (Fiji lolondii) which ia shut oil htm
the BM by a cataract. Sharks are found in all aeai ; mM
nnmennis betvrebn the tropica, they become scMcer leyood,
a few only reaching the Arctic circle ; it id not known bi*
far they advance southwards in tho Antarctic n^^ion. AH»
gather some hondred and fifty different species have Ik*
described.
With regard to their habits many axe littoral speuti
ths inqority pelagic, and a few are known to beloa; to
the bathybial fauna, having hitherto been obtained Am
to a depth of 600 fathoms.
lAtlaral ShitTkt.—T\M littonJ forma an of mwU na
and generally known under the nam« of "dog-fiahi,'
"bonnda," &e. Some peUgic sharks of larger sin akt
live near the shore on certain parts of % coas^ but iIhj
ate attracted to it by the abundance of food, uid an n
frequently foond in the open aea, which ia their biiili-
place ; therefore we shall refer to thera when we ifd'l
the pelagic kind*.
The minority of the littoral ipedea liTe on the bcttra^
imes close inshore, and feed on amkll marine aniaak
any animal substance. The following are d**NTUij
of special notice.
The Tope (Gain-, ,
England, Ireland, and of the taom eontfaem partttf
e Tope (Galtut) is common on the coasts not oilj of
.with ^^
],and N^
Europe, bnt also of South Africa, Califra-nia, Tsunsii^
and Kew Ze^nd. Its teeth are equal in both
jaws, of rather small size, flat, triangular, with ^
the point directvd towards the one side, a
with a notch and denticulatioua on Uie shorter
side (fig. 1). It is of a nniform slatj-grey ^
eolonr, and attains to a length trf fl feet The ^'^A
female brings forth some thirty livii^ yonng at ^ — C3
one birth in Hay. It cannot be regarded as a '
very destraetive fish, but become* tioobleaome ^ ii^i,
at timea to fishermen by taking their bait and •^^.•'■^
driving away other fish they deure to catch. ''
The Hounds proper (MudtiM) posse** a very diCa«<
dentition, the teeth being tmall, obtuse, n^nmeioiii^inaDH
in several rows like pavement (fig. 2). f^ve or ni q«<><'
are known from the shores of the
variou* temperate and snbtropical
sea*, one {if. viUyaru) being common
on the coaats of Great Britain and the j
United States on the Pacific aa well as J
the Atlantic aide. It ii of a nniform '
grey colour or aparinf^y spotted with ''
white, and atUiina to a, length of 3 or 4 feet The JwnS
about twelve in number, are tmnjght forth alive io'J'^
ember. It ia a comparatively harmless fish, whicii '*"
on shells, cnwtacaans, and decomjioeing animal lubitaM*
Of the Dog-Finhus proper {Srgl/itait. CiilatrfUiiM,^
some twenty species are known, which are spread over "-"^
all the trmpentte and tromcal seax. Their teotb an ^
in several series, with a longer pointed cusp in ti' '"'^
and generally one or two eioaUor onoe on each tiii' v'r
3 and S). Th«; ue alt oripuotu, timir oblong egg-Bhella
being prgdacnd at eochcorusr iiitoa loog thread bjwhich tha
egg u Faatened to some fixed olijecL Some ot ike tropical
B|HiciM are ornamented with
a pretty pattern of colomtion. ^
The two British ipeciefi, the
Leiser and thelArger Spotted
Dog-Fiefa {Sc. eataeiila and
Sc catului), belong to the
moel common fishes of the
coast, and ara often con-
fonnded with each other.
Btit the formeriaSnel; dotted "*•— ™"="*r«""«««*
with btown above, the latter bariag the Bame part&covered
with larger roonded brown epots, some ot which are nearl;
7V'
.as large as the eye. Aa regards sue, the latter exceeds
eomewhat the othergpeciea, attaining to a lengtli of 4 feet
Dogfishes noay become
extremely troublesome (
by the large numbers in
which the; congregate at
fishing stations; nor do
they compensate (or the
injury they cause to
fishermen, being but
rarely used as food, ex-
cipt at certain seasons
bj the poorer classes
of the Uediterranean ■
countries, in China and
Ja[ian, and in the Ork-
neys, where they are dried CIO.^-00Ilfl»lllK■MlDdBIlM■lC«Tltta•
for home consumption. ' *""
He Black-monthed Dog-Fish {PruHamt mtlanoitomui) is
another European species which is rarely canght on the
British coasts, and is recognized by a serioa of small, flat
spines with which each side of the upper edge of the candal
Gn is armed.
The Tiger-Shark {Stegoiloma tigrinitm) is one of the
commonest and handsomest sharks in the Indian Ocean.
The ground colour is a brownish-yellow, and the whole fish
is ornamented with black or brown troDsrerse bands or
roonded spots. It is a littoral speciea, but adult specimens,
which are from 10 to IS feet long, are not rarely met far
from land. It is easily recognized by its enormonsly long
bladalike tail, which is half as long as the whole fish. The
tooth are small, trilobed, in many series. The fourth and
fifth gill-openings are cloee together.
The genus Crouorhitna, of which three spedee are kDown
from the coasts of Australia and Japan, is lecoarkable as
the only instance in this group of fishes in which the io-
tegnments give these inactive ground-sharks, whilst they lis
concealed watching for their prey, what may be called a
" celative " rather than a " protective" reeemblance to their
■urroandings. Skinny frond-like appendages are developed
noar the angle of the month, or form a wreath round the
side of the h«ad, and the irregular and varied coloration of
the whole body closely assimilates that of a rock covered
with short vegetfthle and coralline erowth. This peculiar
development reminds us of the simi^ condition in the tea-
devil {Lt^iknu), where it serves also to conceal the fish from
its pr^, rather than to protect it from its enemiea. The
specioa of CroMorAittM grov to % leogth of 10 feet
The BO-called Port Jackson Shark (Calraeim) is likswise
a littoial form. Beeidei the common species (C. pMijiyi),
thfee other closely allied kinds from the Indo-I^ific ate
known. Tiua genus, which is the only existing type of a
separata family, is one of special interest as similar forms
occur in Primary and Secondary strata. The jaws are
armed with small obtuse teeth in front, which in young
individnaU are pointed, and provided with from three to
five GUapa. The latOTal teeth are larger, pad-like, twice as
broad as long and arranged in oblique series (fig. 7), — an
mastication of crustaceans and bard-shelled
fossil forms far exceeded in uze the living which scarcely
attain t^i a length of 5 feet The shells of their eggs are
not rare in collections, being found thrown ashore like those
of onr dog-fishes. The shell is pyriform, with two broad
lamellar ridges each wound edgewise five times round it
(fig. 8).
The Spiny or Piked Dog-Fish {AMn&iai} inhabits, like
the m^oritj of littoral genera of sharks, the temperate
seas of both the northern and southern hemispheres. For
some port of the year it lives ia deeper water than the
sharks already notice!^ bat at uncertain irregular times it
appears at the surface and close inshore in almost incredible
Dumbera. Couch says that he has heard of 20,000 having
been token in a scan at one time ; and in March 1S68 the
newspapers re]>orted a prodigious shoal reaching westward
to Uig whence it extended from 20 to 30 miles seaward,
and in on unbroken phalanx eastward to Moray, Banff, and
Aberdeen. In the deep fjords of Norway, and indeed
at every station of which a shoal of these fishes has taken
temporary posseadon, line-fishing haa to be suspended
during the time of their visit, as they cut the lines with
tlieir KiH«B-Uke t«etlk. Aa expreaaed by tlie name^ ^imq
SHARK
fiilt«f n dutingabhed fmn the other firitiA littonl
•hufei ^ each of the two dorsal- fiiu bung armed ia trout
by an acute spioe. TbaT do not ponaM an anal fin.
iWr teeth an rather small, placed in a single seriea, with
th» point lo mocb timed aside that the inner margin of
the tooth forms the entting edge (fig. 9). The apinj dog-
fish are of a grejish colour, with some
whitish spots in yoong specimens, and.
attain to a length of 3 or 3 feet. They
are vlTiparoiu, the young being pro-
duced tbronghont the sommer months.
It is stated that in the northern islands
of Great Britain they are dried for
food, and th&t their lirers yield a large
qnantitv of oil h». t._T«iii o( Atm^
FinaUy, we haTe to notice among Mmraitmrii.
the littoral sharks the "Angel-Fish" or "Honk-Fish"
(AAuu iquatina), which, by its broad flat bead aod ex-
panded pectoral fins approaches id geoeral appearance the
rays. It occurs in the temperate seas of the southern as
well as the northern hemisphere, and is not uncommon on
sandy parts of the coast of Engknd and Ireland. It does
not seem to exceed a length of 5 feet, is not need as food,
and is too rare to do any perceptible ii^ory to other fish.
It is said to produce aboat twenty yonog at a birth.
Ptiagie Shark: — All these are of large site, and some
are snrpassed in bnlk and length only by the larger kinds
of cetaceans. Those armed with powerfnl cutting teeth
are the most fortoidable tyrants of the ocean aod dangeronii
to man, whilst others, which are provided with nnmerons
but very small teeth, feed on sm^ fishes only or marina
invortebnites, and are othsrwise almost harmless and of a
timid disposition, which causes them to retire into the
solitudes of the open sea. On this account we know very
little of their life; indeed, some are known from a few
individuals only which have accidentally come ashore. All
pelagic sharks have a wide geographical range, and many
are found in all boos within the limits of the equatorial
lone, — some being almost cwmopoUtaa AU seem to be
Tivi]Nin)ua.
Of the more romarkablo forms which ws propose to
notice here the genus mcut abnadantly represented in
B|>ocioa and individuals is CMtharia*. Ferliajis nine-teuths
of tho sharks of which wo rattd in books of travel belong
to this gemu. BetwMO thii^ nd for^ speaei htn
bean distJngniAed, all of irtiich ate found in tropical nu
They an the sharks which ao readily attoid themselni ig
sailing voMiilii, following them for weeks, and thai eikil«t
log an sadtuaaoB of mnacolar power scarcely found is uj
otter class of animals. Others aSect more the nei^boir
hood of land, congregating at localities where natoreixili!
vicinity ol man provides them with an abundant sDppljd
food One of the most oommoD spede^ and one of tbat
"Which extend far into the temperate cones, is the Blat
Shark {Carckaniu glauetu), of which omall q)ecimeiu (t
to 6 feet long) are frequently cau^t on the aoatli oadi
of En^and and Ireland. Other species of Carduria
attain a length of 25 feet. The month of all ii trmd
with a aeries of large fiat triangular teeth, "which hint
sharp, smooth, or ■erral«d edge 7fig. 10).
Oaltoeenh is likewise a large shark very dongeroni U
tn, differing from the preceding chiefly by hsnng th
onter side of its teeth deeply notched. It hss long mcs
known to occur in the North Atlantic, close to the Arctic
Ocean {6, arvtic¥i), but its existence in other paiU Ui
been ascertained within a recent period ; in fact, it ttaf
to be one of the moat common and daiogerous ahsTki i^
the Indo-Pacifie, the British Hnaeum having obtuHJ
specimens from Mauritius, £nrrachee, Madras, siul <^
west coast <rf AnatialiL
Hammeriieaded Bhoifa (Xygma) are sharks in Tbidi
the Ulterior portion of the head is produced into a lobt os
each side, the extremity of which is occupied by the ej^
The relation of this unique configuration of the head to a*
economy of the fish is onknown. Otherwise these dun'
resemble Oareharim, and are equally formidable, but tWji
to be more sUtionary in their habits. They occur in ul
tropical and subtropical seas, even in the MedilMWW
where Z. mnUnu b tiy no means nre. To the Indui
OceaD it is common, and Cantor stales tl
this species may be often seen soceoding ,
from the clear blue depths of the oi
like a great cloud.
The Porbeagles (Lttwrna) differ from
their dentition
11), the teeth being large, lancao- '^'^^^^
„„ in shape, not adapted for cutting,
but rather tor seizing and holding the piey, which cotuub
chiefly in fish. These shaiks ore therefore sat d>ogtnw
SHARK
777
to Dwd ; 4t leMt^ ther* it no ImtenM known uf a penou
lunog beoii attacked by tbe apeciei ootnmoa on the Britiih
coMt {!,. corTwbica). It grows to a length of 10 feet, aod
tftogea to New Zealand and Japan. See toL liz. p. CIS.
To the gBQiu Carc/ianxl<m pacticolar interaat is attached,
4>ec(Hiw tiQe single still eii«ting Bpecisa is tbe moat fonu-
idable of all sliarka, as were those which preceded it in
Tertiaij times. The existing species (C. rondiUtii) occurs
ia almost all tropical and eubtrapical sms, bnt seems to he
Terging towards extinction. It is known to attain to a
length of 40 feet. The tooth figured here of the oatural
ute (fig. 12) ia taken from a jaw miicb shrunk in drying,
but still 20 ioches wide
in its transTerse dia-
meter, and taken from
a specimen 36J feet
long. The extinct spe-
cies must Itave been
(till more giganldo in
bulk, as we may judge
from teeth wblcli are
folind in the crag or
which have been
dredged up from the
bottom of the PaciSc
Ocean by the naturalists
of the " Challenger "
expedition, and which
are 4 inches wide at tbe
base and 5 inches long
measured along their
lateral margin. In
some Tertiary strata theee teeth are extremely abundant, so
much so that — for inslance, in Florida — tbe strata in which
diej occtu are quarried to obtain the fossil remains (or ex-
are captured on the Britiab coaat, bat whidi ii common
in all the temperate seas ol the northern and southern
heraispherea, is readily recogoiied by its extremely slender
tsil, the length of which exceeds that of tbe remainder of
tbe body. Its teeth are small, flat, triangular, and without
eerrature (fig. 13 ; the single tooth is of the natuial sixe).
It follows the shoals of herrings, pilchards, and sprats in
their migrations, destroying incredible niunbers and [re-
qaently iiynring the nets l>y getting entangled in them.
When feeding it nses the long tail in splashing the surface
of the water, whilst it swims in gradually decreasing
circles round a shoal of fishes which are thus kept crowded
together, falling an tiusj prey to their enemy. Sometimes
two thr«ehen may be seen working together. Statements
that it has been seen to attack whales and other large ceta-
ceans rat npon erroneous observations ; its dcntitiau is
mnch too weak to bite through their skin, although, as
Couch says, by one splash of its tail on the water it may put
a herd of dol^ins or porpoiseB to flight like to many hares.
The same effect may be prodnced by the splosh of an oar.
The thresher attains to a length of 1 5 feet, tbe tail included.
The Basking Shark (SdacAe maxima), sometimes erro-
neously called " Sun -Fi^" is the largest fish of tbe North
Atlantic, growing to a length of more than 30 feet. It is
one of the few types of Bborks which np to a very recent
time were considered to be pecoliar to the North-Atlantic
fauna; but Prof. F. M'Coy has just recorded its occur-
rence on the Australian coast, a specimen 30 feet long
having been captured in November I8B3 at Porthind, on
the west coast of Victoria. Tbe mouth is of an extra-
ordinary width, and, like the gill-cavity, capable of Kreat
expansion, so as to ens' le the fish to ^ie at one gulp on
enormous quantity of the small fish and other marine
creatnrea on which it suhoista. Also the gill-openings are
of great width. TIb teeth ore very small, oamerouB,
freqneatly seen during the summer months, generally in
companies, at a distance of from three to a hundred miles
off the shore, it ia chased by the more courageous of the
fishermen for the sake of the oil which is extracted from
the liver, one fish ]rielding from a ton to a too and a half.
Its captnre is not unattended with danger, as one blow
from the enormously strong toil is sufficient to stave in
the sides of a large boat. The simple method used ft
present of harpooning the fish entails much patience and
loss of time npon the captors, as the fish generally sinks to
the bottom and sulks for many honn before it nses again
in a more or less exhausted condition ; and the nse of more
modem appliances cotdd not &il of securing more speedy
and better suoeess. The iMsking shark is gregarious,
and moiijr individuals ma^ be Men in calm weathM lying
(which it exceeds in siis), and an inhabitant of the Indo-
Pacific Ocean, is Ehinodon lypiau. In fact, so far as our
present knowledge goes, it is the largeet of aJI sharks, as it
is known to exceed a length of GO fee^ but it is stated to
attain that of 70. Tbe captures of only a few specimens
are on record, viz., one at Hie Cape of Good Hope, one or
two near the Seychelles, where it is known as the "chagrin,"
one on the coast of California, and one (quite recently) on
the coast of Peru. He snout is extremely short, brood,
and flat, with the mouth and nostrils placed at its extrem-
ity ; the gill-openings vet; wide, and the eye very small.
The teeth ore, as in the basking Bhork, extremely small
and numerons, conical in shape. No opportanitj should
be lost of obtaining exact information on this shark,
lie Qreenlaod Shark (JjMiarpw bonalu) belongs to the
XXL — 98
778
8 H A B E
■kino bnul; m the qtikfld (log-U, tat grows to % mwHi
krger litB, ■pecimaiu 10 feet long being fraqoeotly met
with. The two doml fin* ate unall and deetitata of
ejdnat. The teeth (fig. 11) in the upper jaw «re amtH,
DUTow, conicftl is ihape ; thoee of the lower flat, Arranged
in MTwal aeries, one on the top of the other, so that ml;
the nppermost forma the sharp dental edge of the jaw.
The points of
these lower
teeth are so
math tanied
aside that the
inner margin
onljentOslliB
dental edge.
The Qteen-
land shark is (
an inhabitant .
of the Arctic y
tefpOBB, some-
times sliayinK I
to the loti-
tndes of Great
Britain and of
Cape Cod in
Ae western Atlantic j it is one of the Kieatcot enemies of
the whale, which is often found with large pieces bitten
oQt of the toil by this shark. Its Yoraeity is so gnat that,
as Scoreaby tello ns, it is abeolutolj fearless in the pieaence
of man whilst engaged in feeding on the CBFcase of a
wholes and that it will allow itself to be stabbed with a
Ibdco or knife without being driven away.
The Spinous Shark {EchimirAutiu ipinotiu) is readily re-
■ cognizad by the short bulky form of ita body, its short tul,
and tho lawe rotud bony tubercles which ore scattered all
over its body, each of which is i«ised in the middle into a
pomted conical spin; . More frequent in the Heditemnean,
It has been found also not rery rarely on the English coasts
and near the Capo of Good Hope. It is always living on
the ground, and probably descends to some depth. It does
not seem to exceed a length of 10 feet.
BathvbvU SharJa. — Sharks do not appear to have yet
reached the greatest depths of the ocean ; and so far as we
know at present we have to fix the limit of their verUcal
distribution at 500 fathoms. Thoee which we find to have
teaded ot to pass the 100 fathoms line belong to generic
hrpes which, if they include littoral species, are groond-
diark^ — as wa generally find the. bottom-feeders of our
litloial fauno much mpra BtroDgly represented in the deep
•ea than the snifoce swimmers. All bebog to two families
only, the Scylliida and Spinaadx, the littoral members of
whidk live lor the' greater port habitoaUy on the bottom
and probably frequeoUj reach to the 100 fathoms Una
Distinctly bathybiol species are two small dog-fishcH, —
Spinax ffrtrnvialu* from 120 fathonuj and Seylliim
aatacau from 400 fathoms, both on the sonth-weat coast
of South America ; also Cemlnucyltmi ymnvlatum from
21S fathoms io the Antarctic Ocean, whose congener from
the coast of Oteealand probably descends to a rimilar
depth. The sharks which reach the greatest depth
recorded hitherto belong to the genus CtntropAonu, of
which some tea species are knawn, all from deep water in
the Nnth Atlantic, Mediterranean, the Homcca and
■Taonnese seas. Hie JaponeM species were diacoravd by
the natoralists of tba "CSialleiieer' on Um ByoloBMi
gronikd oS Inosima in 346 fathoms, Dr S. P. Vii^
found C. ealoCepu at a still greater deptli on tbe enUld
PortngoL The fiahennen of S«tnbal fish for thcMslwtfa
in 400 or 500 fathoms, with a line of aoma 600 bthcot
inlengtL "Thesliarkscan^t wwefromS lo4ts«t ko^
and when they were hanled into the boat fell down isto
it like oo many dead pigs*; in fac^ on being npi^
withdrawn from the great pressure under i^ch thsj
lived they were killed, like other deep-sea fi^n imto
similar cdrcumstaacee. It is noteworthy that the orpni*-
ation of none of these deep-sea sharks has nsdetgoM
such « modification as wonld lead ns to infer that lluj
English coast. A member of this family nss been f
oently discovered in Japan, and is so scarce thst cslf
two Epecimens are known — one in the mnsenm ^ Uffl-
bridge, U.&, and the other in the British Masnim. H
was named by its first describer, E Qamun, CU""!-
do*Aic/au OB^wrtB (fig. 16). It resembUs somenW
in shape a conger, and differs from the Sottdam i"^
by ita elongate body, wide lateral and termiDsl JBoaik,
extmnety wide gill-oFonings, and peculiarly f"""'^'^
The teeth are similar in both jaws, each cooip<wd w
three slender cuned cusps separated by a pair of i™"
menUry points, and with a brood base directed is"-
ifaids. These teeth resemble some fossils of the Mid4l>
Devonian, deacribed as CWodtu^ Mid NwthABsn'*''
S H A— S H A
779
tutaialula ragud, Avtlon, thii fi«h aa "the Matt
lifiog ty^ of TBrtebrate.' The Svtidam an my pro-
bMj groDwl-ahftrkt, perbap* detoending into deep mter ;
and, althongli nothing pc«itive ia known at i«ewiit of
the habita of CAtaPtydotlaeKtu, the fact that titia linga.-
lai type haa escaped lo long the obaemtioD of the
nnmeroni coUecton in Japan reodeia it probable that
it inhabits depths, tbe expbnrtioa ot which haa been
initiatad only neently.
A tun word! luTe to b* addad with nTtmu» to ttw nunomio
UM of ib.il gtoap of l«kea. Thair ntilltir to mu It iodgniHtut
in oompuiioD with tha haras thn- eommit unong food-Bshn uid
■t adwriea, tod with th* Ion ot Bfe wMoh !■ Duuad by tba Uigv
Idndi. M manttoiud aboira, kmm at tha nuUn d(^-fiahii an
(•tan at nrtdn mmou bj t^ npton, ml br th» poorac eUaaaa
of tha popqlatlan. An inttoior kiad of oil, diMly Msd for tha
(dnltantioBof cod-UTBTOil.laMtcaet*don ■UDMof tha norUian
Rihiiu-rtatioiia fiom tha Urar ol the ipUud d<«-fliluia, aad ocaa-
aionaHj of tha lugar ihaib. Cabinat-mtlMra nwka aitenalTa nn
ot durk't^ikin nndn tha nuu ot "■hj^raan'te OMathiiw Or
Mltthlu wood. Tbi) duwnan ii obttioad tram tptOM <inefe m
oar dc«-fi(hM) whoat akin M eaTerad with nnall, pcdntwl, oloaal*-
t, aakiifiBd papilla, whilat Tary Toogb akiiu, la which th< papilla
I* pmroaa. Tha driad fina at
if nn) form ia India and China an Inportut utiola
• Chiuaa pnparing gabUn bom than, and Dfing
whiiat Tory Tongb
an urge or oiuai, •» oaaleaa fot tbfi f
ahaiiu (ud of nn) fonn ia India and
ik tnAt, th* Cbiiiaaa pnparing gaU.^
the batter aort for aulbuir pupoaaiL Thay •» •_ii<ivi lu iinu
klnib, Tiz.,"whlM''and'<blHj[.* The (bnn« eonnita aioIiulTetr
or tha dorael fini, which in on both ddea of the laiiie light oolonr,
end repated to yiald more gelttiD thin tha other tsK. The
pectoral, Tenti^ and uul fina conatilDta the " bluk' aort ; tba
candal an not need. Odd of tha principal pluee when •■huk
fiabing ia pnctiaed u a profeaeion ii Komcliee, and the principal
Itinil* o( ilurki on^t uen ue apedae of Careiariat, Galtteirdo,
and Zgjuna. t)r Boiat, writing in ISGO, atatea thet than an
tbirtaan large boata, with cnwt of twalre men each, ooualaatly
omployBd in thii pnranit, that tha »«Iii« of tha flu aent to tha
market nriea rrom 1S,000 to 1S,000 mpeei^ that a boat will
aptnra iometJinM at a draagbt ai many la a hundnd abarka of
Tariona aia^ and that tha rnunber o( abirkt nptnred annually
amonnta probably to not Ina than 40,000. Large qnantltlM
are InporEal from the ATricnn oout and tha Anbun Onlf, and
TBriou portion tha ooaat oFlndia. Id tha year 1 81 G-< 6 B770 cwt.
ol aharki' fine were exported btfa Bombay to China. (A. 0. 0.)
SHARON, a borooKh of the United Statw, in Meroer
County, PeDniylTonia, 14 milea west of Harcer, ia tb« ae«t
of conJdderable iron man uCactnre, with blaat fomacea,
rolling mills, tonndriw, and nail factories and had in 1880
a population of 6684.
SHARP, Juos (1618-1679), Hchbishop of Bt
Andrewii waa the son of William Qvarp, aber^-^Wk of
Banffshire and of Isabel Lealie, dangbter of Leslie of
Kininvie, of the family of Balybnrtons of Pitcor in
Angna, and was bom in Cbstla Banff on UAj i, I6I8.
Ha waa a clever boy, and his early dispoution for the
church lad to his being called in jest "the young
miniiter." In 1633 hs went to King's College, Abmdeen,
and gradnated in 1637. He there studied divinity for one
ortwoyeaiB,BDd probably derived bit Epiaoopol tendenciea
from the " Abertiben doctors," Aberdeen b«ng at that time
the home of Epiaoopal tentimeoL On the ontbreelc of the
Covenanting war he went to England (1839) and viaitsd
Oxford and perii^M Cambridge, becoming acquainted with
the principal English divines. Upon Ms return he was
chosen in 1G43 tibnngh the inQneoca of Lord Bothea to be
one ot the " regents " of philosophy in St Leonard's College,
St Andrews. He appears to have contioaally risen in
repntation nntil in December 1647 he went through hia
ordinary trials for the ministerial office before the j»eeby-
tery of St Aiulrew^ and was appcnnted tninjjjjuf of Crail
in Fifethire,on the ftteoentaticm <rf theeori ^Crawford, on
January 37, 1648. In the great schism of B«M)lntionen
and Fniteeton, ha, with the Urge nuyonty of educated
men, took active part with the f<nmer ; he was tha friend
of Bailli<^ DoDglas, Diokaon, Wood, Blair, and othen, and
ai early as March IftSl was noognind as one of the leod-
their behalf to
endeavour to oounteraot with the Frotactor the influenoa
of Waniaton, who waa acting tor tha Proteatora. Here he
becom* aeqnaintad with OJamy, Aah, and other leading
London Preabyterian miniatsn, and letters paaed between
him and lAoderdale, then prisoner in the Tower. He
displayed all hit ondoubted talents for petty diplomacy
and eonaideiable enbtlety in argument while on this larviee,
don was deodedly snccesafaL He retnmed to
Scotland in 16S9, bnt npon Monk's march to London was
agun, inFabraaiT 166(^sBntby the Eesolatiouera to watch
over thur intereets in Loodon, wbei« he arrived on
February 13. He was moot favourably raceived by Honk,
to whom it was ot great importance to remun on good
term* with the dominant party in Scotland. Bis lattor*
to DcRiglaa and others dnring this period, if they may be
trusted, are useful towards following the intriguea of the
time day by day. It must not be forgotten, however, that
there ia good reaarai for thinking that Sharp had lUready
mode np hi* mind not to Uirow away the chance* he might
have of prominent employment nndec the fieatorolioB.
In Uie beginning of Hay be waa deapatched by Honk to
the king at Breda " to deal that he may be sent with a
letter to the London Preabyterian mlnister^sbowing hia
resolution to own tha godly aobtr por^^" Hi* lettera m
this occasion to Doo^aa ahow thM he re^rded himaeU
equally as the emissary of the Scottish kirk. It is to be
noticed that he waa alao the bcorar of a secnt letter fmn
Landerdala to the king. He was in (act playing a game
admiiably snited to hu peculiar capacity for dark and
crooked waya of dealing. Tiers can be little doabt that
while on this mission he was finally cormpted by Chorlca
and Clarendon, not indeed *o far aa to maka np hia mind
to betray the Urk, but at any rate to decide in no way to
imperil hia own chance* by too Ann an integri^, nia
first thing that aroused the jeolonay of hia brethren, who^
as Boillie aaya, had trnsted bim as thur own sonls, wo*
bis writing fnmi Holland in commendation of Clarendon,
This jsaloosy was increased on his retnrn to Jjoodou
(Hay 36) by his plausible endeavours to stop all comuw
oE Preabyterian commiarionera from Scotland and Irelanj^
though he professed to desire the presence of Douglae
and Dickson, by hia urgent advice that the Scot* should
not interfere in the restoration of Episcopacy in England,
and by his endeavours to fmatrate the proposed union
of Resolntionen and Protestors. He informed them that
Presbyteriauism was a loet cause in England, bnt aa late oi
Angost 11 he intimated that, though there hod been great
danger for the Scottish kirk aa well, this danger bod been
constantly and snccesafnlly warded off by hia efforts. Ha
returned to Scotland in thia month, and bnsied himself in
endeavonring to remove all suspicioua of his loyal^ to the
kirk ; bnt at the same time he suoceaafully stopped all pstir
tiona from Scottish ministers to king, parliament, or coan<:iL
His letters to Dnunmond, s Presbyterian niinister in
London, and to Lauderdale, withont absolutely committing
him, ahow clearly that he was certain that Episcopacy was
abont to be set up. Haw far he waa actively a traitor in
the matter hod always been fairly teputed until the qnes.
tion was at last set at rest by the discovery of his letter,
dated May 31, from Loudon, whither be went in April
1661, to Hiddleton, the High Oommissioner, whose chap-
lain he now wo^ from which it is proved that he was in
confidential oonunuitication with Ctu<iiidon and the English
bishops, that he was eamaetly and eagerly ctvoperatini in
the reatoratiDn of Episcopacy in Scotland, that he Bad
before learing Scotland beld frequent conferences with
Hiddleton on &e sntject (a fact which he had eiplidtly and
vehemently denied) and waa aware that Hiddleton hod
780 S H .
all ftlong intended it, and that be drew up and wu
directly reiponBible f or the quibbling procUmatioa of Jane
10, the Bole parpoee of which waa "the dispoungof tntnda
to acqniuce in the king's pteaaure." The original of this
letter (wliich ii printed in the LauderdaU Faptri and in
tha SrottuA Rttnea) is preserved in the Muaenm of the
Society of Antiquaries, Edinbnrgli. It should be noticed
that as late as the end of Apnl, od the eve of starting
on his mission to eonrt vrith Bothes and Oleneaime, he
declared to Batllie that no cliangs in the kirk was intended.
The mask was at length dropped in Angnat, when Epia-
copacy was restored, and Sharp was appointed archbishop
of St AndrewB, He and Leighton, Fairfoul, and Hamilton
" were dubbed, first preaching deacons, then presbyters,
and then consecrated bishops in one day, by Dr Sheldon
and a few otbera." On April 8th the new preUtes entered
Scotland, and on the forenoon of April 20, 1662, Sharp
preached his Hrst sermon at St Andrews.
Sharp had carefully kept on good terms with lAnder-
dala, and when the Sillating Plot was concocted in Septsm.
bei 1G03 against the latter by Middleton, he nJanaged
to avoid acting against him; indeed it is probable that,
after being appointed nnder an oath of secrecy to be one
of the scrutineers of the billets, he, in violation of the oath,
was the cause of Lauderdale receiving timely informa-
tion of the decision against him ; and yet he shortly went
np to London to explain the whole afiair in Middlston's
interest When Laoderdale's supremacy was established
be seadily cooperated in passing the National Synod Act
in 1663, the first step in the intended snbjeetion of the
church to the crown. In 1664 he was again in London,
returning in April, having secured the grant of a new
church commission. His vanity also had been gratified
by his being allowed to take precedence of ^le chan-
cellor at the coanciL He haiaased the ministers who were
with tiis old friend James Wood when he signed his
well-known deathbed confession ; he cited and fined otjiers,
an n-ell as laymen, for withdrawing from the churches ; he
urged the thorough prosecution of the arbitrary powers
granted to the commission, and compUined of the slackness
of his fellow commissioners. Bo oppreasivs was his con-
duct and that of others of the bishops that it called forth
a written protedf from Gilbert Bomet Sharp at once
iiummoDed him before the bishops and endeavoured to
obUin a sentence of deprivation and excommunication
against him, bnt «ras ovetroled by his brethren. On the
death of Oleneaime, the chancellor's greatest efforts were
mads to secure the vacant office for Sharp, and he was not
inactive in his own interest; the place was not, however,
filled np until 166T, and then by theappointment of Bothes.
He was in strict Blliance with Eothea, Hamilton, and Dal-
yell, and the other leaders of oppression, ftnd now placed
himself in opposition to the infinence of Lauderdale,
attacking his friends, and especially the earl of Kincardine.
In 1665 he was again in London, where, through hie own
folly and mendacity, he suffered a complete hamiliation at
the handd of Lauderdale, well described by the historian
Burnet With Bothes he now in great part governed
Scotland, and the result of their system of violence end
extortion was the rising of ths Covenanters, during which,
being in temporary charge during Bothea's abaence, he
showed, According to Belleaden, the ntmoat fear, eqoalled
only b; his cruelty to ths prisoners after the rout of Pent-
land. When the convention of estates met in Jannai?
1667 he received his fiat rebuff Hamilton being substi-
tuted for him as preiUdsnt He now tried to curry favour
with Itfuderdale, to whom be wrote letters of the most
whining contrition, and who extended him a careless recon-
ciliation. The expressions of contempt for him which occur
at this time, as preTiously, in ^e tetters of Bob^ Moray,
Argyll, and othen of Landordale's Mwrespondenl^ m
frequent and very amusing. For a time he made himal.'
actively uiefnl, and was instrumental in restrainiiig tu
brethren from writing to London to complain of the bo
ciliation policy which for awhile lAuderdale carried a(it,i
transaction in which be displayed the ntmcat eSronterjd
lying ; and, with slight attempts to free hinuclf, h« m
tinned faith/ol in big new service. On July 10, 1668, u
attempt was mode upon his Ufa by Bobert llilchell, vk
fired a pistol at him nhUe driving tlitim^h the stirtti cf
Edinburgh. Ths shol^ however, missed Shari'i though hs
companion the bishop of Orkney was wonnded \>j i\vA
Mitchell for the time escaped. In August Sharp vent up
to London, returning in December, and ^rith his nsBirlaaa,
nominally indeed at his snggeation, Tweeddolo'e loloui
the Supremacy Act, by which Lauderdale destroyed the
autonomy of the chorch, he at first sbovred reluctaecc t>
put in motion the desired policy, but gave way upon tli
first pressure. When, however, Leighton, as srchbiib^
of Glasgow, endeavoured to cany out a comprelemin
Bcheme, Sharp actively opposed him, and expressed hiajtf
at the failure of the attempt From this time he ra
completely subeervieDt to Landerdalt^ who bad nov flulj
determined tipon a career of oppreBsion, and in 16711k
was agun in London to enpport this policy. In this j!u
also Mitchell, who had shot at him six years before, vu
arrested, Stuurp himself having recognized him, and, <if«i
Sharp's promise to obtain a pardon, privately made t fnii
confession. When brought into the justiciary court, bn-
ever, he refused to repeat the confession, wherenpoii tin
promise of pardon was recalled ; the pridoner va> eesl le
the Bass, and was not brought to trial for four yesn. Id
1676, however, the country being again in great disorin
he was tried on his own confession, whic^ not hsthig
been made before judges, cotdd not legally be broogbt
against him. This plea being overruled, he clsimfd tin
promise of pardon. Sharp, hQwever, bq^y denied tint
any such promise had been given. Hts faledMOit m
proved by the entry of the act in the records of the anit
Hitchall was finally condemned, but the condamnatiDci m
Bo evidently unfair and contrary to solemn promise llut t
reprieve would have been granted had not Sharp binwli
insisted on his death. This, perhaps the basest sctioaD'
his base life^ was speedily avenged. On Hay 3, 1679, u
be was driving with bis daughter Isabel to St Andrei^
he was set upon by nine men, who were looking for M
of the instruments of bis cruelty, and, in spite of munsel;
beseechings and of the appeals of his daughter, was ctkII;
murdered. The place of tlie murder, on Msgni Hsir,
now covered with fir tree^ ia marked by a maonineiil
erected by Dean Stanley, with a Latin inaoiptios iW^-
ing the deed. It is only right, while recording a csiM ''
cold-blooded enielty and almost unexampled political ta»
neas, to remember that no charge that can be •sn'Mi^
maintained has ever bocn brou^t against ths mMsUtJ
of Sharp's private life.
UnlsM oth«nrl»* mtatlonBd, tbs proofli of tl
I Toll. i. SBd iL «t ths LavlKdaii PfT
in t*o ir^lei in ths SealtiM/i Smrr, 'w
arliclt will bo foand in voii
(Cundni Bodoty)
1S34 uid Jsnnu7 IBSS.
SHARP, Wmiiif (17i9-1824), an eminent hw-
engraver, wa<i bom at London on the 29th of Jsi"^
1749. He was originally apprenticed to whatisolW'
bright engraver, and practiaed as a writing engnvet, but
gradually becoming inspired by the higher branchte of ui'
engraver's art^ he exercised his gifts with surpriiiiig nucfS
on works of the old masters. Among his eeiiier f^^
are aone illostrationi^ after Stotii»rd, for ths JTiWiA
S H A— 8 H E
781
Jfi^oiHW. He engcared the Doetois Dupnting on tho
Immieulfctaneai of tha Vi^in and the Eoee Homo of
Quido Reni, the Bt Cecilia of Domenichino, the Virgin
and Child of Dolci, aod the portrait of Joho Hnntet of
Sir Jodiua Rejnoldi. Hi< style of eagraTing is thorooghlj
uuaterl; and original, exoellent in it* pU^ of line and
rendering of half-tinta and of "colour." He died at
Chiiwick on the 2nth July ISSi. In hie yocth Sharp
ivae a violent repablican, and, owing tohiihotlj eipreesed
adberenoe to the politics of Paine and Home Tooke, he
was examieed by the privy council on a charge of treason.
Ho was also one of the greatest visionaries in matters
pertaining to religion. No impostare was too.gros* for
him to accept, no dotation too faring for bis syes to
admire. The dreoniE of Mesmer and the rhapsodies of
Brothers found in Sharp a staunch beltever; and for long
he maintained Joanna Soathcott at hia own expense As
an engraver he achieved a European repnta^on, and at the
time of his death he enjoyed the honoor of being a member
of the Imperial Aoademy of Vienna and of the Boyal
imy of ii
AWh, a
robl<
long arl
IS ways dependent from tlie ehonlders. The term is
of Feruao oiigm (iUI)> <u>d t^ article itself is most
characteristic and inqwrbwt in the dress of the natives of
noTth'westeni India and Central Ana; but in vBrious
format and tuider diSei«nt name^ eaeentiallf the nme
(liece of dotUogis found in moat parts of tbe world. The
sliawb made in Kasbmir occoot a pre-eminent place among
textile {Hoducts ; and it ii to them and to thdr imitations
from Wastom leoms that qmdfia importance attaches.
The Kashmir shawl is chancterixed by tbe great elabora-
tion and minute datul of its deugn, inwbicb the "cone"
pattern is a prominent t««ture, and b; the glowing
harmony, brilliam^ dq>th, and endoring qnalities of its
colours. The bams of these excellences is fonnd in the
rawmateriol of the shawl manofacture, which consists of
tbe very fine, soft, short, flossy nnder-wool, c^ed pashm or
poshmina, fonnd on the sbawl-goat, a vsrie^ of Capra
Atrau inhabiting the elevated re^^ona of Tibet There are'
severaJ varietieB of psabm, according to the districts in
whieh it is prodoced, but the finest is a strict monopoly
of the mabai^a of Kashmir, through whose territor; it
comes. Inferior pashm and Kinnan wool— a ftne soft
Perran sheep's wool— are nsed tor shawl weaving at
Amritaar and other places in the FoitjiLls where colonies of
Kashmiri weavers are establiahed ; bnt jost in proportion
to the qoality of the pashm nsed are the beauty and value
of the resulting sbawL In Kashmir the shawl wool is
sorted with patient care bv band, and spun into a fine
thread, a vrorK of so mach delicacy, owing to the shortness
of the fibre, that a potind of nndyed thread may be
worth £Z, 10s. The vsrioos colcroia, oostly and perma-
nent, are dyed in the yam. The sabsequent weaving or
embroidering 14 a work of great labour, and a fine shawl
will (■ccutiy the whole labour of three men not less than a
year. Thus a fintrata shawl weighing about 7 K may
eost at the plaoe of its production £300, made up thns:—
material £30, labour £150, duty £70, misceUaneons
eipaoses, £60. In shawl doth many varieties of dress
artides aie made; but of shawls themselves, apart from
shape and pattern, there are only two principal claease : —
(1) loom-woven shawls called tiliwalla, tilikir or kini
kir, — sometimes woven in one piece, but more often
fn small segments which are sewn together with such
precision and neatness that the sewingls qdite impertept-
ible (such loom-woven shawls have borders of silk, the
weight and stiffness of which serve to stretch the shawl
and make it set properly) ; and (3) embr<^dned shawls —
amlikir,— in which over a grotuid of phui ' - - ■
worked by needle a minnte and elaborate pattern. A
large proportion of the inhabitants of Brinagor, the cental
of Kashmir, are engaged in tbe shawl industry ; and there
are nnmerous colonies of Kashmiri vreavers settled at
Amritsar, Ludianah, Nurpur, and other towns in the
Pniyah. Amritsar is now the principal entrepAt of the
shawl trade between Indiaand Europe. Imitation Kashmir
shawb are made at Lyons, Nimee, Norwich, and Paisley,
and some of the products of these localities are little
inferior in beauty and elabiiration to Oriental shawls ; but
owing to the fluctuations of fashion there has been little
demand for the finer products of European looms for many
years. See also Pehbh, voL xviii. p. 626.
SHEA BtJTTER. See Oils, voL xrii. p. 747.
SHEARWATER, the name of a bird first published in
WiUugbby's Ortiiihoiagia (p. 2G2), as nude known to him
by Sir T. Browne, who sent a picture of it with an account
that is given more fully in Bay's translation of diat vrork
(p. 334^ stating that it is " a Sea-fowl, which fishermen
observe to resort to their Vessels ia Home numbers, swim-
ming^ swiftly to and fro, backward, forward, and about
them, and doth as it were radert a^uam, shear the water,
from whence perhaps it had its name."' Ray's mistakiog
young birds of this kind obtained in the Isle of Uan for
the youjig of the Coultomeb, now usually called Pnwni,
hoe already been mentioned under that heading (vol. xi.
p. 102) ; and not only bos bis name Pvffimit anjr/omN
hence become attached to this species, commonly described
in FngliHh books as the Manx Puffin or Manx Shearwater,
but the barbarous and misapplied word Pvjiiaa has come
into regular use as the generic term for all birds thereto
allied, forming a well-marked group of the Family Pnxd-
lariida (cf. PnSKi^ vol. xriii. p. 711), distinguished
chiefly by their elongated bill, and numbering some twenty
species, il not more — the discrimination of which, owing
partly to the general rimilarity of some of them, and partly
to tbe change of plumt^ which others tlrotigh age are
believed to undergo, has taxed in no common degree the
ingenuity of those ornithologists who have ventured on
the difficult task of determining their cbamcters. Shear-
waters are found in nearly ell the seas and oceans of the
world,' generally within no great distance from the land,
though rarely resorting thereto, except in the breeding-
seoson. But they also penetrate to waters which may be
termed inland, as the BosphoruH, where they have long
attracted attention by their daily passage up and down
the strait, in numerous flocks, hardly ever alighting on the
surface, and from this restless habit they are known to the
French-speaking part of the population as dma damnStt,
it being held by the Turks that tbey are animated by
condemned hnmau souls. Fonr species of P^^mu are
recorded as visiting the coasts of the United Kingdom ;
bnt the Manx Shearwater aforesaid is the only one that at
all commonly occurs or breeds in tbe British Islands. It
is B very plain-looking bird, black above and white beneath,
and about tbe sixe of a Pigeon. Some other s|
iliUka, Dodoabt, for flying or "hoTeiJDg," Ilis littn the
void lued hj Brawn* In hli^uwU ofBiraifinmd te ITorfM (Hu.
Brit HS. Sloua, 1830, (oL E. X2 ud SI), wijttm tu or iboDt IMl
Kdvsrdi {OttemiMiit, 111. p. SIC) ipeaki of aompuing hii own diairing
"iriUi Brown'i old disnght pf II, itHl pworred in "^- "-- '--^
KnseiuB," and thai IdoDtinia tha kttsi's "Bhearwiter
" PuIIBd of the Ida of Mim.''
* £rri* ^ipun to b« ths Bust eommoo loesl auou fc
bi OikMT *Dd Shftlsad) but Beraib ud SenOar m ■
9 Billiih
MjnsUerhig FroT. Sksst'i tenuis (f^n. CistinuTy, p. I4S) 01 to
Uh illiucn batwHd Iba words (Ator ud lerapi It nuv bi tliit
Broni'i hialtitlon u to th> dsivstlon et '*8h«an>>t*T" bsd mora
■ Tha diiat ameptlcni vonld laam to ba Iha Bay of Bngil mi
thanoa UiroB^ODt Uh ttailRn pait oT tha IUU7 AnUpslsgo, wlnn,
tboa^ tbay nwj ooaar, tbaj ale oertslntf UBomnoii.
782
S H E — S H E
considerably larger, wbile wme are imaller, and of the
former WTerU are almoct irhol»«olonred, being of « aooty
or dark cinereooa haa both above and below. All otbt the
world Shearwatera aeem to hava preciaelytbe same habita,
Injiog their single purely white egg in a holo under grouod.
The yoang are thickly clothed with long down, and ore ex-
tremely fat. In this condition thej are thought to be good
eating and enormous numbers are caught for this purpose
in some localities, especially of a s^ieMea, the P. bremeaudM
of Qonid, which freqnenta the islvids off the coast of Aus-
tralia, where it ia commonly known as the " Mnttoii-binL"
For works treating of the Shearwaters, see thoM dted
nnder Pttrkl (toL iviii p. 718). (*. w.)
SUEATUBILLs a bird locallBd by Pennant in 1781
(Gen. Bird*, ed. i, p. i3) from the horny case^ which
ensheaths the basal part of its biU. It was first made
known from banng been met with on New- Year lelond, oS
the coast of Staten I«nd, where Cook anchored on New
Year's evo 1774.' A few days later he discovered the
islands that now bear the name of South Georgia, and
there the bird was agun found, — in both localities
frequenting the rocky shores. Oa hi* third voyage, while
seeking some land reported to have been foniid by Ker-
goelsn. Cook in Deoember 1776 reached the clnster of
desolate Islands now geoerally known by the name of the
French explorer, and hare, among many other kinds of
birds, was a Sheothbill, which for a long while no one
suspected to be otherwise than spe^fically identical with
that of the weetem Antarctic Ocean ; but, as will be seen,
its distinctness has been snbaeqnently admitted.
Th< &hHflibill, 10 MOD » It WM bronght to tha notin of
nitnraliiti, "
ttmi niwn it.
■nowy plomigB, th« ni
|i. 87) M
liAi mat properly recAlved gcDsnl icceptuc^ thongli is ttn siiinfl
year th« compiler amolin t«rm«d the seniu VaginMii u ■ rsndar-
Ing of PeDoaat's EDffUih nuna, and tha ipKlaa alia. It hu tbui
lopUlie, »
EDEliih nuna, and thn qiKlaa
hcoiingllia (7AiDiUialbiof omithology. ft is at
hu mDch the lUpect of a Pigaon ;■ its plomaRg la pun whits, its bill
Bomawhat jrallow it the bsw, pusing into pale pink towirda tha Up,
" d the eraa the akin is bars, and heaet wUh ertam-calonreil
lie, whibi the lega are blaiah-grajr. The loccnd or oaatrra
SI, tint diurimlnaled by Dr Hardaob (An Zieliigijvi, 1841,
\\. t ; XMi, p. tOZ, pL %f aa C. minor ia imilleT in lin, with
Slumig* jml aa -hilo. but tiaruig the 1>iU and bare akin of the bca
lack and tha l^t much darker. The fonn of the biH'a "iheaCh"
In Uie two n«oiea la ileo quit* diffemut, for in O, alia it ie elmoit
leyol thno^oot, whae in O. minor It nsa in front like the pom-
mel of a wddla. Of the habita of the weat«n and larger apeciei
not mnchhubsenrecordsd. Itgathenlla food, consiatinscEieflj,
u Darwin and olhon hare told us, of >ai-veeds and aheU-bh^ on
rtKka at loir water ; but it ia also knowu to aat birds' egga. Thare
la some corioosly conflicting OTidense as to the dsTonr of Ita flesh,
■oni* astortins that it is whoOx nneatabls. lud others that it la
ralatnble,— • dilTennee whieh n»r poaiiblj be dne lo the pnviana
diet of the parHcolar eiample tasted, to the tkill of the cook, or
I atraoge falli
Buly, and of oonrae baa been repeatad lati
ihtttth wai nwTuble. It ts abaolatalj Bud.
me of the aarllsr nijagan had uwiintared ft, a
• DoDbtli
Facster snggaala {Deur, Anima
(Ifan. iTOTniaelatit, it p. MS] .
oeiiaial J owe Ita dlacoTdrj lo the natoraLLita of Cook'e ^maa Tujagw,
•e error, probablj o[ tnuiacripilon, Miw Zealand, intead of
>r all praetial porpoace w
Haw-Yai
while not a few write'n h.
there ia no real eTidonca t
M the pl»[» of iU
■t added thereto New Holland. HKbarU
» BhaathUU in Oa watan
E Inlee it
I catted the " Kelp-Figeon," and br
»toii the " Pigeon buns antaiatlqaa.
luime nr the earlier French navigaton ... . _^....
The cognate apeelei of Kargnelen Land la named by lb* aaslan
" BoTB-ejad ligeon," (Tom it) pmnisent Heehjr orUla, aa weU ae
" rsdilT.btrd"— th« laet daabtleai IWnn tU whits plnmiBi calling lo
miml Ihat or •nmi of the nniller BgnU, so-called by Uia Eagllah In
India ant elwwhera.
• l^aon (Ik ciL) cites s bHef but correct Imtkatioe of thli
■iwiee >■ obierfed l>T iMiiDin (Cyc* Armmcain, i. p. U) on
UiMt laland. and. not aupectlng It lo be dlatinci, waa st a toes
In reronclle the dieereiianoiea of the laMer's daacrlptlmi with Out
inron o( the nther spedoa li; nrder aulkMik
1 the Falkland lelea, whoi
t tioth eitremitiee of the Slnil d
On thi
Unitod Btntea nnoditiom
of the tnnsit of Vosa) in
ipeciallT Mr Eaton (nUat. Trait.
Ur Kidder (BuO. U. 3. NaliifK!.
, .u.n J , 1- .-.,, ...,ich more hu lieen recorded of tii
ind emaller species, vhich had alreadj been ■scertiinod In
Ur I^yara (Aw. ZeoL Soddy. IBTl, p. B7, pL If. lift 7) to hmi
on the Crsaat lalasdi,' and waa fonnd to do » elill men nmns-
onsljr on Eorgnslen, while It probably froqnenta Prince Ednnl'i
lelanda for the aame pnrpoae. The <^, ti which a coniiLlenli))
number hare now been obtained, though of pocnllat innaiusL
bear an nnmietaksbla llkanen to thoee of aome ne'er!, ^t
occaaionally eihibiting a reeem biases— of little algnitcanci, hov
evor-to those of the Tropic-binla.
The systematic position of the Sheathbills has hem ilw
subject of much hesitation — almost useless siDDel8S<,wle«
De Btoinville {Aim. Sc JTaturtlla, ser. 2, vi p^ 97) tetM
known certain anatomical facts proving thur aknity to tin
OvBTU-oiTCRua (vol Kvu. p. 1 11), though polatuig tk
to a more distant relationship with the Qulu (toL iL ]i.
274). These he afterwards dewsribed more fully (Tiy
"Bimite,' Zoolagie, i, pt 3, pp. 107-132, pL B), so u to
leave do doubt that CAtonu was a form intermediate In-
tween those noups. Yet some writers continued to rder
it to the GatJtiim and otfaen to the Colimbm. The mUla
ma^ now be regarded as settled for ever. In ISTfl Dr
Reichenow in Qermony (Jour./. Orm., 1878, pp. 8*-ffl)
and in America Drs Kidder and Cones (S^ U. S. KaL
Jtuteum, No. 3, pp. 89-116) published elaborate aceoasti
of the auatoni]' of C. nmor, the firet wholly conGrming
the view of De BlaiDviUe, the lout two' agreeing villi
him in the main, but concluding that the SbealLbilh
formed a distinct group Chionoaorpkti, in rank equal te
the Ceeoy%OTph» and C/taradi-iomorphm of Frof. Euilej
(which orc^ to speak roughly, the Gavia and Limicola d
«lder systematists), and regarding this group aa being
" atill nearer the common ancestral stock of both.* IhM
anthors also wish to separate the two species genoically;
but their proposals are considered needleas l^ Osnod (f.
Z. S., 1677, p. 417) and U. Alph. HUue-lidwaids {An.
Sc 2fal»r€Ua, ser. 6, xiiL orL 4, p. U). The onniM
of De Blainville and Dr Reichenow ore borne oat by Ilw
olaervations of Hr Eaton (foe. eit.), and no one knowing
the habits of an Oyst^r-catdiBr can read his remarki
without seeing bow nearly related the two form* sra
Their differences may perhaps justify the saporatian «t
each form into what is vasuely called a " Family,' but
the diffareoeea will be seen liy ue comparative analoaiat
to be <rf slight importance, and the intimate affini^ of lb
Garim and Limueolm, already racognind by Prof. Firktt
and some of the best laionomen (cf. OosiTaoLOOT, tot.
xviiL p. 40) is placed beyond dispute.' (i. v.)
SHEBA. SeeTiMUC.
SHEBOYGAN, a city of the United States, eaiuUlel
Sheboygan county, Wisconun, stands on lake MiehigMI.
it of the diaeoniy of ite egt C^^ '^^
p. ae) WM imnatwe, the specimen, now in the pnanJiea «f tj"
prewmt wrller. praring to be that of « Onll— a tact ankno" t« w
* In ume detalli their memoir ie anfortunstely Inaceinte.
' The little gronp of vetj cotloni Wrde, h.«iig no Kigllah im«,
of the gmeta ThinocBni and Altoffii. which an panllu to caUi
toealltla In Bonlh Aroftic* and iU iilanda, ■« by eomo .yaleiiiiU*
plaoed in the FamUy Oaonidi'lm and by olbm In a dlrtincl F»m^
r*ui*MTiJ»[monootTecUyrJu'ii«or*IAiI«r). liny are midrahtrt^
Umicollne, Ihooeh having nncb the aqiact of Band-Onioae, battbai
pneiae poaiUon and rank remain St pnnnit nw«li "
i«l «>|>Ki] s»l Fiof, Paifctr [IV«h. tooL Aw., i. p]
L p^ Ml •!.>
S H E — S H E
at the month of ih6 nw of dia tune noms, 13 milM «ut
of Food do Loo and 62 miles north of Hilwaokee. It pw-
Beesae a good harboar, and, being siuroanded bj very
productive agrtcultnral land, exports annoallj a ii^ga
quantitj of grain. The mannfactures uiclude fanning
implamenU, eiianieUedhollow-waie,a)id Btoue-wue; there
are a nnmber of tannarieaand breweries; and minanl water
u aiported. Settled in 1836, the eity had in ISSO a
population of 7314.
8HECHEM, now NlKiLira, ft oitj of Falealjoe. Eleveii
hours from Jenualem on the great north road the ttaveller
finda himself in the broad apknd plain of M^tlin^ (IDOO
feet above the tea), with Monnt Oeriiim on his left, and,
ekirtiug the base ij the moont^o, reachea the tntditional
well of Jacob (John i*. 6, 6 ; ef. Gen. xxxiii 19), a deep^
cietera with the mina of an old ohnreh beside il. Here
the road divides: the caravaii route to DamasciiB eontiniui
Qorthwaid fay the village of 'Aaker (Sychar of John iv.
S t}, and ao to fieiain (Beth^ahan) and Tiberias ; bat the
wa^ to Samaria turns wcstwaid into a fertile and weU-
watered aide nliev between Oeriam (2649 feet) on the
soDtli and Ebal (3077 feet) on the north. This is the
Vale of ghechem or N&bulua ; it is in fact an eMy pasa
between the Mediterranean and Jordan baajna, l&d at the
watershed ( 1 870 faat), where the dtj atanda, 1} milM from
Jacob's W^ is not more than 100 jtgia wid«. Thua
Bhechem commanda both branches of the great QOrth road,
and aaveral routes from the eoaat also eonretga here and
oonnect with the ancient road from BKopbem eMtward to
KerAwA (Archelaia) and Al-Salt, the capital of the Bel^l.
Hie name of Shechem (ahonlder, back) accords with the
position of the town on the watershed, and the aaldTe
name in Joeephoa'a time (Habortha, S. J^ iT. 8. 1 ; Flinj
has Mamortha) means simply "the paaa." The iitnatioD
of Shechem at the creasing of so many great roads mmt
have given it importance at a very euly date, and it ia
still a bnsf town of 20,000 inhabitonU, with aoap maon-
factnrei and oonsidecable trade. On the other band, the
position ia equally favourable for brigandage, to which,
under week governments, tiie Shechemites w«n addicted
of eld (Jndges iz. S5 ; Hoeea vi 9, where "for cOQjwnt"
read " to Shechem "), and the district is still a law-
loss one.
Ths uiiient inhabitants of ShMbeni ware tbo Bn« HuDor, ■
CiDuniM cUa, *bo wen not aipaltsd on tha Snt eonquMt of
Caoun bat ramaincd In poawsaion till tha avoiti ncDided in
JndgM ix. From tha umtivs ot dm, nitv., w}>icli has begn
■pokan of in the irtida Lavt, it wonld aoam that they antand into
friandlj reUtions with tb» inTsdan, and that an attack mads nn
tliani M Simeon and Levi wu lepndiatad by Iiraal and led to the
dkpunloa of theaa two tflbea. In Jodgm ix. dw ' IrMmMi of
SliBcham" {asff i^jaJ qfiaar as ■ tnrbnlBnt hot cowardly laoo,
who, in spite oT theii nnmbMa and weilQi, had become vanali of
Giclaon for tb* laka at pvtaction ^alnit the Uidianitaa, and
vould have oontinnad to anr* hia sona bat tor tha antecpriae oT
Abiniatocb, whose niothar was of th^ tana. Tith the aid of
metcoDariea hired with the tnaioia of Um lanctnaiT of Baal-Berith
oi El-Berith, the god of the town, Abimalech dertroyed tha »ni
otGidwD, wu orowned king of Bhechan, and for thiwyean held
iTBj alio ovar the iiirroanding lansUlaa. A nrolt was led by
Owu, an laraallta who •eomad to be snlgeet to tb* ciMtnre of tha
daajiiaed Canasoitea,' and, the Sbechanitsa having hdlen out with
AbuoBlMh abont their pnctios of brlguidage. Out made a diah at
tlia oitv in tha abwoce of tba kins, aniTtiie fidl:U inhabiUnCa
ncaived him with open amu. Abimetegh, homver, with hia
Shechom waa utterly dntinyM. ItaplaM was taken by a Hebrgw
city, and tha Canaan ll£ sanctuary of El-Beiith waa tiaiafonned into
' To Judgai ii. £S for ■\12V read ITaV (Wellhaneen after HS3.
af LXX. ), and ttuilata " Who U AblnnlMli or who sia ths 8bwh*mlt«a
(hit lupportarg] that wa ahonld ba hti ilavea I By ill maana lat the
•on of Jimbhaal and Zibn! hli olB«r nialin tba n« ot Hamor
lUbar ot Sheoham; b.t why ihoild we (Habran) ba U> ilaTnl"
Thete wordi ounot have been ipakin after ths ShaohemHaa had
nommnd Alilnielech ; vt. SS, SO osght to itaod trnmedlately iftir
vtr. n. Baa "W, R. fUtb, In AnL lVd«M/)^ 1S8^^ m«t.
a Habnw holy place of El the Ood of laiael, of which Uis tonnda-
tion vai atterwarJ* refund to Jacob (Gin. xxxiii. W) or oven to
Atnium (a«D, liL 7). The great ^ne nnder the fa ~~ '
rii. 8,:
been i
rsveaior" or "tree ot tha
B.V. ''ptain ot Uonh"or"ct Haonanlm"; Uiu.
I;* Dent. ii.SOi Jnd. ii. 6, »;) wh Hid tohnve
np by Jotbus (Josh. iiir. IS), and Joieph'i enre wu
■ "' ■ a tha chief
i\ and Joieph
Iheehcim waa oi
shown tfaaiB,' 'All thli iitdicatea that Bl
aanctiiary of Joseph, ud so wa undentajid vlir B•^lbo•nt went to
Sbaobain to ba crowned king of Mortham Inraal and why Joroboam
at fintmadelE hiarealdeniM(l Kingaiii Si). FoiiticaJly Sheohem
■M soon mpplaatad by Timh and Samaria, bat it appaan to
have bam still a saactnaiy in the time of Homk. It anrvived the
UI of Ephiaim (Jei. ilL {} and ultimately Iwcama tha raligiona
centre of the BAiuiiTAHa (q.v.). The Greek name Naapolli,
known to Joiiphoi, IndJcatca the bnildtug of a new town, which,
according to Eiucbina and Jarom^ wai a little way from tha old
Shocheni, or at least did not bclnde the trailitiona) holy lits.
Tha ooini give the tomi Flavia Naapolis. Neapolit wai the birtb-
pUce ot Jnatfai Uaityi, and became the aeaf of a bisboprio. five
Cbriatian obnnlus dostmyad by the Samaritani In tlw time of
Anastanna wars robnilt by JnaUnlan (Proaop., Dt .Md., v. 1\
Remains of OM of thais aasm atill to exist In the emndari^ ehinh
at tba ^MJon snd Beinmetfaui <11<I7), now thi great moiqiM
NeapDHs bad mneh to aoffer in tha omsvlts ; It was Bn^ kat to
the Chiistiins soon attar Bsbulin'a great victory at ^ittln.
A map of the Shechani vallav, with topagTai4iical"delaila, tc,
will be fonnd in the Uimain otFtL EipL 6oc, voL il
SEEE, Sib Majhtn Abchib (1770-18S0), portrait-
pwoter, and president of the Boyal Academy, was born in
Dublin on the 23d of December 1770. He waa apmng
from an old Irish family, and hia father, while he eiaccisad
the trade of a merchant, regarded the profession of a
pcuoter as in DO sense a fit occupation for a deacendaut of
the Shees. Young Shee besame^ nevertheleaa, a student
of art in the Dublin Bodetj, and came eariy to London,
where be vrae, in 1T88, introdaeed by Burke to Reynold^
by whoee advice he atodied in the echoola of the Boyal
Academy. In 1789 he axhiUted hi* first two pictures,
the Head of an OU Man and Fortiait of a GenUeman.
During the uazt ten yean he ateadily incieaaed in practice^
and gndnally gained ground among the ariatocracy, with
whom hia iuavity and good manners were great rocom-
mendationa. Ha vraa choeen an aaaociate of the Boyal
Academy in 1798, shortly after the illaatrions flaxman,
and in 1800 he vraa made a Boyal Academician. In the
former year he bad married, removed to Bomney's boiue
in Oavendidi Bquar^ and net up as the legitimate successor
of that artiaL Bhee continued to paint irith great
readiness of band and fertility of invention, although his
portiuts were eclipsed by more than one of his contem-
poraries, and eapetnally W I^wrence, Eoppner, ndlliK
Jackson, and Baebiun. In addition to his pwtraita he
executed variotu Butnects and historical vrorks, such as
LavLnia, Beliaarius, his diploma picture Proepero and
Miranda, and the Dan^^ter ot JephthaL In 180C he
pnblisbed a poem conaistiug of Bhymu <m Art, and it was
succeeded by a second part in 1806. Although Byron
apoke well of it in his Shtgluh Bardi and Scotch Betivieert,
and invoked a place for " Shee and genius " in the tempje
of fame, yet, as nature had not origmally conjoined theae
two, it is to be feared that even a poet's invocation could
not materially affect their relations. Bhee publiahed
another small volame of verses in 1614, Entitled The
CommemonUion of Sir Jotkua Seyitoldt, and otker Foevu,
but this effort did not greatly increaaa his fame. He now
produced a tragedy called Alateo, ot which the scene was
kid in Poland, ^e play was accepted at Covent Garden,
* Buabjni ^vea the tne (teiebinthDa) of On. xar. 4 a plan In
hii Qitmajlian ; ud fioia it proh&bly tba M^hop TereUatMai la
PtDoop., Ut jEd., 1 " ■
nnrpation by the tndition (in the Hohiitlc naitative] that Jaoob had
hnn^t the ilte of hli altar bam the Hamorltae and heqoeithld it tO
JoieiA (Oan. luilL ID, Jeih. iilv, 13 ; ia the Isttsr paanoa leail
with iix.mn'1 lor vm). I
784
8 H E — S H E
and in the fertile tanej of the poet the ploj had alrmdy
goiaed tor him a ereat drambtio fame, when Coltoui, the
licenser, refused it bis ssDAion, on the plea of it« contftining
certain treuonftble ollnsioos, and Shee, in greet wrath, re-
•olved to make his appeal to the public This rioleat
threat be carried out in 1821, but uniortnnalelj the public
found other bosineu to mind, and Alatc« u etilJ on Uie
list of unacted dramas. On the death of Lawrence in
1S30, Shee was chosen president of the Royal Academj,
and shortly afterwards he recoired the honour of knigbt-
bood. lie was eicellently qualified hj his gentlemanly
manners, business habits, and fluent speech for the position;
and in the dispute regarding the use of rooms to be pro-
vided by OoTemment, and in hie examination before the
parliamentary committee of 1836, he ably defended the
rights of the AcBddu;. He continued to point till ISIO,
and died on the 13th of Aagust ISSO in hie eightieth year.
Tha «rli(r portmin of tba irtiat «re caicrullj tlniihed, tuj Id
■ction, nith iiiaol! Jniring lad excellent ducrimiDstion of ctumrtcc.
Tbey iliaw mi nndn* tendBDc; to reJoen In tba Bab puintiDA — ■
defect vliicli is itill mora sppirent in hii Inter works, m whicA tlia
kiDdliag islm "tiiiwn," criap. and forcible.
SHEET. The animals commonly deiignated by this
name constitute the genus Omt it loologisla, a group
belonging to the Artiodactyle or paired-toed section of
the Uiufulatit or hoofed mammal, (toe MiifuAi.ii, vol XT.
p. 433). They are ruminants, and belong to the hoUow-
iiorued section, i.e., those having peretetent borne composed
of conical epidermic sheaths, encasing and supported by
proceaaee of the frontal bone. This section includes the
various species of Oxen, Goati^ and Antelopes, as well as
the Sheep, animals oil so closely related stmcturelly that
it is by no means easy to deSne the differences between
In nearly all wild sheep the horns are pteeeat iu both
sexes, though Soulier in the female, ney are trigooal in
section, having always three more or less distinctly marked
surfaces, divided by edges running longitudinally to the
niis of the horn, sometimes sliarply prominent utd some-
times rounded o& The; are also marked by nnmerone
transverse ridges and constrictions, and present a strong
more or less spiral curve, which Tsries in direction in
different siiecies. The teeth resemble generally those of
the other Bovida. The npper incisors and canines are
entirely (ranting, their place being taken by a callous pad
against which the lower front teetli bite. These are eight
in number, all much alike and in close contact; the enter
pair represent the canines, the reet the incisors. ' On eaiA
side of the mouth above and below are six teeth close
together, three of which are premolars (replacing milk
teeth) and three true molars, all markedly selenodont {the
griniiUiig surfaces presenting crescent-like pattems) and
hypsodont, or with long crowns and small roots. The
dental formula ie thus — incisors J, canines y^remolnn J,
molars J, - ^,; ; total of both sides 32. The vertebral
formula is — cervical 7, dorsal 13, lumbar 6 or T, sacral 4,
caudal variable. In the feet the hoofs of the two middle
toes (third and fourth) only reach the ground, and are
equally developed. The outer toes (second and fifth) are
very rudimentary, represented only by small hootij, witbont
bony [.halanges, and by the proximal or upper ends of
the slender splint-like metscarpal or metatarsal bones.
Between the two middle toes, in most s[Kicies, is lodged a
deep eac, having the form of a retort and with a email
external orifice, which socretci an unctuouH and odorous
suUtance. Thw, tainting the herbage or stones over
which the animal walks, affords the means by which,
through the powerfully develojied sense of sraell, the
neighbourhood of other individuals of the species is recog-
nised. The cmmon or suborbital ghind, which issohwguly
doveloued and probably performs the same office in some
antelopes and deer, is proeont, tint in a coioptratinl)
mdimentaryform,thon(;h varying in diflerootiipuciot. Tin
tail, tboogli long b many varicUcs of domeatic shccl^ u
short in aU the wild siiovleu, in which also the ciktoj
coveting of the body is in the main boiry,— the fine Bacj
' 1 of wool, or hair so modified as to have the |ir\i[ii;ni
fdting' or adhering together under prtaieurc, k\i\A
such valne to many breeds, having; been cs[iu.'iiil1j
cultivated by seiectjve breeding.
The sheep was a domestic animal in Asia and Eimii
before the dawn of history, though quite nnknow n u sub
in the New World until after the Sianinh conquest, li
has now been introduced by man into almost all jAitiiil
the world where settled agricultural o}>erations ate cainul
on, but tloarishee especially in the temjierate rcgioni 61
both hemispheres. Whether our well-luiown and mclil
animal is derived from any one of the existing wiM ^icdn,
or from the crossing of severaE, or from some now eitioct
species, is quits a matter of coi^jecture. The varialicnu ni
extenuJ characters seen iu the different domestic bretd<
UonffloB (ftpi MMrirn) Fnm * Uvlng mimsl In Ibo Lonba
Zoolofkal Oardsu.
are very groat They are chiefty manifested in the fotn
and number of the horns, which may be incresaed Inm
the normal two to four or even eight, or may bo alWgMl«
absent in tha female alone or in both eexes ; in the I'm
and length of the ear*, which often hang pendent bj ibt
side of the head ; in the pecidiar elevation or arching oj
the nasal bones in some Eastern races; in the lengtltol
ths tail, and the devobpment of great masses of fat si eacii
aide of its root or in the toil itself ; and in the colour m
qnality of the fleece. See Aosicultosk.
The distinction of the various permanent modifitatioiu
under which wiU sheep occur is a matter of tonai.lsrallt
difficult J, Trivial characters, sncb as siie, slight vwistio"'
in colour, and especially the form and curvatuie ol tk
ho^n^ are reliod upon by different loologists wlm Uk
given attention to the subject in the diecriminatioa «
species, but no complete accord has yet been estaWialml-
The most generally recogniiod forms ai
;ributionot i " "
., ...,« u. ...igoa o( ConD ,
Shan or TorkoiUn, niaj be looked ninii ai tlio ctnln ol <°^
habiUt Han, at an elevation of 18.000 teet sbovg tbe w-l^
ia tbe boms of tha m±eo\6etBtOinttioli, dibibJ iRat tlie nltbnM
Venrtiui travaUer Marco Polo, wbo met vitli it IB hii»Jn<'">«
travole Ihrongb thia r^ion in the 13lh ccntnir. It i» f^^^'
able fur the Rroat >i» of tha homa of the old ismi •";! ";
wide open awccp of their carve, K tint tbo ptinti aland uW
S H E — S H E
785
«nt on (uh Mt, ht awtj ttma th* mbnil't hwd, inatod of mrl-
Ing round nMilj In tha kidi plsns, u in m«t otthaslliMl ■ndo.
A TBiy liiiiilv If nat idsntictl ipMlM fh>m tha tuna oii^n, is
which tlia boms ratain thnir more normal dsralopmant, ha*
noaind tha nama of 0. irn^ini. Eaatwa.-d ud narthwaid la
tound tb* atgall {0. amnun), with a wida and not Tar; wait
dotanniood lange. Btill fiirthar notth, in tha Stanoroi Uonntaina
and EaDwhatu, Ig 0. nivinla, anil away ou tha other aida oC
Behiing*! Stnit, in tha Rock; Uonntaina and a^Jaeenthlgh Uoda
ot waatarn Noitb Aroarioa, la tUs " btghoni " or nuant^ ibMp
(A maiUma), tha oolj ona of tha gaoM tumd In that oontinanl
and Indaad— u«pt tba blton,th< muak-ox (OtAm), Bumnlaln goat
(Apleamt), and tha pnugbnck (AnUIee^m) — tha only hallow-
homad rnminanC, bdng Ilka tlu nat obrlonlj a ■tnnler foim tha
ciadla of ita laca. Tuning aonthwatd turn tba pdniE from wUeh
wa atartad, and dOl a littla to tha aart, in Kepal and Littla llbat,
ia p. lUdgtMi, a apaciea with laiga and itriHUtl; nmad ben*,
and anothar with ainallar and man apnading bona, tba botifasl,
0. ■oAoar. Paning in a aonth-wietaiij dinotlmi m flad a tariea
of amallar tnro*, 0. vigiiti of Ladak, 0. lyeltctnt ti nartham
India, Pania, and Balnahiatan, 0. amitM <rfAda Kfnor, 0. ephim,
eonfinad to the alavabid pina-dad Traodoa MoBntalna ot tha
ialand of Omtu, and mid at tha tima ot flw Biitiih oocapation
In ISTS to SaTO baan ndnosd to a flock of abont twantj-flra
indlTidnaK and 0. ■uinaun, the monSon ot Oontca and Sanlinla
traotlnfliiit, ol
Ws thoa li
•N^alli
trfSortbAbii^
adnntisaaL No apedai &«■
opan plains danaa ii>nat% or
of apodaa an Inbabituila of
Ballj i
la parta of tha world, for dwalling among whish tha ir
wondartnl powen ot cUmbinB nod laaping glTO tham apaeial
-J — . u !_ » it 1^ oh^raSiai brel daaeit^
"- *— -"la grtstar nnubar
_- i^ onoor»iha|i*
la into Sontbara Enropa,
haep osenn in an; othar
part of tha world, nnlaas tha ao galled nitik-oi (Otiin mtidiatuM)
of tha Antio ngioni, tha naanat "'■*i"g allj to tha tma aheep,
may ba oonaUiared aa una. Oaalon«a]lj qtaaldoK absap appaar
to bo Taiy modam '"'""I', ei ptihapi it wonld Da aafar to aajr
that no nniaina that ean ba with oartaln^ nfonad to tba nona
ban bean met with in the hitherto axidiwBd troa TertlM; b«d%
which haTarialded ancb abnodaDt modiAcstiona of antelopaa
and dear. They are apparentlr not Indlganana in tba Britiib lilaa,
but warn probably Introduced by man from tba Eaat In prabiatarlo
timaa. (W. H. P.)
SHEEFSEEAD is the iiAme of one of the lai^t
■pedea of the geana Sarffu*, nutrioe fishea known on the
coaata of aonthem Eorope u " sugo " or " aaragQ." l^keae
fiahee poaiMB two kinds of teeth : — one, broftdandJAt, like
uuoMn, occiqiTiDg in a tingle *erie« the front of the jaws ;
the other, semiglobnlar and molu-like, amuged in sererol
Mriea on the udei of tha jawa. For the BTatematic posi-
tion of the genua, see toL xiL p. 689. The aheepahead,
Sargtu ovit, occtin in abundance on the AUnntic eoaata of
the United States, from Cape Cod to Florida, and ia one
of the moat valued food-fi^n of Kortli America. It is
aaid to attain to a length of 39 inches and a weight of 10
poimda Ita food concdsts of sbelMab, which it detaches
with its iocisora from the base to which they are 6xed,
croihing theiti with ita powerful molars. It stay be dis-
tinguished from some other allied apeciea occurring in the
same aeai by the presence of seven or eight dark crosa-
hands traversing the body, by a recumbent spins in front
of the dorsal fin, by twelve spines and as many rays of
the doTwl and ten rays of the anal £n, and hj forty-sis
scales along the lateral line. The term "sheepshoad" U
also given in some parts of North America to a very
different flsli, a freshwater Sciienoid, Corviua otevJa, whion
is mnch less esteemed for the table.
BHEERNESS-ON-SEA, a seaport, watering-phce, naval
eetabliahmsDt;, and garrison town in tlie Isle of Sheppey,
Kent, is situated on the Thames at ths month of the Med-
way, on the Sittingboiu^e branch of the London, Chatham,
and Dover Bailway, 63 miles east of London, and 17
north-east of Maidstone. The older part of Bheemesa,
coDtaioing the dockyard, is coLed Blue Town, the later
additions being known aa Hiletown, Bankstown, and
Marinetown. Marinetown consists chiefly of houses occu-
pied by snmmer visitors, but although there is a good
beach for bathing the prceence of the dockyard with its
surrouDdings has militated against the success of the town
aa a watering-place. The dockyard, erected by the admi-
Ealty aboQt 1830, waa seriously damaged by &e in 1881.
The naval establishment is only of die eecond-clasa, Uie
basins being too small to admit vessels ot tlie largest site.
The dockyard is €0 acres in extent^ and contains naval
barracks with accammodation for 1000 men, A fort was
built at Sheemees by Charles U, which on the 10th Jnly
1667 was taken bjr the Batch Seot under De Bnyl«r.
After this mishap it was strengthened and a dod^ard
waa formed. The fortifications are now of great strength,
£100,000 having been spent in adapting them to modern
neoeauties. The tovra is in the parish of Uinster, which
posaaesas the most ancient abbey church in England. Tlie
pcnmlation of the urban saniteiy district (area 938 acres)
in 1871 was 13,966, and in 1881 it was U,286.
SHEFFIELD, a mnnicipal and parliamentary borough
in the Wast Biding of Yorkshire, next to Leeds the
largest town in the eonn^, and the chief seat of the
cutlery trade in EncUnd, is situated on somewhat hilly
ground in the neighbourhood of the Pennine range, on
savenl rivets and streams, the {niucipol of which are the
Don, the Sheaf, the Porter, the Rivelin, and the Loiley,
and on the Midland, Great Northern, and various branch
railway lines, 39 miles aonth of Leeds, 37 south-east of
Manchester, 172 north of London by the Midland
Railway, and 1G2 by the Groat Northern. The borongh
of Shdfield is coextensive with the parish, and embraces
a diatrict 10 miles in length by 3 or 4 miles in breadth.
It iuclodee the townsbips of Sheffield, Brightside Bierlow,
Atterclifif&cum-Daruall, Nether Hallam, Heeley, Eccles-
all Bierlow, and Upper Uallam, the last two districts
being in great part rural, bnt occupied also by the
sou^em and western subnrba of the borough, lie older
portions of tha town are somewhat irregularly buitt, and
in soms districts densely populated, but much has been
done of late years to widen and otherwise improve the
streets in the central districts by the operation of on Act
passed in 1876, the expense amounting in all to about
£1,000,000. The suburbs contain a large number of
beautiful terraces and man^ons, picturesquely situated in
the neighbourhood of fine natural scenery. A consider-
able portion of them is occupied by workmen's cottages,
many of which are surrounded by well-kept gardens,
Sheflleld in I84G was divided into twenty-five paroclual
districts, which bave been gradually added to in successive
years, and in 16S9 it was constituted a deanery. The
XXL — 39
786
SHEFFIELD
only aecleaiastiaJ baildiog of speeul interaat ia ths oM
pimih church of St Petor, chiefij ia tbe Perpendicular
■tyle, originollj cracifortn, but bj Tarimu adilitioiii now
roclanguUr. The old Noruan buildbg ia suppoeed to
hBv6 been borned down daring the w&ra of Edward IIL
with tlie baroni, and the miwt anciont port of Uia present
Btrtictnre i> the tower, dating £roin the litb centnrj.
The church has lately been restored aX the coat of about
£30,000. Xt contaima large number of interesting mnrol
The free grammar school was founded in 1603 thmagh
a bequMt of Thomas Smith, a nativs of Sheffield, practia-
io^ aa an attorney at Crowland, LtDcoInshire, and it re-
ceived the sanction of King James L in 1604, with the
Utle "The Free Orammar School of Eiog James of
EogUnd." The grammar school bnilding of stone in the
Tudor style, erected in 1824, is now (1886) used a> a
technical school, the grammar bchool trustees having pur-
chased the collegiate school at Broomhall Park. The
other principal educational inatitations are the free writ-
ing tchool (171fi, rebuilt iu 1827), the
boys' charity school (founded 1706),
the girl^ charity school (1786), the
Soman Catholic reformatory (1661),
the Church of England educatiooal
inatitate, the I^lh College, erected by
Mark Firth at a coat of £20,000, for
lectorea and claasea in connexion with
the eitensioa of nniversity edncatioo,
the Wesley College, associated with
London TJniretvilj, Ranmoor College^
for training young men for the
ministry in the Methodist New Con-
nexion, the mechaniee' inatitnt^ the
■chool ' of art, and the St George's
Museum, founded by Mr Buskin, and
inclnding a picture gallery, a library,
and a mioeral, a natural history, and
ft botanical collection, the special pni-
pose of the institution being the train-
ing of art students. The school beard
was first elected in 1870, and carries
on iU operations with great eoei^
The principal pnblio buildings are
the town-ball, including the police
ofBoea and rooma for the qnarter lee-
siona and other courts, erected in
1808, enlarged in 1633, and lately
eztensively remodelled at a ooat of
orer X10,000; the council hall and municipal buildings,
originally need for the mechaniee' institute, bnt purchased
by the corporation in 1864 ; the cutlers' hall, built in 1833
at a cost of £6900, and enlarged in I65T by the addition
of a magnificent banqueting hall, erected at a coet of
£9000 ; the general post office, in ths Doric style, opened
in 1874; the fine new corn exchange, in the Tudor style,
erected at a cost of £60,000 ; the Albert Ball, opened iu
1873 by a joint-atocb company for concerts and public
meetings ; the music hall, erected in 1833 ; the freemasons'
hall, opened in 1677; the temperance balls, 1856; the
Norfolk market hall, opened in 1867 at a coet of £40,000 ;
the theatre royal, originally erected in I7S3, rebailt in
1680 at a coat of £8000 ; the Alexandra theatre, erected
183S-7 at a coet of £8000 ; the banacb, having accom-
modation for a cavalry and an infantry regiment and
nrrounded by grounds 25 acres in extent; and the
volunteer artillery drill hall, erected at a cost of £9000.
The literary and social institutions include the Athensum,
CstablUhed ia 1617, with ft newnoom and library; the
literary and phikiMphicaltoeiel7, 1833; tkeSheieliithl
1663 ; the Sheffield library, commenced in ITTT, ud n-
taining 80,000 volumes ; and the free libraiy, fomiU q
1856, with varioos branches opened in subaeqneiit jm
Among the medical or beoevolont institutinnr :nij ,,
mentioned the general infirmary, opened in 1797, u:
successively enlarged and improved as requiruDati di
manded J Ae public hospital, erected in 1658 (incDniiik
with the Shef&eld medical school establuhed io 1193)i::
extended in 1869 ; thehoepital for women, origiuallj&li.'
liehed in 1 864, bat transferred in 1 678 to a new biUi:
erected at the expense of Thomas Jeeaop, and aiw aSu
the Jessop hospiUl for women ; the hospital for dban
of the skin, 1860 ; the ear and throat hospital, IBfO; ib
fever hospital, erected by the Town CouncQ at » nU d
about £25,000 ; the school and manufactoiy for ihaUiK.
1879; the South Yorkshire lunatic aaylam, 187! ;ih
Shrewsbury hospital for twenty men and twenlj wcoit
originally founded by the seventh earl of ShnmtKiij,!^
died in 1616, bat since greatly enlarged by ncoalTi
benefactions; the Hollis hospital, established in 1704 te
widows of cntiera, &e. ; the Firth almshouse!, tnciei in
endowed in 1669 by Mark Firth of Oakbrook at tcW
of £30.000; the licensed victualler.' aiylum, 18T3;t»
Deakin institution, 1849; Hanby's charity, UK; "^
Hadfield'a charity, 1860.
The public monumeuta are ndther nnmetoni ntc i»
portant, the principal being the Montgomery ilstiie, t"^
to James Montgconery the poet in 1861, chiefly ^^'
Sunday school teacher* of the toim, the '^'^ rZ
monument, erected in the market-place in 1354, iw
removed to Weston Park in 1876, the coIubd to Godf"!
Sykea the artist^ erected in Weston Park in wl, *
ciiolera monument 1834-6, and the Crimean mooMW'
to the native* of Sheffield who died in the Ciineu *"■
The town is comparatively well anpplioJ *ili P"!"
and public gardens. In three of the more popiJ"" f:
tricta the duke of Norfolk, lord of the msncr, preww
plots of ground amonntiDg in all to 26 acns, I" °^ "T
at recreation gKnada. fe ^tj we«tee».i^l* ""^
S H E — 8 H E
787
W«alDn Itek and MaMum, ooeopring the groniula uid
iDMisioQ hmue of Wwton HaII, ivhich the town ooom "
purchMod In 1873. The grmmdB ara kboot 19 teres
BxtBDt, and tbe miueam incladM — in addition to t
H^>piu Art QtUerj, now (1886) being ereet«d from the
b«qiiMt of John Newton Htppin — & pietnre nllwjr, »
nKtnrkl history oollectioa, and axt extenaiTe coUaction of
Britiili antiqiiitiea. The Firth Pu^ on the iiortb-««at of
the town, 36 acree in extent, m* pnrchued bjr Wuk Firth,
and praaented to the town, the opening ceremony b^ the
priDce and princesB of Walee taking place 16th Aogtut
ISTIi. The Norfolk Park, 60 acres in extent, ia gnuted
by the doke ot Norft^ for the use of the town, bat remains
his properly. The botanical gardens, 18 acres in ortent,
aitaated in Hw weatem anbnrba, are the propttt;^ of a com-
pany, bat on oertun days they ue open to the public at a
amajl charge, The Btamall Lane cricket gnmnd is the
scene of most of the Torkihira eoan^ cricket '"Mi'''Wii
Hio pnxporit; of SheSald i* chuflT dsnndmt on tlia mina-
TMctan ot mmI and the >pp)icitlon ot ft to Iti nrioM vtm, nt*
snuldng et iron in the ^•briot b nnposwl to date ftom Boman
tlmi^ awl tlMn la dfrtliut pnd eaRjiig It bMik as bi m the
NoRun Coaqiuet n* town bad bseoim fcmsd Cv Its mOtrj
hj flu 14th cantiii7, ss is shown b; alloslMH in Cbsooor. VoIk*
was sn imnrtuit tnde canisd on in kniTca in tlM idsn ct Wm^
lMth,aBdaMaitlsitfODmpsnTw*siBaocpontsdinl<M. Insariy
times mOarj mt nads of bikttr er bar stsd ; atlNweids Astr
HnntmuDi^ Handswoith intradnc«d ost
uiil op to tbs pcosBt lima SliaD^ rstsias Its i
1T«
mofcaststssL
snpnmasirln itsel
ititioa, apadsUj flut
ITS, Botwithstaadiag badail
jaad'tlwErnitBdmab^Tts tradtln liMfT*stMl&Tinx
Kspt pus with that In th> otber bnmdHS. It was wlU Um sid
or Sbtfflsld M{utml that Hsniy BcMsmar founded his ptonasr woAs
to dnalop the mumfsoton of hli ioTsntlon, and a uigs qosoti^
ol Bosenur itsat li ami mads in ShaBsld. The hssT7 branch ot
Ilia itid iwnabotnn inchldB* smom {dataa rifl^ trna, aidaa,
kr» (Mtius li>r ant^Dsa steal shot, end sImI for lUn. The
entlarj tnule embrscta alnoat orery misty of iMtramsat and
tool,— spring and table hnlres, lasoHL Kiaors, smgioal initra-
nwDti, DuHuDulial tastramsats, adgs took, laws, seytbt^
^Ues, aiad«% ihorela^ si^hwffriiig tools, hammat^ Ttcao, to.
The minafutara of eaginai and msahiatnr ts alao larnlj earriad
on, u wall as that of MoTas and gntea. The art of si&it platiag
was latroduced hj Thomas Bcdaover in 171S, and the rasnolubira
is lUll (4 tmpoTtamiB. Among the nlDor indnstiiis of the town
■re tsBnlDK oonfaotioasry, esUDatmaldng, Uojnda-naldBB, iron
and brass foDadiuft silTV nCnJaA and the msunbetne vt
broahes and oomba and of optical Sstrnmaota - On aoooont ot
nrioni oattagaa parpatratel by artiaaiu in woriuhops sgsioatjier-
aona obnoilom to ihsm, ■ Qorunment eomioladon waa in 11III7
appointed to make inqniriia, the leanlt being tha expoanre and
anpprasaion of confederaciM in sonDedoa with Tirioits woriunsD'a
The town tnut for ths admiulibation of proper^ befongioE to
'4a bam tbe 14tli centni;, and In 1881 the number
ot election of the ' town trnitaas * was definitsly
decree of the Oonrt of Cbsnoeiy. Addtttonil powers
Ked on ths traateee by an Aet psased in 1871. The
—.-ait at the tnist property now amounts to sbont lESOOO.
Sheffield obtained mnnidpj {coremment in 1848, and ti diridcd
tuts nine wsidj. The anmbv <d aldnmen ia tlitean. Binoa IMl
llie townoounidl bars had oontrolof thspolioa, at thaniaintsnanee
of the itreats, and of ths drahisge and aanltsiy amngHnenta, bnt
the supplica of water and pa are in the hands of printe companiH.
Tl:e naifceta belong to the dnka of Norfolk, lotd of the manor.
The town Irrt retnmed memban to psiUsmant hi IBSa. Inl88S
tlie representation waa inoreaaed front two to iiTe membna, the
pirliain«Bt«7 diriiioni being AtUrcliffe, Bitii^de, Central,
Ecclexalt, and Hatlsin. Thaareaof the mnnidtvl and parliament.
arj boroogh is IB.BSl aeraa. from 4E,7Sa in 1801 the popalation
had ineraBHl by 1811 to Iia,a»I, by 1871 to t8S,M7, andliT IWl
to mtMi (111,298 mslea, 14M10 fedulea).
BbeDeld wm tho capital << Halhunehire ftom the ^Torman Con-
qoeat, and it ia anpnoeed that the 'aula' ot the Ssion Lord*
Wsltheaf niantloniid In DomasJay was on the Cbatle HUL After
the iiainillOD of Valtheof for a conipiraey agsinrt the Conqnamr
in 107B the manor for lome time nnuined in the hands of his
CDBnlaa^ bnt in 1080 was poaieaaiid by Bosar ds BnilL Aftsr-
WHda it ptaaed to the De LoTstota, bsrana irf Huntingdcmahira, one
of whom had a cattle at ShelBeld. A number of people, workart
In iron, gathsnd round the castia ud farmed the noelsusof the
town. Throng an hclresa ot the Ds Loretots it paved la flii
rajgn of Biohaid I. to tho De Fondrels, one of whom, TfaomH ds
FuiniTil, itreugthaned and oompUted the cattle, and obtained
[mm Edward I. a charier ucder the great eeal Tor a maritst and
annual lUi; Aftar the extinction ot the male line of the FnmlTala
in 1M6, the manor sanad to (Its Talbots, ot whom Idm, latsircd
to la ahskMpaMa'a amn VL, wm craated aarl of Shrewdmy hi
lUL aardlikslWakay,diuinghisdlnrrsos,wasforaometlme|>l«Hl
in BhedUd Castia nndsr the chain of Ghitbb, Ibarth eari of Shrews-
boiy i and Qnaaa Harr rsmalnad a prtsoaer in it under the caro of
Oaone, liifii eari, tram the aMumn of 1970 to the autumn of 1681.
Dor&g ths ClfU Wan the caatts was aeiied in 1849 by the
PariiaaMntsn' par^, who prriaoned it and threw up antnnch-
■BMts touna the town, bnt after the capture ot Sotherham ta
April 1048 Cbey on the approaoh of tha earl of Newcastle, left it
in paoio sad fled to DarbyuiirB. It was, howerer, reoaptnnd by
the party in the fidlowing year, and was nbaeqnentlj demoUaheiL
In 1864 the estate psasu. b* maniaiEa to the Howsrda, duhes of
Sorftilk.
Oh HmUar^ BanamtUii, Id*, mw td. )it 1. OaHT, laesi UaOv,
MafWI MMK —4 Mmrr Qmm af aau, ISW ; Outr, AtfWii Pml mi
rniml,M*i W.deOnrBbi^ OfMh' ^*«n<I nTaMw « iMWA W4 i
Mar KimMumm ^ OM MsbA^ 1B)(; TVlw, ^onlJffSsa to
SHSETIELD, Joht. Sea BiniKiiroHUiBBiu, Dma
0»,
SHEH^ Bhjuxd Lauw (1791-1801), Irisli pditioal
ontor, via the eldart am of £dwaid Sneil, an Irishman
«b) had aeqnind coaajdarable wealth in Bpaia, and after
the r*~"n of '^ A** pamitting CUboUoa in Ireland to
pntoiaaa and tnuumit property in tee had retnnied to
Inland, ^riiere be pnttiMMd the ealata of BeOevtie,
Tippaiuy. Tbe an isaa bom 17th ADgmt 1791, at
DnuDdowmy, Hi^waiy. He received inatmctJoD b
Fnnch and lAtin bom Ibe Abb4 de Qtimean, a Freoch
rafiuM Mid aftermida at KeiWDgton Honaa ichool,
LoDrloD, pnaided crer by a Fnack nohlemaa, tha Flince
de Bro^ In October 1804 be ma rsmored to the
ooUegs at Btoneyhnnl^ lanBadiiw^ and in Nonmber
1807 entemd TtiiU^ Odlm, Dddm, where he apedally
diatingniahad hinMdf In the dahatea of the Hirtoiioal
Sodaty. He graduated .BJL in Joty 1811, and on
IStii NOTember A the aaue year entered Unoob'a Inn,
pKfiantoiy to bmng called to the Iiidi bar. He wfa
admitted a member lA the biih bar at Uie Hilary term
1814^ and meanwhile noolTed to nmnrt himaelf by
writing^n. Hiaid^of jf(Ua«^orM«£iiynMA^waB
playwl at Ute Ow Stnet theatre, Dnblin, 19th Febnawy
1814, with complete raccaaa, and on the 23d May 1816
waa performed at Govent Gardeo. The ApotUiU, produced
at the lattw tbeatn on Sd Hay 1617, flimly ertabliwhed
hia lepntadon, and eoeooraged bim to ccntinQa hia
dramatic efforta till hia legal ud polilical dotiea ahoo^bed
the greater part of hii Idanra. Hia prindpal other |ji^
are Bdtamim (written in 1919), gtadM <1819), Evyimoti
(1819),andJf<MfiM(lS30). In 1833 he began, along with
W. H-Oornui, tocontribntetotbe JTnvJfbnfA/jpifi^piuHw
a aeriea 6f papas entitled ShtUh** of ikt IriA Bar, which
attncted oonaidenble attention by tbebr racinees and
gra[duc Tigonr. lltoae written by Shell were pabliehed
in 18GS in two Tcdnnue, with a aketch of tiis life. Sheil
waa one of tha prindpal fotmden of the Catholic Asaoda-
tion in 1833, and dnw np the petition for inqniry into
the mode of administering the laws in Ireland, which waa
preaented in tlie nme year to both Houaea of Arliament
After the defeat of the Oatholio Belief BiU in 1829 1m
snggBBted the formation' of the New Cathdie AnocialioD,
and, along with CyCoanell, was the principal leader of the
agitation peimctently carried <m till Cktholie emancipation
* granted in 1839. In the Mme year he waa ratnmed
parliament for Helbonme Fort, and in 1631 for LontL
He took a prominent part in all the debatea relating to
Ireland, and bis brilliant eloqnenoe gtadnally captivated
the admiration of tiie House. In Angnat 1839 he became
Tice-president erf the boud ol trade io Lord Melbonine'i
788
S H E — S H E
nunirtij. After the MceMioD of Lord John KtuuU to
|Mwer in 1846 hs was appointed muter of the mint
Being deurOQi, on Bccoant of hia wife's health, to obtaiD
dii>loiDfttic emplojmaiit ftbrood, be wu in 1S60 appointed
miniater ftt the court of Tneetuiy. He died aomewhat
anddealj of gout at Florence on Ut,j S9, 1661.
Set Jfcmirfri i^ Bidnrd Lalar SUtQ, bj V. Irnnat WCaShch
(S roU, ISW).
SHEKEL. In the'Bjttero of Babylooian and AeaTnan
weighte the talent (called in Heb. I??, kikkar) consisted of
CO mana (Ueb. njlp_ maneh) or minas, and the latter again
of aixt; shekels (Heb.?^, For the valnea of these
weights see Nvmiskatics, tdL xtiL p. 631, where it is
alio explained that the Pluenicians and Eel^ws modified
the ^tem and reckoned onlj 60 ahekels to the maneh, at
all STente in appljing the names to money, t.«., to the
procMOS meUla,' and that the weight of their silver ahekel
was also probably modified for convenieDce of interchange
between the gold and silver standard. The ailver ahekeU
of the HaocAbees (Ndmibiutics, p. 650} have a TimTimnni
WMght of about 224 gnuns, and correqxntd to tlie Fhoe-
nuian tetradracbm (foar drams). Hence in Matt. xrii. 24
the temple tax of half a shekel is called the didrachoi (3
drams). InS8am.xiT. 36 we read of shekela "after the
kii^B weight," ic, according to the Assyrian atendard,
whidi is called "royal" on wughts foond at Nineveh.
The Hebrawa divided the shekel into twea^ V^ eadi of
whi^mui agenh (^).
SHELBUBNE, Eabl or. See I^AireDowira, HaM)un
of.
SHELD-DRAKE, or, as commonly spelt in its ctn-
traeted form, SaiuiiiAXS, a word whoee derivation * has
been much discnased, one of the most oonapicnons birds of
the Dnek tribe, ^mifNbi, called, howeret, in many partaof
Ellwand &e " Bnnow-Dnok " from its hainU presently
to be mentioned, ud in some dietricta by the almoet obso-
lete name of " Bergander" (Dutch, Berjfitiuit, Germ. Bvry-
mu), a word lued by Tomer in 1644.
Tht Bhsldiak* Is tLe Atua ladoma * of LioDMns, and tha
Todana eanaOa or T. vulpanm- of mi>dani ornitkologr, a Uid
aouawbat lainr and of mon aprifflit itttnra tbiD u ordinary
Dnat having tta bUl, nith a baial fiMta v protnbRuca (irhance tha
aoadla tanu cunula^ pala rod, tha head aod oppai mcIc vtrr dark
glosiv flnan, and bonaatli that a broad wbita oollar. Baccnded by
a •tiU tooadai belt of bright bay txbuidlDg ft^m the onpar back
aoroai tha appo broaat Tha oatar acipulan, tha prlniaiiaa, a
nidltn abdomhitl atript, which diktat at tha rant, and a bar at
tha tip er flu alddla tail qallla an blaak ; tha iaaa aeooadariat
and tha lower tail.covarta an gray ; and tfaa ipiaiiavt or wingapot
is a rich lavnied-<niaa. Hm nst of tha plomag* ia pan vhua,
and tha Ian are flaah-ooloucad. There ia little aitamd dlffsraaca
batman tea aaia^ tha fnaala batug only aoieewhat amallw and
leaa brUbtlv eoloniod. Tha Shaldrako fraanania the nndj coeista
of nearlv the whole ol Eorop* and Iforth AlHca, eilaidiiii; aaoaa
Asia to India, CSihia, and J^ian, sananlly keapiog in pun and
aomatimea panatnting to bvonnbla Inland locaUtiei. Tba nrat
la alwaja laada under sorer, nasally In ■ labbit-hola among nod-
UDe, and la the IMtian lalanda the people anpplv this bii3 with
attIAcialbaiTOWB,takinglBnatollafitiniS8sseaeown. Barbery,
sonth-aastew Srotpa. and OeBtnl Asia an InhaUted by an aUiod
prlBarlly a patal^ ai
jaat at Bl^aUa (Clai
* Bee Bxod. xmUi. 2(, where than an tOOO thdtala in the talaot.
■ Bay ht 1871 (Avl ITonfa, p. 76) gate it bom the local " iheld "
(— parliealoiued], which, applied to anlmalt, at a hone or a eat, atill
eiTTivn in Beat Anglla. Thia oplnhn la not only taltabia bnt li
— - — d bf tbe bM't Old Honk naota Stfltdmgr, ttaa OfiUr,
"ih, and now oommonlj battowad on a piahaU \an*,
(Clewhy'a laL DUL, tnt mm), torn tha aame aonn^
partleolonnd eo*. Bnt aome eehoUn Intopnt StjOdum^r by
ina eeeoDdaty maaBing of BIjeldr, a ableld, taHrtlng that It nt<in
(o " the ahleld-lUit band acma tha breaM " of tha biid I( tbey be
rl^t the ptoperapelllDgot the EuglUh word wooldba " Bhlald.dralu,''
aiaonuloriaedhanlt. A third tnggHtad msuiiiig, fram tha Otd Konk
ana, (heltir, ti pbilolsglulljr to^ njoctad, but, if tne, woold nfer
to tha bird'i baUt, daaolbed in the text, of bnadlng andai ooTcr.
> TUa la tha lAtlaliad rotm tt tba Fnneh Tathm, tit pabUihad
by BeloD (15GG}, a word ca wUoh Uttri thiowi m light axeapt to
■Mti tliit it kaa a tonthen variant Jurdna.
mdse of mora inland nngo and vary diBinuit «
T. eoaBrw or Oiaarai * rvUla of omitholociBt^ I
SheldnkD of Kiigliab aathon— for it Lat mTmi tinwa tmynl t:
the Uritiah labiida,— and tlio " Itnhminv Dock " of An^
Indlant, who Dud it nwrtiog in wintrr, whotber by ntn tw li
thooeanda, to their inland waten. Thii nwdaa i« ol am aliBesI
onilom bay oolour all <mt, except tho qaill-reathsTs of Iha ■ii.-i
and tail, and (in the male) a rin^ round the neck, which are hlut,
while tht wiug-corertB are w)iiCe and the ipectUun ahi&et vi;li
noon and puple ; tho UU and lea an dark-coloamL* A inciii
doaely reaembluig tha laat, bnt wilh a (tray bawl, r. (Biac, ianaliii
Sonth Africa, while In tome of the Uanda of Um Ualay AidL-
pelagD, and in the northern [iarta of Aoitnlia, tbera ia a foarik
apegie^ 1*. nMraA, which almoat eqnala the true Sheldnke ia iB
brightly oontnttod plumage, bnt yet wante aona of tha lirt:;
ooloon tha latter dnijilayt— its bead, for '"-*-■"— heing whia
iuataad of dark gnen. further to tbo aontbward in AnatnL)
ocean another apeciea oF men aomlin ralonn, tha T. (iltTwnrfo ,
and Mew Zealand ia the home of a sixth apccie^ T. eantjal^
■till Ian dittingniahcd hy bti^t baa. In tha laat two the
pinmage of the teiet dUGwe not ineonaidenbly, hot all ara IxlKred
(o hiVB ananlklly tha aame hablla at tha f. amtiia^*
It ia not without a pnrpoee that these different specla
are here particnlarixed. SheldiakeBwiU,if attentianheiBid
to their wants, breed freely in captivity, atxBing if of^o-
tnnity be given them with other apecisa, and an incidnt
therewith connected pOBaessoi an importance hardly to be
overrated by the philosophical natnralis^ thon^ it aeesa
net to have met with the attention it deBerroa. In tht
Zoological Sotnety's cardens in the spring of 1S59 a male d
T. eonmla mated with a female of T. eaxa, and, se will ban
been inferred from what has been before stated, these two
speciea differ greatly in the colouring of their plamagt,
Tha young of their union, however, presented an appear-
ance wholly unlike that of either parent, and an appearaim
which can hardly be said, aa hat been said {P. Z. S^ 1S59,
p. 442), to be "a carious combination of Ihecolonrs of the
two." Both sexes of this hybrid have been admirably por-
trayed by Hr Wolf {lam. tit, Ave^ pL 168) ■ and, atrnn^
to say, vrhen theee figoree are compared with equally fai^
fnl p(ntrutBbythesamemaiiter(fp. £11,1864, pU. 18, IS)
of the Anstialian and New Zealand Rpecie^ T. tadomoida
and T. mmefota, it will at once be seen that the hybrid
preaent an appearance almost midway between the two
apeciea last named — species which certainly had nothing
to do with their prodaction. The only explanation of thn
astounding fact seems to be that affoided by the laittdplc
of " reversion," aa set forth I7 Hr Darwin, and illnstrated
by him from examples of certain breed* of X>OTee, domes-
tic Fowls, and Dneka (^ntn. and PL tOM&r Domttlieatiat,
L ff. 197-200, iL p. 40), as well as, in the matter of
domeatiB Fowls, by Hr Cambridge Fhillipa (Zoeiegid,
1684, p. 331). It is a perfectly fair hypotheeia that the
existing ^nimala of New Zealand and Aoetralia retain
mon of thur ancestral character than do those of coUDtiiei
in whioh we may snppoae the atmggle for life to ban
been fiercer and the action of natural selection atronger.
Why it le eo we cannot say, yet experiment proves that
the roost widely different breeda of ligeona and other
ponltty, when croassd, prodnce ofbpring that more re-
sembles the ancestral wihl speciaa from whidi the domestic-
ated forms have i^rang than it resembles (uther of the
immediate pannta Thia myiterions agency is known as
anygc . __.
' Jardon (A India, 111. p 7M) laDa of a Hlnda bdltf tl._. ._
upon a time two lovara were traoafonned into blida of thia qndtf.
and that Ibay or their doBandanU an oindamnad ta paa> the aigtC
on the oppoalte lianka of a rlnr, whaaca thaj aneaafio^y call to cnt
aootbar; "Chaikwa, Iball I come I " "No, Cbarkwl." " Cbwtii,
ahall I come 1 " "Ho, Chaikwt.' Ai to bow, under thaaa dicuE-
itancaa, tht race ia peipelaated the tegend li ilUnt.
* The Jiwi KuUllaln of the Indo-llalar oonntiiea la bf "^^
othere, anoni then by M r Hnme (3(rs)r f aoMart, vUL p. IH).
S H E — S H E
789
ttie ptindpU ut " tevanion,'' tnd the sumple jnat cited
proves that tUe MOie effect ii produced in apeciea'u well
w ID "mceo," — indicating the eanential identit; of both,
— the onlj real difleranca being that " apeciee " are more
differentiated than are "racee," or that the diatinction
between them, initead of being (aa many writen, aome
of the fint repnt^ bare maintained) qualitatiTe, is merely
qnantitatire, or one of degree.'
The genua Tadoma, aa ahewn by ita tnwheal character!,
seenta to be moat nearly related to Chandopex, containing
the bird H well known aa the Egyptian Qooee, C. mgypliaea,
and an allied t^eata, C. jubala, fram Soath America. For
the same nMon the genus yitetroptena, composed of the
SpnT'Winged Qeeee of Africa, and perbapa the Anatialian
Antertauu and the Indian and Ethiopian SareidiorMt,
also appear to belong to the Hune groap, which eboold be
reckoned rather to the Anatine than to the Anaerine
section of the AnatidK. (a. X.)
SHELLEY, Ma»t Wollbtokmrait (1797-1B61), the
second wife of the poet Sbzllzt (j.v.), bori
imaginatiTe. When she was in Switzerland with Shelley
and Byron in 1816 (see below), a proposal was made
that rariona member* of the party abonld write a romance
or tale dealing with the anpemataraL The resntt of diis
project was ^t Urs SheUey wrote Fividceiulan, Byron
the begintdng of a narrative abont a vampyre, and Dr
Polidori, Byron's physician, a tale named The Fampyre,
the anthonhip of which naed frequently in peat yean
to be attribnted to Byron himaelf. Fraitlcaulein, pnb-
lished in 1818, when Ura Bhelley was at the ntmoet
twenty-one yeara old, is a Teiy remarkable performance
for BO young and inexperienced a writer ; its main idea ia
that of the formation and Titalization, by a deep atndent
oF the secrets of natore, of an adnlt man, who, entering the
world thus under nnnatural condition^ becomea the terror
' ' s species, a half-inTolnntary criminal, and finally an
outcast whose sole reeonrce la self-immolation. This
romance was followed by others : Taiperga, or the Life and
Adventure! of Cattryedo, Prince of Lueea (1823), an his-
torical tale written with a good deal of spiri^ and readable
enongh even now ; The Lad Man (1636), a fiction of the
final agonies of human society owing to the nnivereal
spread of a pestilence, — this is written in a very stilted style,
but beats eoms tracee of the imagination which fashioned
Frankendein; The Fortma of Perkin Warbech (1830);
Lcdore (183G) ; and FaUMer (1837). Besides these novels
there was the Jounu^ of a Six WeeU Tour (tbe tonr
of 1811 mentioned below), which is published in oon-
jnnction with Shelley's prose-writings ; also Rambiee u>
Germany and lUdy in 1840-13-43 (which show* an
observant apiiit, capable of making aome true forecasts of
iliB future), and various miscellaneons writings. After
the death ci SheUey, (or whom she bad a deep and even
cnthosiastia aSectioD, marred at times by defects of
temper, Un Bhelley in the autumn of 1833 ntoroed to
Loodon. At first tbe earnings of her pen were her only
BUStenancK; but after awhile Sir Timothy Bhelley made
her an allowance, which would have been withdrawn if
slie hod persisted in a pngect of writing a full biography
of her husband. She was a loving and careful mother,
and shared tbe prosperous fortunes of her son, when,
upon tbe death of Sir Timothy in 1844, be succeeded to
the baronetcT. She died in Febroary 1861.
8IEELLKT, Fkbot Bybshb (1792-1822), vras bom on
t^th^nu>thtr(A <.&, iSM
IT rMMubl* thaic fsthtf molt
4th August 1793, at Field Pkoe, near Horsham, Sussex.
He was the elde>t child of Timothy Bhelley, H.P. for
Shoreham, by his wife Elizabeth, daughter of Charlee
Pilfold, of Effingham, Bntrey. Mr Timothy SheUey be-
came in 1815 Sir Timothy SheUey, Bart, upon tbe decease
of his father Byashe. who was created a baronet in
1806. This Bysshe SheUey was bom in Christ Church,
Newark, North America, and married two heiressee, the
former, the mother of Timothy, being Mary Catherine,
heiresa of the itev. Theobald Michell, of Horsham. He
was a handsome man of enterprising and remarkablo
character, accumulated a vest fortune, bnUt Castle Qoring,
and lived in sullen and penurious retirement in hie closing
yeara None of his talent seems to have descended to
Timothy, who, except for being of a rather oddly self-asser-
tive character, was nndistinguishaUe from the ordinary
run of commonplace country squires. The mother of the
lK>et is described as beautiful, aud a woman of good abili-
tiea, bat not with any literary turn ; she was an agreeable
letter-writer. The branch of the ^elley family to which
the poet Percy Bysshe belonged traces its pedigree to
Henry Shelley, of Vorminghurst, Sussex, who died in
1633. Beyond that point the genealogical record is not
clear ; yet no substantial doubt exists thet those Worm-
inghmst or Costie Goring tihelleys are of the same stock
as the Michelgrove Shelleys, who trace np to Bir William
BheUey, jndge of the common pleas under Henij Til.,
thence to a member of perlismeut in 1415, and to the
reign of Edward I,, or even to the epoch of the Norman
Conquest The Worminghurst branch was a femily of
credit, but not of distinction, until its fortunes culminated
under the above-named Bir Bysshe.
In the character of Percy Bysshe SheUey three qnaUtieB
become early manifest, and may be regarded as innate:
impressionableneea or extreme susceptibiUty to external
and internal impulses of feeling; a Uvely imagination or
erratic fancy, blurring a sound estimate of solid facts ; and
a resolate repudiation of outer authority or tbe despotism
of custom. These qnalitiee were highly developed in his
earUest manhood, were active in his bc^hood, and no
doubt made some show even on the borderland between
childhood and infancy. At the age of six he was sent to
a day school at Wamham, kept 'by the Bev. Ur Edwards ;
at ten to Bion House School, Brentford, of which the
principal wss Dr Greenlaw, while the pupils were mostly
sons of local tradesmen ; at twelve (or immediately before
that age, 29lh July 1804) to Eton. The headmaster of
Eton, up to nearly the close of Bbelley's sojourn in the
school, was Dr Goodall, a mild disciplinarian ; it is there-
fore a mistake to suppose that Percy ^unless during his
very brief stay in die lower school) was frequently
fiagcllBtad by the formidable Dr Keate, who only became
headmaster after OoodoUL Bhelley was a shy, senutive,
mopish sort of boy from one point of view, — from another
a very unruly one, having his own notions of justice, inde-
pendence, and mental freedom ; by nature gentie, kindly,
and retiring, — under provocation dangerously violent
He resisted the odious faeging system, exerted himeelf
little in the routine of echool-leaming, and was knoim
both as "Mad Shelley " and as "Shelley the Atheist"
Borne writers try to show that an' Eton boy would be
termed atheist without exhibiting any propensi^ to
atheism, but solely on the ground of hie being muCiDOUO.
However, as Shelley wsa a declared atheist a good while
before attaining his m^ority, a shrewd suspicion arises
that, if Etonians dubbed him atheist, they had some
relevant reason for doing eo.
BheUey entered University CoUege, Oxford, in April
1810, returned thence to Eton, and finaUy quitted the
•chool at midtammer, and commenced residence in Oxford
190
8H E LLE T
in October. Hen kft met A young Durliftm man, Thomas
JeSwaoB Hogg, who had preceded him in the nnivemty
by a conple of mooths ; the two foalba at once atrock up
a warm and intimate friendihip. Sbeilej had at thii
time a lova For chomical exporiment, aa well m for poetrj,
jJiiloaophj, and claaaical ttudj, and wm in all hia tastoa
and bearing an enthniiut Bagg waa not in the least an '
euthnsiant, rather a cynic, bnt he alio wai a steady and <
wull-road dawLcal atudent. In religious matters both '
wero Hceptici, or indeed deciaed aoti-Cbriatiani ; whether
Hogg, as the senior and nu>re iefotmed dlsi'Utaol,
piaueored Siielle; into strict atheiam, or whether Ejhelley,
as the mora iai|ias«ioned and nnflinchiug specnlator,
outran the easy-going jeering Hogg, is a moot point ; we
incline to the latter opinion. Certain it is that each egged
on the other by perpetual disquiaition ou abetnue sob-
jecta, conducted partly For the «fce of tmth and partly -
for tiiat of mental ezercitation, without on either aide any
disi^Msition to bow to authority or atop short of extreme
eonclusioQa. The upshot of tlus habit was that Shelley
and Hogg, at the eloee of tome five months of happy and
Tmeventful academic life, got expelled from the uniiei«ty.
Shelley — for he alone figures as the writer of the " Uttte
syllabus," althoogh there am be do doubt that Hogg was
his confidant and cqa4jntw throughout — publiilied anony-
mously a pamphlet or flyaheet entitled Tht JfecewtUf of
AAtitM, which he aent roond, or intended to send round,
to all sorts of people ks an inritation or challenge to die-
cusaion. It amonnted to saying that neither reason nor
testimony is adequate to eatabliab the existence of a
deity, and that nothing short of a personal individual self-
reTelation of the deity would be sufficient. The coUt^
authorities heard of the pamphlet, somehow identified
Shelley as iCa author, and summoned hint before them —
"ear master, and two or three of the fellows." The
pamphlet was prodnoed, and Shelley was required to say
whether he had written it or noL The yoath declined to
answer the question, and was e:^lled by a written
sentence, ready drawn an. Hogg was next summoned,
with a result practically the same. The precise details of
this traneaction have been much controverted; the beet
evidencs is that which appears on the college records,
showing that both Hogg and Shelley (Hogg is there
named brst) were expelled for " oontiunaciously refusing to
answer quedtions," and f » " repeatedly declining to dis-
avow " the aatbonihip. Thus they were dismiseed as being
how the authorities coaid know beforehand that the two
nndergraduates would be contumacious and stiff agaimit
disavowal, so as to give warrant for written eentencoii
ready diawn up, is nowbeM explained. Fouibly the
sentences were worded without ground asugned, and
would only have been prodaced n lemma had the
young men proved more malleable. The date oF Ihi^i
incident was 2Gth March 1811,
Shelley and Hogg came up to Loodoo, where ribcllcy
was soon left alone, as hid friend went to York to study
conveyancing. Percy and his incensed father did not at
onca come to terms, and for a while he hud do rooourco
beyond pocket-money saved np by his w^torn (four in
number altogether) and sent round to him, aomotimos by
the hand of a singularly pretty achool-telbw, Miss Harriot
Wejtbrook, daughter of a retired and moderately opulent
hotel-koejicr. Shelley, especially in early youth, had a
Bomuwhat " priggish " turn for moralizing and argumenta-
tion, and a decided mania for proaelytizing ; his school-
girl sisters, and their little Uethodiat friend tSia West-
bnx>k, aged between fifteen and sixteen, most all be
enlightened and converted to anti-Christianity. He ther»-
fore cultivated tbo soeiety of Haniet, calling at the kwt
of her father, and being enoouraged in hia aendniti If
her much older aister Eliia. Harriet not onimtiualij
fell in love with him ; and he, thongb not it would seec
at any tims aidsutly in love with her, dallied nlonf tL:
flowery pathway which leadu to sentlmeDt aad a definite
courtship. This was not hi4 first love-aSair ; for he hul
but a very few months before been conrting hia coo^i
ifina Harriet Qrove, whc^ alarmed at his heterodoiks,
finally broke off with him — to his no tmall grief Mtd pa-
turbotJOQ at the time. It b averred, and soemiaj^y with
truth, that Shelley never indulged in any sensual or dii
sipated amour ; and, as he advances in life, it becoiaa
apparent that, though c^nble of the paasion of love, and
unusually prone to regard with much eSuaion ot aeotirarai
women who interested lu* mind and heart, tfae atn
attraction ot a pretty face oi an allniing figiij« left hia
nnentbralled. After a while Percy waa reconciled to liii
father, revisited hia family in Baeeex, and tben ateyed wiik
a cousin in Walea. Hence he was recalled to IdioAm t;
Hiss Haniet Weatbook, who wrote compUining ol W
father's reaolfe to send her back to her achool, in whict
she was now regarded with rnwlsioii ta ha-vutg bocnrnt lac
apt a pupil of tiie adwist Shdhr. He replied connaBlJiBg
reMstance. "She wrote to aay" (these are the wnrdsiit
Shelley in a letter to Ht^g dating towards tbe end of
July leii) "that lesistODce wu mela^ bat that sk
would fly with ma, and threw hetaelf upon my proteetfcn,*
Shelley therefore returned to I/mdon, where be foond
Harriet agitated and wavering; finally tliey agreed to
elope, travelled in haste to Edinburgh and tlierev acecrdKe
to the law of Scotland, became husbuid luid wife od ^ftli
AngnsL Shelley, it should bo anderatood, but hy Ihii
time openly broken, not only with the dogmaa and canvce-
tiont ol Ciiristian religion, bnt with many of the iiutita-
tions of Christian polity, and in especial with sodi ai
enforce and regulate maniage; he held — -with 'Williao
Godwin and some other thcmists — that marriage ou^t to
be simply a voluntary relation between a man and a
woman, to be assumed at joint option and terminated st
the ofter-c^tioD of either [larty. If therefore he had acted
upon his personal conviction of the ri^t, be woald never
have wedded Harriet, whether by Scotch, Fjigliah, or anj
other law ; bnt he waived bis own theory in favonr of tit
consideration that in such an experiment the -wcmans
stake, and the didadvantagee accruing to her, are out «
all comparison with the man's. His conduct tberefon;
was so far entirely bononrabhi ; and, if it derailed from
a principle of hia own (a principle which, howoTer caa-
trary to the morality <^ other people^ waa and alwap
remained matter of genuine conviction on hia individual
jiort), thid wai> only in deference to a higher and more
imiioriouB standard of righL
Harriet Shelloy was not only boauliful ; die «v
amiable, accommodating, adequately well educated and
well brod. She liked reading, and her reading waa not
strictly frivolous. But she could not (as Shelley said at s
lat«r date) " feel poetry and understand philoaojjiy," H«
attroctiomi were all on the surface ; there was (to nin a
common phrase) "nothing particnlor in hor* rot nearly
three years Shelley and ^e led a shifting sort of life upoa
an iqcome of £400 a year, one-half of which waa allowed
(after his first severe indignation at the witallimtt n*
past) by Mr Timothy Shelley, and the other half by Ur
Westbrook. The spouses left Edinburgh for .cuk sad
the society of Hog^ \ broke with him nnon a diai^ge made
by Harriet, and evidently fully bolieved by Shelley ol the
time, tha^ during a temporary absence l^ lua oi<oa busIlMas
in Sussex, Hogg had tried to seduce her (thia quarrel wu
entirely mode np at the end of about a year) ; moved off
SHELLEY
791
to Kfiswiclc in ComWland. conpled with tha compon; of
Soutlioy, and lomo ho«i>italHy from the dake of Norfolk,
wlio, as cliier nmgnato in tbo .SlioTeham reRion of Submi,
WOB Bt ,ialti8 to Toconcilo tho fathor tuid 1iii< too nnfilia.)
]ieir; nailed ilmnce to Dublin, whore Shelle; wai eager,
Catholic emaacijiftlion, conjoined with rapeol of tlie anioa ;
crossed to Walc^s and tived at Nant-OwiUt, near RhaTsder,
ttien at Ljrninonth in Uevonahire, tlen at Tan;rr^it in
Carnarroiishire. All this wtu botweea Septembec 1811
iind Fubroarj 1813. At Lynmouth aa Irish servant of
Bbellc/a nos sentenced to sii montlu' imprisoDmeot for
distributing and posting up printed ptipen, bearing no
lirinter's ncme, of an inflammatorj or eeditioui tendency
— being a Da-kvalion of Ryiht* compoeed by the youthful
reformer, and gome reraes of his named Thi liev£t Walk.
At Tanjrallt SbelLey wbs (to tnut his own and Harriet's
account, confirmed bj the evideneo of Uias Westbrook,
the elder sister, who continued an inmate in most of their
honiea) attacked on the nioht of 26th February by an
nssansiu who fired three pislol-ahoto. The motive of the
attack was undefined ; the fact of its occurrence was
Snerally disbelieved, both at the time and by Bubaequent
ijuiren. To analyse the poesibilitice and probabilities of
the case would lead us too far; we can only say that we
rank with tho decided scepticB. ShcUey was fiUl of wild
unpractical nations j he dosed himself with laadaDQDi as
a polliative to spasmodic pains ; he was given to strange
assertions and romancing narratives (several of which
might properly be specified here but for want of space),
and was not incapable of conscious fibbing. His mind no
doublosdllated ai times along the line which divides sanity
from insane delusion. It is difficult to suppose that he
simply invented auch a monstrous story to serve a purpose.
'Xhe very enormity of the etory tends lo dissuade us from
thinking so, and the purpose alleged seems disproportion-
ately small — that of decamping from Tauyrollt ero creditors
should become too pressing. Indeed, we dodsively reject
Ihis snpposed motive. On the other hand, nothing could
lie traced to corroborate Shelley's assertion. This was at
^ny rale tiie break-up of the residence at Taoyrflllt ; the
Shelleys revisited Ireland, and then settled for a while in
London. Bero, in Jane 1313, Harriet gave birth to her
daughter lanthe Mim (she married a MrEsdaile, and died
in 1876). Hare also Shelley brought oat his first poem of
any importanoe, Quwn Mah\ it was privately prmted, aa
its exceedingly aggresaive tone in motten of religion and
morals vould not allow of publication.
Tile speculative sage whom Shellsj especially reverenced
was William Godwin, the author <rf PcliiietU' Jvtiiee and
of the romance Caleb WUlitttnt ; in 1796 he had married
Mary Wollstonecraft, authoress of Tht Rigktt of 'Woman,
who died shortly after giving birth, on 30Ui August 1797,
to a daughter Uary. With Godwin Shelley had opened
a volunteered correspondence late in 1811, and he had
known him personbllj since the winter which closed 1812.
Oodwin was then a bookseller, living with his second wife,
who bad been a Mn Clairmont; there were four other
Inmates of the honsehoU, two of whom call for tome
mention here — Fanny WoUstonecratt, the daughter of the
authoress and Mr Imlay, and Claire, the dao^ter of Mra
Clairmont. Fanny committed suicide in October ISl^i,
being, according to some accounts which remain unverified,
hopdessly in love with Shelley ; Clairo was ctosaly
associated with all his suhaequent career. It was towards
May 1814 that SheUoy first sow Mary Wollstonectaft
Oodwin as a grown-up girl (she was well on towards
seventeen) ; he instantly fell in love with her, and she with
him. Just before this, 21th March, Shelley had remarried
Harriot in London, though with no obvioiiitly cc^ut
motive for doing so ; hnt, on becoming ennmonred of Mary,
he seems to have rapidly mode np his mind that Honict
should not stand in the way. She was at Bath while he
was in London, and for a while she heard nothing of him.
They hod, however, met again in London and come to
some sort of understanding before the final trisia arrived, — -
Harriet remonstrating and indignant, but incapable of
effective resiatanca, — Shelley sick of her companionship,
and bent upon gratifying his own wishes, which as we
have olreat^ seen were not at odds with bis avowed
principles of conduct. For some months past there had
been bickerings and misunderstandings lietween him and
Harriet, aggravated by the now detested presence of Miss
Westbrook in the house ; more than this cannot be said, for
no more is at present known. It is certain, however, that
evidence eiiaia which, while not plainly proving any
grave wrongdoing on Harriet's part, exculpates ^elley
from the charge of having separated from her without
what appeared to himself sufficient cause. The upshot
came on 28tli July, when Shelley aided Mary to elope from
her father's house, Claire Clairmont deciding to accompany
them. They crossed to Calais, and proceeded ocroes
France into Switzerland. Godirin and bis wife wera
greatly incensed. Though he snd Maiy Wollslonecraft
hod entertuned and avowed bold opinions regarding th«
marriage-bond, siniilar to Shellof's own, and had in their
time acted upon, these opinions, it is not clearly made out
that Mary Godwin hadever been encouraged by paternal
infiuenee to think or do the like. Shelley and she chose
to act upon their own likings and responsibility, — he
diaregarding any claim which Harriet had upon him, and
Mary setting at nonght her fadier's authori^. Both wero
prepared to ignore the law of the land and the rules of
The three young people retomed to London in
September. In the following January Sir BysBhe Shelley
died, and Percy became the immediate heir to the entailed
property inherited by his father Sir Timothy. This
entailed property aeema to have been worth i£6CK)0 per
annum, or little less. There was another very mnch
larger property which Percy might shortly before have
secured to himself, contingently upon his father's death, if
he would have consented to put it upon the same footing
of entail ; hnt this he resolutely refused to do, on the pro-
fessed gronnd of his being opposed upon principle to the
system of entail ; thereloie, on his grandfather's death
the larger property passed wholly away from any interest
which Percy might have had in it, in use or in erpoctaney.
Ha now came to an understanding with his father aa to
tha remaining entailed property ; and, giving up certain
futnre advantages, he received henceforth a regular incomo
of XIOOO a year. Out of this he aanigned £200 a year
to Harriet, who hod given birth in November to a son,
Charles Bysshe (he died in 1826). Bhelley, and Mary as
well, were on moderately good terms with Harriet, seeing
her from time to time. His peculiar views as to the rela-
tions of the sexes nppcM markedly again in his having (so
it is alleged) invited Harriet to return to bis and Mary's
house as a domicile ; of course this curious nrrongemeut
did not take effect. Shelley and Mary (who was natut«]ly
always called Mrs Shelley) now settled at Bishopgate, near
Windsor Forest ; here he produced his first excellent poem,
Alaelor, or the Spirit of Solilndf, which was published soon
afterwards along with a few othoia. In May 1 81 6 tho pair
left England for Switzerland, together with Misa Clairmont,
and their own infant son WiUiom. They went straight to
S^cheron, near Geneva; Lord Byron, whose separation from
his wife had just then taken place, arrived there immediately
afterwards. A great deal of controversy has lately arisen
aa to the motives and incidents of this foreign eojouro.
794
SHELLEY
Th« deftr iwA u Quit Miu CUiroiont, who had k Una voice
and some iDclinaUon for the stage, had bmd Bjron, u
connected with the managamont of Drorj Lone theatre,
eorlj in the year, aod ao amorous intrigoe had begun
betWMa them in London. Prima faeit it Beenu qnite
reasonahle to Bappoae that she had eiplaioed the facta to
Shelley or to Hary, or to both, and had induced them to
conToy her to the society of Byron abroad ; were tbii
finally eatabliahed ai the fact^ it wonld ahow no incoo-
eiat«ncy of conduct, or breach of his own code of laiQal
morale, on Shelley's part. On the other hand it it ansrtad
that docamentary evidence of an irrefragable kind eiists
■howing that Shelley and Uaiy were totally ignorant of
the amonr ahortly before they went abroad. Whether or
not they knew of it while they and Claire were in daily
interconMe with Byron, and housed close by him on the
ehore of the Lake of Qeneva, may be left unargued. The
three returned to London in September 1816, Byron
remaining abroad; and in January 1817 Miu Qairmont
gave birth to hii daughter named Allegia. The return of
ibe Shelleye was closely followed by two Boicidea,^-firet
that of Fanny Wollatonecraft (already referred to), aad
■eoond that of Harriet Shelley, who on 9th November
drowned herself in the Serpentine. The latest stages of
the lovely and ill-starred Harriet'i career have never been
very explicitly recorded. It seems that she formed a con-
nexion with some gentleman from whom circumstances or
desertion separated her, that hor habits became iotemper-
ate, and that she was treated with contumelious harshness
by her qister during an illuees of their father. She had
always had a propensity (often lahghed at in earliet and
happier days) to the idea of suicide, and she now carried
it oat in act- — possibly without anything which could be
ngarded M an extremely cogent predisposing motiv^
although the total weight of her distresses, accumulating
within the past two years and a half, was beyond qaestion
he«vT to bear. Shelley, then at Bath, hurried up te
London when he heard of Harriet's death, giving manifest
tigns of the shock which so terrible a catastrophe had pro-
duced on bim. Some self-reproach most no doubt have
mingled with bis affliction and dismay ; yet he does not
appear to have 'considered himself gravely in the wrong at
any stage in the transaction, and it is established that b
the train of quite recent eventa which immediately led np
to Harriet's suicide he had borne no part
This was the time when Shelley began to see a great
deal of Leigh Hunt, the poet and essayist, editor of 7%«
Staminer j they were close friends, and Hunt did some-
thing (hardly perhaps so much as might have been antici-
pated) to uphold the reputation of Shelley as a poet —
which, we may here say once for all, scarcely obtained any
public acceptance or solidity during his brief lifetime.
He death oC Harriet having removed the only obetade to
a marriage with Hary Godwin, the wedding ensued on
SQtti December 1816, and the married couple settled down
at Oreat Marlow in Buckinghamshire. Their tranquillity
was shortly disturbed by a Chancery snit set in motion
by Mr Westbrook, who asked for the custody of his two
grandchildren, on the ground that Shelley had deserted
his wife and intended to bring up his offspring in his own
atheistic and anti-social opinions. Lord Chancellor Etdon
delivered judgment towards 26th March 1817. Ha held
that SheUe^, having avowed condemnable principles of
conduct, ana having fashioned bb own conduct to corre-
spond, and being likely to inculcate the same principles
u[>on his children, was nnfit to have the charge of them.
lie therefore assigned this charge to Mr and Miss West-
brook, and appointed as their immediate curator Dr
Hnme, an orthodox army-phyBicioo, who was Shelley's
owS nominee. The poet hod to [lay for the mointonanco
of the childrea a sum which stood Bventnally at £1!D n
annum ; if it was at first (as generally stated) 2200, tbi
was no more than what he had previously sllotid to
Harriet. This is the last incident of marked impcnuxt
in the perturbed career of Shelley ; the rest relsta to lit
history of his mind, the poems which he prodsctd tml
published, and his changes of locality in travdliEg. In
March 1818, after an illness which he resided (righdj n
wronger) as a dangerous pulmonary ftttack, Shelley, vilh k
wife, their two lE^ants William and Clara, and tfis Oiii
mont and her baby Allegro, went off to Italy, in *hica
country the whole short remainder of hi* life wu puad
Ailegra was soon sent on to Venice^ to her father Bpa,
who, ever since parting from Miss Clairmont ui SwiOa-
land, showed a callous and nnfeeling determiiistion to m
and know no more shout her. "In 1B18 the &helleji~
mostly, not always, with Miss Clairmont in their eon^j
— were in Milan, Leghorn, theBagni di Lucca, Tenicsud
its neighbourhood, Some, and Naples ; in 1619 ia Boili^
tiie vicinity of Leghorn, and Florence (both thmr InfuB
were now dead, bat a third was bom Uta iu IB19, tit
present baronet^ Sir Percy Florence Shelley); is 1820 in
Pisa, the Bagoi dl Pisa (or di Ban Ginliano), and Legbon:
iu 1821 in Pisa and with Byron Id Ravenna; in lg22ia
Pisa and on the Bay of Speiia, between Lerici uxi Sui
Tereniio. The incidents of this period are bat fev, ud
of no great importance apart from their bcadsg upoi
the poet's writing In L^hom he knew Ur uA Un
Gisbome, the tatter a once intimate friend of (Jodwin; itie
taught Shelley Spanish, and be waa eager to promoio t
project for a stearaer to be built by her son by a fomor
morrisge, the young engineer Henry Beveley; it wixSi
have bMn the Gist steamer to navigata the QiUf of I^ou
In Pisa he formed a sentimenbal intimacy with th
Contessina Emilia Tiviani, a girl who was piuisg is i
convent pending her father's ^oice of a husband for ha;
this impassioned but vague and faneifol attschnteot-
which soon came to an end, as Emilia's charactM devdcf^
lass favourably in the eyes of her I'latonis adm-'
produced the transcendental lovs-poemi of Sp^itfci'i''
in 1821. In lUvenna the scheme of tba qnrhdl
magazine The Liberal was concerted by Bjroa and Sbdii},
the latter being principally interested in it with a tiet to
benefiting Leigh Hunt by snch an association with Bjroa
In Pisa Byron and Shelley were very constantly tt^llit^
having in their company at one time <x another (^tan
Medwin (cousin and schoolfellow of Sbellqr, and ou ol
his biographers), Ijeatenaot and lira WiUiaou, to botb m
whom oar poet was very warmly attadied, and (^Uii
Trelawuy, the adveutnroos and romantio-natiired nuau
who has left important and intwwtinft TeminisceDCH oi
this period. Byron admired very hi^ily the genenn
unworldly, and enthusiastic character of Bhellsy, ^ "*
some value on his writings; Shelley half-woidiipptJ
Byron as a poet, and was anzioas, bnt in some conjmiotiiM
by no means abls, to respect hira as a man. ^ Fi* ^
knew also Prince Alexander Uavrocordsto, one (^ t^
pioaeers of Grecian insurrection and freedom ; the glwiH)
causa fired Shelley, and ha wrote the drama of lidbi
(1821).
The last residence of Shelley was tbe Otn lf«gii4 •
bare and exposed dwelling on the Qolf of Speaa Ba and
his wife, with the Williamses, went there at the ond of
April 1832, to spend the summer, which proved a •"'
and sconhing one. Shelley and Williams, botli of llim
insatiably fond of boating, had a small schooner ssnio'' '^
" Don Juan ' bnilt at Genoa after a design whidi WiiUw"
bod procured from a naval friend, and lAioh "> "*
reverse of safe. They received her on 12th M»T, l«^
liei raiud and akrt, and on Ist July startsd in ha t'
- Leghorn, to mMt Laigh diint, whoaa Mrinl in Italj had
■ JDBt been notified. After doing hi* best to Mt thlnga going
comfort«btjbetw«ea Byron and Hont^ SheUej returned on
board with Williami on 8th July. It was k day of dark,
louring, Btjfling boat TreUwny took leave of hie two
friend^ and about half-patt six in the evening found him-
aelf etartled from a doiie by a frightful turmoil of storm.
The "Don J[ian"1iad by tbia time made TiaReggio; she
was not to be seen, though other vossels which hod sailed
aboot the aamv time ware still discernible. Sbelley,
WlUiauLB, and tbeir only companion, a Bulor-bo;, perished
in the sqmlL The exact Datnre of the catastrophe was
from the first regarded as somewhat dispatable, but it is
00I7 of late years (1876) that it has been keenly debat«d.
The condition of the " Don Juan " when recovei«d did not
favour any assumption that she hod capsiied in a heavy
sea — rather that she had been ran down by some other
Teasel, a felucca or fiahing-eroack. In the abeenoe of any
coonter-eridence this would be inppoeed to have occnmd
bj accident; bnt a rumour, not atrictiy verified and
certainly not refuted, exiits that an aged Italian nraman
on his deathbed confessed that he had been one pf thecrew
of the fatal felucca, ant} that the collision was intentional,
OS the men hod plotted to stoal a mm of money supposed
to be on the " Don Jnan,' in charge of Lord Byroa In fact
there was a moderate ram tberc^ bnt Byron had neither
embarked nor intended to embark. This m^ perbapa be
the true account of the tragedy i at any rate ^^relawny, the
beet possible anlliority on the rabject, accepted it as tane.
He it waa who labonously tracked out the sh(H«-washed
eorpses of Shelley and Williains, and who undertook the
burning of them, after the ancient Qreek fsithion, on the
■hots near Via R^gio, on the 15th and IGth of August.
The great poet's auies were then collected, and bnried in
the new l4ot«st«nt cemetery in Rome. He was, at the
Ume of his nntimely death, within a month of completing
' the thirtieth year <i his age — a surprising example c^ rich
' poetie aehieremant for so yoong a man
Th* shsnustor of Bbilla; osn ba eouidcnd ueoiding to two
dtffarsnt •landudi ot MtimstioiL We on sstdmata ths orioiiul
motivi Imoia in hU cIunot«T ; or wa am form an oplsicn M bu
-" - id Hieoee pot ■ «rUn oonitnictian unon h*
™ ■■» '-' -y ths l>tt« msthol It
■nlogistL and to aboiuUiit . .
la vera hi'soinB Ooniidnmbla dsgna
o tint tettlad bssto of sods^, end nurkad
is nmarktbl*
8 H E L L E T
79S
JiuUciH. W« will first try the ImtUr msthod It osimot be
Buiod bj hii idnUran uul inlogistL and to aboiuUiitlT clnr to
Us oauors, that hii utioiu vera hi'soms oonsidnmUa
J, dangsrooi to Ui« tettlad bssto of sodstr, e
bf hosditniig and nndntirnl prasDrnption. But it to
that, avm anuiDg the oansui of hia oondnct, muy panoiu us
BDiM tha less impnsssd by ths besuty of his cbusotsr j snd this
iMito ni buk to our first point-^ha origiosl Dtotiw fonaa in that.
" " " " tarvODr, eann
0 set upon 1
priadlda, honvar inooi
oiniisif, svastsMS sod __,.„ ... __ ._ , „__.
odty, sod tbo principU of lavs for hamsaJdnd i» abnndsiMt and
supmbnedanee. Ha napactad tha truth, such as ha conceivsd it
to lu in apiritnal or tpMulstlTe mattan, and rspontad no con-
struction of thg truth which came to bim raeomnwodwl by human
■nthoriu. No man hsd more hatred or eontsnpt ot vnrton and
preaoription ; no ona had a mora sath*ntla or vivid sensa of nni-
vanol charity. Tha soma tadiant anthniiasm vhioh sppasred in
hii poetry u idaaliam stimpad hia Ritcalation with Iha ooiusptioD
ofnifectibiLity and hto ehaiactar with lorisfi emotion.
In psraon Sbellay waa attnctirs, winnjof
bat not to bs called
wurnjos, ai
to height w
I nearly G d
I waa aUm, V^la. and atrona, with aonuthing of a stoop ; hb
inpleilon brllliaiit, hto hair abondant end wavy, dark-biown bnt
aarly beginning to eiinls ; tha ayas, deep-bine In tint, have baen
termed '' ata^-eyes "—large, &ni, and bsaaung. Hu vniee waa
vuCing in riohnsM end anaTitT — high-pitohed, and tooding to tha
Bcraschj ; hia general aapect, though titnniely variable aGcording
aa hto miiod of mind and hto aiprasslon shifted, waa on tha whole
unoonimanlj Juvenila
7rom tbu neoaaaarily niy slight aeoaant of the life el ShoUoy
we pass to s ooiiBldaration'--ana this too roust ba aqoaUy siendar
— of hu works in pootry. Uwa eicspt Ooatha (and tiw convenionoo'
sake leaviag out of eonnt any living writen, vboao ulUmste value
prasent he sswssaJ), we conaidar Bhelley te ba ths
■ii|iruuni fiiet of the new em which, beginBinj- irilh tli* Fraaeh
Bavolntlon, rsmaina contiiiDoaa into onr own da^. Lord nyroa
and Victor Hugo coma tha nearmt to Bhrlloj iu poetie ■tattue,
and each of (hem might for certain roaaona bo oven piuhmxl to hiin;
Wordaworth slao hu bit nnmerooa fhamiiiona Tto proauda on
which w. Mt 8hdlt. liighBit of ell ore inaiolj U,r«. He eioals
all hia oompetitora in idealltv, ha eicola Ihcin in unalc, and ho
aicela thrm iu Importance, llj importanc* wr hcra inaan tha
direct import of the work parlbrmiyl, ita controlling jiowiir over tha
reader'a thoaght and feehnv, tha cautigiona fit* of iU white-hot
intalleetual pauion, and Uia long rorerbomtlou or It* Bp[X!a1.
Shellay to emphatically the poet oF tho taturtL In Vm own day ett
alien in tha world of mind end iurai.lion and in 'at dny «arcaly
ystsdenlsan of It, ho appeon Oc-atinoil to became iu tha long viats
of yaan, an informing [nesonca in tha innomioiit ■hriiio ot hnman
thought. Shcllej appaanJ at the Uins when ijm anbtinie freniiaa
of the Frenoli ravolotionary movement hail exhawhul tha elas-
tidtyotman'a thought— at lesat in Kuffland— and hut left them
flaooul and stolid ; bnt that movomenl prepared another in which
revolutlan via to uiama the milder guise ot mTonu, conigncring
and k> conaner. Bhelle; wa* ita propliet. Aj au Iconoclaat and
an idealist he took tha only position in whii-h 1 poet conld
adrantageonaly work Mt rafonner, Tt oiilngohiicoulempanriei.
was the oondition of leading hto aucc«K)n to triumph and of
panoDallytrininphiDBln their vistoriaa. Shatleyhad tha temper of
SB innovator and a martyr ; and in an intclloct nondroosl]' poetical
ha united apaculstive keeoneas and hamanitiirian ual in 0 degree
't whloh wa might vainly aeek hto preouTWjr. \Vb ba*s already
' '* leading aicellaucn. Thto Blialleian
titnenu, sahlunit^, bointy, and the
ideally ss''one ot hto leading Hceflaucn. TU^ Bliaileton
"■ oity. bointy, and th(
lowlodgad that, wliili
oonbinaL «a Iti oonititnenta.
quality oonbinaL
abatnot pamon to
thto gnat qoality
Bhallay'a poetry, the dafbcia whioh go along
' "-la — pmlaoing at times vaguer — —
it sdmuabia bictor in
«tity, a
irhli w
Ittaring bdtotinDtneaB, in which aicoei of acnciinant weltar*
mia eioaaa of woida ThJa blaauah oBecti the long iKiema much
eon than the pnr* lyiioi ; In the latter thr raptnrF, tha mnsb^
ind ths emotion are in aiqulallo balinca, and th> work haa
iften aa mneh of dalieats ^plicity aa of frigila end flower-
ika parfeotian.
In th* coon* of our biographical narrstlvp wt have msn-
ioned a fair, bnt only a few, of Shelley's wiitiDgi; v* moat
low giv* BoCiB oort acsonnt of othen, Ot hto oarty work prior
0 Oueen Jf«D— (Dch rorouioai u Zntlniai and 51 injnu, aneh
tha Fmgmmti af Maryortl IfitMoltM — wa can ani*
... _.i.^._t ,,_^ ... ,,jj^j
here Bay that they are
by Tlu JUtaU ^ /alam, a posm ot no eommon length in the
Bpesaerian atanss, pnsching bloodleaa isvolntlon ; it to smaatiigly
fine in parta, bnt aa a whols aomevhat long-drawn and exhaust-
ing, "niia tianaoandeBtal epio (for inch it may b* tamted}
WIS st flnt simad Lam and CuOima, or Mt JiMslKMea if Ms
O^Idfli Oitg, and tha lows of th* itoiy war* then bnthB and
F iiiihijr otdinarj things with diwetiiw^ and at
ignring tham as naU^ sqd tnoafigBilag tbsm lute P«stiT.
_azt year, ISlt, vos nto enlminatloD, producing as it did tba
idtrsgldyof WtoCmefandthssublimoOealdr— " — -' —
a aingalir
grand tragody of
Vi^Bvmd, which
It embodies in foraia ef inrpaasing imagiaa
Shdlay'i dtapait and aiest daring oono^tioBS.
humaa nlnd, has invastad with tha powers ^ ,
Japltar th* god of hear*n, who thennpoB cheus and tonaaBta
Promathens and eppraaaaa mankind ; In ^har wolds, thsanthropo-
morphia god of i«UJ^ to a crsation of ths hnaa alad, and
both th* mind of noB end man himaalf ai* snstovad *a long as thto
god anrdsas hto dslsgatad but now sbsolala power- FiomsthMW,
who to from of cdd wsdded to Asia, ot ITabu^ nrotaat* agslast
and anaOieniatixM th* usorpK' onthnasd by hiniael/. At last the
.n.rti.. takss sfltet Itanl^, Danoge^oa, diamiiaai JupitsT
to nassdhig iintliilnndss FniaiathaBS is it ones anboimd,
th* hnmaa niad to frss ; bs to immited to Ua monss Naton,
end the worU of mso passes from thnldcis and its dagtadation
into limitloas pnoroasfon, or (aa tha phnso goea) poifootibiUty,
mors! and raetsriil This we regard aa in brtaf tha aigiuMnt of
AvDHdUtis ntibeum± It to closely anakena to the eigomsnt
of th* juranUe po*m Qv-it Uai, bnt so rataad i> form and orealiv*
toDohtha^ vherMS to write eHaaaJ/at waa only tab* an ambiUons
and abolllHitWro, toinventAvsuUMisE/ftteiMirfwBSlabsthopoot
of tbo future. Tlu IFitA r/ .,Urii (ISSO) appfw* to as ths mast
peifeot work among all Shollay's lougar poaa, thoogb it to naitbsr
tba Oeapsat nor ths most intiraitliut It may ba latad aa a ftm
oioreiao of loving imagination— gniiled, hownvsr, by sa intanaa
sens* ot UeBtr, sad by its author's cxonwllng usasss of nature
794'
,S,H_E^.
f* «f Bhcllej {tpmrt tnta h
Tha poMi lui oft«n batn dserled u praeUeillT rnimiMnlTig ; va do
not otncriba to thii opimou. Ths " witcli of this labtta and
■i^iadinTBDtioaiHtiHto.npnKnt tint fKolt; nhicb m tana
■flu fanej**; naing tbia aHomptloD aa a cJoa^ we find ploatj of
mBaning in tlia poem, bat tiBOcaaarilj it is fanciful or Tolatila
mvnlng. Tha elegj on Kaata, Adonait, tolloved in 18S1 ; tha
Triumpk if Lifi, a myatieal and moat improaaive alltgory, oon-
atraotoi! upon lloa marked oot by Dante and br Patrarch, waa
ocanpjiDg Uie poet np to llie time of bia dealL The itatal;
fiumant vhich ramaioa la probabtj hat a amall portian of (ha
»!«oted«ha1g. Tbetranalatians— chiefijrromBDmer, Euri^dra,
CaHuon. and Ooethe— date from 131B U 1833, and teatify lo the
poaUoandoiniiant orSbellaT not laia abaololdj thin Ilia ovn original
oranpoaltloiia. ^m thla liit it mil be readily aeea that ShBlly
mj notonl; a proliBe but a1» a Tenatila poet. Worki ao Tarious
la tacnlty and in fonn aa Tht Stvolt of Iilam, Julian and Uaddalo,
Tin Ctna, ftwmrteM Unbotind, EpitaycUdiim, and tha grotesqoa
effodonaof which PtUr Beil Vu Third u the priniB eiample, added
to the connimmats amjr of lyiioa, have aeldom to bo crediled to a
ringle "Titer — one, moreoTer, nho died liefors lie wa» thirty jeari
of age. In proae BluUej coald be es udmimbla a* in pootiy ;
a late yeara It lias area biea pretended— hut we regard thia
pnpodtion aa worthy of aammary njection—lhat hie beat and
moat endndog work ia in the niosa form. Hia lettera to Thomaa
Lore Paaoock and other*, and hii nnn>mpletedJV™» ^'''"'rv,
ua the chief monnrntnta ofhla maitery ia proas ; aad certainly ao
more hsantifiil jirose— hating mudi of the apirit and the aroma
of pMtry. yet without beine luatorted oi ' ' ' '
to M found in the Engliah langnage.
f Bhaller faw, .,__ — .
ia«icA eiaa«E!l.^b«k iTl) IMnniT'i »"J2VwTl>a U/» >/ Modwta ;
SBttnibe tnlds wtlltea iTFaaeegk. Siaa Mlitr wittin anidiUj Lilgb
But. migtn IM BaautoaL knt llwt eene lea aleae lo tha taeu. Aimni
llii(T*IlilHl woAe jmtDcitilBBi BiilW^ilaeUijbf aatbota wbe au aot kiu>*
t( la ceSwnJal la Balked aad datUedlTkoatOi^ IwdaiKr, and tila i mu
*r KiBlH fertaite lai (»■ walliduMlQaaar avlBluB)lo Mac oalaititiL
naalt j It aaaWlai, buwmr, aa im^ ibu* it ailM lofmelliiB tut ilun
«k4BliMea. T»a aaiMtr tj w. K. ItiniUI, ji^nd u m mOOm af S^Mt/m
rimt la tin f«a <f laUkatlga, ItlOaad mi; wm an aoder ■ '---
k Mai »ev«l It Iki Ibaa esBlaaad aad aealMlaf m
ail D Ml if mitaT~*amMai,i>ai not nseaiidldlT uiHlIal.
nMailal k Ladjr ■keniT>«UI« MmttrOli, ud la r "
lu. Jr Kttlen brllr Srwudi, la Ibi
ly esd iUU^ daii*. W^ wa
Id noa e Itti il ■-
■abiuhtcllTa
8HELOMOH IBN OEBIROL. Bm Avicibkoh.
SHEH. See Noab. Cuiopan SDano LutacAsn.
SHEUAEA, ft formerly importuit but dow iiiBignifl-
Cttut town itk TrontcaucatU, in^lO' 38' K. Ut. wd 66' 19'
"E. long., on the Zftgolovti, kn bfflneiit of the Peamnget,
which hlla into the Caapun. It is utnated in ft moon-
tftinotu, very pictnreoqae country, ooTered with Ituniifttit
TBgetotion, ftt ftbotit 2230 feet ftbove the lerel of the
BleokSeft. lo 1873 11 bftd 2G,087 inhabitants, of whom
18,680 wen Tftrtftn and Shftchsenms, 61TT Amjeniftna,
ftod 1330 BiudftiuL Borne SOOArmenisD faniiliei now pro.
few Letherftniam — the reeolt of ft minion first eetabli^ed
ftt Bhemahft ebont twen^ years ege. Bbemftba wu the
cft^tftl of the khftnftte of ^urria, ftnd me known to Ptolemy
fts K&mftehift. Sittuted as it waa on the high road from
Ilnrope to India, thie old town mnet at one time have
poBMaeed very ootuddembte importance, and evidence of the
Itet il found in the Dnmeroiii miu of krge cftrftTftmaiua,
chnrcbei. Mid piblio buildings. About the middle t>t tha
16di oeattuj U waa the SMt of en Engli^ commercial
fftcton; under the well-known traveller Jenkineon (com-
pwe BoMii, voL zzi. p. 93), afterworda envoy eztro-
ordinarv of the khan of Silirvio to Ivan the Terrible. In
1743 Shemshft wta taken and destroyed by Nadir Shah,
who, to ponith the inhabitanta for their Sunnite creed,
built ft new town under the lame nftme about 16 mile* to
the west, at the foot of the main chain of the Cftucaaoa.
The new Shemoha woe at different timea a reaidence of the
khan of Shhvin, but it was finally abandoned, and in Ita
ftMM there standa now only a village called Akhao, whilst
the old t«wn was rebuilt, and under the Rnaaians became
eunlftl of the govenuneDt of Shemaha, In recent timaa
^otmahft faM niffered greater fro<n earthquftkee : in 1869
.; was ataoken to ita tonnda^ona, ftod In eonaeqiunn t^
BMt of the governor waa removed to Bakn ; in 1873 {16ti
Janttftry) there occurred a atill more teniblo ^ock, faea
which the town.haa never recovered. Silk mMnrfactnt
ia the principal industry in Bhemaha. In 1873 that
were one hundred and thirty silk-winding oetabliahmenli,
owned moatly by Armeiiiana. The indoabrr hoe, howevK,
since 1864 considerably declined.
The diatnet of Bhemaha [4128 aqoars milo^, eamspoBdini V
the incieDt khauate of Sbirrin, Ija along tbs soatlMni alefe 4
tiie main chain of the Eoatem Caacuna. It rontuna ■ po^nk-
tion of «7,S01 inhalntsnta (1871), of whom StBS mn> BunBM
11,888 Armoniane, 73,]M Tartara, «88 Jata (old Panu tiita,
■ "-" ' ' ' --- '- Tnnseancaais, tbe nnmbs gf
_T«r the tsIDnltw (100 to 8U
•parael J -wooded monntainoiu rrgioB, oam-
pielely ahot op on the iiortt, and open to the dry, Urga, ai
iioatly deaoUta vaUev of Kni. on the aonth. Ttr diouti ■
generntly healthy, nther diy aad moJerataly wann ; in the tms
parte the people anOer froni maloriona fcTsr. Tbe annnol laj-
fall in Shemaha is UM iccliaa, tha nieaD sninmer tcinpeimtln
?»• rahr., winter 17". The soil, moatly of the Tert^sry fonaa-
tioD, ia very rich and at eonaidanble variety. Thid Jutrict acin-
friea ia Tranacascaaia > foremoat place in TiDe-gTowing and i:
tha ailk ininatry. The vine rmon, in the mutU-wwt of tl.
dlatrict; ia a long atrip of land of brudtli varyinfr (rom d Is Si
mile*. The highest level of tlie vine ia aboat S500 feet alwn
tha aeo. The plant ia left nnpiotacted in winter, and owiaa
to the abnndance of water occaiioned by tbe melting mowi aid
the heavy raina in apring, there ia no n»d of irrigation. Acccn!-
ing to a general sorvey inode in 187S thrro are in the diotrict V^
vinejarda, occnpylng a total of 17I>1 icrea. Tlio oUier [iriJi;«
are principally wheat, cDtton, nud rire. In 1(173 the aniaal
vintage at Shemaha waa cilcnlatad at about 82,100 s^llonK Til
beat wine is that of Uitraasy. The province of Shinrrin, ihiw c^
district of Shemaha, baa been fteqneatlj the tliaatte of terriKi
atmgglea and bloodihed. It waa conquered bjr tha Pcroass i:
ISOl nndet Shah lamail I., and itcontinoeil with Iniaf intmtv-
tjooa to Im a port ot tha Peniaa dotniuioTU ualll tlw bll ti llu
SaJawi dynaaty.
Bbaioilia, tbe capital of Bhirvdn, waa aacknl in 1712 by tb
Laaghlana ; eight jeara later tlia town and the whole pnrvince wtn
davsatatad by a eartoin Dagheatani, Ala nd-DaDlsli, who wu
later ncogniied by Penia OS the khan of Shirvin. In ITU tie
khanate waa token by Turkey, bat tea yean later Nadir Shal: if
Penia TM)aBq.aeml it after terrible nva^^ On ths departan -J
Nadir Shah sooa aftorward) Sbirvis eojoyed independence nada-
the nils of Ushmnd Seyytd, who rehoilt Shemaha. Tli* Kdmbm
entered Shirvin first m 17SS, but aoou retirvd. In 179S Otj
captorad Shemaha aa well aa Bakn; bnttbeoonqneat woatmeemm
abudoaed, and Bbirvin waa not finally anaeied to Rnsna aalil
Novanbsr 1806 after the volontary submisdon of Its last klaa
Uuitepho.
8H£HANX>0AH, a borough of the United RUtea, a
Schuylkill county, Fennaylvania, 13 mileanOTth of Pott*-
Tille, is the centre of a great cool district, more than half
the total yield of the Schuylkill region being produced
within 3 miles of the town. Among ila bnildingi are
fifteen ebnrchea, a theatre, and two public liallx. It wad
founded in 1863, and ita population (partly Welsh and
German), whirh increased from 2951 in Ii)70 to I0,1W
in 1880, ia estimated at over 15,000 in 1886.
Shenandoah ia also tbe name of a well-known ttiUita^
(rf the Potomac.
8HENDY, a town on the right bonk of the Nil^ abont
130 inilee aonth of Berber and 100 north of Eluu-tav.
which, while its present population doM not exceed SiW
was prBvisua to ita destruction by the Egyptian* in I ''3!
a place of aome 50,000 inhabitants and a ntation on tha
great caravan rente between Sennlr and £g7pt and
Mecca. The terrible massacre perpetrated by the l^syptiann
waa in revenge for the treacheroua amaauination l^ tlic
native chiefs at Bhendy of lonail IVba and hia suite, vbo
wore fiiet drugged and then burned to oshea with tliait
hnta. Bhendy was the capital of s conaidcrablu dlitnc^
and liea only SO mile* aouth of the mine of Ueroe.
SHENSTONE,. WiLiJiJi (1714-1763), ij one of the
bestkuown minor poets of the liJtli ccntuiy. Ha owei
S HE — S HE
796
audi Sitinetion U )m Imi $,% lout w mndi to bii etuAaa
at Bnbjecta aad to tlie pceoliaritf of hia life m to the
falid^ ol hia vwM. Ooniiiig aftar a geDamtioii wlioee
leading poeta wrote for (aihioiiable BDeie^, he almt him'
Mif np in tlw oooDtiT, tiied. to ta]iow the life Anadian,
and wrote in the spirit erf a raclnae. He inherited the
emUI ettate of Leaaowes, io the pariah of Halee-Owen,
Woroestershiro. He was bora at Lflasowea in 1714, and
ftfter paMtDg through Pembroke College, Oxford, retirod
there to realixe Pope'H ideal in the Od* to SaUtade, totned
Ilia patwnal estate into ao elabMate landac^ie gudeo, ud
lived there till bis death in 1763. From the time that
the management of the eatate fell into his own haada,
"he began," Johnson Bajs, "to point his prospects, to
divenity hiji snrfac^ to entangle his walks, and to wind his
waters, — which he did with inch judgment and such fancy
as to make his little domain the enrj of the great and the
admiration of the skiUuL" Frooi this it will be seen that
be did not anticipate Ute sentimeDt in his Iotb of natuial
aceoery ; lie was a true child of tlie Qneen Anne time in
his liking.for "Katnre to adrantage drassed." And it
-would appear from his latters that he was not a contented
recluse, bat was weaklj deeiroDs of the notice of the world
in bis Arcadian retreat Btill there ia a certain ait of
BinceritjT in hii nteiencei to natural beantr and grandeor.
Btirns wrote of him in the preface to liIs first isane of
pooois as a poet "whose divine elegies do bonotu to oiqi
loniTiAga " Shenstone practised the elegiac form aasidu-
ousT;, and soma of his etegtes are not without a certain
imposing pomp and dignity of language, but we maj
eafely mppose that it was the sentiments rather than the
BzprBBsion that captivated the peasant poet. His Faitond
Baitadt Mt Four FarU, one of his earuest composition^ is
aIbo ddb of his bee^ and from its ose in selections of
poetry for the young is much more generally known.
hap|
triple rtythm and the ilipplicity of the language are
npuily suited to the paetoral fancy, and there is not too
luidi of the artificial aictioa and imagery of such poetry.
Bacb lines ai
T*t tluie may diminish tb« psin :
Ths fionr, uid tlu ■hrnb, and tbs trM
Whieh 1 T«u'<l for bar plnnin hi vain
In tliiw may han comfort Tar ma—
VI Wordsworth's ideal of poetic diction than was
D the serious poetry of Shenatone's time. But
his ^Aoatnadrtu, in the E^>anBBrian stanza (published in
1742, and m relieved from any snspicion of being an
imitation of Tbonuon), ia the poem by which he keepa a
place in literature.
BHEFTOK UACLET, a market-tovrn of Somsrsetshir^
England, is situated at the eastern extremity of the Mendip
HiUi^ on the Somerset and Devon and the East Bomerset
Boilways, 5 miles east of Wells aod SO south of Bristol
The cbunJi of Sts Peter And Paul, consistinK of chancel,
derestoried nave, and aialee, is apedaliy worthy of notice
for its richly carved wooden root and the ancient monu-
ments of the MaUets and Qonmays, formerly possesaoiB of
the manor. The grammar school was founded in 1677,
and there aro also a science and art school in connexion
with South Kensington, a literary institute, and 'a
meclumics' institnte. The principal publio buildings
•re the eourt-hoose (18G7), the masimic hall (18G1), the
prison, and the district hospital (IBPO). The market cross,
one of ths finest in the county, CI feet in height, erected
bj Agnes tai. llcaias Bockland in ICiOO, was reBtwed in
1841. About the end of last century Shepton Mallet had
important cloth mannfactiuwL and stocking-knitting was
also largely carried on. The Lrewing of ale and porter is
now one M its prinoipal industries, and it has also rope-
wjrks ami brick and tile wwka. la the vicinity there are
granite qoairie* and marble, aqiludt, and lime works.
Tlie population of the nrban sanitary district (area, 31)72
s) in 1671 waa S149, and in 1881 it «
Shmton, fcsvions to the ConquBSt oOIk! Bspetoa, wis in the
pcuMiion of ths abbots of QlMAonbtur for four handnd y«um
beTota it in 111 to Roger de Conieells. Aflerwuds it am* into
tbs poMeuHi of ths bsnmi Usht or UaUet, o
'lasdforiebdlioniD the nb(nof ElngJ<'
t want to ths Oounajr^ bat in lEMlIre
, , __. )f whom was
John. From tlie HillaU
,^ .. revKtsd to the crown, uid
it ia now inelodod ia tlie docbj of CanwalL Tli* town rMetved
tbagrsnt ota market [ram Edwiid IL
BHERBOItNE, an ancient market-town of Dorsetshira
BngUnH, on the borders of Someisetshire. is sitDated
on the southern slope <^ a hill overlooking the river Yeo,
on the Sonth-Western Railway, 6 miles east from Yeovil
and 118 south-west frtan. London by rail Ijk 70fi Sher-
borne was made by Ina, king of Uie West Saxons, the
seat of a bishopric, which in 1078 was removed to Old
Barum (Salisbury). Previous to its removal a great Bene-
dictine abbey had been founded by Bishop Roger. Tlie
minster or abbey church of Bt Mary poeaeeBes a Norman
tower, much altered by later addition)^ and transepts also
origiDoIlT Norman, but the greater part of the building is
Perpendicular. It was restored in 1848-06 at an expense
of over X32,000, chiefly contribnted by Mr W. Digby and
Lord Digby. I^helhaJd and Etbelbwt, elder brothers of
Alfred, wen buried btJiiiul the higji .altar of the cburct,
.which contains a number of interesting tombs and monu-
ments. jMear the "^^n«^^ll■ are the mins of the castlfu
originally the palace of the bishopa. It waa besieMd
during the vrars between Stephen and Maud, and also
during those of the Commonwealth, when it vras held for
the king in 1643 by the marquis of Hertford^ and resisted
a five days' me^ by the earl of Bedford, but. waa in 1640
taken byFairfax, when it was dismantled and reduced to
ruins. The older portion of the modern mansion was built
by Sir Walter BaleigL Bherbonie grammar school, occult-
ing the mte of the abb^, was founded by Edward TI m
1090, and holds a high rank among the public schools of
England- Near the abbey dose is tlie hospital of St John,
dating from the 19th century. A literary institation,
now called the Hacready Institution, was established in
1890. The manor of ^erbome went with the bishop^
sec^ till in the leign of EliAbeth it waa conferred on Sir
Walter Baleioh. After his attainder it was bestowed by
James L on nis favourite Carr, after which it passed to
the Digbys, the present Qwnera . 1^ population of the
nrben sanitair district (area 411 acres) in 1871 was
0040, and in 1881 it was SOOa
SHERIDAN, the name of an Anglo-Irish &mily, made
illustrious by the dramatist Richard Brinsley, but ptomi-
-nently connected with literature In more than one
generatbn before and after hia, We take the family in
chronological order.
1. Thomas Shkridan, D.D. (1664-1738), grandfather
of the dramadat, was the first to connect the »mily witli
literature. . He is chiefly known as the favourite com-
panion and confidant of Swift during bis later residence
in Ireland. But enough ia left of his writing to enable
US to undentaod the eecret of his attraction for a man
not easily pleased. His correspondence with Swift and
his whimsical treatise on the AH of Fwaiiw}^ make
perfectly clear from vrtiom his giandsoo derived his high
spirits aod delight in piactitai joking. Hie AH of Fvn.
ninff might have been written by the author of l%t Critic.
Swift had a high opinion of hu scholarship^ and that it
waa not contemptible is attested by an edition of the
Satira of Persins, ninted at Dublin in 172a When
Swift came to Dublin as dean of St Patrick's, Sheridan
was established there as a schoolmaster of very high
* P^Hllhfl I" Wl-l.nl.'. H-j^^JMmtt In Uu «
rfs^rtn. i;t».
W6
SHERIDAN
rapute, — a bduoMbla adtoolnuatK', witli ft smill luuled
paaimoar in Carao, and a bUhop in tha {amilf two
geaerallDiiB ba<^ He so von upoo the dean with hia
nurthfulneo^ wit, Bchoiuahip, good-nature, and honerty
that Id a ihort time no party made t(a tho dean's eptei-
taiument was considered oomplate without Sheridan.
Sheridan wm bia ocmfidant in the aSair of Drapitr'i
Lttten; it wbb at Qnilea,^ Sheridan'* conutoy cott^ in
Cavan, that CWIttwr'i Tr<mU was prepared for the press ;
and this faToored friend was from an early period in their
acquaintance one of his most conMential coneapondents
whan at a <1ii;tn'"» Throogh Swift's influence he obtained
a living near Cork, but damaged his proapecta of further
t^efannentliya feat of nolnckj absence of mind. Having
to preach at Cork on the amuTsrsary of Queen Anne's
death he hurriedly chose a sermon with the text, " Suffi-
cient unto the day is the evil thereof," and was at once
atrnck off the list of chaplains to the lord-lientenant and
forbidden the castle. In aiiite of this miahap, for which
the archdeacon of Cork made amends by the present of a
lease wtirth £350 per anuam, he " atdll remained," accord-
ing to IjOrd Onory, " a punster, a qoibbler, a fiddler, and
a wi^" the only person in whose genial presence Swift
relaxed his habitual gloom. Hia latter days were not
SriKperous, probably owing to tvis having "a better know-
idge o{ books than 'of men or of the value of money,"
and ha died in poverty and ill-health in 1738. The
Hographers of Brinsley Sheridan are disposed to dwell
chiefly on the eccentricities of his anceston, but both his
grandfather and his father gave ample proof of more
solid qualitiea than improvidence and wit The original
source of information abont the Bchoolmaater gratidfather
is tho father'a Lift ^ Swift (pp. 369-39S), where hia
scholarahip ia dwelt upon as much ■■ his Improvident
oonvivioli^ and simple Idndlinesa of nature.
a. Thoius SBBsmut (1731^1788), son of the abov^
bom at Qoilca in 1731, had a more oonapicuous career
than hia father. This ambitious father sent him to an
gngTiali school, Westminster ; bat he was forced by stress
of dicamstaoces to return to Dublin and complete his
educatum at Trinity College. Then he went on tlie stage,
and at once made a local reputation, ^ere ia a tradition
that on his Snt appearance in London he was set up as a
rival to Quriclc, and Moore coontenanees the idea that
Oarrick remained jealous of him to the end. For tliii
tradition there is little foundation. Sheridan's Stet
SpeoKuice in London waa at Covent (}uden in March
H, when, heralded in adTance as the brilliant Iriah
comedian, he acted for three weeka in a auccnsion of
leading parts, ffumtet being the first. He did not appear
in London again till ten years afterwards, when be was
the leading actor for a season at the some theatre. In
the interval he had been manwer of a theatre in Dublin,
had married a highly acoampUslked and well-bom lady
(see next notice), and hod been driven from Dublin as a
RBoIt of taking the unpopular aide in politics. After hia
season in London he tried Dublin again, but after two
years more of ooremuneratLTe management, he left for
England finally in 170S. ^y thia time he bad con-
ceived hU iicheme of Briti^ education, and it was to
pUdh this rather than his connexion with the stage that he
crossed St Oeorge'i Chaone). He lectured at Oxford and
Cambridge, and rooeired houOTary degreoi from both
univorxitloii in 1758 and ITGO. Bat the scheme did not
make way, and we find him iii 1760 acting under Oarrick
at Drury I^ne. His merits aa an actor may be judsed
from the description of him in the Romiud (L 987) at Siis
period. He ia placed iu the second rank, next to Oarrick,
but there is no hint of poaaOb linby.
seribea him as an actor w^wse cMMq>tioos wen m4^^»
to bis powen of execution, whoee actioD vaa alw^a fcra-
ibte but too mechanically calculated, and who in qile <i
all his defects roee to greabieai in oeeaaicHWl accon.
ChnnMl never erred on the vde d pnisiiig too Mind,
and hia deacription may be aeeqited aa cornet^ nqipxrtsd
as it is by tlie fact that the actor ^ad oat hia incacaa
by giving lessons in eloonlion. Boswell has atane iBma-
ing remarks m his success with a distiBgoiilied Scotdi
pupil, who used his jnflmmM to get a pmMOB for him
from Lord Bute. Sheridan, however, attcactad attentiiii
chieSy by his enthosiaetic a&nctej, in public kcturea and
books, of bis scheme lA education, in irfiich oratoay was
to play a principal part It is genanJly said that ht
tro^ all Uie enla and perils of the Cominonvealth to
the neglect of oratory. But this is a caricature. Then
was more anious subetance in hia indictment of tfae estah-
lished system of education. Hia main count waa tliat it
did not fit the higher classes bx their dutiea in life^ that
it was uniform for all and profitable for nooe,; and he
urged as a matter of vital national concern that ^tecial
training should be given for the variona prafemoM.
Oratory came in as part of the ^Mcial twnitig of men
intended for public sfiaire, but his main contenHcm wai
one very familiar now, — that mora time should be given ia
schools to the stndy of the ''^"£''■1' language. Ha rode
his hobby with great enthnsiasm, published an elahoatt
and eloquent treatise on education, and lectured on tha
sulgect in London, Oxford, Cambridge, Edinburgh, and
other towns, In 17Q9, after a residence of aome jeua ii
France, partly for economy, partly tot his wife's health,
partly to stody the system of education tbere^ he potliahed
a matured Flam, of Sdication, with a letter to the kiag
in which he offered to devota the reat of hia life to the
ezeention of hia theoriea on condition of Teodving s
penaon equivalent to the Mcrifice of his prtrfeoaiciDal
income. His offer waa not accepted ; but Bhwdan, still
enthuaiaatic, retired to Bath, and prepared a pronownriiy
Dietianarjf of the Engiitk Jjongwige, with a proaodisl
grammar. After his son's brilliant auooeaa he aaaitted in
the management of Drury Lane, and oceamonally acted
Hia L^t of Suifl, a very entertaining book in spite oi it*
incompleteneea aa a biogiuihy, was published in 17S1.
He died at Hamate in 178& The year before his dta&
he had a prospect of realiiing his sclteme ol education in
Ireland, hut ue hi^ official who had son^t hia advice
died just as the old man eagerly reached Dublin, and his
hopes were disappointed.
3. Fkancxs Shbudam (lT3t-1766), wife of the above,
and mother of the dramatist, wrote two novela of hi^
repute in their day, Sidney Biddidph and Souijaltad, and
two plays, The Ditamry and Tht Jhtjt. We have it m
the authority of Moore that, vhen Tk» JUkiU and Th
Dvama were running at Covent Oarden, Garriek revived
Tht JDiteovery at Drury Lane, as a oounter-attraction, ** to
play the moUier off agunat the son, taking on himself to
act the principal part in it" But the statement, iatrinsi-
cally abeurd, is inaccurate. T^ Ditcoverg waa not aa
old play at uie time, but one of Oorriek's stock [neee^
and Anthony Bromvillr was one of his favourite ohatacten.
It was (irst produced in 1763. So far from being jeahm
of the elder Sheridan, Garriek seeuia to have been a idcbI
uiiefnl friend to the family, aooepting hia wife^ P^7 —
which ha declared to he "one of the best come£es be
ever read " — and giving the hnsbood several engagetnenta
HiB Sheridan's novels and play* were all written in lh(
last six years of her life. She died at Bloia in 1766
Her nuuden name was Chamberlaino. Her father wts a
dignitary in the Iriah Chnrch, her (^indfatker ao^ Englid
SHERIDAN
7»7
IwoneL Hn mrriage with Qm •ctor wm the resnlt of
roauutic eircnoLBtaiices, talij detailed ia the Mnaoin of
Mn Ftvme* Slixridait, mentioned bek>ir.
t, RicH&SD Brutslky Butucb S&VBnuiT (1761-
1816), second son of Thomas and Fnuicee Sheridwt, -wta
born m Doblio ia Siptember 1751. Mooie noords for
tho encouragement of slow bojs thak the future drama-
tut wu "by comnioQ couAint of )iarent and preceptor
mvnoDucod an imiMnetrublo duuca." The plain fact is
tbut tho oxpreesion occurs !□ a smart letter about him and
liL9 lOEter, writton br his mother to a schooltnOBter. Mn
Sbcridan wroto thai she had been tho onl; instmctor of
bor children hitherto, and that tbev woold. exerciao tlie
ecboolmaatcr in tho qualh; of patience, "for two mcb
imponotrable dunueu iho hod uDrer met TritL' One of
tW childroo thvw Immoroiialy described was Richard
Briusloj, and the age of the " impenetrBble donco" at the
time 1TBB seven. At tho age of eleven be was seat to
Harrow. There, to pleaso orthodox biographerH, he gave
uo such sign of future eminence aa is Implied in taking
a bigb place in school. Dr Parr, Vfho was ono of his
uaatent, " xaw in him vedtigea of a BU]>erior intellect," but,
though bo "did not fail to probe and toose him," by no
harosaiug or tormenting process could he incite the
indolent boy to greater iudiutry than was "juat sufficient
to save hiro from disgrace." But theae facbj about young
Sberidan's delermmed indolence in the Htudy of Latin and
Greek should be taken In connoiion with his father's
u«culiat theories on the Eubject of English oducatbn.
The father's theories poesibly did not encourage the son
to ieom lAtin and Oreek. Why, with his views on the
unprofitableuess of those atndies, he sent his Touoger son
to Harrow, is not obvious ; but it was probably as much
for Bocial as tor educational reasons. If eo, the purpose
was anawered, for Sheridan vaa extremely popular at
school, winning somohow, Dr Parr confesses, "the esteem
and even admiration of all his schoolfellows," and giving
a foretaste of bia mysterious powers of getting thjp^
done for him by making the younger boys steal apples for
his onu private store and good-humouredly defying tb«
masters to trace the theft home to him.
Sheridan left Harrow at the age of seventeen, having
Impressed bis scboolfeilowB at least, who ore sometimes
better judges than their masters, with a vivid sense of his
powers. It was probably bis father's design to send him
afterwards to Oilord, but the family circumstances were
too stnitened to permit of it, and the educationist, who
bad jast then recnmed from France, and was about to
launch his apjxial to the king on beh^ of hia new plan of
education, took his ton home and himself directed and
superintended his studies. What hid plana were for Ids
brilliant son's future we have no means of knowing,
but the probability b that, if the projected academy hod
become an accomplished fact, be would hare tried to make
Richard Brinsley an npper master in some one of its
uumcrouii departments. There are traces of method in
the supcrGciolly harum-scarum Irishman's courses, and it
looks as if ho hod intended both of his sons to help him in
the magnificent project from which his sanguine temi^er^
meat ei[)0cted such great things, — thoelder, who had been
with him in France, in what would now ho called the
modern side, and the classically educated younger in the
ancient side. Meantime, pending His Majesty's resolution
on the projector's offer, Brinsley, beaidos being trained by
liis father daily in elocution, and put through a course of
Eogliidi reading' in accordance with the ^stem, received
tbe aecomplishmentfl of a joimg zuon of fasbiocL had
fencing and riding leiMona at Angelo'o, and b«^;an to eat
terms at the Uiddle Temple. His destinotLsin sppuently
WM the bar, if fortune should deny bim the more glorious
mrew of Uentanont in die new academy throngh which
young Enriand was to be ngenerated.
As to how young Sheridan, with a cooler head to
regulate his hot Irish blood, looked at bis father's grand
schemes, wo have no record. But it is of importance to
remember those schemes, and the exact stage they had
now reached, in connexion with the accepted view of
Bheridan's beharionr at this time, which represents Lim as
a mere idler, hanging on at home like an ordinary ne'er-
do-well, too indolent to work for any profession, riniply
enjoying himself and trusting reckledsly to chance tor »'omo
means of livelihood. The fact woold seem to bo lliat over
and above whatever he did iu the way of qualifying him-
self for a regular caroet^ which possibly was littlo enuugh
— be began from this time with fundamentally steady
purpose to follow the bent of his genius. After leaving
Harrow he kept up a correspondence with a school friend
who hod gone to Oxford. With this youth, wbo!« naoio
was HoUied, he bad not competed for school honours ; but
both bad dreams of higher things ; and now they concocted
together various literary plans, and betwi'en tbem actually
executed and published metrical translations of Ari^ttenetua
— an obecutjs Greek or pseudo-Greek author brought to
light or invented at the Benoissance, a writer of imaginary
amorous epistles. The two literary partners trauslated
his prcee into verse which baa the qualities of lightness,
neatness, and wit, and is in uo respect unworthy of being
the apprentice-work of Sheridan.
In conjunction with the same young friend bo began
a farce entitled Jufiier. It was not completed, but the
fragment ia of interest as containing the same device of a
rehearsal which was afterwards worked out with such
brilliant efleet in Tht Critic. Some of the dialogue is very
much in Sheridan's mature manner. It would seem indeed
that at this time, idle as be appeared, Sheridan was
deliberately exercising his powers and preparing himself
for future triumphs. Moore's theory is that his seeming
indolence ^ras but a mask ; and extracts given from papers
^Tilten iu the seven years between his leaving Harrow
and the appearance of Tht Eir-ilt — sketches of unfinished
plays, poems, political letters, and pamphlets — show that
he was far from idle. He was never much of a reader ; be
preferred, as he said, to sit and think— a process more
favourable to ori^nality than always having a book in his
hand ; but we may well believe that he kept his eyeu open,
and his father's connexion with fashionable aociety gave
him abundant opportunities. The removal of tbo family
to Bath in 17TI' extended his field of observation.
Anstey's Ifra Bath Guide had just been published and had
greatly stimulated interest in the comedy of life at this
fashionable watering-place.
Presently, too, already a favourite in Bath society from
his charming manners and Lis skill as a writer of graceljl
and witty verses, the youth played a part in the living
comedy which at once made him a marked man. There
was in Bath a celebrated muaii&I family — "a nest of
nightingales," — the daughters of the composer Linl^,
the head of his profession in the fosHonabls town. The
eldest daughter, a girl of sixteen, tho prima donna of her
father's concerts, was exceedingly beautiful, and very mnch
run after by suitors, young and old, honourable and dis-
honourable. In the latter "lass was a Captain Mathews,
a married man ; iu the former, young Sheridan. Uathews
lu.i artfully won the girl's affections, and persecuted her
«ith his importunities, tlireatooing to cle°troy himseJ if
she refused him. To protect her from this scoundrel's
designs the younger lover, who seems to have acted at first
■ <UI« of 1770,
798
SHERIDAN
OD^ u a oonfldeiLti^ friaod, ooncajved the lomautie plan
of escorting Vim Liuley to k nanneT^ in Fruioe.' After
perfonning this chiv&lroni doty he retoroed and Eon^^t
two doela with Uathews, wtuch juade a considen^
HDMtion at the time. The yonthM pur had gone
throng the ceremonj of maniage in the conne of Iheii
flighty but Sheridan chivalronilr did not claim hia wife,
kept the marriage secret, and wm aternlj denied acceas
to Mi«s Linley by her father, who did not consider the
professionleas jonng man an eligible auitor. IJltimatelj,
after a courtship romantic enou^ to Have eatiafied Lydia
Langoish, thev were openi; married in April 1T73.
Bheridan'a daring start in life after this happy marriage
■howed a conSdence in his genius which was justified by
ita succeaa. Although be had no income, and no capital
beyond a few thousand pounds brought by his wife, he
took a house in Orchard Straet, Portman Sqoaie, f urniBhed
it "in the moat coatly style," and proceeded to return on
Bomething like an equal footing the hospitatitiee of the
fashioDable world. His wife — " the eelebrated Mise
linley" — was a most popular singer, bat he would not
allow her to appear in public She was to be heard only
at private concerts in their own hoose, and her beauty and
(woompUshments oombined with her husband's wit to draw
crowds of fashionable people to their entertain men ta.
Sheridan's conduct may have been youthful pride and
recklesaneas, the thou^j^tlees magnificence of a atrong and
confident natnre ; all die same, it answered the purpose of
deei^laid and daring poUej. When remonstrated with by
a fnend, and asked how he found tbe means of supporting
Buch a costly establishment, he is mid to haTesDswered —
"My dear friend, it is my means." And lo it proved, for
his Bodal itanding and' popolarity helped to get a favonr-
able start for bis first comedy, 7^ SivaU, produced at
Oovent Oarden on the 17th January 1T75.
sit EioaU is said to have been not so &*oniabIy
lecdved on its first night, owing to its length and to the
had playing of the part of Sir Lucius OTrigger. But the
defects were remedied before the second performance, and
Uia piece at onoe took that place on the stage which it has
never lost. It was ths last season but one of Qairick's
long career, and the current story preserved by Moore is
thu the run npon Covent Garden was such as to alarm the
veteran of Drnry Iaus and drive him to eztnordinary
exertions to connterbalanee the attractiotis of the new
play. His seems to bo a myth, natural enou^ in the
circamsCanoes, but unfounded in fact, for we have contem-
porary t«etimony ' that Dniry lAne was never more crowded
than dnring the last yean vt Garrick's management, when
it was known that he intended to retire from the stage.
There were crowded houses at both theatres. Sheridan,
dkough bearing his brilliant suooess lightly, proceeded at
race to take the tide at the Bond. St PatnctM Das, or the
Sehaning lAtvtmant, a lively farce, written it is said at the
request of Clbch, in gratitude for his coming to the rescue
of 81r Lucius, was produced in May. In theconrse of the
year, with the aaustauce of his musical fatber-inJaw, he
wrote the comic opera of The Duenna ; and by the end of
the year, with an eye to the profits of theatrical manage-
ment, he was in negotiation with Garrick for the purchase
of his share of Drmy I^ne. The Dmama was the great
theatrical success of the wintor of I7TB-76 ; it ran even
longer than The Btygtii't Optm had done— up to that time
the longest run on record. The bargain with Gamck was
completed in June 1776. The sum paid for the half-^Me
was £35,000; of this Sheridan oontribnWd JIO.OOO.
M-iml rf bw PM-onBoa by Mirthnn sad diOlTm™ b7 amlduj,
Uajadat. tU. ITS. ' B" Blatknnaie Magammt, vol. ». p. ».
None of his letters show iriiare the n
much wonder ha* bean ei
all it is not SI
dramatist of his time, m all the credit of nqwralMsd
suocees, should have been able to borrow ndt i
this vrith the best theatr'oal pn^ter^ to offer aa i
""' g is a tradition that Qorrick advaaoed tha moaey ■>
; lie at interest i aoyhow, the loaa «oald not faa*s
appeared at the time a very ri^ iq)ecidatka. Two yew*
afterwards Sheridan and his frieivls bofl^it the otber half
of the property lor .£4B,000.
From the first the direction of the theatre would seiB
have been mainly in Sheridan's haoda. It w»b opowd
ider the new management in FebmatJ 1777, inth a
purified vwaion of Vanbrugh's Bdapte, uitder tho title <i
A Trip to Scarb<mmgh. Tini is printed among Bhetidan'i
work^ but be has no more title to the anthoidiip thaa
Colley Gibber to that of Eidutrd III. Hia chief task
was to remove indecencies; he added very little to tha
dialogue. Astoniabm ent baa been eq»e*Bed that he Ebonld
hard bllen back on an old play instead of writing * new
The fact is quotedamong the proofs of his ind<dencc.
But the new mana^, apart from the *"Brc°'~"'** ^ a
pc^ular man of fashion, probab^ found work and won; in
bis novel task of orffiuiiattion sufficient to learo bim little
leisure for oompoution. Yanbruf^'s play was probably
chosen for the simple reason that it snitad hia coropany.
Possibly also he wished to make trial of their power*
before entrusting them with a play of bis own. TTit
Sehool /or Scandal was produced little more than two
months afterwards. Mrs. Abington, who had played Hist
Hoyden in the JViji, played Lady Teailo, who may be
regarded as a Miss Hoyden developed l^ six mooth^
experience of marriage and towu life. Tha acton who
played the brothers Surface had been tried in the Trip in
ipposite characters, Charles playing Tovnley, while Jomyt
>layed Tom Fashion. It looks as if shrewd ntanagerBl
caution was responuble for the delay quite as much ai
indolence. The former may at least have been in
Sheridan's mind the plaoaible excuse for the latter. "Hien
ore talea of the haste with which the condusitBi al The
School for Scandal was written, of a stiata^m kiy whid
Uke last act was got oat of bim by the annons company,
and of the fervent " Amen " wri^n on the last pa^ of
the copy by the prompter, in response to the author^
"Finished at IsA, thank Godl" But, althon^ the
conception was thus hurriedly completed, we know boa
Sheridan's sister that the idea of a " scaiidaloa* oollege '
had occurred to **'"> five years before in eonnexiDn with
his own experience at BatL Hia difficult was to find a
story Buffloiently dramatic in its incidents to form a sol^ect
for thetna^ui»tionaofthecharact«felayars. He seems to
have tried more than one plot, and in the end to have
desperately forced two seMiate conceptions t<«etiier. lie
dialogue is so brilliant throuf^iont, and the auction scenB
and the screen scene so effective, that nobody ewes to
examine the oonstmction of the oomedy except OS a matter
of critical duty. But a study of Ute oMwtmctioa brisga
to light the diffiooltiea that must have worried the anthor
in writing the pl&7i ob^ »ir[^ii»« why he was so thankful
to hava it finiahed and done with at last. After all, he
worried himaalf in vain, for 3^ Sefeol^ &JMIW, thoo^
it has not the nnity cf The Biw(tit, nor the same wealth at
broadly humorooa incident, ia nmvenally rsntded ss
Kkeridan'smasterpMoe. He mi^ have settled oia doubts
and worries of andunb^ wi^Pnffs nSsiin " What b
the use of a good [M maegi to bring in good thingsr
The vitality of a play dspeocU mainly on its good thmp
in the way of ehaiacter, incident, and happy i^ing, and to
a very limited extent on th«ir relewiM to any oeatnl plaa.
S H K E I D A N
799
The thud~lLila Ut at SGerfdiht gran couedlw, 2"^
Critic, Wfts prodneed in 1779, The HthoU for Seandal
mGantime oontmiung to drair larger honaei thin any other
pU]' evBTj time it vu put on the ilnge. The Ciitic it
perhaiw the highest proof of Shoiidan* i^iU m a draioatist,
for in it he hoi irorkad oo^ with perfect lacoees for all
timp, n theme irhich, often aa it hns bean attempted, no
other dramatist has erer euccoeded in redeeniiiig from
tedious circiunstantialitj and ephemendpoieonalitioa. The
laughabk inflrniities of all clonea couiected vith the stage,
— author^ acton, patrons, and audience) — are tonched off
with the lightest of hand^j tho fan is directed, not at
indiridtifllfs bat at ubmrditiee that groir ont of the clrcom-
stances of the stage ae natnmllj and inevitablj aa weedi
in a garden. Tt seems that he bod accomolated notes, ae
his habit wai, for another comedj to bo called Afeetaiion.
But apperentlj he failed to bit upon anj story that vonld
enable him to pt«ieat his riirions typos of affectation in
dramatic interaction. The similar difficulty in his satire
against ecaodal, of fiodiug sufficiently inter^tins materials
for the ecandal-mongen, he bad eurmounted nith a violeiit
effort This other difficulty he might have sormonnted
too, if he bod had leisure to " sit and think " till the happy
thought caaeL But his energies irere noir called oS in a
diffeteot direction. His only dnunetic composition duiiog
the lemaining thirty-eix jrears of hie life \n^ Pitarro, pro-
doeed in 1799 — a traged; in which he made liberal use of
some of the arts ridicnled in the person of Hx Puff. He
is Hud also to have written more of Tht Stranger than he
was willing to acknowledge. "•■•*•
Heeateredparliament lor Stafiordin 1780. It was not
a sudden amLition to chine on a wider atage after having
gained the highest hoooora of the theatre. Ever dnce
learing Eairow he had dabbled a littie in politics, had
sketched letters in the manner of Jnnins, and beson an
answer to Johnson's Taxatio» no Tyranny. But be had
not made asj pnblic appearance as a politician until his
acquaintance with Fox led to hie appearing on a TVeat-
minater platform with the great leader of opposition.
Apparently he owed his election for Stafford to mora
soMtantial persuoeivea than the charms of his eloquence.
He paid the burgeeses five guineas each for the honour of
representing them. It was the custom of the time. His
first si>eech in parliament, like the flrat speech of a great
parliamentarian of this century, between whose career and
Sheridan's there are many etrildng points of resemblance
under the wing- of Foz^lied enbordloate offices in the
short-lived ministriea of 1T82 and 1TS3. He was nnder-
secteUry for foreign affairs in the Rockingham ministry,
and a secretary of the treasury in the Coalition ministry.
This was rapid promotion for a nxan who owed everything
to his own talents, and jet not an eicesdve recognition of
the services of such a speaker as he is described as bavins
proved himself at this exciting period. In debate be baa
the keenest of eyes for the weak placea in an opponent's
argument, and the happy art of putting them in an
irresistibly ludicrona light without losing bu good temper
or his presence of mind. In tboae heated days of parlia-
mentary strife he was almost the only man i^ mark that
was never called out, and yet he bad not hit match in the
vreapon of ridicule.
The occasion that gave Sheridan a chance of rising eboYe
the reputation of an extremaly effective and brilliant
debater into the ranks of greatparliamentuj orators
the impeachment of Warren Bastingt. His spaecbi
that proceeding were by the nDanimous acknowledgment
of bis coutempoiariea among the greatest delivered in that
Uorke's
of groat orators. The firit was in 1787*, da
propwial that Hastings should be impeodiod
noanimously agrood to adjourn «i
postpone the final decision til! the House aliould be in a
calmer niood. Of this, and of hia Lkst great sivooch' od
the subject in IT91, only brief abxtracts have betn'
pnuerved; but with the second, the four days' siioBoh
in Westminster Hall, on tho occasion so brilliantly described
by Ilacaulay, poatoriCy line been more foitunato. T^'o
reader sbotUd, however, ho cautioned against accepting
tbo votsion given in a collection of Sheridan's speeches
published by a friend after his duath. ^ia long patwed
current as a genuine spocimon of Sheridan's eloquence at
its beat, in iqiiCo of Moore's protest that he Jiad in hi*
poeseasioQ a copy of a shorthand writor's report, and tliat
the two did not correspond. But Qumoy'B verbatim
reports of the speeches on both aides at the trial won
published at Sir Q. Comewall Lewis's Instigation in 1859,
and from them we are able to form an idea of Sheridan's
power as an orator. There are i)asBaget here and Ibere
of gaudily figurative rhetoric, loose ornament, and decla-
matory hyperbole such as form the bulk of the incorrect
versioQ; but the strong common seOKc, dose argumentative
force, and masterly presentation of telling facts enable ns
to understand the impresaiou prodnoed bj the speech at
the time.'
Sheridan's long parliamentary career terminated in 1 81 2.
He oonld not help being to the last a conspicuous figure
both in society and in parliament, but from the time of
the bretk-uii of the Whig party on the aecession of Burke
he was more or Ues an " independent membe^" and ' his
isolation was complete after the (leath of Fox. "Hie Begnm
speech remained bis highest oratorical achisvoment. Bjr
it he is fixed in the tradition of the House as one of its
greatest names. But hitt opinions on other great qaestiona
were given with a force and eloquence worthy of his
position. When Burke denounced the French BevolutiiHi,
Sheridan joined with Fox in vindicating the principle of
non-interVButioo. He maintained that the French people
should be allowed to settle tbeir constitution and manage
their aflaiis in their own way. But when the reputdio
was sa^ceeded by the empire, and it became apparent that
France under Napoleon would interfere with Uie aSaira of
its neighbonn, he employed bis eloquence in denouncing
Napoleon and urgiog the proeecution of the war. One of
his most celebrated speecbee was delivered in support of
strong measures against the mutineers at the Nore. Whoa
the Whigs came into power in 1806 Sheridan wai
appointed treasurer of the navy, bnt was denied the honour
of admirtsion to the cabinet After Fox's death he sue-
oeeded hid chief in the representation of WeBtminster, and
aspired to succeed him as leader of tho party, but this
claim was not allowed, and thenceforward Sheridan fought
for bis own hand. Wbon the prince became regent in
1811 Sheridan's private infiuenco with hini helped to
exclude the Whigs from \iovei. For his interference on
this occasion between the regent aod bis constitutional
odviwni Sboridan was severely blamed. To judge fairly
as to how far he was ju^tiGed in his conduct as a matter
of-private ethics we must take into account bis preriona
relations with the leaden of bis par^, a point on whioh
Moore, one of the disappointed placemen, is somewhat
reticent. Throughout lus parliamentary career Sheridan
vrae one of the boon compauiona of the prince, and his
champion in pariiement in some dubious matteri of pay-
ment of debts. But he always reaeoted any imputation
1 Hoi ■ smiporljiin at 11m two T«nIciH OL Uw rpwb (ad ■■ >>'
upndtian ut th* quliOH sC Sberldu'* lalUaj hi Hr W. fna
Jtu'i IFiUh, OitnJvi, mad fMg, WJt,
S H E — 8 H E
that he DM Uw piineg'i confiiiMitijU adnsw or
A eartein proud Md Miuitife iiklep«Dd«M« ma on
matt mnrlied featoraa in Sheridan'* pariiuoentuy
After a eoolnesa wow betwoen him and hia Whig allies he
tefnaed a place for faia ion from the Government, bet there
alioald beaajeoqucionin thepntdie mind that nil
had been bon^t.
re Kouierea nxiiKi iub ubuib.
tbst his ^tanddan^ter II
ifunuH of judging of the ti
ad storiei abont bii indoh
Hia laat Tears were haraned t^ debt and diaappoiiit-
ment At the senMal election of 1813 he itood iot
Weetminater andvaa defeated, and tiinted in wn to his
old constitomcT of BtaSMd. He ooold vot raise monef
enongh to win bock theb confldeooe. Aa a member of
parliament he had been safe against airest for debt, Imt
now that this protection was lost his craditoce doeed in
upon him, and fn»n this time till hia dealb in 1816 the
life of Sheridan, broken in health and fortone, discredited
in lepatation, lighted by old associates, so onfeeUed and
low^pirited as to burst into tears at a eompUment, jet at
times Tindicating his rnntation as the wittiest of boon
companioM, is one of tne most p^nfal paawigea in the
hiof^i^thj of great men. Doabtless, in anr attempt to
judge of EUieridan as he was apart from bis worb^ we
most make eonnderable dednctioni from the maw of
floatiog anecdotes that have cathered romid his
was not withont reoMm tbst t'
Norton denoonoed the nnfwmgaH
proeraatination, bis recklessnev in money m^»er% Ui
draaken teats and aalliea, his wild gamUing, hii ii^ieiuoaa
but disoredibride shifts in ending and dnping eiaditora.
The real Swridan waa not a mttero of deoorone n^teet-
aUlity, bnt we may bizir believe diat be was veiy far
from Urine aa disrepiitalrie as the Bheridan of vnlgar
legend. Againat the stmesaboot hia recklam manaffement
of hia riflaira we mnat set the broad facta that he nad no
source of incmna bat Dnuy lAiie theatre that he bore
from it for thirty yean all the eipanaee of a taahimmble
life, and that the theata was twice bnnit to the ground
daring hia proprietonhip. Enou^ was loet in those Area
to aoooDnt ten timei over for all Iub debts. His Ino-
grspheiB always apeak of hia means of living as a mystery.
Seeing tiiat he started with borrowed eapiw, it is possible
that the nmtery ia that he applied modi more (rf his
powers to plain mattets of business than he albcted or got
nedit for. The records of hia wild bets in the bettmg
bopk of Bnok'a Clab date in the years after the loss oi
hia fint wif^ to whom he was devoted^ attached. The
lemtniseenosa of his son's tutor, Mr Smylii, show anzkos
and Admtty fiunily habits, cnrionaly at variance with the
aceaptM tradition of his impcrtnrbaUerecklesBiMaL HaiQr
of raetrieha which aiemadeto^pear aa tbeunscmpolons
devices erf a hunted and recUeas debtor get a scrfter lit^t
1 them if we ascribe them to a whimrical, boy&h.
fanportant Ta^wotL n» Ixet ■ceonnt ef than-nUif
« toT ■ (li^t Usa <( limily pide — li to bs baad ia iti
— • 9f fn Annaa SlitHdam, ij hor ps>ililui|ht«, ih
dmnatfat'a dIhs, Him Lgftmu. Th«e i* aa auallat ilutA4
abmiim't polltiaal eu«r in Ur V. FtsHr Bu'i tnOm, SItrtfiL
■mtf JbL and HrJ OliphsDf 1 OitHdan, In the 'EndiA Da d
JMtta'' Mrkm, intvpnta tit ebuactsr with tba InminoiB bniU
aad tpaftthj alwsfi to ha mpiatad bum her. (W. K.)
BtCKKKxr. Bee Hbooa, vtiL xr. p. 671
For the ofGce of aberiff in Engknd, m
Comrrr. For hia jurisdiction in the revium of votat^ ■«
Rbqibtutiov. llepoeitionof the sheriff as an encdiTg
the Uiiited. Statei ia very similar to that of tbe
Englii^ sheriff. He it nonally sppointed by popoht
election. The manhala ot the Umtod States and tLdr
deputies have in each State the aame powers in eiMotiiig
the laws ti the United States aa the eherifb and tbeir
deputies have in eiecDting the laws of tbe State.
Bo far at ia known the aher:^ netwitbstandiiig Ihs Sun
etymdogy of his name (ahiie grieve or reeve), did not oiil
in Scotland before the beginniiig of the Norman penod.
In the feudal system he became the centre of the kml
administrati(m erf jnstioe, the representative <rf the aan
in enentive as well aa jndicdal bntineaa^ and wm alwip i
d to lastent that he eot^ " find
oat nothing about bini.* Mocn seema to have made an
impotfeet nss of the family pwen^ and it ia on leoord that
Lord HelboorM^ irito bad nodtriakeB to write Sheridan's
life, always rs(p«tted havfaig handed ovtr bis matmials to
tbe prafeatioaal Inogrwiber. He died on tim 7th trf July
18l(, and ma bartofwilli gnat pou^ in WesCmiiiBtec
Abb^.
Thwe ti, aatmUiaslslj, ae eompMs anOraittsaTe tfagr^Oiy
af Bbiidsn. Xn Kcrtint, b!i paaMini^tM', qpastlraisd tiw
Booamr of Koon^i LOi In many psiticalat^ ud ■nnomiMl lur
iataoltan of «ttt(ut a Uatacy d( tiw Sbwiihni from tfaa bmlly
mMirfwUdlloankadBBdavwypsrtlalaat. BntalHUvar
atnM oat O* wdwt Tfaa ODiiant atsttmsnti about Aid btbar
- haroftha
royal officer qnxnnted by and dincUr respocailds M tk
kins. Htu etdieat iherJA on record belong U> the lei^
of Akoander L and David I., and the office was DMntm
before the death of Alexander QL In many catea i( M
beoome hereditary, tbe most remarkable instance bong
that of Selki^ wltere a De Kotnn held it bomlJUts
130S. The ordinance ot Edwaid L in 1306 leeogmad
most of the existing ofllcen, bat r(||eoted tbe haredite;
dksraeter erf Uib office by a dedaration that the Anili
be ^tpmnted and removaUs at tbe diteretitn it
the kiog't lientenant and the diamberlain. Hie mveMU
tendncy of feodaUam rcamtrtsd itself, however, artiilli-
standing various attempta to ehe<& it, and an Ad of
Jamee IL shows that the oOx had agsin becmie bn
One (rf the oonsequeoua was tbateheiifb teaanntt'
kwieqaireddi^iatea to diMJisrge their jodteisldaUa. Ii
the coorae of saoeeeding reign^ down to that of Iv
TI, thejmiadietionof £eabeti2scametobeiiineliliDilrf
by grants of baromee and regalitieB which gave the nwilx
the rig^t to hold both dviland criminal oocrti of Imk
gieater jurisdiction to the exdnitpn of the aheriS.
The dvil jnrisdiction of the sheriif was oripnsDr "
very wide extent, and was deemed apeciaUy mdicaUg u
■tiona relating to the had within the ahini, bat am
institntiontrf tbeocratt of seirion in 1633 it Ucut
teetricted, and all causes relating to pn^Mrty in m «
weU as those requiring the aotion called dedantn; Is ,
estaUitbing ultimate n^ and nuBt of those m<>i^
eqnitaUe remedies wtee wiOdrewn from it Kotm
it posseai ainr oonwtorlal Jnrisdietimi, as its "^
<marriag^ le^imaoy, and wilU) belonged to the o&aii
of theUibop after tbe BMformatko, vrttm it m ^
• ' to the oommissaiy oonrta, sad at a W« ?«!«
^HwdoJly, Hufdcn, th. oA
I fell nnder the heed of *<^
to tbe eenrt (rf •
Jnrisdictiiw of the aherifi fell nnder the
concluding for payment of money and tie
aheriS was in Kke manner in ita origia of aloioat hb^
extent. Bnt thia waa Emt limited to oues «>><** J"
oSendem were caoght in ot tborOf aftM the Kt, ju^
warda toeassa In which Oe taial c«ild be beU «>*^
forQr ityt, and aubeeqnently further reMw**^ m
boBnaas of the jnttdary oourt becanw mm cQ^
The poniahmmt of deatii, having bj lou diN» JT
to beheld beyond the powwerf the ^^^f^^iZ
tntccT pnntahmwita of
power <rf the iAerU,!^"
ban^wrtatkni oc pam "
S H E — 8 H E
801
never hanog bam entanaled to him, hU juriadietton u
regudH Crimea wu OBuUlj said to be limited to thoae
pQoialiable ubitntrilj, that ia, b; inipriaoiuneDt, fine, or
adnomtion.
At ft conaeqaeDcs of the anppi«adoa ot the Jaoobite
riaing of 1745, after lat Uaich 1718 all hsritabia
ehari&aliipa wete extingoiohad, and no aheri&aliip waa to be
thereafter graoted either herilabi; ot for life, or for anj
certain term exceeding one year, bat tbia proriaioD waa
not taken adrantage of, and the office of aheriS-principa]
praeticallj ceaaed, though that name ia aometimea given
to the iberiff-depate, 20 Geo. IL & 43. The Act dedared
that tbot« ahonld be bat one aheriS-depute or atawart-
de^nte in every abire or atawartrj, who waa to ba an
Bdvocate of three feara' ataoding, appointed by the crown,
with inch contiunanea aa Hia If^jeaty ahould think fit for
the next aeven Tears, and after that period ad vUam ant
tmlpam. Tliia period waa extended bj 28 Qeo. II. e. 7
for fifteen yeara, and thereafter (aince 1769} the aheriS-
depate haa held hia office ad vitam avt etdpam. Power
waa given to him bj SO Geo. XL e. 43 to appoint one or
more persona aa aubetitutea daring bis pieaaure, for whom
he ahould be answerable. At fint no legal qualification
waa aeceasary and no salary pud, but gradually the
aherifT-depute delegated more Ic^ bnsiaeaa to the anb-
atitnte, and before 1761 it had become customary for the
aberiS-depnte to give him aome allowance. In 1787 he
WM placed on the civil eatabliahment and paid by the
crown ; in 1825 a qualification of three yean' standing
(now five year* by 40 and 41 TicL c. SO) aa an advocate
or procniator before a aherifi court was reqoired (6 Oeo.
IT. c. 23) ; in 1838 he was made removable by tbe aheriS-
depute^ only with the conaent of the lord preaident and
Innl jnstice clerk, and it was made compalaory that he
ahonld reaide in the aheriSdom, the provision ot 20 Qeo.
II. c. 43, which required the aheriff-depute so to reaide
for tour montba of each year, bebg repeiJed (1 and 2 Vict.
c 119); and in 1877 the right of appointment of the
mbstitutea waa tranaferrad from the aheriS-depnte '
the crown (40 and 41 Tict. c. DO).
While tbe theriS-depute haa atill power to hear easee
tba firat instance^ and ia required to hold a certain number
of aittinga in each place where the sheriS-substitute holda
courts, and alao once a year a amall-debt court in every
plaMO where a circuit small-debt court ia appointed to be
held, the ordinary conrae of civil procedure ia that the
sheriffenbatitnte ante as jadge of first inatauc^ with an
appeal under certain leatrictiooe from bis decision to the
oberifi-depnte, and from him to the court of aesiion in all
causes exceeding £25 in valne. An appeal direct from the
slierifl-gnbatltnta to the court of aeeaioa ia competent, bat
is not often resorted to.
As regards criminal proceeding lummary trials are
aanally conducted t^ the aheriff-anbatitute ; ttiiUa with a
July either by him or, in important caaea, by the aheriS-
depute. The sheriff-subetituta also haa charge of the pre-
liminary inveatigation into crime, the evidence in which,
called a precognition, ia laid before him, and if neceesary
taken before him on oath at the instance of hia procoiator-
Sacol, the local crown proaecntor.
Tha dntiia of tha iharlff-dapate an now dividad into miniittfial DC
•dmiuistntiva ind jndicUL Tha mioittsriil an th* tnpetvlifoii
ot tbs aocounU ot th« intarior olBcan of tbe llwriffiMin ; thg
■uperinliBdiiDeg of parliamentary elactioDa ; tbg boldlu by Urn-
■bU or bia sniiirtltnta of tha ooorta for ragiitntKin of alaclon ;
tbs pnntatlan of tha Uit at penoaa liabla to asrva both m
(ulminal and dvil Jarlta ; tha appointmant of ihariff offlocn and
■niHTTiaion of tha eitoatuHi of Judicial wiita I^ thain ; and tbe
■trildog ol tho "flan." He haa alao to attend tha Jodgea ot toiti'
ciaiy at tha dnmlt ooarta for tha eoonty or caaatlaa over whiefa hia
JntiaiUetiDa aitanda. Ha la gmaially teanndble &r tba p«oe of
tluMauty,andaapgmNttliapaUotiataMldaMnL EelsasqfMa
jnrtloe ot th* paaoa and eonndaiaMr of anwly. In addition
• thoag gtniinl dutist o[ iluriSa-depnta, putioolar (berifla era
sttiohBd to the Board of Saperrliion foi tha tUliof of tba Poor, tlii
Priioa Board of Sootlanil, th* Board of Horthom Ughthaaae
Commiwionera, and the Scotdah Figh^rj Boiid.
The iudieial dntiei of tha (herllT-dspatfl are, aa raguda crinMa,
tha triu of all canaea Ttimitt«d by the rvamel of tho crown for tha
triiJ 1>j iherifl and jnrj, u nil u >amnuiT triali U ho chooaoa
to take them. Thii aow msuu moat ctimea for vhich & maximum
it two Jim' impriaonment (in practica eighteen montbi ii Iho
ongnt Hntanceimpoeadjig deemed luSclent. and which are not by
itatnta naorred for the jaiUdary canrt Kii dWl inriidietloB
ii nsshttad by Hvaral itatutea too technical for d«Uil, but miy ha
BOid gsnerally to extend to all loite which conclode tor poymoot of
money, whatever may be lb* catue of action, with the exception
oF a few whera tha payment dependa on itaCni, alt ectiona with
tafsmnco to tho poeaeeaion of land or lighfr in land, and actiona
Ttlaliva to the right ot anneniDn to movablB propeitj. In
hankrnptcy he haa a eumtilatlTs aud altaroative jnrudictioa with
the coort oFieaaion, and in the service o( heirs with the thatilTof
cbaneery. Formerly the jnriHJictlon of the ■horiff waa ahiolutely
eiolnded after the Inititation ot tha court of sniion in tout
inporUnt clssaea ot actioa — [1] relstiia to property ia lands or
rigbta in landa ; (S) requiring the use of painiliar formi of aotion,
i.grt dactarator, niducbon, and luapennoa; ^3) involving tho
eierctae of the noitli o^*i«n, a (Dpnme equitable jariadictiaa ot tha
coort ot eeaeion ; and (4) for the detarmination of righU at statna.
aa well as in many caaaa in which tba nroceedingi rcat oa special
statntas which garo in eicluBiTe jnnidiction to the court ot
■estlon. But la^ eioeptiaas have been mads by recent lagiala-
tion from this sidnnoD. By another sarioa of statntaa, for the
moat part connected with local adminiitration, as the Road, Burial
Gronnda, Lanacy, Public-hooaea, aod Qaneial Police and Education
Acta, tha juriadictian of the oooit of seasion is eidndad either aa
an oriffin^ court or a coort of review, and tha sheriff court haa
axduitve jurisdiction.
Tha conrta which tha abaciff holds are (1) tha crinunal court ;
(2} tha ordiaary civil ninrt ; (3) the amalLdeht court for caaea
under £13 in value (S Geo. IT. c iS) ; «) tho debts ncoveiy conrt
for caaea above £13 and under £10 in valaB(3aand SI Vict a 86);
andW the registration court Uisjndgmentln the criminal court
is subject to review by the court of justiciary, and in 'he ordinary
civil court and the debts recovery court by the contt ofseanon. In
the imall debt court it is flnal, except in certain caies where an
appeal Uea to the next circuit conrt of juaticlaiy. Tbe ahsriff-
inbatitnte may competently eiardie all tbe jndicud jurisdiction of
tha sheriff, anbject to appul in civil caaea other than Bnall.dabt
caaea. Aa renida hia adniniatratjva fnnotkma ha aaafata the
aheriff gaoetal^, and may aat for him in tha ra^atntton aud fiaiB
court, and ha anparintenda the prellminaiy ataga of criminal
InquirisB, consulting with tha shenlT if naoeaaary ; but tha other
adminia^tive dutice of the office ara condnctad by tha iberlff-
depute la penon. The salariea ot aheriOs-depute vary tcom £2000
to £600 a year, thoae of aherifla-subatituta fnim £1100 to SIM.
Thara ia a prindpal aherilT-clerk appointed by the crown for each
ODonty, who haa depute clerks under him in the principal towna,
and a pn>cantor.Saeal for tha conduct of criminal proHcuticua tor
eech county and district of a county, who ia appointed by tha
sheriff with the sanction ot th* home aacrataiy.
Besides the aheriSs ot countiea, there is a aheriff of chancery
appointed by the cnwn, whoae dutiea are eonfinad to tha aarrica ot
heica,with a salary of £600. (£. M.)
SHERLOCK, Tbomu (167B-1761), bishop ot London,
tLe son of Dr William Sherlock, noticed below, waa bom
at London in 1678. He was educated at Catherine Hall,
Cambridge, and in 1704 succeeded his father as master of
the Temple. He took a prominent part in tha Bangorian
controversy against Hoadly, whom he aocceeded as bishop
of Bangor in 1728 ; he was afterwards translated to
Salisbury in 1734, and to London in 1738. He pub-
lished against CoUins'a Groimdt and Statmu of At Chris-
tian Religion a volume of sermons entitled Th* Um ami
JntaU of FropAecyintAe Seventl Agtt of Uu World (1726);
and in reply to Woolaton's Ditcourta oi* (A« Mirachi be
wrote a volume entitled Tht Trial of At WttMuu i/ lie
Bttnrrtetion of Jen* (1739), which m a veij shmi time
tan through fourteen editions. EisPoaloraf Xitter(17S0)
on "the htte earthqaakee " had a circulati<Hi of many
thousands, and four volumes of Seraumt which he pub-
lished in hi* later years (I764-C8) were also at one time
highly esteemed. He died in 1761. A collected edition
, of hia works iu 0 toIi. Sto^ by Hughes, appeared in 1S30.
hes, appeared it
802
8 H E — S H I
SHERLOCK, WnuAH (1641-1707), d«ui of Bt Patd'i,
was bora at Sonthwark in 1641, and wm educated at
Eton and Cambridge (FeterhonM). In 1669 hs became
rector of fit Qeorge, Botolph I^uie, London, and in 1681
he yna appointed a prebendary of St Fanl'i. In 1684 he
pntlished Thi Com 9f Beiitmea ttf Vie Supnemi Pmnert
tIaUd and retolved aecordinff to t^ J^tttriau of Ae Edy
SeriplKra, aa ably written treatise, la vYdch he drew the
diatinctioD betweea active and passive obedience which
waa at that time generallj accepted by the high church
clergy; b the ume year he wa« made maater of the
Temple. la 1686 he was reproved for preaching against
popery and his pension stopped. After the Revolatbn he
was enepended for refuting the oaths to' William and
Hory, but before hie fioal deprivatioa be yielded, jnatify-
ing hie change of attitude in Th« Catt of tht AlUgiana
dm to Soveniffn Pmeen daUd aitd molvtd aaxirding to
Scripture and Beaton and ike Frincipla of the Church of
England (1691). Daring the period of his soapenaion
he wrote a Prattical Dteeoune oonctnmg Death, which
became very popular and has passed through many
editions. In 1690 and 1693 he published voluniea on
the doctrine of the Trinity which involved him in a warm
controversy with Sonth and others. He became dean of
Bt Panl's in 1691, and died at Eampateod in 1707.
SHERUAK, a city of the United BUtea, in Grayson
county, Texas, 73 miles north of Dallas, is a subetautislly
built and flourishing place, with a court-house and a college.
Ito population, only 143S in 1870, was 6093 in 1680 and
bas since increased to about 6000. The surrounding
country is a cotton and grain district,
SUERWIN, JoHM ExYSi (1751-1790), engraver and
history-pointer, was bom in 17S1 at East Dean in Bnssei.
His father was a wood-euttsr employed in shaping bolts for
sbipbuilden, and the son followed the same occupation till
his seventeenth year, when, baviug sbowD an aptitude for
art by copying Bome miniatures with ezceptiooal accuracy,
he was beFriended by Uc William Mitford, upon whose
estate the elder Bherwin worked, and was sent to study in
London, first nnder John Astley, and then for three years
uader fiarloloni — for whom he ia beliered to have
executed a lar^ portion of the plate of Clytie, after
Annibal Caracci, published as the work of his master. He
was BDtered as a student of the Royal Academy, and
gained a silver medal, and in 1772 a gold medal for his
punting of Coriolanns Taking Leave of his familv.
From 1774 till 1780 he was an exhibitor of cha&
drawings and of engravings in the Boyal Acadeiny.
Establishing himself in 8t James's Btreet as a painter,
designer, and engraver, he speedily attained popularity,
and began to mix in fashionable society. His drawing of
the Finding of Motes, a work of but slight artistic merit,
which introduced portraits of the princeaa royal of England
and other leading ladies of the aristocracy, hit the public
taste, and, as reproduced by his burin, sold largely. In
1785 he succeeded Woollett as engraver to the kin& and
he also held the appointmeDt of engraver to the prince of
Walefc His professional income rose to about £13,000 a
year ; but he was constantly in pecuniary difficulties, for he
WM shiftless, indolent, and without method, open-handed
and even prodigal in his benefactions,— and prodigal, too, in
less reputable directbna, for he became a recklees gambler,
and habits of intemperance grew upon him. He died in
extreme pennry on the 24th of September 1790, — accord-
ing to Bteevens, the editor of Sbakeapeoie, at " The Hog
in the Pound," an obeonre alehouse in Swallow Street, or,
aa stated by bis pupil J. T. Smith, in the house of Robert
Wilkinson, a printaeUer in Comhill.
It is u an «igtST« thst Shenrln is most «st«m«I ; snd It msv
bs notsa that &• was ambldaitsrans, voting inatOnwitly with
olthu bud upon his pittss. His drawing is utieet, U^d.
cgllent, and fau tcitnns in vsried end intalUgoit ii iipwJB
BnokiDghsDi aftu Osiniborongh, and Sat of Pitt «sgap}i U^
E'sca unoDg tha prodoctloiu ofths BoRlish icheal ef Hiw ispiisi
■ alw irorkvl sTtar Pina, Duiw, ud KanSbuo.
SHETLAND ISLANDS. See Obukt abd SsiTun.
BHIEXD. See Asms axd AaitouB, and Hkuldii.
SHIELD, Wiuxui (1748-1829), composer ol Ee^
operas, was born at Bwalwell, near Newcastle in ITU.
His father began to teach him singing befwe he bad on-
pleted his siiUi year, but died three yean Utw, Itaiii^
him in charge of guardians who made no ptorisjon vUt
ever for continuing his musical educfttion, for which hs ni
thenceforward dependent entirely upon bis own qititndi
for learning, aided by a few lesson* in thoroughbsa n)iA
he received from Charles Avison. Notwithstsading tk
difficulties inseparable from this imperfect training, k
obtained admission into the opera band in 1773, st Inl
as a second violin, and afterwards aa principal vidsj vA
this engagement he retained for ei^teen years. In th
meantime he turned his serious attention to ccsnposiliM,
and in 1778 produced his first comic opera, Ti* FliiAi^
Bacon, at the Little Theatre in the Haymarket, witli si
great success, that he was immediately engaged u coil-
poser to Covent Garden theatre, for which he coDtiDiid
to produce Eogliah operas and other dramatic pioc^ii
quick succession, until 1797, when he redgned hi> office
and devoted himself to compositions of a difiarent dio,
producing a great number of very beautiful glee^ smh
instrumental chamber music, and other miaceUaneoin a»
positions. He died in London January 3G, 1839,tndw
buried in the south cloister at Westminster Abbey.
Shield's most locosisfiil dnmstio conipontions «*» JMa,
I OaMlt, Ti* huk amdKtf, ud TU Ct^i
iita|ner of sonn ha was in no dacnt iDbri*
it oontemporuy Chsrla Dibdin. Indwd Tin Ardlua,
iitg^Ou Uai, and ITii Ant OipSuH sn M little Iftilj
to be foi^tao u Dibdiu's fim BcwHiy or AKHRfrw tfifUH&L
Hi* vein of mslodj wis inulisDitlbla, thaniiiglilj bijlbii ii
chinctsr, ud ilirsvi coDOnnd in tilt pamt ud moat dtlioli
tasts; uid hsnoe it u tbst muv of his un in stm nii« it »
urta, though (hs opens for which thij wu* vrittin hive k(|
bMD baDlehed IVom the atue. His /XradiKMan to fiimnl OTM
and ISM] containa ■ greit deal at valnshle InfonnatlDB ', mi'lt ^
publithad a OHfut tnaCiss, TU AuAnoli ^ nsmifUut.
SHIELDS, NoBTB. See Ttbkxouth, within •lu^
borough the port is included.
SHIELDS, South, a seaport, market-town, and moni
cipal and parliamentary borough of Durham, is sitsttd
on the south bank of the Tyne, at its mouth, imoicdiiklr
opposite North Shields and Tynemouth, and on the Nmtt
Eaatem Boilway, 16 miles north-east of Durham ssd 9
east of Newcaatloon-Tyne. It is connected with Sai
Shields and l^emonth by steam ferrieo. The tav
possesses a spacious market-place, and aome of the ntnr
streets ore wide and haodsome, but the old etreet inDiiDf
along the ahore is narrow and mean. FOTmeri j itlt vu
largely manufactured, but the principal indnstrias novsn
the manufacture of glass and chemicals, and shipbiiildiiif
and ship refitting and repairinft for which there are ia^
capable ol receiving the largest vessels. The 1^°'^
Eastern Railway Company possesses extensive dock^ w
the port has a large trade in coal; but, owing U lh> fu<
that in the shipping returns of the United Eingdon il n
included nnder the general title " Tyno Porta," it is imp*
aible to give on aoonrate statement regarding tli« "^^
and tonnage of veaaela. The number of fishing nsM
connected with the port in 1684 was 1 6, c4 304 tow tn
employing 98 men. At the month of the I^ss tlxn
ia a pier abont a mile in length. A townsman oi Eoiu
Bhields, William Wonldhave, was the ioveDtoc d tht I)'*'
S H I — S H I
803
%oftt, uid the firat lifelxMt wm built then "bj Eeiu;
Oreathead, and first used in a atorm in 1789. The jirin-
cipol pablic buildings are the chorcti of St Hilda, Tith
a picturaqas old tower; the tovn-tiall in the nurket-
plAce ; the ezchanse ; the cnstom-bouse ; the mercantile
marine oMces; the public librar; and mmeam, which
includes a large hall for pablic meetings and a achool of
science and art in coQoezioa with Bond Kensington ; the
bipli school, the grammar school, the marine school the
master-mariners' aajlum, the la^iam infirmar;, and the
union workhouse. There in a pleasant marine park near
the pier. On elevated ground near the harbonr are the
remaine of a Roman statioti, wber« nnmeroni coins,
portions of an altar, and several ecnlptnred memorial
stones have been dug up. Hie ute of the old station
was afterwards occupied by a fort of considerable,
strength, which was captured by the Scots under Colonel
Stewart 20th March 1644. The town was fonnded by
the conreDt of Durham about the middle of the 13th
century, but on account of the complaints of the bnr-
geeses of NewcBj;tle- an order was mode in the 43d
vear of Henry III., etipulating that no ships should be
laden or unladen at Shields, and that no "shears" or
quays ehould be built there. Thid early check seems to
have been long injurious to its prosperity, for until the
present century it was little more than a fishing station,
ft received a charter of incorporation in 1850, and is
divided into three words, governed by a mayor, eight
aldermen, and twenty-.uur connciUors. In 1832 it received
the privilege of returning a member to parliament. The
corporation act as the urban sanitair authority, and the
town has a epeciall}' good water sapply from reservoirs at
Cleadon. Iiie popiJation of the monicipal and ' parlia-
mentarr borough (area 1839 acres) vras 40^36 in 18T1,
and in 1881 it was G6,8T6.
SHriTES. See Suknitm Ain) Sei'itm.
SHIKAKFUS, a British district in the province of Bind,
Bombay preeidency, India, with an area of 10,000 sqaare
miles, lying between 27° and 29* N. lat and between
67 ° and 70 E. long. It is boonded on the N. by Ehelat,
Upper Sind Frontier district, and the river Indus ; on the
E. by the native states of Bahawalpor and Jaisalmir ; on
the 8. by Khair^ ur state ; and on t)ie W. by the Shirthar
Moontains. Bhik^ur b a vast altavial plain, broken
only at Sukkur and Bohri by limeetone hills. The
Kbirthar rangfa attains an elevation of 7000 feet, and
forms a natural boundary between the dietrict and Baluch-
istan. £itensive patches of salt land, known as kalar,
Bxe frequently met with, especially in the upper portion
of Shiltirpur, and towards tne Jacobabad frontier barnm
tracts of clay land and ridges of eacd-hills, covered with
caper and thorn jn^le, form a poor but distinctive feature
in tde landscape. The desert portion of Rohri subdiviaion,
known as the Registhin, is very extensive. . The forests
(207 square miles) are situated on the bauks of the Indus,
mostly in tVe Bofari and Bhik&rpur subdivisions. The
Indus Yalley State Railway runs through the district, and
the Kandahar railway also goes throngh a part of it.
In 1B81 tlie pi>]niIatioa uambend 813, B8S (nulea ISl.OSa.hmtlu
391 BCJ), of vhom t>3,S4I nan Hindnt, SS1,37G UohunnwdiDs,
Ulil 738 Chrirtuuii. Ths chiot toinu in ahlkirpnr, Bnkkur
{ponulitioD 27M9), Lorkhuii (13,1S8), Hid Bolul (10,224). Tha
caMnUi Und in iaS2-8S uuDUntod to Tflt.4SS acm, of which
108 838 me twicD DrD|>pad. Cemis— cMflflj rice, jodr [mtlletj,
I-lil wliMt— form tha prinoiniil rropi ; Imt > oonnder«bl« iru u
ilaauDdiir pulioiinil oil-KSda. The chief numufoctnreB an arpeta
wid coam cotton clothe Tho toUI reveuus ni»d in 1083-83
(nuuntnl to £234,792, or irhich the Imd coiitriboted £iee,SA9.
I'nsinz from tho dominion of the uliiihi, BhikArpHt wm DV«min
■ - ■ ■ ■ " ■ - ---- • ""^ ■ ■ Temedbj
l>y Uih
ti;._ann
lUliiihi, Bhi
.dilitUeb
S'^'
fiillewed by the Tiilpnr
ArghoM in «
lo promlneDM in the I Bth cutory, u
lain, whe sBsexeil a put ol tk* I
Uniioiy and fnooipareted it In the district In 1B4S BUkirnir
puHd lo tha Brituh, and in 1SE2 ths gnstsr put of ths Bohil
nbdiTimioa wu rcsiuned from the mir of Kburpnr, who had
acquLnd it bj fraud.
SHIKABPUE, the chief town of the above district,
is situated 18 miles west of the Indus, in a tract of low-
lying country annually flooded by the canals from that
river. It is a great entrepdt for transit trade between the
Bolan Pass and Karachi. The population in 1661 num-
bered 42,496 (males 22,889, females 19,607).
SHILOH, a town of Epbraitn, where the sanctuary of
the ark was, under the priesthood of the house of EIL
According to I Sam. iii 3, 15, this sanctuary was not a
tabernacle but a temple^ with doors. But Uie priestly
narrator of Jceh. zviii. 1 has it that the tabernacle was
set up there by Joehna after the conquest In Judges
zzi. 19 tj. the yearly feast at Shiloh appears aa of menly
local character. Shiloh seems to have been destroyed by
the Philistines after the disastrous battle of Ebeneser ; cf.
Jeremiah viL 12 iq. The position described in Judgeis,
loe. cU. (cf. OnoBKutica, ed. Lagarde, p. 162), gives cer-
tainty to the identiGcstion with the' modem BeilAn lying
some 2 miles eaBt-south-east of Lnbbin (Lebonah), on
the road from Bethel to Shechem. Here there is a ruined
village, with a Gat double-topped hill behind it, offering a
strong position, which suggests that the place was i strong-
hold as well as a sanctuary. A. smiling and fertile land-
scape surrounds the bilL The name Seillln corresponds to
S(A!^ in Josephns. LZX. has SijXu, SaiXio/i. The forms
given in the Hebrew Bible (rfy^i l7'>!*) have dropped the
final consonant, which reappears in the adjective "jiii'e'.
On Bhiloh in den. xlix.'10 see Jitdaf.
8HIM00&, or Shxskooa, a district in the nortli-west
of the native state of Mysore, Southern India. It forms
a part of the Nogar divieion, and is situated between
IS' 30* and 14* 36' N. lat. and between 74* 44' aad
76' S' K long. It has an area of 3797 egnare milee, end
is bounded on the N. and W. by the Bombay districts of
Dhirwir and N. K&nara, and E. and 8. by the districts
of Chitaldroog and Kadur. Its river system is twofold ;
in the east the Tungn, Bhodra, and Varada unite to
form the Tungabhadra, which ultimately falls into the
Kistna and so into the Bay of Bengal, while in tlie weat
a few minor streams flow to the Shirivati, which near
ths north-western frontier bursts through the Western
QhAts by the celebra'ted Falls of Qersoppa, said to be
the grandest cataract in India. Flowing over a rocky
bed 260 yards wide, the river here throws itself in four
distinct falls down a tremendous chasm 960 feet deep.
Ths weatsm half of the diitrict ii voiy monnlaJnoni and oovend
with magniflcsnt forest, and is known u ths Malnid op hill
coontn-, some of the peaka being 4000 !f
gensnl elsvation of Shimog
0 feet; and U
la-lsTSl. The
it opani out into the Uaid&a or plain conntiT, wliich forms
of the gsnerel plateau of Myaors. The Malnid region ii wry
ELOtur«sqeB, its scsnerr aboundmg with svsry charm of tropical
ireats and mountain wilds ; on the othsr hand tho feaCntes of the
Uaidkn oountry an for the moat part conipantiiely tams. The
mineral pTodacts of the diatrict indnde iron-ore and laterite. On
the mmmits of the Gbits atones poeicBsioK msgnetic qualities an
occanonallv found. Ths soil Is looee and^iandj in the valleys at
(he llalndd, and in the north-east ths black cotton aoil nrsTaila.
Bison an common in ths laHit of Sagar, where aJw wild elephants
ars occasionajlj sssa ; while tigers, leopards, beora, wild hiHi,
sdmMar and ciildl deer, and jungle sheep an nomerona in the
wooded tractj of the weat Bhinuwa pnssnta moch voriety of
climsts. Tb« Bonth-west monsoon u fait in full force for about
25 miles fnim ths Ghats, bringina; an annual ndnfall of more than
150 inches, but the rainfall gradiiilU diminiihes to 81 inches at
Shiraoga atation and to 25 inches or less at Chennagiri. There is
no railroad in ths Jiatrict, but it eontoina 316 miles of reads.
The population in 1681 **i 498,728 Jmalsa 2Ea,2Ve, femalsa
240,182); Hindu nnmbered 470,873. MobaiDmedana 27,87^ and
Cbrlatiaoa 1478. The only pUoa with more than 10,000 inhabit-
804
S H I — S H I
ii 0w rtipla Ibod-arop of Oia dlAict ; ths uit in InpartuM I*
(Ogir-ouM I uwa-nnW in »I» citauivsl; grown ■- ui<I miaeal.
Unaooa crept Inalnda oit-Hwli, TegcUhlu, fr "
outUmoms. Of the toUl ftm of 37BT •qnan i
Trtnnwd u siiltiTM«d and 70a u enltintble. Th*
Uctimt »n coaraa coCton dothi, nrngb uxuttty blunkst* <n
hamilit. Iron implonratB. bna ud coppgr win*, pottarr, ud
Jiggu;. Tlw dubiit ii «]aa uotsd for ita bHadTnl wudal-wood
, pn.piii
9 DoT; »
Diufag tE
17S9, nnmuuig vubn kept ths wlials oxuitrr In canituttunnait.
After th» iMtorUiou of tlu Hinda inaiatj Shimoga diitrict
npntadlr baouw tlw tem» oF distmMiuiu ijuwd b; the nuil-
admioiitntioii of Um Dnlimita BnUuDMU, nho luul mImiI upon
tnrj ofltoa and nuda thomTClra tborenghlT abDoiioui. Thug
diitorbuuNa Dolmiiiatad in the imratnotion of IStO, whiob led to
Hi* dinot ueomptiDn of the entire ittta bj tlu BtiUih.
_ Sae Jatax, toL xiiL p. 581.
Ship. The e^uma name (A. B. mi>, Q«r. iS<^/, Gr.
oTaUot, Irom the root itnp, ef. " Booop " j for tiis invention
bj irUch man has oontriTed to convejr hinuelf and bis
soodi npon water pdDtM in its derivation to tba fon-
oamental conception bj which, vriien reoliied, a meann
of &>tation was obtained sapenor to ^e raft, which
We maj ooniider the earlieat and most elsmentajj' form
of TeaseL The trunk of a tree hollowed out, whether
\jj fire or by such pcimitiva tools as aie faahiooed and
noed with singnlar patience aod dest^t^ b; nvage
racefl, repreeents the first efiort to obt^ flatatioQ depend-
ing on Bomething other than the mere bnojant^ of
the material. The poeta, with ^aracteristic insigtit,
bave faatened upon uieae pcdnto. Hom^B hero Ulysses
is initnurted to make a raft with a raised platform npon
it, ^md aeleota traea "withered of old, exceeding diy.
t might £oat lightlj- for him" (Od., t
lifting the dawn and earlj progreaa of t
glorifying t]
240). Tirgil,
^Eireie'EhBn Brat the hollowed aiders felt" {flaarg..
ii. 151). Alder ia a heay wood and not fit for rafts.
But to make for the first tune a dng-ont canoe rg. alder,
and BO to eeonre its flotation, woold be a triumph of
primitive ar^ and tbns the poet's expression repreaenta a
great step in the history of toe invention of the ship^
PrimiUve efforts in tlua direction may be clase^ed in
the following order: (1) rafts — floating logs, or bondlee
(rf bnubwood or reeds or rushes tied togeSier ; (3) dug-
OQti — hoUowed trees j (3) eanoea of bark, or of skin
stretched on firamewttrk or inflated akins (balsas) i (1)
canoes or boats of pieces of wood hatched or fastened
together with sinews or thonga or fibres of vegetable
gr_2wth ; (fi) Teasels of planks, stitched or bolted together
with inaeiied libs and decks or half det^ ; (6) vessels of
which the fnunework ia first set np, and the plonking of
the hull nailed on to them Eubseqnently. All these in
their primitive fOTma have survived, in varions parts of
the world, with different modifications marking progress
la civilizafion. Climatic inflaencee and racial peculiaritiea
have imparted to them their specific chaiactwiatics, and,
cxnnbined with the available choice of materials, have
detennmed the particular type in nse in each locality.
Thus on ths north-west coast of Ansb«lia is found the
single 1<^ of buc^ont wood, not hollowed out but pointed
at the ends. Bafts of reeds are also found on the
Ansttalian coast. In New Gninea catamarans of three
or more logs Uabed tc^ther with rattan are the oom-
moneat veaael, and similar forma appear on the Madias
coaat and thruughout the Aaiatio iilauds. On the coast
of I'eni rafts tnade of a very booyout wood are in nae,
some of them aa moch aa 70 feet long and 30 feet broad ;
these are na-vigated with a sail, and, by an ingenioiu
system of oentre boarda, let down either fore or aft
betvreen the lines of the timbers, can be made 'to tacJc
The seagoing raft is often fitted with a platform so as to
protect ^ gooda and peraona oarried from the wash of
the aea. Upri^t timhere 6xed tipoa tha logs lonnisf
the raft anpport a kind of deck, which in tarn ia itael
fenced in and covered over.' Thns the idea of a deck, aarf
(bat of aide planking to lUae the fr«tg^ tOoof^ the level ol
the water and to lave it from getting wet, are among tic
earliest typical expedtenls nbich have fonnd their devdcp-
ment in the progress of the -art of ahipbnilding.
Whether the obeervatbu of aholla floating on the water,
or of ^lit reeds, or, aa some have fancied, the nanliki,
first suggested the idea of bellowing oat the tmnk el a
tree, the practice ascends to a very remote aadqai^ is
the history of man. I>ug-oat eanoea of a single tree ban
been foond aseociated with oliijectB of the Stone Ap
among theanaentSwisBbkedweUiDffi; niii siiiin i ■
of the same dasa wanting &oa tiie bogs trf Ircdand aW
the eatnariea of EnglaBd and Scotland, aoma oblainad
from the d^ith of 20 feat below the sntfaca oF the sea
IThe hollowed trunk itaelf may have ntggeated the tne lA
the bark aa a means ti flotation. Boi, whatever niy
have been the tnigin of the bark canoe, ila etunbTKtioa
is a step onwards in tiie art of shipbnihling. Fw ths
U^ituess Mid pliability of the material nnrrwailatiil the
invention (tf some internal framework, so aa to keni the
sides apart, ood to give the stiffhew Teqniied both for
porpossa lA propolaiou and the eairying of ita fwrigfct
Sinnlaily, in countiries where snitajde timber waa sot to
be found, tite nse of skins or otiter water-ti^i nateiil,
snch as feft or canvu covered with pitch, living flota-
tion, demanded also a fromewiKk to keep them distendMi
and to bear the weight they had to carry. Id tiw fiaae-
work we have the rudimmitary ship> with Inngitniii—I
bottom timbers, and rih^ and croes-pteces, imtMrting die
requisite stiffness to the oovering materiaL OiA. eaneei
are found in.Ansti«lia, bnt the American ctwtiiieat is tUi
trae home. In north^ ragions skin or woven ntatanl
made water-tight snfmliea the place of boik.
The next step in ue conssroctioD of Tonwds 'was ths
building np of oaooea or boats hj fastening pieoea of wood
together in a mutable Eorm. Scona ti. theae canoes, and
piobaUy the eariieot In i^p& are tied «t stitched together
with thongs or emds. ^e ibdias soif boata are peAaf*
the most familiar eninple <rf this ^p^ which, hoiraver, is
found in the Sbaito c^Uigellan and in Central A&ies
(on the Victoria NyanrnVintbeHaln-Aidiipelagoaiidii
many islands of ttml^wado. Some of these eanoea diow a
great advonoe in the ait of coostnction, being built q*
of [ueces fitted togetbar with ridges on their inner side^
through which Aa fisttrinrt aie paased.* These canon
have the advantage of ebirtkity, whidi ^vea them ease is
a seaw^, and a eompamtive immnnity wher« oidinaiy
beats would not hold togetiier. In these caaea the body
of the canoe ia oonabructed firet and built tc the ahape
intended, the ribs being inserted afterwards, and atfactwi
to the aides, and having for tikeir main fnnctioQ the
oniting of the deck and oro^tfiecea with the body tA dn
canoe. YeaeetsthuBBtitcl>edtogether,amiwithaainaerted
framework, have from a very early time been Ganstnicted
in the Eastern seas far exceeding in aiae anything that
would be ciJled a oano«^ end in some casea attaining to
200 tons burthen.
Fit»n the stitched form the next step (mwards is to
fasten the materials out of which the holl is boilt qi
by pegs or treenails; and of this system early types
appear among the Polynesian islands and in theNDe boats
" ' by Herodotus (ii. 96), the prototype <A thi
nnggnr." Tax imft of UlyMea deambad by
1 The nft s( UIjism dMorilMd In Houhi (Oi., v.] nut lure bea
otlhlielwa.
■ Bee Oipt. Oook'i seonnt of tia Fitendlr Ldiiidi, U M™ (a
brts UaBd, ead mUsns on the FIJI bISDdi.
SHIP
Homer pnnnto the ume detail or eanitnieiioci. It ia
remark&bU tlftt some of tha early types of boat* belong-
iog to the North Sea present an intermediate method, in
which the plaoks are fastsned together with pins or trBiiaiU,
bnt are attached to the ribe bj corda pMfing throagb
bolea ia the ribs and comeponding bole* bored throngb
ledge* ent on the inner aide of each pluik.
We thai arrive, in tr&cing primitive eflorta ia the art of
■hip contraction, at a stage from which the truisition to
the pnctdce of eetting np the framework of riba fastened
to a Umber keel laid lengthwise, and subeeqaentlj attach-
ing the planking of the hnll, waa comparBtiTeljt elmple.
The keel of the modern veosel may be said to hare its
prototype in the tingle log which ns the patent of the
dog-oat. The side piaaking of the vessel, which has an
earlier parentage than the fibs, may be traced to the
attempt to fence in the platforms npon the sea-going rafts,
and to the planka fastened on to the eidea of dug-out
canoes so as to give them a raised gunwale.' The ri^ of
the modern venel ore the development of the framework
originally inserted after the completion of the hnll of the
canoe or bniit-np boat, bat with the difierence that they
are now prior in the order of fabrication. In a word, the
skeleton of the hntl is now fint built up, and the skin,
&0., a4)mted to it ; whereas in the earlier types of wooden
Teasels the outside hull .waa first constracted, and the
ribs, iK.i added afterwarda. It is. noticeable that the
inveotion of tlie outrigger and weather platform, the use
of which is at the present time distributed from the
Andaman Islands eastward throughout the whole of the
Sooth Fadfle, has never made its way into the Western
Mas. It is strange that Egyptian enterprise, which
seems at a very early period to have penetrated eastward
down the Bed Bea and ronnd the ccasts of Arabia towards
India, should not hare brought it to the Nile, and that
the Phtenicians, who, if the legend of their migration from
the shores oE the Persian Qulf to the coast of Canaan
be accepted, would in all probability, in their maritime
expeditions, have had opportunities of seeing it, did not
introdnce it to the Uediterranean. That they did not
do so, if they saw it at all, would tend to prove that even
in that remote antiquity both nations possessed the art
of constructing vessels of a type superior to the out-
rigger canoee, both in speed and in carrying power.
The earliest representatioiu that we have Be yet of
Egyptian vessels carry us back, according to the best
authorities, to a period little short of 8000 years before
Christ. Some of these are of considerable size, as is
shown by the number of rowers, and by the cargo consist-
ing in many cases of cattle. The earliest of all presents
us with the peanliar mast of two pieces, stepped apart bnt
jpined at the top. In some the masts are diown lowered
and laid along a high spar-deck. The larger vessels show
on one side as many as twenty-one or twenty-two and
in One cose tweuty-iiz oars, besides four or five steering.
They show considerable camber, the two ends rising in a
curved line which in some instances ends in a point, and in
others is curved back and over at tha stem and terminate
in an ornamentation, very frequently of the familiar lotus
pattern. At the bow the stem is sometimes seen to rise.
perpendicularly, forming a kind of forecastle, sometimes
to carve backward and then forward again like a neck,
which is often finished into a figure-head representing
some bird or beast or Egyptian god. On the war galleys
there is frequently shown a projecting bow with a metal
head attached, but well above the water. This, though
no doubt used as a ram, is not identical with the beak it
jfrar (fAm, which we shall meet with in Fhoanician and
■I g>ll>n ■dded to «•
Qreek galleys. It ia nton on a level with the proem-
boliou of the latter.
The impression as regards the build created by the
drawing of the larger galleye is that of a long and some-
what wall-sided vessel with the stem and stem highly
raised. The tendencies of the vessel to "bog," or rise
amidships, owini; to the great weight fore and aft unsup-
ported by the water, is corrected by a strong truss passing
from stem to stern over crutcbea. The double mast (^
the earlier period seems in time to have given place to
the single mast furnished with ban or rollers at the
upper part, for the purpose apparently of raising or lower-
ing the yard according to the amount of sail required.
The sail in some of the galleys is shown with a bottom as
well aa a top yard. In the war galleys during action it ia
shown rolled np like a curtain with loops to the upper
yard. The steering was effected by paddles, sometimes
four or five in number, but genei&Uy one or two fastened
either at the end of the etern or at the sidt^ and above
attached to an upright post in snch a way as to allow the
paddle to be vrorked by a tiller.
There are many remarkable details to be observed in
the Egyptian vessels figured in Dnemichen's FUel of an
Egyptian Quern, and in Lepsius's DaiXnuiUr. The Egyptian
ship, as represented from time to time in the period be-
tween 3000 and 1000 B.C., presents to us a ship proper
as distinct from a large canoe or boat. It is the earUeat
ship of which we have cognizance. But there is a notice-
able fact in Gonoezion with Egypt which we gather from
the tomb paintings to which we owe our knowledge of
the Egyptian ship. It is evident from these records that
there were at that same early period, inhabiting the
littoral of the Mediterranean, nations who were possessed
of sea-going vessels which visited the' coasts of Egypt
for plunder as well as for commerce, and that sea-fights
were even then not uncommon. Occasionally the com-
bination of these peoples for the purpose of attsick assumed
serious proportions, and we find the Pharaohs recording
naval victories over combined Dardaniane, Teucrians, and
Hysians, and, if we accept the explanations of Egypto-
logists, over Pelasgians, Bannians, Oscaos, and Sicilians.
The Qreeke, as they became familiar with the sea, followed
in the same track. The legend of Helen in Egypt, as
well as the' numerous references in the Odyuey, point
not only to the attraction that Egypt had for the mari-
time peoples, but also to long-established habits of navi-
gation and the posaession of an art of shipbuilding
equal to the construction of sea-going craft capable of
carrying a large number of men and a considerable cargo
besides.
Bat the development of the ship and of the art of
navigation clearly belooge to the Fbmuiciana.. It ia
tantcdizing to find dtat the earliest and almost the only
evidence that we have of this development is to be
gathered from Assyrian repreeentations. The Aesyrians
were an inland people, and the navigation with which
they vfere familiar waa that of the two groat rivets, Tigria
and Euphrates. After the conqnsst of Fhosnicia, they
had knowledge of Phcenician naval enterprise, and
accordingly we find the war galley of the Fhcenicians
represented on the walls of tbe palaces unearthed by
Lsyard and his followers in Assyrian discovery. Bnt the
date does not carry us to an earlier period than 900-SOO
ao. TliB vessel represented ia a bireme war galley which
is "aphract," that is to say, has the upper tier of rowers
nnprotected and exposed to view. The apertures for the
lower OBIS are of the same chataeter aa those which appear
in Egyptian ships of a much earlier date, but without
oars. The artist has shown the characteristic details,
though Domewbat conveotioudly. The flsb-lika numt ol
806
SHIP
tiM hfk, tha line of tbft pHodiui or aiit«d« gangway, tbe
wickerwork cancelli,' tbe abielda ranged in ordar along the
■ddo of the bnlwark, end the heads of a tjpical crew on
deck (tha rpaptit looking out in front in the foiecaatle, an
ln^(£n}t, two chiefs bj the maat, and, aft, the KiXnar^
and rvfitpvrfr^i). The impiKirtiDg timbers of the deck
MB jniit iodicated. Tbs mast and jard and fore and
back staj'i, with the doable steering paddle, complete the
picture.
But, although there can be little doabt that the
HicBnicianu, after the Egyptians, led the way in the
development of the ohipwright'e art, yet the informa-
tion that we can gather conoaming tham is so meagte
that we must go to other lonrcas for the deseriptioD of
tbe ancient ship. The Fhcenicians at an early date eon-
ktruoted merchant vesaeU capable of carrying large ear-
goet, and of ttaTUiing the iength and breadth of the
Mediterranean, perhaps even of trading to the far Cbmu-
leride* and <j eircnmnavigating Africa. They in oU
probability (if not the Egyptians) invented the bireme
and trireme, solving the problem by which increased oar-
power and conxeqneatly epeed oonld be obtained without
any great increase in the length of the veaaeL
It is, however, to the Oreeka that we must turn for any
detailed account of these inventiona. Tha Homeric veeaeU
were aphntot and not even decked throughout their entire
length. Th^ carried crews averaging frinn fifty to a
hundred and twenty men, who, we are expreasly told by
Thucydidee, all took part in the labour of ;vwing, szcept
peihi^M the ehiefa The galleys do not appear to have
been armed as yet with the be«X thongh later poeta attri-
bute titis feature to the Homeiie veeseL But they had
great polei uted in fighting, and the term employed to
deecribe these (vnv/uiya) ippliei a knowledge of naval
warfare.. The geoatal chatacteristies are indicated by tha
epithets in ose throughoat the Jiiad and tha Odyttep.
Tbe Homeric ship is sharp (fti^) and swift (^lu); it is
hoIlow(inH>.^,yXa^yp^,^Hyainfn;t), black, vermilion-cheeked
(juiTowdpgm), dork-prowed {mararpifpot), curved (Koptirh,
Sfufn&joira), well- timbered (UavAfm), with many thwarts
(roAufvyst, Jiarofvjm). The stems and etems are high,
upraised, and resemble the honia tA oxen {tpBairputpia).
They prsaent a type parallel in tho history of the shipping
of Uie Mediterranean with that of tha vikings' vesi^ of
the North Bea.
On the vosei^ the earliest of which may date between
TOO and 600 h.0., we find the bireme with the bows finished
off into a beak shaped as the head of some sea monster,
and an elevated forecastle with a bulwark evidently as a
means of defence. The craft p(»trayed in some inatanoea
are evidantly pirate vessels, and exhibit a striking contrast
to the trader, the broad ship of burden (^prft tiptU),
which they are overhauling. The trirema, which was
develoiied from the bireme and became the Greek ship
of war [the long ahip, vmt /ia*p^ imvu l<nga, par aat-
leKct), dates, »o f or as Greek use is eoncemed, from aboat
700 B,a according to Thncydides, having bean first built
at Corinth by Aminocles. The earliest sea-fight that the
same anthor knew of he places at a eomewhat later date,
— 6S1 B.O., more than ton centnriea later than aome of
those portrayed in the Egyptian tomb painting.
The trireme was the war ship of Athena during her
prime, and, though succeeded and in a measnre superseded
by the larger rates, — quadrireme, qninqnereme^ and so on,
np to vessels of sixteen banks of oars (inliabilii pnpt
ntaiptitndiiM), — yet, as containing in itself the principle of
which the larger rates merely exhibited an expansion, a
diBarenoa in degree and not in kind, has, aver atnca tha
rsMval of letters, concentrated upon itself the attention of
' 8«« BawliiisCT, AaetHtf J/tnarOut, vol. U. p. 178.
the learned who were intemeted in neh mattcn. Tb
literature connected with the queation of ancient sbipa, if
coUected, wonld fill a small Ubrary, and the grast«r pan
of it turns upon the construction of the trirame and the
disposition of Uie rowan therein.
l>nring the preeant century much light hfta bean Qiiowm
upon the disputed pointa by tha discovery (1834) at the
I^naus of some records of the Athenian dockyard attpa-
intendants, which have been published and adinir^^
elucidated by Boeckh. Further reaeaichea otrried oat hj
his pupil Dr Oraaer, who united a practical knowledge
of ships and ahipbuilding with all the schotarahip and
industry and acumen necMsary for such a task, have
cleared up most of the difficnltiea which beeet tbe probloB,
and enable us to describe with tolerable certAinty the
details of construction and the diapoaition of the rowen in
the ancient ship of war.
Ona point it is nsoanry to insist on at ths ontaat, bBcsnaa apn
ft dfptad* the right nndsntaudlng ai th< problam ta b* aoIvnL
m^tbod •raploved in BwdiKvml g«21e j» is entirel j slisu to tha ananit
■jvtam. U. /st, Admiial Fincsti, Adminl Jnricn do la Gnviit^
ind s hat of otbu mtboritiei hsva all been led to utobwhu vina
bj neglect of the anduit texts whicb arerwhehninglj catsblish Ois
■■ in siiom of tbe tndsBt marine—" one osi one mm."
The dirtlnction between "sphrmrt" md "Ql»phr»rt" Teasds
mnit not be overlookad in a deecriptiDU of tbe nocient veaali.
The vordi, masning "nnrenoed' and "fanecd," refer to lb*
bnlwulu whieti oovsred the npner tier of rowen from attack. Is
tlie sphnct Teaeels these side [risoliiDgi were shseot and the nppiT
veiseli had Dpper and lower decki, bat tb* iphnet elaia cirriid
their decks on i lower lavel thsn tlia cataphisot. The ajwtcm af
side plaaklugwith a view to the protectian of the rower* dtts* tras
s very earlj period, as may be seen in aome of the Egyptian npn-
MDtitlinit, but among the Oreeka il i" • " *■ — "■ —
-'--itad tilt long after tha Homeric
ited with tbe introdnction of the i_,.. ._. ..
In deacribing tbe trireme it will be oonveuiant to deal Gnt witb
the disp«itiaD of the rowen and subieqaeDtty with tbe coa-
■tractioD of the v«e) Itiair. The object of inu^ng the oats is
In the uambai of D»ts without h — '■ —
We know from Titnirioa that tl
boTiiontallj meaeured from oar to
aiaotly borne oat by the proportionB of an Attie apbrmct trinffM,
as abevQ on a fragraeDt of^a bas-reliof fonnd In tbe Acropctia
Tbe n>wen in all clasaea of banked Tiaeels lat in tbe BUBS vertical
plane, tha MSta aacending in a line obliquely towards the stem at
the tokI. ThoB in a trireme tbe thnnlts, or oaianan o( tba
high«t bank, wa> neanat tha item of tba eet of three to wbid
he belonged. ITeit behind him aod somewhat belnw him «t his
ijgite, 01 osmaan of tha eecond bank; and next below sad
behind the syKita aat the thalamite, or oaramiui of tha loweat
bank. Tbe vertical dlitanca between tlieaa aeats was S fMt, tbs
horiiantal distanee aboat 1 foot. The horlnatal distance, it ■
well to rmeat, betwaaa aich aeat in the aama bank waa 3 fast
(the aeat itaelf about 9 inches bruad). £acb man had a reating
pUoe for bis feet, aomawhst wide apart, fiied to the bench of lbs
remain, waa held with tbe ralm tamed inwardi towaidi the body.
This is acooantad for by the angle at which the oar was worked.
The lowest rank Deed tbe aborteat can, and tbe difference of the
length of tho oen on board wai eaoiMi by ths corntnt* at tbs
ship's side. Tbns, looked at from witbio, tbe rowera amidabip
aeemad to be nifng the longeat oara, bnt ontiide tbe vawil, as «*
are aipreealy lolil, all the oar-blidea of tbg aune liaiik took the water
in tba earns longitudinal tina Tbe loweat or thalsmits oar-parts
wenSfeet, tbe lygitetj feet, the thtmiiits Street above tbe water.
Each oar-port waa protected by an OKoma or liathei baa, which fitted
over the oar, dosing the apartnra a^nst flia waah arthe aes wiih-
oat impeding tba action of the car. Tha oh waa tied by a thong
againat whidi it was prolably rowed, which itselT waa attubed te
a thowl (n^if^t). The port-hole wh probably oral in shape (tbe
^yptisn and Amrian pictnres show an oblong]. Vlt know tlut
it was larfis enoa^ for a msn'a head to be tbmit throDgb it
Tb« benches on which the rowers lat ran from Qm teael^
aide to timben which, inclined at an angle of aboat U* tovsids
tiie ship'e stsra, raschad from the lower to the nppac dect
timben were, seeotding to tirsser, cslled the dispbragmala.
" mtencatmiam, "
1 tlw veaad
SHIP
mtarn (Mr Mtta of nwrn, lAo ill bdongbd to tht mm
"•MBplexD*,' tluMt^ Mohto 4 dlffsnnt buk. In effsot, whsa
oDoa tlia prudpU of oaDMnutioD had bttn Mtibliihwl in thi
farnuM, tEa inorsBw to lirnr nUa wu (ITsoUd, la br M th«
matin fowtt vu cotuamad, bj lowthaoliiE tho diiphngDUtk
iqtwudi, wfaila tha iocnu* In tlia langtli of tba TtaaaL nva a
piatar nnmbar of ra*«i to aaoh baaik. Tha nppar dan oroan-
OKI aioaHlad in unmbar thaaa balow, ■■ tha oonCneCiaQ of tha
■idaa of tha tmmI l«tt 1«H iTulabla a^iaca lomnU tha bom.
or tha laagth of tha du> in tba trinn* wahiTa au iudlntion in
Hia tut that tha lauKth of iDpamani«n>7 oKii (vt^bay) rond from
*^ mj aboTB tha tbnnilaa, ud tharalina prabablj ilightlj
J tha thnuitiu oon iu length, i« gtran in tha Attia tibin
i4 fnt 1 inchn. Tha thnuila* vara probiblj about H fsaL
Tba ^0t^ in uroportEou to tha maaauiamanL mart bavr Imn 10^,
tha thalamita 7J faat long. Comparing modarn oan with theaa,
mind that tba longed oui uad in tha BKtIah Da>7 ara 18 faat
Tha nniranit; nca ia lowad iritti oan IS laat • inehM. The pra-
[KittiDn of the h»m inboard waa about ono thbd, bat tha aan of
t^a roTan amiilihip mart han baaa loniavhat longer inboard.
Tb* aiia of the loom inboard pnaarrod the uanaaar; aiiullibrinm.
Tba long oan of the larser ntaa wara waigbtad bboard with lead.
Thai tha topoiaat am of tha teaaetacontena, of which tha length
ma 5S hat, ware eiictl; baUnoed at tha towlock.
Let u now oonndDi tba conatraclion of tha TH*eI itoalt In
tba oataphnct olaaa tha lower deck waa 1 toot abora the watar-
lina. Balow tbia do<;k waa tba bold, which conUinad a oartain
amoont of ballaat, and throogb tn apertnn in tbia deck the
bnnkalii for baling vera worked, entalllDa a laboac whioh waa
eonatant ud taven on board an anoiant >hip at aea. The k«al
(r^ii) ajipaan to bare had oanalilanbla oambar. Under it waa
a atmng labs kael (xAwfia), Tar; naiMeaarr lor Taeaala that wera
oonataotlT drawn up on tha ahora. Abora the kaal wu the keiun
ifyitxmw), nnder which the riba wan faatenad. TbeM wen to
arranged aa to glra tha neceaaarf iotarrala for the oai-poiti aboie.
AboTO tha kalaoD lay the nppet blae ksel, into which the nuut
waa ataimd. Tha atam irrtaa) roaa ^n tha kaal at an angle of
■bant fr to the water. Within wu an apnm {fd/iMii), which
waa a atrong place of timbet ourTed and Htung to the and of tha
kael and banning of tha atam-poat aud flnnly boltad into both,
thna giving aolidity to the bowa, which had to bear the beak and
•oatam the ahock of rammiuR. Tha atcm waa carried npwuda
and onrred genaiallf backwartu towarda tha tonicaitle and rising
abora ifc and then oorring torwania again tarminitad in an
ornament which waa called tha icroatolion. The alcm-paat waa
oarriad np at a aimiiar ai^a to the bow, and, riniti^ high over tba
poop, waa curved nmnd Igto an omameot which nae called
"aploatn" (t^Aorrer}. But, Inaamuch ad tha atcaritig waa
alTccted by meaoa of two mdden (wifSibia), one on aitbnr aide,
than waa no need to earn- oat the atem into a rudder poat aa
with modem ahlpa, and the atam waa left thenfora niDch more
haa, an advantage in reapaot of tho mmianTring of tha ancient
Qreak man«r-war, the waapon bains the baak or naMm, and tha
pvwar «f tuning qniokl; being of tlw Ughart importanco.
Behind tha "aplnatra," and ourring baokwaida, waa the
"ahaniacna" Ixvi***'), or gooaa bead, annboliiing tha floatinB
power* of the naaaL AfloT the liba badbaen nt up and corwad
Inanbothiidaawithplaukli^^ the ^a* of tb laaKl wara f ortbar
■traDRthanad by waling-placa* carried fraia rtam to item and
meetlns in front of the *tern>p<ut. Tbaat wan fhrther atnogthanad
with additioDai balka of timber, tba loirat valing-i^aoaa meeting
hard metil (gauetallT
_ uetaUT
atmctuia of tha baak projected
poat Above It, bat projecting mnch laai beyoDd the atera-pDat,
wu the "[•oembolion" {wpeiiiBi^itr). or aaoood baak, in which
tha pnlongatlon of the upper let of waling-piec« met Thia waa
generally bahionad iuto the flgun of a ram'o head, alao covered
with matol ; and aometimea again between thia and the boak tha
second line of wiling-piece* met in enothar metal boaa called tha
wffiABt\li. These boa«a, when a vaiael waa remmod, oomploted
tho work of deatructiou begun by the abar^ beak at
leabarp bei
littoW
C<^
a latter beforr the weight of the
DlUUJJf{ TUHBL CDIUU DDJOa UpOD It, At thc polut Whon tho pFO-
longabon of the aeoond and thiid waling-piecca began to conTarga
inwatda towatda tha atam on aithar nde of the reeaal (toot ca^Mda
(Jnrrttii) pnqeotad, which ware of nee, not only at aappotti Ibr
""g anobon, iHit also aa a meana of inOloting dami^ on toe uppai
rt of an 10801/8 vaaael. while protectina the tide gangway! of
... own and tha banka of oan that worEad upder tbm. The
catheoda wan atrengthanad by atrong balka d thnbar, irtiioh wara
firmly bolted to thm nnder either extremity and both within and
without, and lan to the ahip'a aide. Above tha cnrvatnie of tha
_ ,_._ .L_ . -^ „ „^ y,, jj,^,^ ^ ^^^^
m npper part of theae the
ana (M#altfiafL BBawnbg to oiirhi. , „_ ,
toe oabtea for tha anchor*. On either aide tha ttireme, at aboat
the level of the thtanitio benches, iirojrclod a nngway (wd^at)
piaoe, and reatlug agaiuat ti . . ^ , .
waa of abont IS to 24 inche*, whitfh gaie a agiace, increued to
abont S feet by the inward earva of the proluogsdon of the rib* to
form Bupporta for the deck, for a MMge on either aide of the
vaaaeL Thia gangnay wa* phinked io oloug ita outer aide ao aa to
affoid protection to tho ecaman aud marinue, who could paaa along
ita whole length wilhont imjiading the rowers. Hare in action,
the aailora were pcatad a* li«ht-*rined ttoopa, and when needed
conU oae the long eapamumAai? oara [wtpln^) mantiDned abov*.
The riba, pnlongnl upwarda upon an inward curve, aiipported on
their upper auda the eroaa boania (rrftrnlvtt) which tied tha two
aidea of tha vatiriii together aud curiad the ileck. In tha catapbract
claaa thsae look tho placo of the thwarta Hijm) which in tha earliai
Taaaala, at a lower level, yoked together the Mm ot tha vewal.
and fonrtd alao benoheH for tha rowan to ait oo, ttoni which tha
lattar had their name {Cuy^Tai), having Iiaan the upjiarm
irome ; while tbsai
behind and below
ofiirmt or ffoAi^maii
mat npper tier waa
ch they were placed
them iu the hold ot tb<
(From dtu^iei). In the triroine Iho
nuned from the 'leTated bench (t^rei)
(«ru>Tai). Oa tha dock wore atatioo'
fighting man in heavy armour, few in ni
in ita palmy day*, but many in tba Roman <iuinquereme, when tha
tammui^ taotica ware aLUc^uatcd, and whenvar, aa in the gnat
battle* u the harbour at Syncuae, land taotica took the plaoa of
the Duritime ekill whicl' gave victory to the tarn in the open MB.
TVi apare occupied by the nwei* waa termed iymtrwow. Beyond
thia, fore and aft, ware the rtftltipitm, or parta outaiJa tha
nnran. Theae oocDpted 11 feet of the bowa aud 14 feat in tha
iteni. In tha fon lart iraa tha fore^wtle, with ita niaod deck, ou
which waa aUtiuned the *,»)»<• with bid men. In the stem U>e
deck* (fa^ie) roae in two or three gradation*, upon which via a
kind of dack-hooae for tha captain and a aeat for the iieenv
{mgiprlrTT,,), who ateeml by mcaua of topca attached to
tiled in the upiw \*tX of tlie [aiMle*. nliich, in tat<
leaat, ran over wliaar* (roaxiAla.), giving him tho power oi ciiaoging
hia veaael'i uourae witli great npiility. Behind the dcck-houaa
r«e the fiagstaff, on which waa hoialod tlie neunaut, and from
which probably ligniils were given in the caaa of an admiral'* ahip.
OueitfioraijBof the dock run a baluatnde (far -"" -'■"'■ —
iuiea at
carried up to
auemy'e dect
«7-«*M^), _ - .....
of all kinds. In Bor
\i aft tnm vhich dart* could
ion with rplt (ci/ieiHin, Tapep^a^un-a
Above aa* alrelcbed a atrong
agaiiut grappling
I sbonered on tha
wk ; the heavy com* or hoarding bridge awuug i
, ly ■ ch*in near the bowa ; and tha ponderous tiK^it hung
at the endi of tha yard* ready to fall on a naiel that came near
enough alon^a. But th<M wen later innndooa and for laigar
ahipa. Tba Attic trirama waa buUt light tor (peed and for ramming
pntpoaaai Her dlmeuaioD*, ao t*r *■ wa can gather tham from tho
Bcattared noticea of antiquity, wara probably approiimataly aa
IbUowa:— langthot rowing i|sce(|iii*irr»l B3 feet: bow* 11 feat;
•tern 14 teeti total 118 foat; add 10 feat for the baak. Tha
breadth at tba water-line la calculated at 14 feet, and above at tha
bcoadeat part 18 teat, eielualT* of tha gaigwap ; tha spue tMtween
the dlai^uiginata mentiouad above waa 7 feet. The deck waa 11
teat above the water-line and tha dranght about S to » feet AU
the Attlo tiiremea appear to have beau built upon the lama modal,
and their gear waa inlarcbangaaUe. Ibe Atbnlana had a paeuliar
■y*tam of gilding the ahipa with long cable* {fvaAifiava), each
' ' which, paaaing Hiioiwi aytholet In
trireme having two or more, which,
front of the atem-poat, Ian all rannd
ately nnder the walins-lHeco*. Tba
and tightened
aa they were ~
aotion, in."
ined up wlthleTan. Thaae cabliw, Igr ahrinking ai aoon
en wet. tightened tba whole Ihino ot the veaiel. and In
all probtbiLity, nliaved tha hall ttata part ot the thock
of raniming; the attain of whidi weald be aoatained by the waliu-
probabiLity, n
„. „ thaatnln ofw . . ,.
piece* oonvergent in the beaha. Than npe-gifdlei an not t( . .
confnaed T,'ith tha pcooe*i of ondngirding or fiappin;:, anch a* it
nattatedofthe veaaal ia whlob 8t Rul wu being carried to Italy,
n»* trireme appear* to have bad tblBtauata. The nuinmttt carried
equate tail*, probably two in DDmbtr. Tb* foreniaat ud the miien
earried lateen aaHa. Id action tha Oteakt did not na* tapti and
Itbateeoldbeloweredwuatowed balow. Tham '
everything tbi
and larger ati
(JtbaAttlo tritenaoo
in an. Of that* 174 war* rowtnt— H 08 tha lower bank
(thalamltaa), BS oa tb* middl-i bank (tygitaa], and fiS on tlw
nppar bank (thranltat), — tba nppar oan boiag mon numerona
becanaa of the oonliaetioa jif thtapao* iTailablenirtha lower tiara
u tba bow and tt
iiwtfiiim) and 30 M
re tha tiianreh and a«st
SHIP
pen wars ilao th» cuptoin of tba forecutla (t^di/i), Iha
begimiing with ths tbil
The improvBmeiit made in the build of theii veuels b]r
the CcH'mthuD and SjracuBan shipwiights, by which the
bowa vera to much strengtbened that the; were able to
meet the Athenian attack stem od (rpcw^SoXiJ), caoied
B, change of tactics, and gave on impettu to the buildiag
of larger Tessela — quodriremea and quinqaeremu — in which
increased oac-power was available for the propuloion of the
heavier ireighta.
In principle these vessels were only ezpanaioiu of the
trireme, bo tor u the dispoaition of the rowers was
^nceroed, bat the speed coiUd not have increased Inpro-
porttoa to the weight, and hence arose the variety of
contrivances which saperseded the ramming tactici of the
daji of Phormio. In the ceatary that ancceeded the
cloae of the Peloponnesian War the fashion of buQdlDg
big Tessela became prevalent. We hear of vorioos
nnmbers of bonks of oars up to sixteen (imuBtic^prfi)
—the big vessel of Demetrius Poliorcetes. The famous
tesseraconteres or forty-baaked vessel of Ftolemj Philo-
pator woa in reolit; nothing more than a costl]' and
ingenious toy, and never of any practical nstL The fact,
however, of its constroction shows the extent to which
the shipwright's art had been developed among the
The Romans, who developed their naval power during
the First Pnoic War, were deficient in naval conatmction
till they learnt the art from their enemies the Cartha-
ginians. They copied a qoinqQereme which had drifted
on to the coMt, and, with crews taught to row on frames
set up on dry laud, manned a fleet which we are told was
built in sixty days from the time the trees were cut down.
After the Punic War, in which the use of boarding t«ctica
gave the Bomans command of the sea, the larger rates
— quinqueremes, hexiremes, octiremea — continued in use
until at Actium the fate of the big vessels was sealed by
the victory of the light Libumian galleya The larger
classes, though still employed as guardships for soma time,
fell into disuse, and the art of bnitding them and the
knowledge of their interior arrangements were lost
Tail* if UtatvrtmmU, ix. , after Onuir.
\ I»<^
Lnigth, sieliisiT* of b«k.l (1) 149 It'
IBS ft
ml
5U
SID
S75
*»ft
7B .
I1,8W(?)
*,0M
r,6M
F»«8* bstwMn 1,;;^^ 1
Dmnjlit J 81°
Kiinib«rofrDw.ii 1 IN
MtdiitvatShipi. — It is not at present possible to trace in
its successive stages the transition from tlie ancient ship
of war to the mediseval galley. Ti» sailing vessels of the
time of the early Roman empire, such as that in which
Bt Paul suffered shipwreck or the great merchantman
■ described by Lucian, were the direct precursors, not only
of the medieval merchant vessels, but also of the large
toiling Yessels which, after the invention of gucpowder,
and the oonseqnent necessity of carrying marine artillery,
superseded the long low galleys propelled by oars. The
battle of Actium gave the death-blow to the ancient
type of vessel with its nuuiy banks of oars. Ilie light
Idbnnian galleyi which, thou^ folly deded, wn
aphnwt, and, acoording to Lucon's lestiinony (bk. iii.),
Ordlne ci>ntaDl« Enmiac cnvuM lilnma,
hod only tvro banks of oars, were Uremea. nia fgu-
ectly became the type of Roman war gallqis ; kad, thm^
the old name trireme survived, its meaning becsune aa;.;
" man of war," and did not any longer implj tiiree barb
of oars. Light vessels were in vogne, and ^Ileji wi;j
single banks of oon are common in die repreBcntatic:!
on coins and in such frescos as survive bat trireme aii.
qainquateme, &c., have vanished.
A cloud of obscurity reats on these, tli« dark »ig» ef
naval history. We know nothing of tha -»«»»—*■**> ud
composition of the fleet in which Bicimta' defeated tb
Tondals in the 0th century of our era. Nor bATs we a:j
details of the fleets of the_Byian1ine empire until tbe a£.
of the 9th century, when a light ia thiown i^ioii tii
subject by the Tactiea of the empertH' Lea Thia empens^
in giving his directions as to the constitution of his flac^
prescribes that dromones ifipofuim) — that is, trinmes--
are to be got ready in the dockyards with a view to \
naval engagement. The veesels are not to be too light at
too heavy. They are to be armed with oiphcKu for the
projection of Greek fire. They are to have two bonke of
oois, with twenty-five rowers a-piece, on each sido. Soax
of the vessds are to be large enough to carr; two hnndnd
men ; othan are to be smaller, tike those called galleys c:
one-banked vessela, swift and light (ttarrovt ^popuHrniw
eloKU yoAouK 4 iLorripm \rfOniram Taj[i»™t «ai iX^^fOK).
Here we have tha name galleys disticcttvely attached to
vessels with one bank of cars. This panag« should bare
saved much of the labour that has been thrown away id
attempting to prove that the distribution of iowm* in tht
medinvol galleya was upon the some principla a* tkt
observed in the ancient buiemes at triremea.
The light thrown by the philoeophie Byiaatiiie on tit
naval construction and equipment of his time ia bat s
passing flash. After the 9th century there ia darkwa
again until the 11th and ISth centuries, when the featcnc
of the mediteval galley first begin to be visible. And hen
perhaps it is not out of pUce to say that it is oeceMsij
to distdnguish betweea Uiose imaginary repr^oentatioia
of the antique in which painters, inch as ^Kntorvt, giti
fanciful arrangement to the oat» of their galloys, so as »
meet their ideas of bireme or triremi^ from those that are
historically faithful and figur^ perhaps in an ungaid;
snd inartistic manner, the galleys c& Veniaa and Genoa u
they appeared in the Middle Ages. It wotild exceed tli
space at our disposal here to enter into details which
can be gathered from Jal's Ar<Molog<M Ifamtlt simI tk
Glottain yatoiqut of the some author, <a the later wodi
of Admiral Jnrien ds hi Oravitoe and Admiral FlncalL
I It must suffice to indicate here a few of the main chsnc-
teristics in which tha mediHval galley differs from ttx
ancient, and exhibits the last development of man-powtr
OS applied to motion in vessels larger than the boats d
the preeent day.
Theae characteristics may be sketched bii«Ay. Upoo
the medieval galley, which was easentially a one-banked
galley (/iwwcponw), the use of the longer oar or swup
took ^la place of the small paddling oars of the ancieit
vessel The increased length of the oar teqniring for ib
efficiency greater power than one man coold employ led to
the use of mote than one man to an oar. The neceaatf
therefora aroae of placing the weight (or point at whid
the oar, used as a lever, woAed against tiie tiiowl, and u
pressed against the water, which is the fulcrum) at a
greater distonoe from the force or man iHio moved the
lever. This woa gained by the inveation of tlie t^xntit
S H I — S H I
Upon dM Iran at tht m«duBiml galbj wmi hid & fnune-
work vhkli etood oat on sithar aide from it, giving od
«itber lide », Etrong external timber, nuuiing parallel to
the axia of the reowl, in wiuch the thowLi were fixed
againit «Ueh the oars were rowed. It will be readilj
nnderatood bow tliia amagement gave a greater lengtli
inboard for the oar aa compared with that of the ancient
Toaaela, whore tiie Ukowl atood in the ipertnre of tlie
reasel'a side or port-hole. On the inner aide, rising inwards
towarda the ceotte Itoe of Uie decka and inclining apwarda,
were the banka or beochea for the rowen, arranged A la
aealaxio, who ooold each gnap the handle of the oar,
moring forward as the; deprened it for the feather, and
Iwckwird for the itroke as the; raiaad tlieir handa for the
immcgraioa of the blade. The aHoke im donU WM alowar
than that of the ancient galiaya, bnt much Biore powertol.
For the reat we muat refer to the works above mentioned,
where the reader will find minnte deacriptiona of tbe bnild
and the eqnipment of mediEBT&l vesaeU, anch aa thoM
which fought at Lepanto or carried the proad enaign of
the Qenoeae repnblie.
I«i EUpi>.I>nalEan, nw ^ ■• Xn^^H ^M* ;
rifi*/ jT— ' — " — ■■—
lUTiUrm
^J|!W^^|
am, Utah, Ttfarlmiti vim'rmttf at Pmal. 1. ftr lliidl>nl SUntu !—
. JlL JnMibrlinHbiiHrobH^AWbw; Jm^ It ^ Omiiirbm^
lir.Aw»llll» Jfar«M*<a— ,fiiili,lgaiiftM«tl,J«tHflt. (LWIJ
SHIPBUILDING
"'llflTlilN the mamoij of the ptaaent goneialioii ahip.
' VV btdldin^ like manj other arte, haa loet digni^ by
-the extended nie of machinery and l^ the anbdinaion of
labour. Fort]' yean ago it waa atill a " mystery " and a
" craft." !rhe well-inatnioted shipbuilder had a eton of
experience on which he based his aooceeafal practice.
He gained aoch advantagea in the form and trim and rig
of hia reaaela bj email improvemenli, anggeeted by hia
own obaervatiMi or by the tradilions of hia teachers, that
men endeavoured to imitate l^m, netther he nor t^her
knowing the natural lawa on which anceeaa depended. He
hod also B good eye for form, and knew how to put hia
materials togsthar ao aa to avoid all irregularity of sh^e
on the outer snrfaeea, and how to form the outlines and
bounding cnrvee of the ship ao that tWeye mi^t be oom-
peiled to rest lovingly upon them. Be was ikilled also in
the quolitiei of timber. He knewwhat was likely to^be
tree from "rends" and "ahakea" and "cups" which
would caoae leakage, and which would be liable to aplit
when the bidia and treenails were driven through it. He
koew what timber'would bear the heat of tropical auns
without nndne stirinkins, and how to improve ita qnalitieB
by seaKHung. He coold foretell where and nndsi what
cimunatances prematare-decay might be^expected, and he
could choose the material and a4inat the aniTOimdiugB ao
OS to prevent it. He knew what wood wsa beat able to
endnre robbing and tearing on bard gnxmd, and how it
onght to ba formed ao that the ahip mlKht have a chance
of getting off meurel; when ahe accidentally took the
ground or got on shore. Snch men were to be fonnd on
tii the aea^coaati of Eatope and on the ahoiM of the
AUantio in America.
A great change came over the art when steam was inbo-
dnced. Jhe old proportiana and forms ao w^ aoited for
the ipeeds-of the Jiipe and for the forces impreased npon
thenl were ill adapted for propolaion by the paddle^ and
Btili less so for propnlaion by tke screw. Experience had
to be slowly gained afreu, for the lamp of science
Snrned dimly. It needed to be fed by rraulta, hj long
records of anecesaea (od faihma, before it waa able to
direct advondng feeL The further change from wood
to iron and then to steel almost displaced toe shipwright
Shipa for commercial pnrpoeea may be aaid to be bnilt
DOW, ao far aa their external hulla are coDcemed, by
dtaCtsuen and boilennakera. The centres of the ship-
building industry have changed, ^te porta where oaka
(Italian, Engliah, and Dantdc), pines from America and
the north of Europe, teak from Moolmein, and elm from
Car da wore most acceaaible, — theoa marked the suitable
ploeos for shipbuilding. Tbe Thames 'was alive with the
iadnatry from Northfieat to the Pool It still lingers,
but it ia slowlj^ dyings ont. Travellen along the
Heditenaneaa ahot«a from Nice to Genoa mmA Um
completeneaa of the cbange which a few veon have Dtade.
The l^iie and the Clyde and the Mersey have become tbo
principal oantrce of the trade. It has been drawn there
because the iron and the cool ore near.
Bu^ while the art of shipbuilding has loet-dignity, the
science of naval constmctioo has increased in importance.
En^jsh art is of an eminantiy practical character. It ia
shy of experimentj as being coetly in ileelf and likely to
lead to delays and changea of aystem and of plant. It
loves large orders and rapid production. It piactiaea
great aubdivision of the detaila in order to cheapen pro-
doetion, and it stereotyp«a modes of work. ^Riere is no
lack of boldness and enterprise; but the patient) continsona
inqniry and the slow but sure building up of theray npon
research, — this is the exception. Naval eonabucoon in
England has had the good fortone dnring-the laat quarter
of a century to have sot only a thriving industry but a
home for research. Twenty-five years ago, when tne hi^-
pressnre condensing engine waa in ita infant^, when amp
building ateel waa not, Mid annoui'plated wips hod not
yet di^ilaced tha wooden line-of-b«ttle ship, this tiome
was fonnded, The Institution of Naval Arehiiects may be
fairly colled the home for reeearch, In naval, conatmction.
It owee its eetablishment moinlv to fourwell^^nown men —
Jolm Scott Bussell, Dr Joeeph WooUey, Ixird Hamptoi^
for many years its honoured president, and Bir E^woia
Baed, ita first secretory. It has published every year a
volume of Tntntactiont recording tbe experience of all the
ahipbuilden and marine engineers in England. These
Trantaeiioiu contain also valoable contiumtdona from
French, Italian, Qennon, and other eminent conetnctora
and engineers.
Bliortly aftoT tha ronndstkoi tt 1h* Inatitatiaii one of Its n^aai-
ban, Ur Wlllism Fronda,' Mt np an sipsiinistital eMabUihinaDt
■t Torqoay, nndei tlia nupina and witli tha aanatanca of tha
Admiralty. TW objict wsa to anbmit Ic cxporiiaant miiiiu
praportiDBi ssd tonni of ships la model in urdn to compare tha
rslitiTs nditausaa In tba laina model at vatjoiu iipasd^ and In
difffitut roTDM and pmportioiu at eqnsl tpeada. Tbtn wai asms
naaon to doubt the poanbility of iDferrinE from a model on a
Kale (rf * of an inch to ■ foot what wonld happen In a ahip o[
comsponding form and proportione. la order to eRabllib utia-
fictorUf the relitioni betvna tlia real and the model aUp a
•ariei at experlmente WM dcdrable upon a ml (hip in which tha
ij L. J v_ . J -*— it variona apeada
eiperimtnUl ™tificatIon. It may bi itated lalallowa,
u rarsQ by Mr Fronde In tlis volnma for IBTi of tha Trantattbiia
at tbt Inatitution of ITaTil Arehltacta :—
if a Aip bt DHmit tll4 " diinmi<m," at it filtrmtd, ifOtnedd,
andifaltJu mdt F,, T^ F, . " ' '^ '
at model an R,, Sf, S
810
SHIPBUILDING
N Mdisi. Ths pMUgB of tiM ■hip
mTM irhigb m d^adant for tluir
nu uid Ibrm of ti» (Up. Thaw oon-
J)>4 . . . To th> ipaad* of mod«I ud aUp thng nktsd it ii soDTai-
last toapplj ths tarm "rvmnKjDdiogspaedi." For aiaiaplB, sap
poaa two nmilir ibipa, the length, breulih, depth. &o..Drvhii)h wbts
doabla OS* of thn DtUel. Theo, if at i giTso ap«6d (lay 10 knoti)
tha ndateEoe of ttia muUar ahip van aaostiuiud, wa may teTar
thit at a apMd at-JlKlO-llli IlboU is tiie Lusmt ahip inn
would ba a twiituiH S timai ax gnat a* in ths iCDidlsr vMwL
Ttalaliw it in asoordaiica Irith tha old rala thit tha naiiUUM
nilaa aa tha ajnus oT the TaLooity, uid alwi u tha area of Uis
amftoe ■xnoaad' to naidanoo. It tahaa into tooonnt both tha
MdataBoa do* to mrfaoe frletioii (anljaot to lOiiH coinotiaD) and
Qu [omwtion of daadwatac addjsi. Tha paaaass of the "
ttaroot^ tha nla orarta* mn "-'- ~ ' -■— '-
ahtnstai npon tha ^Ot'OTtiaiu
■titnta Blao u alamaDt of r *
of hjdtodjiumb pnanira
■rhioii tha paa^ ot the ■_
dtonld ba piaoiaalj rinllti miau tha eriginMiiiE fi
uhI an tnrallfiu it aueda pnportioiMl to tba Hiun roota oT
thaft iMpoetiTa fimanOoni, faMuiu tba raniltliig Imttm wiU ba
Is that oaie as tha tqiun of tha ipaadai Tor amnpla, It tha
■orhaa ot tba natar minnmding a ih:p IfiO [aat lon^ tiaTelling
at 10 knot* an hour, vera mc^ellad togather with tha ahip, tea
uy mala, tha modal would aqually repnnant. on half that asale,
the watu aorlkM rairoiuidliig a ahip oF ateiiUr form 830 faat
loD^ tnrelllng at 1114 ImoCa au boor ; or agun, on IB timea
that acala, tha water lortaoe aairoaudliig a model of the ahip 10
bat kniib tFaTellisB at 3| hnota. Kipariment haa abnniUntly dod-
anntd thii proportion ai to tha aimiluity of vsvea oaoaed by
daUat finna tnTalling at ootnaponding apaedi. Tha iwiitance
oaoaad to thaw forma napaetiTaly by the deTalopnunt of tha
warn iftnld tharefon alao b« proportlonata to the imbaa of the
diiaandoTU of ths fbima and wootd follow tha law of compariaon
Btatad above. It la necessat;, bowsTer. to obMne that, in doaliug
vfth Borfacaa having ao great a diquiity lu laoffth and apced aa
thoaa ot a model and of a ahip, a Tsry tangihla oometjon ia
ueoeaaary in nj^rd to nit&oe fcictioD.
Tha vaaaal tried by Ur FrosUa for oonBrming tha law of Dom-
pariaon WUU.U.& "Orayhonnd," of llET toaa. Sha waa towed
hyH-lLa "AotlT«,"a(aorstana, bvm tha and of a boom IS fait
long, ao aato avoid InterfarenOaa of "waka." Itwaa fonnd to ba
poaaibla to low np to a apaad of nearly Is knota. The aotoal
uaoont of towing atndn for the "Qrayhonnd ' waa approTlutataly
aa followa;— at i knot^ 0-8 ton ; at ^ 1-1 tone; at 8, as touj
■t ID, 17 toui- audit 1^ S'O tona
Comparing the indicated horeo-poner of th» " Orejhonnd " whan
on her atsim trial* tad tha reaiiftinsa of tb* ahip aa datarmiuad
by tha dTiuunometar, it aNieara that, making allowauce For the
aUu ot the acnw, vhicb ii a legitimate aipanditura of power,
only alioni 15 per cent of the po«er eiarlad Yj tha itaam ia
naefuUyeuiuIgje-linnra^lling the ahip, and that the remainder ia
waated in bictioti of aoginad and aorBw an I ia th" dDtrinn^ntal
reaotion ot tha i>TD|«lIor ou the atnnm lluea of tba natar eloidng
in aroond the ■tem of lb* reaiel.
We may deeciibe in llr Fronda',' oim noida th> ayitam of ei-
pailinaat now regularly -urled ont for tha Admiralty, a ajatem
which hu baou ■ncoaanfiiltj copied In other conntriea and alao by i
lirtvato ahipfaoildiug Gnn, Uaaan Denny ot Dumbajton : —
"That ■jat'm ot a^AriFObUti InTolrea tha oonitraotioD of
nivlela of Tarioua foruui (they ar» ronlly tair-ilEo! boata of from
to to 3J faat in l-nqth), and tba 'wtlng by * djuamom'tar of tba
raaUtaiucea tbay «ii<atiaucad «hon running at lariotu aanignnl
anpiDpriat" nwoda Tha ayatam may be drfcribsd a* that of
detanolnlnc tlii' nal* of raurtnn'-F of a modal of any raven form,
anil from that th" radiance of a ihlp of any ^Tan lorm, radiar
tiai ar that of :«rohiBg for the beat form, and thi» mthod w«i
prefamit >a th* mora ff>neral, and bootnaa th> foitn which ia beat
■<l>ptnl to ail} givan eircnmrtanceH cornea oat incUontilly from a
cDDifu^iKinof tba larlooj raioltiL ^0 drifa euh modal throogh
the water at th» nmaiaiTa aiaignod appropriate epeeda by an
axtranvlj HoaitiT* dynamoniatrinil apparatiu. which (rivei na in
areri cnm. in acomato an'omatio reooiil of the niOifal't neistanoa,
a> well *• a raoord of the •|i*«'l. Wo thna obtain for nch modal
a agilw' of apcodi and th- oonwponding rwirtaiioaa ; aud. to render
thcai' r-mlt4 ■■ intalligiblr aa poadble. wa raprawnt tiiam graijiia-
ally iu each cai« h> * form which wa caU tha 'onrre of tba
raaLFtanra' lor thr partionlar laoiial. On ■ atiaiiibt baae Una
which re[)naauti apaod to letlr w-p mark off tba aeries of pointa
denotlup th- trrciml p|daJa auijiloTHl in lb- eiperimeDta. and at
aaah ot tha^ points wa plaot on ordinate wkioh rapraaeDt* to fcala
tha corTaapondinir raaiatnua-. Thtongh tha poinla a^ad by
theae ordinatrd wo -uaw a fair carred line, and thii trnrra con-
Btitutna what 1 haTe -vUed the onrT>- of raiiatauM. Thia onrra.
wbatcTCT bf Ita foatorea, (.x|>roaaei for tnc mon»l ot that partionlir
form what ia in fact abd apart from all theory the law ot ita
n-ablauDs In tmai of ita •pooa ; anil what wa have to do la If
poMlhls to Olid I latloual iutarfntatinn of tha law. Kow we oaD
at OHM oany tha luUtpiaUHoa » owwMmH* ^t ^^ "^
that tba modal baa ao maey aqnara ftat of ^in in ita »™t™
wa know by Independent Mqiarlmanta bow much ferca it ^'?"
diaw a aqnare foot of aneh akin throng the wmtw at ach Dfi-
Tldnal apsed. The law ia Tary neariy— and for praaant eonTtninn
wamayapaak aa if it wan axactlj— that akis laaiataDea aaatti
area aun^y, and aa tha aqnara at tha apeed. Now, we hin ■
TDanj equue feet ot immaned akin in flu modal, atii] thi tMl
akinn^tance la a certain known mnltiplB of tiia product of Qal
nnmber ot aqnaio fget and of tha aqnan tt tbe ipead Vet,
wbM w* Ut off oa ^ own of nutBoea a aoond mm vUd
npfewnta that aaaaotial and primair portiin of tha niialvn,
acn in find thia to ba tha nanlt : tbe cnm of Am ntmi
whan diawn la t6and to ba almort idautieal wi& lb* enrr* i
- ■ - - [ aneda i bat aa the ^aad falncnal
la foimd to aaoaud mora 01 k^aad h
.___.. da iafta imctia:
ptt^oaltion which the hishest malhesiaiiriiD
ham long been aware o^ and vhioh I haiolalelT aDiltamnd li
draw tbe public ittantlaD to, and to render popdariy intallip'Ui,
namely, that when a ahip ot tolerably fine lin« n moTm| u i
mDde>at« apeail tha whole renstanca cooaista of anrfaa fnctka
Tha old Idea that tha raaiatann of a ship aonaiBta caaeitiallj <t
.1. .._.. — ipioyjj in driTing the water ont trf her wij, uj
\,^^iBd h- ^' -^ -'■ — ' '
tiw onm of total
■om* CM** to •aoand verr Duoh abara tbe
The idaitl» of the ' ' *^- ' —
laitl»of I
antaUon ot
elr^M
oloaing ii np bi._ .
In eioaTiting i channel through the track of if
traTeneB,^-thia old idea baa oeaeed to be tenable ai
tion, tboiijihpNaiaJMa wa know that it waa an «
one. We now know that, at email apeeda, )iractictlly tL .».
reazatanoa oonaiato of aniface friction, and aomc deriTatiTa rffin
of (Uihoe flictioli, namely, the formation ot frjctional tiiim,
which ia dw to the tbiokneB of tha atem and of thaaMiM;
bnt tida oolktaial fom of ftictloual action ia iiuigniSiaBt la id
of tha >Mp in whioh it oiigiMlaDi
dapartnn f ran that HOMMT
ao abruptly abapad aa to oooatitnte a dapartnn fron
ftotiuaef linaawhidilliaTadMciibad; and we doiotatteniiti
take an naot aapanta Boooqot rf it. Thu wo ^rida Ihi bm
repraeaated by Iho onrre of niiataaca into two alMoen^-i
'AL, reaiabuca,' tba Other iriileh only comn into aifatww
"^ra
the mad ii incnand, and which we n
auce. And we hate aezt to nek Ibr
kw* <€ thia lattv elameot Ifow when Uia p
•loBg tb* nufaoa of the watar ii oanfillr atoiUBd. w* ouem iw
the nieoia] additimal olroaniatMiai whish Leoomea ap[«RDl u tli
ipead la inetemd la tha train of wayei which ahe pala ii bMIbj
and indeed tt haa long bean known tiut Hiia dnnmntan M
important bairings on tba growth of leaiatanca. It ii in ^
certain that tha oonatant formation of a grraa aallv involia U>
operation of a oonstant forre, and tha aipenditare of a iitaa
amount of power, depending on the magnitude d' Ihoae wina ua
tha apeed of tha model ; and, aa we thna natniallj eoudiabllit
the aioeae ot radatinca beyond tl" '— ■- '*■ '— """
oondata of the foroe amployad In w
call thatraaidnan naiatanoe '-wuk ^
" Perhapa I had better lay a few wonts note about Ibf oafBi
ud character of Ibeae wavea Ths inarUablj widening Icm <<
tbe ihip at her 'entnnoe* thnwi off on aaob aide a local oUiqw
waie otgnmttr or lea die aocordlna to the spaed and to tlie obW-
nea* ot the wedge, aud theee win* form IhanuelTeu hila i ffi" "
dlTarping orasta, anch aa wa are all buiilisr with. Iluae nm
hare peoiliar propertiia. They rtCaii th^ idaatlad liia wj
Tery gnat distance with bnt little raJnctiou in munitade. n*
in point is that they beconw at a " '^■-' *— "-
and after beoomiug taHj formed
the distant water and prodnoe w
iwi .jmiMiMuai. But, beaidea thoea dlTerglng wan^ tb« i> P*
dteei by Uie motion ot the model another notable KTtta '^Tf'T
whioh carry their create tranarerBely to her line at motlcn. I'f
wiTe*. when cantnlly obaemd, prare to biTa tha ftxn ahon >>
detail In % 1. In the figure there in drown the finn of • "M
whioh baa a lung paiaUal middle body aooonipeiiiail I? I" "T"
-' "--aa iransratse wa«a ai they appear at aome on* ja^
with the profile ot the seths defined agaluat the ifli <*
" cnlylahonldmentlonthatrortheeak»ofdiili«i*>«"
scale of tha w*Tee hu been made doable the hMiniai
they appeal nlstiTely to tbe modal ibint t«n ■>
leally are. The l«ofito ia drawn from enct u"
caraini meaannmenta of the aotnal wave festnn* u aemi V^
ItaBdeoftbe modeL It U mn that the waTe hla^/'™
ill orert Brat appears at tbe bow, and it zeauiiast* ^lin aoo >^
IS w* pnosed aternwaid. along the atiai^t aada if Sm <»'»^^
with snceeniTaly reanoed oiueuaious at saoh namiBiniiu ^w
rednotlon irises thus ; — in i»onorlion aa gaott indiriilnal '•",''"
le, itiontareudhaaspresdllMlfblti''i'''
on either aide, and, aa ttie total sM«l<>'
Muae, the loeal auetgy fa lias and im,>"
'-' " ■' o~
of thi
tbrniodcl
tbavertioal
scale, ao that
bigb IS they
ae nndMmbed wata
SHIl-BUILDING
bll
no mTC^mtt, ti Tfamd (ffdiut di* rid* of the tUp, ii oonrtuitl;
dimlnuliiiig. W« na ths vBVe-cnct li ilmnt at light atiglM to
tha aliij), bat tlis ontn and ia iKglitl j dall<ict«d itammrd trma ths
ri».L
vh«a k win ii altering nndlitathed witar In
pnwna la * little retarded, and it lia* to deflect itwlt into u
obhqna podUon, so that iu obliqns progma ahall uuble it aoctlj
to keep pace vith the ehip. The wnole vaTe-makiDg leaiataiKa u
the rtiWuce aipcDded in genentdng firit ths dJTergiig bow nna,
which, aa WB hate seen, cease to act oa the aliip wlira ouoe th^
hare rolled clear o! the bow ; lenndlj, these tnJureng wares, the
cissta of which rsmain Id oonUut with ths ihip'sdJe; and third]*,
the tenninal ware, which appeara indapendantlT at the Btarn at the
■hip. Thii latter ware aruee fnm causes ainular to those vhicb
create the bow ware, osmslj, the presmra of the atnanu whish,
fonsd into diTsrgeccs thea, here eourerge nndsr ths nm ot the
vesael, and n-eatabliah an excsas of preBsare at thsir niseting.
lis term ' ware-makiUR teiistance' rejireeents, then, tlie eioest ot
roaiatancfl beyond that due to soifacs friction, and mat excess we
kjiow to be chiefly due to tbii fomtation ot wares I7 the ship."
Piusuing these eiperimonls it wis fbiind that — " — ' "
jhip, whsn tl . ._ „ _
wira-maldDC foatnm, tomaka luvswaTssandtoiwnrooTTaawiid-
ing waTa-making resistaiwc. Bat it dose not take aooonnt u tht
poaaibility of ths warea mida by one fsatore at ths form ao didog
thsmaalrea with refennoe to other featnrea as, by the diflereaeea
ot uiissuie (aaentisl to their eiiatence, either to cause an additional
nutaaoe, er on the other hud to canse a forward (arcs vhioh
partly Doanterbalascea tbs nsiitancs originally due to thsic
ersaoon. The way in which this may occur we bar* nea
■trikingly azhibited in tbe reaolta ot the experiments I bava been
deaoiiblng. We see that In th« Tin loBf parsUal-dded fbnn tin
atemmoat of the train of warsa Isft I7 the bow baa beoMse la
amall that its effect on the itam la almost inasniiUs ; sod hers
w* find, cooBsqaantly, ths niiitad reajatanas dne simply to flie
gansntion el a aepaiato wiTa-ayitem by aicb end of the ship. Aa
. „ anulUa e^i^
and aooording aa it ia tHoo^t Into conjinction with a crast at
hollow, ths total wiTe-maldng nriatues baeoming least at all
(except xt the lerj highest apeed) wlien the middle-body ia rodncod
' I nothing. "
Tbe TuiatioBB in ra^nary rsaiatanca doe to thaaa transreraa
vre-fonnatioDa are nriations of qnasi-bjdnistatic uiuusute against
Iw aftar-body, coiTaipanding with the changea in ib poaitlon wiOi
iferanoe to ttie pbass ot tbe ttain of mris, there being a com-
paratire eiceas ot pnasars {caoaing a forward fbna or diminatlon
ot reeislsBce) when til* aHai-boiQi ia c[^«dta a craat, and ths
Tererse whan it la opposlts a troo^
It may bo proper to lutrodDce hen aome remarki aato theatr —
economleilly,-
I neccaaarr in a ahip daaigned to
ciUr,— a bet vUeh Hi Scott Bn_
moch to establish, — bnt that there wia also a conaideraUe
vUeh Hi £oH BobsU did
oonaideraUe inenaas
position ot the aftsp-
in wara-maUng rniatance dependent npon
body or ran ofthe ship with rel^rene* to tae nare-sjemo ten ny
tiia bow. Stating this snin in ill Fraude's woids :—
"The nans generatM by tbe ahip in paaeing throogh the
water originito in the local diSersnees of pressure canasd in the
siinoiuidiDg water by the Teasel paaeing thioogh it ; let oa aapposa,
then, that ths features of 1 pirtlenlar form are each that these
diflersncet of pretsara tend to produce a rariadon in the water
lerelihapadjait like a natural WITS, or like portions of s natonl
win ot a certain length.
" Now an ocean wsre of s certain length baa a certain spproprlats
apesd at 'wbloh only It uitonlly tiaTali, just aa 1 pendtuam of a
cettain length has a certain apprcpriiCe period of airing natnral to
it And, just as a email force nearring at iutervili comspoiiding
to the uatoral period of ewing of a pendulum will snstain a rary
large osdllation, so. vheu a ebi^ Is travelling at the epeed natntilly
appropriate to the wmrej which its features tend to form, tmi
stream line fbrcea will enstaln 1 very lirge ware. The reanlt of
thii phenonMnon la, that as a ship approaches thia speed the wares
become of suggsnted size, and run away with a propordonatsly
eiag^rated amount of power, ciueing corresponding rtaiatance.
This ia the cause of thit very diiproportioiiate Increiie of nslstanee
experienced with a small increise of apeed when once a certain
apted ia laachad.
"Ws thus sea that the speed st which the raidd growth ot
Tssistanca will commence ia a speed aoniawhat lesa than that
apnropriita to the length of the itira which the ahip tanda to ti
if._ .1. ,r ihoTenr'- -' '- "-- '-■-'— =- "-- -
How, ths greater I
I length of a w
leie^r* tlic gi
t the higher ii
a higher wfll _. _. _,
which the waremakiog reelitance begins to bosoms formidable.
We ma/ therebre accept it as an approiimata principle that tha
longer are tbe featurea of a ahip which tend to make waraa Uw
highsr will be ths speed ahs will be able to go before ah* begliiB to
experience great warMuikiiig mdatanca, ud the In* will be bar
wire-making reaistsucs at any giran apaad. This prbiidpla Ii tha
explanation ot the aztnm* importuici of baring at leaat a caitaiB
length of finm in a ship intended to attain a certain speed ; br
that the , _ , , „ _
eompaiisou with the Inuth of the ware which would aatanUj
trareL at tiia apeed intsnded for the ahip.
e Innatigatloas of Pn>£ Rankine, is a
" By a ' perfect fluid ' Is meant one the diaplaosmenti ot which
a gorerani aolely by tha lawa aipnaasd in the equation of fluid
otion, the psrtlelsi of which thsrefoie are witbont viacoaity, and
ilineariy along a perfectly sn
pahle of gha ^ , = . .
or past sach other withcat frictionil interference. By an imperfect
fluid -la meant one in which, as In water as well 11 tboaa with
which we are pnctleilly aeqnidnted, each Motional Intarfarence la
inerltable.
" Dealing flnt, then, with the lass of atesdr nKtlllnaar motfam
in a perfect inoompieaaible fluid. In finitely extended in all direction%
it is plain that the motion wiU create diHerences of presaurs, and
nndatgo aceele^loB in their laspaetiTe stream-line paths, and
theaa aoealentiona imriy ■ naislaiice axpaiienoed bf f>e »dy :
bnt' after the motion baa become cstabHabad the dlflkrences ot
praaaros sstisiy thsmaelrea hj keeiring np tha streim-Iin* eoo-
Sgiuntion 1 the energy which the particles tecelre from the body
irtiile they an being pushed salde by it along their itreem-llno
paUu is flnally redelirered by them to It as they collapse around
It, and coms to test after ite paesage. and the inlegnls of the +
and - preaiinres on the body sre eiactly equal it evetj moment
The manner In which this la efleclsd ia goremed by tbe general
laws of Hold motion, as aipreaaed by the well-known equations ;
and, nnce the** equations contain no term which imjilies a loea ot
■nergy, the anergy existing In the body, a* well la in the stream-
line nstsm, mnalna unaltered 1 eo that, if the motion is steady,
or withoat acceleratjon or retardation, the body paasM throogh
this theoretically perfect fluid absolutely without resistance. Hor
most it b* thought a pandox (for It is nnqnsstlaiiable) that sren
a plane morlng eteadily at right anglaa to itaelf through a perfect
flud would in tha manner daacribedeiperience no resiBtsnce. But
It tha fluid, instead ot being Infinite in all directione, be bonndsd
by ■ definite fras surface parallel to tho line of motion, inch aa a
water leral, Uia eiistonce of this anrlace cnts ofl' the reactions of
all thoas particles which would hare elUted beyond tbe anrfaco
had the fluid been nullmitsd alike in all directions, and which
would harapran back in the manner deacribed the energy impsrtsd
to them. Br On absence ot thcae rcscUons the atraam-lino
motions whtcli would bi<re existed in th* InEnite fluid ire modlfled,
and 0» difl'erenoea of pnanra Inrolrs comsponding local elsra-
tionaof thesutihpairfth* wr' --'- '^- -^-'-■•- -' "- ' — "-'-
And riiMe, bi cbnssqaence
wbwb oantrtda the soiface), a
lodiivanstlaaltlntot^
laws <i war* motioii,
b1oi^[ the enrfbca l^w
uitly dlachugea ilMdf
, . ith than tbs amount ti
ibodiad m thali prodoodoD. Tbia aoargy la, in laet^
part of the asgrwata ensrn which w- ' ^ -- "■ -=-'"
ot fluid whila they irera being pi
Inflnitelj extended fluid, would Ei
rodoodon. Tbia energy la, in taet^
fbich waa Imparted to the particles
IS poahsd iMt, and whlob. In ths
d Ears been wholly laatond to tha
lar Iti paange, bnt I* now, ia bot,
SHIPBUILDING
J th« fornulioa
„ 1, ud tha ( — .
It woold not do It the flnld war* lafialte ia all dlrectioaa.
"It li dmr, moieoTN, tint the netaa tlis movbg bod;
■ppnttchoa ths aarfkce tbs graattT u« the dittenDoaa of pnamn to
b« aatiaflal, tha arattvr wiU bs ths w«tm fonnod. Mid tho gr8»tflr
tha dlMlp4tioii (7 tneigv. Thus, for eiimple, i Rah will einri-
•noa an mcraaas of nalitijioe u iti pith liei aeneit to the sDince.
Uu tnin of wKTaa It cnates becomuig Uien i riaibla icoampani-
nMOt of f ta progiBK A fortioTi, wliea the body mota ^oog ths
waitaca h ■ ihip dona on watac, thoH differenca of pmnm whiah
vonld sxist doriiiff tha motloii If tha fluid wars mBoita ia all
direotioni aatisfjr ttiecuialTea in itill larger wirea, whkh, in fact,
m tlie wayoe which accompany the body in it* motion. The
warea whii^ thua viiiblr acoompaay m. vohI in froiuilii farm
a maAed phanomaaoa in rirer ataai
although In a perfaot Quid exteaded in
body, whsu once put !n motion, woold mora abaolntaly without
_._-^-_ .^ ^^ wlien the fluid ii bounded by a gnritattng enrfkca
T tlis line of matlou, the body will eiperienos leeiitaaoo
at waTee, uctwithatuidiDg that ths flnid ia ■
be inflnita in all dinatiiHu, bnt
ydeocribed underHO apprapi^te
a, and tbe moTing body will alM auffer a apecifio
in the Srat plaoe by ita haviiw to oTerooma ths Motion
iiooiity of thoaa partiolaa of tbo Suid with which it ia in
ooDtaet, and nsxtbecanas tils MctiDn of tha ■nmonding Mrttolaa
War ai daatroTi that oidarlj amnganiaut ot Oia atnam-Una con-
flgnntioa whkh allowi ot ths energy imparted to tha putialea
Mns tetnmed witliont Ion. It tbe enppoaed impatltet Boid i*
bouDded by a free inrfaoe, aa already daacribad, and tha body
otOToa at or near this enrfaca, it will experience reaiatancei depand-
Ing on fiold friction, almoat auAly in tha sun* niannar ai if ths
Biud wan inOuite hi all directiona. It will alio eiperisnea Tary
naarly the aame reaialancs In Tirtua of th* waTO-nulung action aa
In Uia perfect fliiid ; and we hers lea tlis two soumea of nuatanoa
•ilating indqieadantly of >aoh otltnr, and daa to totally diSarent
Impartant aa tba qoaatloD ia a* to tlis effect of form npon laatat-
anoe, that ot ita effect upon atabUltjr or itaadineaa at sea i* eran mote
10. Babrs tin u*a oriteim for the propuliion of ahips tta apead
which ooold ba attained in aeagoing ahipe by tail power waa largely
4 qnaatioiL of atabilitr or power to carry a large spread ot canvas
wttbont InBlinbg or "heeliDg " too Krsatly, SiuaU diOereace* in tha
(bna of tba tnuvstis lectioni of ths ship in the re^on of tlia load
watar-Iine and nndar water wars inSneDtiil in thia napect, and
naral oonstnictora occnpied thenualm oraatly with aucb qnaa-
tioii. Tha form ot the problem completely changea wban ths pra-
palUu powsr ia no longar an n[Mtting Ibroa. T\n impoitant
qneetiana in ateam ahips are tlie pnyortiona of length, ImaiUh, and
(lapth 1 tha form of "entrance and "ran" ; the oonitractioD of
pnpelling machinery within the ship ; and the proportiun^ form,
and nnnuiir of roTohtiaiu.of the propallar. But, while tbi* ia ao,
th* affect of tb* atabUity ot the ataainahip npon her bahaTioar at
aaa, aa a ^naation of rolling — "'-' '-- ' '
dependent _, ___ , ^_^ ,
aaulng power i* Tary impratant In Ttaaala amployad
lot oommene and for plasanra. The lataat and moat oomplate in-
Tiatigation of qneationa of atabUl tr ia fa> ha ExmdinSit Edward J.
Besd\ reoantly pnbliahad work, Af StatOOv^Slm. Tbare i* a
morepopnlare^oaltionofthesuliieotbyHrW. H. White, ditwtor
irf nanl oonltMstiini, in hla Momal Q^'iTimii JnMtdun (1877,
Id ed. laaa), at whkh ua haa beau made la the tallowii^ puaa.
A aUp floating traaly and at natin atill water diiplacea a Tolama
of watai auctly aqoal in w^dit to bar own waight lbs droun-
ataooaa ot the water in which ah* Boatn are in bet the aama
whethu th* cavity made in the water by the ahip ia fUltd by the
ahip aa ia Sg. 9, or by a Tolmne of water haring the aama wai^t
aa tha ahip (% S).
When the ahip oo-
capiaa tba —"-
"Umnrlng, remiina Terr peat
worer, ■ vary Urge nnmb<r of aaagojng lUp* atill
n miit tor theii pr^mUon, and the qnaatlon of
it In Ttaaala employed on at
eaatis of giaTlty,
'tB,L,
■ or eft
_ ,-a of giarity ot the ''diianlaoanant'* or af the
i water. Thia centre of graoty 1* naadlT known In
nUtioB totheahipaa the"lieotreot booyaney." The weight id
thia water may be anppoeed to bs oonosntiatsd at B, and to not
TartiaallT downwarda. Aa thia water woold ramain in ths cariw
at rsat, u> dowawanl piaaure moat be balanced by ectnal npvard
npward praaanre* nsat act in the i
a aingle prasanrs equal and oppoaits to tiie wed^t of tlic v
and aotii^ throngh ths "esntra ot buoyancy.'* Ia iig. S a il
aantad floaUsg freely and at iwt in etill ■ * "
wsif^t may ba anppoaad to act Tertieally downwanls tfaro^i 1
contra of gnritr G, and the buoyancy Tertieally npwanls tir7-jr
the centre of booyancy. The ascond condition wUch the ic
floeting hvaly and at reat in itill water will alvan aatiifj M *»
fore aaid to ba that her centie of giaTf? will lie in the «:
giaTi^
rartiCBl line with the centra of griTity of ths TolxHie of
lip rrata niidcr ths act^c
eliue joining the mtrs
which aha iliaplacs*. Bo loog aa
these opposing and balancad fore
and O ia vertical and repnaanta <
weight and bnoyancy. There are ot conrae boriiontal flaid |nv
BOrei acting npon her, bnt tlie» are balanced among thcnarfnt
Tba ship may be floating at rest, but nndar ooBstmin^ and zl
freely. Then may be the preseun ot wind on the ani^ ard:
strain of a rope holding her in a noaition of rest althoo^ t:t
cenCrea B and Q an no longer in the aama vertical Una. fig i
npteaentsBDch a i
The Tcaaal la at ™i, ^, / ,.
bat then ia some oi- »> / T
lemal fore* oparatins
other than that a
bnoyanoy ) and tbe
eqoal and i^poaite
tincaa of t^ weight
and bnojancj act in
different Tartieal liBai^
and no longar balanoa
eaoh other. They
moTe the ahip btun
th* poaltion ot oon-
aliainad raatinwbleh
ihe ie ahown. If W
npraaanta Aa total
weight of Uu aliip (in
•—Mi, and d tiie par-
and bnoyanoy (1b fart), than th* mentii
is tepnamtad (^ tbe prodnot of the tw
anred in toot-tona. It tlw conatraiut ii
nmOTod, Uh iub iumhj
freed tna all azianial torcea ear* those of tlie fluid te which it
Aoata, ah* wHI more under the opnation at tho " oonple ' towiiu
the npright pcaition until the consequent altantioB in the tern J
the oari^ of the diaplaoaoisnt briu^ the centre trf bsoTuey into (k
aame vertical with the centre of gntilyol theebin. What Im bna
illnaliatad l>y reference to tTanarerae inclination nl tlw diip a
anally trna weblinue or longitudinal inclinatiana Ifthepsaiia
tbe wal^t* in th* ahip ramaina nnaltaiwl nndar aanh chocarf
inclination the oentn of gtntity ramaina nnaltaied. In all eaUa
tlooa it baa to ba aaadmad that tbe oanba of graTity to a ind pis
in the ahip, and that movable weights will he ^ '~ ->^- --^^
'ad..
canKJ
I be oomotly awigned by eadonlatioa, amall di
sy movameota of man, Aa., not being large onoa^
IheatatlcalataUlityof aahip may ba d«flne3i
ihamakta whmJlioUned ataaOily In ei(smal h ^_
tha eonatiatat and latnni to the^oaitian in irtiicb abo Itoala Inrir,
at or near tba sptight. Thia effort, aa already ei^ainad, dcpoj
npon tba paaition of tha osntn of bmnrancy It, or the dirtaia
man tbs nttieal line throng Q which the altered Ibnn of tba
eavlty of the dia|ilaoeineut liaa caoaed tt to aaaonu. It may alvan
>. .1-.^ ...... . ^^. W (in ton*) mi
ia known at Iht
stability''' for ths jiartlenlar an^ of iDcliB>
.. — I. '" -hiob are a«nnoiL A link
1 maaaored I7 tha product cl the two qnanljtiei ^
(in feat) (ase fl^ 4 Thia nrodnct in foot-lona ii
moment of statical stability for ths nartlenlar at
. on and oorresponding position of B which ai
redeiion will ihow that when large anglea ot in
ths centre Boe
graviqp o^ths ship, but will, aa thi
tms vertical linn, and evuntuall^ jn
to teoodo from th* vertical through tbs centre <S
1...-. _j.i .. .t. ---iijmtion iucnaa**, apptaad
0 the clLor .id. of it.
- jtaticaJ nUblll'ty ia at ila uuiiiaum when tit
diatanoa d la grealaet. Tiie ancle which tha ahip haa readied
whan tha centre B haa mcbed Urn pmnt ia called the "aiglB of
maiimnm stability.' As ths centn B traTol* backwarda hm
thia peaition with tba increaaine ineUitatiou of ths riiip the dw-
tance d dssteaaai and Uie righting power of tbe ^ip dnnreaaw {lo-
portionatety. When B paaea tbe vertical line thiouf^ 0 Oi
moDiBot of atability ahaogia Ita chanctrr and become* aa ifatt-
ting tone, which will coutiutte to act until tha ahip T'lankiia a an
pCBtion of rest, nanally bottom npwanla. Tbe Bugle which the
ahip reacbaa beFon thii cbaDOe iakee plus, i.e., wbsn Hfaatata
theotheraideof tlie vertical Una throng O, ia called the 'a^
aUlollty'' and it iuJicataa tha akip'a "ni^ d
0"~
HIPBUILDING
■bblUtT." TIm nlunn roMj oeaa it rnj ■uuUl neUs It tka iht]
u cmnk uid bee ^&t uu loir in tba ntar. It hut sot uu
' louiptinm d«a not ocoor, on tlw oUuc band, until tba ihlp i
lying on bar beuu audi.
Ifa carrF u pIoR«d out itiawiug thM> pcatttou ud indiatliii
■1*0 how d Simt Increuc* and tlun dact«UM M tka ililp ii inoliiw
mors ladmonbtim flu D;nght, tba com i> known u tba cum 0
Bt&bilit}-. A"itiS
ahip " ia on* wbisHx
oppoaaa ^rsat naiit-
BQcs to uDlinatioD
from tba npridit
nhen nndfr nlTor
acted upon bf ai-
tsmal ibraaa. A
veryaaaaySiclinrf. na.I-CBrT.^1
the aea baing np- Ban ■Maoaalr
posed to be mnooth - - -
andatiU. A'ltsadj
ahip " ia ons wbleh wban aipoaad to tba action of nrai kaepa naari;
ntrnsht. Oraok abfpa an moallr tba ataadlcat ahip*. Chaogaa is
the balght at tba point d intaxMctlon U (fle 4) aboTa Iha eautn
ot gnvilT indicita oomapondiBg dkangaa in tha atiffiMM of a ihip.
SpeaUne genaiHllv, tba itiJ&ua of tba thif naj ba conaidand to
VBiy Titti tba bei^t of U abora a Tba Una BU doea not mt
GU in tba aama point at eonridranbla inclinatiana aa it doaa at «
ver7 amill inclination. Tba point nl intataaotjon at tba amallaat
CDDcainbla indinaUon lacaiTea a daAniti nama. It la knom aa
tha metaccntic, and tba diitanca OU ia in tbia condition callid tba
metacentric heigbL Saa UtdboMKCBaKKS.
The following table containa paitimlaia of tba mvtacanttle
heigbta of dtfferent Idnda of Taaaela of war, and tba oomaponding
lis St!
"— '"-
tXnlUaB>A
nyiM.
S-6
as
T-es
811
8-0
e-7S
a-7
107
American monitor (aballow diaft)
"Infleiible,- -ben railed in atlll 1
water in Soda Baj, (
GanerallT ipeaUng, decraaaa In metaoentrifl bei^t ia acooi-,
b; a langtbaninft of tba pttiod of an oaoUlatiai. The ahip awinga
man alowlj aa Uu loaa* atiSbeaa
Then ia no aanalUa dilbranca In the time oocnpiad by a ahip ...
> airing or toll ftoiD dda to aide, whether ihe rolla tbtonj^ onlf
tbiaa or Unz Jmaaa on altber aide ot tha nraigbt or twalra at
fifteen deneti. For latgac angla fiiera voold ba nnaU diflerenoaa.
Tha tablaa wUcb hare been given abow boum lamarkable
changaa is the atahUity oondltloni in ibipa of mr iritbin lacant
yean. Balling abipa van foimerW ntada with ao little dariatioD
from aiiating tjpaa Ibat it waa notbmndto be neoiaaan to aaaartain
their eiaet meaann of ataUlit} or to lay dnm ralaa for ngnlating
tt Thepodtlonottbeoantnor gnTi^namodifladl^taUaa^
and aa mnch aa nine or tan par aent. ef tba dlajdacamait waa
allomd bt difa HtaTj roUing and gnat oneadnaM of aUp ftam
•xoeealTa atability bad often to be endnnd. In othn aaaaa taank-
neaa or inabili^ to oanj mQ had to ba accapted. Than amuand
ahipa wars fint intntdnaad th^ bad about tba aaaa metacanbto
belgbtjB ftet) IB 1* to ba (onnd in tba •ariiet eailiDg frigataa.
Tha "Honnandie''ln tbaFrandhnanandtlM''Piinoa Conacaf
in tba Rngliih narr had tram B to T bmt, and they mn eiceiad-
ingly nnaaay and deep-ndUng abipa. It waa aooa dlacorared
that a Tedootian in metaecntiia height woald enie tbia aviL Tba
later ahipa in botb naTiea van accordingly deaigned to hate a
metwMntrto height el_BbDat 8 (eet The " UageaU " bidlj bat
and tha "HarcuJaa'' S fact Thia obann altared &a period
daring wblcb the abip made * donble oaciUBticn, i.t,, from atar-
boaid each to atarboahl, to 14 to IS
night be pot Into tba tioadi «
b«m Aey ateadlly roao and tall.
moat nmarkabie. Theae abipa with amall iu
~ M tba tioii^ M a aaa, and la the waraa. era
id(eU,bahllvinolining^eirmaBta. '.
*Ba alao valoabla, bat tban ii ahra]
obtained by each maana i waada baring
It raqnln eamfd imM<iing nnder aaU —
d loaC rOan ia another defeet in tl._
a tba ahip to iodine
loma mora danganoa
than they would b« In a atiK* ahip. Klga-keala and watar-
ehamban are bow employed ta the gngUeh nary, tontlwr with,
813
Into tba "InSaxible'' in order to
ootacontrio boifiht of 8 foot which
waa deatgaedh ginB to bcr. Thsy have proved Tory effiiotiYe,
bat tiure ia another ttttan in thia t«c1 wbiob baa tended to
pmant aiuaalneaa and heaTy rolUiig, The time ot an oa
Tha time of an caoiUatiiHi ftom ■
re T ii the abip'i pniod in isoondi for a ainglo roll, c
momrat of inertia ia inoreaaad by wiilnning tba ahip, imtdng
ry armour on bar aidea, and pkcing tlie tnrmta and goua
lon-imla tha aidta rf the abip. It waa aecn that tbeM fcaturaa
UiB "Inflerible," wbiob wen elamonta in her deiign, would
_ jnr bar and tend to oonntcTHit the great meCacentiio height
Tha erent haa abown that, whUo a metocentrio height ot 8 feet in
tb« ' ITonaaadie" gars 10 aeconda to II i«coDda period, 8 feat In
the ' Inflaiibla " only giia II aeconda aaaperiod, comapondlug
with a radlna of gyratioa of 28 feet. The feeling expneaRl that
■ ■ 'a order to proride ogainat tba impoaiible contingency at the
I of lUbili^ by complete waterlogging of the anda we h
' n intolerable abip'^ waa not jnitmed. Tha ahip ii now
had
made an intolerable ahip" waa not iiutified. Tha ahip ii now i
atUT that when the eodi are wsterloned the running in and oi .
of all her gone on one aide only inclinta her SJ dagreea, while in
the "Uimaicb'' when intact and light the tame operation inclinea
the ahip t d^iceo*.
The reaiatance offend hy the water to the rolling ot the ahip
oonaiBla of thrae parta :— ^1) that dn* to the rubbing of the wat<:r
aoinat tha botton ot the ahip u ahe rolla ; (2) that due to the
&i nrtacea which an carried throoEb the watar, lucb ae outaido
kaak and daadwood ; (S) the creation of Barea by tha rolling
ahip to replace thoae which more aivay from the ahip. The
cnatlon edfthaM anrfaoa waTea eipanda aneiw »^ chaclca tba
motion cf the ahip which mahea the creatlTe eitort
Mr White, giring briefly the reaulta of aome of the nperimiata
of lb Fronde made for the Adnuraltr, Bays :—
" Xipeiimaala bare been made In' llr ITronda to abow bow
middly tha nta of extinction may be kcraaaed by deepening bilge-
fcaela. A model ot the ' Deraatation ' waa need for thia
fcaela. A model ot the ' Daraatation ' waa need for tbia porpoaa,
and fitted with Ulga.kaalB, whiob, on the fUl-eiud ahipa, would
lepreaont tba nriona deptba ajran In the following tobW Th«
modal waa one thirty^iirth of the full aiia of the akip, and waa
'eigbted BO aa to float at tha proper watsr-line, to hi
ot graTity in the aame ralatiTe podtian aa that of the ahi^ and to
oadUite in a period proportional to tba period of the ahip. In
-•--'■ • otHd^reea, and waa' than
period proportional to tba period ol
amooth water it wh baelad to an anida ot H degree .
aet free, and allowed to ewnUate unfil it nma pruticaUy to net;
^ — ,
■Sff
51
H
1-77
It
1-a
l-M
!■»
Two SB-inch
A single 7S-incb „
Ltavaloe of then
__j jm into their component
I , ^ ^ , „ trictjonal and keel realataacDa at wall aa
to inilue diatuibance. In doin^ ao, he haa been led to the i
* ITot content with obtaining tba
for ahipa, Itr Fnude haa
puta, aaaigning valr— '-
[theamBgate
rparated them
njonal and kai
doaioB that aniftce diatorbance la hy far the moat important pait
of the reaiatance offered to rolling aa tha following figuna giTao
by him for a t>w abipa will abow : —
a>«a.
"— '|SM£ri
•KM
tartaaa
140
M
G,08B
1,0M
3,B44
700
S0,000
S1,B00
14,100
4,700
Inoonataat
Or^Wnd
" Ftielional and bilga-keal naietancoa in thia table have boon
obtained by calonlation bum tiie drawinn of the al|ip, Mr Fronda
making uQ ot data BB to ooeAcienta for fHctlon and for head
had pnrionaly obtained W indapandaut
_ih may tbarafon be legardad aa leading to
ly ttnatworthy reaolla. It will be notioHl that ii - -
• "-- felrf
aiparimenti, and which may tbarafon be n
ch may tba.
iTreauIla. ItwiUbeni.-. .
814
SHIPBUILDING
aiM'lbiii& of Hu total ndrtuat, whilo it li miuh Itn than ona-
bnitb io otluT OHM. Til* oonHaunoe ii Uwt (oHkoa diilurbuin
tnart ba •mditid irith Iha contribntion of Unn-fourthi oi than-
■bonta of th* total miatanea. a mult wbich eooM MaiMly have
been predicted. 'Wmi era cooitutlj balog created u the Teaaal
nll^ and aa oonatantlr -maTing an/, and tha DMcbanicml work
dona In thii viyifacta in a ledDOtioa ot tha ampUtsde of ioonaiTa
oadllatloiia laj low wavea, ao low aa to ba almoat imMioapt-
lbl& dtIbs to tb«ii peat langtli ID iiroportkn to tb^ bdabt,
woud asBM to aoeonnt otou for tbla laigo praportkinata a&ot.
For exunpla, Ur Prooda eetimate* tbat a wan J30 feat long and
oalr 11 Uicbea in boigbt mnld fnllT aooooiit br all tha work
aredlted to nufaoii diitnibanoa In tha lonrth caae of th* pracadiiiK
table.
"Awthu important dodoctlon from tlia figurea In tha taUa ia
I figurea In tha
bat a limit to the deptha that tan ba llttod ia oltan
bacaAaa of the nuiMltj for eamttimoBe witb oHiain dob-
(r within a ahip to qoall motion. — — t— j —
in tha " Infladbla " in a part of tba ihip lying abora tha bomb-
pmof deck, and at th* bnl of tha wataT'lin*. Ita na* [••iilt*d trtm
a dlaonaiiDa. whan tha ' InSaiiiila " waa deabnad, of tbo jnnbabl*
•Soot of water entarlng thia nglon of th* ahSi Anm^ ahot holeK
Tha natter hu ilnoa bean Uiorooghly «tabu*bad I7 eiparimant,
and afford* a new and ralnabla maana of pnranting haaTj loUiDg
in ihiiB haring Uxga initial atablU^. Tbaca ii now no IwaltBtini
in giring a mataoantrio hdofat of S bet, and obt^nlng aU Uia
aecu^tf aniut npeelting mdoh thii *nani*^ btcana* It ia felt
that the nolent ndUng tonnstlr Iwmnbk fnm MJAhb can b*
prerented. Th* invntigatlaD into tUa matter haa bean eondncted
hf Hr «iiUp Watta, ICr B. 1. Frond*, and Xr V. B. Smith,
aotlng fin th* Admiialtjr.
Tha aooampanflj^ Memotiodnni, {npartd hj the pnaent wrltvr
in IBH elT*i th* ganaial naalt* :—
' In inroaliciUng tbo 'p1i*noin*Da attndlna thg oae ot watsr u
• iMiui* of qn*Ui] tha motiaa of ahlpa, U r Franda haa not only
taken adrantage o< tha axperimanti made in the ' Edlnbuigh ' I7
running man acroa the dacki, hot ho haa abo itadied aimilar
phanomana (n a model water-^hunber, monntad, rot on a modal of
a ihlp, bat on a laiv* pandolnm wdghted to themjoind 'period,'
the nlitiTe lerel of the model i;luunb*r and the axli of rotation
being mad* to oorreapond approximately to acala with that In tha
ThtconoliLiioiii, itatedln the form of a eompariaou between the
qnelliu efTaeta of ulge-koela and of moriiut water, are *i follawa;
(l)Th*reli ■ ' - - ■ ■ ^
if mOTiDBWBt
ttarin Aecl
imon e&at 1 uii I* d*p«nd*nt upon the width oT t
ukdfha^riodaffluahlp. (S) VHh thia dnth ~
M at all do*
aul* incTBaMB with ineieaae ot departon
(3) At larger an^ea of roll the diwlTai
ptaeticallr
oertain angla^ which
m the pnpa depth.
LTantege of depaitor* bom
nearly eon*taDt for all angle*. (6) The b«*t
t th* oilgiiial ohamhei in the 'Edinburgh'
t Ibr th* ohamber enlaisad by rvmonl of mA
of angle of roll, hot ii
BOglea beooii
quantitT of -_-_. __
wia a tooi; the beat Ibr th* ohamber enlarged byremonl
wall* wa* TS'tma ; and tha beat fbr th* ohuiber extending to th*
■tdH of the ahip would b* 100 ton*. Hie flrat-namad altenaiaa
Improred th* naiatance at 10* by 31 per oant, and the ftuthar
MMndon Iff atnthti 3S per cant
"A* opmnarad with bil^kaela the mattor la atated aa foUowa 1—
vhfle S fe^ additioD to the breadth ol the bilge-keela adda in
nand nnmben two-third* to the eiiatiDg eitlngiiiahlng power of
hull and bilge-keela on tha ' Edlnbnrgh at all anglea of rolling,
tba fully extended watar-ohamber adda at S' of roll about Ox tlmaa,
and at G' abont tliraa time* tbat power ) at 11* the ohamber adda
no mar* than 3 f**t of biln-keal, while at 18' it only add* half aa
mnah. ' It la tbarafor* (Tldeilt tha^ whil* both are relnahle, the
water-diainber la for moat Unda of aandoa nni^ tha mora TalnaU*
■e ef the phanoman^ Ur Fiosd* aaj* i —
iii^iiii^aMiliii n itaillliM ir ' -• • — '- -■ — ■
«. ^a'ltae TUH « the m . __. _,
, ^-n«j. iSi Mnaee I
aciaaai ef aaal* o( nil, Id 00
IF to a eMain Mai, who* 1
■net eflbe water ofeoBiae iaitelfllMiadi d^enga Otttekiid.
• llae* nert nartr at >b* Hate ot (UnM Male •(■%, t'., taad^
met B that tba water a^ b* aa moeh aa poaAl* mstM 4inW
att^ la Buvtaiaaaaai, and aa aaeh a> luariUB^ea thaiMEi •>*■ '
IdhaaO. tita tbarafuneoDoalTaMe tEetfer tbaia8ialMal«0Bil
xUBeOeo, •aamiUata tha Umlni <il that bMIob. Ib tta MM 1
1 1 BHnaaMt aDadltla at Uiliun. tJ^ U tba iMni Wt« Kd}
. at ■ eoDalaDt BHia uT roll, Ihte vaate si (saifr ia Hk n t
rid* to aU* tawt In sustlir eoail la the eaaifr tit« MM ik
1 tMh awtiW br tba eillnett^^li* DstlBB el the HH lai k s.
dly b tf a tea tst waateM ef eseiB, the nM iIUh nriat
la a aaBL aM cimaailni tta ananF laiTiieaMni wllh iwat nta>
• tte ofvorite dda, BBltilaaaalBa luvwl^H at nUB(, a. c
taedtnteaaila*, rualaaaenae hi a taw^a«nn«tai>M
iilmaiilaiiiiia tin HiiiCi "f Ibi aiiitlraaiif nn laraiMihV in— '
Mailx to that iMu the maxbaiiB oKlHliea to tfca ila> «
a. Ballhe taottoncrthtwateaaematlBae takBaUMtem/ian
aUunallH alope at BBrtta*, a lUal *wU( taa idda la rida. aat km *ei
ta nifliHle waaW 0( eaarar. the eaen ol BaUoB 0> the l«r K nw k
oneiifaHldaB batac egomtod ima nCallal eaatff taiha ikqariiba
water at th* dda, and thaa ilnB onfeBiiB to th* vaite leelBt bvt H ai
elbar ddL *nd (0 OB. The waato K *BarD In Ihia tOnaidBHioiiW^
-uat <Sl tba lliBlv ti ahBoB aneUr uS -^ ' "~
watabalBt la tba nUdl* el Ua isia(*
IM extant waa Sboaawily 1
Tatular Statement 11/ SauUi tf tit Atatt S^iriitali.
Bt^SH.
FiJl*
bMBM
motioa by modela ai ihown below.
■a]
JLL
..,, MdillBeetluBBorthe-iriBMi-d«a|
wn DoaB at tba WBa w^^ and ^ laiA Bsde) mi H^M «
ItBBBhNU, Bwrked ^ aadtatt eadllated badr on <haaa RbbiMb
anetlr Um WH tlaa. The Budala ware plaued oaa bebtei lha<a«<i
SSO* paialMlBi ol tb* BMl* WM eildMil le th* aadtaw n^
ia ■(. I waa Brs*Ua« wilb a ftaa tab* bile -mVek m^ f^^Zu
water eoiUd ft pnt. An amanat ol water riaBiaaamt ^ ■'SJ!
waWH ot tba medal, («., uo lo« In a lD,«».{oa Ata, «b •o'j'ffZ
tbTteba, the £b3a wm Bteited from tt!i«M u9t at t^>tf**
Bsdel wJib tba loeee water, hMtaad ol kaaiAK up waatb ■A ** "^
ea reMBC aiera rlalaaUy, eame ahanat taalantaaeoaiB'e "*.^ j,jm
"T^labl *M MM wtth Tautiv qaaMMaa at water .aattbli*?*
alvan te alos tba Bwdal Bmdi BHaHT tbaa teBtoddwIib a* ■*•"£:
temoT*. Hh two modata ware alvajiBitaited bete the MtenrMt^
faaibatewBijitaelinlll'iMaaeet. Ite two aaidete Ided Ita^t;^
ThI aaBM lOEit lenltid tron tU teoVtei ef a aaMt nf*m
*a%hliMtoBa lea rids at 10,000 Wh Itia tema radaetea^^
aaaar laaialUaciUni we hB*ea bnaawalibl ola^r >M«M*"
SHIPBUILDING
816
*il^b*«itiri>anL UlfalindHllMUdiiBttakiBlHamlMU
dI OKlUiUg*, Ac, «d iHiHta* OB melntr tiM HDg «■% bat SH SiTlK
*Bd tka gChv wttk m v^UopDib ol
tenl^ te ^t Ui«— vitm lotwud in ■ mj to Mitia^ Mm. Th«
dlfiinnt um of tmiIi diMtuwd bofon tbt dgngn wic flnall;
•rttbdlaIthe"OiHt Eutern " nn u fallowa :—
Dyntmiiwl lUbililj !■ tba " woric " dons or mtig/ uMndod is
lioeliDg Out ihip rrom tl>« npri^t to uj iacUnod poattiaD. Tlu
unit of " voile ''anplo^sd in meunrinc dniuDical ilkbilitr ii a foot-
tffi
B b7 til* onrre of (ttbilitf liiadj dMcribad.
J ia M T»Ioo M ■ meuii of comcuiiu '■'^-
a <H Hida
Djuunioa] d
"Ronghlj i-c— .. p. - — J —
■taadiljudcoDtiiinontlyKpplleil, vill hael * diip ofoidinujlbim
to t, oert^n ui«1b will, if it itJilca hn laddoiilT wLn ib« 1*
oprl^t, drirs ha om to about twioe that incliuaoB, or in sonw
ouaa fnrthu ctilL A jwmllil cue ii tliat of > tfbil ipiiiis ; U' *
night b> mddsnlj liraDflit to bear upon it, tlu axtaiiou will b*
■bout twiot M giwt ■■ Uiat to wLiob tha mum mi^t hailing
■tndil; will Kntch th< ipiine. Tha axpIuuflOB li rimpla.
WhMi tlio vhol* waigbl: ii ■nddsnl^ brooi^t to b«T apon til*
■loiiif^ tba toiituuia wbliih tlw (pnng eta offer it Meh initnnt,
ap to th* tim* whta iti aitvuian rappliea ■ torot equal to tlu
ini^t, li alwaji I«a than tha wdght ; and thii anbiUiiced fotca
atona up work vMch curlei tiu reigfat onwaidi, and aboat
donblaa uia aitEmdon of th* tprin|[ eotrapaDding lo that wdf^t
Tlw ehaagea which bars oona aboat In matariala and modai of
coutnution vlthin tha laat 50 nan hare baan moat TamarhaUa.
Tha Ant alianur bnilt aipiidf foi rmlar Toyagaa batwaan
locopa and Anwrica wia not built until IWT. Di Lwdnar atatal
at aboat thla date : " We have ai an eitnme limit of a iteamai'e
pncticaUa lojtgt, withoDtiecaiTinganUraf ooali,atiuiafaboat
SOOO mjlea." The " Qraat WeatenT' bnilt bv Pattn
•nd eusfned hj Haadilaj of London ondai tM :
n Uw Mnaodisdan,
tofaaOOtooa. Shav
. jh amp, and
IS, 1887. Sb* «» ai3 foat long hatnan ^
ftot 4 inahea broad, and had a diiplacamant of .._
pnpalled by paddlaa. Iron Tanla van built mAj In the pnaant
oantoiy fbr canal aeTTlo^ than for rivet aarrioi^ aDdlattt tbrpa^et
mthaooait^ Inabont Ihayiar ISSSironTaNalacfiaall
}na mn bollt lor ocean lemeaL The latOMt Iroa Ttaael
buill Dp to ISII na IsH than IMftot lon^ la fSU wa gat <ht
tha Biit tinu tha ooeao-goiDg i '
. „ „ lip but* pamDi torn.
of inm, and prapalled t? the anew. Thii wai du "Qnat
Britain," SBt Aat Iodk projeeled and doignad h; BnmaL tHrnt
hta almndanllj jnatided theaa hold entanriaM on tiu part tt
B^a,i^yi•-•^ ..- .^.^ . ^ ^ .- .r. ^„ ., — ^ .
Hon. Ha
18M,*U,
MOooDif ot powai.
.._. boaanr throogh tnthtbeairfgnatowoal'
d witii eqnd boldnaaa on aoodier Inaoratloa in
■a ot tm lane dimenriona on the groond of
r. It wo not Ota IBtS that be bad the op
«..
Un^h.
B~am.
lIM^>pSW1«L
DwiflU.
1
«6S
7»-»
l,BtS
S4
as
*
87
i,OM
18
paddle, h
1,000; U
ES HTola
and S«ott Boaaall, ranudiu in adranoa ot preaent practice, although
■be hia lerTed aa a modal for tha bait a it. Her gnat aiia mid-
wad it poaaiUa to give to her an amount of aecurity agalnat fat *
l^Jarj to her holl which cannot be attained In imiller ahipa.
la a miataka to mi
large iu.n can re
Id ha fatal to a
■hlraan
inconranianci a wooud
whole cuirent at her hirtot]', and ohangnd al» the hiitoiir ot ihip-
building iCaalT.
The qneation oF bolkheadi, on which Bmoal indited to mniih In
thig aliip, !■ one wblch nnderilea all qneaUoui ot oonttractiioL If
tha nnmbar of bnlkhoida in ihipa ware Increaaed as thar onght to
ba, the nnmben and ain of the ribi or faamei of the uip wonld
be modiBad, and tba ifitem ot conatmctioa gencialljr woold b*
flhannd, and become man Uko that of tha ** Gnat Eaitam. ' Tka
qaeattoa li thorabn one which ioatiBea aoma further conajdeiatjoa,
•o that it atj he popolarlT nodantood.
Iron ihipa an oommonlj made with leaa than halt their hoik
oat ot water. If water enton inch a ahip, and the imonnt whioh
eaten doai not exceed in balk that poitiDn ot the bnlk of the ahIp
whioh li ont of the wata, and iiAial wiU, idm immtaed, acbuU
Ot uabr, then the ahlp. It eh* doea not tnm over, will itUl Hoat
U, howaTer, the Inflow cannot ha rtopjtd, bnt contlniiei, tha ihlp
Boonainka.
I^t tu luppoiG tha c*aa al a ekip GO feat long, 10 feet wide, and
10 feet deep, divided into Are equal paiti bj lonr watertight par-
tiUow^ and floating is water with halt Ita bnlh immened (fl^ 8).
middle of thfaaUp
— '- tha water, aa
ceaaM to hna Icatlae pawn. Tbt water in tbli akaded lilaca la no
longer dfaipUced, hot & jydmittad, and if tha ihip ii to omtlnue afloat
the other parta of the ihip mnit dtipUce wiMc lo the amonnt bjr
which tUiabaded part haaoeaaad to do ao. Aa it la Dna-UUi of tha
whole imnuned tralk which la loit, tha retnainiag fbnr eompart-
manta moat aiak, ao ta each to anpport oae-fiiartt ol the wlicdi^
initaad of aae-IUth, aa befon j *.<;, the dnodit of water, or Im-
nwniim of the whole ahlp, will UuMxaaaad, and Oa ahlp will. If
■he hai alaUUer «nol^ to hop apiight fiiallr float at rart igiin
■tthiadaaparuunaTAn. nievntcrwm rlaalnUu centra com-
partment to tb* laval of the water ontilda, and will tbenccMato
Bow In. IbM addilioaal immanton will ba onlf one and a aoarter
fMt, but 111 Ml mdbury Mf, divided into eomparlmenb of eqoal
lengdk, Qun woald ba • aeater faKnaae ot.lmainiioa by the infniy
ofacntnooupattnanOxoaxthe end oompartaimtaan aamw,
and moft dak deeper m order to boar th^ aban i^ the bnrdeii
ImpOMd hj ^ loM ^tb* boi^uicr ^ tlie centre dlvialea.
Or It mn be other than a oentral comnrtnant whii^ la
damaged, aiid in dut oaae the ahlp tipa, and flndi a b«w floating
Una, wla tba and towarda which the damaged diviiion Ilea
depieaaed mora than Aa otlwr end.
If It ahonld bappMi that the dirirional partitions or bolkheada
" ' - -nh a lew inchea above U* w— — ' — '
when undamaged, than, co t_.
lU the t<^ of the balk-
mid happen til
vaalHiba
nun UKK, HPl MM BUJI* WIU UB «!■«, CHBBT VJ (Be nUUg Ol OUWT
comaartBanla by Ue waUr waaing down into tbao, or bf the
oMBttdng (f tba tUp. Thi* latter enrnt win gmenllj happen,
■l&o^ cnlr «M MMpaitmat la ftan, if tha aa* kM fnl M(i£to
816' SHIPBUILDING
tba dMk IVom and la and of tlia ibip, uid It btoouM wliallj
In 1804 tha proiidmt of th« Iiuldtctioa at Kami Arcbitooti
■dd : " The oircamilsDEa ot the tad aniit of tha Ion of tba
'LoDdon,' aooamnuiw! u it wu br tha rimnltanaacu ioai of
anothar ahip of atui lannr aa, and of i ' ' '
{tho ■
to atitp-
_ ja of tha lose of tlut ahip, and withont aome
nwnn—wn npon whst m anppoae to bs tha vinaaa of tha loaa, and
tha balti, if anj, of the conatcnctiOD of thoaa ahipa." "Tha
paaatugan who pnsg to and fro ara not jndgga of the qneatlon ;
Ik^ «n take no pnoautlon Ibr their oirn Mtety ; it ie to the ekill
and idaiiaa ot tliOM Irho boild theae ehipa Uiat the paaasnger
trnata, ud to the oan which tha legiilatnn and the Qorarumaiit
an boDiid to taica of tbaii faUow-nibJeota. " '
Babaaqnantljr the oDUDoil of the Inatitutlon anivad at Oa foUoT-
; oonoinnoDa and offered them ai lacoini
id ahipownan : —
- i. DDia>aiaIniIaaantBaaM>Ii>ktdavi lor naidatliK then
•f laofUi aad dapth t» tiw bnMia o( a •Up, ud a mat niMr ot impor-
Hau tt laaclhaBd d<Mli to breadlh nufba ritelf adoptail, aad tSa 0^
Made wand tot ••aviMhj, bj Indlolaga bam, mvinHtUL aM tadbi*.
"1. na asaatraotloa load-watat-ttiia t( anqp lUp-uiII bar aotla <l At-
l^iMiBl bam IVt la laa<-»at»llne, ekoiiU be np«idad to emr
Saa^i^ *!& *«rt« Um aitraaia diaa^ to lAldi ZaabDoll ba tedaD)
■ad auaHnaawaM be taken to aaaaiai&t lUa^Bfotnaliaa b> naorded
«ikiiJ>h.^»».., UladaalrablaalaatlMtBleac«UliaekliiVptpn,ln
IM eaiitabi, Oiata dioild ilmn bi onlad a Hale <t
■■— •• ^^^ ■ -* —" "--^ -- -he ^ta, eoBiiIri^
nutaiat ot Ibe bold. Hh iniplna in^uoT ot laak ooaiaanuwat an to
be laad-ntaPllBa, or Ita ponr to oanr daednltfit, ibaald be ilnn hi
<a«a aead^elahl. Thaea pnen ikoald ahran vMrnnatat Itaa ddp't
— — ■ --n^Diildbaki«adla)liaeaalnBba«8a<d&a
rwpilii, aad ■ ani «
VoMtaBwIdiilidaiUi
iDBOonoln
huldanai
dt^HoaTa lafl dran, aad a art at oatUna plana ot
a iDBtUBdlnal aaeUaa, and at leaet foar eroea lartlona a
Wa h a Hhdaiun bateM ot ftwboard vU
la laaaitei lUpe ot odfiiaiT fltnant : and tt I
B bslaht. traaboard ibDiU ba anderMDOd to I
- aatlaalhalaM
H appar iBiteea Bl the apoar daeb (not naMlink) at tha tlda anldahipa,
re tba load-mtir^lBa. Sa woporUoo gt tmbaanf -•— ■" ■
I the IsBftk. OBaaHhOi id Sie baaa b a mBlmi
Inarj- iir iiilaa ddn ot oet *'— *—
A(< Iha baamZoBld hr
Ma a IbhOi a( W taal, > (tat baaboani MbB baun n
BM, at Om addWoB of a wac^edi OB looa nMab nai b<
aqiBnitaBa or aabaUtnla lor the bMnaead Ireibsard raq
l«alb,aeaapMeaardaakwoBUIaaratbabait ~ '"
atibe oiliSalba^lat 4 iMt.
■a. UlaBiit aauldand deBbBUe to oler ai,
naaid ta eoofa aad tgraaaiUai. It suBt depend entlrslj span tba pr
iHdeadJadoteUcit tbedarinarot a di^^ wbather. IsiSih to hv pr
porUoBa, lon^ aad paipaat, the addttkoa a( poop awl lomailli aia
eipedlaat aad eafai la noafaL where pniia aad ftnoaiUa are adopM,
IbWibaaldbaDlaaadaiidBeMDrthr.bnE tbelrinl(ht maj be laaipedleA
la UDC ana ibtaa ; ud thnara eaaea where aUahl topallint toreaetle
(U., BB MeafereaaeUe laiBBd tfura the lerel Tihe '—•■■■ <"
HeAdlaEeaBiKbaaiT
ablpa era pniarable to p
■haoldbaalbiwadjHai
"s. Uwoaldadl ai
taBtiBBBawlbia|«DdbialbBlkbead^ _.
Bvaw aUai wnian BO oaueftadwiS the bnQ ol (b
aVMr aa la (am tod^itwlenl eeDuIai sompBrtBia
baalif all Oab ooBnaaleattDDa with the deiifl and
tUitdofliBwestad ta« tba dank. la ptopaHLi^BS
■ BJp (and Bepartalhr e( ehlpa derated lo paBnwara) n la van da
ta BBBBfa ttimttaa U a» (we adjBaaDt oonpartmaDte be ailed, or Biased
la liae aeaiaailealloa wM tha aea, tha raaalBlBi oompartmantB wlO Ooat
ttetb^UlieoMdandttiBt aeinmpBManreUpliwBU ooBrtraslad
aar OH e< Ihaa to in with nS(°?bMSiuad to ftae ooumaaleatlDB wS
tba aea. DeaUa boMeiBi ara to be reoarded at * anal «h
MtaV aMI BtMHtb, to Um attvsim ot a bme fen akb>
•nt. n la tairdeelraUB that aiAelBal TBaUktlea3ioald
atdadlapaeeeniereUpB to admit ol dwtait ^ ilde teaKlu
don, orotherwtHeBeloitag. aU botchee In bad wnlbar.
■■ T, In retard to hatchmj* isd opealnfe In tbe deck Be Ih...-. .i— ~. _
lo their i|B;lntniededrBhlate earn tba baama e< tbe iblp aerMBtheai
wllbentbitainiplloBwbereTer paaellable; tbixuaf alia be made rawr-
aSHf vbere reqalredi batav laplaDed on ^obit to aoa. All eoualBa over
eurtne and botlar roDua tai paieaBger Jihipe dioBld be aa bloh ea praeBeabla,
ot Itta, and rlvalad to tiie beeniB and earllBiie. Opeahiff m the daek m»J
lieIlltadwUheoUdeeTerlHB.b^ed In plaee ao aa to be readllr olaead.
"& It belnc eaosMeradtt^d apeah^ In tbe eldee «■ eada ot riwili
, are ■Bb4eottowildeBtBlhataBdauartbeBalelrafdiliia.lt la deniable that
tbe ride and atem wlndowa AonB, In addUMn to tha alaa UfthtL bare
«l<yiJ dad l»*fit wIthlTtewte tbalr belai alwin la plaea, and that aU
aaxBO pveta nboBtd ba itron]dj eeoarad bj Iron onai bare.
■'a^ h behend tbatfll epenlaia from and MUBiniuijcaMoaBJriUl Ibe
lhr«^ tba bad
■duiTnt* Into '
" U n k oend
id itnlbi Rvoutuiie ebonld ba takaa lor all opeaina
a s( Ibe u^ wbara itaaiari to plpa or Alp woaU
done under toepwEonol
•d ibedd ba aaialBlb arraHBd BBd BBikad, aadoMiBi SS
tbal bolh BoakB aiJplpaB ara aweaHbta. AtJaarftbtekb
aaoo^uj tha lUp^ papto, BBd tta eraw AoalTbt prM«
Bol Iha oaplalB ot tba iUb, and
0^ ; n^ akwa ihDo^lia he
&
oia^rtlevaiai
t niS^slIll water, br men nsnhw^ltirB
ItbuBkiwedtaao^ (araat: tM^Viteik)
tha nnmhw will tlwwn ba rerTMadr tbe BBa, wbB
bvalie to eat bar nAtaf Bar baTAItlwa^^la pi
known to aoleBtlBB bwb, m («eb oI—ibUliiib ban Uan u«» h nn^
Alpa aa woald laitar'MmellB mla an tta aabject. Ii % bimtt^
ere good In prtiictplB. Tba nunaiUi
leadlaaBaBa endoBcr oarltndvr^iB
hlu tha blame (or dl k^wS Bl IB
teelaboaMlaHUden
riBBd caUaabrUvfi.i^it
„ le la Acted taAinmiiawte
j; bs^iatbe pnitf-lMtBkiaa OBBBOtoetablUlbeeBAwK
bla, tbe repnlathiB it the BakeiB nmt be raltad apoB.
. tnardBtoproTldefgr tter^MalHraBoetf thenpec4HttaB
wBHi which nay break erer the ihlp, It bhMrdi Aoold beluad it «•
bjwer pari o< tbe balwBki, BBlIleteSS IimbK BBd In aiaa la alBB It Oi
la on daaba belew tr near tin waier-Iiiii nn ta ttt
BSdtaipHoeptlfalr doadlnt the ah^ aad ladu^ibf
It ii bl tba diraetjona indLMtol in these recomiDei>dab«ii ibl
tha honaBl^ and akUfalneaB of the lODdam builder of nceiu ai
aaHins abipa of war ooma into play, and eoma jnitcnunl m] It
fomsd bf tha geiwral public of the chanctsr at tha ihi; b]
inqniiisg Into mattara npon vhioh the oaancil thaogiit it Ks-
aanr to make mch teoonmiandationa. Tha ^oanatee Bhidi lie
pnblio hafa of tha fltnaaa of paasengar abiu for earrioi, u •
qnaiHon of pnpar saiutniatlan and atata oT amdanay, ii ihi ■i^
taraDdcertiftcateaotthallovdorTndab Tha law niat thm ^'
Ua Ika dadnltigti el tBtel«B«KBf ibte o
_. _ . ae Art, IMi tad an ani|loral7U>«<2
BltheHTalpablto—aaerdMrtBkaBandMiniihiirtwIlbwdiBaa
m tnxrintaBdeaoa ot tha krd U^ ad^nl v the jiMBbdMibr
aneatt^ Uie idtea ol hwd U|Jii^SaQ AaU adla "^ *'^^Sm
brTdi^RMia lamKr aad'ln raM(toasr anrMw appoWed fcrlj;
popoaw «l ^ Aal b} the kir£ et the lald BBoiAtei^ BB* AlpnUI
■DTtvar to Oia cMB ot BB bsB atBBBTaWl bdwa BBcaa proprir taOw
ts aanar tnn ataBB raaaal^ and than abtatoaiUAr^K of ba idM
«Dd tool ooodUlea o( tha hall at Btu* tlsiaM, Bad « )ha berti ail <«■
eqaliMaiilBtbBWiil^^ratahad^MaB Aot; aadaho, M tba >aida j* J*"*
daek laaaeiMjiMililbei pMaianii) wbldi laeh matf (• eesifaatlit K
(BIT, mSr^ bead •( a^S^r3tbl BonaK^ and a ^- — ^ -■ ^
w.'*.™* !''e^'?ti:
1 MMbmslkB BBd •galpMalia^
ipladte|-
• ot Ika
aiafeMt'
pnaeot no law relatliw to the aabdiriaian of ilMmehipti it"
waa a cIuMt (Ko. SOO) in tba Unebaot Shippbg Act enrH
wblob wa* virtaallT a lapiodnetioii of olania to of tht kmb
Karintion Act at IWl, and whiok read aa Ibllowi ;— .
whiife eewBaoeediAtrlha Mb daj tt Aacaat IBM, and ertil— fg
baUl « IKM el laaa bBdaa Uu 108 low, Iha balMiBC el wUOwMW
alter Iha nb Aiwaal UU (aiowt aUps -ad aoMr aa iteui ia|M d^ "
dlildad bi aabalaBtlal toBBflrene MlertWhi pmSobb, •> Mtttb«£
of the ab^ Aan ba aapanladtaiB Ibe eKbie^HB l«oaai< nab Mi^
and B a& tha tfM pan of aoah lUp daU ba aapanted Mb tw "^
rooBtaBBolbaridBBifapaMlbiw. _,»
"t Brr Haaiartln boUtof Irea. Iba bBMl^ ot wMub ii—""'*.^
thewhwet lUaAaiiballbedlTliMta^BA '*"i"°"' "jfSSf
ot equal ttafth^Sk OalS^tUm it £^ap wHL (Ikb ■>' ^
SHIPBUILDING
817
"«■ E«nT "WW iteuulilp tmlll of
■Hm' the puiiii) of Lhli Ad. ihill. In i
•Itll u uuU ■uuUghl EODiaruiKii
The KboTs Uw wu repealed by Ih« Act dated ESCh Jul; ISSE,-
onJ on the 2Sth Auguit 1SG3 tlia Adminlty apt>lied to the Board
of Trado to know whether the Board of TraJe officcn wera epi-
powered uuderanj circuuiilanmi to insiil oh iron veucli hnving
wntortight CDinpartuienta wlien oniployed in convejance o( mails
and passenger*, obwmng that the AdtninlCy were etill ol apinion
in respect of contract packets should not have bccD rclaied.
Thoy considered each lesiele should have coniiaiiniente ao armnged
buoyancy thereby occasioned should not endanger the safely of
the shipa. as recotn mended bv them is their commanicntian ot; the
1 7th December 16S0. To this tbe Board of Trade replied (3d Sep- '
tsnibcr 1SB3) that their aurteyon no longer had any poncr to
require giveu watertight psrlitious to be fitted ia passenger aleam-
ships— though tbey agrsed with tbe Admiralty in thinking that
steam Tessele caiiying passengen and moils should be proTided
with a soHicient number of watertight partitiona. — ind liad no
reason to suppose that the Admiralty would not insist ou such
partitiona being fitted in all steamahips employed in conveyance of
wcro npeoled, not because ot any doubts as to the necessity of
proper and sufficient watertight partitions, but because thoso
nod classes oF ships had become piaelically* useless or mtschierous.
It nas found that is Urge resuts more partitions than the Act
required were necessary to secure the safety of the ship, and it wsa
ahought better to leave builders and designers unrettered in pro-
viding sitra etrength and sscurity to meet the variaus forms,
aiicH, and descriptions of shipn than to tie them down by general
Btatutory ngulalioi;? which could not be so framed as to meet ths
varying wants end circumscancss of the shipbnilJing
.0 by the Board of Trads to .
dated 11th August 1E7G, setting forth the inst
thslr surveyors under the Mercliant Shipping A
clauss 36 reads—
1^1, « Uta" tilt btHkbeads llltert'sn cUierwIn'd^eeflve. onl
opinioa tiist the want ot, w the detective slate of, the be
ColUilon ■alwtlghl bl
This regnlation has bean nissued in the latest
Board of Trade surveyon, dated ISSt. It'thns coi
the nnmbcr oF bulkheads farming watertight couiparnnenls, the
number of doors in them, and how they are fastened, are made the
subject of consideration by the Board of Trade at their inspectiona ;
but the fact is that the great majority of ocean-going ataomera
are not divided into watertight compartments in any efficient
manner, and many loaaes in collision, grounding, nnd swimping are
due to this. Although all itasmsblpa haresonio bulkheads, and
a way, or are so stopped below the wjiterlevel. that For Flotation
purposes after perforation those lying betveen tbe foremost
collision bulkhead and the afi^r bulkhead through which tho screw
■halt paaSBS are practically useless.
With the eiception of some four hundred ships, there are noiron
.itearnships afloat which would continue to float were a hole mads
'in the bottom plating anywhere abaft the collision bulkhead and
onttide tlia engins-room, or which wvuld not founder were water
admitted through breaches made by the sea in weak superstmctnres
and deck openings. Of the four hnndred ships relsrrsd te as
having properly designed bulkheads two hnndrwl ar^ easentially
oargDHarrien. They an generally bnilt with five snbdivisions,
the maohineiT bmcs baiiig one.' Iron taiiing ihipi an witJunU
txciftiim umdiviatd «Ua mnpartmtnU, Thsv hare by law a
oolhsioQ bulkhead nssr the bow, aud that ia alt. Between June
1881 and FabniST; ISBS there were about one hundred and twenty
Iron atsamshiu lost, ot speeds of nine to twelve knots, not one oF
which was well constructed according to tiie opinion of the council
ot the Inatitntion of Naval Architects.
It may be said that wooden ships were not diiided into water-
tight compartments, but it must be remembered that in a wooden
■hin there ia far mom loeal resistance to a blow either in collision
or by groiiiiiiine. and'that a wooden ship takes a much longer
emplor»l for pflssenger and trading ships apenis were mncfa lower
and trelGL- and ri^iks of collision very much less.
The shipbuilding rqpitries prcsciibo r^la* far tfaa gonramont
of the builder who dMires to have their oeTtiRcate, and thss* ■«)•■
have been so carefully framed and so honestly snforced that StglMih-
bmlt ships are as a rule well nnd solidly coostrocted. The recent
[8lh Juno 1S82) rule of the London Lloyd's register a* Co the
imporunt subject of division into eompartmsncs is aa follows, and
il may be hoped that it will becffaetin —
-' acrcM.firapiilleil nMcIs, In wMltiga to tliee^lne-raoni tiDlUieSKli, to have
■ wUartlght Uulkbead IwlK at a raasoMhIS dlstsnea From each and of the
ir pLaiai £a the uppei
I BwiilDf-dec^ed vessels. Tha BftennDst
"collision !^!lSead only wluSw^uliwl-'
It is not intended by the foregoing remarks, senoua ai they ai
to blot the splendid record of ehipbuildinBachierement in Cre
Btilsm dunug the last twenty yeaia. Tbs ihlnownera, ihi
builders, marine eugiueers, Lloy(fa surreyora, and the Board
Tiudo have all sbsrsd in a development oT shlpplDg which.
, . Board of
development oT ahlpplDg which, in
smount and in general efficiency, ia not only without parallel la
the history of tiio world, but, as it still appean to us who have
witnessed it, almost incredible. It still is to be rwretlad that
expansion has been thought ot and sought more ai^ntlv than
grealei aecunty and elfieieBcy. The men who have studied to
Improve their atmclnrat arrangements beeanss of their love ol
true and good work, and with no prospect of reoognitlon or'nward.
. nparatively very few.
There ia, pcthapa, DO structure expotsd tt
._:^. .V .!.._ __i z- which grei
giaatar variety ot
Srsatar risks ot life and
propsrtjF are incurred. A therongh practical knowledge of the
disturbing forces in action either to l^ure or destroy the asvsral
combinations embraced in its stractDTe is therefore most import-
ant Some of these forces always act, whether the ship be at last
or in motion. She may be at teat Boating in still water, and will be
at rest il cast on shore ; and, when there, she may be reeting oD bar
keel as a continuous bearing, with a support from a portion ol her
side, orshemay be supported in themiddle only, with both ends tor
a greater or less length of her body left wholly uneupported, or she
may be restiug on the ends with the middle nnsupportsd, or nnder
any other modificaCion af these drcnmitanccs ; and under all thess
the atraina will vary in their dlreotion and in their intensity.
If the ship be in motion the same disturbing forces may atlQ be
in action, with othen in addition which are produced by a state of
motion. When a ship is at rest in still water, althongh the upward
pressure ot the water upon its body is equal to the total weight of
the ship, it does not necessarily follow that the weight of every
portion of the vessel wtU be equal to the upward pressure of that
portiDn ot the water directly beneath it, and acting upon it L on
the contrary, the shaps of tht, body is snch that their welghu and
pressures are very uneqnaL
If the vessel be supposed t<> be divided into a number of laminB
of equal thicknoa, and all perpendicular to tha vertical longi-
tudinal section, it is evident that ths after lamina compruedin
the overhanging stern above water, and the fore laminK comprised
in the projecting head also above water, cannot be anpported by
any upward pressure from the Quid, but their weight ninst be
wholly sustained by their connexion with the snpported psrta of
the ship. Tho htminsi towards each eitrunity immediately oon-
tiguous to these can evidently derive only a very small portion of
their support from the water, whilat towards the middle of tha
■hip's length a greater proportion!
....^ _.. immeiMd, and tha
tha water is increased,
^ t rest under the view just taken ol the relative
different portions oF the body, if the w'-^-- - -
A ship floating at
splacement ot different porti ,,. ^
board are not distributed so that tbe diFTerent laminc maf be
ipported by the upward pressure beneath them as equally a
pcMsible, may ba supposed to tie in the position of a beam supported
at two points in its length at some distance fiom the centre, and
with an excess of wsighl at each extremity. At sea It would be
eipoaed to the same strain ; and if snpported on two waves whose
crest* wete so tar apart that they len the centre and ends com,
poratively nnsnppoited, the degree of this strain would be much
increased. The mote these two coints of support approach each
that Che vessel msy be
,. or on oae point only In
length, tho greater will be the tensile strain on
— r.i.. vi .—-. .1.. 1 irtlon of
looked upon as supported oi
the midiue of her length, tho greater wi
the.npper portion, and the emshiug strain on tbe lower north
the fabric ol the ahip A veaael whoae weighCa and displacen
d w'ETlbe
.. .. ider her subject B
strength of her npperworka will, enable her to
h«r, will tend to assume a cnrved form,
Ths centre may cnrre upwards by the exeeaa of tho pressars
beneath it, and the ends drop, podiicfng what la called " hogging."
Tho main nmedy far (heae erib is is the stnnMh of tha dMK (ad
818
HTPBUILDING
mmmnAM.
mHo« ■ Wl
■nil thair pawn tc
a rviit > tsnri1< rtnis. Thm Ii
tnngth in tba lower parti of thii
T«ui to milt tiM cnuhing or compntaing fares to which it ii
■atyaotsd. Tba daclu of thbIj Bhould not, therafore, be too mnch
eat Dp bf broad liat(ihw>T* ; and care ihonld tn tikeu lo pnaerrs
euUn u man]' atcakn of tba dock u pooiihla. Tha tsnnla atrangth
(if iron ran ba broBght to beu most baaaQciillir in tbia raapact.
Thongh llMt Ha tha itnlni to which a ahip ii moat likelj to
b« expoasd, it bf no maun (oUowi that tbare an no ciicnmituioaa
and^ whiiA itniu of the diraetl; oppoaita tandenof, when pitdi-
{Dg, or otherwiis, may ba brooght by raooil to act npoa the pula.
Tha weight* ttaemialTai in the centre of tha ship mHT be M gnat
that tbsj may hare a tendeocv to giTa a boUow oamtnra to the
ronn, and It li thsrefors equallj nari—ry to guard against this
aviL Vhan thia oconii, ths Tssael Li technically said to ba
"BBgnd," in distinction to tha oontre^ or opponla change ot
tDTmby being hoggod. Tha weight of machiaerf ia a voodan
. ateani'Teiael, or ths weight or nndae aettiiig up o( the main-iniiiit,
will lonistiRiee produce sagging. The intialncdon ot additional
kaalaoiu tended to lanen tliis eiil, b; ^ring great additional
itrengtb to tha bottom, enabling it to reSLat ettenaion, to which,
under inch einmmatancei, it becune liabla ; and, ii the itiain npon
tha^aok and npparworlu becomes changed at the Mma time, ths;
are then called npou to resiat eompreauon.
When the sbip i> on a wind, the lee-iids is aobjected to a asriea
of ihoclu fmm tba warei, the riolence of which maf be imagined
bum the effects the; aomatlmu produce in deatToying the bnJ-
warica, teariBg away the channels, ka. The loe-iide is alao sub-
Jeotad'to an eicees of hydraetatic preeeuis oler that npon tha
waatbor ride, reanltlng from the locamaUtiDn of the wavM u they
liM against the olHtruction olfered to their free passage. These
forcea tend in part to prodace lateral curVBtore. When In this
Inclbed position, the forcee which tend to prodace bogging whan
lb* ia uprisht alao contribute to produce this latent cnmture.
Tits strain from the tension of ths rigging on the weather aids
when tha ship is much inclined a so greit as frequently to canss
working in the tofaidea, and sometimeB eren to break the timbers
on which the chunela are placed. Additionnl strength ought
tberafors to be giTen to the aides of the ibip at this place i and, in
order to keep them apart, the beams ought to be increased in
Btraagth in comparison with the twams at ether parts of the ahip.
Ths forgoing are ths principal diHturbing forcea to which the
(abrio of a^ sbip is subjected ; and it must be home in mind that
•oms of these are in almoat cooatant actlTlty to destroy the con-
nexion between the aoverat parta. Whenerar any motion or
working is produced hj their operation between two psrts, which
ooght to be united in a fined or firm manner, the eril will mon
incrssss, bscanae the dlamption of the close connexion between
UuM parta admits an increased momentum in their sction on
each other, and the dastruction proceeds with an accelerated pro-
gtaaabn. This is soon (oQowed by ths admission of damp, and
th* noaToidabla scoiunnlation of dirt, and tbasa then gsnarats
GHmaalation and decay. To make a ^ip strong, therefore, is at
tba an* tima to make her durable, both in nfersnca to tba wear
and tear of aarTiD* and the decay c^ materials. It is eridsnt from
the (bragDlBg ramarki that the diatnrbing inflnencea which causa
" bogging " an in conatint operation from tha moment of launch-
ing tba ship. As this curvatora can only take place by the com-
preasion of the malarials composing the lower part) of the ship ~ '
thi
composing the upper parts, the imports
, ^ „ isparata parts with sn npecial riaw to withet
ths foicas to wMcfa they an each to be antyected cannot be o'
of preparing theaa ssnai
rated by the praotlcal builder.
In bis ifwMial i/Jfatal ArthiticiUTi, Ht V. H. Whila gins illm-
tratioDB of the
still-witar
and drfaotaof buoy ,^^
ancy obtainad Rom
tba two coma B and W ud Mt off ftoB •
haoyancT ImIow it. Ths
The ordinata of tba Di
by snmming all the mc
whether upwards or dovnwaids,
about ths point in the length of
the ahip where the ordinate Is
taken. It may happen, la in
tha rass of ths " Dsraststion,"
that tha momenta will tend ta
rauas biwging for a portion of
the langtSana will tjit- -'■
thi^otancter, andatoinor por-
tlona of the length wiU tand to
re the lina is exu^y aqnil to a« J^siiy
ra. In tha " Hlnotaur "
re ia a homng taodaocy _ j^\ /\
jughont. ^he amount at -Jif^\ , J-, J /^\,.
midship section is Totj V W ^ fr*^?*
>t, being npr«s.nt«l t^ ^ C^-L\ J^
momenti-BTeet xlO-flM T »-*i-f
I. After Sir Edward Bead V
thronghont.
the r- ■-'-■-
Rett
upreased hii fean that a
strain was too oonildenble for saAtj In tha '
" Aglnoonrt"
Tha principal plana ot a ship an tba " Aaer ' plan, giTinc ii
outline tha longitudinal alaration of the ihip; tha " body" plss^
giTing the shaps of the TsrUcsI tranartna aactiiMa ; and b
fthe shaps
breadth '' p
these the bnibler ia fOmiiAad la
tbs dasignor with elerstions, plans, and ssctioDi of tl»e inltSa
parts of ths ship, aod of ths framing and plating or |daiiking.
Tha thlckaeasei or weights of all the component paiU an ^psriM
in a detailed speciRcstion, in order that tba ahip -wbeo eDZBplelsd
may hsie the precise weight and poaition of culn of grnntr rsi
templatsd by the dceigner. In the case of ships built for the Biit^
navy all the bnilding matsrials an carefully waigbad by an s||v£
of the designer belore they ia put into placa by tbe buldeT. li
tub section of the work ia cfHnplotad, tba wdglit ia aoniand *iii
ths designer's eetlmste in the desi^ung dDc& Jl* aooBi aa tfe
incomplete bull li Boated tha aotul diiplaoniMat ia ataaannd, at
Dompared with tha wsighta raoocdad as banng cobo into tin A^
It is also ths practice in the Bonl Kavy to ealcBlats tba pan'tiH
of ths csntrsofgnTity of tha fawomplata hnlL and Itrndima^d
water before it is floated, in order to aroid all liak of niiiattin
from deliciency in stsbili^ st that stsgs of ooDstmetian. Tbs ^
is nsaally found to float m predae aeeotdanea with tba — ^r-^
When completed ships float at a despsr draught than wu tnleadid,
or an found to ba mora or laaa atable thui «aa viriMd, lU* ■
nearly alwm dns to additCons and altentlana mada alias tts «■■
plstion of ths deaign. Whan tha dtajuar is at Ufaarlr to luMiliW
tha ship in aeoMdaao* with tha oilgiul intantiim tliaae og^ la
be pivcise corta^ndencs batwaaa tna dsalfpi and tba Aip.
In designing i ahip oT noval typa Um dealgner baa to pan £
tha building Mtaili tluon^ hii mind and aMgn tbaoa tbdr jirt
wei^ta and proportiana sad positioos. Eroy plata and ai^ ba
ana plank, avary bar and lod and caatiu; uad taraia^ tad wtwj
artjela of eqnipmant baa to be oonoaJTaa In dalau asd ila lA^
BMtUng.
Tho tana " laying off" is appliad to tha opsratloD ot trmiiJkiii|
to the mould loft floor those dsaigns and general pmposliusia rf s
ship which hare, baan dnwn on paper, and from «bicdi ^ Ot
pnlimtasry caloolationa hare baan mada and tbs fom itdiii.
The lines of Os ship, and axwt Rrtaaantattoa of maaj rf tha
parts of which It Is to bs eompdsad, an to be dnHniitad Hm U
their full siM, or the actnal or real dlmanrirma. in oid« tkal
moulds a skeleton ontliaes tUJ ba Mad* tma Oam fia tbs
guidance ol the workmen.
A ship is gsnerally spoken of as diffdad Into fora aad atht
bodiss, and these oombinad eonstitiila tba whole of tba sbip ; Atj
are supposed to bs separated by an ImsgJnsiT athwutafaip ssetioe
at the widest part of the ship, called ths midship ssetioB tw iai
flat The midship body is a term applied to an indeflnita Isagtk if
iddte part of a ahln tongitndn
o-body and of the after-body.
or of the same form for tta wbols leng_.
Those portions of a wooden ship which an Isnnad tba aqtaM
and cant bodies maybe oHiMdsrsd as Bubdiriaiaiis of tba len-MdiB
and after-ludiea. llere is a aqoars fon-body and a aqaan afhr
body towarda the middle of the ship, and a eant loca-body and s
rant aftar-body at tha two ands. In tha aqoaia bod; Uh aida rf
tba Autaa anifnan la tb» Um c( tkaMfWAanaUwait^
TKtW pluw. In th» not bodiei th« liilbi of tha rruiM ua not
•qoua to ths Uds of tha keel, but ire iDclinml eft m tho fora-bodj
■ud tonrud In tbs inur-bodj. The rotmm for llir fnmw m IheH
uortioDS or ft Iroodan abip being canted ii that, io tlieae jiaru of
ih* ahip, tho timber would be too much eat ixnj on auoant of
tb« finanea* of tha angle Ibmiiid belvHa in atbwartiliip plut
■od the outliue or iisler-Liiia of the ihip- The timber iji llion-
fon tanied nrtiail^ nmnd till the ontviie h09 coini^idaa nearly
•rith the deaired oulUna, aud it ia by thia moremeDt Uiat the liile
of a trami In the caal fore-bodT ii mada to point aft, and in the
cant afterbody to point rarmid.
In wooden ahira the mm "timban" la nmetbnea ajinlled to
the tnmea only, but mora generally to all large piecea of timber
UHd in the eonatruction. Timban, ohon comblDEd together to
Ibrm an ithvartiliip oulline of (lie body of ■ ihip, are technically ,
ailed fniDiea, and eometimta riba.
The keel, in the United Kingdom at leut. ia gonenliy nude
of elm, on acooaat of iti tooghneei, and from ita not being liable
to aplit i( the abip ahotild talca tha ground, though pierced in all
direotioni by the nomeroua (aiteninga paiaing thnngh IL It ii
ganandly eompoaed of u long piecea aa cui be obtained, united to
each other by horiioBliil acvpba. Tha nbbat ol the knl ia u
■ngoliir nceae cut into Cha aide to nneiTa the edge of the pluka
on each dde of it. The keel li connected forwud Io the item by ■
■carph, tometiioea called the baling acanili. and aft to the itBrii-
poat by mortice and tenoD. The apron ta fayed or Btted to the
■fter-iida of the Mem, and ia intended 1° R>** "hift to ia asarpha,
tha lower and acarphs to tho dead wood. The keelaonia antnteraal
Hm of tinibera fiiyod upon the inaido of tha floorv directly over the
keel, tha floon being thoa oonOned betinen it ud the fceaL It*
naa la to aeoare tha framea and to giTe ihiTt to tha acarphi of tha
kad, ud thna gira itnngth tu tha ihip lo miit eiteniion length-
vaya. Mid to prevent hn hogging or lagging. Tha foremcat end oF
tha kealaon anrphi to the atenxaon, which ia intended to give ahift
to tha acarphe connecting the atem and keel, Tha framta or riba
■ra oooipcaad of the atrongeat uid moat dnn^a timber idrtunable.
SHIPBUILDING 819
ith I ihort and long arm on either aide altamately. lO Da to braok
int, and between the franiai the •nmct waa filled in aolid.
I^mgitudinal piecea of timber i
callocl il
.nng tl
euaaoftbal:
I of the f
purpoee, but iL-o m longitudinal tiea and xtnjte.
The beama of a aliip preTont the aiilea from collapaing, and at
ecantling aettled upon, accoruing to tho atrength Tei;ujred to be
hatchwayi, and other amngenient* connected with tha economy
of the ihi^ All beama hiTe a curve u[iwaTU. to«ardi the middle
ofthaahip, cftUed the round-up. Tbidiafortbe pur|>o>e ofatrength.
Wooden beama are lingle piece, two. three, or rotir piece tieama
according to the number of pieces of timber of whirh they aro
eompoaed. Tha aereral piecea are ■ciri<hod together, and dowolled
and Vilted. the aoarpha being alwayi vertical.
The connexion of the eoda of the beama to the tidoa of the ihip lia>
bean made iu Tiriona wayt. The pointi to bo conaidcred, with ro-
fiTanoa to tlua oonnaxion, itro^tKat tha boam it nquired to aota^a
ahoie or atrvt, to ptevent the lidneof the iliip f[am collapaing, and
>biiua tietopreventtlioir railing spurt, that the beam thall not riae
That the beam may be an elTectrve ahora, nothing more u nccu-
Mry than that the abutment of the end agsiiit the ahiii'i aide nay
be perfect In order that it may aclaa a tie between the two lidei,
it u ganenlly dowellad to tha upper eurfiua of the aholf on whicli
it raaCa ; and the uniiar anrface of the wnurway [iliuk ul^ich tiea
upon it ia aometimei dowelled into it. Theae dowoli. therefore,
ooonect It with the ahelf and tha waterway, and throogh this
mtaiia it ia ttana ooniMoted with the aide* of tha thip.
From tht ahort ontlina pnviouely nran of tha du^turhipg for«3
aotJDg on a ihip it will be »aen that the atTfin on the endi of the
beama to deatroy thejr connexion with the aide and looaen the
ftateninge mnat M Tery gratt whan th« ahip ia nnder lail, either
Tba
nlndpol iction of thMO Ibraei ia to allar the TartlisI angla mads
by tha beam and tho iUo'i aide — that ii^ to nlie or daprea tha
banm. and to alln the angle between it and tlia aid* of tha (hip
alwra or below it. On tba laa^ido tho wai^t of tha weather
aide of the abip and all conaectad with it, and at the docks and
everything upon them, aa wall aa the upwud praanua tl the walar,
all tend to diuiinlah the angla mado by tha beam and theahip'a
ride below it, and eouaequently increaaa the angla made batnaan
them aboTB it The contrary effect ia prodoced on tha weather
ride, where the tendency ia to clooa the angle abon tha beam and
open that bolow It If ths beam, when mbjectod to theae ttiaiwi,
b« conaidered aa a lever, it will be evident that tha faatrainga to
prevent ita riaing ought lo be u f ar from the ride aa ia oonaiatent
with the eouTeniance or accommodation of the abip, and that while
the iupport ahould alio be extended inwarOi, tha faitaning to keep
down the beam and ihould be aa cloae to the end of the faeam, Lud
oonaeqnently to the ahip'a aide, aa it can be placed.
The plauk, or akin, or iheathing of a abip, both eztamal and
internal, ii of varioui thickoeaMi. A atnke ol planking ia a
range of nlanka abutting 4gaioit each other, and generally extend-
ing the whole length of the ihip. A thick atrake, or a combina-
tion of levoral thick atrakaa, ia worked wharevei it ia auppoaed that
the frame requixea particulfir nipport — for inetance, mtemally
ever the headi and lieel* of tha timber*, both extcmiUy and
inlemalty in men-of-war veateli between the nngoe of porta, and
internally to aupport the conneiion of the beama with the aidee
and at tha aame time form a longitudinal tie. The upper atiakaa
of pUnk, or aNamhlagai o( ailtniil planka, are called tha aheer-
Krakat tlio rtrdui bMFwn tho aaVanl ntngai at fotta, begls-
clng teom nndar the nppo'dacik porta of a thrao-dobked ahIp in th*
BriOih navy, were called the channel wale, tha middle vala, and
the main wala. Tha ttnka immadiataly above tha main wala waa
called the bkck atraka. Tha atiakea below tha main vale
diminiahed from the thloknm of the main vale to the thickneaaol
tha plank of the bottom, and were therefore called the diminiahing
atnkei. The loweet atiake oF the plank of the bottoin, the edge ol
which III* into tha nhbet of the keel, ia called tha garboaid itrake.
Plank ia either noriird io parallel atnkea, when it ii called
*'atTaight-adged,''Dr in combination of two atrakee, ao that alternate
aeama are parallel There are two methods of working theae oom-
binationa, one of which ia called "anchor aloek," and tho other
"top and butt" The difterenoe will be beat ibown by 6g. IS.
Tha diffennea in the intention ia that in tha method of woriting
two atrakaa anohor-itook ftihion, the narrowaac part of one atraka
alwaya occtira oppoaite to the wideit part of ths other atmke, and
oonaaqnently tba laaat pooaibia audden interruption of longitudinal
fibre, anatns bom tlw abotment, ia obtained This daacriptian,
thaialote, of planldng ii nud where atrength ia eapedally dtaiiabla.
In top arid bntt atiakea the intention ia, by haling a wide end and a
nartawand in each plank, to approximate to the growth of tha tree,
and to dimiulah tha difficnltv of procuring the pluik. Whan tha
planking ia looked upon aa a longitudinal tie, the advantage of theae
edgea being, aa it were, imbedded into each other i< apparent, all
elongation by one edge eliding upon the other being thua prevented.
Tha ihift of plank ia the manner of arranging the butts nf th*
aaveral atrakaa. In the ibipa ot tha Britid navy th* bntta m
SHIPBUILDING
Of tha intmisl pUoldiiK th« lowot atnka, or omnbinatiDa ot
itnktK, in tbs bold, ii aU«l tbe limbar-itnka. A limber !• a
paaua tor mtir, of wbivb thtre ii oua tbnJugboU tba length of
tht iblp, on wch ud« of tht kHlaon, in order tbat uij ieakage
may find Sti nj to tha tnuapa.
Tba wbola of tba pUok in the hold ii ailed the calling. Th«a
■tnkea which oome Drar the beadi and hula of Ibo timben an
rorliad thicker tluia the general thLckneai of the ceiling, and an
kick itiskea OTar tha HTenl haadi. The
abakea oadai the end* oF tha beame of the diSen
man-or'Wftr, and down to tha porta of tha deck below, if there '^^
anj porta, were called tha clampa of the particulu dacke to th<
baama ot which tbar an Uia eupport— aa tha gun-deck climpa, tb<
" -' Vnptothaiill
middla-deck clampa,
_, _ .. The etrakm which *i
of the porta of tSe HTeral dacka ^ara called Ilia tpirkctling o(
thoia decka — aa gun-deck apirkatting, a|>per-dsck epiikattiog. &c.
The faatenlng of the pUnk ia either "tingle," b; which ia meant
ona fastaoiog onlj in each atrake aa it paaaoe each timber or
frama ; or it majbe "double," that !>, with two faaWninga into
fMfh frame which it crones ; or, again, tha bataniua maj be
and aingla," meaning that Ua faiteoingi are donbU and
(ingla altamatal; in the frameaMthejcriMatheDi, The fait«ningt
of planka oonsiit gsnanllj either of nail* or treanaili, eieepting
at the batta, which an aecared bj bollL SaTcnl other bolti
ought to be driraa In each ahift o[ pUnk u additional aecnritj.
Bolta which an required lo pan through tha timbert aa »cuiitia
ti) tha aheLf, watarwaj, kneaa, kc, thonld ba taken adTantag* of
toisnpl; tha plu« of tha rrgular futeaiAgof th* plank, not only
for tha lake of economf, but alao tor tha eaka ot aToiding nnnecea-
aarilj wounding the timban..
The docki of a wooden tbip molt not be canildarod maralj ai
pUtfomia, but moat be regarded a* performing an li '"* — '
BnerallT laid m a lanfitaauial direction only, and
1 aa a tie to reaiit eitaniion, or aa a atrut to reiiat
The outarstnkeior deckslttbeeidMoftheahipanKeDerBllTot
hard wood, and argreater thickos than tha deck itialf ; tbe; an
called the watarwa; planki, and are aometimea dowelled to the
upper aurface of each beam. Their rigidiQ' and atrangth ia of
great importance, and great atlantian ahould be paid to tnara, and
care taken that their ecarphe an well aacund by throngh -bolta,
and that tbera ia a proper ahift between their acarpha and tha
fcaqiha of the ahelf.
Wtaa the decka i
lug aa many etiakea
ahJp maat be erident i and a continuous atrake of
plain beneath the dscki ia of great Talna in this respeoL Tht
straigbtar tba deck, or tbe lea* the ahear ot upward curYatura al
tha audi tbat may ba giren to it, the leaa liable will it be to any
•Iteration of lent^h, and the itroogei will it be. Tha aodi of tht
diSarant planka forming one atrake were made to bnit on one beam,
and, aa tJie Cuteninge an driven clota to the anda, they did not
poaaen ranch atre ngth to retitt being torn out Tba ahifts of the
bntta, tbarefore, of the dilTerent atnkea required great attention,
becanae the tranafennce of the loogitudinai atnngth ol tha deck
tnm ona plank to another wai thua made by meana of tba faeten-
Inga to the beanu, the etrakea not being united to each otbei
aidewaya. The introdnctian ot iron decka or partial decki nndar
tba wwd haa modihed thii.
Theae faateninga have alao to withtland tha itiain during the
prooeaa of caulking, which haa n tendency to force tha planka
aidewaya from the Mtm ; and, u the edgta of planka of hard wo '
will be loa cruahed or oompreaaed than thoae ot soft wood «h
acted on by the caulking-iron, the itiain to open the aeara betwe
them to recalTathe caulking will be gnatar than with planka
mon aecun faiteningi to rasilt
at tbe qnutity
if tha plank wl . ,
for the let of tbe oakum in caulking will have the greater macbuii-
cal effect the thicker the edge.
When the planka an faitsnad, the awma or the interrals
between the edges of the ettaket are filled with oakum, and
baaton in or caulked with such care and force that the o
while nudiatnrbed, is almost aa hard ai the plank itselt If the
openlDgi of tlie aeam were of equal widthe throughout their dep^
between tha planka it would be irapoaaible Co make the caulking
mfficiently oomp«ct to resiat the water. AC tha bottom edgea Tif
the aeama the planks should be in ooutaot throughout their length,
and from thla contact they should gradually open opwuds, eo
that, at the outer edge of ■ plank 10 inchsa thick, the space ahould
ba abont {% of an inch, that is, aboat iV of u Inch opon for avary
inch of thickiuaa. It will henoe be esen that, it the edgei ot the
planka an eo prepand that when laid they tit closely for their
whale thickness, the force required to compress the odtsr edge by
drivlDK tha esnlldng-iron into the seems, to open then raffldently,
must ha Tery grsat, and the bttaalngi of the planks mnat ba snch
aa to be aUs la tesist it Bad csnUuna ii niy iqJniivM la tmj
way, as leading to leaki^ md tstlia nttjngcl OaflaibftMr
selref at their adgea,
Ships an gannilly bollt on blocks which are laid al a la^iq
' about I inch to a foot Th)s is for tba bdlity of lunb
lem. The inclinad plana or eliding plank on whid Ox] ai
launched haa ratlter mors indisMion, ot aboot { indi to ik Is
'■" ' ■'"'" ■ ' "-■■ ■ fcf snutlUT Tcaek Hi
'Dpealksifl
laouujwi amm rauHT more uKUDMon, OS aiKnu t mei
for Isrg* ahlpe, and a slight incraasa fee tnuSa i
inclinsdon will, howerer, ID SonM BUtMan, dspasd D]
of water into which the uip ia to bs luncMd.
While a thin is in progress of h^g InQt bar wri^ ii jn^
lUpported by her keel on the blocks and psitly hy dm b
._^.- .. . V v„ .^._^.i. ■■^-talBi offlhisintMl
le weijdit mnst be
vsble base ; and a
order to launob her
and transfanad to a movable base ; and aplatfom'
tor the movable b«K to elide on. This pUfons Bust net gab b
laid at the necessary inclination, but moat be of evfieisithqih
to enable tiie ship to be water-borne a&d to peeasra itr Ene
striking tbe ground when the arrives at tbe tad ef the mji
For this pnrpoea an inclilvd plane a, a (fig- 14), porpaailj kit
and at about one-sixth the brsidth of ths Tfssel diitot fra
it, and Gimly secured <Mi Uocks fattanad in the slijmy. Ha
inclined plane is called the tlidlng-plank. A loaf tiBW, oMi
bitgewsy b, h, with a smooth nitder-snilace, ii Uid ipa ds
plana ; and upon this timber, aa a basf^ a tomponry msie-ksfc
oF aborea c, e, caUed "poppets," il incted to reach h>Ialii\Ash
way to the ahip. The upper part of tbia nrame-woric ibati ipiiil
a plank d, Coniporarily fastened to the botCim of the ikif, ai
firtnly cleated by cleats s, t, alio temporarily eecimii to dj
bottom. When it it all in place, and tbe aiiding-pltik iml nb
side of the bilgewsy finally greatsd with tallow, soft tcap, udd, .
the whole frsming is set close ap to the bottom, and dowiDitk '
sliding nlsnk, by wedgoa /, /, called slirets or aliee^ bj liki
metna the ehip'e weisbt is brought upon the " launch " oi milt.
When the launch ia thua fitted, the ehip may be itid Is kn
three keels, two of which sre temporary, snd an spcured oitd^ Lcr
bilge. In consequence of thii width of support, all the ibois UJ
be safely taken away. Thit being don^ the hlocki as rtid fc
ship was built, excepting a few, according to the sin of Ihi ikft
under the foremost end oFtbe keel, an gndnslly tskei FnnitM
her sa tbe tide rlsea, and ber weight is then tnuuferred le Oa !■
t«mpoi>ry keels, or the iattnch, the bottom of which limil'
Formed by the bilgewtyi, reatiig on tha well-giestid indiiid
planes. The only preTsntiTs now to the laanchmg of 4i *[
IB a ihort shore, called s dog-shon on each side, witi ill M
Ermly oleated en the immoTsble platform or sliding-plaik, lalil
head abutting against a cleat secured to tbe bi^aw^, ortw
of the movable part of the launch. Cousaqoantly, when tbi> i—
is nmoved, the ahip is tm to more, asd her wei^l fon» te
down the iuctinad plane to the water. To prennt ter naaf
out of her straight course, two ribands an aeeored on (be ilidiV-
Slauk, and strongly ahored. Should tha sUp not IMTS aba (U
og-ehon is knocked down, ths blocks remaining aads tht fan
put of her keel must be consecntiTaly nmored, intil hasodt
overcomoa tbe sdbeeioii, or until the actiiui of aaoewtguiala'
fan-foot Toms hsr oS,
A different mode of launching it sonMtiinaa naelind ia BriM
marchant-yardt, and hai been Imig in naa in tba Jieaeb dodjiri^
B tie sDtin wddt ot tkt nai.' Bj
> Aow> fa'fiK- IS^ti^jMnW
SHIPBUILDING
■lilp'i bottom, ara tba onl j yAiem which iwad b* )a«^«nd aecoidlng
to thU iTatem for aach ihip, the whole of the nmunder beinB
MTiiUble for erery Uaocb. A ajiiUK ot ebout iu!/ in inch ii Inlt
betwHU them inj the bilk timbeT pUcnl beirith tbeai, u i
ii uot iuCinaed tlitt the ship ehoald beu on these bilk timben Ii
launching, but Biorfly b« ranpoited by thi " "- ■'"- ' "■-
If a
B Jfy-dock
abia that all
bottom. The
wpnot^ .1,
Mclilugal
lip ia coppered bafbra linnabiiift w that putting her
k for that purnosa heoomed aaneceaaarT, It ia than di
aha ihould bo lioncbaJ iritbont tnj eleata attached to
two on each aide aecared to tlie after- poppeta, , .. .. .
to the <ta|>mnR-Dp, and (hia only lor the linnch of a uuall ihip ;
la brger aliip* the number will nacoaoarilj be iocreaaed according
to tlie Kaight of the vewl and the tendency that (lis niay haTe,
aocordiDg to bar fonn, to aeparata the bilgawaya. Thia tendency
on the put of a ehirp ihin by a riling Boor, or by bar wadge-
■hapod form in the fore and il^r bodiea, it great, hat therv ia not
mnch probability of a ihip hcelins oier to oaa ads or tht ^'- -
The importance of the work of the deaignor cannot '
I'atimated. Uafortoualrly there ie, at haa been eaid,
in daaiguing la well ai in putting the itructure ksather. Then
IK often en ilivaace of any attempt at precautiona where multipliBd
not bo too highly
■id,"alopworli''
,=ipl., ui
ir aecurity, whan
(« worthy Shipa,
ith badiroD, that
Id tbg aepiri of the Royal CommiBiion on
dated September 23, 1871, wa raad u followi
neneti Btata that many merchant ahipa are bull
they aro ill put together, and aent to g^i in a dafoctiia condition.
It b al.0 laid that thoy are frequently lauglhaDad without addi-
tional atrangtli, and are conaaouontlir wsak ahipa. The number
of iron atiwiaan wbicti ha(« been loat in tha laat few yeira,
toany of thani hiring been tuTTayed and cliaaed nnilor tlia London
or Lireipool rogiatara, raiaei a ijuoatioa whether the reguliCiona
of tlieao TFgidtare are aufflciently itringent to inaura good ahip-
bnilding. The dirKitora of the Buroau Veritea bafa daemed It
neceaajry to rariM the mlea of their regiatar, and to increase the
Kautliug. la the race of competition among ahilibuildan it ia
pro'iabla titat inferior matariila and hod workmouahip are ad-
lea worthy Shipa, :
(impwl that the Board of Trade ahould anwriotaad the con-
atnictiDD, the periodicil iujpection, tba repair, ind the loading
of all British merchant ahipa, eaid : "We coniider it to be a
of paaaenger ahipa, the artilcata of the Board of Tnda, eo far
ai reguils apecific approval, ahould not ba etprcaalj couBned to
for tbair health, comfort, and genoml eeourity,— all quaationa of
un'ca worth iuLsa of hull, machinery, and «iuipmont being Irft
to the ownen, iDhjist only to > geueni power of intarferenoa
821
in eaie of daugai lolBdnitlf ipparant 1« jnatliy ipedal btac-
>f battle aa well ei that of the
impentiTa. It ia not only
lut (hare mu^t alao ba uultipliad
>U
aafeguirds and proriaiDnt Igainet damage by eliot, ehell, nm, am
torpedo aa well aa againat the enemlas which are camnion tool
ahipa. In the article Kavt the peculiaritiea of the ship of war w
described. Renrdiug them bare eimply a^ tMpL thay may be sold
to be diitiDgiiiabcd neither by aiie nor speed. They hiTe been far
ontatripped in tiie, the longtat Eugliah ship of war boilt within
the Uat twenty yein bring only S2S feet in length, while thera
are Atlantic i<uaenger eliipa 200 feet longer. Thry hura i1w>
bean outltripind in iMed. The higheat ai«ad ever attained in a
vosael of war la that of the •' Iria" and "llarcujy''; and as thty
era only 300 feat long it i> easier in Tssaela of greater length to get
higher speeds with leaa angina power, ipd caay also to maintain it
in 1 leaway both oa a quaetiou of form and jiowrr, and alio v a
matter of coal endurance. The foUowing Uble giTM the ralatiT*
dimenalooe of large ll-knot shija :—
"Adriatic,- |';!i"/
[White Star Line) ) -)rj -
H.K9. "Dreadnought,' I !^_
H.M.8. " Saltan," ^^t-' _
H.U.8. '■ Inflexible," I 5L» _
B.U.S. "Neptune," I ' IM •
lata "Independencii," | wTIii ~
^^^
dofenaiTa equipment
thip. The Brat-clui
bun and
The diffarencni between tba anount and complatlty of fitting
, the ahip of war and the marchaut ship ore repreaentad by the
-aatly Incroaeed coat par ton weight of hall. It miut, howeicr,
1 premised that the war ahip has the weight of hull kept down
I a. farv low atiadard to euible her to carry bar oBeaat^e and
■ than ie luu: 1 in the merchant
ship coaU £ZS pr ton weight of
ted hotao-power for the angioca.
ip of wii built by the same builders under contract with
remnictlC coata from £60 to £S& per ton weight of hull
-moured ahipa, and from £7D to £7S or more for innoond
deck orer machinery and magifiuM, recently ordered, the pricca
Oenenl aiaroga £00 ID DpoT ton weight of hitlL
ATsroge of thraa London £nna. MOO „ ,,
AcDa|^ tender ST 0 0 „ „
The enginea for the aome Tcaacl were :—
Genenl iTaroga £IS 8 0 per LH.P.
Arenga of thrae London fimia IT B 0 „
Accepted tender 11 8 0 „
In the cue ot a larger armoured aLip lb* ntaa were : —
ATcraga price per ton weigltt el bnlL £81 3 0
Accepted tender 71 6 0
Accepted t4!
3.P. ofai
11 :
7 0
T,P« ^SMpt.
nral-
.ss.
BaUla
sk
ITotadail
Un.™an?
leieUKncte.
istew
825
10.000
S,S20
8,100'
1,060
840
£811
£105
8630
48S
SSS
600
£ta
8430
1270
IBS
Ml
Itt
STO
«7-S5i
170
019
ise
77
£90
£90
88
81 -S
11-8
ii-o
2711
«ao
£378
3800
libo
19M
340
ebo
JEW
£S»-OS
■■ " K'eiT::i;aSi?'^'^n
Coat'of hall V too «'■(■ *«i8>>t
„ propelling machinery, per ton of ita weight
the iMTcbant vasaal and the war ship, which had not previonalj
eiiatad. The reriTOl of the ram and ttaa adoption of the torpsdo
tend to aboliah thJ* diftinctian and to bring abont on ■pprouina.
tion again.
It it dilScalt to nj wha^ in the jerj nut Man, will be the
diatdnguiahing characteriatici of tlia ahip of war. They will not
he (pBHi or aiia or cool endurance, or the power of striklug with
the ram, the torpedo, or the gnn. It will be quite eiey to arm
meithant ahipa with theai weapons, ind acme of these ahipa
82-2
SHIPBUILDING
alrady onMrip ttu wu tcmcI in tha ImpoMant uirinUga of
ail* mill BcsCnai and cirrjinK ]x>v«. Iti> ■)>nannl1j' is pm-
toetiTd adiiinliign {hit tht eneulial difTsniKH nill lie.
The msRliant ihip ii \milj providcil ■g&iuit latal dinuf^ hj
■dmittiid Into tlio tliip. Th> iiroptllini; machinery of IhsH ihipt
uul tboir iliirriiig oiijiarituj >» mlw dingonnulj eipcned to
•rUUorjr Gn. EMBpMng torrmlo bo.U, the ihip gf w gf anj
■In hu !U impelUnp Ducblnarj ailhor nnJor witor or ondoi
caier of armgur, md in » B"»' nunit" -' "■— '- -i"—
fotection for tho itourina »ppar»tiu (
ho »p[Mt)iiinitiou to*iTiLiwBr->lup»n
iti tho uivrclmiit ftliip i» the jidgptigQ ot
jjrcatcr bnadtb of uLip, » thtt dcroucca raimd mocidiiari maj bs
cnsttod In tiina of vir. Both theae changes in marc hut t-iliip
LrL'idlb tmUUhipi woulil eiutly roduce the risk of foundering in
collisions und giro more iiociom scGOinmDditiaii uniilihlpi. Sneh
incmua whon accgmpaniod by fill* cuds n ilu fivonnLlo to ii|iood.
tbcrt] Hfu two propellerL
igeiucnta which ii Hooded
or? tbati one acrew Hud of
■ 19 ■!» fi<
needed eecoritr Bralnet lUe eiil roanlta of an acrid
& ibftft, or k propeller. The limr vil! doublla
(ingle propellar In e large pesaonff
Tho piotootiou giTen to the ngolar «hip«-of-w«r bj aide annour,
or b; a protecting dock, at or near the watet-line, urill probably
bci^nle a definite and ludiipeoiabla (aatura iu them, aod may,
porhaju, be tlieir only djstingiualiing characteriatic, apart (rou
■ ■ sue of eTents, their eoano *iil
hipe-ofirir of the last century
.. haald proye to bo tho I
iTe tsen lei? indirect. In tho i
I Bttompt KH mad* la employ ai
■ ofp
Into the holda by m
might be
intmdnced in
:he IDgioc!
mish poeaagc ways in aotign for the crLt^cntar and
it at the inner lida of the nooden Kails of the ihi]
the walor-lioe, so that vheii shot entered Cliare tho h(
immediatelj plugged. When screw propulsion
thcHi shipn, and it was found pncticable to ke
boilen under eriler, It wonld hire beau poui
QHT the machineij and beneath the vatrc, which would ban
greatl; added to tho eccarlty of the enf ine>, boilers, and maguine).
The apace above this deck might alio taavB boon ao aubdividodinto
canipartmenta aa to hare protected the buoyancy and atsbility of
tho ship agalnat the Inmwdiately fatal reauICa of the invasion of
vater. The protection of the buoyancy and alabiliCy by thcso
ahip safe, but it would hare been of the ntniost valus aa compared
with ahipa, otherwiae similar, but bsvuiv no such protection.
Thirty years paaied between the date when screw. propollBrenginoa
woia plac«l beneath the wator-leTal in ahipa of warand that at which
a camnitlae on desinis, under the pivsidancy of Lord Dullerin, p:i>-
water-line nft-body. The propoMl of ths main body at the com-
mittcB was to aiHiciata inch a nft-deck fcr the protection of the
buoyancy and stability of the ship againit artillery with a central
armoured citadel. That of the minority waa to auppresa the armour
in the region of the water-line entirely, and to protect buoyancy,
Btabilitj, mnchineTj, and maguineo by a raft-deck alone. In ]fi7S
the plan aa indicated by the main body of the eommitlm wm put
into pru^tice nearly aimallsneously in tlio " Duilio" and " Dindolo"
In luly and in the ' luflaiibla ~ in England. . In 187S the ayvtem
although not in th* manoor they reoommanded. wai adopted in
much amaller Taasela in the Sritiali niTy. A raft-deck waa intro-
dnaad into ths "Comils' dais of conattea of £,SBO tana displace-
ment, a clan which was ragatdcd u nnarmoored. Since that date
nurly all claiaas of unarmourwl ships in the Englisl " "
bu cgme about that, ont of eome SfiO unai
re Engliih.
ihips of Bar bnill
- " ' -' L or
thB», S4 are based on the recommcc
deaigns; 18 of tham are Eneliih. Thi
with central citodela
■ii othet Zngliah ahipa
jidar-water protecting docks, built
ity yean ago, but the raft- body principle
docks, hi
jdy principle is absent
-Df-b«tt1a ship of ]84(
If the peisage from the ateam Ii
thf "AdnilnJ^elaiaotlB84had
the priucipla of the eomailttiH of 1871, Enrgpean natTgns would
not find themselvea poseeeaed of largo Aghting ahtpa covered ttaia
and to end, or over large araas of their aide*, witi thin artnonr.
psnetrkbla to » rery Urge proportl ' " ' '
Ibnt. Knt th* Mllon <i 13Sl-l8i
Lhall exploding bvtvoea docks, attliB^ S
to th* ablpa, end coiiverting the dacka, crowiled with nn, iii
alaughter-honaea. Thoir demand waa, " Keep oat the ihrlls* f.
it came about that Iron armour- ph>t«, tliick euanEh to kHiar.lS
moat powerful abell of the time, ware worked npon Iheniraofi!
ahipa, and the guns w«re fought through porta cut in thiism:^
Tbia feeling.waa so attoug that the iSigluh Adntirally buill \u
"Hector" and " Yatiant '^with annoured bstteHos overlap^i; I7
many feet at each end th* armour beneath tltem, which pnb^.
the baoyaucy, stabilitr, machinery, and magarinea. Cqat ::-
— ' in power, and the armour waa gradoally thickened to ipj;
I, oTtTft
■, throngh which hFotii
a annour hod eg reduced the pDiiBibleBiintino!i:.
if moderate aise, and the guns required for bnuL^
clad with ports cut through an annoured aide, ai
Franco by U. Jhipuy de hOme, and copied by ei
obtolale. Ouns most b« worked aingly or iu pairs u
tuni-t»bl«, *ach turn-table being anrvoonded by u
protecting the n
_', atabiliiy, mael
It that purpoee ori^Dj]!
retained In France for very large ahipe, is gircn up in lEilji'.
favour of a reft-body, and is retained partially in Eu^iij lai
Germany in conjunctinn with a raft-body.
The use of armour haa arTtatrd the deTelopmen t of the tbrH H.
it is not Inconceirsble that its abandgumenl In frout of lit b::
battdriei of guns in the C ranch and lUlian ahiga williariUikr
attack, and make existence in each batteries, it liiay (» it li
that case exposure will be acoeptAd, or a new demand male k
armour, at least against the maganne gnu and the vnicl:.6nif pa
If oxpoffure ia accepted, it will be on the grouod that tho im^
of men at the gnna ia now very few, that the gun poiiliDuui
nnmerans and the fire rapid, and that, if the gnna had ouii on
to be [ought through ports in armour, the number ol goa posti'a
wontd bs reduced, and tho [nignienta of thsii own walk, vln
ettncli by heavy projectiles, woold b* man damapng tku Ih
prgjectilea of the enemy.
Internal anDonr [gr the pretcction of the heavy amouF biwV
ing guna mutt be retained ao long aa auch guna m used, ai'i
they were abandoned an enemy could cover liimsclf with um:
iuTulnctafala to light artillery. This the French attempted U> ii
in inaugurating the ayatem. They have been drives tita 'a N
the grewth of the mm. Abandon the heavy gun, and caii|ilin
armour- plating might again be adopted.
We muat conclude that the buoyancy, itabilitj, maehiio;, •*:
magaiinea mnst be protected aa far ■* posaible agliiil ^
damage from a aingle blow of these armonr-br«ch!D| gun Tli
tendency will be to come to the lightrat form of suck praUrtiK
That lightest form appaati to be ■ protecting dock a btllo ilm
the water-level throughout the greatest part of its ■niCta. ^
alonlng down at the aidea and at the end4_*o *a to meet Ih> nv
walla of the ahip under the vnter-line. However the snnwa
arranged (apart from a complete covering with invuluEtAble j4il
■ng),— whether aa a bolt wiUl its upper e^ 3 feet onl of lln""!
aa in the French ahipa; sa a central arnionred citvlel ivd > no-
body at the ends, like the English and German ihipt ; oriliHlI;
body threughont, like the Italian thipa,— ahot holes in ictinnJ
admit water and gradually nduc* the neceasary liability el >*
ship. In the French ahipa the aaaiatanoe of the unirtneuni an"
parts ia as neoeisary to prevent them from u|weltilig in uTUk
bat snlggth water as is the aesistanc* of the nntimouieil »" <ii<
In tho English and Oernian ships. In the intact condilioii It
English ships have far greater stability than those of Fiinn. Ii»>
English ahipa a reserve of stability la provided, aesioit Ike «•■
tingency of lo*s by inJoHea in action. In the French ilips 10 B"
ia provided Chan ia reqnittd for the intact conditloi. Aa FnM
bave not acecplod the position taken up in Englind that av'
greater initial stability may be given to heavily-anuoaitd ^
ships than ia usually given, without oauaing bHvy rollinf *"
have they accepted the fWihar incontrorortibls truth Hut IkeM
passage of WBtor in tho raftbody from aide to side of ttj liip "
rolling li rspidlv offcctivs in q^uoUing the motion and Iirinpie »'
ahip to nst in tho upright position.
Th* nnpoUon of ahfp* by atila dilTiH ban the driflirtf
bodies in Iha alt before the wind in a moat fmpartiil n"
RUis ID^ drift 01 na in til* dlnct 01 '-' "*
SHIPBUILDING
wDl tlwa aSti tnm alr-bonw IiodlM onl; In ths etUDfuiMrt
■lowueM impaud b; the reditance of th> witei. EDiiiB limTing
the mjot loTietli u bnodtli, oi nther oppoaing the lane foriD ud
tnt to ilde prognas u to rDnrenl pro^cnua cflold nivsr do other
then Bail Man the wiod. No dls^ilbn ol cenvu could mako
thMa dariite to the right or laft of their coune to Inward. But
by u >]tcntian of form giving them greater length thiD bmdtlk,
■nd greater leuiCance to motion Bidsraji tbaii to motion cnJiriee,
tbiiT came to pDBseu the power of bebg able not onl]' tn nil to the
right or bn of the cdiii» of the wlnd.liefon the wind, bat also to
■ail towards the wind. The wind can be made to Impol them
ring bv meane of tlw
f the water.
^ be muQlunti], bnt by
■ailing obliquolj towirdi it Bnt to one aide and then to Qie otbn
progrcaa it made in advanoe, and the Tesael *' beati to windward."
The actioD le like that which would l« required to blow a railway
ilu-ard bj the action of an eaal«rlr wind. If the line
... ... ._._... sod the wind were alwaye direct
ot be done. But with a wind to
tlio Bouth or north of oiit, by eetting a aail In the car lo that ite
iurfw* lies belweea the roorw of the wind and the direction of the
rBlh, it would then receiTs the impolH of the wind on iti buck and
wonlJ drira the car forwards. There would be a large port of the
fom of tiia aind ineflectira because of the obliigaity of the aail ;
and of the part which is eifectire a large portion woold bo trnding
to force the cor aninat the nils siibwaya, but there would be
progression to windward. In the cua ot ths ship the mistsnce
of rails were dne ei
lultability of the proportioi
irogren in that direction as compared with ptDgnsa
still there ia motion tnnsrenely to the line of keeL
This motion ia called leeway. Aa the ihip morea to leeward and
ahead einiultaueouily there is a point ot balance of the forcea of
the fluid againit the immersed body— a centra oF fluid prcaenre.
The abject of the conatnctot ia lo place the maati in the ahip in
anch ponitlona that the centre of pressars of wind upon the uil>
•halt fall a tittle behind or aatem of thia centre of rsaiatance of
the Uuid. In that caae there ia a tendency in the ahip to torn
round under (he action of those two foicen, and to turn with har
head towarda ths wind. Thia tendency 1> corrected by the action
of the mdder. If the tendency to tnm woie the other way,
althou^ that cotild aLw be corrected by the mddsr, yet there
would De danger of the wind OTsrcoming the rudder action in
squalls, and uie ship would then come broedaide to ttie wind.
In tliat can, while she might tiave been quite capable of baring
the presroiB ot the wind blowing obliquely upon her aaila, *~
BelF oapaized by the direct impuleion of the wind upon tha aail
upon the hull of the ahip.
Many examples ofdlapoaitioa of calls might be giTeo. Theii
l-oaitlon ia always made to aaCiaiy ths oonditiona that aamDchaa:
noasibts is twmred, but if the Teasel i> (mail it ranat 1m capable of
being instantly lot go in a aqoall, or when the wind la gus^.
Otherwiaa, where it cannot be readily let go, Ita area shoiud ha
" sductioniusqually weaf---
jresaure of the wind ah<
ship. If a'
find mliaf, i
Otherwiaa,
sapable of reduction in squally weather, still retaining ita efficiencr,
so that no presaure of the wind ahould be capable of upsetting the
If a sudden violent squall should strike the ship she shonld
>t by a large inctination, hi
of the bolt-Topaa, or the carryinc away of
offered by the itatnlity of the ahip to a large Inclination. Shlpa
aroBometioiea, whenetmctbyaaquall, blown over on lo their aidea,
tho saile I»ing In the water. If the sails or span sic then cut
away or otherwise got rid of the ahip may right heraelt
In the TrajuaatwHt of the Inatilution of Naval Archltccta fc
1881, Ur W. H. White says :—
that, lalWanBlnlBcwhBtiall-qmMlMBbsaaKlyflnDleaiUntkSDaral
areMtHt jroetedaTa aseordanct with eoct nr pmalr soMMUlo nelkaaa
Bs k laiie> UbiHicsil Iqr tba tshUM of sipsriBDee with ethir ■hlpi.ud
tbaa Ewndi by eesjiattBtrB rather tlian tij dlract tanstl^Ulaa Iron test
ptInitelH. CaAabi anleDtUlo mlboda are enplaisd, at eooist. la aiakliia
£aH nirpaitBoiu. Fat anaaiBle, the rt^Unt maniiit at dinsrsrt aniles
■- -■ *^ - - ^r™^^ wtth Hie eotTwpwidltui ••- ■"
Bot^ svea wlica pbesessefTof tiUa eddNonal tafDnoswawj. mw ■»« ■vv""'h>
nnst ivort to eaperlenee In order to ai^raolate falrix Ihe Inllueai* of sH-
Dote euadjtinni nn IaHMnl4e ts tke hMt of a ililp ataloit
But, h pnoUoc. It fnguMtly kau*** Ihal hhIi hTaiuablt
can icaivelj be lapimtf la aaBOoMUoa vltta Dtber IniportaAt
aaalltlea, and a "- ' * ' " '
JkabnivWeta
autliDrilT at Um ptopesed Maodanla.
For tha different kinda ot sails, aod for adlouking, aee Sail
Tha "Comet" was the Brat stsam-vesael built in Zuropa that
plied with auCMa in any liver or open aea. She waa built In
Scotland In 1811-13 for llr Heuiv Ball, of Halembuigh, bavlng
been designed aa well at built by Ur John Wood, at Port-
Glawow, Tha little vessel waa IS feet long and 11 feet wide.
>■...-.__, ._! I l,„™.™,^, Jtih . ^..cl. I..FlL«l
It fonr horte-power.
^ned by the
jylinder. Bhe made her first voyage ii
regularly between Oiaagow and Groenoca m auuui » mu™ ma
hour. There had been an earlier oommercial eucceos than thia
with a ttaun vessel fai the United SUtea, for i atsamer called dis
"Clsrmont" waa built in 1807, and plied ancceeafnlly or ■' "-'
aon Eiver. This boat, built for Full
English fldD at Boolton t Watt. The reason lor init cnoico oi
en^neen by Fulton appeui to have been thet Fnlton hid aeec
■ sdll earlier atsamboat for towing in canals, also tniilt in Sootland,
in 1801, tor Loid Doadaa, and having an engine on Watt's doubli-
duff principle, ^ ' ' '
lomglettcra w
teimfci so fsr aa
employed becauss
Hie banks of tha OKuuM. mrcuKiusv, "... v."~ ->™. -— ——
by Mr William Symlncton, and he htd previonaly made a marine
engise for Ur Patrick Mil Isr, ofDalawinton, Dumfriiiaahire. This
la■^named engine, made in kdinburgh io 1T88, marks, it ia said,
the first laally satJafactory attempt at stssm navigation In the
world. It w»» employed to drive two oential paddlo-wheela in a
twin plsasnn-boat (a sort of "Caatalla") on l>alswiLton Loch.
The cylindara wei« oaly 1 inobaa in diameter, but a speed of
t milea an honr waa attalnsd hi a boat 2B feet long and
7 Itet broad. The fint ttsam veassl built In a royal dockyanl
was slao called tha "Comst." She appaan to have bean built
abont the year 1823, and waa engined by Boolton k, Wall
This thip had two anginas of forty hons-powet ea"- '- *^ ^-
tntood t
1, to be W'
neld, made tha naaaage at
ir earlier {1837! Caplaia
rm in ISll. Id ISSB the '
neuced the regular AlUntio passage under ateam. The latter
il, proposed by 1. K. Brunei, and engined by Maudslaj Son'
k Kald, made tho pasaaga at about 8 or 9 knots pm hour. One
' ~ ■ " ■ ^ientific veteran who
Jty bergs with their
I BlackwaU and back
at 10 miles an hour in a small sloam veaael driven by
The aonw did not come rapidly hi lo favour with the Adroiraltv,
and it was not nntil 1843 that they Brat became poasassed of a
acrew vewl. Thia venel, first called the "Uennaid- and
aftsrwarda the " Dwarf," waa designed and built by the late Hi
Ditchburu, and engined by Hews Rannls. In 18<1-S the
"Battler.'' the fint ahip-of-wsr propelled by a screw, waa built
for and by the Admiralty nnder tha general superintendenca
of Brunei, who waa alao snperintandina at the lams time tho
oonatruction ot tha " Ol«t Britain," built of iron. The enginaa
of the "Hattler." of aOO nominal home-power, wore made by
Utara Uandelay. They were oonttruelad, like the paddla-whea]
shaft, w
The Bait so
anhion,'
w sngiies made for ths Royal Mavy wste th«e
SOO nominal hone-power, mads In 1844 by
IL In tlMM the cjlilidwt to«k *>• hot
ofUu
Uillsi
824
lUS tbo iinportuics of the icrsw pi
bccuDB fuHy ncogrujAd, knd detigna
from (11 ths nrincind mirine engiaw
OoTenuioDt of tlut <I*y thes tao£ thi
S H I P B U
tTpa </t Knit enginx b gsagnd use.
r for
lip. or ^
B iOTitod
kbgUsm. Tb»
of ordorinff lit
ODCfl ninetften Hta of tcnw angioei. Six of thflse hid wbeal
gHrbig ; in kll tb* TMt ths sngiaea wera dinct-uting, Th« xtmrn
engine! indicatad twice tbe nominil power it
lod perTormUDCs. Tbg moat mcceuruT tngiBee
oenthoHor the "Amniit " and " EaconuUr " of Ueisn Psnn.
They lud jL higher Apeed of piston than the otben^ and the tir-
(eogth of atroko. Theae engiuea dereloped more powar for A given
Linount of weighC than other enginea of thair dnj, and were the
ramruonan of the tauy eicellenC gnginet oa the double-tmnk
pten mmde by thi* Brm for the DiiTy. The enginea with wheel-
not 10 tuccoaful u tbe othen, and no mora of tbit deKriplian
were ordend for tiie British datj.
Up to ]8fK) neither aarr>cs-caaden«en nor
uadin
e nsTj-
The I
i fuel
t 4t D. per
fitted rMpactiYaly
its engine*
^ In thi ,
"Arethn™," "OcleTii," imd Cqiiot»nce,'
by Uenn Penn, Uenn Ueudalay, and Me
01 lurge ofliuder capmcity to admit of gre*t eipunaion, with'aui
faca-coodenien and inparhuten to tfas boilers. Tboie of the
•■ Arethnu " ware double -trunk, with two cylinder! ; tbote at tha
" Oetivit " were three-oylinder en|!iau ; and tboao of th> " Con-
atuca " wera compouod eDginu with eii cylinden ; tbe Bret two
were worked with ateun of £5 lb piesenre per aqoira inch, and tbg
kat with etaam of 8! Hi pnaran. All theaa enginei gare good
rkdUi u to economy of fuel, but thoae of the ' ' Cjn.Unea " wore
die beet, ginng one Indicatad horaa-powor with Sji tb of fuel. But
the angYDoaof tbe "Cooatanca" ware eiccaaiTelv complicated and
heiTy. Tbay weighed. incIndiDg water in boilen anil fittbgs,
■bout 5^ cwte. par maumnm indicated hom-power, whenaa oidi-
nary ciiginea rariad between S^ and 4f cwta.
ITor thg nait tan yean en^naa with low-pr«aaiira atsatn, auilaoe'
condanaan, and Ivga cylinder capacity ware employed almoat
•volufliTely in the ahipa of tbe Royal Nary, A few con^iognJ
en^nee, with etaam of SO lb pmura, ware need in thie period
of tbe working parta. Compannd encinea, with higb-ptttaura
■team [US lb), were lirat used in the Koyal Nbtt in 1887, on
Ueaan H>u<i>Uy'> pUn, in tbe " Siriu." Thaee liara bton Tary
aaoaeairnl. In the Koyal Navy ai wall as In tha mercantile
narins, the compound aneine ia now generally adopted, Tbey
ban baan made ntbar haaTter than tha engines which IiumedialelT
precaded tham, but they an about !E per cant, mora economical
In fnaL and, taking a total weight of maeliinery and fuel b^thi
^era la ttoin It to 20 par oanL gain in tha diatinica nm with
giran weight
Wronght-iron ia largely ued in tha ftamlnff in tha nlaoa of aai
iron, and boUow propalfer shafts
]frThomycro(t,orChiawick, andolhen, bf means of high nt« of
obtained as much as 1511 indicated bona-powar with s total weig...
of machioerr of 1 !{ tone, inclnding water in boilera Tha orJinary
weij:-hC of a seagoing marine angina of large aise, with econamic ~
consumptioB of foel, eieeptlng a few of very reoont eonntigctior
would be si( or eaien timw ss great By cloaing In tba atoki
holes and employing fans to create a pressure of sir in tbei
ee]iab1e of anstainlng fnm one to two inches of wat«r in the gauges
the coneumptloD of coal »r si[nare foot of fiie-grite per houi
be raised to 130 lb and npirards. The indicated horse-]
which Dan be obtained in ordinsry oases with tbe ateam-bli
tha ehlrasey to quicken ooommption doss not aicaed tau. But
bj tlH forved dran above dcncribad it can be rained with ordinary
boilen to ir to IS indicated bone-power per aquan foot of fire-
grata In torpedo boat* with JoeomottT* boilen otst W horse-
ar toot of fln-gnte le attainable.
"re taken from tha work
lia^ilo'
ra-gnte le
Tha following oheerrationa on a<E
of Hr Bennett on Tfif Uarim Steal
" In erery maohlne then are alwsn c«tein eanasa acting tbat
riduoe waste ol work, so that tha whole work dona by tha marhini
not nat[nlly employed, soma of it bdsg exerted In orarcomiiif
tba friction of tha mechanism, and soma wasted In Tariptia oChei
ways. Tha fraction repreaenting the ratio tbat the nsadil work
done bean to the total power aipendad by tbo mic
•Odaaey of tha maeliipa ) or—
I L D I N G
In the marina ateara engine, in which the nsefnl work i< m
in esch of wbicb a portion of tha initial energy it wasted, u
tour eansas all tend to decrease tha efflcieucy of tha ong
of the beat yieldsd hj tlu
" In the Gist place, only a portion of I
imbuaCioD of ths coal in the furnaces ia
" Secondly, tbe steam, after leaTJog the boiler, has to p*''<wni
mechanical work on the piston of the engine ; but thia work.
in consequence of tbe narrow Uniita of tempantnre hsfrfln wkirh
the engine is worked, is Duty a email fraction of tha total Ii«(
conlainad in the ateam— say from t to ^ aocording ts tha kisd
of engine and nte of eipaotioD employed. This fraction, tmfn-
senti^ tbe ratio of tba meidianical work done by the ateaiB to tbo
total amount of lieat contained in it, is called the aacianej of tb*
steam.
" Thirdly, in the engine itself a part of the work aetoally p«r-
farmad by tbe steam on the pistons is wasted in OTarcomfng llw
friction of the working parti of the machini * ' * ' ''
o tbe toU! pi
;ienoy
of the I
Fourthly, the propeller, in addition to driring the ahip alnd.
expends some of tbe power tianamitted to it in agitating aaJ
churning the water in which it acta, and the work thoa perfDmiMl
iiwaated,— the only n«ful»ork being that employed inoremmiag
the rasistalce of the ahip and driring her ahead. Tba ratio of tUa
iuefnl_ work to the total power expended by the propeller ia emllod
iie efficiency of the propeller.
'The resultant efflciencj of the m
engii
four efficiencies just staled, and la giveu by
of the four facton representing leapectiTely the <
the boiler, the steam, the mccbaniam, and the p
improTemaol in the efflclrncy of tbi
prnpelkr. An
Under SrEAH Enoine will ba found a disciuision at tha first
three of the efflcioocin anumcnfed abova PropnlaioQ and [ss-
peDan bare to ba considered hem.
nya Ur aydne]
I direction opr
;cJ
arly all marine pro|Hllem work,*
; of the required njption of tba ti
:ted backwaida by tha propeller is evacttyeqaal
to the rwiistanoe oiporienced by the ve»eL When it ia dearly
undoratood that propulsion la obtained by tbe reaction of a atM
of water projecrad stemwards with a Telocity rrlatire to Bnooth
water, tba absurdity is at ooce Been of attempting to get a [ro-
propelllnff reaction except in the limiting eaae where the ntrnm el
water acted upon is infinite. The whols problem thersforo reeidTn
Itwlf into Ihu— What is tbo beet proportion between tbo maaa ct
water thrown sstem and tbe Telocity with which it ia projected,
that ia. if the icraw propeller is under consideratioii, tlw ratio
between ita diameter and ita pitch I"
" Then are four different kinds of propellen apart fhmi aib-
the oar, tha paddle-wheel, the screw, and the water }et
"The flrrt -■'-'■•— ' •' -' '
ware. Ths
brought hack aboTe the wate'r ; or its action may ba contiiinoaa, as
in sculling. When need aa in rowing it ia exactly analagoBs to a
paddle-wheel, while tha action of the acull clasely resembha that
It la auppoaod that in the anrlent gallsTi, which
rowen gonerally lat with their facea outwards and £>r
was great orerhang of tbe aidae to allow of aoTenl t
luatruiuant To obtain the maiimum sSciency out
ataat preasun should be maintained npcm tba oar. so th
is started gnutniUy trtsi tnt and tba accelendon n:
croaseJ throughout the whole of the atroka A g^anre
Speaking of tbe i...
(peed with which water c_
npou the head of water a
SHIPBUILDING
riant te ascloda 4I1 a hnd of mtw aqninlait ta SO feet 1* ■ap-
plied bf Uie itBiaaplieni, u hu been pnated ant by Pior. Osboraa
Bejnoldi. Eip«riinBDt* on tha moilel of tha Thomycrofl Wiir
"'"""' noj, which ii Mmnch M 70 per cent
II !.__...,. when br««l[iiig
bat wu niaj troi
"Thw» if
•craw. Ai > ntial piMca Umnuh th* vttar tb* t.
motiea to tha kjar M mlvr lubbing ipunit the iMe.
Thb
irtbe I
hlu Lfaa Kra* tbe ntOT ibatl bnvg
11 of tha ahip the tnoEf put ioto it bj tbe
'ipUoftdbehiodKbluO'Meni ao that Iti
n thiokneia towuda th« ateru, iO tlut, aftsc tba Tcaaal
hu paaaai tbron^, a coiuidenbla ^luntit j </t water ii left witb
thii water it ia able to racova
expended by tha ahip
water, which Banhina eatimata may be aa mach *a one-tenth of
tbe ipeed of tha Tuaaal, dooa not depend upon tbe form but nnon
tha luUiia and extent of tba gurfaca. Ai it ii ■ neceitlty that
than •honltl be mch a wake, it i) a dlatinct idniDtaga to placo
tha propeller In it and allow it to ntili» aa ninch a* poawbl* of
tho an«R7 it find! then. It la imjwrtaitt not to confound thia
water, which hai had motion gircu to it i)y tha aida and bottom
of tha ihip, with tha ware at npUcemant, that ii, the water HlUng
in behind tha ahip. Itafaenld be the aim to interfere ■■ little a*
poaiilile with thia motion, la mch interferenee angmenta the rcaiat-
mnoe of the ahip rerr oonaideiably, eren in welirormed ihipa.
Tho propeUer ahould UierefDTa be kept aa far awaj tnm the atent
In tha nnall bigh-apead atern launchaa the prepellar hu bean
kopt outside tha rudder, with adTaatage to tha apaed. What it
nijuLnd ia that before reachlr~ "*"" "^" — '""
Riren out upon the al
bow. If a acrew propeller ia plac^
anpply of water ia imperfect It wil
the driTing face, and throw it o9 round tbe tipa of tha bladea, like
a centrifo^ pump, thui producing a loaa or prfiaaure npon tha
ateni oF the TaaseL For Tery high ipwdVeaseli several propellan
woold enable tha weight of the machinery to be kept dowu. Tha
weipht of aa eogiue of a ipTni t]^ per indicated hone-power
Tanea inrarclT aa the nnmber at nrmutiaiia par ninnte ; that la,
the greater tbe Dumber of tanJotiona the uaa tha wnght par
indicated bone-power.
"Tbere ii a certain quantity of woHc which moat be loat with
any pnpeller, and it ia equal to the actual energy of tba diaohariged
■rater moving aatem of the propeller with a Telocity nlitire ta
itill water. Aa thii energy Tariaa la the weight multipUad by t}ie
iqaan of the velocity, if we double the quantitr of water acted
.... 1 .11. .> jjjjj j^ijj y^j^ canea, but if wa double the
charged we Inereaae the 1{«
„ ifactinKupoualataacolunin
of water, and having it with as amall a apesd aa poanbla ralatlTe
to Htill water. For thia reaaon the acrew la a mere efficient inetrn-
ment than a faddle-whael, and the jet propeller, with iti imall
area of jet, ia no mnoh interior te the acre*. From the alxna con.
■Identioni it wonld appear that tbe larger the diameter of a lonw
and tha aoalter tlie allp Um greater tha effldency wonld be.
There ia, howerar, another elanwnt of loM wliioh baa to be con-
■iderod, which Imposea a limit to the atu of a lorew in order to
obtain tha beat emciaDcy. Tliia elemant 1* tha friction of the
acrew ' bladea. Bow large tha attbvt of tbl* element may be ia
■hown by tlie etae of M.H,S. 'Iria' Thia ahip waa originally
Btted with two fcur-bladed pronailera, 18 feet la diameter, and
with 18 feet pitch or velocity of adrance per revolntion. She
obtained a niead with tbeae propellen of 1E| knots with an ei-
nenilitnre of BSM hone-power. Two bladea were then taken
from each propeller, radncing tha tobi sunber from eight to
foni. The indicated hone-power than nqnirvd for the aama
speed was 13BS, or two thousand Icaa horse-power. Tliia amoLint
had been loat in driving the foni additional bladw."
"The causes of loss of work incidental to jnoneUen of diiTerent
kinde may lie summed up is follows : — (1} SaddoDDasa oi change
&om -velocity of feed to velocity of discharEB. Propeltan which
aulTer from tliia cause are tlie radial paddle-Aaal and the common
uniform pitch aonw ; while those which in varying dwree avoid
it an the gaining pitch acrew, tha feathering padiUe-vSieel,
Huthven'a form ot centriFugal pump, and the oai. • (2) Tnna-wae
moUon impmaed on the water. Propellcn which loea in elSalUHfy
from thia cause are ordinary screw -propollon, whicb impart rotary
motion, ndial wheels, which give both dmrnwnrd and niniaid
motion on entotiog and leaving tha watrr, ami oars, which impart
outward anil inward motion at tbe commenceingut and end of the
stroke nepectively. This loss is greatly rednceil ia the guide-
propeller, aa the goideg (oka the rotary motion out ot the water and
atillie it in BO domg. ' (S) Waste of energy of the feed water. Thia
ia aiparioDOCil in the jet propeller aa gouonlly appliod. *
... « double
velocity with wh
rourfotd. This aliowi the adi
Tba prsswt eandltloB of tha eua of screw itootnship prapidalon
appeara, aoonding to Hr Fronde's estimate, to b» that| calling tha
eSictlTe horae-powar (that ia, the power itue to tho net roiiatauce)
■■"" " * the' hl^MSt aiiaeda tlie borae-powor roquirod tr
Inoadt -• ' ' -"^- ^
the throat ot tha SO
>i '
pump naistanee pwhan 18 mon ; add to this 2S fer slip id screw,
snd wa find that, in addition to tba power reqoind to overoome the
net tHtstanoe-tOO, ws Dead 40-t-]0'|-87-»-I8 + 3t, mahing in all
368; ia., at n—imill' qissds tiis indicated power of the engines
needa to be mon than t«a-Biid«-balf timaa uuC which ia dlraclly
effaotiTa In pmpnlaian. 'M. B.)
BaOmildiitg.
Tbe for^jnlnsartiole may he supplemented by a brief account ol
boatbuilding. The dlttiuction between thii and sbipbnildinR la
not of a rruuked character and cannot Iw sharply defiuod. But
for all practical purposes tho builder of a vosel without a deck,
or but partially docked, and propelled partly by sails and partly
by oar^ or wholly by oua, may In de&ned as a boathnilder.
Tbe boats in generai use at present may iw classified as racing
bonte, plaoaun boata, or boaU naed lor oommBrciol jiarposea.
Bacicg boata (oompara Rowino) are generally built of mahogany,
aud an tluunoat perfect specimens of the boatuiitder'sart. Theont-
rigger sculling boat measDfes from M (oSt feat long, IS to 11 inchea
in bnadth, and D inchea ia depth, weigfaiiw only {roin Si to 4t lb,
and the eigbt-oand outrifgsr, baisKtrMn BG toM feet lone by i
feet 2 ijiohea to 2 feet S inchea in creadth, weighs about ioO A.
Pleaaore boats vary in form and dimensions, from tha l»-feet row-
ing boat used on the>ea.coaat to tbe gondola Qrpe found |irincipally
on the cauala of Venioe and n»d occaiioDally on the Thamea, kc.,'
for cenmonial pageanta Boata used for commercial purpoaca
embrace fishiug, canal, and ahifs' boats. Fishing boata (compare
risHiitiBB) are arid ually paiiing from the ephen of the Iwat-
bnilder to that oT the shipLuilder,— the opeu hosts of former yesra
being LnTEonyeaaes replaced by large, strong, decked craft more able
*- -?■■-—' "- gales of the British ooBsts. Canal br-'
rally lo
r, and aballow, from liO to 70 feet long by 8 to 11
ing, narmw, and abaUow, from liO to 70 feet long bj
breadth, and from 1 to S feet in depth. All ^ „ „
Tenels an required by ststnte to be provided with boats folly
equipped for use, not fewer in nnmber nor lees in their enbioij
contents than wliat is apeciiled for the class to which the ship
belongs. The hosts vsry consldembly in form
-_ ... * — .-^1 __j __^_- — -r„_ ----irding ti
:..j
ud.,
,•■;«..
is requind t^ carry ia sli or seven, according to the
the Mats, in either ease two of the largest ooats m
lifeboats- If tbe smaller namber is carried, the eM
two lifeboats, one laanch, tivo cutten or pinnaov, a
Lifeboats are built both ends alike, having a shee
midshipa towards stem and stem of } Inch to ] Inch per toot ot
length. They have atr-csaes of copper or vellow mstsj fitted in
the ends and along tbe sides of the boat, of sufficient apsclty 1"
give each penon carried in the boat one and a half outjla feet ol
strong enclosed air-ipace (compare vol. xlv. p. S70). Cntters are
similar in form but of smaller dtmeo^ione then lifeboats ; pinnaces
a of lighter oonstructlon and finer lotni than pinnkoaa.
dingy is aleo carried, for the oenfeyanca si
6 ihore and the vessel. Boats, when carriad
if a steamer ai to be itijuriDUsly affected by
iied, the keel, stem, stem, >nd*deadwaod kneaa being of wood,
to which tbe plating ia attached.
The rollowins is an outline of the method of constluctioiL Tha
les and body-plan of the craft.
designer lays down en pap^i
vhi^ are afterwards tnoed f
loft From these tnll-siied
and stem posts, having l»en
:liona
Then
the keel
the stem snd stem posts to the keol, snd ore bolted with throi „
bola and clenched ouaide over a ring or wsshor. A etont battSD
of wood b then nailed between the stem and itcmpost heads to
oonnnct them together, and a tine is then stretched from stem te
stempost to represent the water-lino. The kiel, stem, and atem
poets bring in position on the stocks, the stem and stem posts ore
than plurnbod and secured by Slavs of wood. The mbbota in the
krel, stem, and atem posta are then cut cut with a uliiHel, afta
which the moulds are put Into tbcir praivr )Jacoi% plumbed with
the water-litic, and kept in i>OBltlon by stays. The planking is
tlion prccfcded wilh, straka iftur strake, aud whan tbo boat is
iilimkad up to the top (tnke the floora and timbcn an put in.
The door eitenda aoHs the keel and up to the tnm of the bii«,
They are fastened tbnmgh tho keel with copper or yellow mc^
Iwlta and to the liaukiug with oopior noiLx ~
XXI — 104
The timban gtncnllT »" A<Mt 1 inch by f inch, uid an ■><
■rat of ■ bIhii pisce of Alosri<iui elm, then iiluied ud roandi
After being (tamad Ifaaj an lltlcd into ttae EoBt, Hid u eoon
etch i« in pwilion, "nd before it coole, it ii nulod fut with copj
Diil*. The gnnmle Ii nuit fittmi, a piooa of Amorioui Elm nbou
iuchoa iqiun i h bnaat-hook lb fitted forwmd^ binding the gunva
top itnike, at«Ti,.am
8 H I — S H I
throngh the piair«lo ud top Btaka'ud ■!» tlmogb tk> tltwvt
and knee. TEa boat geuetJly reeoii-M th™ otnta of inint ■•d »
■tnke.
iwl to the tT
n bj eithn
the gunnis, OD th* top of which tba thwarti or ssit* wt Tha
tfamrb ■» ncured b} knees, wtiicli ira bitcaed with olencb bolu
lefolfowiugantbedime
■ orhoatiintheDiit
SHIPLEY, a town of EDglanil, in (he West Biding of
YorkBhire, ia nituated on the aoutii baak of th« Aire, in
the neighbonrhood of & picturesque pastoni 'country, at
the junction of the Leeds and Bradford Bailway with the
Bradford, Sbipton, and Colne line, 3 miles north of Brad-
ford. The church of St Paul, an elegant Btructare in tha
Qothic stylo erected in 1820, waa altered and ^improved
in 1ST6. The manufacture of noraled is the' principal
iudiutiy, and there are large stone qnorries in the ueigb-
boarhnod. A local board was eetablisbed in 1863. The
population of the lu'baik sanitary district (area 1406 acres)
in 1871 was ll.TEIT and in 1B61 it was 15,093.
SHIPPING. The inland of Britain (to the shipping of
which the present hiatorical notice ia maiuly reetricted) ia
well fitted to serve aa a commercial depM, both by the
aambec of it« natural harbours and the variety of ita pro-
ducts. There is evidence that Phtcniciaa traders visited
it for tin, and in after times it asrved as one of the
gnumriea of tha Roman empire. On the other hand raw
wool was the staple article of commerce in the Middle
Agea, while tha supremacy of English manufactures in.
modem days has contributed to the developmeut of British
shipping til! it has grown out of ftil comparison with any-
thing in ancient or niodinval timea.
Britain must have been one of the most distant points
that waa visited J>y Phtunician or Carthagiaiaa ships.
Adventurous as their sailors were when compared with
those of other races, and ready as they were to carry on
trading on behalf of neighbouring stales, 'it is not clear
that they ever sailed across the Indian Ocean or ven-
tured beyond the Persian Gulf, even in tha service of the
Egyptians (Brugscb). Their coasting habits led to the
settlement of a chain of colonies along the Hcditenanean
shores, and that sea was wide enough to form a convenient
banier between the Qreek and tiie Carthaginian settle-
ments. When their empire waa at length destroyed the
Romans became the heirs of their enterprise, but do not
qipear to have pushed maritime adventure much further,
or opened oat many new commercial connexionB.
Though the Ai^e and Saxon tribea were doubtlcM
skilled both in shipbnildiog and in the management of
their veesels at the time when they conquered Britain,
these arts had greatly decayed dnring the four centuries
that elapsed before the time of Alfred, who endeavoured
to improve on eidating models (Bnff. Chnnt., 697). Eetace
the necessity of resisting the Dane^ with the sabsequent
fusion of Danish and other elements in onr nationality,
may be taken as marking Che period when English shipping
had its rise. Apart from incidental notices of communi-
cation with other lands, there is clear evidence, from the
oarly English laws, of efforts to encourage commerce, par-
ticularly in the status which was accorded to traders and
the protection afforded to merchant ships. The whole of
these arrangements seem to imply that tha merchant was
the owner of the vessel, who " adventured" with hia cargo,
and s^led in his ship himself; bat these voyages
probably undertaken for the most part to porta on
other side of tha Channel, i
English ships penetratad to
time of the crusades.
The steady development of English shipping dnring tht
Norman and early Plautageaet reigns may be inferred
from the more frequent intercommunicalJon with tiie
Continent and the many evidences of the iDoressiDg
importance of the commercial classes and tisding lowaa.
In the time of Edward IIL the shipping interest aailet«d
a temporary check from the removal of the ata^de to
England, a step which was taken vith the view of sttiact-
ing foreign merchants to visit England (1353). llis
policy, however, waa soon revereed, and the iwgn of that
monarch was on the whole favourable to the developmeot
of shipping. He waa himsalf fond of the sea, and coat-
manded in person in naval engagements, and t^ takiag
possession of Callus and enforcing hia soverugntj ovir
the narrow seas ha rendered the times more favuraUe
for the development of commerce. More than oite of the
noble families of England have dcaceoded from the net-
chant jmncea of tha 11th century. By tiiia tima also the
compass, which had been introduced in a mda fonn a*
early aa the 12th century, hod hecn improved ajid Lad
come into common use. But many yeora were to d^as
before the enterprise of the 15th and 16th ceatoriea made
the most of the new facititiea for undertakiog long voy-
ages ; and the fortanes of Eoglisb ahipping, m» depicMd
1^ a contemporary (Libell of BnglitAe Policy, 1436X «*•-
tioued to vary according to the state of p^tiotl eoa-
nexions with the Continent and the soccesa of Engliii
monarohs in "keeping the narrow eeaa" free from the
ravagea of pirateo. During this centoty, too^ w» hear Ut
more of organizations of merchants to foreign paiti, and
<3l struggles between different bodies of traders. Th*
" Merchants of the Staple " dealt in raw wcxtl and the
other staple commodities of the realm, which thery exported
to Calais ; the " Merchant Adventnrui," a powerful use-
ciation which had developed out of a religions guild, dealt
chiefly in woollen cloths, but they traded with any port
where they could get a footing. . This brought theta into
frequent colhsion with the "Merchants of the House,"
who had had a footing in London since before tits Cn-
quest. The chief attempt at accommodation took place in
the time of Edward IV. (1474), but the quantsla and r»
priaals continued till the discovery of the New World b^
revolutioniied trade, and the Hausa League, expelled by
Eliiabeth, were unable either to ii^jnre octo oompeto with
English shipping.
Considering the interest which all the ^idor manatthi
showed in developing shipping,! ^q^ the proverbial bold-
ness and enterprise of the Cabota, Raleigh, Drake, uJ
other sailors, it ia remarkable that EngUod obtained n
little footing at first in the new lands which were dis-
covered by Colnmhua (1492) or along the route that was
' Tha aUbliahnent of TMnlty Bona by Boaj TmTAvk^^
after piloti, booja, kc, in ISIS, Is the moat lispaitaDt nsatt d Ml
aaia tor ahlj^iuig.
SHIPPING
827
opened up hj Yaaeo da Ouna (U96). Erantiully ihs
inherited maeb of tlie oommercial empireB of Spain,
Portugal, Holliuid, and France, bnt there wee atill com-
parativelj littls permanent acqniaitioa, or establishment of
trading fitcteriea, at the cloae of tlie 16th eentuiy. The
fact was thai inch nodertakiage vere beyond the power of
private tiaden, aed that Elizabeth was too peDonona to
make an^attampt on such a scale as to command succesa.
It waa hj the formation of compaDtes that the difficnitj
was at length orercome, aod that anociated traders, or
trader* wOTking on a joint stock, were able to eatablUfa
fnctoriee in foreign parts, and that to give a new impetiu
to EDglbh shipping. The African Company and others
were failarea, bat there were many which h%d a long and
anccesaful cueer. Tbe LeTant Company was established in
1581, and had factories at Smyrna. The Eastland Com-
pany traded with the Baltic ; it was established in 1ST9, and
had factoriee in PrUBsia. The Hndaon's Bay Compuiy b
much more recent, and only dates from 1670. Bat by far
the greatest of these nndertakinga was the East India
Company, which was founded in ISOO, and which, after a
long atrnggle with commercial rival* at home and Dutch
competitor* abroad, attained at length to the sovereignty
of a large empir& The chief cause of complaint against
thn company in the early stage* of its existence lay in the
fact that it was a joint-stock company, an3 that therefore
the proprietors bad a monopoly of a valoable trade ; the
greater part of the other companies were regulated com-
panies, and membership was open to an; British subject
-who liked to pay the entrance fees and join with other
merchants. The inercbaDts thn* aseociated agreed to
abide t:^ certain speciGed ccmditiona, ao as not to ^nhI
the markets for one another, but develop the ttade in
-which all were interteted in a manner which should be
Hdrantageoue toaU. The Levant Company and Merchant
Adventurer* were regulated companies, and they led the
attack on the East India Company as the monopoly of a
few which iiynred the trade of other merchants. The
controvei^ raged daring the reigns of Jamea L and
Charlo* L, and many of the leading merchants of the
time — Man, Halynee, Uisselden, as well as Wheeler, the
eecretaiy of the Merchant Adventnrere — took part in it
The ndvocates of the East India trade argned that, owing
to the immente distance of their factorie* and the special
difBcoltieH of maintaining their position alMttad, it was
impassible to carry on tneir trade except on the jdnt-
steck principle, and their plea prevailed in the long mo.
llie Merchant Advenbuera and the whole syetenl iA
r^olated companies is lees familiar to ns in the present
day, and it may be worth while to indicate the sort of
regobtions which were imposed on the members. One
Bcriea of rules was directed at regulating the total export
trade of certain clasaes of goods to the chief Continental
ports, io that the markets abroad might not be over-
stocked, and that they might always be able to get
rpmunerative pribes. OtiiBt regulations allotted tbe pro-
]iortion of goods which each member of the company
ehould export, and the terms as to credit and so forth on
which he shoold deal Each factory was carefully n^-
lated BO as to secure a respectable and orderly life among
the merchants resident almied ; none of them were to do
buHinee* daring the time* of public preaching ot on faet-
diys ; and there Was a curious administiative system by
which the compliance of the memben with them regula-
tions was enforced.'
Those English merchant who traded to towns where
tbe Advontnrers hod a foctory, but did ^ot comply with
tlicir regulations, were st^fmatiied as " interlopets," and
Ibcy wore ){roatly disliked by the rc^lar traders, as they
' WlMMhr in Brit. Km. AiM. MS. IWlt,
were accused of spoiling tlie tnaHnt in tariou* ways and,
gtoeroUy speaking, trading on any t^ms for an immediate
advant^ without regard to the steady and regular devel-
opment of commerce. At a later time, there were ioter-
lopeie within the East India Company's territoriee alsa
The formation of these large oompanie* for the purpose
of nndertaking lotCg vcyage* mark* a great revointion in
the shipping of the oountry. The differentiation of the
mercantile and defensive navy became more eomfJete.
There had of course been a certain number of royal shipa
from a very early time (see Navy), but the fleet had not
been nearly muntained in the ]6tb century, and the
defence of the realm was practically left to individuals ot
associations. As late as the time of Elizabeth we find
that the same thing was tbe tMe, and that the fleet which
harassed the Armada conaiated very largely of merchant
ships. In the time of the naval wars with Holland, how^
e*er, this is greaUy i-tin«gi«<, and the navy was much
more effectively orguiized and regularly maintained. But
even vrhen tbe royal navy was tbus organized it was felt
that its oontinned eSeotlTeae** must depend on the
maintenance of merchant shipping. The two were still
interoonneeted, and just becMiae special importance was
attached to this arm as a means <k defence there was a
great deal of legislation for the purpose of indirectly
promoting shipping and providing seameiL lltiB was one
of the aspects in which, the prosperity of British flsheriea .
was specially attended to; tbe consumptloa of fish was
stimulated by insisting on the obearvance of Lent and
of weekly fasts on WeonsMlaya and Fadaya, when " t
eating of fish was required puitically and not apiritoall]
J.6,5
was required puitically and not api
13, I Jas. L 0. aSX uid this was p
. tuaUy"
39X uid this was printnpally
done as a mean* of inducing men to take to a sea&ring
life^ and so to fit themselves for the defence ti tbe
country and for the manning of our mercboiA ships.
Considerable progress hod also been made both in tho
art of *a-iling and in the building of ahipe. lbs veee^
which composed tb* dset* of the crusaders appear to have
been foi the most part galleys provided with a double
TOW of oaia ; the huge prows which gave a superiority in
hand-toJiaod fi^^ting with a gt&ppled vessel were of no
advantage whan the ass of cannon had revolutionized
naval warfare. We thus find that the ships of this period
were built on a different model, and many indncements
were held out to those who built large ships. Both
Eliabeth and Charles offered bonntie* for tbe building
of larger etaft (100 and 200 tons) ; in 1597 800 tons
waa iSe krgeet veoel that an EngUsh yard turned out.
The legialature alao waa moat assiduous in endeavouring
to enooorage this induatiy. The importation of naval
stores of aU kdnd^ the growth of hemp for cordage and
of timber, were matters of constant care, both in England
itself and in the policy which was dicteted to her colonies.
It ii eaiy anongh to •<« that in th«a cus the aneoniafCBiaant
of ihipping Ku imdnrtnken as aa indiraot Baana of increasmg the
poww ot Uia coiutrv, and the nnw tbioff U trM <^ ths mmtili-
cBted UTangemimti Uut wars Bude r
to trmda in parttculsr irtldaa or witi
Diu it of eoorM hmiliar with the &— ^
IStb eenterias sflbrt* wen nuds to ngnlat
■ilvermightba broBohtinto Knsluid. It
rate the expsdiaata tW wan adotitad at different timaa, or to die-
cm tbe taxed qoeation h to how far those wbo adTOCStsd ths
ajFitam ware in eimr. Then cu bo no doubt thit the poaaouon
ot a tnunn •■■ TSally Inportut for polidial puipoaee, sod tbet
tnde was tha tmly mesna bj vhich a atite which poaKiaed no
_- — .._.j —ginat tnuon: and it it ot ooonepoamblB that aoma
r..., ._ ,.., ... _. the dedr»b"=- '~
tirabi oonntrica trow
ut during tha 17th and
.ta trade ao that gold mnd'
of tho
tha
Klidoal purpooee of atoavdug weidth in this fornL
ndamoDtal principle of tliie tyitau of oommercini policy by
the connaiioa which mu felt to exlK batmen tnde and iaduitry.
Trade, it wu njd, etimnlsted indmlij liy prortdini a new niorlitit
tor its flvducti. It two comilriH tnde todsttier, each will
atimalste ths trade of the oUier (9 fome ^axton^ lint. If Busbind
SHIPPING
hija nw pnteab fcani Poitupl laS-VartoffH bun
cloth bom Ki^imd, tlian tba opcntlDD of tnds Intii
■Mb tiwt tWtogil MimnktH Kogliih indubT tmd
• f*r lifgv axMut tluia Eogliih cauainptlon
It nt Fortn^ ; it wm beluT«d tliat thia nUtivs
■dmalos BMt bo datwtMl br aumiDiug tho balBOCe ot tnds.
ud tint. It Gjr «n imtaiiMi ■4}iutinaiit of datiw tb* tabnoe could
btkoj^iuharbToar. til* tnd* would b* bmwfltiiig England mors
tbu it (tJnmUttd tba prcigw of bar poiilbla liTBlL In Ihs
pmont dar w* look u As Tolanw of tnda and trntt tbst both vs
pinna ) la tboaa oaotmiaa Utej lookod at Iha kind of gain tlut
■ooniad and triad to ami* that Engtand nlned mora than bcr
MHibU aumiw. Thna it-wa* gauerall]' haTd that b; commercial
Intanoiina batwaaa Easlaad ud Franca th« Fnncfa ninod nla-
O'Aj moia tban tba Eadiih; to tha lagiaUton ot the tima it aaamed
dwinbb to impcM taek nradmasa ai ahoold altar th(a atita of
■lUn, or, tl ao lanamaot Mrald bo ooma to oa tba tanna of ■
tnatf, tba tnda Aoild ba itoppad altogatbar, lart bj oontinaiiig
to onrtMltim Zoduid la trade tba Franeh dioold be enabled to
orecbilaiKO bar &■ powr. ^xn Idaaa ot oommarcEai palicT
doalnlod tba whtU of Britfal le^^atkn for ihippiBg> from tba
baglniihig of the 17tb ontoiT till attn the Hanleoaie wan i the
pntfarance wbloh wm ^*en to Bngliab ahipe, Ei^liab built and
Eagllak wotnad, waa rafoned la a manner that waa prajndiciat to
Uw derolopmeat of tbe otdoniaa b« tbe Narif^atlon Act of 1651,
and waa aabaaqiuDtlr embodied la tbe oiden In eonncil. But
raprding tha Uethrap treatj with Portnad. Wlthoat atUm^ting
to adrocila a ajiatam of vblch tha nnwiadom baa beootna patent in
DDi own day, It mar jet ba wortb whfl* to note tbat it waa daring
tbie idgima that Eoglaud aoqaired bar poeltlon aa tbe great ahip-
ping natloa of tbe world, and feeeed tbe Dnteb and French la the
atruggls fbr naTal nttinmao*. Kapoleoa fp.it nneoneeioua tuti-
■on; to tba efleetlTanaea « tbe connsercial polioj lor building
tp tbi etrangtb id tha nation whan ha aou^t to bomble England,
not by dirost attack, but by daatrojing tba tnuie and abippuig bf
maaoa of whioh the had laieed henelf to power.
TUa poUoir of anbordinating tba IntareUa of abipping aa a trade
and mtana 1^ which nuichauti acquired wealth to tbe paticf and
power ot tbe nation aa • whole had another aide. BcTanne for
war ezpeaaee waa finiiabed almoat totirel; by tbe mother countrr ;
naithar Inland nor tba eoloniaa contribntad at all lanalj to the
burden ol maintaining the national atmggle with Continental
litala. HcDce it wai andeairable that tbeee dependenciea ahould
daralop at tha aipann of tha mother conntr^, aa bj ao doing thej
would rednee tbe fiud &ob whioh parbunent draw for tbe
■apaneaa of tba taalra. Hance, while England waa alwa^a willing
to develop leaoonea or indnatriee — like the liaan trade m Iceland
— whUi did not oompete with and oould not andenell ajdating
Ingliab manatictDna, her politictana wen vnwilling to allow her
dapandenciaB to become bar comndlora in trade ao loog aa thej
did not oo-opanta in maintaining power. Hence tha galling
laatriotiona to which the Iriah and the oolonlata ware aobjccted,
both with n)[ald to tba deTclopment of eome of their [teoorcH and
tha canying on of profitable trade with other coloniea or Foreign
ooontriee. Bat it mnit not be fbrgotten that Enaliih merchanta
anflend in tha aame tort of way, ai cban^ of political relationa
at onoa bronght about changaa in the conditiona of trade, and that
la at laaat one caaa tha intenata of enterpriaiug farmen at home
ware aet aaldo in faronr of protecting an eatabliahed indnatry in
tbo ooloDlee. Tba inbordiutlon of the cnftamao and trader
policy of tbe realm bronght ai
1 many pcnou,
ntanat to tb* miblii
-f galling legnlatioi
tbn^ they war* n
colonuti, who had ni
which their wealth w
It ia anneoewary to attempt to Qlnitrate in det^l tba applica
tlon of tbeia princiDlea ; it onlT lanaina to add that, whether i
apita of tbeae ng|nVt)™a or baoaBM of them, the abipping c
;h hitateat in tb* political objacta for
which their wealth waa aacrificed.
I ■
tkH
apita of tbeae lenVtiona or baoaBM of them, the abip[
Euf^and inoraaaad vaatly dnring tha 18th cantnrj. Th
Jiartly do* to tb* gnatat facllitlea vhioh were granted tor procor-
Ug capital lor tcMing vanturta. In medlBTal time* a mgrcbant
coold Iwdly ot^u the command of additionat capital, nnleaa by
mean* ota tamponiy pwtoaiabii^ or loana on bottomry ; bnt the
olfaction to nanry waa feat gl^Dg way, and the pobUc ware willing
to lend capital and to abare in the proGla of tnding. The practice
of trading on borrowed capital, and ot obtaining temponiy loana
tmagoldinBitha, waa eommon anongh tllthroogb the ITtboantary,
bnt tS» deeelopoMnt of the banking ayatam and tha new forma of
endit whldi thai beouna availabla «T* *till greater acopa to tha
antarprialBg ablpper. Tb* ftaH fmib of the now power ware only
■howDi bowe*er, In the beglmiins of the IStb centory, when the
rivalry of th* Old *nd Kaw Kaat Lidia Companlee and the atory of
* It waa poiaaeil, bnt laaa ayatamatically, all thnogh tha Tador
nigu or anm .uller. Ooapan 1 H. VII. e. % 33 H. TUL a 11,
1 KL & 13, alMi tba Aariaa of Am In llSl.
tbe Darirai eipeditlon and tbe Sana flea fiabUe A
tba Hritiah public were to poor thalr capital into nwoing warn-
tikinga. Among the compania which were ttarted alMat lUa
period there wen two which bare axcrdiifd a moat vhtaij
inauance on Britiih abipping. The Boyil Exchange AMonaca
(t Qeo. I. c. ]S)iiid the London AsaDiucararoIntiDBizeddHwbtli
■yitem of marina aaiuranca, and did ao mnch to ratiare aUpfM
from the loaaea they luKervd tbroogh the riaka of commena aa la
gire con«iiiflraUe cnooLingeiaent to tha bnaineaa. Tbe plaatatioH
were developing into important ■ettlementa; the Britiab mei^il
bad DoIJoue taia Dntch rirali ; and the Bart India Oompan n>
punning ita coniaa of jTogreaa in the Eaat Thai* CM be N
wonder that, with ao manj opportnuitiea for tndinft and mrh
new facilitiea for ohUiolng capital md aaanring againit rU,lhe
ahipping of the country derelojicJ during the IStb oauturj. It ia
nnnenaier; to dwell on the ihoctu it nceiTcd at tba tilM wbm
the American colonieaaBBerled their indepaodenea (SZaadMSii^
III.) or in tha hts and death atniggle of tha Nape'— ■
The diffionlly of recaating the re»trictf»o ayatem i
Engtiah merchanta plied their trade waa toit great, aad ^imi
broke down in regard to America and Ireland (20 Geo. IIL ca; (
10) it waa becomiug apparent that ita daya were nnmbned. Tie
doctriikea preached oj Adam Smith noon began to bear fruit ; tht
practical difficnlty of resuUting commerco rendered palitiaua
more willing to let it regtilala itielf ; and the controirenT betvaa
tha eiclniive comjianiea and the inlcrlupen or indapeadNtt Bn.
chanta once more came to the fronL It waa dnriiu the reiga ef
George IV. that tb* old ayatem wm pnctically abaodaned anJlhit
the greater part of the old conipaniea were diaaalraid, and tnda la
all parla of Africa, to the tyrant, and to China became open t« ^1
Britlah Bubjecta. The Eaat India Company maintained itt pM-
tlon in part dcapfta ita many critic* lor another baif cfaloy,
and the peculiar coaditiona ot tbe trade of the Hndaea'a Bij
ComjiaDj tuve made it dealnbl* to maintain that priril^|ad ler-
pora'.ion till the tireaont time.
It became atilf mora obriona that the old policy of legalatiig
th* commerue of the country in the aappoaad i
in- 10OK TT^T T^^
rioed tba tariff
British ahipping almoat from the
ateadlly and ayatamaticallj pare
It wu thus that Adim Smitl
Huikiaaon
TUs mnaaare he eaccesded ia carrying waa not >a
thoronghgoinE aa tbo one he propoaad, bnt ita iiriiiciiil* waa dut
the cnitoma duCiei ahonld bo laTied for renniie ohjata only, nJ
not with the liew of maintaining Britiah merchants in one paitt-
cular employment of their capital. I^ter tha repeal of the Tvni Ian
(I31«] and navigation laiii (IB49) remorad the iaat naligB of lb
-^^ --jnunercial policy which had ruled- orer the daralopDatt if
'" '~ '' " eatlleet timei, bnt wbui bad tna
ud for three hnndred yean.
'a eritieiam* worked *d elTrctinlJ
lat intenal of timo. Hia deeps
„ _ . , of tlialSthcentaiT
lay in the fact that the udonial tnde and abipping altantka
■earned to him to bare rwwired an unhealthy attmnla^ and tiat
the oonntry would be in ■ aounder economic poaitloo if ea|tel
were employed at home in developing native naonrooa, and lamp
trade bnilt npon a fonndition of Wnly developed uativ* iBdn9li][,
Bat tha removal of the atimulua did not have the aibet ba aalid-
pated, or roatore the " balance " between indutry and (himat
EoRland Ia far inon dependent than ever baton an barrtlaliin
with foreign conntriea, and tharefare on bv diiniw 6* &•
material* cf her minuActiua and her food, aa welt aa to maiMi
for bar prodncta She la further removed than aw (ram tl*t
condition ot "opnlence" which haa, according to Adam Soitli,
thogreateat promiae of atabllity and prognaa.
Thia hat nndonbtedly bean do* to tba immaM* dawdopaaali ■■
mannfactoring in which England, with bar wealth o( M«l and bo^
ledtheway. This reacted on iluppi>K In manr Waf^ Xatfaal
came to be th* workihop of the world, and ber abining ■■
freighted with aoft goodi from Lancaaldr* and Tntkaiii^ aal
with hardwar* and madiinaiy, to be conveyed to tba Mort dlatat
—Tta of the globe. Bnt not only wan theoppoitanitieatoladuii
imensdy fiicreaaed ; tb* ap^tioa of tba rteam engiM (•
uiait by water baa aooelented eommnniation, and nadacad n
legnlar and certain aa to dvo an nrtnctdlnaiy itiDnlaa B
ahipbnilding. The fint eiperiraHit, i
exceedingly laah, waa mad* in IBGl.
ItialmpoaaibletogetaatlabctMydala fa_ - .. , ,_„
ralativB importance of Zngliab and foreign ahlppiDg fcr ■ mj
period ; hnt it may be aammed that tha abT^ur of tie Itt^a
fcpublici and of the Uaot Leagne eioalled that o(«nrfa»d dmM
the Middle Agee, that in the IBth caotnry Bp^ wa* ^ ^J*!"
her when the oould eand aoch flcete to tbe Waat and ■*o»'
Sfaniib Aiiuda, and that In tba 17th and Utb cmtnrM "V^
S H I — S H I
829
n ud the taiatiTC gnirth o(
thepurpow:-
in*.
«*
1710.
IBO.
Sf^=z
*,« 1,411
HoitoL.""!!!::
mTi**
5a
The follcnrinr •nK^tia ihow tfao growtli ot the toanigi of
Britiifa •hipping :-ia l!iS8, 19,600 tani (eicluding fishing bcati] ;
in 1770, M1,S11 (BngUnd uid Scotlud) ; in 17B1, I, Ell, 101 (in-
clodiBg (»lonl»); inlBSO, Z,1R*,968 (eielading colania); in IS 10,
2,7<K,Ki; in I8G0, S, 505, 131 ; tn 18S0, i,iM,6i: ; in 1870,
B,9»0,78fl ; lo 1880, «,674,618, ^^
rwanUrpaMUi'mScluuit. d^Mnki BniJi-Ptilut, uul fgr luu piikiili
LmiaLail, £<iAirT^Brll<iA a»i»RL (W. CU.)
BHIrAz, a celebrated citf id Pereia, capital of Fan,
from its «it« and tborooghly Iraolan population may be
conBidered the eentnl point, as it were, of Farei or Parri
{otherwUe Peniaii} natioDality. Owing to the pasture knd
ID its Ticiuitj «ome derive the name from the native word
Mir, "milki" othen again, aMerting the wunber and
pbfaical powerg of its inhabitants, accept the same word
in its sense of " lion, " or take the whole dissjllable as an
obsolete word meaning the "lion's paunch." To this
eSect is cited a local saying to the eSect that, " like the
UoQ, it dBTours all thej bring into it" Bhlrii is situated
io 29" 36' 30" N, laL and 52° 32' 9" E. bog., in a high
plain or valley mote than 20 miles long and leas than half
as broad, and is approached on the south from the sea — a
distance of 170 miles' — through lofty moantun passes
reaching some 7000 feet above the level of the waters of
the Feruan Qulf. On the north the approach is also through
chains of monnlaini separating the plains of Shlr^ from
the valley of the Uarv Dasht, intersecting which ia the
Band Amir fiver, more poetically than accurately described
ID Laila Jfoolk. At Rodiyan, a few miles to the north-
west of Sbiiiz, is the source of another river, whidi,
croesing the high road south of the town under the name of
the " E4ra Agatch," Calls into the sea about 70 miles below
Bnshahr (Bo^re), after a tortuous course of 300 miles.
The city has a hand«ome haaar and some good private
rMideneea ; but its noatttactive streets are narrow, and,
though not so crowded with beggars as Ispahan, cootaiu
many livmg objects distressing to the eye. The moeques
and minarets, ^beit of local repute, look more picturesque
to the stianget in the distance than under does inspection.
One flue view of the town is that oa the north, at the pass
between the monntoini called "Allah Hu Akbar"-
uamed, it is conceived, because this would be the traveller's
ezclaniation of delight when the landscape first opened
ont upon him. The country in this direction is studded
with pleasant gardens. Besides these there are the tombe
of the poets HoGs and Sa'di — both withia easy reach of
the dty. The first — a fine marble monumeot with a
beantifnUy inscribed ode and other writings upon ii
not a mile from the gate, and is situated in an enclosure
bearing the name E&fiiiya. The moet noted product of
. Shlriz is its wine, on the merits of which, however, there
is much diSereuce of opinion from outside judges. Dr
Wills gives an original aoooont of on experiment of his
own in making the wine of SbirtLi. Its cost in the pro-
duction was SJd. a bottle, and it sold a year after ol
than three times that amounL Shinb is moreover to)
lor inlaid work (wood and metalj called khitam bandi
(from iAdtatn, a seal). The population of the city is
estimated tinder 30,000. The ordinary diseases are intei^
mittent fever, diarrhcea, dysentery, typhoid, guinea worm,
cholera, diphtherisf smoU-poz, and ophthalmia.
> As tbt urow aiii, It is onlr UG nill« K.K bj & »( Boalif
Althongh the praises ot Bhf rii, its produce, inhabitsnls, clinsto,
snd gnrTDundinge of evory kind, hiTe bwn sung by poets for
eentnilM, and are serei duputHl bv Peniui who tn not Shli4iii,
yet it ii iiapo»«ibln for the solwr Euronesn trsveller to deny Ihiit
the resllty r«lli fki below the picture. We msy feel tbaiikiui foi
the wine snd the xnter, the gurdciH mi the monnmenti, the fruiti
end the floven (abanduit here u in man^ other an ouris in tbe
Shah's dominioDi) ; vb disj iTmiiiitluie with the nalioneJ pride
in the poseiaion of s Halii and i Sa'di ; we niiy believe that the
ladies Dl Tore had " eyes btightfr thoa tlie antelope'*, hair clnatei-
' ng like their own dark grapes, and forma fairer and awcet«r tbam
lit virsiu rose," and that those of the present day would, if
nveiled, strike the ipeotator with wonder ; but one lact nmsina^
-the modem town of Shinli is sot a paradise for these whose
lenonal experieDCa ensblei them to compare it with the ordinary
ities of Enmps,
According to Esstem aathimtiei, Shfrii waa founded (or re-
fonnded, for aome accoants aacriU to it a labnlons anlinnity) by
s brother of the tamoos Hajj^ .about the beginning of the Stli
century, or rsther by a couain ot Hajj^ called Mohammed b.
Ruim b. Abd 'OkaiL Six hundred years later it was the capital
of the Uofaflar dynasty ot princes, when it fell to the anna ot
Timar, Bat it attained its greatait rapuUtion in the reign of
Karim Ehsn, who embdlished the city grutly and made it the
■pecial object of hii can. On the downfall of this monarch It was
sacked and laid waste, by the croel Aghs Mohammed.
Sbitiz hat twen often detoribed by native geovraphen and
European writen ol travel Among the Intler uuy be mentlDned
Pietro dtlU Valle, HerlMrt, Tavemier, I>eiLandet, and Chardin, in
the 17lh century, sad in the present centnrvOuMleT, Porter, Mr- —
- >g, Kiatsr, "■ ■
Seott- Waring, VoTiter, Binning, ai
It trsvelleia.
I 1871
itory nor lighter akekl
MslcolmgiieaaydetaaedaiKanDt oFBhlraiaaacity, butbltnotca
on ttx climate may be cited. On one of the hottcat davi of Jnna
1800 the thermo meter ngiatertd B4* T. in the honse and 100* in a
tent In May 1810 it never rose at noon above 8S' nor fell below
74*. In the roorninfc at eijht o'clock, it generally atood ilbeat *0*.
eonaiderably below the freezing point. At late sa Usrch thers ia
often a hoar frost on the gronDd. April, he adds, is a dalighUU
month, the thermometer at aunrise being gencnlly traai 60* lo 15°,
st two r.H. 80' to 81', sod strains p.m. about SI.
SHIRE. SeeCouKTT.
8EIRLEY, a town of Hampshiru, consists chiefljr ot
comfortable houses occupied hj persons in bosiness in
Southampton (3 miles sonth-east), of which it is practi-
cally a suburb. Within its limits are the Barlow home
(1840), the EUyet home (1ST9), and ths children's hoa-
pital and disp«isvy for women (1884). The niban
«anjlai7 district of Shirley, formed in 1853, waa extended
by an Act which came into operation 39th September
1681, the name being also changed to Shirley and Free-
manUe. Hie popidation of the old district (arcs 1196
acres) in 1871 was &339 and in 1S61 it was 7856. The
population of the new district (area 1392 acres) ii
waa 9909 and in 1881 it was 13,939.
SHIRLEY, Jambs (1S96-1666), dramatist, b.
the great period of our dramatic literature, but, ii
word^ he "claims a place among the wortlues of this
period, not so much for any transcendent genius in himself,
as that ha was the last of a great race, all of whom spoke
nearly the same language and bad a set of moral feelinga
and notiona in common." His career of playwriting
extended from 162S to the suppression of stage plays
by parliament in 1642. Bom iu London in 1S96, he had
been educated for a profession — at Ueichant Taylors' ,
school, St John's College, Oxford, and Catherine Hall,
Cambridge. The ' church vras his deetination, bnt ho
turned Roman Catholic, and made a living for two years
as a schoolmaster. His first play, Lo»e TricJcM, seems to
have been accepted while he wis leanhing at St Albans,
and for eighteen years from that time he was a prolific
writer for the stage, producing more than thirty regular
pUys, tragedies, and comedies, and showing no sign of
exhaustion when a stop was put to his .occupation by tha
Puritan edicL He turned again to teaching for a Uveli-
bood and prospered, publishing some edtmtional works
under tha Commonwealth. Beaidea theae. ha poUiahed.
8S0
I H 0 — S H O
dnring tho period of dnnwtio eelipM thnt Bmoll volames '
of poenu kttd mnaqnee, in 1646, 1653, aad 1659. He
BorviTed into the reign of CbMle* II., but, though some
of hii comedie* were revived, he did not agaia attempt
to mite for the stage. It ia aaid that ha and hia second
wife died of the fri^t eauMd bj the gnat fire of 1666.
There i* little original fmcs bat nmch etage-craft and
loaDipalative detteritj in Shirley'* pUye. He was bora
to great dramatic wealth, and he handled it freelj. It
baa been remarked that he did not, like eome of bis great
?redecewor«, take liis plots from narrative fiction or history,
ut constructed them for himself. Thi« is true; but he
constructed them out of the abundooce of materials that
had been accumulated bjr more originative men during
thirty yeare of nneiampled dramatic activity. He did
not itrain after novelty of rittiation or cbsracter, but
worked with confident ease and buoyant copioDineai on
the fomiliar lines, contriving HitUations and exhibiting
characters after types whose effectiveness on the stage had
been proved by ample experience. He spoke the same
Unguage with the great dramatist^ it is true, but this
grand style appears in him as the mechanical knack of an
able aod clever workman. It is often employed for the
wtjficial elevation of commoDplace thought. "Clear as
day" beconea in this manner "day ia not more cou-
Bpicuona thaa thie conniDg"; while the Droverb "Still
waters nm deep " is ennobled into—
The •hnlloit rlvsn glide swsy with noin^
Ths deep in lileat.
But it cannot be denied that he uses the poetic diction of
his predecessors with ease, spirit, and judgment. His
scenes are ingeniously conceived, hie characters boldly and
clearly drawn ; and be never faUa beneath a high level of
stage effect.
Hii chief playi wen — Lcm TriiiM, ■ oonadf, I6I6 ; Jiu
JUaitfi JUvnge, ■ tngsdy, ISiS; Tht BnOtcn, ■ comedf, 1826;
Tkc ITiUy Fair Ont, > oomeJ]', 1«£S ; TMt friUjiig. a camtij.
1628 ; Tlu Orat^ul Stnant, ■ tngl-oomedr, 1«2» ; ITu Chmga,
OT Lan in m Ifna, 1633 ; Tht Oamatur, ■ conisdT, 16S3 ; Tl>4
EiciTnfU (conUining en imitation of Ben Janion i Hvmrun\
1S34: Tlu Opft/rlunil;/, 1631; Thi Traitor, ■ tngadj (pufakpa
Sliiriej'i bMt), 16SS ; Thi Lady if noturt (ptrhip* tha but of
hb comediB). 1636 ; Tlu Cbnjiiwl, a tnif^]< (4d attfmpt to
vompsto Kith Webiter'a Dudua if Ma^), 1611. An oititioD of
hi* Korki in eii (olumei, with uoM by D«n and Giflaid, was
publi»hedinlB33.
SHODDY. See Wool.
8H0EMAKINQ. The limpleat foot-prot«ctor is the
sandal, which consists merely of a sole attached to the foot,
Vsoally by leather thongs. The lue of this the arch*>-
ologist can trace bock to a very early period ; aod the
sandal of plaited grass, palm fronds, leather, or other
material still coutinues to be the most common foot-cover-
ing among Oriental races. Where climate demanded greater
j>rotectiDn for the foot, the primitive races shaped a rude
■hoe out of a single piece of nntanned hide ; this was laced
with a thong, and so made a complete covering. Out of
these two elements — solo without upper aod upper without
wie — arose the periected shoe and b»t, which coneist of
a combination ol both, A collection illustrating the numer-
. ous forms and varieties of foot-covering, formed by M.
Julee Jacquemart, is now ia the Cluny Museum in Paris.
It embraces upwards of 300 specimens of ancient, medinval,
and modem times, with a special series illustrating the
artistic and historical side of tbe subject in Fiance from
the ISth century, and contains examples of the many varie-
ties of foot-covering in use, eepecialty in the East, at the
present dav. (Compare Coervxr)
B'Boint sXoM.— ThB ■implii.t foot-cotorinft Imrgelj luad thrmgh-
Tope, li
wooden
liogl. p
roiighir cnt into ghoe form. Tha towns oT Mude and Villefort
(dep. Lairs) sre the headqurten of the wooden thoo tnde ^
Jruua, ibont 1700 petuu then Gadlng omplafmenl in ths mtnn-
> gtoave ibost m.
I CM the lole ; ud br
ind b»l *n luidg of one pieoe from a block M nuplg or
inchei thick, and a littls \oagct and brouler than the dec
e( iho*. The oatar aide of the eole and heel ia faahuns
ihlut-edged implenient, culled tli« doftgEr'i kuifa ni
nd irDplement, called tbe graorer, maltea a ftoova ab
dehth of an Liich deep and wide raoiid Iha vde oftha aole;
meana of a hollower the coutolir of tha innar taca of th> »1( ■
adapted to the ehapa of thi' FihiL Tb* nppan of besrj ItalivF,
achine Hwndor live ted, are fitUtd ctoaelj to thagroora anmbdlk
ila, and a tbin piece of leitliiT-bindiiig ia taHnScu ill mmd tki
ed^es, the naila being placed verj cloie. ■> as to gi^v a bru duruib
fkatening. Tbeu cloga are of ffr^l advauU^ 'o aU who vwfc Ia
damp aloppy p)K«a, keeping the leet itj And ci--nrbrtabU is a
manner inpoatible with either Wthernr *Ddhi-TT btw. Tbif iii
conaeqaentlj largely oaed on <bB ConliaEiit by wruoltwal u4
foreit labourara, and in Kngland and the United States bf i^n,
bleachan, tannery workent in lugir-faclnnoa,- cheiniiu] (uta,
profiaion packing wifobomoe, fcc. There ii ain a couuIeitUa
demand for eipenuTe clogi. with fine); trimmed sola* sad bxt
uppers, for nao hj dog-dapcarj attd others en tht atage.
Ifatiii/aclun of Lralhrr Sheet. —There are two main diribou gf
ork comprised in ordiairr eboeniiking. The minor diTimn-
le makinf of "tnm ahoet''— embracat all «ork in which tbnb
ily one thin llarible sple, which ia sewed to the upper whilt oB-
da in and turned over when completed. BUpper* and ladiaa' ttiia
?uae boota ate examplea of thia daaa of work. In the other divi-
on the upper ie united to an iniole and at lesat one ontaole, viit
railed heel In this are comprieed all clanaa, ihapa, ai
qDslities of goodi, from ihoaa Qp to long-top or riding bom vUik
reach to tJte knee, with all their variationi of H*^"g, bnttonjhit
elaatic-web aide gueaela, kc The accom^yitw eats (fl^ 1 isd
3) show the puts and tnde names oT a nding boot, which ia tb
auprama ptDdqct of tha craft.
Till within recent times sboemaking waa a port handicnft;
.w maohiuerj affecti almoat every oparmtim in tha art- (^
~ tlia lactorj ajitem all hams %rt
tn tn^ alike ; in the kaidi.
oaft, tbe ahocmakar dnla titk
the iadiTidul fool, and he iboaU
Sirodnoa a boot which for it, c«.
art, fleiibilitj', and strength ns.
--*'-- approached bj ths polia
ths fM, cab
Booudiiig to tbe aisa and patten.
Tfaass parts an fittadsad idtcbsl
together by tha "Imot-ekim';
or omuln 1 i, tlia ru,^; ^ t]» bwl,-dia Amt 1> £• lieut. I& iBtM IM
bei;J,UiilirtiDftlitb«l; k. llH lliuik ornlH ; 1, Oh well : K lk> ok
Pio. L-flKtUm of boot <^l)ii upper: ktlH laai^:^thai>i^A;4IM
vdc: >,CUi[itililD|a(lL>iDla(i>tbswelt;/ tbsaili^Bf aOtaaifH
but little oT this closing is now dene by hand. Tke sots "stnl'
ofaclY leather, spair of outer solas of finner teitnre, a pair of nlti
or bands about one inch broad, of fleiible leather, and Ulti aad
top-piecea Tor the heeU Theie the " maker " mellowi by nUe^
in water. He attaches tbe ineolaa to the bottom of a pair of ■khIb
lasts, which are blocks the form and aiie of ths boots lo be Kti^
fastens tbe leather down with laating tacka, and, when dried, ibi'i
it out with pincers till it take* ths e»ct torn oT the Isit bcttan
Then he '■ rounds the aolea, " by paring down tha edgta deie (o tit
Ust, and fonns round thass edgia a (Dull channel ar fcatba a*
about one-eighth of an inch in the leather. Kelt be pinM U"
insoles all round with a beat awl, which bites into, but not tLns^
the leather, and cornea out at the channel or featbei. Oe tmti
are then "Ineted," by placing tha uppetaon the lasts, drawing Ibnr
edges tightly round the edge of the insolea, and ftsteBinf tbiw u
-■*'■■■— "-.a LastingisBcnicialopeiatien,i(it."»»
post tieu with laating tacka I^sIinK is a crucial opentien, lis
'he upper is drawn smoothly and etiually over the last *"'-e
fither creaae nor wrinkle, the form of tha boot will be tad ^
relt, baTing one edge pared or chsmTeied, la put in podtiM J'^
S H O — S H O
tha^M,Dpto tli*hHlciT''wtt,''ud th« miikar pnicndi to "in-
■um," hj puuDg hii mrl through Iha hole* ilnadjr mida ia the
inwli, catching with it tlia nlg« or tht appar ud ths thin adg* i^
tllB wait, lad uwiiig ill tliroe tog«thar in ons Bat Mua, with >
wusd thmJ. Hb than puu off intqiutlitiaa nd "IsTelx tha
bottonu," bf Olios up the dopreeiad i«rt in the oaotia with e pieco
of tured [ell ; ind. thit done, the bootg an rtadj for the outwls*.
After the leather tor thata haa bwq Ihoronghlj coadenaed by ham-
mering oo the " Up-Blone, " they m faaCeDad thrDuh tha inwle
with ataal tacki, theii lidai ara paml, and a uairov channel ia cnt
round their tig* ; and thioDgli tbii channel the; hs atitched to
tha well, aboDt twdre etitchea or strong wued thread being made
to Iha iuch. Tha soles ara now himmend into ahape ; tha heal lifts
are put on and attached with wooden pt^s, then sawed through the
atitchs of (h* insola ; and tha top-piacea, ntnilar to tha outaoles,
an pnC on and nailed down to ths Ufts. Ths finishing operationa
ambraca pinning np tho edge of tha heal, paring rasping aonping,
smoolhiog, blacting. and bomiabin^ the edges of soles and haeln,
scnpJDA Bsnd-papering, and burniahing tha mIu, withdrawinf; tho
laati, and cleaning out any pe|^ whioh mtj hara pierced through
tha innar sole. Of couw, then in unmerooa minor operatlonB
connectad with forwarding and finishing in Tarioas matenala, auch
as punching Uca-holeSi inserting ejelets, applying hael and toe
irons, hob-nailing, ka. To maka t, pair of oomman stoat Isdng
boots oconpies an expert workman from fourteen to aightaen hours.
The princip*! difficnltiM to OTercom* in applying nuchineiy to
shoamaking wen anconntarad Id tha opantiDn of fulming togather
tha sole* ud nppan. Tha Brat anccass in this important operaliDn
wssaBeotad when means other than aawiog wan daTisBd. In ISOD
DaTid Ussda Randolph obtained a patent for faatenitig tha soles
and haeU lo the inner aales by means of little nails, ia. The
laata hs nsad. wen conred at tlis boCtom with pistes at metal, and
tha najli, whan driTeu through the inner solas, wem tnroed and
t* daring Iha opantioa the metal plates ware aach perforated
Was, in which wooden plugs were Inserted, and to these
wara nailed. This invention niay ba said to hara laid
don of niicbina boot-making. In ths following year
lUTBUtor U. L Brunei patented a ranga of macMnat?
_ bIbs lo nppan by meant of metallic pina or nails, a.
a use of senwi snd ataplas was patanted by Richard Woodman i
Apart fnm sawinR I
of sitaehing soles to , ,
" psfginf " with tmill «ood<
and ubsols, catching betweai
iioints of lb* peg* whicl
and smoothed loTel with
poraingrasp. The seooi _ .. .._.„ „
nith iron or brass naili, tha points of tbo nail* being tumad or
clinched by combg in contact with tha iron last used. The third
_..i._.i .-__ ...... . . ■ J aao aince tha standard
abjlh - ■
. .. Europe by I
year Company of London. Tho itandird scnjw machine, which
u an American ln»Bntion, ia proiidod with a reel of stout screw-
tbreadcd brass wire, which by the reToiulion of the reel is inserted
inls and screwed through outsole, upper d^ and insole. Witlii
_-. Inm sewinR by nuchina or hand, three principal methods
ituhing soles to uppen ara in oaa at pmont The Btat ia
'--"—"■* --- " * ' pegs driven through outsole
e ailna of tha upper. Tha
^ecL LjLTDUgh tha insole ara cut away
leithar eithsr by hand or by a machine
withtl
»1b, upper CO
init tlia inx
Thoac
'"iinrjts'
opposite the
ucti the vire
old sola <
tightiy ia the leather, an<
and serened firmly together, maks a perfectly water-tight and aulid
shoo. The surface of the insola ia qiutv larel and aren, and as tho
work ia really screnod the screws an steady in their position, and
they a.ld materially to the dnrabilitj of the solna. The principal
diiad»ntage in the use of standard screwed solus is tho greit diffl-
__i. . __.L ._ remgyj^g ^mj layoLing down the remuns ofui
luD ni.uu. .urina of aawing- machine bj' which upper* an elosod,
and their Important modificatlDai for uniting soles and uppen, are
also principally of American origin. But tho fint aaggeatioa of
macbino sewing was an English idea- The patent aecured h;
Thomas Saint in the Engliah Patent OSce In 1700, while it fon-
shadowed tha most important features of the tnodero seving-
machins, indicatsd mora particntarty the deTices now adopted in
ths sowing of laslhar. After tho introduction of the sewiag-macbiue
for cloth work iU adaptation to stitching leather both with plnin
thread and with heatwl wa^Eed tbras4 was a comparati^j simple
talk. Tht flnt imporUnt step in the more difficult problem of
■earing together solos and uppen by s machine was taken in tha
United SUtas by Lyman R. Blake in 1S6S. Blaka'a mKhioa w»a
ultimately porfectsd as the llackay aols'sewing machine, — one of the
most suocamral and lucratiTe inTentions of modem times. Blake
•BCUred hia first English patent in 18Ee, hk inTention being thus
dsHribod; "This macbins ia a chain-stitch aeviDg-muhine. Tha
lioolud Media works through a rsst or supporting snifaoB of ths
of a long rarred arm which
831
CJBCll npwards from tha
re such a form as to lis
upper part
t^le of tho
lapable of entering a shoo so as to carry the rest into tike toe part
,. .. 'if tho interior of it; it earricat its front
1 1h capable ot rotating or partially ntst-
snd and dinctly ui
ing round the needle, while tha aeid
through tha eye of tho looper, such aye being placod in the path
of the needle. Tho thnsid is led Irom a bobbin by suitable cuidea
along in tha cnrredirm, thence throuj' " '
the arm, and thcuco upward* through
needle carrier eitondi upwarda with a cylinilrical
feed ubeol hy which the ah
ed along the corred arm during
\g ia supported by a slider eitending dow
block, and applied thereto so as to be capable of alii
ipmirdi. The feed wheel is mida b
original machine wa* Tory imperfect
tha bands of Oordon Uackay, he in ct
lost important impnTementi in the mechanism, and they jointly
■ ■" ^Uiited 8taU- :' '^''^ ' - ---- ---
Jiade boot. ... _ _ _ . ._._,
ilmultaocoitsly ipuch labour wi
in it coming in
th Blake effect
a ISBD proctund United Stales patents whicl
monopoly of wholly machine-made boots and
yean. On theoutbreakof the Civil Warin
arose for boot^ and, then being simultanc , ,
drawn from the market, a profitablo field was opened Ibr tha uaa of
the macbine, which wa* now capable of sawing a sole right round.
Machines were leased out to msnuTacturers by the Kackay Comuny
at t toyalty of from 1 to 3 eenta on every pair of soles sewed, the
machines themsolves re^^ring tho work done. Tha ituXTDe of tha
association from toyallias in the United States alons increased from
|S8,74« in ISSS to (£89,873 in 1S73, and continued to riss till the
main patents expired in 1S31, when then wen in nss in ths United
St*tea about 1800 BUko-Usckiy maebinei sawing E0,000,000 pairs
of boots and shoes yearly. The monopoly secured by the Hackay
Company barred for tha time the progress of inveution, notwith-
standing which many other sole-sewing mschines were patented.
Among the moat important of these la the Goodyear k Hackay
machine* for welled shoea,— tha first mechanism adapted for sawing
aoles on lasted boola and shoea. Thsaa mschines originated in a
patent obtained in ISB'J in the United Slates by Aneuat Deatorr for
a carved-needia machiiia for sewing outaoles to wells, bat the niachan-
k Uackay Company nu!
largo number of the latter form of m
The nngs of machinery Dsedin a well-equipped ahoe-factory i*
■Bty eite naive, embncina machines for cnttlng leather, preasing
oilers for sole leather, ana proaes with cutting-dies for stamping
int sole snd heel piecea There are also, In addition to many kiodi
of sewing machine, blocldng or crimping appliances for moulding
nacbines, trimming and poring machines for planing and
ig tho edges of ■solos and heels. For finishing then an
BCDuring, saud -papering, and bomishing machines for the aoles,
and Btimping niachinee for marks and monograms, with peg-cutting
and nail-rasping mschines for smoothing, cleaning eat, and dt«a«-
ing the BurTacc of Che insole In short, there is not a single op«B-
tion necessary in ehoemaking, howeTer insignificant for which
machinery has not been devised.
The nunufacture of india-mbber goloshes,' shoes, and fishing-
boots, kc. , forms an important branch of tha india-rubbar industry
rather than a department of shoemaking (see iHniA-BUBBIK, *o1.
liL p. 842). A very considerable trade eiists in boots and ahoas
with outer lolea of gntta-nercha [sea vol. iL n. 33») in place of
leather, tho headquartonofthat trade bcinginGlsagDW. (J, PA.)
SEOES^HoKBE. The horaf casing of the foot of the
hoTM and other BolidungnUtes, while quite sufficient to
protect the extremity of the limb noAer taXxaal conditions,
is foand to wear away and break, especially in moist
climates, when the animal is subjected to hard work of
any kind. Thia, however, can be obviated by attsching
to the hoof a rim of iron—a simple device which has been
probably not gnrpassed in its beneficial effects by the intro-
duction of steam-power locomotion. The animal itself has
been in a very marked manner modified by shoeing, for
vithont this we could b«Ta had neitii^ tlM fleet r«em nor
H O — S H O
the liMiVy and powerful cui-hoisea ot tbe preaeot d»y.
Shoeing does not ai<pBar to have beeo practised b; either
Greeks or Roroana ; bnt there ii evidence that the art was
known to the Celts, and that the practice became common
after tho-overthrow of the Western empire Cowards the close
of tba Sth eentiuy. It is only recently that horse-shoeiog
iraa introduced in Japan, where the former practice was
to attach-to the hone's feet slippers of straw, which were
renewed when neceaaary. In modem times much attention
has been devoted to boreo^hoeing, with the reault of abow-
jng that method* formerly adopted caused crasi itqnry to
horses and serious lose to their owners. The evils aa som-
marized by Mr Qeorge Fleming, army (British) veterinary
inapeotor, were caused by (1) paring the sole and frog ;
(3) applying ahoea too heavy and of faulty shape ; (3) em-
ploying too many and too large nails ; (4) applying shoes
too small and removing tbe wall of the hoof to make tba
feet fit the shoes; and (G) lasping the front of the hoof.
According to modem priociplea (1) shoes should be as light
as compatible with the tfear demanded of them ; (2) tbe
gronnd face of the shoe should be concave, and the face
applied to the foot plain ; (3) heavy draught horses alone
shonld have toe and heel calks on theii shoes to increase
foefthold ; (4) the eiceea growth of the wall or outer por-
tion of homy matter should only be removed in re-sho^ng,
care being tekeu to keep both sides of the hoof of equal
height ; (5) tbe shoe shonld fit accurately to the ciicum'
ference of the hoof, and project slightly beyond the heel ;
(6) the shoes should he fixed with as few nails as possible,
six or seven in fore-aho«B and eight in hind-shoes ; and (T)
the nails should take a short thick hold of the wall, so
that old nail-boles may be removed mth the natural growth
and paring of the horny matter. Horse shoes and nails
are now made with great economy by machinery. In rural
diatriota, where the art of the farrier is somelimes combined
with blacksmith work, too little attention is, in Beneral,
given to consideiations which have an important beuing
cm tha comfort, usefuIneBS, and life of the hone.
SHOLAPUB, a Britiah district of India, in the Deccan
division <A the Bombay presidency, with an area of 4031
square mil«^ lying between 17* 13' and 18* 3S' V. lat
andT4"39'«id76'irE long. .It is bounded on the N.
by Ahmadnagar district, on the K by the nizam's territory
and Akalkot state, on the B. by Saladgi district and some
of the Patvardhan states, and on the W. by Sixth, and
Poona districts and the states of Fhaltau and Panth
PiatinidhL Except in KamiaU and 'Bard sabdiviaiona,
situated in the north and eaat, wheie there is a good de^
of hilly ground, the disbict is genei^y Bat or undulating ;
bnt it is very bare of vegetation, and'preseota everywhere
a bleak treeleas appearance. Tbe chief rivers are the
Bhiua and ite tributariea — Ute Uin, the Nira, and the
Sina — all Sowing towards the south-east. Baodea tbesa
there are sever^ smaller sbeams. Lying in a bact uf nD~
certain rainfall, Sholapur is peculiarly liable to seasons of
•oaicity ; much, however, has been dons by the opening
«f canals and gpuds, such as the Eknik and Ashti tanks,
to secnte a better water-supply. Tlie Great Indian Penin-
Bular Bailway enters the district at Pomalvidi in the north-
west oonier and croasea it in a south-easterly direction, a
diatattoe of nearly ISO milca. Sholapur has recently been
eoiraected with a branch of the Southern Mahratta Railway.
Tb« iKnaUtian of ShoUpu dlMriist In ISSl w» MS.4S7 (2fl4.81«
milM ud 287,078 famalsi). Hiadna nmnband (i30,1£l, Uohim-
m»duis iS,M7, sod Cbrutiiiu SSfi. Then sn tbtsa uwna with
nopolitiani sicMdlng 10,000 each, vii., BnouiniK (^.s.), Pin-
al«rl)o^(l^«01,BaIda«.lM). In 1S8S-81 there wtro !,7M,3«0
sons andtr anltiTstSon, of vhiab S2.S8£ wa« twic< croppsd. baida
3W,S87 sens of Ulow « nan luid. Jou, which forms the iCapIa
lid ot tha p»pl^ oooapied BZ8.70C term. b«jn MB.SSB, whiat
b'B.W4, rica S&W, pnlM 13£,SaS, uui oil-aaed* 147,914 una
*»• (ndoos of tha district finds u mnj oatlst bj tha nllwaj to
FoeBs and Bombav. Hhi ehiaf sTporta an «
' the niiani'H ilomirjiDns, oil, oil-rndfl. g
.... 1 cloth ; imports [notndo anlt, piece-inwd*, , , ^
and izva wara. Tha chief iuiInabiH ira q>ianing wvaxinr, u4
dvoinK- Tha aUks and finer sorU nt cotlau rloili iire^omi ia
Sholipar bear ■ good name ; bUukoCa an al-o wotcb m !»)•
numben. The gram metiDo of tb« distrid in lSSS-81 aunua>i
to £129,428, of which the land. tax yielded £»S,»eS.
Sbola^KiT diatrict puaad Inna tho "■'■■"-"' to the Bijipiir lii=^
id from thorn to the UarathoB. In 181S,oBlhe falloT tha Pdfan,
.. waa oedad to tha Uritiah, whan U hnned part of Uw Pi»aa col-
Isctonta, but in ISSS it wx made a lapanta eolleetont*. Si»>
than its pngreaa ht* bean rsiHiL
8E0LAPUB, chief town and adminisibstiTe head-
quartera of the above districtj is situated in 17' W IS'
N. lat. and 76* 66' 38" K long., on the plaio ot thr Fina.
Its conveoiebt situation between Poooa and Haidarih*!!
(Hyderabad), with a statioD on tbe Great Indian ftBB-
snlar Railway, has made it the centre for the eoUeetiaB
and distribution of goods over a large extent of country.
The town oontained in 1681 a populatioa of S9,890 (malta
30,410, femalea 29,480).
SEOOTINa for apcvting pnrpoeea requiN* in tW we
fircomis two tunduneutid principles on which reals liw
tainment of dexterity. These are, first, that tba waigbt
of the weapon be such that the sportsman can Okny and
wield it with ease ; and, secoodly-~irf still gT«*t«r impoft-
ance-— tliat tbe weapon be so adapted to hi* cbeat, ana.
and eye that when it is raised and levelled in .the act cf
taking aim it may be as psurt of bis own body. An a««r-
heavy gun may be virtusJly listened 1^ beioK camed 'bj
an attendant and only handed to the spcotaman v^eo re-
quired; but a gun not exactly "fitting tha diouldea',' can-
not poesibly serve its user with accuracy. The Trnsnn is
plain. The slight divergence of his line of aim from the
axis of the barrel, due to the shape of the gun'not peiBul-
ting the coincidence of the two when the weapon ia used
l^iidly, creates a far fro^i slight divergence of the pellets
at any range beyond a few yards, and tha ol;ject fired at,
if struck at all, ia only struck, by the outer aad vreaksr
pellets. The inraeaaing wilduees of game-birda, in Great
Britain at leaat, eapacially of partridgea, thiongh tha
modem system of cutting grain close to the gnmnd and
so leaving no shalteiing stubble, demanda ntpid aim aod
discharge of ths gim, and in consequence the ^i»ta ot gua-
makers have been directed to the production of weaposs
of great tightness combined with power and pteosiaD.
How different were tbe conceptions ij our immediate pn-
deceasoTs is exemplified in sncb statements as "a fewaddi-
tioDal pounds in tl|e irai^t of a gnn makes a deal cl difier-
ence," and "the most approved gnna* are thoae "wm^iing
according to tbe fancy of the shooter, bom siz to ninr
pounds." The moot approved gnna now vary b wuigbt by
a few onnoM only, and their configuration not by incho^
but by eighths utd even sixteenths of an inch. Thm
are also fine lines in their modelling which, while of gnat
consequence, are imperc^tible to the eye^ and can only
be demonstrated by the application of eiaat and ddicate
instmmento. Tet each oi theae lines haa an impartant
purpose, and their oombinatioQ prodnoea the perfect
weapon. An experienced gunsmith wbc haa studied thia
branch of his trasines* can catch the salient lines of a
sportsman's figure with the eye of an artiat, and by th*
further aid <rf testa and measurements can conatroet for
him a proper gun, and dins lay the foundation of a correct
style of shooting. On tbe other hand, an nnsnitabis gun
can only be aimed correctly with alowneaa, and hj maf
stniuing of the mnadaa rf the neck. TJnds sacb condi-
tions correct vid rapid shooting ia at least improbaU*;
the spread of the shot alone prevents a eompleta mis*. Il
ia the oonect eonfignmti<Hi of tbe gnn whidi hrii^ into
full effect the elaborate boring of th' barrel, and givM
SHOOTING
833
thoea long shota o[ vbieb sportsmGn ore eo proud, and
which vo doe to the central pelleti Bjiag stnusht to a
very ixauidenble diutonce, muiJi beyond that of the outer
peUetB.
The next point in & gnn is balance ; that ia, the metal
in the baneU mnat be so apportioned and the general con-
stroctioQ be to arranged that there is no tendencj in the
moiEle to droop at the moment of discharge, just whan
the facnities o( the Bportsmim ora absorbed in taking aim
and hia mnsculor eoergies are in abej'ance. The gun abould
balanoo ftt a point a little in front of the trigger-guard.
The centre of gravitj ghoold also be low, so that there
joaj be nothing of what may be called " top-hamper," — in
other words, that his gun may not roll in bia hand; but may
keep on an even keel, as it were, while be is taking aim.
If we wei^ in the scales two guns of nearly the same
weight, the one well the other ill balanced, the former,
although feeling quite light in the hand, will generally be
found to be really heavier than the latter^ — a fact which
ia frequently the cause of much surprise to sportsmsn.
When properly balanced, a gun can be carried with much
leaa fatigue.
The calibre — a much disputed point — is, within the
bounds commonly nsed, a question more of the capability
of the sportsman to carry weight than one touclung his
effecttveneas in the Geld. It has been plausibly argued
that it matters little how narrow the calibre of a fowling-
piece is, and that even gauge "35" ('SIO inch) is wide
enough. It certainly would throw a few pellets of swan-
shot effectively, especially if the barrel was not less than
10 inches long. But for all common purposes the most
useful calibre is the tRBlve-bore, if the wei^t is not under
6^ K, or somewhat less for hammerless guns. When a
less weight is required, "16" gauge (which in breech-
loaders is really "lG")ispreferaUa. Calibre "20" belongs
to toy-weapons, such guna being also uncertain in their
delivery; and, as strong and effective "16" donble-barrollcd
gnus can now be made weighing only 6 lb, a smaller calibre
can hardly be required, except under peculiar conditions.
Against the advantage of less wdght has to be set the
important matter of recoil, and one cause of recoil is the
elongation of the body of the shot (and especially of the
small-sized shot tised in such guns) when pkced in the
barrel or cartridge. The longer that body, and the smaller
the shot, the greatat the difficulty in starting it ; hence,
to bring a "20" as regards recoil to an equality with a
" 13," the weight of the charge of shot must be unduly
reduced, with a more than proportionate reduction of the
probability of killing, save in the exceptional cases where
the size is not larger than snipe-shct. The shot in a "12"
has no part at any appreciable distaiice from the wadding
over the powder, and every pallet may fairly be said to
receive a direct impetus from the explosion. An exceed-
ingly light .gun has also the fault of causing unsteadiness
when the sportsman takea aim.
The lefagth of the barrels need not exceed 30 inches.
If a sportaman possesses a remarkably correct eye, he may
safely go down to 26 inches or even less ; but it must be
borne in mind that the shorter the barrel the greater the
necessity tor a perfectly correct aim. Any divergenoo on
a barrel under 26 inches is vastly increased at 30 or 40
yards. On the other band, aim is more quickly taken
with abort barrels. Thirty inches is a sound medium.
Of late years there has been a run on what are termed
"diaktt^iorea" (see Qitniuxinci, vol. zi. p. 281). But
unless the choking is most mathematically true tbe flight
of the shot will not be coincident with the axis of the
barrel or the line of aim, bat will "tt&ia off" in some oblique
direction ; and this obliquity will also be more or leaa
a&cted W any reqairetl modifications of the cbar^ A
choke-bore, therefore, restricts its user to narrow conditions
in loading it. The velocity of the shot u also confiider-
ably reduced, the killing power depending less on that
than on the object aimed at being struck with a greater
number of pellets. Neither do all the pellets £y with
equal velocity, so that^ as woe proved several years ago by
ingenious experimentation (first announced by the proaent
vrriter), these advance, as it were, in a narrow end pro-
longed column, whereas a properly bored "friction and
relief " barrel thiDws its shot in the figure of a broad disk,
with all the pellets travelling practically at tbe same rate, —
the inner or central ones having, however, more sustained
killing power, their " quality of motion ° being of a higher
degree and greatly prolonging the range. A weapon
bored oa the friction and reUef method certainly puts the
sportaman in a better position for all kinds of common
game at fair sporting ranges; but since the introductjon
of breech-loaders barrels so bored have (undeservedly)
fallen so greatly into disuse that the delicate art of friction
and relief boring has nearly been lost. A purely cylindrical
barrel only sboota well when perfectly clean, — a condition
that every discharge impairs.
With t. WMpon that luita him, the spoiiimui will Bnd Ihit, on
UFtiDgiCqnicUrtoliia ibouliler, kKniog botbsfnopen, ind Bung
thsm <m any Bnil] object st Kmg digtuce o% tha bunlg will bs
diractly pointad tomraa that object without bU having tskeii anr
alow or ouct »ira. To teiify tliii. let bim keep the eun in poBtioa
and ahat hia IsH eye, when ha will End atill mora ^alnlj that hia
aim ia tme. Tha aim has been ao conatracted as b> faring tbe rib
between tba barrela (for double-bamlJed gnns an alwayi nndflr-
atood) right in front of bii line of vialou. In otbar wordl, tba
bomla sod itoek have bum eo conatrucled. inetnuva or the flne
linea aJreadj rercmd to, that, ao far aa tba raquirad puraoaa [a con.-
earned, tho wbola piaoa mav ba laid to tonu an inf^raTpart of hi*
own body. A few minuter daily practice in aa pouting a gun at
any email objtct, althoiuh is a mani, will gire the nortaman
.darterity in ita oaa even before be baa bumad powder in It. How
tha abutting of ona «ya (ouknown in billiarda and almikr gamaa)
in taking aiot cama to ba pncCiied in vaing firearms aeema inaipli-
cabla to thoae who knov bow datrtmental it ia. Tba kaeping of
bolb ayea open waa fonnarly not quite nnknown, but was ao ^tle
practiaad that, wban the pnsent writer took tha matter np aome
thirty yeats ago and pnliLcly advocated it. he was looked upon aa
being quite in error; bat now hia coirectoeae ia acknowledged,
and what is termed tba "two^ye" lyatam ia coming man sad
more into nse. There ara atill many nncertain "ahota"wbD are
not aware that tbeii fraqnently nnaccoontabla mima ar* eanaed by
tbe adcntifio fa^it that abutting one eye daprivea tbem of the power
of meaauiing diatances, and ajao of watching tha mnement of a
running or Hying objoct Aa a rule, whilat the right e^e ie actusliy
taking aim, tba left i> i£tiug enbaidiarily and diomng tba right
whetfaer or not it ia taking it correctly. It may bs noted thtt
abnoat all BiecptiDnaliy good abota fa— "■ ' ' '
i broader tuiB,
The attitnde in taking liin ghould be ftee and npright with the
eft foot aomewbst adrancad. The right elbow should never be
'■ I horimnlal level with tl- -' -"- "
CT,— ■ common bat bad
practice. The gun >}i«iLl ba lifted directly npvards, tbe bnt-end
juat grazing tbe right front of tba cheat when rtaching Ita final
poaitwn, the eyea all the while looking Blally npon tha ohioct
bad style of
.11 tbo while trying to look
^ , eranea tha neck), and then bringing it back
.„-inst the Bhonlder before firing Thia, bowever, ia > waate of
mnacnlar power end qnite tbroiri oat tha adaptation of tha atock
to the shoulder, becauae it u imponible to brbg beck the gun qnite
correctly, and it has thcrefora to be nadiuited [whieh can hardly
ba accomplisbvd] before fh4n^ Beeidea, all this conenmM ttme, tot
which game will not tarry rin military phiMe, tbrea "moliona"
are required ; witb the proper atjle Ibare la only one.
The qutttion bow far the bit hand ihoold be extended In taking
aim ia much diapated. but ia really of aeeondaij oonaequmra.
Pigeon-ahootm aitand it se far aa tliey waU can, beciueo ttieir
of diachirge; but rrou this, and also ftmn their coatom of planting
their ftet firmly and aqaatBly upon tba grotmd, so aa to stand with
ti..;.- foU front to their probable line of aim, no IwKm in aliooting ■
ed be taken. Qood game ahota are not ns&aqnently pool
pigeooa. and noi cans i to be expert at tbo totixer druands
npon the acqniaitioa of s certain knack, and above all of saloolation
in tlma ij., af the power of ertknating theivanp Bmabeaitb*
XXI. — JOS -
■o illnatnite thia by w .
throwing the gnn forward, t
along th--
sss
834
ihootaA or of Ik* wad "pill" to llu ef'^ag of tha tnp ud
Bight flf the biid. lUi tin mnh tha eua tbu not nnbwaratlT
tha gun b find nlalr bjr odeolitiDB of timo, uid lidbn > tSeg^
lilid hM flown. la gnat^tbaotiag tha Uid may iim in front ot It
titkniiilBOf tkailiOTtar, orarontaliiBdliiin. Tny lapid Iilanl
morcnMDt of tha gan mij thtnTon be rajnind, uid it *pp«u( not
011I7 probtble in Uielf imt cTp«rimniUlV troo that thit cut batt
bo m*d« by tha lift mn whsn it hu to doMiibt • drel* oT tli*
^»H<ri dluMtat. For thii U» beat and nbat oMim i» wbaii
tlw Ittit huul gnmft Um gan iminadiitclj in tma tt tb* trla;n>
pud. In palling tiia tngnr Uit flnnr iboold b« w«U cn^dt
' V tlut tba pnMnTB iotj bTdinotl; lackwuda, uki jw latml dia-
tnrtwnoa nw; interfan vitii tha aim at tba moat ccltlcil mnMBt
If tha <ro t^M in all tba rib of tha nn whan laiaad t> tba
■booldar in portion for fijiiut ao that tha lUI langth of ili nrboa
iiaaaa, tha atock ii too itn^t If tha rib i* not aan at all, tba
atock la too crooksd, Whan a (tack ia of tha propai oana, tha
(fe irill catch tha rib about ona-tMid of ita langtb tnm tha nnal^
i.e., all the rib in front of that point will ba Tinbla, and all bdiind
it out of tight. X atnight t^ack it, bowarar, piafaiAle to a
crookad one, whkb mike* tba nn abact low,— ■ bad fuUt. it la
of flraC-rata Importanca that tha dalkata lalanl aattutgoftha rtock,
aa diitiiiEuiitbad from tba panrndloalar trnn, dionld Infnir tbo
cantraottheribaiactly into tba line of right nkflnadaMUn-
tnm mif ba airlTad at conji^tlr by tha qmrtauan and flu maker
of tha gun: tbaUttaroanbaguidadbrinfannatloaaatothaaparla.
man'a haight, langtb of arm, and braadlh of sbtat. If ftla point
ia aati^^Sonr It !• bnmatenal wbathar • Uid ftka to- tha right
bind or to tha lafl^ and tha naglaet of It la du laaam wh; aooM
aportnuan ara good abol* in ona odIt of thwa diiaoHona.
In olauUng bnaohloadgi^ including tha indda tt tita b*n«l%
natther oil norwatar ahould bt Oied, bat aolatj apfiUa of tniptntinaL
Tha gnn dioold narar 1m kid a^a on (bll-OM^ aa tUa waakana
SHOOTING
point of tIbw, dapeod* mtUr on ririhiMe and ctfrfbd aU^
» tha mmanwnta of tlladog^u■d Mlowing tbom waU npn
anappad nnlaaa tb«a ia « diadkaqjtd 01 a "dammj" aartridn In
tba Band. HohamnMraubamiid^afaiiTmataloilanioroon-
atrnetion, that will not pnhablr onak If it Ula witbont aoBotbing
in front liaa bring tban Uia hard and Impurira baaadi. On aa«
TOTigal and In damp ellmataa tba bairala ahonld ba knt from tba
atmoiplMn 1^ innrtiog into tham woodan loda ooracad mik wodlsn
dotlL and in Huh caaaa tha ftaa npUoatian of tninMtina will ba
tonnd inTalnaUa^ Failinc thaaa (Ms aach lod m^^ doaad with
waddina or ootka. Wet alini| tha locka tba flntat abnnwmeter oil
ahoold ba naid, and onljr i^ud in K^nta qoantitlaa to tha poinia
of friatiou, not orar aU 1 oil driaa np and U appUad ooptood;
fnuitntta tha datiiad pnnoaa. Baw linaaad (dl, taqoanUy rubbed
into a itock, hudana and prwama lb Elplorai* and traTallan,
wboaa liToa ntaj dapand OB tbair Anarma, mn aaafBUj atnngthaa
tha waakaat part of arMT son, tha bandla of tha atock, tg' wrapping
it MitiT tniDd with w^^^Did.
aieemf Soma.— Spaoa torbida antaring at Ingth ra tha modea
of diDOting tha aararal raiiatlea of gama. All that !• baro poaaibla
b briaflj to toneb npon aniN of ua aallant pmota in tha pnmiit
of tha more oonunoa TaristiM.
Babbita, on which joong apo
and ahonld balottontaoBoiulT Brad at, tha idm being' „ ^
ia adTance. If atabtdt haadiaapuaiadaniongbnuhwood, It nuj
banot nnanilingtofiTatightin&oiitof tha line It wu aaan to
take. Id "(arnong'' the ^ortamao ahould etand clear of the
bniTow (orar whuh ne diooM ueTSr tr«ad}, and never fin at ■
tabUt uaUI it i) wall awa; from tha " bolt-Lola " Haraa ue leas
tanacioua of Ufa than tabbila, and, at tt it an object not to maogle
tha bod; and ao «ioaa an amudon of blood, tha eyea of the eporta-
nao thmild ba fixed aolelr on tha tipa of the aara in wbatarer
direction the animal ia goli« when tha abot la Inatantanaooal;
fataL A ban coming itial^ towaida a apottaman abould not ba
liad at i ha ahonld ^md qidta mottoolaaa nntil It comeawithin SO
jtiiM, whan on hit making a ^ght aonnd or maramant it will ttm
aalda and gin an aan wbA no other dinetion need be giren on
thia head (tars poiribly that tbadiot la mora aiiy when a hare ia
aacanding a ridga aetoaa whioh it ma* ba ranning than whan it ia
■<j-'-"'""E from tba crcnm to tba ftirrow), aediur that the one
prindpla a flriDg aalelr at the aara IniolTea atoTTthing. Bocdear
are naullj killad with bnckahot— aUhoturh a amall lile it pte-
Hnhla— the "gnna" belu Mated at the Bkalj pamea. The neck
or abonldar ahonld ba find at. Tbn an eatUr Eillad whan within
fair dtttanca, but ara aicaadindT afarar in keniiBg ont of range
audindelectina; tbeprtatncatdthelarklagipOTtynan. Tberalw)
ba*a tha trick, bi amnnon with the al^ibant, of donbling hack and
paadng toand an; knoll, oondng Ont on Ita otiiar rida and then
eontjnning theu Intended conaa. Of tbb iaatlniitiTa habit tha
b probaUy tba Snaat of all ^orb bnm
tiona of game being in front. ._
imnning old cock will aftar riaing Inuudiatal; dip don to iwaili
tha larel of tba baatbar and go off with woDdroatl; ti«»iii»g apaai
ia no pamliarit* in the fli^t of gronaa calliBg forifocU
k. Lika nitridgM, the; nienll; ft; atial^t a>d OMrlf
ntall;. Aa tba acaton adTanoe^ ttoi waiiiifiaa and da
Hm "onna'btiH
lineoffll^knoan
. .. _ llj. Aa tba 1 ,
matmad abengtb of tba ;o«ng birda make tbeir p .
diffioolt, bat DtherwiBa llia;aand birritota. "UriTii^** ianaw
qnita Biaoaaimd branch ot p — — -*■ — " — '™- " " *■-' —
— '- ' In aiBfioial p]
pcatodlnaitifl
to be nana]]; I
t Ii needlaH to tra if the; bav
that Ibe aim mnat be taken ar
nnd naefiil for tha •portaman to oouch withaol
motloD nntil ibe Urda are coming within dialaua^ vbeb ■nliltiilj
jjKnriug Umaeli; the; are atartled and throw tbeir heada m^ Ihna
bnakinf tludr Bight and glrlug the gnn a bir cbaaeo. Anbu
the aaaiait and moat fatal ahota aia at tingb biida coniiw atnight
towaida the aportaman, taken at aboat 30 nidi. Hie aui abnild
U U^ and it b aided by Iht recoil <tf a gon when flrad. whvh
" themoidenpin the line of flight. The pallats alas atn"
d and neck, and with tnch fijm that, when maoliac 1^ bii
tba bead
So.7^
when Brad " high " la
and with tnch fijm that, when maoliac Ibe bii^
deadl; whan ao ditcbarged. The teeoil ofagm
mgbl;
potitioD. It it tboarue not an tttA
fndlnctlyi
lu with a riBe an; luge
d bee the biid. Diiri^g
naeltal in ahooou with a riBe tt
ang aiarneau ; uia ebootar ahoold bCO tl ~ *" '
wnk if thoraoghl; carried out, aa Um tf
haTe to find tlwir «a; npidl; Is the nan
tan not an eO'eminate nutt, and it prolabl;
It malntaina tha nmnbar of Ue ttock-biida b; kSoix^ A
tba M leading oocka (which virtnall; an t ermiii). Batten an
the prwBT dap tw gmiBa-ahootin^ thair hair; feet bei^g. wifl
protMtad (roni the heather ; hauca to "■■■"<■'- ngoar ttw; laqnin
to drink water tteqnantl; and eren to aqoat in dmllaw poola.
Pmntaia an pr^rable for dr; moora, parlietdarl; in hot waallKT.
rartridga^hooting b akin to sranaa-ihooting in ramet s( lb
mode of poianil^ tba diSertnce Inng in ita bdng canlad on noatl*
upon enltlTalad or ancloaed land. Both in paraidgB-ahooling ^id
' " '- - Ing opa bird onl; ought to ba ain^ed ont and ahot
will tbllow firing into the " brown ~ of a antj.
, nmt^ that ibootms orer doga (poiatcca tadng pn.
amhai and more ■'■■'''"g tetlan] b goiiw mt 01
nl^tlH
lodoamTa
3 ao dririBB
Old -, -__ .
(taabla to the ai „ . .
pnctioe ; bat tbo doae cutting of tlie grain cropa a. .
Untt ao little atabUa that the apnniach of tha d^ b ae
biida, which, general); riaing wild, afToid few " ^ota to
Hanoa the tjiaa of epartameii nlking in line {iritfa no
ntrierart) and taking wliat binla riae beCora them, tm' -
them Into tnraipa or other covert, or of baiiog tbco-
b; baatart, b almoet enfoixcii. When drirea into uch eoircita Oa
birdi an apt to ran before the ihoolcra and bike tbeir fli^t frsm
tha far cad of the field. Thia ma; be prevented b; the auurliM
not advancing dinctly, but in a eeriH of dtcnila ; then tba Vtit,
becoming uncertain ea to which way they ihould run, dl cAoaa aiu
only riae on hb vary near approacli. Of conraa tbb eicaQait bat
almott unknown ayatem can only be well carried out by a rfn^
ahooter, or t? two at tha most In "driving' tha 'gone' an
poitad in a Una at tome distance from each other, osder the coa-
cealment of a hedge aoiue 20 ;udt in their front. Towania thb
the heatera [iri-- - '--' — >■ ■---"
[lemau on honeback, if m
tha nmntiat of tnullar birda, each ae the various Idnde of thnmbe%
nhich precede or accompany the partridgea ; their andden appear-
anca on coming over the hedge b aleo trying, wberau the apfnad
of grauae can be aeeo. These two syBteina>-" driving " and tha
Thaart ofsfai
« of TsccDt intndoctkiL The
t* depende upon the fact thaL milike
partridraa or groute, tha birde generally eteadily aacenS in tbexr
Sight ; nenoe tba teadeacy it to shoot under tliem. Thb upwud
flight b greateat in coverta, until it aDmetimea becomca ahnotf
petpmdiCTilar, birda rising in tbb way being called " rocketeia."
The inexperienced ahooter b tlao misled by Ua manner la which
the tail it apresd oat like a fan, con«aling tha body, and thna
divetting tbo aim fmn the body t^ion the tail festhna. To aim
high, tharafon, b the golden role. Tha ahooter alioold bee bardt
e"wind'-an « .
once, or, fUling that,
rive it
li^t
S H O — S H O
835
10 abould
AltboOKli gn>tl; diSkrant in chuvcter, bluk-^ama ud wood-
cock nuy be wall Donpled togvther u being ecanbio in tbeir moT«-
menti. Tlie farnwc m moat ouaij shot Ttrr ttilj in the aeuon,
especi&llj OTer > iteidy old pointei, wlian the broods ira j«t on
th« more open gronnd, under the in«teni*l cbirge. like io muijr
domestia cliicksni ; but, when the; hiTS broken np tbe famil; tioe,
con^n^ted, uid bebkea themeelTea tc the coppice^ the; beooma
■o utwhIh In their hebili end nooertaln in their mode of
bpnrtnlt Tbe
flight Stlt no euct lulee on be ULd
Bpartunan, neEng one stead; old pointer uiu m jvu-iuTBr, juu ixn
be gtuded by so eiperienwl ettendimt, who shonld take cue to
beat ont any bird Imking in s tluok bneit from the opposite side
and tovtrds the goo. A few shota may also be got at the dawn
of day on the edges of stabble-fielde ; but Elack-game ahootlng is
«nen]l]r diiappoinliiig. The female bird), "gnj heoe," an not
■act at ; the yoang males, whloh greatlj [tsemhls them, an dis-
tingaiahed horn them by the white faathen in the tail A solitary
blackcock may often be Ken to take np a prominent posltloii, usn-
bHt in the cantn of one of the amall fielda to be (bond on the dde
of hilly ground, where he maintains a Tigllant watch. With some
oxpstience in ahootlng matteia, ttit preBent wiitar knowa no pnmlt
mon Intaraatlng and m-ngonting than staUdng nidi > b!id i with'
oat earning undne &tlgae, it exardaes one's patbDCe, figQaniie, and
coolneai ornerra. Shot lor tblsnupow (hoold not be <^ a smslkt
■ize than No. 4. Woodcobk nawlr aniTtd nuy be nadlly killed,
tspeciallr near the sea-coast Attar recmlling^ th^ fraqnantly
betake UtemselTee to heathur; moors tt then an loch near at
hand, where they freqnent the ddes of rimlet* and gorges. Then
they ma^ b« readily brooght down ; but In woods they haTe ■ knack
of twisting S3 It were, nund the yonn^t. trees. In uie brsnobes o(
which thej an meetly found, snd so dieconcort the aim- Being of
nocturnal habits, their eyes are weak lit the foil gUn of day, and
they are fond of the ihelteiing shade of thickly loliaged tnas, mcb
as Uie holly. The only adrlce that oao be giTen on this ipoit li
bnnchot, and trust to Uie spread of the eelleta to kill, K^ the
wDadcock, like its congener the snipe, will nil with a tooch, i^
area (apparently) through mere fnght on being fired at, wlthoat
being touched at aU. ne beat ifcot to nsa is No. 8.
^mmiiB<f<im. — In fbnnai times sportsinen cajehlly •djosted
their cbsrge* of powder and ahot to suit the weather (which sfTected
the etreugth of the former) and the sport In hand. Now, almost
oTBiythlng Is left to the poireyor of car^ldgEs, which an usually
chsiged on STBn^ pnnortiona Tbo sportsmsn should be canrfo^
thenfore, to ucertun the ebuga best ioitad to hie weapon, aud to
boTS hii cartridgea m leaded. Than • gnn ncoUs the charge of
shot — not of powder, M is ganeially mppoeed — Bhoald be reilucod ;
■nd It ii always safer to nse a light charge of shot. Bnechloaden
requin Isrge-grsined powder. Hears CnrtLt jc HuTBT'sNg. e being
the typlcalslie. I^ro^Une explosir4 of which Schnltie powder'
is the normst tm, ua now laigslr used, especially in the fint
banal, the other Mug ebuged witt bbck powder. For almiwt
all regnlar sport TSo. A shot & the best die ; and It is better to nse
Ho. 7 In a smaller quantity than If a t for grouse snd perttid^
For pbaMont* and black game use Ko. E, but of It co. in weight,
dnck -ahootlng (lor which the bsirela £onld be of "10" gauge and
SS inches bug) So. 4 riiot ii • good tin ; and for this aport It is
well to Tsdooe uewidghtofthe shot snd Increasa very conaidetably
that of the powdei^T^ocity being aTarythlng.
iKA-aloDliiiir. — The propriety of shooting with both ayes open
ia, if poaetbte, mon imperatiTS in rifla-^untlng than in shooting
nme, If Ta{dclity la Talned, as it mnst be, Flttarms Immediately
rollowed the hnig bow snd the crDee-how, snd It hss nerer been
1y^'
supposed thstthsarcherdiBDhaisBd
both ayea open the "back ilght " TlrtnallT baoomea transparent,
and tbrma no abetacle to the aun, while with one eye cloeed it cer-
tainly does, for, as the head and eyaa must bo kept billy up In
firing a ahot gnn, tbn must be kept well down in firing a rifle.
The "arpreM" rifle la the iJi^-dmvn of modem woapone, and
when properly made will throw tli bullet up to !00 yorda without
psrceptibla curre from one alght. ^ils reeult is attained mostly by
' TUa eiptoain Is the btTaoUou of Oolonsl J. 7, K Schnltie, ot
the ItaBlan artlUet; serrlce, sad was Inbodaced shout 18M Into fte
Cnltad Kingdom by Ifr J. D. DougsIL It is now brfag mannbcrtand
in Onst Bilt^ as wen aa OB the Continent. Tbe adfsulages claimed
lor It an that It doss not nqnlia any QMcdol loading, such as bard
nmBlsfr ttHra Is a imallsr leooil than with Usck gonpowdar, and
tt la* (mt prapoWie paww, with Uttla <r BO tinUi« itf the finsim.
an inordinately large charge of powder to i light and partly hollow
buJlot [see GUNMASIBO, toL li p. 282). The "pull" on ths
trigger should tather be a pinch then s direct beckwsrd pulL i.i
the trigger should be pinched between the forefinger end theSumh
which graapa the handle of the slock. If the eportudiu has [he
presence of mind to Inflate his chest with a long mbalallon he will
shoot all ths better. There !• a popular opinion that a oiuglo-
baireiled "Mprem" ahoou uioie truly than a double- bairsllod one.
This ia quite a mielate, unlcm the Wrci of tho former is mads
so thick and hesTy at the mnnle (to ptoient the metal nuireting
when ths bullet leara it) as to destroy the balance. In double-
bamlled rifles the one baml bnusa up the other, and they an
aleo so a^juetsd as to ehoot pualloL This comnion error hu prob-
ably arisen from confounding "Mpreao" with long-ningo match
rifles, which an quite another thing Tho '4G0 calibre ia beat
adapted for doer and aclelopee, -BOO for mined shooting and 'ti77
for cUn^rous animals. But tor these snd the great pachyderms a
" la" g^uge, throirbg an ciplojlvc ehoU, ii (he moat elfoctiTsor
all firearms, tho larger "area" of the vound tolling at once.
I>DanU'« SliMtlia Ui ^iniHantta, da. IL
■'-'-'■' '- "~ Vb«,j {London, lb
J. Bcn^'i DnT-ttslkln9
8H0HE, Jakk, mistreas of King Edward IV., vonld
liavB been unknown Ly oame even to the atudious antiqtiaij
but for ths events which took place after the death of her
royal paromonr. Bhe vtis the first of Ibrea concnliines
whom he described respectively as tho merriest, the wilyest,
and the holiest hcj-lot in hia realm. A hand.<ome woman
of moderate stature, round face, and fair complexion, xhe
waa more CAptivating by her wit and (Kniveraation than b;
her beauty; yet Sir Thomas More, writing when phe was
atill alive, bat old, lean, and withered, declaren that even
lliea an attentive observer might have discerned in lier
ahrivelled coontenance some traces of ita lost charms. Bhe
was bom in London, and married before abe was quite
ont of girlhood to a citizen named TTUIiam Phore^ who,
though yonng, bandsome, and welt-todo, never really won
her affections ; and tbns she yielded the more readily to
the solicitations of King Edward. Her husband on this
abandoned her, and after Edward's death she became tbe
mistreeiof Lord Hastings, whom Bicbard in., then duke of
Gloacester, as protector during the minority of Edward T.,
suddenly ordered to be beheaded od ISth June 1183.
According Ut the report given by More, Richard had
accused Hastings at the conncil table of conspiring agunst
bJTTi along with the queen-dowager and Shore's wife, who
by sorcery and witchcraft had given him a withered arm.
go having got rid of Hastings be caused Jane Shore to be
committed to prison and spoiled her house, containing
proper^ to the value of 2000 or 300D marks, equivalent
to a sum of £20,000 or £30,000 at the present day.
But having aonght in the Grst place to charge her with
conspiracj' — a charge which apparently ha could not sub-
stantiate— he thought better afterwards to get the bishop
of London to pat her to open penance at Paul's Cross
for her vicioos life. She accordingly «^t in her kirtle
through the streets one Sunday with a taper in her band,
Jier beautj really enhanced by the blush which her humilia-
tion called up in her usually pale cheeks ; and man; who
detested her mode of life could not but pity her as tbe
victim of a hypocritical tytaany. The penance certainly
did not induce her to reform, for she immediately after-
wards became the mistress of tbe marquis of Dorset ; and,
what is still more extraordinary, next year, having been
taken agun into custody, and her biuband, it may be
presumed, being by that time dead, she so captivated the
king's solicitor, Thomas Lynom, that he actually entered
into a contract of marriage with her. This we know from
a letter of King Eichard to bis chancellor on the occasion,
desiring him to dissuade Lynom from the matdi, as far as
he conid, by argument, but, if be found him determined,
then, provided it was not against the laws of the church,
he might convey the king's consent and meanwhile deliver
Jane out of |>riMm Io her father's custody. OoadtMt so
836
S H O — S H O
tinliU hb praTiona aereritj Aatn Uut Ridtard knew bow
to b«'gTuious M well u denwtic Wiether the marriage
■ctnaUj took pUc« is not known. Jane certainly lived
to the year 1G13, when More wrote hia histo^ of Bichard
nL, but how much later we cannot telL
BH0RTHA14D, or SixNoaBAPHr, Tachybupht, &c.,
U a term applied to all qrstema of brief bandwii tins which
are intended to enable a peison to write legibly attiie rate
of ipeach. (For the ancient Latin and Oreek tachygrapby,
Me the last part of the article on Palaookipht.) In the
lOlb centniy all pracCical acqnaintSnce with the ahorthand
^tenu of Greece and Rome faded conpletel; away, and
not till the b^inning of the ITth can the art be Hid to
bava i«TiT«d. But even during that interval systema of
writmg wem to have been practiaed which for apead ap-
prozimated to modem shorthand.'
SJu/rtioHd in MngliA-^itakvis Ccnaitria. — ^^'g^«■"'^ waa
the birthplace of njodera ehortband, and at the pieseot
time there la no conntr; in Europe, except pertiapa
German; and Qennan Switzerland, i^ere the art ia so
exteodvelf practiaed aa in England. The first impnlse to
it* cnltivtiUon mav poeaibly be traced to the Baformation.
When the priaciplea of that movament vc^re bdng pro-
mulgated from tite pulpit, a desire to preeerve the dia-
connea of the preacher natorally suggested the idea of
accelerated writing. It is certainly atriluiig that in the
early ayatems ao many brief arbitrary ngns are provided to
denote phrasea common in the New Testament and Pro-
testant Uieok^. Up to the present time (16661 not leas
than 168 profeaaedly distinct aystema of English ^orthand
hare been publiahed, and donbtleaa many more have been
invented for private use. It is impoaaibla here to notice
even by name more than a very few of them. Indeed, if
we rqect all thoae ayatema wluch are imitations or repro-
ductions of earliar onea, and systema which are bo nnpracti-
cal as to be little better than elegant toyi, and a muUitude
of utterly worthleaa catchpenny pnbli«itioni, only a few
Mmain. In Dr Timothy Brighfs* CAonicfav (1566) and
Faler Balea'a* Artt of Brcuhygmpkit, conbuned in his
Wriiittg SehoUeTaatler (1G30), almost overy word in the
langoaga ia provided with an arbitrary sign. Only with
gigantic memory and by nnrmnitting labour ponld one
acquire a practical knowledge of such methods. The first
shorthand ayatem worthy of the name which, ao for as ia
known, appeared in Engknd is that of John Willis, whose
Art qf ^fnogrofAU (London, 13 editiona^ from 1GD2 to
> rorlDsluiw.aHZaiblg'iOaaUaUaiLU
tmul (DtMdM, ISJt), pp. 97-7). For John of TUbnry'i ijitim (a
117fik ■« ™S^^I BkarOaiid, No. G, ud Sirmm. riU. p. SOS,
* lis Pnllikii UbrsiT oodUIsi Clu oalj ImawD oopj of Bright'i
book Far ■ dacriptioD oF tha ifilam, m Plumctic Jaimud, 1884,
II M; iHtvOan nf hifarmatim if Uu £urRii> q/ fdwoMim (Walh-
fagt«>)> ^•>- % 1S4^ p. a ; uid !TMm iHHf Qaeria, Sd ht, nd. ii. p.
tH. A I* nfitaeatti br ■ rtnigfat liiw, tbe alhmr Mtan of th«
slphsM bf a ilnigbt UfiB witb i book, oiicla, or Ikk added it tlie
'-e'""iTie, boh slpbsbetio ilgn plKsd in variou poaltUnu, sod
bkTtag now addltliiiul mark at tha end, ni nwd to indiata *iU-
toBflr duean wnda baglanmg irlth a, b, c, d, ie. Tbeie were fonr
shipM flvsa to oacli letter and twdve waja of ni7ii« tb* bua, k>
tliat foctr-elght muda Msld be wiitlsa nuder each letter of Uie alpbu-
bat it n I lima IT Thna the aign for b vitb different tnmlnal marka
and initten In fonr diffannt directioDa ignited a number ot ironla
eonuneiiolng with b ; (37 anc^ eigne had to be leaned hj beut, Bj
thna b/ WTiUng a dot is ole of two poeitioiu with napict to a eign tlw
latter wwi made to irpwont either a lynonym w a i-ord of opp«ite
neadng. Tinder o^ an giTen ai aTnonriDa brtetA. ah alnliim, wM, reat,
Kent, H^wr. Tli* beat aoMnmt of Bright la gtvan in the iM^iDHty
tfKaHoKid Biognpltg, voL n. [ISSS^
* fialsa'a method waa to gifiap the mrda in dmma, each dona bsadad
bj a Bamsn latter, with oartiin cominaa, paiiodi, and other marke to be
pleoad sboM wA latter in tbetr appropriale altiiattos*, « aa b> dlatln-
fobh thswocda fromewih other. For an aooonet of Balea, aag Wood'a
JUam. Oaoh, voL L obI. sen, and the ZN^ itC A'ot. »op.,Tol. liL (1S8S).
* Tht Int oditkii^ pnbUdiad aacairmoiulf, it entitled na Art t^
1644) ia anbatantjon^ based on the oonuDOn atelabet ; '
the clumsiness of hia alphabetic sigit^ and the eoMfn
laborious contrivances by which he denotes ^iiaBiaa and
terminatiDns, invcdving the eootinnal lifting of the pee,
woidd aeem to render his method almost as aknr aa long-
hand. Of the 201 aystems which intArrene betWMS) i.
Willia'a and Isaac Pitman's phonography (1837) tHAriy al
are based, like Willis's, on the alphabet, and but be caOad
a, t^ c ETatema. Bat seven ar^ like phoiK^tajJiT, ■facic&y
phonetic, viz., those by Tiffin (1700), Lyle (1763), Holda-
worth and Aldridge (1766), Boe (1802), Fhinoaa Baik?
(1819), Towndrow (1831), and Do Stains (1839). Oftke
381 ayatems which have appeared abce pbooogiapkj a
very large [ooportion are merely imitationa (A that ajaliw^
or proceed on the same Unes.
A few general remarks apply targdy to all tbe a, I^ a
ayatema. Each letter is designated by a strai^t Hjm oc
enrve (votical, horizontal, v sloping), sometime* wHh the
addition of a hook or loop. C and ; an tqected, h beiag
aabstitiited for hard e and q, t for soft e. Signa are pro-
vided for ci, at, fA. 6 and J are classed under aae Biga,
because in acxaie words g is pronounced as ^ aa in oiaat,
gem. Kmilarly each of the pain/, * and t, > haa oiaj one
dgn. Afewaathotsntaketheaignsforj, v,> heavier than
those for g, f, «. Some class p and b, t and d, each under
one sign. 'The stenogr^hic alphabet is thetttfot« — a, b, d,
A. Letten which are not sounded may be omitted. Gk,
pAmay beooimtedaB/in snch words aa cdm/iI, I^alipi but
tha lA in thing is never distingniahed from.the A in Atm.
Thus the a, b, c systems are largely plionetie with iqqact
toconsonant-soands; it israthwwitAregard to thevowds
that they disr^^ard the [dionetie principle. No attempt is
made to provide adeqnately tw the many vowet-soonda ol
the language. Thus Uie aigna for liie and liet, for ratt and
rai, ic., ere tho sanie. In the case of vowel«oanda denoted
by two letters, that vowel ia to be written idiich best repre-
sents the sound. Thus in nuat the a is selected, but ia
gnat the a. In some a, b, o ^sterna, indading the best of
them (TayWa), a dot plaj^d anywhere does dntj for all
the vowels. "This practice is, of oonrac^ it fruilfnl soorca
of error, for pai^KT and piip«r,^a« end ^oosf, and himdTeda
of other pairs of words would according to this i^an be
written alike. In the early systems of Willis and his inu-
tatoTs tiie voweU are mostly written eithw by joined ebw
acters or by lifting the pen and writing the next oonaonant
in a certain poai^on with respect to the preceding one.
Both these plana are bad ; for lifting the pen involves ex-
panditnre of time, a^d vowels expressed by jiwted si^ia and
not by marks external to the word cannot be omitted, aa is
often necessary in swift writing without changing the
general appearance of the word and forcing the ajv and
the hand to accustom thamselvee to two sets of ontlina^
vocaliced and nnvocalixed. In the betto' a, b, c aystems
the alphabetic signs, beaidee combining to denote wxndi,
may also stand alone to designate certain short eotnmon
words, prefixes, and eoffixea. Thus in Harding's editkn of
Taylor's system the ngn for d, when written alone^ denotes
do, did, the prefixes d^ dm-, and the terminations -^om,
•aid, -attd, -ed. This is a good (oaetioe if the wosda ars
well chosen and procantioos taken to avoid amtagoitieai
Ntonbers of symbolical signs and rough word-pictnre^ and
even wholly arbitrary marks, are employed to dtaiote wucds
and entile phrases. Symbolical or pictorial aigna, if loffi-
dently snggeative and not very nnmsrona, may be effective;
but the use of "arbitrariea" is obgecttooable becange they
are so difficult to remember. In many shorthand books
SUnoffrapUt . . . nHanwfc U Mattmi a vary aoM Jliraitfaa fit
Btrsana^ngMi, or Aarri WriUtig, piliitMl at IdodoB la laOl tt
Cuthb«t Bnitii& 1%* oaly fcaom eopy la In tba HiMiIi IHntj.
IHORTHAND
the rtodent ia recommendad to fonn ftddidoxial ones for
^.ipirmlf, uul K> of conne moke hii writing illegible to others.
Tlia rauo» dttrt of *nch aigns ia oot far to BMk. The
|>i'opeT Bhorth&nd signa for many cominoa words were m
rlnmny or ambigoaoa that this method wtu resorted to in
Order to provide them «ith clearer and easier outlines. For
the purpose of verbatim reporting the stndeut is reecmi-
mended to omit aa a rule oil Towel^ and decipher hia vrit-
iog witii the ud of the context But, (rhwi rowels are
omitted, hundrede of pairs of words having the some con-
eonant skeleton (such aa m,imMer and moBottery, frontier
and fvniturt, l^hd and lahtTf Kn written ezacttj alike.
Thia i* one of the gmveat defects of the a, b, c STstenia.
John Willie's system was largely imitated but hardly
improved by Edmond Willia (1618), I. Shelton (1620),
Witt (1630), Dix (1633), Mawd (1636), and TheophUus
Metcalfe (I63G). T. Shelton's syatem, republished a great
many times down to I6ST, was the one which Somael Pepys
nsed in writing his diary.' It was adapted to Oemian,
Dutch, and latin.* Au advertiseinsnt of Shelton's work
in the ifnimritu Palitiou of 3d Oetober 1650 is one of
the eaiiiest bnsinees adTertisements known. The book of
Psalms b metre (206 pages, S| x \\ indies) was engraved
according to Shelton's system I^ Thomaa Crcn. Metcalfe's
Badio-Staus/mphj/, or SMort- Writing, was republished again
and again for abont a hundred yean. The 86th "edition"
ia dated 1693, and a Ceth is known to eziat. The ineffi-
cient of the eariy aysteini aeema to have brought the art
into some contempt. Tinu lliomaa Heywood, a contem-
porary of Shakespeare, aays in aprologoe* that hia play of
Quem eiitabtth
" Dili throng the usta, the bona, and th« ataga
So mnch tut Kims fa; ■tenognph; draw
A plot, [lat it in print, icann ana word tnia."
Shaketpeare critics would in thia manner explain the
badness of the text in the earliest editions of ffatakf,
Romeo and Juliet, Taniing of tht Shrew, Merry Wivei of
Windsor, and ffeniy V. Perhaps a stody of J. Willis's
eyatem and of £. Willis's (which, though not published till
after Shakespeare's death, woa practised long before) may
shed light on corrupt readings of the text of tiieee plays.*
Rich's system (1616, 20th edition 1792) was reproduced
with slight alterations by many other peraouB, including
W. Add;, Stringer, and Dr Philip Doddridge (1799 and
three times since). The Kew Testament and Psalms were
engraved in Bicn's characters (1659, GB6 pages, 2^x 1}
inches, 2 vols.), and Addy brought out the whole Bible
engraved in shorthand' (London, 1687, 396 pp.). Locke,
in his Ticatite on Education, recommends Hieh'a aystem ;
but it is encumbered with more than 300 symbolit^ and
arbitrary signs. In 1847 it was still used by Mr Plowman,
a most accomplished Oxford reporter.
In 1672 William Mason, the best shorthand anthor.of the
17th century, published his Pen plvcl^d from an EagUt
Wing. The alphabet was largely taken from Rich's, But
in liid Arft AdMneement (1682) on^ sir of Rich's letters
are retained, and in his Plume Yolante (1707) further
changes are made. Initial vowels are written by their
alphabetic signs, final vowela by dots in certain positions
(n, e at the befpnoing ; t, ji at the middle ; o, u at the
end), and medial vowds by lifting the pen and writing the
next consonant in those same tiiree positions with respect
to the preceding one. Mason employed 423 symbola and
' Bh a papw br J. E. BiOey, " On tha Gpliw of Popji^ DiMT," In
Faptn Iff l»i UmdtHtr Liltrary CIu), loL iL (1ST8).
* Sm Zeibig'i OacK H.La.d. OaiAmtidMjiTeitlnjitl, p. 196.
' PUataiil Diaioffua andDrtnnmat (LoDdoD, 16S7), p. 240.
' Bm H, Lery'a ShatipBt and SHerOitnid (Londan], uul Pioaide
feHmal, 18811, p. 81.
> Tkl> cnrinity li dwribed In Ifaa PJuHulic /ownot, IBBE, pp. 1S8,
m TL* Bodhltn Uhatj hu a ODpf.
' arUtrariea. He was the (tat to discover the value of s
small circle for i in addition to ito proper alphabatio aign.
Mason's syatem was republished by Thomas Gumsy in
17 1(^ a drcomstancs which has perpetuated its uae to the
present day, tor in 1737 Qumey was appointed shorthand-
writer to the Old Bailey, and early in the 19th century
W. B. Onmey was appointed shorthand -writer to both
Eonaea of Parliament Gumey reduced Masou'a arbitrories
to about a bnndred, inventing a few specially suitable for
parliamentary reporting. The Qumeys were excellent
writers of a ctmibroua system. Thomas Gnmey's Bracky-
graphy passed through at least eighteen edition^ but the
sale of ^e book has now almost ceased.
In 1767 was published at Manchester a work by John
Byrom, sometime fellow of Trinity College^ Cambridge^
entitled TS* UnivereaC Englith Shorhumd, distinguished for
its precision, elegance, and eystematic conatrnction. Bjiom
had died in 1763. Having lost his fellowship by failing
to take orders, he mode a liviog by teaching shorthand
in London and Manchester, aod among his pupils were
Horace Walpole, Lord Conway, Charles Wesley, Lord
Chesterfield, the duke of Devon^iire, and Lord 'Camden.
Shorthand,' it is said, procured hJTn admiaaion to the Royal
Society. He founded a stenographic club, to the proceed-
ings of which his journal,* written in shorthand, ia largely
devoted. In the atrangen' gallery of the House of Com'
moos in 1728 Byrom dared to write shorthand from Sir
B. Walpole and otiiers. Inl731, when called upon to give
evidence before a parliamentary committee^ he took short-
hand notes, and, complaints being made, he said that if
tl)ose attacks on the liberties ,of shorthand men went on
he " must have a petition from all counties where our die-
dplea dwell, aod Manchester moat lead the way." Thomas
Molyneux popularized the system by publbhing seven
cheap editions between 1793 and 1825. Modifications of
Byrom's system were issued by Pahner (1774), Nightingale
(1811), Adams (1814), Longmans(1816),Qawtr(>as (1819),
KeUy (1820), Jones (1832). and Boffe (1833). Byrom's
method received the distinction of a q>ecial Act of I^lia-
ment for ita protection (15 Geo. U. o. 23, for twenty^one
years from 24t}i June 1742). To secure linealit; in the
writing and facility in consonantal joinings he provided
two fonus for b, h, j, te, x, th. A, and three for t. A, e,
i, 0, w, he represented by a dot in five positions with respect
to a consonant. Practically it is impossible to observe more
than three (beginning, middle, and end). With all ita
merits, the ^stem lacks rapidity, the continnal recurrence
of the loop seriously retarding the pen.
In 1786 was published An, ^itay intended to etltMiih a
Slandard/or a Univtrtal f^yOem of SUnograpky, by Samuel
Taylor (London). Thia system did more than any of ita
predecessors to establish the art in England and abroad.
Equal to Byrom's iu brevity, it is simpler in conatrnction.
No letter has more than one sign, except w, which has
two. Considering that fire vowel places about a conaonaot
were too many, Taylor went to the other extreme and ex-
preasad all the vowels alike by a dot placed in any position.
He directs that vowels are not to be expressed except when
they sound strong at the beginning and end of a word.
Arbitraries be discarded altogether ; but Harding, who rtt-
edited hia system in 1823, introduced a few. Each lettei
when standing alone represents two or three common shorl
wordi^ prefixes and suffixes. But the list was badly chosen ;
thus m represents my and mnny, both of tiiem a4jectivea,
and therefore liable to be confounded in many sentences.
To denote ut and on by the same sign is evidently absurd.
Taylor's system was republished again aod again. Ha
* BjTom'i priTfttfl JonnuJ md Ittemy renutot hsra bacD pnblUhad
bj tfaa OiBt]iua Boclttj ot Uuichuto'. Hh, too, a pipar b; J. K^
BaOer In tba Phmctit Jomntal, iilS, pp. 109^ 111.
SHORTHAND
ktwt Aditiona ue those ot J. H. Cooke (London, 1866)
Mid A. Janea (London, 1882). Li Harding's edition (1833
ind at least twelve times dnce) the Tovek are written on
an improved plan, the dot in three poeitioiis repreaenting
a, e, i, and a tick in two podtions o, «. SevenJ otlier
persona brought out Taylor's S7«teui, in partienlsf G. Odell,
whose book was re-edited or reprinted not lass than aiztj-
font times, the later republications appearing at New York,
The excellence of Taylor's method wu recognized 09 the
Continent : the STstem came into um in France, Ital;,
HoUaod, Bweden, Qerioanj, Portugal, Bonmania, Hungary,
to. In England at the present tkj no, method excepting
Ktman's phonography i* more popular than Taylor's,
oltMngh tiie systems which have appeared since Taylor's
aie ttx more nnmennu than those which preceded it
The Univerul StatoffrajAy 0/ William Mavor (1780
and nine timw since) is a very nnt system, and differs
bom Taylor's in the alphabet and in a more definite
method of mwhing die vowbIsl .1, i^ s f^i^ indicated by
ccMnmas, 0, u, y, by dots, in three places with respect to a
letter, namely beginning middle, and end. Other systems
by 3. K'Lewis (161S) and Uoat (1833) are still and to
a small extent.
The vast mass of a, l^ c systems are strikingly devoid
of originality, and are mostly imitations of the few tliat
liava been mentioned. Nearly all may be briefly described
as consisting of an alphabet, a list of common words, pre-
fixes and suffixes ex[ft^sied by single letters, a list of ar-
bitrary and symbolical signi, a table showing the best wsf
of joining any two letters, a few general rules for writing,
and a specimen plate.'
Pitman's phonography, on account of its enorm<
sim in Great Britain and the coloniea, and in .
Its highly organized and original construction, and its many
Inherent advantages, merits a more extended notice than
Ba* been given to the systems already mentioned. In 1837
Isaac Pitman, then teacher of a British school at Wotton-
nndeT'Edge and an excellsnt writer of Taylor's system,
composed at the Invitation of Bamnel Bogster a short
stenographic treatise of his own, which Bagster published
under the title of Slmagraphie Sound-Hand. The price
was fixed at foorpeuce, for the author had determined
to place shorthand within the raach of everybody. He
had won the friendship of the Bible pablisher by Yolon-
taiily verifying the half a million references in the Com-
prAmiive Bible, and Mr Bagster for nine yean published
Hr Pitman's shorthand books, In 1840 a second edition
Wpeared in the form of a penny plate bearing the titie
Phonographs, 'he princii»l featnre of tiie system being
that it was constructed on a purely phonetic basis. The
name of Bagater helped tiic enterprise, and the author was
indefatigable in spreading the knowledge of bis system
by lectures and gratuitous teaching through the penny
post, then just established. In December 1811 the first
number of what is now known as the Phonttic Jonnud
appeared at Manchester in a litht^raphed form. It was
then called the Fhonograpkie Jownat, and subsequently
in turn the Phonotypic Jownal, the Phonttic Ifem, and the
PhauHc Jtrnnud. The chief instruction books inoed by
the author at the present time from bis press at the
Phonetic Institute, Bath, are the PhonographiB Ttachcr,
a little sixpenny book for beginners, of which 1,030,000
copies have been published ; the Manwd of Pionograpky
(470th thousand), in which the art is sufficiently developed
for the purpose of correspondence^ private memoranda,
and easy reporting ; and the Phonographic Reporter (133d
thousand). The vreekly circulation of the Phonetic Journal
is about 20,000 copies. A part of it is printed in the
phooographic chaixcter from moviUa I7PM- ^w ?*■
has been wannly taken up in America, whet* it W kai
repnUished in more <^ less altered forms, tmgtatOj tj
the author's broths Benn Pitman, and by Means LI.
Graham, J. E. Muhmd, £. Longl^, tad Elin Bi Barm
A large mmber of parioidicala lithographed in phonogi^
are pabKshed in England and America. Tha SherOaii
Moffiaime, monthly, hu ezisted since 1864. Of sbodsl
Fngii.h books printed or lithc^iiaphed iri pbonogrifb;
may be mentioned, boddes the Bible, New TestaaM,
and Prayer Boc^ The POgrMi Proffref, Tht Tiatr <j
WateJUJd, Pichnck Papen, Tom BrvtmU SchoU-Dafi.
Macaulay's Btaay and BiograpMet, GuIHbo'i Tna^
Blackie'a Sdf-adture, Bacon's Baayt, and a loog li4 d
tales and selections. Numerous societieB have been fcmd
in all English-speaking counbiea for tlie diassniinatiaB d
phonography. The largest is the Fbcmetic Socie^ vhk
33SO members, who have all certificates of » Iniowlsdgerf
the art and engage to teach throng the post S ' '
Most important towns in the United Kingd
phonographic assomation. London has three.
graphy has bean adapted to several tcreign lax^nagt^ hit
not »o successfully as Gabelsbe^^s Germaii aystoa. Hr
T. A. Reed's Frtnck Phonography (1882) ia intended Olij
tor English phonographeia who wish to report Fipid
speeches. Other adaptations to French mre bj i. J.
Lawson and J. B. Bruce. A society for the adxpMkn d
phonography to Italian was organised at Kome in 1B83
ly Q. Frandni, who ho* published hia reanlta (Bto^
1683, 1886). Phonography adapted to 8p&niah by Puedj
(Buenoe Ayres, 1864) is practised by half the Etaac-
grapbers employed in the senate and chamber at Boofa
Ayres. It has been adapted to Welsh I7 B. H. Hc^a
fWrexham, 1876), and to German by & L. Dricriaa
(Chicago, 1 884). Phoni»raphy is steadily driviiig all ctW
English systems out of the field. . Hr T. A. Baed stated a
the Phonetic Journal, 1883, p. 6S, that of tite SI wrilM
employed by the Timit, SUmdofd, Tdtgn^ Jformmg Pad,
and the Frees Assodation 31 were unng ^oaognjin, l^
Taylor'^ 0 Qnmey's (>.«., Mason's), 4 liowii/a, and 3 otiv
(Tstems; of the 07 membera compoaing tha Inatitole d
Shorthand Writers, chiefir practitioners in the law cmA
26 were using phonography, 36 Taylor's, 7 CkiiiMVV (it.
Mason's), 3 Mayor's, and 3 Lewis's ; wbHa of the 80 mtn-
bera of the London Shorthand Writers' Assodatioii, dtelf
employed in buiineas offioee^ at least fire'Sixtha wan pbooo-
graphera. According to A nocirt A883) hiatoiy at sbvt
hand,of 291 profeMdonalsteao^rmiuieci ' ' ' *" '
rs in London 1 34 val
phont^phy, 89 Taylor's, 30 Qmney'a, 8 Lewis'^ 8 HaTorX
and 17 oUier i^Btems (Byrom's, Qraham'a, Maa4^ Ac)
Tha nuln ftetunt of Pitmin'i mtam must nav la daioib)!.
Tfa< slplubtt of Donasnuit-KinBda !*— ni| t,d; ik (w la cihtl,
j: *,ff(uiaw);/,»i Ik (uin Oi.^, A(.s in Ami): •,!;*
<A(,»ainvitieH)t m, n, ns (u in IUm] ; I,r; «,«,*. rfiuttmab
p, I, tk,ktn npTtwDtcd mpsatively by tha lam itiaigfet tfokn
tha nma dgna raspaotivel^
tX m indli>sl«d by V C) ^^ ntptOirdj ; tbs «_ _„
heiTy snd tapering to the ands in osad ftr *, A, a, it n^td-
Inly, if, «,l,r an dmatadbT^^^'^"^I«q>cctiT^, Bi
mlflo rapreaentad by -'^ writtan npwards **^^ In a num ajaotiof
diractiDn than tha ligo for ek. Tha dgna for A vtd I may ba writta
up or domi when in comUnation, but ituding alona at is nitta
dommida and I npmida. ^u rigni lor w, y, i an a^ ^o^.
all writtan upwirda. J haa al» ? dtnra. JPo, ^ip (or mii «» («
171, fc-, «paT»prwKit«ibTthBiign»for«,«i,r, Irmpocdwilyimlla
heavT. Slflps an pTOFidad for tha Soolch gnttaiml at (aa in Eiell
tha Vdih B, utd tha French iishI a. Bit generally writtu ijt
mull oirele. The long-nwal aoandi us thna nlaieiB»i1 t (a >
loImX 4 (aa Is MQ, <• (ss in /ml), mi (ss in IM), « (a* ia oaQ.
W (u in hxA Tba vomla d,t, etm nuAed bv s ItaairM
[Jeo■d^t^^l^e^^m^y ttlMh— tn.fa^ — HiVyMll wrt nf'fi Liaiiwi^
SHORTHAND
839
ligH ; m», t, U br > hnrj dull In tlui samg tLr«« pceitioiu, uid '
geuflisll7 itruck it right uglu ts ths direction ot tbe coiuonlnt
Tha ihort Toweli ire 4 (m in pat), I (u inni), I (u ia pil), 1 [u
In pol), n (u in iiU), und M (u ia jnit). Tha algua for theie us
tbe Hino u (or tba ^n«pa>iiUtig long vowel) jnst cnuinentHl,
eictpt tlut tblj in writtau light. Sigoi limikrlir placed sra
dtotiiIhI for tbs iliphthougs ei (la in toil), ed or «, «I (u io Asn-
■r$Ei, JIM*, coineHtr), for tho uriea »a, jiJ, y«, it, lad for the
■eiiM mJ, B* IW, *=- TLs algni tor at (u ia iiU) ind « (u in
end) in A, lud uu; be placud in inj poaitiaa vitb respect to i
coDaonint, A ■traijtbt llua may ncsive four Looks, one at ucli
■ids of the beriuiilDg and end, but i cone oolj two, one it «uh
ead in ths direction of tlis cnne. Hooka ipplied to a ilraigbt
line indicate the addition ot r, I, a, and/ or s rcapectiTel;, thus—
'\yr,\lrf.N.|/orpB. and\B»;.- Ir. ^ kt, -. i/. ^ tn ;
^i/mrv, 1^^ m. Hooki ipplisd to i currs denote the addition
•fr,»Kip«tiFaIy,thua-l_/r, V.;^; c-. mr, '-^ m». Toirel-
ugn* plirad liter (or, in ths cais of horizontal itrokee, nadei] a
couioniut hiiiiig the h or/, v hook are read bstveen ths conaonsnt
■nd the » or/; thoa r^ wuy4, Vj/un, hat T crow, "H fray.
A Wgs book it tha commencement of i cnrre ligniSea the idiU-
tion ot I, u ^ Jl- Th* hooki oombina eaiilf with the circle i,
tInu_N ip,"\ ipr (where the hook ri« implied or ineladed in the
circle), ^ 4>I.^ ^ (tli< lxx>k * b«i>iK Included), "^ fj; Ac The
of aharthand. Tha haWins of alight atroka— that is, vritiiif! it
half langth—impl lea the addition of { ; the halTing of a hear; itroke
that of <<, the rowel placed after {ci andsrj tJia hiived stroke being
read between tlia cooaonant and the added ( or A, thai — ) ma,
y lausU, I. Bit, I. dad, N/rfi, " oK, "-/oi, V*^ ke. By
thii meina Tsry brief ligna are prOTtded for hoiti of ajltablea ending
in ( and d, and for a numbar of rsrbal forms ending in ed, Ihua —
•^ KtdaL The hairing of a hsarj etroka may, if nec*»arV| idd
I, and that of alight atroke d, thtia — ^btaiilify. Bj combiniiig
the hook, the circle, and the halving principle, two or three
toguther, exceedingly brief ligns are obtvneii far a number of con'
Bonantal series consisting of the comhinadon of a consonant nith
one or more of tho aonnds «, r, I, «,/, J, thue— \ ip, \ tpr, ^ jpr(,
*Noiprffi \fl,'Kii,i,^ipU, \iplnl, \^Ht); ^ fn,\^fHM,
\^ fnt, '» fidi ; ^ fm, ^ fnvi, Ac. As a vowel-mark cannot
Gonvaniently be placed U> a hook or circle, we are saaily led to a
iTay ot dletinguiahing in onlline betvten auch words aa P* auf/h
and ' ^ affn, \ pus and\j^ V^iy. -^ ««■ md ''I ratg,
Ac This diitinctioD limits thb number of powible readings of in
nnrocalized outline. A lirgs hook iC the end of a stroke indicates
the addi^n of -sA«i {t^ ia/aAion, aclum, Ac)- This hook easily
com1»nei with the circle i^ la in adimis, ¥ potiUtms, The
circis t mads largs iadic&tea ja or a;, as in \5 p^^^^, C-losaa.
Ths vowel between • and • (:) mij be marked inside the circle, as
in ~*ir extreite, T^mttidiiiet. Tbe circle i lengthened to a loop
■ignlGea < aa in\ iftp,^ jwsf, while a longsr loop indicates sir, aa
In ^T-^ tniuf^, H.-'^^ viintier. Ths loop may be continued through
the consonantal stroke and terminite in i circle to denote iC) and
nM, aa in Sb agaiml, i daaoH. A curve (or a atnight etrol:B
with a linal hook) written double length implies the addition of Ir,
dr,ailAr,a»ia\^/atAeT, ("^ ItUer, "* ' Hnder,\^/i,ulei;
is dangtr of rEading it aa a dcublo le
woi-dsas in many of the' old a, b, c aystems, with tliia diffe™M°
that in thn old syeteiiis each letter represente sevetal irordi, but ic
{hoiiogrephy, in almoal every case, only one. Bv writing (hi
oriiDUtal itrokee in two positioni witli respect to the line (above
on, and pouiug thraui^h tlio liuo] tho number ia nearly trebled, and
very brief eigns are obtained for aonie seventy or eighty commcn
■hort words (e.g.. bf, iji, iii, ^, ai, il.m'j. <ne, kc). A few very
common monoayllables an rcpreieulcd by their Towel-marki, ai
• lA((i«nuuntiifO> ^(lenuuntof V.), w (iMoiwnt of '-' ),
A certain number of longai votda vUeh eoenr freqnentl; m
contracted, generally by omitUng the lattat part, eoaietimeB a
middle part of the word, aa in ~^ (tap) exjicd, y {djt) daiigtr,
" °~(*ri a) cfc»«k<«ri*K,'\ l.iid/t) vidrfat^lt. The con-
nective phrase e/ IA< ia Intlmatad by writing ths words betweea
which it occurs near to each other. Tht ia often axpraaaed by a
ehort aUnting itroke oi tick Joined to the preceding won! and
generally atruck downwarda, thna "~^ *i ««, (, /or (A*.
Three principles vhieh nuiiintobe noticad ire of aucb Import-
ance and advantage that any one of them would mfmi In place
phonography at the head of all other lyataraa. These in the
principles of positional wridit^ eimjlar outlinea, and phrueography.
(1) The first aUnting itroke of a word can geoenlly be written so
u either to lie entirely above the line, or rest on the line, or run
thjongh the line, thus— \\ '" i ""^ ^ *"[ In tha CMS of
words composed wliolly of horizontal itrake* Uie laat two potitioni
[on and through tha line) coincide, m'""' i_ Thue Ibwa
poaitioni ire called first, ascond, ind ^ird raapectiiely. The fint
IS specially connected with fint-placs vowels (d, d : uv, S ; ( ; oj),
the second with socond-placs voweia (1, t ; t, t\ and the third with
third-place vonda [ti.l; K.U; oa). In a fully vocalisd ttyl''
position ia not anulDyed, bnt in ths reporting atfle it la of
tbe greatest use. Thui the outline (Itfi) written above the line
(Li)muit be read either Knu or Tom; when written mthig ou tbo
line (L^] lome or buiu; when atruck through the line (.U.MMM,
turn, or Urmb. By thia method the nnmber of poulilr r«ddii-gs of
„__! _...,:__ [j greatly reduced. Thitirord in h*- — '
lioyllibks it ia th- ^
iwsl which decides the position ; thus btrUailfAt iliould be wiitten
fir>tpasition(.3.], inAAwlBecandpoeition('^). ^S) Auotlitr way
□f diati aguish intf between words baring ths aaius cousonanta but
diflennt voweli u to vary the outline. The pouiMlity of variety
of outline arisee fiom the fact that many cousauBut-sanuda have
duplicate or even IripUiBte li^fnji, la we have seen, for Inatanet;
T boa two lineal ligUd slid a book algn, and so each ot the word*
tarUr, eunUor, ertatiLi, and trutlor obtaina a distinct outline. A
few limpls rules direct the student to a proper choice ot outline,
but soms diflerenca of practice obtains «aiong phonograplien in
this ttspect Lists of ontlioei for words hiving the asms eon-
sonanla are given in the inatructian hooka ; Iha Btj.orUr't AaiMaU
containa the ontline of eiery word written with not more than three
s^oksa, and ths Phanc^raphio Dictionary gives the vocalized ont-
line of every word in the Isnguaga. Aided by a true phonetio
rspresentatioD of sonnda, by occaaional vocalization, variety ot
outline, and the context, the phoncvFuphie verhatini nporter
should never misread i word.* (S) LasUy, pbrauagnphy. It has
been found that in numberless esses two or mon wonu may be
written without lifting the pen, A judiciona tue of this practice
promotes legiUlity, and tbe aiving ot time ia very conuderahla.
Words written thna ahould be doaeiy connected in tense and awk-
ward joinings avoided. Such phrases an I an, V. / laie,
v' ]/ou ara, »-. you may, \ it iomld, ^ il miiiU iu4, ti^vn art,
fA^ tM *a»», i-'Ni.^iaa kavi lu^ ''^~'''^. '" Ansa tUKf iuii,
'Jj mj/daar/HtmiJi ^ tit a wry aHerl iinw,^"^ us/ar.-u
posiUciS-b /a/ lAi wMt fart, and many thouaaadiof othna.
For the sake of obtaining > goodpbnieognm for a common phrase,
it ia often advisabis to omit aome part of ths consonnnt niiilm,..
Thus ths phrase yoa miut racotled that ma; very w
._ ...M retollto tiat). Lists of ncommeoded phraaco-
len in the P/ioiiofrmhlt FhroH Booi, the Ltfcd Fhrai
>e Railuay Fhram Book.
r*nce appHiv] tbe next iley |b His Balk Jtaraai, and was launi
., jTined Ce the eotaiabs nf the nun Bid DtheriHTBpipan. Vr. Bl. .
trlfld tha HiDB txptrlmtqt wJlb Musi nic«u, tbs notes Mbd hnded to
esnipiMUn in Oialr nrlglril itsla(nbiiiflli Jomriuil, 1884, D. &n In Hr
iiun't pribtlna-onoe at Bith mors tne-eattine la daat nod ahottbsul
t tlwn IVqiii lonKbud. Of cotuva It Is gvoBjiny anidTlMbU to Jfflnt a
|Fin tfaB "oormipaiidlna'' or !■■■ brier uhI Duve vncallad slTle^phowh
libr-ODnposlten codd loqaln tkt ftciltyelnsdliv )lWBp» jsjr In »
640 BHORTHAND
Oomqpwtdlng B^U.
'-7 1 » X ■ ">",.^ «: / .^- -
^•1 > *. V. ^ V. • ^ - t -^-f.'
En^D *n Iki IMIhw tt ■ wMot lUnr Ih «» bOM
^' t- A/^'-S-, * ^r *^ M>^\- V^'V
m >».^Ah pKBUHtBlSba
■n-Im TUT « ' —^-
Of the numwons BTBtema pnbliahed once tha
of phonognphr the principtd ue A. U. Belt's 5(efia-
pKonograpKff (Edinburgh, 1852), Professor J. D. Everett's
(London, 1877), Pocknell's L-^ihU Shorthand (London,
1881), Kod J. H. Sloan's edaptation ot the French sjntem
of Daplo;d (1882). Of theae ProfesMir Everett's must
be pronounced much the brat. The author claims to have
adherad'to the phonetic principle more strictly than Mr
Pitman. Thns be dUtinguUhes the o in kome, comh, from
tliat in «i^ and treats itr, <r aa a diphthong. 'The alphabet
is very like Mr Pitman's in constraction, light and heavy
soonda 'being represented by light and heavy strokes.
Tbe chief feature of the system is that all vov^ are
marked in. This is done bj Joined signs, by lengthening
the preoBding oonaonant, by separating the preceding from
Uie f<riIowiiig consonant, by lifting the pen and writing
the one eonsmant attached to the other, and by tnteisec-
tioii, lit Pockn^ in hii Koneirtut bewildering s^vtem,
•eeks (like Hr Helville Bell) to proridB a netbod el indi-
cating whether a consonant is preceded or folkmcd bj ■
Towel or voweU. To this end he gives to each coBsonat
three Uneor signs, (two corves and % stnif^t fine), di
requisite number of ngns being made np by using ibn
kngtha of stroke. The seledjoaol tho right sign is detv
tnined bj.tha tatgtk and dau of die wmds reproieabd.
Much energy ia devoted to'indieate when a vovtl itudi,
but not to what it is. Hie Towel^ when sipusss^ in
di^oined, aa in {^ODogiajdiy and moat i^rtenis. An^
}ti Bell's too elaborate flrwirrififntinii tA vowels iaadoplsd,
the phonetic metjiod of reprtaentiitg cfnsnwts ii i»
quently discarded in favour of the e^ihabetic Urn, u
sign is provided for it (as in ■wion), and the tarbana
gh (as in hnght) is often retained "for Uie sake d kgK
biHtj." Ur Pocknell goes back to the antdquattd issm
ot pictorial and arbitrary signa, The Sloan -DnpliTu
system has been vigorously propagated ; but it doa wt
provide alphabetic charsctera for all the vowels ud ca-
souants in the langnage, contents itself with Tetiremliig
not actual bnt "approximate" eonnds, does not dnji
indicate the order in which die characters abonld be nw^
recommends the frequent omisaian of consonants Hi
^llables at the " discretion " of the atudent, avddi sii|fa^
sjid introducae three slopes, '"■t-'»^ of onc^ betweta da
perpendicular and the boriiontal, and tlwiefofe ii Ht
likely to meet with general acceptance.
A considerable number of American syitem% u wellii
systems based on l^ylor's and QumBy's, wne isniidte'
ing the early days of the republic. Bince the intndnilioD
of phonography into the States in 1816, the diwemiriitics
of the art luw gone steadily forward, and itsneiiDMlM
has been greatly on the increase, ahorthand bang sot
taught in a lat^ number of schools. Fn^ eUmti
statistiai given in Hr Bockwell's CtretUar tf It^trwt^
it appears that during 1683 10,197 persona TSMiTtdib
Btruction in schools and classes and 2373 by ctm^Msd'
ence. But these Ggniee probably be&r no proportioii V>
the number of persona stadying without a ttaeW. Is
almost every case phonogsaphy, or a modifieatini of %
was selected for instruction. American shorthand soMtiH
are ver^ nnmnoui^ moat of them baving been fonned i
unce 1880. Two are devoted to the SlcUssn tjH^
Of thj fourteen shorthand magarinea which Ur Biwdl ,
enumerates eleven are phouograpbic
In nine cases out of ten phonc^raphy will be fnml |
adfflinlbly adapted to the purposes of verbatim rqKftiiig
But tq be legible it must be written with csra.. Tin I
necBBMty arises from its brevity and ita nse ot light ul
heavy,'halved and double-length strokea. Hence • dmsf
scribe^ may find a longer system, soch as Oumey't, >iiiv<i
his purpose better. A theoretical knowledge of w^
systems may be gained in a few hours. Ktmsn'i jM^
is net so easily acqaired, but an intelligent peraon as
masl;er its. details in a few weeks. Shor£aBd writiiij ^
however, mainly a matter of practice. Few can mske isi
consiileiable use of it with less tiian six montho' asudiMt
practice. The average rate of public speaking a ^
slightly over 1 20 words a minute. Borne speakcn wata
ISO. ^e slowest uttetauoe ia now and then eidujigtil
for a rapid flow of words, and 180 ot 800 words s Bin'*
is no uncommon speed in certain styles of speech tneh u
the conversational, — a speed which many petsoos*^
acquire.' Moat persons of average" inteffigenwg
rlou dlTiH |i™ehi>«"'?*
leul rtt«* ot w\
1886,p.3S8. l(rT.A.Bssd,
^g«d to nport ■ well-tBown A
■t« tMiKj. Hh HmoB wu emftllr tima^ ud IM ■««>
printed npcut aomitcd. Tbs Hwiga tuna mt it HI ■"
Dta. A photognpbed ipeebneD p^a of He IlMd'i »<* «
ooMtoB is fina la tb« JUpirUni Mafiahi, Bqitate UU-
SHORTHAKD
841
\ij perMVtnuoei mita with oartdttr ** 1IK> «(»d« «
sunnta. The bat method of pnctim in tlie tarij period
u to wiita at dictation from m book ; in pablie epeakiiig
the frequent pkuau help the writer to ngain lott tune.
Tha atndent ihonld write on ruled pcpei, whidi dieck*
the tendency to & large tprewling btAd when following a
rapid ipeAker. TajlcK'a, QnnMy'i, and Lewii'i Byatenu
con be written without line*, bnt Ktman'a onlj at a_ dia-
■idvantage. Ink ia preferable to penciL
Shorthand was first emploTed oiBcially in tha wrrioa
of I^rliament in 1803, when a raeolntian waa paaied that
*' the ■Tidann given before all conunittaea inqniring into
th« election of membeia should or might be reported by a-
penon well skilled in the art of writing ■horduod,'' and
eliortl; afterwards W. B. Ontitey waa appointed diortluuid-
-writer in this capacity to both Hoiuea of Pariiamsot. In
1813 a farther resolution was passed by both Eooaae that
the ofi&cial writer " should attend by himeelf or mffident
deputy when called upon to take minutes of evidenoa at the
hax of tbia Honae or in. eonmutteea of the •amo." nia
lacrative office of ihorthand-writer to both Honaea of Far-
liament is itill held by Qie Qnmay family. Of ooona
moat of the woA is dona by dnnity. Bome of tha moat
efficient membeiB of Hesan Qumey'i*Btair are phono-
grKphaia; other* nae Taylor's syiteni. Cie amount of
evidence given in the coarse of a tolaiably long daj'a
sitting may amount to 400 or 600 folioa (72 woidi nuJce
a folio), which would occupy from 13 to 16 "l^imTW of
the Timf in imall type. Tie whole most often be tran-
scribed and deliTered to the printers in the conratt of tha
night, and copies, damp from the preo^ ore in the hands
of the members and "parties" at the b^inning of the
ntting on the following day. Sines parliament alMlished
election-oommittees and committed to judges the duty of
inquiring into petitions against the return of a member,
an oflkial diordiand writer has to be in attendance upon
the judge appwnted to hear any particular case. Ha has
often a snudl ataff of assistants. Hesara Onmey or their
npreaentatiTai are also required to attend the sittings of
the HouBB of Lords as a court of appeal to take the jndg-
menta of the law lords. Finally, Qovemmeut shorthand-
irriten are often employed in taking notaa of important
■tat«-trials and inquiries conducted l^ tha rarions depart-
ments of QoTemmeut, as well as of the proceedings of Royal
Conuniiaiana, whenever the evidence of witnesses is taken.'
TRm transcription of the notes may be accomplished in
aeveial ways, aa by dictating from diSerent parta of tlie
notee to several longhand- writers simultaneously.* Not
sll tha newspaper parliameotary reporters can take a
perfect note, and cases occur in which the repm^r enters
the gallery without bwng able to write shorthand at all.
FoKEoir SnoSTKUD Scttuis.
flfmm. — C A. BMnt^yi rBeA«irrapM> (Fnnkfort, 1 tTD, ind
HnrdtinustftaraardsDntill743)wuin>daptati<iaofT.Blultaii'i
EngUih sjrtm. UoMDg*ll[in7)fir*tpnetieiiUyintiodao*dihi>rt-
■ ThenlaiioIBlloaciilnpoitcittlMdiliatHiathaBrltUhPirils-
iiuill(u b iii«tothireeDntrt«i),>Ildt«dl>laIlyMp(ncia kaasit^t
to nport tbdi. n* Hou* msj ba akand at U7 moarat of all
■tnngan, Iselnlisg rapnaaataUvM ol Um pna^ hj an ordar of tha
HanM u a wluda. On inai oeoaiioDa of nota naolutiana bin b«
jiaaaad pnhlUtln; tht nportisg at ths pmsMdlngi of aa Hoiiaa of
ComnioDa, tha lut on ISth Mmh 1771. Bnt tinrn biva ehaniHl, and
nambsni nawfrequentlTConipljLLaUiat thalr ipaachoaan not npcrtad.
To lapplr tha daHdatictea of Iba nevipipn •irugimaBti haTi ban
mad* by tb* Eooaa with Ur Huaald for tb« ipadial nportlDg d(
dalstaa la «>niBtttaa and thoaa oennliis at an tiaij honr in tha
Doming, wblch an given tatj in Ih* moat ninunarj turn in tba diily
papan. Formarlj all HuiMid'a laporta wera coU»t»l frsia Ihoaa
■ppaariug In tba nsnpapafi. Baa rortba Ui S. Whltakiir'i Parlia-
mntarn BtftrHmg <* SxglaKd, FnrrifH Onuilria, and U< CcioHia,
tfilh vdtM Bii Partiamuniaiy RnuUtf (Huohaalar, lg7B).
* On tha baat mtthoda of tnnacrOiiBC and dictatli«, Mt Mr T. A.
BMd) p«p<n in Iha P*«m<i« Jnnal, IB86, pp. 1(^ t9; (G.
hand wiltlu into Qaimsny ta an adinttUon ef tha Taylor-Bartin
BMthod. Baiadil'i (l«oe; la a modlBcaHon of HssaDfdl'a On
Hintiiri (inn art bsMd then of an aaaBirmoat wiitar (Homn-
b«ift I7BS), Hain (lasO), Tbaa. (USn, aa
(TuEUiai, laW), iramok awt\ laaiebn {1
antbor (Mnnieb,
•Mond anton
a HoannU-
■ri^spait).
la -buti thit <rf nUaMi
tkan of Laishtla
nilam Is whkh
Billhaa
Hontig syitam an baaad Bartbold'a ntlVi UKt
■ (1800). a
T^Wi,
tkan of Laishthn (ISIS) ; J. tnia
*> whkh tha •lUDt* 1* ami'
(ISW); OimiiMnr (IBUl
-*)■.
■) ; Nomuk (ISH), a
iple^ad as vaU a* th* dida;
- modlllolilm of Salwra'a
., ohl*ijkaM7),«raiiioa»e-
that or aa anonyiniiaa IDlfeor hSTS], bawd
and Haiin. Novick, la kia fatal
!r matfaod
ITidlaf (ISm Othar
" ' (l«fj -
phoDCKipbT {iilTi ; Sdunitt jltto) 1 Tbtthbttok (iu7),
iioD of AjWi ; aod that or aa aiionyinwi
on Eoratlth KoaaogaiL and Haiin. Novid .
of Ittt, makas * saw dopartura in tvobUng AAi or obtna* aaria^
— ' 'n andaavaoring to apfnulniat* to ord&tur writing. This
1 Oabalabargw cooaiaarad to ba tha baat vhub bad ■ppaarad
to that dtl*. F. X Oabalsbwn'* AiMimg atr dnCtal*
•JduiilnmM (Hwiicli, 183i) ii Eba moat important of the
Ganau iystemi. Tba SDlbor, an olBcUl ittaohid is Uia Bavarian
mfaiatn, commaiuiad hia irttam btf piivats tmrpoaai^ bnt wu
Indnead to paifaet It an acoonnt of th* aumBUHung of a padlamtut
for Bnaiia In ISlt. Sabnjttad to pabUa oimhution In IBIS,
It wsa pioDoanond latialkctaty, tha report itttfng that pnpila
taagfat on tUa aystam eiacatid thrir trial apadmaaa wiOi tba
ragnirad ntad, and nad vhat thay had writtan, and aran vhat
ottaan had writtsn, irilb aaaa and eartain^. Tha naUiod ia baaad
<n> modification* of nonwtrical forais, daajgnad to anil tha poailian
of tha hand in otSnmrj writing. The aDthor eanaidaiad that a
ijitam composad of aimpla gaonatiical atrokaa litrminv datami-
nate aadaa with aach othst wsa nntdiptad to rapid vmlDs. Ha
doea an racogniia all Ui* virlatlaa of aonnd, and makaa aoma dia-
tinotiona «hi^ ara manly orthognpliisaL Boft aouoda havv
small, Ught, and round dgB(|WUl* tha hard aonnda have larn,
Itaavy, mid attaint aigna. Tha aigna too an dsrirad fhnn tha
enrrant alphabaC, ao that ana aa find the formar coDtaintd in tha
latter. Vowala standing batwaen cotuonanti an
inaartad, bat aymbolically indicaCad by aithar pouda ^
th* mmnDdiiig eonaoniDts, without bawavatlaavinx tha ctimght
writing lina. Ina procaedinga of the chambara in Anatria, Bavaria.
Baden, WUrtambaig, Saiooy, Saxa-Weimir, CobnrgJJDtha, Bilema,
and tha Khlna nrarinoBa an reported aolely by writen of thLi
method, and hall tha ttanograplian in tba German nichatag naa
it. Then an in Oarmany and Anatria mon than £10 aocietiaa
an not litinlly
Oanoany
iontaimng over £0,000 mamtien deri
BaTaria, Saiony, and
Anatria. It haa baan adapted to fonign langnagea to anch an
ailant that legialatiTe pniceedinel an repoitad In it in Fragoc,
Afrram, Faith, Sophia, Atbeni, Copanhagan, Chilatiania, Stock-
holm, and Haliin^on. On GabaIebarK«r'( naWm ii baaed that of
W. Stain (1840). Then an nearly 400 Btoliaan imoiiationa with
oTer SDDO memben. Tba tyitem U offislaUy n**d In the Fmsiian,
Ovrmau, and Unnnrian parbament^ in the last two along with
Gabelabeigar'a. faclnuuin (Vianiu, 1B7S) tttamptad m bis
PhoKcgntphit to combina tha two methoda. while Gsbalabarpr'a
tyatem haa nmiined nochanged in priiiripla, Stolie'a haa split into
two diviaiona, ths old and Iha naw. Thraa oontmn many imaller
raction*, I.}., Veltan'i (187«) and AdWa (1877). ArtDds'* (IBWl
la «^ed from tba Fnneb ayatam ot Favat SoUer'a (1871) and
Lehmaan't (187 S) an olTahootaof Araadaa Htny other niathod*
bare appeand and a* npidlj bean forguttan. The tchoola of
Oabaltbei^ger and Stolia can boaat of a tot eiltDsiTa abortband
litantnn. Oahabbatgtr'a ayatam haa bean adapted to Engliah by
A. Oaigar (Drawlan, 1800 and 187S), who adbanil too cloaclr to tha
Oannan original, and mon anccaaafolly liy H. Uichter (London,
1818), and StobM'a by G. Uicbaalta (Berlin, 1888V
JWmA.— Tba airliert French lyatem woi-- -^
Co«londarhiTenol(1777),iii*hichthe« ... ._
Che conaonants. ' Tha metbodd pnctiaad at tha praaent day may 1
divided into two cluaea. thoaa darived from Taylor'a Sngllih nratai
tnnalatad in 1791 by T. P. Bartin, and thoaa Invaatad In Fnnai
Tba latiu an (n) Cooloo it TbeTenot'i ; {i) ayatams founded on tb*
principle of the inclination of tha nana! writing, — the beat known
baing thoaa of F.yet [IBS!) and Binoco tlSti) ; and (t) ayitama
derived from the method of Con«n da Ptiyaa (S ediHooa ftom 181S
to 1888). Priroat, whotill 1870 directed the rt«iDgr*phie*«Ticaof
(be aanita, iwodnced tha beat modifiiation of Taylor, llany lathon
have eopiad and tpoiltthiaayatam ofl^Toat Tba beat known an
PlanSar (18*1) and Tondmu tl84B). Zaibig thinka well at A.
Dalaunay'a imnrovamenta on Mvoafa tjitam. On Coneu'a an
baaad thoaa of Aimj-Paria (1|I1}, Cadrla-Uanaat (1B!!81, Potal
(18«), tba Dnplovl brothan (1888), Gnlnln, ko. Amonp amataor
writen the Duplonn method la baat known, owing largely to
888V
i» u» dlfjolnad froi
lutei; on Ttj^a), wliflt tan •mpio; nutlisdi
ftmtii*.— T1i«ath«rof8puii>£rt«iiop»i>hr --—
da holB VMiti, vhos mtun, flnt pnllU^ in ISOl, itUl he
iDud uninrt ill tinli. The ■Iphibet ii > oombiuatloi
„'■ •odOonlMi'i. B; dMn« of aitt Nonmbtr 1803 ■ pnblia
pnfMMnhlp of (hortluDd ins (onndcd In Uadrid, Uutl being tha
fi^ proftvor. raonaad m KutT* >7item 4n thoM at Seira v
ObmM (ISIA) ud Xuuiilla (1811]. Of the thirtv-tvo Spuiiih
nitera* munented hj 2eibl« mutj ■» nunlr imititioiu oi t»-
wkdnctlinu of Uuti'i, ud mduitstfoiu of Gibdiberni'a, Stola'i,
ud Pitmu'i Mjttmta. Thkt ofOurip y UuU (18ei) hu itttlnwl
■ome popolarUr in Sudd.
ArftwiMK— UutTt *on carried hli bthsr') mtsm ta Portu^,
iriten Sortbuid i) itUl eatinlf nnbunrn eiMpt in the pulluoent
■BddMCoartK oidi« twentynportmiDthaHutaiiidclumbMr
■t BoHiot Ajrm tan UM Fltmu'i phonognphj, lii Uuti'*, ud
tk* iwt Qmrrlgk'a. A ihsrtliuiil uciatv TU oiBUilnd in Boanca
Avna in ISBO. Tkt mUnu ued in the BnilBui chunbsn in
tboM of BUT* TtUio (16S2) ud Ouri^ Tbt ngafa In tha
■■nmMj of TanameU dm Huti'i method.
ilaiwNi — Itallin truultticHu mnd adaptationi of Tijlor*! iritam
neeeedad ana uotliaT in coniidenblB nnmban from Anuiiti (1809)
to Biuicldni (1871). Delpiiia'i(lBlS}ii the beat Tha GibelibsigB[~
Hoaintam (ISU) ia the enlT other vbich hu gained mu J fotlowen.
BltLtt 1886 tha dabtiM at tba aanata hiT* hem paitlj npntad bj
lb* Hi^iala itenocnlibio machine with fair tatnlta.
IMA.—J. Ha^^TDntol —
Shdbin'i and BninUt'e (1814
.„4 B~_^ neat) iWT«d ,
K tea twdTaetanDgnphenampla^inChefailiament
_ _• ijittam af Om«11« St^pr (1867), pnddent of the bonao,
who trandtted Trnfia^ mA ud ba« irrittaB a hliton of ahait-
Land. Oabalaberan'a anlsm waa tnmfamd to Dutch by Biatttnp
(1S8*) and Btidia^a b* B^bold (ISBI).
AdaptaUoni of QiUatwrgar^ method hare coma into VM In ua
— — t-'-g oDnntrtei of Inii^ npsnading all othan.
_ 1__,_. npdrtiDg nuchinH have been inrantod.
antionad abore. Tor a deKripCion of nek
TliB belt ia by lliehela mantiDnad abore, Tc
inM*!"— MO FSemUe Jnamal Ibr... ... ......
; 1886, pp. SS, tea, 178, S91, M7; 18S<I,> <!- ThcT take w
_._, t_i.._j — . . — "-■jecHttod "
il, p. S7* 1 ISBjt' pp. la, M,
lautoleaniaiailioTthandiyitemiCulnoteadlj'be cutl
anllthlBtogstontatatder, and ouka a ndit.
awwtf Mmrtlia—J. W. g«lWl gw*MW -. mwtarJir Ondhatai
j«nMMH« ^nadH, UK) aoaMaa H hMerietl iMali o( tka ■■ of MmH-
kaad la aMlibtnl iMtaB tbia »qaalillr la OaiBin), a fdl HUenptar
odkanbaadUUntaialaan Imgamm, « amabir at lUtagaphal niiiBum,
nitm^maitt. Clnalan^iviSMH ffOt OwMViMuMH, Ko. i
tUUlf «««« ahiat at lit Aorttaad ilpkabMa Ik> mi>M* AvhL
aBailiUr& laeM wtaua, ooataiaa a nan of lolDnittan «a Acattaad
Awaalof iMUnrMntti pHulpa BB(U(k qi&u nifleM tajteBo-
fiukT, lad a In ttinin oaaa. Us anthev li«in lamCr «b J. H. LaiiV*
SairiMl .iMMU nf m Bill awl fiyr af ai»ira>*r g™*^ 1«M» Otter
UalartB ot ahoitkand an to r. X OaMiliariar (pnbed to U> ^aMiaif
nr AaOdn JMai<aUah«( VoBlSh, USA £ ItHl (DraOiad ta U> Cbm
afcH(M It fw«(w» * JWme»>H ftfh, &V), Beottfil(irtlBTlIU(FarU.
^eJdtaBlBaiiadf.riMiir'i^iMliiMapft»«tgiH>iniiiniinlti(VlM.
UUlBalBlTUatataliTABdairi Matmitf timtr ■lt(»iii(aia gii*. a. «>.
A Millft^li (CaaUb uat); & naahii^ DIt «nppM*'i •■* OmDMM,
Wtmrn. «, JUiMaiif (ti^ala, iaa»; KrtaA TiliithaM *r 8liainii-)Hi
UiQ: T. A. Baat*! lipHtirSoiiMf (Loidn, UU) isl uamjmttuKttt-
M¥T. A. ami (LoKlca, uan fcCTOtoTa JMfatbd JBrtn V A>
tlH knait
JolBitlM*
, ttaitkud ._
r^ UbMflatlMiHaUla tkatetaaBofalUBapqUa
SHOBTSIOHT, Sw OPHTHiiMowwr.
SHOBHONG, K town in the Britiah protectorate of
SechnBuUknd, the chief settlement of the Gasteni Bunang-
wktoa, IB mtnkted in A glen at tha foot of a range of
PriiUBry rocki on the Shoehon, a periodicellj flowing
brook which fiowi eutwards into the limpopo or Cri
rmr. It lie* ftbout 400 miles north ot Eimberlejr, vrith
whicli it wu coDsacted hj ro«d and telegraph nnder Sir
ChulM Wiuren's admiidstration. For white men —
traders, Konters, and oiplorere — it ia and. mnat alwaje
be a place of primarj' importance, as three great rontea,
from' Qriqnaland West, the Orange Free State, and the
Traosraal, meet at tbia point and again branch off north to
the Zunbeei, nortb-eaat to the Hatabele and Uuhona
ooBBtriM, aod nortltweBt to Um Western Bamtngwato
843 8H0 — SHO
twentv-tM «M MMfa tad thoaa Bnmded en It (aU bassd dti-
. ,i. __ pii__,_..i _i.fl, (^ employ mathodi based on Oonen i.
of Spaniah ateiuwnph j was Don
tjatam, flnt pnllidiM in II
tt> nonnd asainst " -*-'- '^' ---'-'-• '- - ■
Timor's sod Ooolc
„ ShoAoag la fluu ft mtia ptemf
between Sonthern and Centni Africa. IIm *ite vaa nt'
ginallf cboaan a« cuuly defeoaible against tbe UataUli.
Water it Mvee, and tha pt«wnt king, Kbama, lus taku
over a well dug hj one of the traders, tbe nae of «M:^
he pennits on tbe paTmeut of a water-rate of £1 ja
month per family. Altogether there are 7000 to SOOu
native bnta in ShoahoDg, and tba popnlatioa ia estimated
at from 10,000 to 30,000. The white inbabitant* — moatlj
English baden — number about 20. A flourishing ninia
station of the London Hisaionaiy ^ocicrtj, preceded kt
manj jean by a station of EermaniiBbtus I<utlieiaB Hit-
uoDwj Socie^ was founded in 1862, andhaB .eiBrosed a
great infltience <m tbe history of the town sod tribes Tkn
ia a brick-built dtviek erei^ in 1867.
See Haskend^ Tn Ttan SarO, if Ai Ormgt Xiarr, ISH ;
Holab^ Snut. Tmn in BatOX Afrim, 1881 ; FiaHur qum—it
Comtpanintt mfcUag At ^ain qflit Tnautaal, ISML
SHOVEL, 8m CLoVBwaxr («: 1S9O-1707), £n^
admii^ waa according to soma acoonnta a native of Tcrt-
ahire^ bnt the most eommcmly accepted stateoDeat ii tkat
hewaabom of poor parents aboni 1650 in O^, a fisbing.
vill^e of Korfolk, niiere be waa ^pieaticed to ft doe-
maker. Having mn away to aea, be beeame calua-be; oa
board a ship commanded by Sir Christopher Myima. H«
aet himaaif to study navigatiiHi, and, owing to hu able MS-
maudtip and tnave and open-hearted dispoaitHni, becsme a
genenl favoniite and obtained qnick promotion. In IG74
he served as fienteiiaot under ^ John Narbonni^ in tie
Heditenansan, where be bnnied four men-of-irar ands
the castles and walls of Tripoli belonging to the pnsUs
of, that place. He was present ss captain of the "Ed^*
at the first fi^ at Bantiy Bay, and shortly afterwards w«
trTlgbfJ. L) 1690 he convoyed WiUiam m. ftcrasi St
Oeorge'i Cihanne] to Ireland; w aame yeftr he waa nade
reu-iiiilmital of tbe bine, and was present at the battle d
Bead? Head on 10th July. In 1693 be wia appmnlid
napftomiral of tbe red, and joined Admiral Ttnnnnll. nndB
whom be greatly diitingQiabed himw^lf at Ia Hovfts^ baviu
ft prinapjAaie in bnming twen^ of Uie enemy's muMf-
war. Not long afber, when Admiral RusaeU was dismiHcd
fran the service, Sbovol waa put in joint oomniftnd of &i
Beet with Admiral Killigrew and Sir Balpb DelavaL b
1703 be waa sent to Ining borne the spoila of tbe Frend
and Bpaiusl) tleeta from Tig<^ after thur captore by S;
Gemge Boc^c^ and in 1704 be served under Sir Ottrgi
Books in flie HediterTsnean. In Jannary 1700 be wk
named rear-admiiftl of England, and shortly af towards cea-
msadsr-in-ddef of tbe British fleets. He eo-troofttad in tke
o^tnre of Bsrcel<»a along with tbe earl of PatariKiTao^
in 1706, and made an onsvccessfnl attempt on l^mko in
October 1707. When retomin^ with tbe fleet to Englud
his ship, tbe "Assoeistion," at eight o'clock atuigbt «■ lb
23d Octobar, struck on the roeks n«ar Scilly, and was aeea
by those on board the "St George "to go down in three c:
four minnte^ time, not a soul bung saved of 800 men ths:
were Ml board, ^a body ot Sir Clondesley Shovel was csR
ssbMe next day, and was boried in Weatminster Abbey.
8e* ZV* "^ aicriatit JMnt ff Sb- CWolv Aoocj; 1701;
Bnrnat'a Owit Itnua ; and variosa diaoBMloni in ffaUi and Qmaia,
nth aeriaa, voli. x. and iL
SEOTELER, formerly spelt Sbotklas, and more sa-
ciently Bsovm^iftD, a word by which used to be meant
tbe bird now afanoat invariably called Spooxbh:!. (q.*.),
bat in the latter half of the 16th century tranaferred to
one hitherto genenlly, and in these days locally, known st
tbe apoon-lnlled Duck — tbe Jaott^xpnAiof Limueoasod
Spatula or BkyKdia^ dypeata of modem writaa. Ail
these names r^er to tbe ahape of the bird's biD, -wiaA,
oomUned with the remarkably long kuuUm (not wboU;
ineomfaiabto widi ths "whalebone" ot the tootUen
S H R — S H R
843
Cetaeaaui) tlut twMt botli niuilk aod mandible, hu
been thought raffieient to remove the tpmm from the
Ijiniue«iii genuB Atia*. Except for the eitraoidiiury for-
mation of this feature, which cartiea with it a dtuniy look,
the male Shoreler would pua for one of the most beautiful
of this generally beautifol group of birdo. Am it is, for
bright ood vaiiegated colouring, there are f ow of his kindred
to whom he is inferior. His golden eje. Mi dark green
head, Bunnonnting a throat of pure white and sncceeded
by a breast and flanka of rich bay, are conspicnoiu ; while
bis deep brown back, white scapulars, leuer wing-coverts
(often miscalled shoulders) of a glaucous bine, and glossy
greea ■peculnm bordered with white present a wonderful
contrast of the richest tints, heightened again by his bright
orange feet. On the other hand, the feioale, excepting the
blue wing-coverts she has in common with her mate, is
habited very lite the ordinary Wild-Duck, A . bonxu (see voL
vii. p. S05). The Shoveler is not an abundant species, and
ia Great Britain its diatribntion is local ; but its numbers
have remarkably increased since the passing of the Wild-
Fowl Protection Act in 1876,' BO that in certain districts it
has regobed its old position as an indigenous member of the
Fatma. It hu not ordinarily a very high Dorthero range,
bat inhabits the greater part of Europe, Asia, and America,
passing southwards, like most of the ^iwritffa towards winter,
constantly reaching India, Ceylon, Abyssinia, the Antilles,
and Central America, while it is kuown to have occurred
at that season in New Qranada, and, accordinato Qould, in
Australia. Generally resembling in its habfts the other
freshwater Ducks, the Shoveler has one peculiarity that
has been rarely, if ever, mentioaed, and one that is perhaps
correlated with the structure of its bill. . It seems to be
especially given to feeding on the suriace of the water im-
mediately above the spot where Diving Ducks (Fulifftditue)
are employing themselves beneath. On such occasions a
pair of BhoveleiB may be watched, almost for the hour
together, swinuning in a circle, abmit a yard in diameter,
their heads tamed inwards towards its centra, their bills
immersed vertically in the water, and engaged in sifting,
by means of the long lamellm before mentioned, the floating
matters that are disturbed by their submerged silies and rise
to the top. These gyrations are executed with the greatest
easc^ each Shoveler of the pair merely nsing the outer leg
to impel it on its circular course, and lo the observer the
prettiest port of the performance is the precision with which
each preserves its relative distance from its comrade.
Four other >wcl» of the nam Spatula, &1] poausdng the
cli&ncteriitiB light blna "ehDuld^rfl," hAv« be«n described: — one,
3. pUHaUa. from tha untheni parti of South Amcrin, bariDg the
head, neck, ud upper b«ck of t, pa]« reddiib browD, frecklHl or
ciouly ipottad with dark brown, ind ■ doll bay breast with ia-
lamiptoJ Inrs ; ■ second, S. tapnuit, ft^>m South Africa, mneh
lightsT in coloac thun tbs fooula of S. tlypiata ; a tbird and a fourth,
1. _L ._..-_ ^_ 1 ™ . . . . . ,(fj^ ,„|j jjj^ Zealand
D Reneral coloration, and
Dulc betwean the bill and
... — s found in tha South- American
Blae-wingBj Tea! {Ijaerq^udala cj/mopUra), but «o moch rsBcm.
bling aieh other that their ipecific distinctneai hai been diipoted
by good aothority. In thsM lait two tba leiaal diffe ' "
niaAed by tho plamagn ; but
Aftiean apaciea it vootd stem that both male and female hava
much tha Mme appeannce, as ii tha csh with » many ipaciei of
the raatrictsd genos Awu, thongh this eannot yat be assertad with
Mrtainty. (A. n.)
8HBEVEP0RT, a dty of the United States, capital of
Caddo pariah, Louisiana, on the west bank of Red River
and near to Sodo Lake, is the eastern terminus of the
la o( IhHn tha pain brtading mi^t ba
Texas Paeiflo Rulioad, 337 milea by ni! north-vest of
New Orleans, with which it has regular steamboat oom-
muuication. Situated in the heart of a very froitfnl
cotton-gTowing region, it is one of tiie pnncipni cotton-
markets in the sonth-west of the United States, and ia
the second commercial city in the States £t exports
annually about 126,000 bales of cotton, and carries on a
trade likewise in hides, wool, and tallow. It has factories
for carriages, cotton gins, cotton-seed oil, soap, ice, sashea
and blind^ and spokes and hubs, also foundries, machine-
shops, a planing mill, saw-mills, and breweries. The town
possesses among public 'buildings a handsome eonrt-houBe
and a cotton exchange. Red River ia spanned by an iron
bridge 20 feet wide and 1200 long. Shreveport, which
was incorporated in 1839, had a population of 4607 in
18T0 and of 8009 in 1880; in 1886 the population was
estimated at 15,000.
8RRUW, a general term appUed to the species of tha
family Soriada, order Inttctioora (see vol zv. p. 403), but
in tlie British Isles more particularly to the common and to
the lesser shrew {Sonx mUgarit, L., and S. pygmana. Pall.).
The common shrew is, in England at least, by far the
commoner of the two. It is a NstaH animal about the site
of the common mouse, which it somewhat resembles in the
shape of its body, tail, and feet. Rut here the resemblance
ends, for, unlike the mouse, it possesses a remarkably long
and slender muule, vrith prominent nostrils, which project
far beyond tha lower lip ; the eyes are very small and al-
most concealed by the fur ; the ears are wide and short,
scarcely rising above the long hairs surrounding them, and
are provided internally with a pair of deep folds, capable,
when laid forward, of closing the entrance ; the tail, which
is slightly shorter than the body (without the head), is quad-
rangular in shape and clothed more or less densely with
moderately long hairs, terminating in a short pencil (in
old individuals these hairs become worn away, so that in
some specimens the tul is almost quite naked) ; the feet are
flve-toed, the toes terminating in slender, acutely pointed,
non-retractile claws. The dentition is very peculiar and
Common Shraw (Sora nlgarii, lj.J.
characteristic : there are in oU thirty- two teelli, tipped with
deep crimson ; of these twelve only (the nnmber is charac-
teristic, with one exception only, of the family) belong to the
lower jaw; of the remaining twenty ten occupy each side
of the upper jaw, and of these the first three, as they are
implanted in the premaxillary bone, are termed incison.
The first incisor ia a large tooth with a long anterior canine-
like cusp and a small posterior one : then follow two small
unicuspidate teeth ; these are sncceeded by three similar
progressively smaller teeth, whereof tho first has been called
a canine and the other two premolars ; the next tooth, also
a premolar, is a large molticuspidate tooth ; and this ia
followed by three molars, of which the third is small with
a triangular crown. In the lower jaw we find on each side
anteriorly three teeth corresponding to the seven ontvior
teeth above, of which the first is almost horizontal in direc-
tion, its upper surface being marked by three notehee, which
844
SHREW
TwdTC di» prints (tf tiM duM n^wr front tMdi with «Uch
thej come in oootMt whoa th« jam Mtfeloaed; theafoUow
two imklltAetliutd time mokn. Hie bod; la clothed wiOt
cloeelv tet onif onnlf long fur, vtrj toft tad deiiM, wyiag
in oolotiT from light reddiih to <Urh brown above, thsIj
■peeUed over or apotted ot erea banded with white. The
luder mtace of both the bod; and the tail ia gnjn^ ; the
baaal fonr.fiftb* of all the hair* above and bmeath an daii
bloiah grey ; the haiis of the tail are leas denaelr eet and
coaner. On each tide ot the body, at a punt ahont one-
third of die distance between the elbow aod Um knee^ w»j
he found, etpedall; in the mttiagaeeson, a oataneonagluid
covered b; two rowa of omtm inbont ham Vm dand
aeoretea a peculiar fioid, on which tho nnpleaaant c^eeey
odour of the animal depend^ and which la evidsntlj alao
protective rendering it aecore tgainat the attseka of atnj
predaceooa aniDUkl*.
The Ueaer direw (S. pf^rtmia) ia mnch leea afanndant
in England and SdHland, bat cffinparatively eommon in
Irdan^ where the oominon ahivw ha* not jet been found.
It anpean at fltst sight to be a diminntive variant of ^ti**
BpecUa^ which it cloeel; reeemblea in eztamal foroL It was
■aid to differ in having the tail longer than the body
^without the head), whereea in the common threw the body
(without the bead) ia longer than the tdl, and in the bat ;
nnicnapidate npper molar tooth being comparative^ lamr
and mon aztemal than in the Other qwdea; But Uie
preaent writer haa found theae eharactara ao ezoeaiSi^
liaUa to variation aa to be ahnoct worthleaa ; ha hw there-
fore dlaoovered reliable pointe of distlnation aa foUm
fai S. pfffmmm$ the third npper indaor (when tba taetl
nnwoni) ia ahorter, or at leaat not longer than the next
ftdlowing tooth, whareaa m S. rulgaru it ia alwayi bngar,
and the length ot the forearm and hand eondoned ia tht
OMtatantly 13 m.m. in the former apeci^ iriula in the latta
It ia 17 m.m.
The habita ot both the ecmmon and the kMer dirtw
eoRwpond. They live generally in the neighbooihood of
wood^ making thair neata nnder tlie roots ^ tneawin
any eli^t depreiaioD, occasionally even in the midst <d
open fields, inhabitang the disnaed borrows of fleld^nioe.
Owing to their very tmall siiet dark cdonr, rwid more-
meat^ and chiefly noctnm^ habits they eauty escwe
obeerration. They aeek their food, whi<^ oonakts ^
inaocta, insect larvia, email worma, and alngi, undtt' dead
leavea, faUen treee and in gtaaay plaoea. like the nde^
they are very pn^iadotu, and if two or more ara confined
together to a limited apace they invariably fight fiercely,
Uie fallen becoming the food of the victoriona. They alao,
like the mole, ai« exceedingly voiaciona, and aora die it
deprived of food ; and it is probably to insoffldanty of food
in the early dry antiunoal season that the wdl-known im-
meuae m«tality amougtt these animals at that time of
the year is doe. Ilw breeding aeasoo axtcnds from the
and of April to the beginning of Angos^ and fire to aeven,
mom rarely ten, yoong m^ be foond in their nests; thsy
are naked, blind, and toothlees at larth, bnt so<ai nm abont
snapping at everything within rwch, the anterior p^ of
i^lsora in both jaw* quickly piercing the gum, followed
by the Uat pair of upper premolar^ which at birth form
prominent elevations in the gnin.
The alpine shrew (S. alpmuM, Schin*), rertricted to the
aJpine region of Central Enrop^ is ali^^tly longer than the
eommon shrew and dlflera from it wnsptcooosly ia ita much
longer tail, which exceeds the loigth of the head and body
in the colour of the fur, wy eh is cUA on botl) snrboes, and
>^ ^^ aiae of the npper antepeooltiniate p«molar.
The watCT^hrew (Crouomu fodumt, Pall V tKa tl>iB< »ni
last ^>ecie* inhabiting England, differs fnm the ounmra
shrew m being conmderaUy luger irith » shorter and
nrach tvcader mnztle, comparatively smaller ajei, tod
larger feet ad^ted for ■wimmin^ — the sides of the f nt
and toea being provided with comb-like' fringes of adl
hain. l%e tail is longer than the body (without the hrad)
and poeaeaacs a well-developed swimming fringe tA moda-
tfaird to its eztrenuty. The fur of the body is Ions sod
veiy imM, Tarying nmch in oolonr in different individnili,
and this haa (^von rise to deecriptions of jnany nominal
^eeies; tha prevailing ahadea are dark, almoat black,
brown above, beneath mote or lees bright aahy tinged oitli
yellowidi; occasionally, sometime* in the aame brood, ««
find soma indiridaals with the nnder sUTface more or len
dark oohmred. In the number as well aa in the Ebape af
the tealfc the watershmr differs from the eommon ahiew ;
there ia a premolar leas aa eadi side above ; the baies of
the teeth are much more prolonged posteriorly ; and tltii
eospa are mndi less stuned brown, ao that in old indiridnalt
wia worn teeththeyofteot^^iearaltogetherirhite. This
apedea reaembtes the otter in ita aquatic habtt^ awmmtng
and diving with great agility. It frequGnts riveis and
lake^ maldng its burnnrt in the overhanging banka, frwi
vrtiich when disturbed it escapea into the water. Its food
oonaiats of the different qMdes cf water-inaecta and thur
Isrrx^ small eruataotaus, and probably the fry cf mall
fishes. It ia generally distributed throug^ioat g"||«"H^
is lees common in Scotland, hut as yet it haa not beta
recorded in Ireland.
n* nograplilctl langa of Aa eonmoD duvw 1* "'— ^'"g'j wil^
«xt«d&jt uatwardi throarfi Bqrep» and Aria {north of t& Hna-
hyaa} to Hoctk AnMilca. Tb* Immt ahraw extendi etmeani^lts
threa^KntepaaiidAriateBHihilinhbadi and (padmairf tie
wattMbivir hsva b*M brought tna di&nnt eerta ct Xaiof* nd
frca Aria la &r Mat aa tha Altd ruiga. Ia ffibaim tha tmmtt
ahraw la afanndut to the anow-elad wsalaa ibcnit Os Oltoikiim
1 the haidhiaa* of lUi litd>
■'■ JToMiafa Y Ok
m th* bibila of a n
mwikaU*. In Dr a H. H
.SvfM we find the G>Iloirfiu nob
iUMtaa apodea IBIartim Inttla
rigeno(dDraattharawiBt«an*ni to hav* no dltet Ea duaiaii*-
lag Us aottvl^. Ax it acampM ibeat im tha aww dniii« IW
aavnvt waatha^ and I have known it to be oat whaa tbt fl«-
meieatarfDdioBtedatamptnmteaf^aO'rahr. Ita ~
neyi ov«r flia bow, hiurewlug down vbonater it eoa
tlon flut daoota* tiw pieaaaea of a log or atDmn. uf
l^Cvotlut at diia atoaan tt rnuit had
Mlowjno-
I to IB rim-
la tha Old Todd, tbondi
U taken bj two ipMlN ^ tl
Orimipiu ia not rapraaanlaA
L ItiriM
f tha genu &*a [ft hAhMj Uehate
Boeky Mnnntllni, and & Xfdn^tmut, Dotag*^ ha
Uand), provided, Uka tha wttar-duev, with pidri nia-
i«^ but wtOi the ■ ■ - '- -'^^--
gfringaa, t
Vr-tba
new, with pidri i
uMoaed tail and daofibga ri Ot
Dad htag aboat e* laig* ■■ the '
ahitar, whUo die Dntltrita apedei ecarcelv exeaeda thenarfOi
laser riusw. Of tha Aner^aa Ibrma ;i,lm^H,ibrnim,»*1
brthalaigMtkitowanoltadraaga&tu. Inlt. aa In BeBvoltai
iahabitinf Horth AmeHoa, the caBlna ahowB a tmdann ta asBJri
lariae, wSkhbMM Tranoanead U A ridbwdmri^ BidBun'
ta £ eosrsM^ Ooepar I la X Jtay^ Baird, It ii T^JMaMaiv, aad ii
AamMbrriiiBaM. altogether alaaat Hi* dioinottn £ jw«-
oMu, GaeA, wldahr dMribntad Orou^aot tempwMi »«
' ' -"■AsinaMtfBitaBai^ris*. OtlMied-IMW
to£.Blliid( - *-
aeaaa Jtoriaa. diitlngaW*""
OaraeairtdilBdwitaMeetlbilBl
_ on aod <Aaraet«riitie of tho ITortk Anwieaa oaf-
neat. Aliaand-tMtk*difa*wa(eie*ptthaamatiBfi*na)rio4
naetable om lanOur in bahlta, and Dr HMiian haa sadi »
■■'-^Ir iatweeUng dlaeerery that tha tonaum ahcrt-taOeil f"^
ncaa Araw an^lanMate ita iaaaetiTeraQa ttn I *
lyvety
>d ineeet lurw they giaatlj
of hb (nps and mant pntect
„ lownndera tr -
ttraSUrSofir^,
iHm in ■ mat meaanre aA ftwa the etlaA
thajaia dastnTsd in laige noBiliai tT**
S H R — S H R
845
SEBEWBBUBT, ta oU muket-town, i mnniciiMl uid
•ptihaxaeatMj Loroogli, uul the eonntj and aanze town
ol Shtopaliini England, ii aitiuted on a alightl; alevaUd
peninitd* formed by a bend of the EteTem, and on Tsrioaa
ndlir»7 line^ 30 miles Boath of Chester, knd 163 north-
west of London by the Loudon and North-Weatem Bailway,
the disConoe by Ihe Qre«t Western beiog 171 milM. The
SsTern ia crossed by three atone bridges, — the Engliah
bridge (re-erected 17/4), on the east, consisting of seven
Bemicircolar arches; the Welsh bridge (re-erected 1796),
of fiTS arches, on the watt; and the EingsUnd bridge
(opened in 1862), of iron on the bow and giitler principle.
The streets are hilly and irregnlar, bnt strikiaglj pictnr-
eeque from their number of antique timber hooses, among
which may be mentioned that in Botcher Row formerly
the town residence of the abbot of 1411'thftll, and the old
couQcil-bouM overlooking the Severn, erected in 1S03 for
the presidents of the oouneil of the Welsh marches. Of
the town ramparts bnilt in the reign of Henry IIL ihe
principal remains are a imaU portion on the north aide
called the Roushill walls, and another pMtion on the south-
west, osed as a pnblie walk, on lAuh stands ft aqnan
embattled tower. The castle biult by Bogerdelba^oineiT
was dismantled in the reign of James IL, hot there sUU
remain the archway of the interior gateway, the walls of
the inner court, and two large round towers of the time
of Edward L Boger de Montgomery also fotmded in
1083 the abbey of St FBter and St PanI, iriuch was of
great extent and veiy richly endowed. At the diasolatioa
it was destroyed, except part of the nave and the weetem
tower of the chorch, which have been converted into a
parish chnrch, under the name of the chnrch of the Holy
Cross. The other chnrchea ot special intweet an St Hary*^
founded in the 10th century, a fine cmeifonn atmotnre
with a tower and spire 232 feet in height, displaying
oxamplss ot varions styles of •rchiteetnre from Early
Norman to PerpeDdioolar, — the base of the tower, the
navc^ and the doorways being NiKman, the transept Early
Knglish, and the aisles ISth craitory, while the interior is
specially worthy of notioe for ib daborat« detaila, its
stained glass, and its ancient monuments; 8t Julian's,
originally built bsfore the Conquest, but rebuilt in 1718,
except the tower, the older portion of which is Norman
and the npper part Ifith centory; St Alkmond's, oleo
dating from the 10th century, but rebuilt towards the
close of the 18th century, wi^ the exception of the tower
and spire; and St Giles's, dating from Uie time of Henry
L, mnch altered at various periods, but still retaining its
ancient nave and ohanceL The old church of St (Aad,
snpposed to have occupied the site of a palace of the
princes of Powia, was destroyed by the fall of the tower
in 1766, and of the ancient bnilding the bishop's chancel
alone remains. The new church of St Chad was bnilt on
another site in 1T93. There are still slight remains of
the abbey of Greyfriars founded in 1291, and of the Angus-
tine friary fonnded in 12SS. The old buildings completed
in 1630 for the free granunar-Bohool of BdwsrdVL, fboiKled
in 1551, are now occupied by the conn^ mnseum and free
library, the school having been removed in 1882 to new
boilduigs at TTingnUini Among the prindp^ lecnlar
buildings of the town are the fine market-honsa in the
Elinbethan style (completed according to an inscription
over the northern arch in 1996), the shire hall (teboilt in
1S3T, and again, after a fire, in 1883), the mnsic-ball bnild-
ings (1810), the general market and ootn exchange (1669X
the workii^-men's hall (1803), the dn^rs' hsU (an old
timbered strDctore dating from the 16th oentuiy), tlie
theatre (1831), and the post-office (1877). The principal
benevolent institntJonB are the county infirmary (1717),
Hillington's hospital (1794^ and the vjv, ear, aad throat
hospital (1881). A manoment to Lord Clive was erected
in the markat-pUce in 1860, and a Doric memorial pilki
to General I^ird Hia in 1816 at the top of the Abbey
Foregate. Tho town racecourse occupies a portion of the
"Soldiers' Piece," where Charies L addressed hia army in
1612._ To the sonth-weat of the town is a fins part, 23
aores in extent, known as the Quarry, adorned by a beauti-
ful avenue of time trees. Formerly Shrewsbury was one
of the principal marts for Welsh flannel, but this trade has
now in great part ceased. Qlass-staining, the spinning of
fiax and linen yam, iron-founding, brewing, malting, the
preparation ot brawn, and the manufacture ot the well-
known Sbrewsboty cakes ore now the principal industries.
The population of the municipal and parliamentary borough
(area, 3674 acres) in 1871 was 23,406, and in 1881 it
was 36,176.
Bhnwibary, andsntij- oalUd Tmgwma, ms tonndad in ths Sth
CBDtniy ss s ddkno* sgsinst the innads ot ths Buinu^ sdi^ b«uuB
thcsntofthapiincMaf Povis. Attar ita conqaMt bv the Suooi
its nsma wta ohund to BcnbitMbjTfg, sllerad mduUv into
oloppestnirv, Bhrawsbarr, uxi Bslop. It b«una(iii*af thaninci-
m1 atite of the Suon Ungdom. ud ■ mint wu Mtabliihtdthara
Ely AtbeMu ■boat SS5. After ths Kormin CoDqoat It wsa In-
ehidsd fa tha •arldom of Shnnbnry bolowid by WiUiam L od
- ~ _v J_^ ^{^^ ■ - -
Bagar d* Hcmtgamaxj, vto ei
B itroDg cutis
n ths liti at
of Valis, tm nlisred b; WiUiua, who mirched
■paoislly la Its ssalatsaea from York. On tha tabeUion aTKobart
da BalasmtiSenottheftntawlaf Bhrawibnry, thecaittasad ton
ware attackad bf Hanr; L and anmodand in 110£, Deling tha
WBd of the next two centnriea tlia town wu tiwuantl; attackad
and plnidend by ttaa Valah, baing eaptimd by Llawelyn in 1316,
anmndand to tbs EsMiah in 1321, plnndarsil by iha au-l of Fern,
broke 1b 12Sa, bant by Uaweljn ap Jorwarth in January ISU,
lakan bv Bimon da ItontTort io 1264, lud mtond to tha crown in
126t. In I2fl7 Qanry IIL aaaainblad bii army than, to thnaten
tha Valah, bnt pa«a via lartond without bloodabad, aftar which
ba straa^anad Ita fottiflostknu. Edward I. in 1277 mada it tha
aaat of hia goTanunant, and mnovad to it tha Courts of fixcheqaar
and Klufa^nch. In 118S ha hald i ptrliamaot then for tha trial
of David, Iha laat ot tha royal prinoaa ot Walaa, who wsa dnggad
through the itreata of tha town and afttrwarda hangad and qnartared.
' t a parliamant bald in Bhiawabory In Jansary IMS Eichud II.
■smad tha titla of Esil of Cbaotar, Naar tha town waa fon^t,
kl JnJvllOt.thabsttbotShrawdiiiry.i' — "-' '-■"--'- -
'eny IV., trtian tha king dafaatad tha
with gnat alsngtitar, Hotapnr, tha aarl'a si. .. . „ . _ „
It bacam* tha hawiquaitarsitf Ghsriaa I, SOth Saptamber 1AI3, but
waa takan by tba Arllsmantaiiana in Fabreany ISIB. Tha town
from tha idgn of ITilliam L to that of Jamas IL raceivad no laas
than tbiity-two chsrtais, its Bnt govaming charter b^g oblainad
from Blohaid I. It ratamad two matnban to ptrUanant from the
raign at Sdwaid L until ISSS, whan it waa allowed oolj one.
4« FUUtia, autariamt Antlv^aH g/Skruitwy, 1TT«: Owen aiHl Bllka-
r, BUtarf ^AfrmSbmri, IBX : Fldseon, MtmtrriOU ilfShmaJimr^ ISAT.
SHREWSBURY, Eabm of. Bee TiLBOi.
SHRIKE, a bird's name so given by Tomer (ISll), but
Boldy on the authority of Sir Franda Lovell, lor Tiimer
had seen the. bird but twice in England, though in Ger-
many often, and could not find any one else who so called
However, the word' was caught up by succeeding
writers; and, though hardly used except in books — for
Bnteher-bird is its vernacular synonym— it not only retains
ita first position in literary Engli^-but has been largely
extended so as to apply in general to all birds of the
Family LtmUdm and otho* besides. The name LaniitM,
in this senae, originated with Geaner)(15GG), who thought
that the birds to which he gave it had not been mentioned
by the andenta. Snndevall, however, considera that ths
Malaeoerannr of Aristotle waa one ot them, as indeed
Tnmer had before soggested, though repelling the tatter's
hwbbdaadoyauahawialthotloealiiamaaastheSbrikaa. H.
lawl (Ana I^ dt ta Fnmf, tL pp. ItS-lGl) anBDianlas ip-
waida of nlnaty applied Io Ihaa ta fnoca and Bsto; ; bat not cow
846]
S H B — 8 H R
nppoution that AiiMotlA TfriMmi* wu uother, w
well as Belon's refarence of CaUyniM.
The ipacie* dugiuted Shrlks b; Tnniv ii tb* ZimAw manUtor
of LunLeOA aod neul j ftli nooaadiiw AUthon, BowidAjB^ vunaoiilj
known u the Orxtsr BntchH-biiS, Ailwulound or Onat Qiaf
&hiika,— • bird wbidi vUt* tb« BiltMi Uudi pnttr n«iiUrij,
mora naurkabla ance it bnsdi man or la* ocmnoDlr on flu Comli-
□entfromUHDartboTFruimtawltLiatlMAiDtieOiid*. Bxcasdliw
■ SoDg-Thnuh in lioau raMmmMnti, it h k Biab laa bolkr lar£
of s purlf KTsy ibon with ■ irall-d«ADid blaok baod piBriBg (Km
tha tanhead to the Mr-aonrts : bttiMlh it k Bsdj <AitI or—
uid thi) ii [srticaUrlT abHrrmbU tn lutmi ■Mmnlto — bund
withdoikj. Thsqnill-ftathMioflha wioKuidor&ooloiintad
toil, in Tariegitod with bUsk ud wUbt, bnt w* auntlj or tlia
bniuT, tboogb wbrt than ii of tba lottn Bowi iwj soufwiuvdr,
aapacuUf U the bau of tbo mnim wbetv It fonu dtfaor a (tli^
or ■ donbla ntcb.' Hiuh (dwHoi tkaa thli li tin Bod-baakod
Sbiike, ii. eM(itr<o, th< bart'known tpacdM in Olaat BritaiD, whers
it ia ■ •omnar riiitcc, ud, tluni^ ita dIrtiibutiaD ii nOta lood.
It msj bo nsD in nuDj poiti of ""gl"^ and occuloiuUy tauliaa
SwtUnd. Tha cook ia * dAdj Urd Tith hia gnj h«ad aad notk,
blaok ohaak-baDd, ohoatoat baok, and pala red Imiati wliile tho ban
b ordinarilT ot a dnll brown, banod mi tlu lowai phunage^ A man
bigbly coloared ipaolea ii oaHsd tha Woodabat, Z. auhculatut or
raiilat, with a bnght baj orawn and nsft, and ua nit tjlla {jam-
*ga bluk, gTBf, and whita. Tbij ia an aoddanbd rUtOr to BngUnd,
bat bnedi commsolT tliran^iont EnnnM. All than biidi, with
man; otlun indodad In tlu gauna Laimi, urtdoli tlian ia no toom
hon to miiij, han^ aocoidinc to diaii rnaotlTa poww, tha nnr
nrnafkafilw b«Mt (wlianiw tiuybaTo aanod thdr i^ratobrioai nam^
ofoatelUng inmila, froga, lliud^ or mull Urda and mauiaal^ and
oF ipitUng thaiB on a thorn or of Biliu thoa in a (b^ad bnaeh, tba
nora coDTanientl; to toai lliom in ptano and aaftluin.
The limita of the Fnmilf Laxiidm have been twj
Torioaslr x^fpaAadi, and agreement between almost any
two STHtematiata on thia point seemi at preeent oat of the
Sieetioa. Hie lateat aynopaia ia that b; Dr Qadow {Cat.
. Brit. Jfiwnnn, viiL pp. 88-321), who frankly Btat«s
that it ia " quite impoeaible to give a coacise diagnosis of
irtiat we are to onderstand by" the Family. For bis
ptuposa be makes it to bcloda about 250 species and
divides it into five anb-fantilies : — OymnorhitmuB, Mala-
ecmotinm, FaeAyMjAalinm, Latmna, and Vireonuui. Of
these doubts may be entertained aa to the afBnity of the
Ant and especially of the last. He, bat for the erode plan
to which he was compelled to conform, woold not have
separated S(repet\t from Oymnorhixa ; but the former had
I AcoonUng to Wllln^by, Baa, and Cbariatoii. it waa In Ihdr da;
datledhi mu;r parta ofBagland "Wlenmgie" (Gann. Wlrgtngil lai
irsrevr, Iha Btnnglai); bat tt h haid to ate haw a biid wbloh fav DHipla
In bgliiul nHld know bj aight ahotila tun a popular nama, uoi^
Cbanogr had ued It la h[i AanM^ qf Fotili:
' Ob Ibli ohuaoUr grait iton baa haan laid hj MUM nontmltai,
irtw maintala that tha Unla [naantlDg onlj a £^U pakh, with astna
other miner dLatlnctloiLi, aa the bairad bnaat aboTO uantionedt ooma
tkom ths [u Eait and deaarra ipeoUla nosgsltlon aa the ZimJw •uf/ar
oTPalliL Bat It !• admlttad that ararj tntaimediata form ooenn. and
Pnt Oollett baa now ahown (/W(, 1880, pp. 30-10} that tha tjploil
L. aeuaior and tjplnal L. wta^or mar ba fonnd In OM and tha lama
brood, and also tliat thia oaeaaiobal dlTH^gaDco la dna naithai to aga nor
HI. That It doei depand to mna aitant on locali^ li allowed ; tor,
though aiamplai with the >ln^ pat^ (i.l.,L. at^or) ooeaaiaDaDT reach
Great Britain, (t ia aaKrtad that naarlr all Iba apadmaoa fron bilnii
Sbaria are ao marked. Bat it ia ilao fomtd that bjr alauat iuanrfble
rlacriia oUw (and ■omatlmi* iBon Impotant) diaUncttona an laani-
IWed, and Iba iitrame tatma of the aannl oolai have ban axilted
to the rank d( "ipaclai " — or at loaat looal lacaa. Theaa arataoDanr
to ba ban eDOmanitad, hot H nrnj U maotloned tiut tbt Onat Onj
(Qirika of MiwCh Amatlea, wUdi otdinarily has ttu low* plamig*
■«nntf r biRad, and la aaa^r known aa L. ienalU, aaama to be oa^
ona of Ihtie dlTargent fomu, Iboogh notb^ii lb* moat il1iM|«il, aa
night ba eipectad frosi the whoUr diatbHt area It oeoaplia. Tet
oooaalaaallr eumplee aeenria Hu (Hd Vocld, whkb then la DOi
*- aoppsaahaTe aa Amerteaii wMa, indlaUofalahaMi ' — '*^~*
nal1it»hUtt,anaig
been abeady inolnded, to tiio «
the Conidti, and evu fi$oad m. „
Tha need of ezeroiiiiig reesm on thia matter haa b«en beim
•tated (Ckow, toL tL p. 617) ; bat Uw n
logiatswbo think that thew twogenenahcnldba placed ia
diSmnt Families miHt be oBalL Tba viaw taken bj IW.
Fkrkeraecsnatobetli " '
otben doubtless and most c< til
logically inferior to the CorvidM, and peAapa di
swh designation aa tliat irf ''Jfcli>Coraeomorfltm''wQggatl*i
hjluia(TraaM.Zool.Sontlf,ix.p.i3J}. AttbaMBetima
tbaii rriatirmship to the Lamidm iqtpean to b« eiridsnt,
and tlu^ may perh^a be bcri: regarded aa the lew«ttered
deaetstdants of an old ^p«^ wbmioe both the tesa Crawi
and Q» trae Bhriksa have sprang, each to daToIop into
bighv morphcdogieal t«nk, and by the way to throw out
muneroosotbeibianiiuB. Aa to Uie Vireoe it would seem
almost oertain that they have little or no oonnazian with
the LmUidm. (a. m.)
gHBEHF, the nama applied to two speciea of Gnu-
taMBuB ecnninonly used aa food in Great Britain. One
kind after boiling ia brown in ot^nr, the othec bri^t
red. The *brown kind belong to the ^letnea Crijiw.
jmlgariM, the red to the apeciea Pimdaitu anmmlieontii.
Botii these nwciee belong to the sob-order Dta^ioda, and
to that division at it which is distingniahed i^ a well-
derakped abdomen or tail, and called Maenmra. Tie
Cnvtaeeana placed in this ^vision have five pairs of limU
adf4)ted ivt eiKwling on the searbottom ; luaaUy the an-
terior ona or more pairs of these five are chelate or pines-
fonaed. In front of the ambolatory limbs are aix pain
of limbi whose foncticm is to aaaiBt in the conTeyance of
food to the month, three pairs of maiilliped^ two pain
of maiiUn, and a pair of mandibles In front of then,
again, are two pairs of antenue and a pair <A eyes. The
latter are held by some natoraliate to reprasent a pair ai
limb^ bnt evidence exists which is in opposition to this
view. Belund the ambolatorj limbe an six segments cf
the body, each bearingapair it limba adutted for awim-
ming. The sixth psii of these abdtmunal limba aie laipr
than the test and expanded, extending backward* ia ua
,e plane as the flattened tteminal asginent of the body
telson, and the three together
of looMootion by which a n{»d b
the witole body in the water is prodnoed. "Dm gams
Crangon is the Qrpe of a family, the CraatffomiJm. As
moat cooapienotu charaeteristio (rf the genns is the shape
of the first pur of ambolatny limba. These diftr taa
from the reet than ia nsoally the casc^ and the tanninal
pincer apparatus is bnt sli^iUj developed. Hie terminal
joint ia amall, and the prqection of the aecond junt agaimt
which it acts ia still smaUer, lo that the cntting adees of
tha pincer are transverse to the rest of the limb. Tie
second pair of limbs have alao a terminal pincer apparatna,
and both the second and the third are slender. The
fourth and fifth pair* are short and thick. The roetnim,
the median projection of the anterior part of the ca^sfMce,
ia mdimentary. nie line joining the attacbmenta of the two
paira of antetma are bansveiM to the axis of the body. Tba
abdomen is large. There are seven brandii» on e*di ude,
Ths (peciBe ebaraoten of O. witltari^ Tafai., an the luothaf
if lliii iliiimlaiifai ii. Ihii laniiinnaawnMimiMilj lliiinmiTl n*iiin
median in du ssstoio le^on and one on wi aide on the btudii-
-"- ■" -' -pair of ambalatorT Umba an seaih aa Ions
^ naailfaUtialtKitaaBiituh
ihcoasta,adiao)K>tundbjnslawhidbav*amidrciilar
month, and an attaobed to a pole wieldad bj a SabanBui wading
in the water at ebb-tdile. The oommoa ihnmp ie an ixoeptioB ts
ths gaaeial role tliit the caticle of OioalaceinB ia tdther red in tba
living animal or beoomte so on belling. The entiele of C. mtlyari*
In the living state ia U^t bnnre or 2m«Bt wUt^ and tha animal
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S H R— S H R
647
it nmswliBt trmuilnonit. Th* eolaor cIohIt ^n<nim«t« to t^t
of the BaiDd on whicli Hit uinul ii fimnd. Aftet boiling tha entiiilB
axsrames ita -wall-kiLown biown colonr. S«Tanl oUiu *paoi«
CVonjon «rt known on U* Britiih ■hOTM, 1ml
Kbiindsnt BB O. mitarit, lud Um; u
^_,„„.„ _ i^br»Jor; in ths nrigibenrliood of ITwr ToA It it
oasJ u food. Tb*ip«is>>l» oeenn on the ««*t sout of Amarlos
from Sun Diego to A!U^ uid ia oamnwDly mI« it 8tn fruciioo,
as kIso is anoQiar mam, OmngiM /nmiicanm, Stimpuu.
H kIso is anothw nwoiM, Omiji>«A"""«'°""'t Somp""^ ,
The n>"» Amibliu, tat daflnwl 1^ L«uh In hu MaiatBlogia
Biitannioo, ia ohiellT disttngnidiedbrtbegrMtlaigtliofthawoad
pair of antenns, ouch mn tongo thin til* wiiola body, tha pnoenca
or ■.long ■pinyro»tnimcniTednBwiri% the total abaanoa of pine*™
on the £nt jwir ot unlmlitoiT Umb*, ind the >n»t Ingth of tha
■ 'haaa limbaontha laAaiila. Tb* ambalilacT limba an
\"K.
and slender, ind the ftnt put u
it thioker thin the
upwardm, so tluit the body ^
Bonmtod npperedge of tbi nU. „
median Una of the cuipioe, half w^ to it* poatanot boidar. The
BpeciRc chariDtara of liia anedM ^luniJtMnaf* m tbet the RMtntm ia
equal in length to the ou■pu^ and that Itaantariarluiriadeatitnte
of teeth aboTC, wWi the eioaption ala» tnuU tooth hmt the aw.
Thi* apaciaa ia Dot io ibtudant *e C. eafaortt and ta in lAhibit-
ant of daepar watar. It ii' takaa uoelly fbr the nudcet on
tbe eaat aad Banth ooaata of Britain, bat ia widely diatilbuled,
Dccnrring in Scotland, Iialaad, Shetleod, and loekad. In Mhor
it ia when alira of a nddiah prj with epote vt daepac lad ; when
boiiad it la of a Dnibnn deep rad. "" ' ■-'--- ■> - -
' founded vith the wmmoD nnvn ; nut i
the prawn, its adult length being « to SI
is the onlv ipecdsa of the genns ooeoiriiu In Onat Biltdn. ^w
conunon prawn when idnltieibsre linnet in length. Itbelonga
to the apadee Falmmm mrnlMt. In Faiamoit the ncond pair of
antenns an loDft *e In ibndo/ua, bat the firit pair en modi Uivst
in the fonnet thu in tlu lettar- In lUnnm both of the Bnt two
painofktnboUtoiylinibaandldastylaociunaer'linnied; tiieaeoand
pair an atrongsi then the fliit, and tike left not longer than the
right. Soma ot the uniUar species of PatmmM ir« need aa food
and soiDatinua called ahrimpa. At Poole in Doraatahin, leeoiding
to Prot Ball's Briiitk Onatatta, Patmnm tjuilla, Fibr., F. eoruiu,
Loiich, and P. UaeMl, Ball, an all taken, and sold aa capahrimp*.
SHROPSHIRE, or Suop, an inland ooanty of England,
on the borders of Wales, Uea betireea 53' 20' and C3' 4'
K. lat. and 2* 17' and 3' 14' W. long., and U bonndad N.
hj Chealiire and an interpolated portion of Flint, E. bj
Stafford, 8.K by Worcester, a by Heroford, B.W. l^
lUdnoT, W. by UoDtgomeiy, and N.W. by Denbigh.
The total area in 1860 waa 644,065 actei, ot about 1S19
square milea.
Tovardi the weet Shropshire portakea of the hilly
scenery of the neighbouring Wales, from which sereral
Tsngea are continued into it. Scnith of tlie Serem on the
borders oE Moatgomary the BreiddenEillB of Lower Silurian
formation rise abruptly in three petks, of which Cefn-y-
Castell, about 1300 feet high, ia in Shropshire; and in
the south-west there ia a broad range of rough rounded
hills known as Clan Forest, extending from Badnor. South
and west of the Severn there are four other principal chains
of hills eiteudiug from south-west to north-east — the Long
Mynd (1674 feet), to the west of Church Stretton, of Oun-
brian fonnatiou ; the Caradoo Hills, a little to tiie north,
which CT0B8 the Severn, terminating in the isolated susbt-
loat peak of the Wrekin (1320 feet); the Wenlock Edge,
to the east of Church Stratton, a sharp lidge ezteod-
iog for 20 miles, and in some places rising above 1000
feet; and the Clee Hilb, near the south-eastern border
{Brown Qoe HitI, 1805 feet; mttetstone Qee Hill, 1700
feet). The remainder of the county is for the moat part
pleasantly undulating, finely cultivated, and watered by
muuBTOu* riTuleta and streams. It may be said to lie in
the basin of the Severn, which entsn the county near its
centre from Uoutgomery, and flows eastwards to Shrews-
bory, after which it tunis south-eastwards to Iroubridge,
sod then continues in a more southerly direction past
Bridgnorth, entering Worcester near Bewdlej. It ia nari-
gaUe to Shrewiburj and has Mim«zion witJi tlui Doniiig.
ton, llie Shropshire Union, the Shrewsbury, the Binuing-
ham and Literpool, and the Cheater and Ellesmere Cbnali.
Its principal tributaries within the county are — fnta tha
right the Moot {which recsivea the Baa), the Cound, tha
llor, and the Boris, and from the left the Tyri)wj(diTiding
Shropahire from Montgomery), the Ferry, die Tera (which
receives the Boden), the Bell, and the Worf. The Dee
touches lie north-western boundary of the count; with
Denbigh. In the south tike Teme, which rec^Tea the Clun,
the Onny, and the Corve, flows near the borden of Hers-
ford, which it occasioually touches and intersects. Of tha
numerous lakes and pools tha largest is Ellesmera (116
Bcrea) near the borders of Denbigh. The Severn forma
the boundary between the Old and the New Bed Sandstone
formations, which constitute the principal strata ot tha
county. The Old Bed Sandiitone rocks lying to the soutli
and west ot the river are bounded and deeply interpene-
trated by Cambrian and Silurian strata. There are five
aeporete coal-fields within the county, — the Foreat ot Wyr^
Coalbrookdale, Shrewsbury, Clea HUls, and Oswestry. The
Forest of Wyre field on the hordera of Worcester resta
directly on the Devonian rocks, and has a great tbiclnnMia
of measures, but comparativsly few workable seams. The
Coalbrookdale embraces an area of 38 square miles, and
is triaugnlar in form, with its base resting on the Serem
and its northern apex at Kewport On its westsm ude it
is botinded partly by a great faul^ which brings in the
New Bed Sandstone, and partly by the Silurian strata ;
on its eastern ude it passes beneath the Permian strata ;
and it ia supposed that tlie productive meoouree are oon-
tinued towuda South Staffordshire. Ita general dip ia
eastwards, and the stratB have a vertical thickness of orer
1000 feat. Tike organic remains include fishes, crustaoMns,
and molluscs. Uingled with the coal strata are Mreial
valuable courses of ironstone. The original quantity of coal
in the field is estimated to have been about 49 million
tons, of which there are about 12 milliona now reman-
ing. Nuther the Shrewsbury nor the Glee Hilla fields am
of much tbIusl The Oswestry field ia small, hot has some
workable seams at^oinins the eztendTe field of Denbigh.
In 1884 850,000 tons of coal, valued at £286,000, wara
raised in Slkropsliire from fifty-five collieries, while 188,700
tons ot iron were obtained valued at £109,286. Inm-
easting forms one of the most important industries of the
oonn^. Lead mining is carried on with some success on
the Stiperstones, 3788 tons of lead ore being raised in 1884.
The other principal minerals ore iron pyrites (GOO tons in
1884, valued at £250), barytee (4939 tons, worth £739CX
and fireclay (56,000 tons, worth £8476). There are also
a large number of stone and lime quarries.
Jfani^foduna — With tha exception of inn, the msnufkotuns of
the county an eomFantirely noimportsnt. Bricka and tUe^
earthen end china wan, and tobacco plpia in largely made In
Tuious diftriole. At Bhrewabniy then an llnok, yim, and thread
nOl^ and in atmil diitriota small puer.mflli,
.Jfrinitfwra.— Then is modk fintUe land eoitsble tbr ill kinds of
ctdtnn, the ricbeet eoil being that In the vicinity of the Sewn,
Jnclnding tba Tile of Bhrewsborr. Uoch of ttie hilly gronnd,
including Waolook Edge and the Clee HillMdmits of tiUage; bat
a portioD of tbe western monntainoiis region is of annnaraUvely
amsll valoa even tor the naatnnge of aheap. Out of s total srea of
Sil,HEacraatbanwanTI«,eBf in 188S imdoi cnlton, ofwhioh
iaO,0&E wen usder ooro cropa, (I],1D1 undrr gnencnpa, *M,8S9
under permuant paston, 71,470 under nlation grsaeea, ind WS
fallow. TheiraanndeTwoodiinlBSl wu4S,UIi£na,endinI8fl5
Che ana nndei orchuds waa 4D1B. Of com crops tha anas under
wheat and barisy wen in 1B8S neariy equal, 5S,1S1 and SS,SOO acmi
raapectiTdy, while thst nndar oita inioDnted to S1,44S acres, lye
to MS, beane 4S4S, end peaae UaS. Neariy SveelEths of the ana
under green crops wen ooonpied by tomlps and awedea^ which
eonna47,nt acne, the irea under potatoes being 087^ and that
onder mansold wnnel tMf. Bonas in IBBS numbered t^ SSI, «{
whldi l>,>*Twere uaed adUy fis pni;eaes of ^timdtus{ ssma
S48
8 H B — S H tr
mfi»6.
in milk m la mil utd Afi,5(Ui inirrult imiW two jnn di
eiinlj &luiii»lilr«} iS6,Wl ; ylft n,0e7 i ud poultt;
tlu northom districli Chshm oluasa ii IbivbIj mmda. Aooovi'
ingto tba litsat La^Jomur^ SHum Jvr Bn^tid HhropdiiTe vm
dirldMl unang 12,1 owiia^ poanting 7V1.B11 lonaat in uumd
tmliu oT iCl,Mt,8Sti, or u itb^b nlns of abont £1, llta. Sd. pa
Hun «an TSSl {mpriaton or about SO par euiti vho po»-
I. a Ootbrt, ens.
^AntaA^uMn «iil AntfadM.— ebnpaldn comiriagi li hnn-
drada and tht nnnkipil bonm^u of firidftKTTth (popaUtian, BSBt
in 1881), Lodbw (BOK), Onn^ (7B47}, ShnnbDrr (30,178), and
"* ' (1B,142), fen pailianMBtarj purpoan tlu conDtf, wldch
kIt liuLRd batwwn fiortb ud South Slinahfa*, m*
nnKiT lb]
A dlridsd
diTUm%— Hid (WalUi^taBl
k and WMt (OnrvM, mcE
JTorth (Nawprai), SaQth (Ludlow), and Wait (OnrMM, Mch
ntoniiat ona mamligr. At tiM aaus Uma tba baraojjia of Biidf-
nuth, Wtnlock, and Lodlinr wan nwrgad In tlu ooon^ diTidoni
tonhlclitluf aa*«nUi'l>alt>na; bat BbnvriHii? coutlniua to ratam
mu m«mb*r. Bbrapuin oontnna alao tba ftiUoiringjutian nnltair
^rtrtcti ;— BruBla; (popnlition, UG8 ^ 1881^ Davlay (BSOO^
SIlMOMn nXlV), Madiliv (SSlll Unch ITaolo^ (2»)i;t Hiwpoit
»0t4}, WaUingbm (ASITX and Wbitehanb and Dodinotoo (87M).
Tli* conn^ bu ona cnut of qnutar aeadona, ud la (UTid«d Into
uiDetaati ipaatal Hadtmal diTidoni. All tb* bocanghi bin lapanta
oaortiof qnartarHMionaandmauniadonioftba.wos. Tbaconnty
oontiiuatlciTilptriabMwltbpMtnDtdxotbm. EoelKaatic^r
it ii in tba dlocaaea of HsraliHd, liobftald, ud St Awph. Tba
population (MO.BM in 1861} In 1881 vm 148,011 (1S4,1S7 mala
•od lS9,8t7 femalia). Tba nnmbai of panona to u tm vaa OiS
and of aeiM to > parson 8'41.
fiiWarv owl ^iiM;iii(Hi.~Tba BriUib trlba iobaUtbu Shiop.
ahira at tba tima oT tbg Bcanuu van lamad b; tbam tba &dOTioia
a«d tba ConUTiL It waa within iti bmmdarisa that Caractacna
(Candoo) atniK^od agilnat Taanaiin in El Uk A conDectad
chain of nllitai; woAa «u emiad bf bin orar tba toatbam ud
ing Oaor Guadoo (whan ha fa aid to hwa inailk U
It atand).
occapTinK ■ oonunanding pcdtion In tba fiinat of Clan, and tba
aarthworkof HlnPinaa at Old Oawartrr. eonnatlDgof *- " - '—
oaneaatrio drclia, (till wall marked. TIm BomanjFi
of HlnPinaa at Old Oawartn, condatiDeof firar or fira
11 wall nurfad. Hm Soman WatHns 3tnat
ir'Wiaton'iiader-LlBrdinStaaarduidpaMad
■ 11b« to Laintwirdina in Herafod. Vaiiona othar
la dirafgad Itom it ht diffanst direetlana. 'Wmiatar,
a littla to the waat ot tba TTrakin, ooonpiai (ba rita of tba anolant
Soman al^ Drlconinm, of wl^cb a pottiou of 11m wiU, originally
a mHaa In dranmfarsnc^ atUl romaina. Explontiona mada on tba
rito of tha lAij bava nraalad man; intataating fMtmaa ti ita coo-
n u oUiqiia 1
toman randa di
U nmaina. Explontiona mada on
lia ei^ ■
itjustlon, and ban lad to tbo diaoorarr of an Isunasaa Tiriat; of
tba Son
rDtaTtonudBntDDinm new Tarn; but tba arldanoa In both
■ iadoBbttuL ThroDEfao
ofBomaneampai UndarSio:
It Shrepabin than i
Jtonuoaitwaainolndadlnthaisorinca
of FlaTia Caaarianaia. Aflar tbsir dapartnn it waa anneiKl to tha
kinsdom of tba aaioni b; OS*, who aWt 7811 canaad Watt'a dfka
to S> anotad to enud aninat tha intunioDa of tha Velih, and
latac araotadpnnlM with it, S milia to tha wait, thi antnnchinant
known aa Ofla'a dTki^ which, aztanding from tha Tya oaar Earafoid
to tha pariah M Hold in FUntahirs. forma in •oina plaoH a
wall-daflnad bomidai? batwaan Sbronabin and UAitgomarr. Tba
naalar part of tha bbtor; of Shnpahira ia iDoladnl nndar that of
Sa»«aEimf {q.xX Thara ara aaranl impolut old soclaiaatial
nina, incloding Wanlock prior;, onoa ni; indtbr, aald to baia
baaa foondad 1^ Bt Uilbu^ grand-daightar of Panda, king of tha
Uarclau^ aa a oollaga for aKtdar prioata, and chanf^ Into a priorr
forCluniaa monka b^ BoeerdaUoDtgomarjabiHit 1080 1 UllaahaU
ahba;, for Angnitiman unon*, founded in tha nign of Stepben ;
Shrawaban lObaT, foundad in 1088 in honour of St Pstar and 8t
Paol ; Bntfdwaa abbej, oca of tha fineat ruini io tha conut;, fonpdad
[ntlSBforCittarclaDa fa/Bogar de Clinton, biabop ofCSiMtar; and
Haasbmoud abbaj, for Angutilliiu canona, foaudad b; Will^im
ritialu abont 113S. Othar nmaina of laia conaaqnaaoe ara tboM
of tha conTBnt of Whits Iddiaa or St LaODard'i, a Karmu atrna-
tura, aald tobara baen fbandad In tba nign of Kichard I. or John ;
alight tracar of Wombridga prioiT, foe Angurtinian cuDDa, tonndad
Ufon tha ntfa al Hauty 1. ; Albarbnrr prior;, foe Bauadictinaa,
fimndail bj Fulk Fitnrarin batwaan 1220 ud 1280 ) and Cbirbni;
prior;, fonndod towardi tha cloaa of tha 12th oaotniT. Tba caatlaa
ot Biiiljnartb (aaa KkIdoihobth), Ladlow, and Starawibai; at*
ntRTad to in tba Doticaa of tbaaa towna, and in addition to Ihiaa
mi; ba n-a-itbovl Clnn Carth, which aftai a long Maga waa taken
ud burnt br tha ITalah jrlnea Baaa aboBt lltL nd Baantd
Hooaa, naar which Charlea II. ia aaid to bar* baaa abaUerad li ai laL
8HB0TE TUESDAY, the day preoeding Aah Wtdw
dny, or tlie fint dnj of Len^ waa ao ckUed u the daj n
wlucll"alirift''orcoDfeBsioniraaiiiade. ComptraCuiiTu,
BHUMLA (Bolg. Sktnai, Turk. S<vm»a\ a fortiEtd
town of Bulgaria, 58 milw soath-iouth-weBt di Silistria ud
in tliat paahalio and GO waat of Varna. The town ii
built wiUiin a dnal«r of billa vhicli cnrre round it n
the vwt and north in the nbape of a lion»<hoe. A mggtd
raTine intenecta the ground bngitadinal] j within the bcsst.
■hoe ridge. From ^nmlattwds radiate northvatda to tlie
Dannbian fortre— aa of SoBtehnk and Biliitria u>d tkae io
the Dolvnitia, eonthwarda to the panes of the Balkani, tad
eaatwarda to Tama and Baltchik. Shnmla i« theT«tim oce
of the meet iiDportont military positione to the nortli of
Turkey, vhile It ranka aa ths third laxgeat town in Bnigaiii.
Spiaad over a laiga extent of ground, each home mntlj
iaolated in tha nudat of ita own itablea and cow-boiEc^
ghomla haa the aj^tearaoce of a vast Tillage. A broad
street and rirulet divide the militaiy or upper qDUta-,
Qtvni-lbhU, from the bwer quartw, Dobu-Mah]& Tla
latter, dirty an^ uiliealthy, inteiseeted by a labyiiith ot
lane^ ia inhabited moetly l^ ChrirtianB and Jen Hh
Anneniana poneaa a am^ church, and each rf the Im
Bnlprian qnarteta baa iti temple. He honm d tke
OomirHahl^ oecnpied diiefiy by Turki, atand pleaaurttr
vnbowered each m ita fiowei uid frtiit garden. lomj.
Mahl4 haa preserved the old church of the Beanr.ddin.
In the Doini-MaM^ ia the new chnrch of St Crril, a £di
banlica adorned with a peristyle. The Bulgarian cvm-
mnni^ possGaaes two boya' and two girls' Khool^ giring
inatrnction anperior to that obtainable at the primtiy
Tnrkiah achooL In the nn»er part of the town i> the
magnificent maoaoleum of Jecairii Hasaan lUia, who ia
the ISth century enlarged the foTtificationa of Eibnmk Hm
principal moaqne, with a cupola of very iuteratting u^
tectnre, forma the centre of the Modpm quarter. Al tin
farther end of the town, isolated on a hill, ia a lujt
military hoapitaL The population of Bhnmla in !S81 m
33,093, ezduaiTs of the garrison. The town ia lenovied
for ita manufactare of red and yellow alipper^ rHdj-mdi
dothea, richly embroidered dnsHS for females, ud iU
copper and tin wares. It also roan silk-wonna, ipin* <>U:i
and carries on an important ttade in grain and viiia
The branch railway from Shnmla to Eupidjan, %\ milo,
to connect the town with the Roatchok-Tama Bailnj,
thoDgh commenced in 16T0, waa not finished in 1S8J.
In 811 Shnmla waa burned b; tba amparor Nifaphonu, ui <■
1087 waa bad^ad b; Alaiina. In 1888 tba saltan Snnd L Twil
tba eaatla to aomndac j and thane* tiU tha nth oaatuj 8liuli
diiappaan from histoi;. IntbalSlli cautnr; it via aalitpd ut
Itetalad. TbiMlimaa— 1774,lBiakandie28— itwaaiDBciM^V
attacked b; Bnaaian aimlaa Tba Tnika caoaaqnanll; gan it d*
namatrfOadCTictocioQa"). Batont2dJnnaimSbnmlial°n-
Utad to tba Bnaaiana Uta tna^ of Bariin atiualatad tha doifr
tion (« tha brtiftoatiau ; bnt tbia utiel* haa not bNn auam ■»
Bulgarian troopa ganiaon tha fort.
aaa*.Kaiilti,Iaa«J(aFtoInnMnaiaaaD: E.CterUiT.MlHfiW;?
a< warfiam mJ aw— i»*Da«tao»iTta* SMfiiTa); a '>-^'?^.
A. at CUlr, biUHH laBoJ^MaCaaa); J. It rartVi Ma Al'l'^f^'
aad J. a. >ll^UI^ B>l,arla itaH til ITsr (inox
SHUSEA, a town, formerly a fortreaa, ot Bnsu ^
the Cancaaiau government of Eliaabethpd, liaa in 39' »
N. lat. and 46' 30' E. long., 330 milea aonlh-«»^ "1
Tiflis, on an isolated rocky emiuenc^ 3660 feet 1^
The town, which ia acceaidble only on one side, ^^'''F^
but a small part of the platean, whence there is i qJu<>"
view over Uie •nrroonding mountain gorge* aM ifcli)»
In 1873 the population waa 34,553 (malsa 13,6G«,fti»»
10.B86i of whom 13,504 n ' '
S H U — S H W
ThtaML luatMd ef to mtOm mo^ H In mart atLw
towns at f^miiiiiMli, tt« booaH b*T« tnj hl^ ato^
moiB, eoTWad with ddnglai TW ttmti iw itfanon^ and
an bfewMotod Vr m^inM 8hiid» wm tenurl^ tba
«^>tlal «C ttM UiuBto of Sanhkc^ Tha town ii IcMallr
miownadfor Iti cMpat mMHifMtnn^ Hid the dbtrist foe
its OBDaUaak bcMd of EmOw^ hocMi.
Tha fcrtnM, fcnvd l> ITM bj Pans Kka, hu ■ nil m (m
■Ida, tad !■ d>fa»aid MtanUy «■ tt* atho tknt rido. h inc
Tlliiiilia ■ — iflillj ■Itlnliinli ilMilrr it^i "-*- ' -"■—■-
Imt WM eooatnlsgd to wurmiUm two tmb ilUi "•'!■■ b ISOC
IbnUm Ktuu of KnUnsk iBTskad th* intoalkB of BMrii,
bat th* ...»->.M— m BBrntotii adr !■ Utl n« fnnt
dUtrlot «( ShMha (WH WMM bUm) lb« talj « fart t( &■
foiiMr UiaiitttB of bnt^ In ItTI it tad <ndnfTi of Skoda)
a popnlatiaii of «l^« (m*)n IC,!*!, *■>!« K>fM)> AnMolua
nnmWtng 41,503 ud-lUoi tIML ifftodton iDd «Mtl*-
bnadloK ■» oliut th* aab odBuprttoM of tU liiJwbtlMiila 0*n-
■nl onmm Ifnrjlam; Own h >o vl«pcl«, nd Imt imdaqaBta
■Boml^ for lUa ud pi^ntj.
BMTJBTAB, m SHdaiAX, BHdaeux (Aiib. 7oi<ar), odm
A floaruhing proviiMkl coital of Pmia, >■ now a «ompaift-
tWely nmmpartant town of 6000 inhabitant^ — ■zoliulr^
howBTsr, of tlw Bakhtilrii, who daring the wintd month*
I with Ibeit Aoeka and koida hi tba hnmiiiliatia
It b Btnated (33* tf SO" K. lat. and 48* fia* E.
long.) At the foot of an ofihoot of tha BakhtUii Uoontaioa
in the noTth-wnt of g^"-t-**- and jnrt below the pcdnt
in the Kirtn (Dcgjaa or little Tlgna) where— the nMin
Btream numuig weatwaida — a entting ef 70 feet deep has
boon made thioDgh the natural toek for aa earterlf bnneL
Thence the two ttreun^ enoloainff a wide alluvial trac^ of
which. Bhnatar ii tha erown, fwow ind^Mndoit coniaaa
witil tiuiy ratmite lome 40 nul«a to the MSth. Aseotdiiv
to liantmunt Belt^, LN., who aaoended the Eiitn from
Hnbamiah Qlohanmera) in 1843 1^ the Shntaut (oi miun
Btream on- Ute west) to within 6 mue^ and farther teated
the nan^tion of Uw Abi-Otrgar (or wstem
within 1 nil^ d Bhostac, Uie town fa hailt
' hill which TiBBB gradoali J from the aoott-weat and ii
ia elevation to the dtadel, lAich preaenta cm tha north-
eutem ride an abrupt boa trf abrat 160 faet in kngth,
having ihe riv«r immediately beoaaHi. Ur Loftn^ who
viated Bhostar aoma ei^t yeara after lieutenant Balby,
givea an account of the two great dama thrown mio« the
rivar, — tha " Band-i-Hiiin " over Un nattml contMk tha
"Band-i-Kaiaai" ovar the artilteiallj diverted tnaneh.
About a mile beknr the latter ia a nmilar work <rf
rec«nt and more solid and anbetantaal oonatrootion, called
the "FtU," or bridga of BalaitL Legend aaeribea thcae
ancient worka to Si^dr I and his oaptive "
Talerian. In 1870, and agun in 1876, Ifr Hackenaa
viaitad Shnstar; b
wretchedl J deoaTed
of Bton^ Bome faw good, with undargronnd rooma (fordtUt
or A- Konm) excavated to a depth of two atoriea below
the ground IsveL In theae reUef ii obtuned from the
bteuM Munmerheat, The tcaffio of the banar, which ii
a poor on^ aeemed to depend chieflj on the Diyita or
irandering tribes. The inhabitanta — fts the moot part
Ataba and Siivida — have a repntation for honiitalitj.
Bom* niUn hkn idiBtlBad Shftdui vith Sua (Shiubui of tha
Bibta), (ha oapltal of SoaUna ud a midniM of ths AolmaemaD
UngL Tba tnw tits of tba Utttr, howam, ■■ Leftoi'a axdoim-
tkiu Aomd. !■ at BhAdi, a widsly (nvd nin tO <v « mlUa to
tba nartb-w«*t On th* othn dd< of Oioatu ii tha losallr daa'
vonnd tt Rim Hcrmiu. In &oL of tba whole nddibgochood B_
IL BawHnaaa writs that it -itiU rsqidna dabonita aiplotatba.
and woold wan npar aaj tcaTaHar who wnold davota
to aiamlnlng flu lulaa and sanMlf oopjins t'
Tba rivar Earda, whish riaaa in tba Ba£h4
Mwa dam tba broad Shatfai VAiUi, Join* tbaTI(rIa audBopluitaa.
It baa boaa daaUiad br manr and tmitworibr aathcritiM to lia
nD adiptad te ataam
at IhwamMBorabl' at
SHUTA,oi
of (he ddrf oentrea of the cotton induaby
1, ia a diatriot town in the government of
Tkdinilr, 68 milea north-Mat of tha town of Vladimir. A
bnm^ tailwaj oonnecta it with the KovU atation U (he
railway from Honow to Ngni- Novgorod. The town ia
bnilt «n the hi^ left bank of the navi^ble Tea, a tribu-
ta«7 of the yb"*"*) with two sulmrlM <m the right bank.
Annaliala menti<m prineea of Bhuya in 1403. Its first
finen maDufactnTea ware eatabliahed in ITGG; but in 1800
its popuUtion did not exceed ISOO. Ita growth began
only with the davelopmant of ths cotton indnatry in central
Buada, aod rinoe then ha* been r^tid; in 1882 it bad
19,6«0 inhabitanta, a* againat 10,440 in 1870. Of theae
about 10,000 live by the mannfactnrea, and only a few
keep to agricolt^ue and gardening. In 1881 the ontput
of twelre ootton-mill* wa* valued at £443,160 for
varion* eotton atnfi and £48,000 for cotton yam. Tan-
neria^ enwoially for the preparation of aheep-alana — widely
renowned throughout Buaaia — atill maintain theb im-
portanoB, althon^ thia induatry haa migrated to a great
extent to &e eonntiy diatcist*. The product* of ita mann-
factcBie* an ehiafly anit to Uoacow and Nqni-Novgorod.
The town 1* munly bnilt of wood. Ita cathedral (1799)
ia a krge building, irith five gilt cnpoloa. Bhuya ha* abo
two ^ymnaua, for boys and girls, bendes a progymuaaimn
for girla, and aeveral aaeondarj ud primary schools.
Tha Hnnuulliig diabrkt I* alao trnptrtut tor It* •nannbotium
Tba vUlasa at IvaaoTO-ToaDMWal^ Borlb of Shaya, with b papa-
latloB of Ddta than 10,000 inbaUtaato, •mplojod 11,SS» woikms
in Ita SB mannftotoiita !n ISSI.aiKl dMMbd atatanof £l,n«,<IMI
(jeijTOq^OOO for oottooa and tba tam^ndar fbr ab«nl<sl* ud mai^
■eiy). ^kovoand Kokhma an two otharnntra* of mauD&otnl«^
— Ota whola piodnolion of tha manntictatia* wltUn tba dlatriot [ax<
(l^vao(BbiiraBDdlTBnava)baingaalimaladat^«0,OOai Tboe
Bgnraa of eooia^ do not indDda any atatiatica of the patty Mda*
aarriad on dda 1^ aide with agricnltma. Naarly avecy villap haa
a nadalu of ita own,— brk^ pottaiy (UaoachffcoTo), wbaala, toya
paeklns-Miaa; loom* and otbar vaavliig implamanta, hooia tem-
nne, davaa, <omba boola, |^ov«a l^lt gooda, eandla^ and ao on
<ombL boola, (^
otora of linan and
Tha'nuiBnIaotiira of linan
oottan In viUaga^ a* wdlaa tba p»-
"K
^ of ahaapakin* and rongb ^orai^
■boat 4%000 piaMnta Tlia Shnva awchanla cany an a_
tnda in tbaaa prodoeta all ovar Snida, and in oonii aldrita, laii,
and otbar food itoCb, which an importad to a giaat aztant. In
18S0 dia Importad gooda raachad 1,<1B,000 owta 0,308,000 by tail),
and tha nporta t,SlS,000 cwta, ehiafly by fha To*.
SHWBOTENO, a diatriot of British Boimah, in the
Ti mint II liii divialon, containing an area of 6567 iqnare
mile*^ and lying in the valley of the Tdt-tonng (Sitoung)
river. It i* bounded on the N. by Toung-gnA diatrict, on
the £. by the Poung-loung Killii and the Balwln Hill Tract*,
on the B. by Amhmst diitrict, and on the W. by the Fega
Toma TTilU The boundariea have more than onoe been
altered, the la«t change having taken place in 1877. The
aspect of the ooontij is monntainons, aroecially in the
ncnih. "Bit Trit-toung is navigable throo^ont it* entire
length in the district by large boats and steam-lannchea.
Bhwe-gyeng has never been aeeurately surveyed from a
geological point (rf view, bat it i* auppoaad to be rich in
mineral*. Gold ia found in moat (rf the afflnenta of the
river Sbwe-gyeng ; copper, lead, tin, and coal alao exist,
but are not worked. Except in tha hilla, the dimato ia
generally healthy ; the average annnal lainfall at Siws-
gyeog itaUon ia 144 inehes.
866, BoddUata ltCl4«, and OhHatkna IS50. Tha anly town with
Dan than 6000 Inhahftalito ia Sbwa-gyane tha oaiita] aad hiad-
oDartaia of tha diatrie^ wUebwaatMmdaadmiuthalSthoantaiT,
Safin* tba Baiaaaa eaaqaas^ by Alompta. It la dtsatad at tn*
JmiDtlon oftbaShwuytawwith tha Tnt-taaUK and bad * popnla-
UoB of 7610 ta 1841. Only 187 Muan ndlaa of tha dlabrfix wan
eaUivatadinl88(.S4{ tba ooltlvdad arm i% bowavar, gcadnally
XXL — 107
850
S I A — B I A
. ... Mrmn-Bn diflanst
^._ ._, _ Jiw 'prodDoli mn ootton, batal-Doti, tobnooii,
uid MUHHiuu. ^a ODlT InduMM an fOttaiM, Mlt-makln^
and riui^tplBidiiB. In 188S41 th* total nraniu isioimtad to
eUiiip, of whi^tha laad-tai umtribotad £IS,SS7.
SIaLKOT, or BiALKOT^ » ctiatnct of BritUi India, in
tlwAmritav dinBion of the lieatenant-goTemonliip of the
Pvfiieb, with an area of 19fi9 square milu. It lie* oetween
31" 44' and 32* 60" N. lat. and 74' IS' and 76" 3' E. long.,
and ia bounded on the N.E. by the Jima atate of Eaahmir,
on Ae N.W. by the Ctdnab, on the R bj QordlEpni,
on the S.E. by the B4vi, and on the W. bj Tj^oie and
QqjiAmrila. Siiikot ia an oblong tract of country oBcapj-
ing the nbmontane portioD of the B«c)ina (IUvi<3ienAb)
Doib, and ia fringed on either side by a line of freih alluTial
ooil, above which rise the higti banks that form the limits
of Uu riTBT-beda. The Degh, which rises in the JAmn
Hills, UaTBnea tha diatiict parallel to the 'BUkn, and is
likevisB fringed bj low allnvial soil The aorth-eastern
bonndazy of BiAlkot ia 30 miles distant from the outer
line of the Him&layas; bnt about midway between the
lUri and the Ghen&b is a hi^ dorsal tract, extending
from beyond the border and stretching far into the district.
SAlhot la aboTe the average id the Punjab in fertility:
Uuee-fonrtha of ita area have already been bron^t nnder
the ploagh, and a third of the remainder is rep(al«d to be
cap^e of improvement. ' "^he tipper portion ta tlie distrliSt
ia very productive; bat the sonuieni portion, farther re-
moved bom the influence of the nuns, shows a marked
decrease of fertility. The district is also watered by nnmer>
out small torrents ; aiid several swamps or jhil*, scattered
over the face of the country, are <a co&siderable value
as leeervoin of soiplos water for purposes of irrigation.
Siilkot ia reputed to be healthy ; it is free from exuesaiva
beat, Judged by the oonmon standard of the Poqjab; and
its aveiagB annnal rainfall is about 37 inches.
Th» dittriiit pnwaiiM stotsl length of TV) mSm tS mi ; tnd a
biuiijh tins of tha Punjab Korthnu Stala Bailwar, from Vaiui-
Ud in tha aorth-vat comae of the dlHiift to Otikot town (SB
milaa), was opan«d In Jaunair IRSL In 1881 tha popnlation waa
1,0ia,lU (malai nB,eai, tnoalM 172,437), of whom Uoham-
madana nnniband SS«,71S, Hindu SIHI,!]!, Blkh* 40,185, and
Christiana IHS. Tha only town of any importinc* b 6iij.zoT
(<■*.)■ ThaprinclpalagftoBltanlpTadnetaotthadistcfetarewbeat,
birlay.ilc^matia, mJUata, polaaa, oU-aacd^ nu;u.can(i, cotto, and
veotabW Tha local oaminsroe oantna In the town of BOikot,
which nthon into ita baaan man than half tha law pradase of th«
district. Ita nipliu stock find* a nady oatkt in the matkata ot
iMhan and Amnlaar, whila^Uw gcaat ilvan on althar sida fonn
nataral chaonela of commanlcatioB with tha lowar pirta of the
Ponjab. nu native tnano&ctnns oompriaa dik, aad^ary, ihawl-
•dctiig, ooaias ohintn^ pottary, hnaa vwl% conntrj cloth, attl«7,
>d £iii,ns.
Tba aarly hiatory of Siilkot ia eloaaly Intanrann with Oiat of
tha reat of tba Punjab. It ma annoied by tha Briliah aftir the
Saoond Sikh Tar in ISlfl ; sinea than Ita am baa baen ctmaldenbly
tadnoad, SMoaiiW Ita pnant proportiinu In 1887. Daring the
niatlDj of 1857 tha nstt^a traopa atatianad Id tha oantonmenta of
SiUkot baaiend ths Snrmiaan natdanta In tha Ibr^ and nmauud
maatan of the wbolo diatrict i thay ^ao plnndend tha treaoniy
and deotiOTod all tha laooida.
SIALKOT, the capital and administrative hoadqaarten
o! tiu above district, is situated in 33* 31' N. lat and 7*'
36' E. long., on the northam bank of the Aik torrent It
is an ertensiva city with handsome and well-built streeta,
and oontMus several Hhriues and buildings of historical
interest In 1881 ita population was 39,613.
8UH.> The kingdom oi Biam embraces Iha greater
part of the Indo-Chinese and part of the Malay peuinsnla.
On tha north-west the river Salwln sspaiates it frton
Karen-nee, sonthwarda thenoe the river Toon-gyeen ; tJien,
from the Three Pagodas in 18* 16' N. hit. down to the
Pak-chan river in 10' S. lat, the principal vrafershed
aaparatsa it fran Fagn and Tenasserim. Its ae«board m
the Bay (rf Bengal extends from the Fak-cban river to
Wellealey Province in C* StT N. laL ; but the islands alo^
the MBit are British. On the other (east) side of the
pamnaola tiis territory extends to 4* 35' N. lat., or, if tb
vassal atata of Pahang is included, to JoIhmv in abo^
3* Sff N. lat On the east side of tha Gulf cd Siam the
frontier line (according to the Siameae authorities; d.
Plate DC) starts from the Bay of Compong Bom in 103'
SO* E. long., and runs north inland to Moont I^uig-chak,
thence, after croaaing Toaleeap lAke, east across the H«-
kong to the crests of the range which aeparates the Me-kong
vall^ from Anam. It thea follows Uiis range north, is- .
eluding tha countrr north-east d Luang ^aban^ to tha
frontieta ti Tongkug. Thenoe it nma wost-eonth-wM^
sqiaratiiig the tributary from the indepvident or Buidm
Bhao states, and meeU the Salwln in aboot 30* N. lat
^le great itatnial and eoonomical centre of Siam ta the
delta of ths Me-nam river, whid is annnallj flooded be-
tweeo Jane and November, the waten attaining their
hei^t in Angnst The inDndatioa coveis seTctil
thousand
square n
10 that the capacity for prodoetioD
of rice, which fumishee two-thirds of tha entire export^
is almost unlimited, but is very partially davelc^)ed both
from seaieil; of popnlation and want of means of tni»
port, mills, tmd better oiltivation. Irrigation channels ai^
however, cut above the point where the creeks nfttnrellj
eeaae by some of the small Chinese settlers. The Ui
formed at the mouth of this and of the other connrgiiig
rivers — the Achim, the He-klooft and the Peehabnri (n
the west, and ths Eharayok on die east — eztoids ti^
across tieapper end ot the golf, and has 12 or 13 feet of
water at high water, lie yearly encroachmont of the land
on the sea is considerable, and the entire delt* from Cbeia-
nat in 16* SO* N. lat downwaids has probably been formed
in comparatively recent times. At Bangkok sea-shelb at
found 30 feet below the sur&ce. The Tadiim, the firat grtat
branch of the Me-nam, joins its ri^t bank above Oiein-
nat ; below this the main stream anastomoaes natnially or
by canals freely, the banks of the different channeU busg
densely peopled. Above Chein-nat the He-oam continna
deep and navigable np to the junction of the Pak-nam Ffao,
ita east branch being formed by several important aSnenti
from the north-east The west branch of the Me-nam ii
formed mainly by two affluents, the He-wang and the He-
ping, which flow down throo^ the west Laoe states, acme
of whose chief towns are sitoated on their banks. In lliia
more elevated region the hill rangea, with a general north-
south direction, ramify widely, rising in places to frcu
6000 to 8000 feet, while the valleys between them widen
out into great fertile plains, having the appearance d
former lake-basins — a 'Hew which coincides with andoit
local traditions. On the west frontier the rapid and bR^oi
stream of the T(X)n-gyeen;"whaee tributary valleys on the
Siamese aide prodoee valbable teak and cidnamon, flaws
from a mass of laterite, south ot which the central ni^
corisists of granite, with syenite and quartzoae rocks. Ita
spurs (6000 feet high) extending in every direction, of
eandstonea. Carboniferous limestones, and other Secondary
formatiDns, are olothed with sappan and other forest tie«^
and contain probably gold, beeidaa aigentiferons lead, tin,
coal, and iron, the latter in nodtdee of clay oxide and biown
hsmatite. On the west of the Qalf of Siam, as far soulh
as 11* N. lat, ia a dry barren region, enclosed bMween
two ranges which intertnpt the rainf^ on either side, but
farther south are luxuriant damp forests containing BtpM
(wood-oil\ iron-wood, Ac, with occauonal dearinp fc
cultivation, and many riven with wide ntonthi^ iiot b»
coming mere stoeams higher up.
^Asnt 10* 80* N. ktt the Iblay psmnsoh iinancmA
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by a liTW kt wthOT dde to ■ widih o< only 37 milM,
Mid tlisre a nurcr f«r a canal ha* been made ; the maxi-
mnm hoi^t of Uia Motion U 350 fee^ Uie neui 130;
the amoimt of excaTalioa ii eetimatod at 84 million
cubio feet, vaetly through hard rock, aad tbe coet at
£30,000,000. Bat the appoadiei hy the river-montlu
on both odea are intricate and bad. T'-=:' heslatterlybeen
the chi«< toitte actOM the peninmla ; bat there are other
broab in die range iriueh forma the backbone at the
peniimla, and the Boddhiat propaganda ia uid to haTo
rrisaaed bj the iathmna of ligor. Heie^ howem —
pethapa, proparij apeaUna in Jnuk Oejion laland — ia
the reel teminatian of the 'great range irhidi comM
down nshn^ea from Tnn-naii, anparating the SaMn and
the Me-nam Tallefi.
East from the plain of the H&nam, and aepami&g it
frctti the U e4ong T^Iey, « platean riwe with rarj gradaal
ascent, clothed to a width of frcnn 30 to OO miles with
forwt. From ita eaet ride aeveral large and partly navi-
gable tiTera flow towards the Ue-kong throngh a nndy
and for the moat part arid plain, with atmited growth d
resiiiona tree* and bUnbooe, bmihwood and gran; Imt
on the lomr coonea of aome of these atnama are rich
irrigated tracta, jwodncing rice, banana*, augar, maiH^ and
the iMwl tro[ttoal Tegetablsa. The whole region ia very
unhealthy, aq«dally in the wet mmoo. TraTelling
wovld hwdly be poeaible withont elephants, of wlueh
some are k«pt in eyety Tillage The rock* are mostly
calcareona or sandstone, and at the aonth edge of the
platean coiala and recent shells at a ali^t depth ahow
the former limits of the land. Farther north the moontiuns
of PechAboon and Lom an rich in mBgnstie iron ore,
argeotiferons copper, antimony, and tin. Only Iho firat-
named is worked to any extent ; and, tbongh by very
primitiTe methods, a large quantity of tools and weapon*
are mBnofactored. From the sonth of the plateaa a rangft
eweepa roond to the sonth-eatt into Cambodia, ontliera
from which are the two peaks north and east from Chanta-
boim, the latter noted for its emeralds, topazes, and
sapphires. Isolated hills, apparently TolMnic, oconr, as
tbo aacred Mount Fhrabat, to the north-east of Ayuthia,
where there are hot aptings and a famous footprint of the
Buddha, and the conical hills at Fecbabnri in the south'
weat, consisting of lavas, scoria, and trachytio locks,
abounding in caTerns elaborately fitted as temples.
Tla ii mtauinlT dirtribatsd, sipwdsllT thran^oat the Hals]
peulnmiU, when it u vorlctd at Bang'ta.pluuig in tlw ptorlODa o
CliRin[^oii, at Clwtjs ud Oluliuijc ■!*■> on the lI»-kl(niK st Kan
bull ssd >t BiprL Gold is ftim^ pratty «xt(BuiT<ly i> Triu^ni
iwdFihiDK; thsnartmiDHst Bug-tx-njuiiig; and It Is sztiaottd
in Hi* Ht-kong nllaj bf milling or irttb SMTCurj. Hart of ft Ii
conaunud In mnksti and prawuW giT*n by tha kln^ — gnU laif
being imported froni Chin* for gilding pagodn, tc IroD aboonda
in ua Mit, ■• at Loin ud Huln Pier, sntimony st Bipcl, laid at
Fsk-phnk and SapIiaD, ailnr fa tlw He-piknlliT. Both thi'~'
and conwr ona an oftn aigmtifBraaa.
Hnon <^ ths nstnrsl rainlill is Blam is Intarcaptad by tha
Unda of tha Uaticea panionla and by the noontdnB on tha ni
neat and north, whlla th* poxinaity of the OoU of 8iam tan .
the haat Th« lainfkU at Baa^ok on an aranigs of tan nan la
S7-M iaohMt of vUch M-SS inchaa Ul bam Hnr to Oetobsr fn-
cIoMti.' Ths Btsn annul tamMstnro ii Vn, Tarjfns baa
7i'«in D«]B9bsr to ariinAprili the lomM lecoided ahadnto
piininiinn wK C7* in DaMmbar IsM, Oa U^Mrt raoocdad ataolnta
maomnni VTt in Hay iefl7. The noith.«ast manooD bagina to
bloir tailr in Nonrnbor, piHwlad by a month of varialilB mathar.
It bai loot half ita fbm* in Jannaiy, and by Haich atnaig snath
Mid aonth-aonth- ■ ■ ■ ■
mbling pagulaa. » that librarla an
oiiiB aapt in wik> w mmmpt tlw auta' laTaoea.
Tit Bon la my dmUar ia ebanatsr ts that at nnrmah and baa
mnah In eammon with tba Chinaaa. tha traniitlon to whicdi fi
almost iBwnalhla Tba coast ragion ia chanetariud br m
vorid. Maphanta an *«i; ai
palmi, and tba aaul trojdoal planti of cultnn. Ia tba
_^ — i._.i..#.L.i-._i_ -- afioat Loang Pfahang, Hima.
~ika, ptnn, cfacatnnt^ paaeb
_. ,^ JojwicklB, »lB»a, aaiifia^B^
OidiSnutm, anaownaa, and Violaetm ; Uiarr ■» rnnnj nhuLla ti~
bar tcaaa,-- " "
tsDpmfa npbBd* of tba intarior, h ah
lajan and JanuHaa apadaa occbt, — oa
and gnat appla tnaa, mpbarriaa, hoD
"' ' — monaa, and yielaetm; ti ^ .
k, laMian, nglt-itaod, irood-Dil (Hcpm), an'1 othar
I, OtinlaeiM, Jtownwow, JCplui, inin-nood, and
■ and naioDiu traaa, tbaar lait lorming In nianj dl»-
d7«-waoda and ndoDiu tran, tbaar lait lorming In muj dl»-
tiloti a laiKa propottion oT tba mon open foraati, irith an nndar.
growth of bamboo.
Fnmonna aanvani of cattla, boraa^ ninloa, and portan paaa
aonnallj hom Tan-nan (aontb-woat China) Co the northam [Siamaae)
Shan atatca, whanoa manj of tham wocaad ria Chiang-mal to Konl-
' (Hanlinain). Thar bringfromChlnaailkgoodi,taa,opinm,Bnd
wana, and taka bask nv cotton, daar and ihlnocaraa homi^
iTsry, and aaltpstn. Tha nortbarn atalaa, whkh an a gnat braad-
bg-gmand for cattla and ponlaa — daphuila too an aiportod into
Barmah — aand down task and otiiar Modnca. Tha propoaad rail-
w^ from Uonlmain •!■ Ujawiddi to Eihnift and thanu to Slangs
isn, IH milaa tram tha Chiniaa IhnitlaT, la intanilnl to atfmnlab
not aaW tba tnfBa witii China bat tha local iMOureia (aaa ad'Ina
by Hr Hc4t Hallatt, C. E. , <a Zmtn CA>n»t>r ^ (Tmrnarat ^mmn;,
Bth Xaj ISaS). Tha aaalam atatoj, conipri^ng Baarly halt (ha ana
and a conddeiabla part of tha waalth of tba kini(dam, aend mnah
prodnea via Kant io Bangki^ Thay prodnii ohiaflT China gnas
{BoAnuria aimi), angar, Indigo^ ailk, caflimoiaa, eatton, tobacco,
atalat (a nibatltiita (in balal). baaavai, beuuin. W, iron, iiraa, nl-
phnr, aalt, eoana pottery, mata, hidaiL tigin, ind bono, horni, and
toiki of alaphanli^ Tbinoccroaaa, and boan, £uroi«*i) cottoni and
haidwan and Chinaaa gooda panatnte eTLrywhisn, thi shiaf an
pOta being Kugkoi in tha aart and Chicng-mni in thi
aaitam plaina wodnoo altarnata cropa of lics and aalt
dlBoIn tha aalt fn tba aoU and waah it doxn, maliiD]
poaAlt. Id tha dij ae
nialtiog cnltiTmdon
known from lemota antlqnitr, ft ia produced ucludn-lybytha Lao
commoultiaa aattlad tbinu^ont the ooouCr]'! — tha chief cantna
being Kont and Battampong. The eiisrt In 1S84 «M SZS enCa.,
TalnailatjIV.BM: but ttia boat qaalitjrhardlyrcachcia tha Bangkok
maifcet, ita natoial bright jatlow cotonr makW it difflcnlt to dja.
Than la, bowaTar, not mnch of it, tha demiin'lTor tha batter kinda
baing Bi^^iad fMm Cambodia. Bat for tlia apathy and iniloleneairf
tha peoplB tha prodnction might be lar^lji ini'inaaiid ; tha apiuning
and raalingappantda too are varrnnnuliTB, thoogh aonia boautifDl
ototbi are woven at Chleng-mai. Huch orthatndauitiiakaDd eattlo
la worked by Bonneaa : ouorwlaa al moat til Uia tnda of tha coon tn
b lo Pllliiiiaii banda. In acme of tha nmotsi dietrfcta barter u
iwortad to, bseswaK, atlt, lac, and ban of irau being inailinmi oTei-
ohuBB ; bat nnanllj ajlviir ia uaoil, and aomotinia Inilian rapoaa.
Civiluatlan tnoaaags in tba aaatem ilietrirt* u tha frtindar of
China ii approaehid. In 1881 41» vea«lH ckarvd from Han^k
with cargoia valued at £27,170; of tlioao SIO (tonnago, I61,VS4)
wan ^tiah. In addition, than wen 113 jnnki (tannage, S3ED).
The total value of the aiportawBi £2,202,210, rice bolng tho p-in-
dpal itatn, £1,<U,S00. Th* imports vcn valiii»l at £1.011.266.
the chief Itenubi'- j -i... i,___. ,-.■
ibay, £106,261. In 18SE tha eiporta won vilno^ at £l,BI>7,0aa
nm
and tlTa' inpivta at £1,U0,333. 'The uiiorta l-oing in e:.. _
gf the tmpart^ the diflimmea ia paid ju l/ciiita did>an^ which
an maltaddown '
■d,— th* •d'jrc
na money and wei^ta aaoui to bo tbr aniria aa the Old Ckm-
bodian. A oopper ooiua^ ha< njdacnl iLa rowrieii, and than i.i
atao a divat coinage, via., thafuang=7^ cxmbi, thiMntiing— 16cruta,
tba bat or tikal-M ceutu or half a orown, 6 Ukala- 3 MoxisaD
doilara. from the tikal apwatdi Uuh mini an alao dwI u
maaaoraa of wd^^t. Thoa 1 tikal wuitflia IS grainmH or 3»
atuna. 4 tikalanl t»nilmi|^ to Umluuf — 1 aluuif or att}', tt
. i.^._ _j., ,^ TTian an a Ian ga,d eoin^ bat not
853 B I A M
In inml AooUlon. Tbdr nlw li dxtMU Um* dHlt irdfU
'Bie hnd-taz k Bi«d xt taa pa omt, tLs Snt ptnoa n^ dnn
bodbdng tMUtd to held it. Hw tu n ptdra pndiua Mid M
&iutbH*li U^N, bnt iaAxad BtiiiltnakefnullftMBTtai^
or it aubc^luabgotftTncn. Than ta ■ siraA af bn noMh* fu
tb* mr, to Thicb iS rliMm txwpt tbs moblM aad tlw printluwd
— thM)ratJa% liable but it miq ba conimiit^ tor i poU-tu cf
frmn fi to is tikkl), panblB BtUker dinetl J
<• to tha (aodal (uperioc, tor lU '"-
«Dt OIL m npariar ; in tlis prarinoM it ii pajsbl* in Und tbnni^
tb* gonnua. A tada uuount, 1} tikab, li -uipii* br miAn
for uuii daTM. Bat thgrt an *ama oowiatma azocpdon, Tii;,
pgnoiu am ditj or ondtc d^tesa jmz» of un, or who lun thiM
■Diu pwing tha tu knd nan of inoonblo Uliua. It a rgaOil
domud for labour Iw mad* Uxn k aumption IMm pidl-tu lir
that jaai. Tba OUnMS only pay H Ukak trfanniaUr, and Enio-
peaoa ate asan^tad. Tbtn k a taz «n lionaa^ on amnwtnanta
ftl»iatifralT| danoan, ko,), and on flaUu-bqati^ noti^ and otbw
laokIa> "am k a lOTal^ on ttn, and & Mia of opium aad at
aUohoI k a QoTBmmaitt monopolj, Iknnad to Chlnaaa lline pw
oant bbrladbr'tnatrmiBTttkh i^ otiurtmign importi^ annrt
dollaa OD a lotat nnmbat of law ailidaa, and Inland or tiandt dnaa
doliaa OD a (ptat :
k artlinatadarw,(m>ei
„„ J (£80(^000^
nahaadof OaadminiBtnaookthokliwviaflTamlniataK — '
- . .-^1. . '-'tma, jo|iUoa,
goranunant 1^ nim d^an
na oJBoa kiunni to Ennmana ■*
. draanda vot
, ..— i» tho natlra
ilarity. ~ "■
kk,tkai
Til., of war, fi>iai^alkliLDortbnnpnTlBae«ilgt)Boltnn,ji
— and aoma thlit^ ooonctllan. lli- ---- ' — "
■ aaaond fciiw" ^Hunaa^ «tnw-iw,
to datau ai tlw aliua t^aa in £oi . _,
Booh on Bk indfridnal obuactar. Habaaasalaaa
MtaUlahmaat and a A« addiaia at Ua wdaia. Hw ooosHt b
dlTldad Into ibrty-ona pnninoea, pralnding tha Laaa and Malaf
atati^«ndtb«CaibodiulpraTin«M. ^ ptOTineaa ara of dUEmat
padoifUd thrir ■eraraonhaTOTarf dlflerant dagraei of anthorlty.
feiaUng gaaaial^, thaj haTo con^naa of all dVa ca
faera ban appeal to tlucapital(irhiehnneiall7i«aclu
Hon, u dta gorenui'a ooonoa act aa apba),— aad of mlu
oaaaa. Tha sraTtT orimn, aa muidai and daooitTi k
qoaatiim of lin or daath OMomitlad in Kam propar, ara _
a apiuial dawtnieDt tn ua oajdtaL Tilligaa aio gnraniad' bf a
haad-Buu (ioMiiaii, aaa^liat, or xaiilo*! aomatiiiaa irfth a imall
MJary, choatn nmaU; In aoooidanoa willi tha popolar vkh, and
dependant on tba worlndal oapttal. Tho 8b
tha I«a prorlncaa do not oppcaH OTannnohi
ohkb^ dnca tiidr powar dap^da on thair Bonil — — .
towar indaa thara ara alwaja fimr prigdnaT oOdak, tha (Aa&lord n
MillttTin airnrnr ntrlmrrnjiii.ini! mr^tiFMfrlthn flntHtlii frf ITriiMTtri.
tha oUisn at Indian ol^). nxaa ara tmadltair In ana or two
fcmilk^ an; diipatad anoaaadon bdng nfamd to Banriiak. Tbt
Bknaaa law It raoomkad, bnt Um national "onatoma an-nmdh
ngaidad, and In oi£narr oaaaa Sdlowad. Oril and arindaal pto-
oeaaaa alike aod nanal]; In a flna. Beddaa tha capitation tax, tun
k a dnt7 on rin^ and each itata paja bibnta to ^^"i^A
tb between Busied and the KiIbj itataa k aUg^tarrbeing
■sad lanally talalarlbnDDe in oaaia of dlapnted anjcaarion, ai
a triennial tribnta of a gold or rilnr trae or flower. Tba mlaa of
piDMdnn in Siam an tut etrlot, but theotsticalbr them b m
hnedil ^
The
a gnal, ^ ■
OffiBnll J apaaUue &tj an nft
allT aa n^rdi nUgJona, nraral,
dTll and ci;iinlnal cedaa bear tha impnaa of Cbinaae Inflnenoa.
Thara an eereral digeate of the kw, aomaoar' — '" " — *
tamatio 1i««JItim t,g^ of the dTQ law, real i
inheritanee. tuu% evUanoa and ordeal
parental anthori^iikTarr^moMjiWeigfatBai ._
and of tbo penal eoda^ onna^ niniilunanta, policy [ckaDa, The
Idngkabaofnt^bntdaimanaBCaohlterigbboTartheland. Great
attentiini k mid to pw)edon'.a. Among the paenUaiitlta of,tIia
Bjttem an the emplniaait cf ordeal— bj dirins or ehowing rlca,
Jto. — in theabaanoa m witnaaaaa, and tiia i^JeetioD of tha eruenoe
of Mrt^n daiaaa, rii, dnnkardat gamUen, Ti^lni, azamtiooon
b«an, penon who cannot nad, and bad ahanctenk Vhen _
ei&a k committed ^e famUr and OTon ndghboom of the accoaed
nn be held raaponaibla Eir bk appeannoe. Pie pwpartj of In-
taatataa goM to tba Una of an intaatate prieat to &■ a«iaitaiy ;
but tte nwleot rf the h£ to parlonn ftmonl rltaa randoa hk claim
to praparft Inralidr— a eniiona nUo of Hindu (baling. Another
tnoe it tub ma^ ba found in tba heradltuy paMEona, tbongh
fludr dootrinal agnitteanoa aa eaitia haa duai>peared. "Ou bwa
dpnper^,
fdocatteB,
itortaian
ia debt el
laa duappeared.
le prorlBiona ebon
Uablat And than an well-lafliMd mica aa tc
ietirfthad*fi^hfa^U«Bnei imbm taiSaa, iajmij ij
wddab^ amplofmont aa a aabatltnta In war, kc Hlama «1m bi
allowed to beorane niaeta w anna an (Ma.
— man an Habla to aerie in war ; bat <alr btan UOO to SflDl,
iCMndaaaanadallratfliadiapoaalortlMWnrdcKtBen,
anwnlariytralnadnndarBtaopeaneaean. Tbm imhUmI aaA ^■
toondbs li»ta u« aanUonad, and tlMn k a body of palaoa gond^
ne fleet «andM««Boaa tnn^ man^-war and aimed iTuwiaii
nie popolatiM _. ._.
«,(W0,0«) te 8km peopar, 1,000,11 - .
Habja ; othara aalbnate it vaiiMBb at from 0^000,000 to 8/KI0,O0a
Than an baddea pahaaa bom 1,1100,000 to 9,O0aO0O fTilntna h
lower Bim the popolataon b ehateied alcaig the ii*an and caaab:
In tha diTacamad un and phda eomrin to t£e Bsrtli it b dktaaMlaJ
men genarany. In dbaraatet tbe Skmaaa an mod, patin^ aad
aabaniadTa to anthod^. TlttT *" hoapltabk to stncigan and le
tia axx ; qwnl% violant wtmaa, and anidde ara nra. But thq
an idla and apatbatla ; modi time k derotad to aanBBSiBita, ■
(eetiiak and Broeeaeiont, beat ta«^ gunaa, «ad aad dog flgbtiaft
and aTaa oombak batwaai SdL ^ podtton at woniea b gooc^
althonf^ ^b aan be aold aa wirea. Tbt Chineaa pMsIatkai an
anaigrao and indnaliloK bat Tacr indapendan^ uid aomrtiwiM
f&n tnahk m that thdt iuana^u oDnbva and otnniatiiw
SinN^a^aaait«DdalkaanaaoQnaoranzia^. TkcSbnMai
are ef nadloM hei^t, wdl lonHd- with oli>a conraloaiaB, dacbr
dmed, neae ali^rtlr OattaaMl, lipe a littb pnaniaaDl. tha ha
wlda aonm tha ehaak bonaL lop of Bsahaad potntad and ^b
ehor^ fltwa gMng tbebeaakCMge Aim beardaoMty and with
daring manir una wi^ Panu^ laoa, and Cambodtana (Aoni^
aa wen aa of alaree ttoa tha aboriginal laoaa, haa prodncad mnch
Tarietjr <f Q^ Baddee the Kanaa, who an tho twrnaaat of a
mon widdr aztandad people and who an fmnd on the boidatad
BiaB, the Lawaa b Qu aama region, a^ tlM EhouK a aettied pecf&
Inland (Mn the uolflt-eaatan ande of tho OnV of Siam, maif
oUmt tribaa of tha aarliar inhabltania an fomid occwpriog the
irtwle of tbe Gmat terioB Ml both ddaa of tbe K»4a>^ aoid knoai
to thek difhnnt salgnboan bj Taiiona nama^ aU pnibably man-
lu dmplr "man,' or "•an^e," aa Eha, Koi, ^om. Loin
Tiuaa aaatacn tribaa mon or km raaambk each othMi lieyiie
Aj and tlmkl, aona hating no Aieft or aodal nsaniiatir- -
ked Mlowt
triba^ the Konk (^
PoctW>aaa)i — • '
Tbieaa liiaiaa tha bolk of Iba population. The j tin bj cnltinticj
rioat bf ooHaetlng kDatn, baenax, and rcon, or bf the ehiK.
Tbdi woman an abaolualj tk«a betoa maniaae, birt adnltcrr it
pnntahad with death. TAj Woeahip aneeabaTuid other mnaia
and can hardly ba calkd Bnddhlata. Tot with a few cxeqltieoi
origla, and IdaaU^ fium with tl
tbeaa aarUor peopiaa an by no meaaa
the Tlui or fllamaaa bat often tha co
Pidnuadan neib
SlaTny k ganmal, bat oeiakli mainly of bondage for ddit, a
debler bduabblo adl hlnaaltwUe, or children, or nmhewa «
nlaoaiL — thw ItHdom bdng recorarabU on ujnent at tha debt.
Bnt tLe pneeat eoUshtaoad mlar haa aet nk boa agaiuet the
pneUae, and daoraadb abolition, aooaptfn the Laoa wmneca aad
bi tha aaatan atataa. Hw laaAat b ftraar ncmited, BiM bf the
tab at oAaidK^who hare tha option between death and abTcn,
and aaoondly by alan-honting MdL made in Bonbinollon with lie
Anamila^ on &« TUkgaa oflha wildar aboriginaa.
jt or dee todaalan Ikon Ckmbodb I
* Bununx ^."i^rnaadaUiibad aa tha cudtal in irS) aAer^
aaA of Ayntma br tha Bnrmaaa. Ita popolatiim waa waKimlwl it
abontSOOiQOOlnISM AyatUiknoweilladEning-kra<s^bBiv
oa^lal foindad In 1161 awl half daatnnad bjlhe Bunoeaa In irC,
waaagnantianago tha aaocmd d^ of the fcingilam. ItiaatOliin-
Dortant aa the <Dt»n0tef the bade of aanth Lata. HaayjanhiBail
Baharmen oome np from BjngtA Ho modem town la cUdlj oa
tha water. InibmeatDTeaparaaadayiiilthoinhcentaiTitwii
Ana laagoaa in dTomaC
fbraiaaen of dUferent i
Haklai^ Janaueaa, and
' -nbi
Oiinaae, Pegoan^ Hakji,
~ ■ ■ - tagnt
Homt,
lewbibet hl(£ eamoantad br a dome and tpn t bnt neat <
— m an ikow emmbling awn into sreat biokan maaaea of acd)
tondmiaoniy, atatna^udqara^half bariad nndar the Tigatatias
oftheborica. Cauntahul, near tlie Cambodian fMilier, the aacoo]
port of the kingdom, b noted fcr lb etupbailding and ' '
and haa aa aotira export tnda from tha win lb iiaalain p
■nw a* IMuMMtMlinkhiMm^ m.A Ilitm>». .l-jyiftj, f^ t^ p~p.l>.
8 I A U
fortified,
chiefly bj Pagiuiu,
toned* tfa* Hs-Ua
deli h mmr of hum mitbiR toimi li and int»t
the port of Bu^cok, S milM from tha liTwr't nmath,
M ta P>klat Lug, S mllM hig^ m, which li iBbibib
:hiefl7 br Panuiu, Viiitnu ouialt utrad heira>
^-"-^-.kkwg. Meu
ialuklHl
uran tlwddte
. y*S,tii
;i of good tMJc-baflt boon^ nutDnndcd
on* wodu. miAet^ utd k Ingv niipoli^ion.
brtue nllty of thi Kt-jbi^jia li ■ grvt
am Bangkok and aoDth-WBit XJiina (Tmi-aan
o), which fiuda it« natnnd ootlat thiDce le tha Bn of
BeagaB. Tha Ax, timbtr, fte^ <rf th* dlMiicta tbtoodi which
peopl»db7Chi]]«ninacdianthSih*niwn.and«id«iia>. Hi^arnp
tha riTer, at tha foot of Iba hill^ la Fnui, Hopbd 1)7 daaondut* e(
Camboduo eaptina. Pechaboil, a Utib to the aoi^ at tha foot of
a raiun •oma ISDO faat Udi, whan du king ha
after Engliali doaupii ita inliabitaBti are Ptguao
ewt aide of the Qnlf of Slam, on the EhaiajoL , — _—.
ptantatiiniaonlliTatmlbrChlnaaa, At BaagplMnL at the woBth of
the river, an aitaiialTa 'l*h''riiif. Hm^nr^ mtm BOO milaa np tha
He-nan), powaaaoa dooki, andthafeagoocfuujtnka^B tM Wt.
la the Iao or Shan eoontty to tha north Ohfan^ttai (^nl) la tha
most impoitut tribatar; atata. It* e^tal, cUeu-iMi, Ob Ju-
gommi of tailT Konpian traTcUei^ la the nrinciii^ town of thai
renOD, with broad atieat" " ' ' '
with gudani, annat
It liee in tha wide , -
eatreptt of titda fmn Bangkok and — ,.
ind Stmao), which fiuda ita natnnd ootlat thntce to tha
I. Tha rice, timber, fte^ <rf tha dlatiicta tin
Dnta pasea in eotiaidambl*. Lapong^ ia the .,,
and lAgoag, oa ■ BaJghbouriag trlbataij, an Lao town* cf
Icia importaiica ;nd lubordiiiata to CUaDg-maJ, a* were foimarlf
Kan aod Pre, fertile teak-pcododng vill^ to tha eaat Kiuig-
hal aad Eiaag-aan, ftrtbar north. On tha Ha-konft wara old lio
capital* of Dota (aee SbahbL aa waa Loaiu Piabang, with ita dum-
ing capital, whkli, lOca Chiang-mal, atUT ratalb* aoma admJiiivtTa-
tive iadapandanee. The aitaniiTaArtile and partif wooded ^tina
to tha north and eart ra^ort gnat herda of cattla. ViUt Tiai-
ciiang^ a little la«« down tba river, Lnaag Piabang held it* own br
rentniiaa againik both Slam and Bumui. On tba daatcodlon of
Vien-ehang in IttS, Vaof^Mi tS mUaa lower down, increaaed la ain
and impamnoaiand now haa an oxtennTe trade In Bnaliah and
Ohloeae gtnda. niiadlatiictailahtpertiapawithootmaehdifflenl^
be opaned np b; an earr roide inruig mm Lakhon, odIj ISO milea
dlatant Ihim Iheeea. Oaaof tbamoatimpcataatfroTindal cealna
a the dUtrict of Eorat^ on the aaatara ptatean. The county ia e
-"1 by tract* wwaterieaa Exeat, contain-
;ame. ^le town 1* fbrtiAed, and hai
._, ,_„ . . la well-bnBt hotw, bdonglwg ehiafly
to the ChinnH merchantn. Cart roada oonraisa hither inth the
traffic both of north lua and of tba CambodiaB ptortncea aooth
and eaat, the latter paidng op tha Entile Moon Taller on III way
to Ban^ok. The wbol* ragjon between tha Dang-tak Hod-*-'—
and tha Moan rirer ia hill of apleiidid ndna, attesting the
o hare tewsbed at the dale of theae bnildingana i^tidpal
ra foand at Eorat, BatMC, FUmal, and Kn-
.' of tU« wondaif ' " ""
preatest of which, thoaa of Anjikra, ate ...
Wn tooched on ander CiiuoDU (i.«), to which tbcr poparly
belong; bat it may ha mentioned hen that the eariiest maoiption
-' 1, relating to the erection of a 8iTBiteliI1ff^iainter^eted
;mg to 6S« nka = MT 4^ thoiij(h another, andated, reftn
^ ._. thoiuh
to three gmaratiaaa aariier. Tba eulSat
Bnddhiat that have been Gmnd an thrae cantorlea latei than taia.
ViUi the exontlon of a fW achool* in the ta^tal, adneatioD
la ent^T ia the hand* of Qie priaati, tha boji griiutto the tamplea
between the age* of aighC or nine and tUiteen. The teaching i*
elamentaiy, aniL 1^ the pneepta of Boddhbrn, muat be gratnitooi,
Che pupili rsparuu it by menial aerrioei In boaae or boat or garden,
or I7 pNMib of food. M thirteen the boy entsn on a norldate,
which lasts till tha age of twenty-one ; tot, if not inoUned for
atadj, he may give it np after three or Ibitr montha,— this tam-
Srary conaemttiOD aymboliiii^ a tntlttlon ftoin the worid. At
anty'OiK^ if ao dlapoeed, ha may enter Qu ptieathood ; bat tlism
ira no parpeCaal towb. Qlrls are taodit, if at all, m^ at homs^
bj pannt* or bnFthsn. Thsrt an no edacationsl (ndowmsnta ; but
1 certain Dombet of penoa* oceapy thsnaelrea with Utetary stadisi,
B3 hiitory, astrology, cs aldiamy, with iridch medidne ia more or
Inacom^nad. ^fUcai praotio^ indeed, emi»iaas a nod deel 1^
nurae ; but than i* al» ooasldraable knoiriedgB a macUeinal
lierla, and andant medloal laoAa wan writtan In Fali. Inooda-
tUm waa long ago introduced by the Chinese^ and nednation
UtelT by European miaBonariaa. Woman after childbiTth an
eipoaed for some time to the boat of a strong in, the nsnlt bring
Bonetimaa&taL
Bkniiaehown inthacaating of large meW statma » fcrt W^
or more, in rmmM work in gold and sIlTer, ta anaiWiTUng <n
metala, and la gold and rilra Uamo woA. Thalr drawing la
apirited. bnt atrStly eonvoiiaonal The ayrtam of morfo >i,alabo-
Mt, bnt with no wfttten notstion. JTian la no harmony, bnt ril
^taatramanta id tha orcheatra ^ in nnlaoa, bteaUsg off btto
Tariatlima and thM rstoRdng to the air. Theyanprnadof Oeii
utiooal mnaio, and both man and women play and Hui oeutaUT,
Tbair Inabomaata are— a haimonioMi witE wooden or — -' >--
a hunmar, ■ twchsMngad and a thne-atringad Tiolln,
^and pipa,a]ao tha IJ>a"orpji,''tha tonea i4 which.
dooMnal diffarenoee, a
larar, ptobeaad in it* pnritr by vtrj fv
a Initiated by King Phn Mo^^t, \im
■st, baa dirided tba people of tha capital
IT attach mala weight tt
adiution. The other ae
:, from thaBi ..^
by Tarj few. The raligiana la-
— '--^- ,lf for nnmy yean .
relinned, blown a* Dhammaynt, and tha o[ '
Fhn Hdka VlkaL The former attach n:
*anea of the canon than to mad
divided into two parties the one
oilur to Om atody ot the aoripturaa." Tha only Bahmaiiloai
tooila remaiidng In tha coaatry & at Bangkok, anJ ita priaata an
wdto ba of Indian desoent Brahauna, howerer, in conatuitly
lata aMjt tot warlikM
expeouiMi^ tnstnaM taanaaotiona, marriam, and tha like, aad in
airangln^ featiTala. Bnddhiam la compted by a general worahip
"^ pmpitution of nati (v phees (aptrtt* or dnnona); mpmatition
the man remote distiieta constltatea pnatlcally tha raly nil-
Tha lidief in theas ([Mtainfomi* uid aflact* erety dapart-
Itatea pnatlcally tha raly nil-
, fomwandar ■
of liA. There are local earth diriuitiea ~ ,~.p_
ahilnea an erected. Olhen with hnman or «»itt«-l foim dwell
canae ohildnn to sickm and dis^ Otheae
>a ianu Jiilal. By certain apdla mati can
wolTea. Bodiea ct the dead an ainnatiDa*
. ve csnied oat not by tba door bat by an
t opaniaft ao that they may not ba able to fiial OMi
way badb Tht inmerona offerinn and hononra paid to tbeaa
^irita lead to drankennaaa and to kilUcg of «"i«i'»ft In ncriBce.
FhalHe wonhlp pnTsile to a coniidanble extant, notwitbatadding
the eSbrti of the king to pnt it down. A fei^e incarnation i^
deity, theNangllmi 1* foand in one or two Tillegci of eaat * —
with their so
astabliahmanta, form a eompicnon*
_.< an very eitendTa, corering altogether an
of 100 or ISO acraa, Bawtamptea Bnoflanbiult,Drthaiir(eBta'
4»a In th. «;.».... bnildlnn repaired, bj rich nten deeimu
.. _, o Ibe temjlea (wati) hold pery little landed
or boaas property ; ba^ whan they ban been built or npaired by
the kins or prcaeoted to him by aoma hi^ official, they enjoy a
small iacoaie chargeable on the rerennee of the district beaidea
racdving praaents nom tha Ung when he viaitB fliem ID atata.
The prieata of moh templaa an bonnd in retain to dTO thair
aarrlcaa at state csremoniaa, and their eeanlar alUr^ inelodlng
rapain of tmples and diac^ilinaiy mattery an admluiitsred by a
■pedal department of states Then nm^ now at Bandnk only
two coanmnnitiaa of nana, who an ainiloyad ia the eerrice ot tha
tampto^ and an ^owsd to reoeiTe Tolnntaiy oflaringa.
J3n nnwaron* pnblla foatinla an partly conneetedwith rdi^oa,
batanaocompaidadwIQimaohnioidngandamaaemant, Among
them an tha Inaar aad the Aied Sew-VWa Day tmi the featlnl
at agiicaltare, when Q» l^oa^ is galded by the minister, the
ladlaa of &» ooart tbllowlng ud aowing aeeda, which are [dcked
np by the peinile to add to tndr nsaal aowtiwa. At the canmony
at which the king and hia miaiatata pledge thamsetvee, the fbnnai
to admintatar Impaitlal jnatice, the Uttor to ba fUthtUl and Ic^al
In tbdr aarrlca, the oath la taken by drinking water, and the meet-
ing ofthe king and nobles, with all the attendant parapbemaliL
tbims a goneoas apactada, tha day terminating with finwoiks and
procesrions of boats. On the kinj> etata Tints to tbewola than
an fMire nrocesston* of boats and troopa, Other fonTals an at
thebcsim^tndendoftheiainyaaason. Then Oie floods begin
to wbdde thenhagnat water tsooesalon. and tha piieste command
thawatentonUn. Erontbaentthigof thekma'.haiTlemadean
oooadon Ibr r^Joidng. In emy Audlr the eattin^ at tha age of
twdre or thirteen, of the toft left on die top of tha bead la a gnat
celatMny; ItianotniBOtiaed, except byway ofimlUllon, amoos tha
Laos, fto baad ia coneidared Terr sacred (thi* ia a chancleSatiB
Fanan notion) ; no one miM toach i^ nor may it be raiaed abon
^ttof a^peiior, Bslnacaniagaorboat. The fttnenl oaiemoniea
of a piino* or gnat man, often deland for eome montha after dnth,
«n alio attended by elebonto ftaatlng, dancing, and other ainnae.
ments In tamponry bnHdinp erected fbr tba purpose. Tbe dead,
with the eicoption of the poor, whcee bodiea an riven to the vnl-'
tme* and wild beaats, ud women who die In childbirth, an luaallT
bnmad within tha maU, the aahn being preaerved, or mixed wl^
.... jj^ nun will oltan beqpaata
lime to plaater tbe sored walla. A
a limb to the biida ud beaita.
Hie fHainiMi month la lunar, and, as a
daj^ t^ B*^ ^^ ^^ montlis W aad
8S4 SI
ft;wi](IUd^«.udton*bvp Ai datolfluv tluy Intankta
nrm or d^t Boathi In nlmtMB jma, ud idil boridM la o*ai-
doMl d«; to tlw Mmtli Boatb. n* jMn an d*Botid tif ■
ord* of tnl** nana («f anlnib) takra In dMadM, M that «TaT
ihtMh jtar tha jmt of a glna aama ntom to th» Mm* plan
In tit* (Ud>i1«. "m ijAam rn«ntln tba Indian <7d* of dz^
nai^ bat it k dniTMl (rm Cblm, iHmm it dtfM bvn SOT >.a.
Two (nam In IM, tha Potti 8iikaiat n BoddUrt, Wad IntaU-
gknu DMttm, Thid ooDuwneM HI ■.&, and tba dTil nm <
ramU Bakaiat (<.&, llttl* Ma], Mid to oomMMtata O* wtaUU
mant of BoddUmi in MS ^K Th« uudmt Anan lnaoili«Im
MoallT •mplm tlu Baka (Bdlnbana) Ma, datlur km 7» a.i>.
ffttory.— Iba nama "Kam" baa bam naoallr dvlrad frMn
lUlaTwaTd,MfiMi, "brown"; bat tbialamNaaoi^aetDn. Tbm
and Oa SbanaboUk aall tbMDadraa rnal <abaa ral), i*., "ftM,^
A M
P^B, wblcb KM ntfari; MarUirowa h dw nait aBtoiT hj Ua
ai aaaiia BataftMtbadri^maoftlialStbeantniytbaBaimc^
baTi^ IivTiMUlj takan QulBg-mai, wU^ appnlod to Uam fa
bdh aatand TmaMiiba and took Mogni and Tarn in 17M,
and tliaa adnadng dandtanaonalj tma tba nortb aod the boc
oaptBiadaiddaitTiTad^^tbtaaftira twoTOU^daga (IJCT).
na intareooiaabatwaan Fiano* and Nam began alwnt lUO imdcr
Flna iraraiii, wlko, b;^ tlia advin of bia uinutar, tha Oapbaloaiaii
adnDtuar CknatantiDs Pbanloon, nnt an ambaMj to Lmda ZIT.
Wban du latnin miaaion atrired, the eagemaM or tba ainlmMiliii
hi tba kina'a craranian to Chriatiuiit;, added to tha IntrigDM sf
Fbaalaon witb tha leaolta with the lappiaad !ntaitlon of gatabliali-
Ingarreaobaapnmaoj, lad to thadMthorPbaiilcan. thauo^n.
tion of Qm Cbnatlaia, and tho caption of aU ii
flMam.ani flam fllMimiii fit fth*-) Tha obaolala BiaiaeM woid k
Blom and tba ObinaM Biaa-l0ir-4ba BlaD being, aoOMdiag to Oan, a
tribe wbiak cana b«ai tba north about IHl and snitad wltii tba L»-
b^vhobadsnrioollTOiu&piad tbadnnBof tha gulf, and wan
n<A«bl7 Sbaoa. TheBiaBaMMU tit* SbuvlW-iviaiL "Ofaat
TW," P*d»C* aa bavlsg pfeoadad than, and tlwniaalTM Tiai^ttt tm
«Uttla lliair' TbaTaTapnlaUjOaraCmdaady lalated, tboD^
tUa iadl^Dtadbf Da Boan; andotbant bnttiu inftrinpbrdqna
af tha SiaoMM ma; ba aipWnad ■* dna to Intaraontae wi^ Mali^
and other aooduni nwM and to tbdr men anamdng »"■»•'»
HaanwUb for Kiaj oantnriM bdoia Aa aaotbwaid more abort
nfamd to tba antir* aooth aa wall aa aoatbaaat of tba Indo-ChineM
kalok. OB tba nppa mtm of tb* Ma-aasL In tiie fbHowing oaatu7>
BaddSiam la add to bare been intndnead in hia tInM, bat Indian
IndoanoM had panetnlad tba oooniiy both bom tba north and
floD the aooUi hog bafor* thlK Otho Lao town* wan boiltabont
tbia 7di oaatufT, and dnriu the fbUowing nntailM Ihk bnndi of
the taoa g^oallT adnnoadaonthwiid^ MTing tlia Eanu I^wai^
bean Cambodian tanitoiT. Ihefr aooAwam pngnM »n indeed
almoat ba tntcad by O^ ananaadra eapllal^ aarwal of whfah an
oloatned on tha M*-nam within • dint dktano* of eadi othv,
Tli, PUtaalok, Snfcfcotbai, and Sau^akk an tba aaatan hnneb,
IfakhanSaTanalthaJanotioniaodEaBiphoOK-pat, tlu Immediate
iwBnraoc of Aroflila, on the weatew baaiieh. 1 Kiuothal inamip-
aztandad anoM the oaonlq> tbom tbe Xe-kou to Faebabnri, ud
that the fliamaw had penatnted toQw actnni^ rf tbe jpaninanli
twfon the fltat Kakj etdoDj ftom Hanangkaba foondad ffingipon,
ii;, abont llSa Ae aooeetan of tba Biameae wen then on tlie
wtatem bnnch of ibt He-nam, and in 1S61, ondM the Sunone
Fliaj* Htliaag (aftHwatd* dried Rua Baaia Thibodi, and pnl>-
aUj of a 8bui &ml^) morad down from Eampbou-pet, where
th^ had baan lot Ore Benentiou% to Chaliang ; and, being diiran
thenca, It ia aajd, br a paatlbaK^ they aatablidied thamaeln*
atAynthta. Thia Ung'a cnj extended to Hoalmain, Tbtot,
TiiiieMiiiliii. and die whole Ualeeca peninanla (where amona tne
tndMatMm the Teat Biam we* known BiBoRiaa, ii.,ahahr-t-nan
two allied llui trthea, conBima in a nmarkaUa way tha Oiineat
etatament tbore manUoned, and wet nobablT a o^aaqoenoa or a
Cot the gnat oontamp^aneona ae&Tfty of the more northern
kingdom of ICa& Th» wan with Ombodit oonHnnad with
**i7lng anooaM fbr aoma 1(W jtan, bat Cambodia andoally loat
aroond and waa Snallf ahoni of aaranl prorinoa^ ber aomeisn
ailing entirdy nndar BiamaM tadnanoa ThK howarw, lattarl}'
Laa bean oSjgedfe neognin the jBotactonta fcread on Gunbodia
bythatpowM. Tigotoaa attaeke wen alao mad* during tbla period
andloa
Oimly oatabliebed
tt aa ISth eantmr, and onr the gnat aaatai
Ftabaag and Tleo-ebena abont IStC Daring tha Atb
eantoiiH Slam wa* baqoenfly inradad I7 tiia Banaaae and regaaiu
who^ attraoted prabafaly hj the gnat wealth of Ayitbia, beaiesed
h Bon thin enee wflhoat aooeeaa, tbe delteden bdng aided by
Portngneee inenMDariee, till abont ISES, when tbe dty waa taken
and Biem ladaoed to dapandeDee. riom thia eoadltlan, bowenr,
it waa niaed i law jean later by the neat ecoqaMor and naH"— ^
bero Fbn Kant, who altar eabdnii^ Laaa and Chmbodla linadad
enieode waa the adiTa in
-., - jffiamaae and Japanaao Q.
- int. Many JafaiUM aettled in ffiam, wban thi^ v
moob am^cTad. Ttaay wen dnaded aa aoUiar^ and at tndindnala
oonunandad apMltiott naambling Ibel nf ITii 11 i|>M»i in ****** ^—*—*
oonntrlM; Kajealooiy of oSinoaaalnginiMnoaBtlaat lad 10
a maaaaora, and to the wpoldon or aba^itlon 01 tba auriiTora,
Jbmu waa eoon aftn thia, in ItU, doaed (a fordEoraa ; bnt trad*
lib Slam waa eaniad on at an erenta down to I7M thnngh Dolch
----- InUBiai -
_— , _„ InMua, ba waa pat to itiSh, andwi
another aoocenftal genanl, nmn Chakki^ who fomded tba paaaao
dnta^. Under um Tenaaadm waa iOTaded and Taroy bdd Id.
tbe laii tiB* by tba SlamaM in IW^^thonrii in 1SI5, taking adnn-
"' ~ "~ ~ la Ea^ud, tbe^bombn£d Mne
tberbombi
of Obinak
knt.
tiBebytb _,
tui of tba Bonieae difflool^ wttt £l,
ortbttowMOS Uutooaat naaopx ...
by wwa aWinil •^•^•<~ b>dI^ aa on tbe (Onnding of a naw dyniaty,
to PiUnfr to briM back a aaal and a calaadar. Bnt the tWamrw
-BOW rniodlata ma aqaamasy, and bare- aant oatthM —t—^"-
nor triSnte for tfahtr yo", xid ytfc thrlr tradiu 11— ela an
tbe OhUuae fi«* poA, like ttwee St any otba
t. nvbta aoretdgn, Fhn Panmendr Haba lloi^-
'" " ad nformer,
id by fctune
. . f Ut prSe-
. >e oriisan Ortcntal
,_ Cbao Dna,tbe idtMaaiy rf Phanlcon, want aSont aedc-
tng pogiliatk anoonnten^ Ha ia raportad to ban bean a owl
^rnnt and debandkee and a keen yrtaman : bat be aflenea nrea
tohiaaatdectaln thalattet chanctM and tba ctU rowtta f^the
paraacnted Ranch ThladriniriM may bare nadnly hladaBed Ida
npatitimi.
Of Eniopaan nationa tha Portngaaae Int eataUiibed tntoauuiiiaa
with Siam. Thia waa in IGll, An the eononiat nf *«*'-■— fcr
lyAlboon * ■■ '-" ■ ■
traoM of tbalT prwanee aa tba FoitiwiMa* alwaye d
' ' " my oacr people. "
It in the ITtil canton ithei ,
intoebanQof Mttnbetwam JaiHeL and W* king of Biam, who
n In Biam Tery aariy in tha 11
Btrrica, and, iriiin tbe abipa nailed
wti"aa gnat ■ dty ai londMi ") a tba onea of
Patani, they wen hoajntably noaired and aeeoraad ptli ^_^
**^' fanporlant llaBW « export bdng, at now, tia, tamiah, dear-
1% ud "pncioaadra^" Later on, the E^ India Ooaopauy's
in^ jealooa at tba anploymenl ^ bgUehmea bo* in tbaii
inn, itfinkni tht ffiiiMin. TTbtrh In) f n i mamirTi nf fha Fiinliik
at Hargoi in ieS7 i and tbaGwbxTat AyntUawn abBiiibnM>l in
IMS. AdmHarattatikeaid loban bMm n^a te ITIS by tt*
BOTamor of Madraa. Aflv thl* the tnda waa na^actad. Fwaaac,
Bdapendnoyof l}aedib.>aaooco^fairs«,andia OalfS
oantary the atagnation of bad* lad to the miawDa of Owwfad
(1831), Bonn nau), and Sir J. Bnoka (ISfO); bM Smt
dad Utda. Sir I. Bowiing'a
ra on ■ dilhreBt ibotia^ and
bay a nnt bwaa^ ana 1mm
, . .. ^ bay Iff nnt bwaa^ ai
land. The export and impot dntiaa an aba Ixed, and ttere m
Tica-eonaabr ooDTt at CUMg-mai, with aiveal to tha eo
Me U LaaUiMMa'WM lit JlpaBM * Mais n» (tta MM tf M sM
S I A U
8SS
iBiimw ■pPHi* to
Tha SUmeaa langug* u :
Id tha Umlkj iHniiin.' "
(•■■t naarlv u &r u ,— — -_,
Coylon. wlul* on tlw Mit aout tb* p«iol>Uai
u &T as ligor Indutr^ and alM Is fllB^an
be the rating Uugnua, Iti bamaaaij bmida Bnnuh
and LuM statM, ud Aunt wid 0»mlioJt» cusot ba _.__
■pm^Mdy. Tlwramilniiillunorllk-auta numbar of wild tribM
whospMkUDmigwoftbairown. TluiiuwbjwtiiohtbiSlanui*
themaaWea oall thtdi Imnua b nUid Oud, or "lugng* of tha
fKaman " ; aiid it protwldj £las lioin tha paiod idkan tha 8iug«>
made thamaelTC* indqiaidnit of Coibodian nda In tha 1 Zth untniT.
The Shan tribal, whoa* kagDwa (with thoaa of Om Aham, Kliuna,
and l^tm} ia cIokIj iUb Is "«'■—, •!■> aaa fiw taim (of (mJj
irith the aniqilnMi tf for thait Taoa and laagoiga.
Bath in Shut uid fllaiiimn Uia Rattan of UaiM, which !■ ona o(
the nudn Eaitnna it lU tho UngBiM of Indo^lUiia, hu ittalssd
ita graataM daralopmant. Bnt, whUa In Sban the tonaa ara not
nurkad in tha wiittan lansoue, In SlaniHe than «« dlatinot atgna
to denote at Isait fam of On fi*a rimpb tonaa (the avan tona not
baing markad) ; and than ia fartho a ritrtltoaHiw of tha Ma-
aonaata Into thna gmipa. In aaeh of whlah oarialn taoaa pn-
domiiutte. Itla al««ji tha initial oonHuut of * wvrd fliatlull-
catae, eithn b; Ita phonatle powar or h; tha tonic aooant lapar-
added or bf a emntniuition of nu two, the lona In which tiia wad
ia to ba nttand, ao that, «.;., a word ba^nnlns with • lattar of tha
•acond dua in whHli tha aran tone la Inhuent, and which hai
tha mark of tha aaconding tona orai i^ ia to ba prononiwad
with the deacandtng tone.' Tho diOBOl" ' '" " "
•tadant of tha ipokan Uspiaga by tha
greatly expanded Towal-iyilam. In addition to the
long, then an ihorteit Towal^ lata of opan abd aloaad Towda,
ftc, and ■ la»a nnmbar of T<nral oombinationa. Owing lo the
introdnetion of tha Indian oonaonanlal ajatam and the inocrponi-
Uon in It of manj bttan to oxpran earlaln aonnda paindiar to
Siamaaa, tha namMi of eonaonanta baa baan awelled to brty-thraa ;
bnt, while many of thaaa an only naad in worda adopted ftom
the Saaaknt and Pali, Biamaaa Dttannoa knowa no men than
twenty ; U, (Ti jr^ in all prononncad la U t atmilarly oA, i, bk
ai ph, ic, — the laigu^ baTlng a pndHaction tor hara latbua,
aa[«cially aapintia. The odIt eonwHind lattan at tha basiniilDg
of^ worda an combioatiDai of hard lettaia with ( r, v, y, wbiU tha
linala an confined In prooan^tion to i, f, p, A (ng), n, m. Thia
caoaea a conddanbte diacnpancy batwaan tha iMlling of wordi
(especially loan worda) and their jnonnnciatton. Tbni h
pronoimced KrmAwi, '
aaaad^tl
e ihort ar
dgn ingndlenta
mpladbrm. 1
Tha importation ol
U wordi datia fnm
■bakan oS the
_liahed batman
._ ., a Khmfic (Cam-
ExclnaiTe of thne foreign trnpoita-
uu.^ u._.uim !• a monoayUablc Ungnago in which nslthar the
[arm nor the aosnt or tone of a irord determinei the part ot
apeech to which It bolonga. Homanymooi words abound and an
only dlatineuiahed from one another I:? the toaeai Compan Ian,
"whiti"; Ian, "to nittt";' Iqn, "to flatter"; Ua, "to amooth";
Ida, "nlation." Tordauauocbitngeableaiulineipablaofinfieiion.
Tha Biameae an fond of Joining two worda tha aeoind of which li
either ^mly lynonynioiu to or modiGes tha aenaa of tha fiii^ or la
only a jingling addition. Then ii no article, and no dittinctiou of
gender, number, or caie. Theae, if It ia at all neceaeuy lo denote
tham, an eipraiaed by explanatory worda after tha raapectlve Bonne '
only tha datire and ablatiTa an denoted Iqr anbaidiarr wordi^ which
ivecedp tha Doona, tha nominatlva bdng marked E7 ita podtian
berore, tha obfaetiTa by Ita pciaition after, tha verb, and the genitlTa
(ind alao the ad)aetin) by Ita place after the noon it onalifiK
Occaaionally, howenr, aniUlary noana aerra that porpoaa. Void*
like "mothar," "aon," "water" an often emp%ed in forming
nmnonnda to aiptMa ideaa for which the BUmeaa ban no aingle
WOMB) e.f^ Uk etn, "tha aon <rf hire," ■ labonrar; m^n^ "ttie
mother id tha hand," the thnmb. The tiaa of dan woida with
niiinenlaobtalnaln8tamaaaaaitdoaainChtn«aa,Bnnnaaa.Anaai^
It- nad Tvo■iatm^,•laMt^1^■
Kn. UT-l3^Hk41t.
Biamaaa tha nraoDal pnnonna an moaUy repraaantad b; nonna
eipnaiiTa of tha tariooa ahadaa of aonarior or lowo lauk acaordiag
toTaatara atiqaatta. 31ie rarb It, like tha nouk perfectly ooImi-
laaa, — panoa, nDBil)er,tenae, and mood being Indioatad by anziUaiT
woida only whan they cannot ba Infimed bom the OMitait. Boen
anxilian worda an ^, "to be," "to dwell" (preaant) ;
haTn"(A,"ai '"■ - .-~..-^-
"alao''(ihtme}] tha tnt and thiid
haT^"M, "and" (paat); i _._ ,_ ,
Ibllaw, the aeoond and fonrth precede, tha nrh. MM, "to gire"
(pte£iad), dtan Indicataa the anhjonotiTB. Aa Unn an oomponnd
nonn^ ao then an coipponnd verba; tbn^ a^., pai, "to k" ia
joined to a transidTa nrb to conrsrt it into an intnnalSTa or
nantar ; and IMt, "to touch," and IHtg, " lo ba obliged,' aam to
form a aort of paaaira Toice.' Ibe nnmber of adTerba, alngja and
compound, la Tetylaim. The pnpoaitiDnj moatlV conaiat itf soanat
The radar of tha worda in a ii££a aantanoe ia aabiect Tarb^ oUaot
All atlribntaa (adjectiTeav aanmra, adfarba) follow tha WMd to
which thay m aohordlnatad The Ibllowing aimpla m
itrnction and dictiimi
(thne) M (read) uaitt (book) ai (thia) Ue (and, done) <M (ahonld)
/lU-Mff (entraat) U (to) nUaaUs (neighboan} Aoi (^n,canae)jUiM
(they) ds (read), ia, ''whan you ban read thia book, plaaae ^n
it to yonr neishbonn that they may read it."
Tha cnmnt Siamaaa characten an darired from iba man monn-
mental Cambodian alphabet which apln owea ita origiu to tha
alphabet ot the Inacriptiani^ an oBahoot of tha character finuid on
Uw atone monnmanta of aouthera India in tha fith and 8th can-
baitt. The aasradbooka of 8iua an atiU written in the Cambodian
thn fill unit fllaniiii hand.
na lUoij ct Oh (niiniii laafuaga waa InliMad la Wai^ b)> I' LoaMea
nain. fton wlion Di J. LerdenCTlie lananaaaa and Utantunci^tba lade-
CUaiaa HaUcea,- la JmMIi Ir i In. nk iTn, itMM, mttntad ia illa-
oHeiiMa AfffTi » Iiia-tMn HlTL, uaa, » It-in) baa dariiad laaeh
and nai laaffaaMt appnrad la luCL Tha flret ar"""— of the laajBiMe w«
on to Jamaa Low, SleatCa, IMa. Tan jatti! OnrnmaUuil VaHtn af Oa
SISBMi ImuiiaL br tha Bar. I. Tnlar Auai, upaand at Baagkok la Ittt
la MM br ha traathtflaaart— la Mmiai. Latia, fmuii^ai »nrili*. Aa
aaalTttcd anoaat ot tha laafaafa waa attHiptad lij Ad. BaaUaa to SE^^nSk-
•BfliMnda tradM, Wit, m. lai-aa. In UU L. Ewald trosgbt eat at
Lrij/ta U> Ormmmota dir Kt- eAr GfauetidWa ajiadH. Laatto, fteC Vr.
XtDernneasBBBiTetSUBieaa iiaiaini In Ua i>Hrfrted« Amdlaite-
aaadMTnl- H- pait t, VlenBe. Utt, pp. MT4T«. A an (nimiBr, lij tha
Bev. \ Oeoin, la la arpgraaa. Ooaipan alao V. Belwtt, (7«tep at* AvtB.
MMmUAnt gn^M, iSmdrrkilt <fu SimmlMt, IMt ; aad ■. Ellu, I7ft<r
^rimytndVv'Uila-na^iVitfabxPms-TiasS. An BntlMi mounlr
to tha aettlement of tha nation in their pnaent locality, or, In tha
worda ofUr Nej Eliai, "of earlier data tban the founding of their
flnt nadonal npitil, Aynthia, at the commencement of tha 14th
ceatuty."' The ioBcription at Sukkothai, euil to be of the year
e71 of the aiimeaa era, nine yean after the inventiOD of tha preaant
Siamaaa chanctara,* cannot be pnt hi aridcDce aa an hlatoiicalncord
till a taohnila and nriaed tnnalatioD ahall have baan ol
ThafawmaimacriptBnnalamantlonadby Kahop Falleat^ bare not
yet baan critically »"■"'"-' i bnt memcal oompoatdona^ contain-
ing legendary Uaa and romancaa, abonnd and an eagarlj atndiad.
Tba tat^tda an moatlr taken from the Indian a^c^ aa in tba oaie
of the Adau-bm or Buniyaya, mon nnly from Ua^ or JaTueaa
legend, anch aa the dnma I-foKur. Than la ■ great Taile^ of
metrea, all of which have been deacribed with mneh minatoieaa
of dabin by Colonel Low In bla article on Siameae litentnr^ in
Atiatie BataTAa, Tol. xa. pp. SB1-S7M In thair romantlo poetry
the Siamaaa ban a gnatar tendency to daaoibe than to ralata;
their pIcRma of placea and aoanaiy an grand and abiUng and
form Uie beat part olthalrpoetiealoOBceptiona. Tha gnat Uemlah
of their poati7 consltta In tadiona ambelllahmeDta and a hankering
after indecent and often groaa aUoBima, from which bnt hw worka,
loch aa Sana Sin Choi and Smniit Sigai Si Miianf, m« ba add to
be free. The dtlea of the principal romancaa an Btt Sang, Jfang
PraOom, Sang Sin Chai, TTupha Lin Thong, Biacawn^ Senf, Thao
SavaUhi Botha. Fhn Unanit, Dara Suriwong, EJmn Asia, Ifang
Sip Sang, and tha drama) IJmao and Fhra Simvang. Tba plota ot
aoraeof theeehaTeheenginnby Ccdonel Low. The moat popular
of the religiaaa hooka, alfof which an tranalalioaa or am^ificuiona
Atmi Pali originali, b called Somanathalom (^ma^ Gaatama),
which la identical with tha Wtaantara Jdtoka. In miacellaneooa
Utentnn may be meutioned Si'pMril, conalating of 221 aidant
aayinEB in the accented metre called Elong, and truia ChUtdamant
CVrittt, Chiotimanl), a work on proaody like the Pall VutUdaya,
bnt treating alao of a numbot of gtammaticiJ qosetJona. The Ikble
litaraton ia ot course largely npnaented ; tbe Uita, howarar, ara
Knna Thnh ItaJu Iffakbon. 1974.
1 SbM tfAt BUbrr afai atnu, CUeDlb, IBTt, p. M.
•BaaUa^/HT. Jl.gH.MJl«AToL^^T. p.n,ud i
«Bn^Ii
■. uifBB nai, rv- uo.iM-
8S6 S I
fi«qiinitl]' nrtlUd br th> nismsntlaB sf dngl* tMm which m
botputa of Urifer «U«tioiu.
Tba Dombn of work* on law ii ooluldtnbis i and it It raaurk-
(blt tint, whilo Id Banosb man; Pali sodai ia.re manaej, not ■
ringi* Pall uit-book on law ihci^ hava baaii dimaTared fji Biam ;
all that wa maat with in th* law booka an a hw Pali qaoUtlona
htr* asd thon. LaJam* Phra Tkanmaiat Lakttaia fkua ilia, an
introduction to the cods of Biamua lawa, founded on Iha Dhanna-
flatra and on ro^l adicta, wu oompleted in ISO*. It rautaitu
thirty booka, at th« head of which Maudt tha Pkra Ttiawmatat,
«ttrib«t*d to UaaoOn or ITano, a treatiie on tlio claiadfioation of
lawi. Next cornea the Iniliafivit, or book of indra. a gnldg or
eihortatlon to coaacilloji and jodEM. aJid then the f%ra ThamniHi,
or ralea for the graetal condnat t? judicial btulneaa. Than follow
la Older th* andarmentianed tetitlana — diapulea, plainti and allega-
tiona, ottdal rank, sUMiAwtloa of people, debt, martiage, criminal
Uw, tbdnotlon, lUTery, diiputea eonneeted with laniL erldenoe.
inheritance eramiBJag oOowa. appekl, dltpntn M to claaiilatiDa
oT paoplo, radio* of iMpoodbilitT for boiglariaa, ka., the thirty -ni
Uwt, the rajal edioti, Bial bj ordeal of watw and firs, Ian of tba
palaoe, lawa of th* prt**tho<id, offanoea igalnat the king, offencea
■olBit the MOpl*, nboUioti, andent atatutea, resent ttetntea
Onlj OM ol OuM aaothm*, th* on* on lUTarr, ha* bean 1
■-toBnf[Il(h,bfI>rBr*dIeri It ippeand in thaKn^^
le iriiole work ha* baen priatod at Bani^ok In two
anf^iA In t^
endiDm of la
Th* KaOm Flm AtfJian, anottaar oompanSiiim of km, .
V rabrring to aMaolla, adnltaiy, and the appiabe-
' '^eaawafind th* follow^: "Ainanwbo
•Hot* priudpdlr „ .
dMDt of fine*. Amou tbeae
itrllua another wlthalilank book aball be fined M though h* had
ttraek him with hia hand ) bat if th* anault la oommittad with a
book of th* olaadea th* oSfndar ahall be fined twice aa mnch at he
T-il-* *'~ frti^ tn jij By Mwnltiiij irith a itlnV " ThaZoibww
TatTrngi crlavorpIainbiBnJ antgatlon^ and if th* taitllotiaa
called Ptra TkoBHwa, which, thoogh idiotkial In ni
aeotion oftha Laimna fhm Thammatat abon deaeiibed. «m
much man onaad. A compendtnm of law enUtiad fftr"/ i
Jfol JfdoHf Ilal, or Coda of X>awa of the KiBDdoa of Siam, in ti
rolumaa. va* printed at Bangkok tn Kit. Cbtonal Low, who d
pflli^Dii, in hia "Catalcttttt ptacdpnoram Ubmmn Bngaa
Thai " (CraMniKfan, yn. yiAtl>\fitm the title* tf a piod manj
treatiaia on acientUg aOtijtoti, ntedidntL natheBatio*. aatrolw ;
bnt none apptar to ban b**B critiaallT emmtned. In tha £al
Tolome of hia BnerlfUim ia nmrnt Thai (ISEl) ar* iaaarted
Tariona ploot* tnntlatod fNm Biamtat wodak Bta alto on Ifa*
' "teratnregaaenllraa "Baotaib'br Iha
TrmtaAmM ^ fe -« " '"
_ . . ™L L p]M'**^lW).~Tt b
oolv in quite recent timta that tn Anaata* inllaanea haa btgm
to bt traotaU* in a* ItMaaa* and Bttratnia of th* Hltmtw
In 1810 Dr L*Td*n nndariook, at tha inilanea of th* Otlntti
Aniilia^ BIbU Sodatv, to fap*iint*Dd a tiandalloa g( th* bar
Ooapala bio BlanwM ) biit h* died btfor* th* ntjaot wa* caniad
Into efleot BBb*a<)aant^ H«Mn OOtil^ and Tt»lin, aa^Uad bj
oLiiL(lSU),pii.a91-IIM; andoBUMlitarataaL^dm'a-b^
1»Terehrt»dto(jr " " ' * — -■*"" ■- ■-
Itamad nttiTte
the new Teattment
complated br 1~
UtbadiaUML
i*aqa*nthH<
lab«r*dtfll
Itm at a toMtwrcOLy ta
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